Full text of "Studies of American fungi. Mushrooms, edible, poisonous, etc"

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*** No book or pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab-
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PLATE i.

FIG. i. Amanita muscaria.
FIG. 2. A. frostiana.
Copyright 1900.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI

MUSHROOMS

EDIBLE, POISONOUS, ETC.

GEORGE FRANGIS ATKINSON

Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of the
Cor tic' 1 1 University Agricultural Experiment Station

Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms, by Mrs. Sarah Tyson Rorer
Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms, by J. F. Clark

WITH 230 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE
AUTHOR, AND COLORED PLATES BY F. R. RATHBUN

SECOND EDITION

NEW YORK

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1903

pv
GEO. F. ATKINSON.

INTRODUCTION.

Since the issue of my " Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms,"
as Bulletins 138 and 168 of the Cornell University Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, there have been so many inquiries for them and
for literature dealing with a larger number of species, it seemed
desirable to publish in book form a selection from the number of illus-
trations of these plants which 1 have accumulated during the past six
or seven years. The selection has been made of those species repre-
senting the more important genera, and also for the purpose of illus-
trating, as far as possible, all the genera of agarics found in the United
States. This has been accomplished except in a few cases of the
more unimportant ones. There have been added, also, illustrative
genera and species of all the other orders of the higher fungi, in
which are included many of the edible forms.

The photographs have been made with great care after consider-
able experience in determining the best means for reproducing
individual, specific, and generic characters, so important and difficult
to preserve in these plants, and so impossible in many cases to
accurately portray by former methods of illustration.

One is often asked the question : " How do you tell the mush-
rooms from the toadstools ? " This implies that mushrooms are edible
and that toadstools are poisonous, and this belief is very widespread
in the public mind. The fact is that many of the toadstools are
edible, the common belief that all of them are poisonous being due
to unfamiliarity with the plants or their characteristics.

Some apply the term mushroom to a single species, the one in
cultivation, and which grows also in fields (Agaricus campestris},
and call all others toadstools. It is becoming customary with some
students to apply the term mushroom to the entire group of higher
fungi to which the mushroom belongs (Basidiomycetes), and toad-
stool is regarded as a synonymous term, since there is, strictly
speaking, no distinction between a mushroom and a toadstool.
There are, then, edible and poisonous mushrooms, or edible and
poisonous toadstools, as one chooses to employ the word.

A more pertinent question to ask is how to distinguish the edible
from the poisonous mushrooms. There is no single test or criterion,
like the "silver spoon" test, or the criterion of a scaly cap, or
the presence of a "poison cup" or "death cup," which will serve

iii

iv INTRODUCTION.

in all cases to distinguish the edible from the poisonous. Two
plants may possess identical characters in this respect, i. e., each
may have the "death cup," and one is edible while the other is
poisonous, as in Amanita ccesarea, edible, and A, phalloides, poison-
ous. There are additional characters, however, in these two plants
which show that the two differ, and we recognize them as two
different species.

To know several different kinds of edible mushrooms, which
occur in greater or less quantity through the different seasons,
would enable those interested in these plants to provide a palatable
food at the expense only of the time required to collect them. To
know several of the poisonous ones also is important, in order
certainly to avoid them.

The purpose of this book is to present the important characters
which it is necessary to observe, in an interesting and intelligible
way, to present life-size photographic reproductions accompanied
with plain and accurate descriptions. By careful observation of the
plant, and comparison with the illustrations and text, one will be
able to add many species to the list of edible ones, where now per-
haps is collected " only the one which is pink underneath." The
chapters 17 to 21 should also be carefully read.

The number of people in America who interest themselves in the
collection of mushrooms for the table is small compared to those in
some European countries. The number, however, is increasing,
and if a little more attention were given to the observation of these
plants and the discrimination of the more common kinds, many per-
sons could add greatly to the variety of their foods and relishes with
comparatively no cost. The quest for these plants in the fields and
woods would also afford a most delightful and needed recreation to
many, and there is no subject in nature more fascinating to engage
one's interest and powers of observation.

There are also many important problems for the student in this
group of plants. Many of our species and the names of the plants
are still in great confusion, owing to the very careless way in which
these plants have usually been preserved, and the meagerness of
recorded observations on the characters of the fresh plants, or of the
different stages of development. The study has also an important
relation to agriculture and forestry, for there are numerous species
which cause decay of valuable timber, or by causing "heart rot'
entail immense losses through the annual decretion occurring in
standing timber.

If this book contributes to the general interest in these plants as

INTRODUCTION, V

objects of nature worthy of observation, if it succeeds in aiding those
who are seeking information of the edible kinds, and stimulates
some students to undertake the advancement of our knowledge of
this group, it will serve the purpose the author had in mind in its
preparation.

1 wish here to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Sarah Tyson
Rorer for her kindness in writing a chapter on recipes for cooking
mushrooms, especially for this book; to Professor I. P. Roberts,
Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station,
for permission to use certain of the illustrations (Figs. 1-7, 12-14, 31-
43) from Bulletins 138 and 168, Studies and Illustrations of Mush-
rooms; to Mr. F. R. Rathbun, for the charts from which the colored
plates were made; to Mr. J. F. Clark and Mr. H. Hasselbring, for
the Chapters on Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms, and Char-
acters of Mushrooms, to which their names are appended, and also
to Dr. Chas. Peck, of Albany, N. Y., and Dr. G. Bresadola, of
Austria-Hungary, to whom some of the specimens have been
submitted.

GEO. F. ATKINSON,
Ithaca, N. Y., October, 1900. Cornell University.

SECOND EDITION.

In this edition have been added 10 plates of mushrooms of which
I did not have photographs when the first edition was printed. It
was possible to accomplish this without changing the paging of any
of the descriptive part, so that references to all of the plants in
either edition will be the same.

There are also added a chapter on the " Uses of Mushrooms,"
and an extended chapter on the "Cultivation of Mushrooms."
This subject I have been giving some attention to for several years,
and in view of the call for information since the appearance of the
first edition, it seemed well to add this chapter, illustrated by several
flash-light photographs.

G. F. A.
September, 1901.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGB

Chapter I. Form and Characters of the Mushrooms, . . i

Chapter II. Development of the Mushroom, 5

Chapter III. Gill Bearing Fungi; Agaricaceac, 17

Chapter IV. The Purple- Brown-Spored Agarics, . . . . 18

Chapter V. The Black-Spored Agarics, 32

Chapter VI. The White-Spored Agarics, 52

Chapter VII. The Rosy-Spored Agarics, 138

Chapter VIII. The Ochre-Spored Agarics, 150

Chapter IX. The Tube Bearing Fungi; Polyporaceae, . .171

Chapter X. Hedgehog Fungi; Hydnaceae, 195

Chapter XI. Coral Fungi; Clavariaceae, 200

Chapter XII. The Trembling Fungi; Tremellineae, . . . 204

Chapter XIII. Thelephoraceae, 208

Chapter XIV. Puff-Balls; Lycoperdaceae, . 209

Chapter XV. Stinkhorn Fungi; Phalloideae, 213

Chapter XVI. Morels, Cup-Fungi, Helvellas, etc., Dis-

comycetes, .... 216

Chapter XVII. Collection and Preservation of the Fleshy

Fungi, 222

Chapter XVIII. Selection and Preparation of Mushrooms for

the Table, 229

Chapter XIX. Uses of Mushrooms, 231

Fungi in the Arts, 234

Chapter XX. Cultivation of Mushrooms 237

The Cave Culture of Mushrooms in America, . 239

The House Culture of Mushrooms, .... 241

uring the Manure, 247

Making up the Beds, 250

What Spawn Is, 255

Spawning the Beds, 263

Chapter XXI. Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms (Mrs. Sarah

Tyson Rorer), 277

Chapter XXII. Chemistry and Toxicology of the Fungi

(J. F. Clark), 288

Chapter XXIII. Description of Terms applied to Certain

Structural Characters of Mushrooms (H.

Hasselbring), . 298

APPENDIX. Analytical Keys (The Author), 307

Glossary of Technical Terms (The Author), . 313

Index to Genera and Illustrations, .... 315

Index to Species, 321

vii

CORRECTIONS.
Page 33, loth line, for KOpvoS read

Page 220, lines 6 and 9, for Gyromytra read Gyromitra.

CHAPTER I.

FORM AND CHARACTERS OF THE MUSHROOM.

Value of Form and Characters. The different kinds of mushrooms
vary in form. Some are quite strikingly different from others, so
that no one would have difficulty in recognizing the difference in
shape. For example, an umbrella-shaped mushroom like the one
shown in Fig. i or 81 is easily distinguished from a shelving one
like that in Fig. 9 or 188. But in many cases different species vary
only slightly in form, so that it becomes a more or less difficult
matter to distinguish them.

In those plants (for the mushroom is a plant) where the different
kinds are nearly alike in form, there are other characters than mere
general form which enable one to tell them apart. These, it is true,
require close observation on our part, as well as some experience in
judging of the value of such characters ; the same habit of observa-
tion and discrimination we apply to everyday affairs and to all
departments of knowledge. But so few people give their attention
to the discrimination of these plants that few know the value of their
characters, or can even recognize them.

It is by a study of these especial characters of form peculiar to
the mushrooms that one acquires the power of discrimination among
the different kinds. For this reason one should become familiar with
the parts of the mushroom, as well as those characters and markings
peculiar to them which have been found to stamp them specifically.

Parts of the Mushroom. To serve as a means of comparison, the
common pasture mushroom, or cultivated form (Agaricus campestris),
is first described. Figure i illustrates well the principal parts of the
plant ; the cap, the radiating plates or gills on the under side, the
stem, and the collar or ring around its upper end.

The Cap. The cap (technically the pileus) is the expanded part
of the mushroom. It is quite thick, and fleshy in consistency,
more or less rounded or convex on the upper side, and usually white
in color. It is from 1-2 cm. thick at the center and 5-10 cm. in
diameter. The surface is generally smooth, but sometimes it is
torn up more or less into triangular scales. When these scales are
prominent they are often of a dark color. This gives quite a differ-
ent aspect to the plant, and has led to the enumeration of several

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

varieties, or may be species, among forms accredited by some to the
one species.

The Gills. On the under side of the pileus are radiating plates,
the gills, or lamella* (sing, lamella). These in shape resemble some-
what a knife blade. They are very thin and delicate. When
young they are pink in color, but in age change to a dark purple
brown, or nearly black color, due to the immense number of spores
that are borne on their surfaces. The gills do not quite reach the
stem, but are rounded at this end and so curve up to the cap. The
triangular spaces between the longer ones are occupied by succes-
sively shorter gills, so that the combined surface of all the gills is
very great.

FIGURE i. Agaricus campestris. View of under side showing stem, annulus,
gills, and margin of pileus. (Natural size.)

The Stem or Stipe. The stem in this plant, as in many other
kinds, is attached to the pileus in the center. The purpose of the
stem seems quite surely to be that of lifting the cap and the gills up
above the ground, so that the spores can float in the currents of air
and be readily scattered. The stem varies in length from 2-10 cm.
and is about i-i>2 cm. in diameter. It is cylindrical in form, and
even, quite firm and compact, though sometimes there is a central
core where the threads are looser. The stem is also white and
fleshy, and is usually smooth.

The Ring. There is usually present in the mature plant of Agaricus
campestris a thin collar {annulus) or ring around the upper end of the
stem. It is not a movable ring, but is joined to the stem. It is very
delicate, easily rubbed off, or may be even washed off during rains.

FORM AND CHARACTERS OF THE MUSHROOM.

Parts Present in Other Mushrooms The Volva. Some other mush-
rooms, like the deadly Amanita (Amanita phalloides} and other species
of the genus Amanita, have, in addition to the cap, gills, stem, and
ring, a more or less well formed cup-like structure attached to the
lower end of the stem, and from which the stem appears to spring.
(Figs. 55, 72, etc.) This is the volva, sometimes popularly called
the "death cup," or "poison cup." This structure is a very
important one to observe, though its presence by no means indicates
in all cases that the plant is poisonous. It will be described more in
detail in treating of
the genus Amanita,
where the illustra-
tions should also be
consulted.

Presence or Absence
of Ring or Volva. -
Of the mushrooms
which have stems
there are four types
with respect to the
presence or absence
of the ring and
volva. In the first
type both the ring
and volva are ab-
sent, as in the
common fairy ring
mushroom, Maras-
mius oreades; in
the genus Lactarius,
Russula, Tricholo-
ma, Clitocybe, and
others. In the second type the ring is present while the volva is
absent, as in the common mushroom, Agaricus campestris, and its
close allies ; in the genus Lepiota, Armillaria, and others. In the
third type the volva is present, but the ring is absent, as in the
genus Vol-varia, or Amanitopsis. In the fourth type both the ring
and volva are present, as in the genus Amanita.

The Stem is Absent in Some Mushrooms. There are also quite a
large number of mushrooms which lack a stem. These usually
grow on stumps, logs, or tree trunks, etc., and one side of the cap
is attached directly to the wood on which the fungus is growing.

FIGURE 2. Agaricus campestris. "Buttons" just appearing
through the sod. Some spawn at the left lower corner. Soil
removed from the front. (Natural size.)

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

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The pileus in such cases is lateral and shelving, that is, it stands
out more or less like a shelf from the trunk or log, or in other cases
is spread out flat on the surface of the wood. The shelving form is

well shown in
the beautiful
Claudopus nidu-
lans, sometimes
called Pleurotus
nidulans, and in
other species of
the genus Pleuro-
tus, Crepidotus,
etc . These
plants will be
described later,
and no further
^,-5: description of the
peculiarities i n
form of the mush-
rooms will be
now attempted,
since these will
be best dealt
with when dis-
cussing species
fully under their
appropriate ge-
nus. But the
brief general de-
scription of form
given above will
be found useful
merely as an
introduction t o
the more de-
tailed treatment.
Chapter XXI
should also be
studied. For

those who wish the use of a glossary, one is appended at the close
of the book, dealing only with the more technical terms employed
here.

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CHAPTER II.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM.

When the stems of the mushrooms are pulled or dug from the
ground, white strands are often clinging to the lower end. These
strands are often seen by removing some of the earth from the young
plant, as shown in Fig. 2. This is known among gardeners as
"spawn." It is through the growth and increase of this spawn
that gardeners propagate the cultivated mushroom. Fine specimens
of the spawn of the cultivated mushroom can he seen by digging
up from a bed a group of very young plants, such a group as is

FIGURE 4. Agaricus campestris. Sections of " buttons " at different stages,
showing formation of gills and veil covering them. ( Natural size. )

shown in Fig. 3. Here the white strands are more numerous than
can readily be found in the lawns and pastures where the plant
grows in the feral state.

Nature of Mushroom Spawn. This spawn, it should be clearly
understood, is not spawn in the sense in which that word is used in
fish culture ; though it may be employed so readily in propagation of
mushrooms. The spawn is nothing more than the vegetative portion
of the plant. It is made up of countless numbers of delicate, tiny,
white, jointed threads, the mycelium.

Mycelium of a Mold. A good example of mycelium which is familiar
to nearly every one occurs in the form of a white mold on bread or

6 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

on vegetables. One of the molds, so common on bread, forms at
first a white cottony mass of loosely interwoven threads. Later the
mold becomes black in color because of numerous small fruit cases
containing dark spores. This last stage is the fruiting stage of the
mold. The earlier stage is the growing, or vegetative, stage. The
white mycelium threads grow in the bread and absorb food substances
for the mold.

Mushroom Spawn is in the Form of Strands of Mycelium Now in the
mushrooms the threads of mycelium are usually interlaced into
definite strands or cords, especially when the mycelium is well
developed. In some species these strands become very long, and

FIGURE 5. Agaricus campestris. Nearly mature plants, showing veil
stretched across gill cavity. (Natural size.)

are dark brown in color. Each thread of mycelium grows, or in-
creases in length, at the end. Each one of the threads grows inde-
pendently, though all are intertwined in the strand. In this way
the strand of mycelium increases in length. It even branches as it
extends itself through the soil.

The Button Stage of the Mushroom. The "spawn' stage, or
strands of mycelium, is the vegetative or growing stage of the mush-
room. These strands grow through the substance on which the
fungus feeds. When the fruiting stage, or the mushroom, begins
there appear small knobs or enlargements on these strands, and
these are the beginnings of the button stage, as it is properly called.
These knobs or young buttons are well shown in Fig. 3. They

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM. 7

begin by the threads of mycelium growing in great numbers out
from the side of the cords. These enlarge and elongate and make
their way toward the surface of the ground. They are at first very
minute and grow from the size of a pinhead to that of a pea, and
larger. Now they begin to elongate somewhat and the end enlarges
as shown in the larger button in the figure. Here the two main
parts of the mushroom are outlined, the stem and the cap. At this
stage also the other parts of the mushroom begin to be outlined.
The gills appear on the under side of this enlargement at the end of
the button, next the stem. They form by the growth of fungus
threads downward in radiating lines which correspond in position to

FIGURE 6. Agaricus campestris. Under view of two plants just after rupture
of the veil, fragments of the latter clinging both to margin of the pileus and
to stem. (Natural size.)

the position of the gills. At the same time a veil is formed over the
gills by threads which grow from the stem upward to the side of the
button, and from the side of the button down toward the stem to
meet them. This covers the gills up at an early period.

From the Button Stage to the Mushroom. If we split several of the
buttons of different sizes down through the middle, we shall be able
to see the position of the gills covered by the veil during their forma-
tion. These stages are illustrated in Fig. 4.

As the cap grows in size the gills elongate, and the veil becomes
broader. But when the plant is nearly grown the veil ceases to grow,
and then the expanding cap pulls so strongly on it that it is torn.
Figure 5 shows the veil in a stretched condition just before it is rup-

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

FIGURE 7. Agaricus campestris. Plant in
natural position just after rupture of veil,
showing tendency to double annulus on the
stem. Portions of the veil also dripping
from margin of pileus. (Natural size.)

tured, and in Fig. 6 the veil
has just been torn apart.
The veil of the common
mushroom is very delicate
and fragile, as the illustra-
tion shows, and when it is
ruptured it often breaks
irregularly, sometimes por-
tions of it clinging to the
margin of the cap and por-
tions clinging to the stem,
or all of it may cling to the
cap at times ; but usually
most of it remains clinging
for a short while on the
stem. Here it forms the
annulus or ring.

The Color of the Gills. The
color of the gills of the com-
mon mushroom varies in

different stages of development. When very young the gills are

white. But very soon the gills become pink in color, and during

the button stage if the veil is broken this pink color is usually

present unless the button is

very small. The pink color

soon changes to dark brown

after the veil becomes

ruptured, and when the

plants are quite old they

are nearly black. This

dark color of the gills is due

to the dark color of the

spores, which are formed

in such great numbers on
the surface of the gills.
Structure of a Gill. In

Fig. 8 is shown a portion
of a section across one of
the gills, and it is easy to

FIGURE 8. Agaricus campestris. Section of

See in what manner the gill showing /V = trama; j// = subhymeni-

Spores are borne. The gill um; 4=basidium the basidia make up

the hymemum ; .r/=stengma ; ^=spore.

is made up, as the illustra- (Magnified.)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM.

tion shows, of mycelium threads. The center of the gill is called
the trama. The trama in the case of this plant is made up of threads
with rather long cells. Toward the outside of the trama the cells
branch into short cells, which make a thin layer. This forms the
subhymenium . The subhymenium in turn gives rise to long club-
shaped cells which
stand parallel to each
other at right angles
to the surface of the
gill. The entire sur-
face of the gill is
covered with these
club-shaped cells
called basidia (sing.
basidintn). Each of
these cl ub-shaped
cells bears either two
or four spinous pro-
cesses called sterigmata
(sing, sterigma), and
these in turn each bear
a spore. All these
points are well shown
in Fig. 8. The basidia
together make up the
hymenium .

Wood Destroying
Fungi. Many of the
mushrooms, and their
kind, grow on wood.
A visit to the damp
forest during the sum-
mer months, or during
the autumn, will reveal large numbers of these plants growing
on logs, stumps, from buried roots or rotten wood, on standing
dead trunks, or even on living trees. In the latter case the
mushroom usually grows from some knothole or wound in the
tree (Fig. 9). Many of the forms which appear on the trunks of
dead or living trees are plants of tough or woody consistency. They
are known as shelving or bracket fungi, or popularly as " fungoids 5I
or "fungos." Both these latter words are very unfortunate and
inappropriate. Many of these shelving or bracket fungi are perennial

FIGURE 9. Polyporus borealis, showing wound at base of
hemlock spruce caused by falling tree. Bracket fruit
form of Polyporus borealis growing from wound, (i 15
natural size.)

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

and live from year to year. They may therefore be found during the
winter as well as in the summer. The writer has found specimens
over eighty years old. The shelves or brackets are the fruit bodies,
and consist of the pileus with the fruiting surface below. The fruit-
ing surface is either in the form of gills like Agaricus, or it is honey-
combed, or spinous, or entirely smooth.

Mycelium of the Wood Destroying Fungi. While the fruit bodies are
on the outside of the trunk, the mycelium, or vegetative part of the
fungus, is within the wood or bark. By stripping off the bark from

FIGURE 10. Polyporus borealis. Strands of mycelium extending radially in
the wood of the same living hemlock spruce shown in Fig. 9. (Natural
size.)

decaying logs where these fungi are growing, the mycelium is often
found in great abundance. By tearing open the rotting wood it can
be traced all through the decaying parts. In fact, the mycelium is
largely if not wholly responsible for the rapid disintegration of the
wood. In living trees the mycelium of certain bracket fungi enters
through a wound and grows into the heart wood. Now the heart
wood is dead and cannot long resist the entrance and destructive
action of the mycelium. The mycelium spreads through the heart
of the tree, causing it to rot (Fig. 10). When it has spread over a
large feeding area it can then grow out through a wound or old knot-

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM. 11

hole and form the bracket fruit body, in case the knothole or wound
has not completely healed over so as to imprison the fungus
mycelium.

Fungi in Abandoned Coal Mines. Mushrooms and bracket fungi
grow in great profusion on the wood props or doors in abandoned
coal mines, cement mines, etc. There is here an abundance of
moisture, and the temperature conditions are more equable the year
around. The conditions of environment then are very favorable for
the rapid growth of these plants. They develop in mid-winter as
well as in summer.

Mycelium of Coal Mine Fungi. The mycelium of the mushrooms
and bracket fungi grows in wonderful profusion in these abandoned
coal mines. So far down in the moist earth the air in the tunnels
or passages where the coal or rock has been removed is at all times
nearly saturated with moisture. This abundance of moisture, with
the favorable temperature, permits the mycelium to grow on the
surface of the wood structures as readily as within the wood.

In the forest, while the air is damp at times, it soon dries out to
such a degree that the mycelium can not exist to any great extent
on the outer surface of the trunks and stumps, for it needs a great
percentage of moisture for growth. The moisture, however, is
abundant within the stumps or tree trunks, and the mycelium
develops abundantly there.

So one can understand how it is that deep down in these aban-
doned mines the mycelium grows profusely on the surface of doors
and wood props. Figure n is from a flashlight photograph, taken
by the writer, of a beautiful growth on the surface of one of the
doors in an abandoned coal mine at Wilkesbarre, Pa., during Septem-
ber, 1896. The specimen covered an area eight by ten feet on the
surface of the door. The illustration shows very well the habit of
growth of the mycelium. At the right is the advancing zone of
growth, marked by several fan-shaped areas. At the extreme edge
of growth the mycelium presents a delicate fringe of the growing
ends where the threads are interlaced uniformly over the entire
area. But a little distance back from the edge, where the mycelium
is older, the threads are growing in a different way. They are now
uniting into definite strands. Still further back and covering the
larger part of the sheet of mycelium lying on the surface of the door,
are numerous long, delicate tassels hanging downward. These were
formed by the attempt on the part of the mycelium at numerous
places to develop strands at right angles to the surface of the door.
There being nothing to support them in their attempted aerial flight,

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

they dangle downward in exquisite fashion. The mycelium in this
condition is very soft and perishable. It disappears almost at touch.
On the posts or wood props used to support the rock roof above,
the mycelium grows in great profusion also, often covering them
with a thick white mantle, or draping them with a fabric of elegant
texture. From the upper ends of the props it spreads out over the
rock roof above for several feet in circumference, and beautiful white
pendulous tassels remind one of stalactites.

Direction in Growth of Mushrooms. The direction of growth which
these fungi take forms an interesting question for study. The com-
mon mushroom, the
Agaricus, the amani-
tas, and other central
stemmed species grow
usually in an upright
fashion ; that is, the
stem is erect. The
cap then, when it ex-
pands, stands so that
it is parallel with the
surface of the earth.
Where the cap does
not fully expand, as
in the campanulate
forms, the pileus is
still oriented horizon-
tally, that is, with the
gills downward. Even
in such species, where
the stems are ascend-
ing, the upper end of
the stem curves so

FIGURE 12. Agaricus campestris. Spore print. (Natural size.)

that the cap occupies the usual position with reference to the surface
of the earth. This is beautifully shown in the case of those plants
which grow on the side of trunks or stumps, where the stems could
not well grow directly upward without hugging close to the side of
the trunk, and then there would not be room for the expansion of
the cap. This is well shown in a number of species of Mycena.

In those species where the stem is subcentral, i. e., set toward
one side of the pileus, or where it is definitely lateral, the pileus is
also expanded in a horizontal direction. From these lateral stemmed
species there is an easy transition to the stemless forms which are

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM.

sessile, that is, the shelving forms where the pileus is itself attached
to the trunk, or other object of support on which it grows.

Where there is such uniformity in the position of a member or
part of a plant under a variety of conditions, it is an indication that
there is some underlying cause, and also, what is more important,
that this position serves some useful purpose in the life and well
being of the plant. We may cut the stem of a mushroom, say of
the Agaricus campestris, close to the cap, and place the latter, gills
downward, on a piece of white paper. It should now be covered
securely with a small bell jar, or other vessel, so that no currents of
air can get underneath.
In the course of a few
hours myriads of the
brown spores will have
fallen from the surface
of the gills, where
they are borne. They
will pile up in long
lines along on either
side of all the gills and
so give us an impres-
sion, or spore print,
of the arrangement of
the gills on the under
side of the cap as
shown in Fig. 12. A
white spore print from
the smooth lepiota
(L. naucina) is shown
in Fig. 13. This hori-
zontal position of the
cap then favors the
falling of the spores,

so that currents of air can scatter them and aid in the distribution of
the fungus.

But some may enquire how we know that there is any design in
the horizontal position of the cap, and that there is some cause which
brings about this uniformity of position with such entire harmony
among such dissimilar forms. When a mushroom with a compara-
tively long stem, not quite fully matured or expanded, is pulled and
laid on its side, or held in a horizontal position for a time, the upper
part of the stem where growth is still taking place will curve upward

FIGURE 13. Lepiota naucina. Spore print. (Natural size.)

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

so that the pileus is again brought more or less in a horizontal
position.

In collecting these plants they are often placed on their side in
the collecting basket, or on a table when in the study. In a few
hours the younger, long stemmed ones have turned upward again.
The plant shown in Fig. 14 (Amanita phalloides) was placed on its
side in a basket for about an hour. At the end of the hour it had not
turned. It was then stood upright in a glass, and in the course of a
few hours had turned nearly at right angles. The stimulus it
received while lying in a horizontal position for only an hour was
sufficient to produce the change in direction of growth even after the
upright position had been restored. This is often the case. Some of

FIGURE 14. Amanita phalloides. Plant turned to one side by directive force of
gravity, after having been placed in a horizontal position. (Natural size.)

the more sensitive of the slender species are disturbed if they lie for
only ten or fifteen minutes on the side. It is necessary, therefore,
when collecting, if one wishes to keep the plants in the natural posi-
tion for photographing, to support them in an upright position when
they are being carried home from the woods.

The cause of this turning of the stem from the horizontal position,
so that the pileus will be brought parallel with the surface of the
earth, is the stimulus from the force of gravity, which has been well
demonstrated in the case of the higher plants. That is, the force
which causes the stems of the higher plants to grow upward also
regulates the position of the cap of the pileated fungi. The reason
for this is to be seen in the perfection with which the spores are shed
from the surfaces of the gills by falling downward and out from the
crevices between. The same is true with the shelving fungi on trees,

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM.

etc., where the spores readily fall out from the pores of the honey-
combed surface or from between the teeth of those sorts with a spiny
under surface. If the caps were so arranged that the fruiting surface
came to be on the upper side, the larger number of the spores would
lodge in the crevices between the extensions of the fruiting surface.
Singularly, this position of the fruiting surface does occur in the case
of one genus with a few small species.

Interesting examples of the operation of this law are sometimes
met with in abandoned coal mines, or more frequently in the woods.
In abandoned mines the mushrooms sometimes grow from the
mycelium which spreads out on the rock roof overhead. The rock

FIGURE 15. Polyporus applanatus. From this view the larger cap is in the
normal position in which it grew on the standing tree. Turn one-fourth
way round to the right for position of the plant after the tree fell. ( 1/6
natural size.)

roof prevents the plant from growing upright, and in growing later-
ally the weight of the plant together with the slight hold it can obtain
on the solid rock causes it to hang downward. The end of the stem
then curves upward so that the pileus is brought in a horizontal po-
sition. I have seen this in the case of Coprinus micaceus several times.
In the woods, especially in the case of the perennial shelving
fungi, interesting cases are met with. Figure 15 illustrates one of
these peculiar forms of Polyporus (Pomes) applanatus. This is the
species so often collected as a " curio," and on account of its very
white under surface is much used for etching various figures. In the
figure the larger cap which is horizontal represents the position of
the plant when on the standing maple trunk. When the tree fell

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the shelf was brought into a perpendicular position. The fungus
continued to grow, but its substance being hard and woody it cannot
turn as the mushroom can. Instead, it now grows in such a way as
to form several new caps, all horizontal, i. e., parallel with the sur-

PLATE 3, FIGURE 16. Daedalea ambigua. Upper right-hand shows normal plant in
normal position when on tree. Upper left-hand shows abnormal plant with the
large cap in normal position when growing on standing tree. Lower plant shows
same plant in position after the tree fell, with new caps growing out in horizontal
direction. (Lower plant 1/2 natural size.)

face of the earth, but perpendicular to the old shelf. If the page is
turned one-fourth way round the figure will be brought in the
position of the plant when it was growing on the fallen log.

GILL BEARING FUNGI. 17

Another very interesting case is shown in the ambiguous
trametes (Trametes ambigua), a white shelving fungus which occurs
in the Southern States. It is shown in Fig. 16. At the upper right
hand is shown the normal plant in the normal position. At the upper
left hand is shown an abnormal one with the large and first formed
cap also in the normal position as it grew when the tree was stand-
ing. When the tree fell the shelf was on the upper side of the log.
Now numerous new caps grew out from the edge as shown in the
lower figure, forming a series of steps, as it were, up one side and
down the other.

CHAPTER III.

GILL BEARING FUNGI: AGARICACEAE.*

The gill bearing fungi are known under the family Agaricacece t
or popularly the agarics. They are distinguished by the fruiting
area being distributed over the surface of plate-like or knife-like
extensions or folds, usually from the under surface of the cap.
These are known as the gills, or lamellae, and they usually radiate
from a common point, as from or near the stem, when the stem is
present ; or from the point of attachment of the pileus when the
stem is absent. The plants vary widely in form and consistency,
some being very soft and soon decaying, others turning into an inky
fluid, others being tough and leathery, and some more or less woody
or corky. The spores when seen in mass possess certain colors,
white, rosy, brown or purple brown, black or ochraceous. While a
more natural division of the agarics can be made on the basis of
structure and consistency, the treatment here followed is based on
the color of the spores, the method in vogue with the older botanists.
While this method is more artificial, it is believed to be better for the
beginner, especially for a popular treatment. The sections will be
treated in the following order :

1. The purple-brown-spored agarics.

2. The black-spored agarics.

3. The white-spored agarics.

4. The rosy-spored agarics.

5. The ochre-spored agarics.

*For analytical keys to the families and genera see Chapter XXII.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.

The members of this subdivision are recognized at maturity by
the purple-brown, dark brown or nearly black spores when seen in
mass. As they ripen on the surface of the gills the large number
give the characteristic color to the lamella?. Even on the gills the
purple tinge of the brown spores can often be seen. The color is
more satisfactorily obtained when the spores are caught in mass by
placing the cap, gills downward, on white paper.

AGARICUS Linn. (PSALLIOTA Fr.)

In the genus Agaric us the spores at maturity are either purple-
brown in mass or blackish with a purple tinge. The annulus is
present on the stem, though disappearing soon in some species, and
the stem is easily separated from the substance of the pileus. The
gills are free from the stem, or only slightly adnexed. The genus is
closely related to Stropharia and the species of the two genera are
by some united under one genus (Psalliofa, Hennings). Peck, 36th
Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 41-49, describes 7 species. Lloyd
Mycol. Notes, No. 4, describes 8 species. C. O. Smith, Rhodora, I:
161-164, 1899, describes 8 species.

Agaricus (Psalliota) campestris Linn. Edible. This plant has been
quite fully described in the treatment of the parts of the mushroom,
and a recapitulation will be sufficient here. It grows in lawns,
pastures, by roadsides, and even in gardens and cultivated fields.
A few specimens begin to appear in July, it is more plentiful in
August, and abundantly so in September and October. It is 5-8 cm.
high (2-3 inches), the cap is 5-12 cm. broad, and the stem 8-12 mm.
in thickness.

The pileus is first rounded, then convex and more or less
expanded. The surface at first is nearly smooth, presenting a soft,
silky appearance from numerous loose fibrils. The surface is some-
times more or less torn into triangular scales, especially as the plants
become old. The color is usually white, but varies more or less to
light brown, especially in the scaly forms, where the scales may be

*For analytical key to the genera see Chapter XXII.

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.

1!)

quite prominent and dark brown in color. Sometimes the color is
brownish before the scales appear. The flesh is white. The gills
in the young button stage are white. They soon become pink in
color and after the cap is expanded they quickly become purple
brown, dark brown, and nearly black from the large number of spores
on their surfaces. The gills are free from the stem and rounded
behind (near the stem). The stem is white, nearly cylindrical, or it
tapers a little toward the lower end. The flesh is solid, though the
central core is less firm. The veil is thin, white, silky, and very frail.

FIGURE 17. Agaricus rodmani. Entirely white, showing double veil or ring.

(Natural size.) Copyright.

It is stretched as the cap expands and finally torn so that it clings
either as an annulus around the stem, or fragments cling around the
margin of the cap. Since the annulus is so frail it shrivels as the
plant ages and becomes quite inconspicuous or disappears entirely
(see Figs. 1-7).

Variations in the surface characters of the cap and stem have led
some to recognize several varieties. This is known as the common
mushroom and is more widely known and collected for food than any

20 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

other. It is also cultivated in mushroom houses, cellars, caves,
abandoned mines, etc.

Agaricus (Psalliota) rodmani Pk. Edible. Rodman's mushroom,
Agaricus rodmani, grows in grassy places along streets of cities, either
between the curbing and the walk, or between the curbing and the
pavement. It is entirely white or whitish and sometimes tinged
with yellowish at the center of the pileus. The plants are 4-8 cm.
high, the cap 5-8 cm. broad and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is rounded, and then convex, very firm, compact and
thick, with white flesh. The gills are crowded, first white, then
pink, and in age blackish brown. The stem is very short, solid,

FIGURE 18. Agaricus arvensis, fairy ring.

nearly cylindrical, not bulbous. The annulus is quite characteristic,
being very thick, with a short limb, and double, so that it often
appears as two distinct rings on the middle or lower part of the stem
as shown in Fig. 17. This form of the annulus is probably due to
the fact that the thick part of the margin of the pileus during the
young stage rests between the lower and upper part of the annulus,
i. e., the thick veil is attached both to the inner and outer surface of
the margin of the cap, and when it is freed by the expansion of the
pileus it remains as a double ring. It is eagerly sought and much
relished by several persons at Ithaca familiar with its edible qualities.
The plant closely resembles A. campestris var., edulis, Vittad.
(See Plate 54, Bresadola, I Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi, 1899) and
is probably the same.

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.

'21

Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis Schaeff. Edible. The field mushroom,
or horse mushroom, Agaricus arvensis, grows in fields or pastures,
sometimes under trees and in borders of woods. One form is often
white, or yellowish white, and often shows the yellow color when
dried. The plant sometimes occurs in the form of a fairy ring as

FIGURE 19. Agaricus silvicola. White to cream color, or yellow stains.

(Natural size.) Copyright.

shown in Fig. 18. It is 5-12 cm. high, the cap from 5-15 cm. broad
and the stem 8-15 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is smooth, quite thick and firm, convex to expanded.
The gills are first white, then tinged with pink and finally blackish
brown. The stem is stout, nearly cylindrical, hollow, bulbous. The
veil is double like that of Agaricus placomyces, the upper or inner

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

layer remaining as a membrane, while the lower or outer layer is
split radially and remains in large patches on the lower surface of
the upper membrane.

Agaricus (Psalliota) silvicola Vittad. Edible. The Agaricus sik'icola
grows in woods, groves, etc., on the ground, and has been found also
in a newly made garden in the vicinity of trees near the woods. It
is an attractive plant because of its graceful habit and the delicate

shades of yellow and
white. It ranges from
10-20 cm. high, the
cap is 5-12 cm. broad
and the stem 6-10
mm. in thickness.

The pileus becomes
convex, and expanded
or nearly flat, and
often with an elevation
or umbo in the center.
It is thin, smooth,
whitish and often
tinged more or less
deeply with yellow
(sulfur or ochraceous)
and is sometimes
tinged with pink in the
center. The flesh is
whitish or tinged with
pink. The gills when
very young are whitish, then pink, and finally dark brown or
blackish brown, much crowded, and distant from the stem. The
stem is long, nearly cylindrical, whitish, abruptly enlarged below
into a bulb. It is often yellowish below, and especially in drying
becomes stained with yellow. The ring is thin, membranaceous,
delicate, sometimes with broad, soft, floccose patches on the under
side. The ring usually appears single, but sometimes the veil is
seen to be double, and the outer or lower portion tends to split
radially as in A. arvensis or A. placomyces. This is well shown in
large specimens, and especially as the veil is stretched over the gills
as shown in Fig. 20.

From the form of the plant as well as the peculiarities of the veil
in the larger specimens, it is related to A. arccnsis and placomyces,
more closely to the former. It occurs during mid-summer and

FIGURE 20. Agaricus silvicola, showing radiately
torn lower part of veil. (Natural size.) Copy-
right.

OTQ

c 8

O crq fO

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ft to

o Np ,

ft ]

o o

- s

>TJ

C ^

-! K

a
5:

t/1

CJ
r

!/) '

is
a;

t/1

OJ
u

o
u

3
CJ

D
O

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS. 23

early autumn. Figure 10 is from plants (No. 1986 C. U. herbarium)
collected in open woods at Ithaca.

Agaricus (Psalliota) subrufescens Pk. Edible. The Agariais subru-
fescens was described by Dr. Peck from specimens collected on a
compost heap composed chiefly of leaves, at Glen Cove, Long
Island. It occurs sometimes in greenhouses. In one case reported
by Peck it appeared in soil prepared for forcing cucumbers in a
greenhouse in Washington, D. C.

According to the description the pileus becomes convex or broadly
expanded, is covered with silky hairs and numerous minute scales.
The color is whitish, grayish or dull reddish brown, the center being
usually smooth and darker, while the flesh is white. The gills
change from white to pinkish and blackish brown in age. The stem
is long, nearly cylindrical or somewhat enlarged or bulbous at the
base, first stuffed, then hollow, white. The annulus is thick, and the
under side marked by loose threads or scales.

This plant is said to differ from the common mushroom (A. cam-
pestris) in the more deeply hemispherical cap of the young plant, the
hollow and somewhat bulbous stem, and in the scales on the under
side of the annulus. In fresh plants the flesh has also a flavor of
almonds. It is closely related to A. silvaticus Schaeff., p. 62, T. 242,
Icones Fung. Bav. etc., 1770, if not identical with it. A. silvaticus
has light ochraceous or subrufescent scales on the cap, a strong odor,
and occurs in gardens as well as in the woods.

Agaricus (Psalliota) fabaceus Berk., was described in Hooker's
London Journal of Botany, 6: 314, 1847, from specimens collected in
Ohio. The plant is white and is said to have a strong but not
unpleasant odor. Agaricus amygdalinus Curt., from North Carolina,
and of which no description was published, was so named on account
of the almond-like flavor of the plant. Dr. Farlow suggests (Proc.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 26: 356-358, 1894) that A. fabaceus, amygda-
linus, and subrufescens are identical.

Agaricus (Psalliota) placomyces Pk. Edible. The flat-cap mushroom,
Agaricus pi acotnyces Pk., occurs in borders of woods or under trees
from June to September. According to Peck it occurs in borders of
hemlock woods, or under hemlock trees. At Ithaca it is not always
associated with hemlock trees. The largest specimens found here
were in the border of mixed woods where hemlock was a constituent.
It has been found near and under white pine trees in lawns, around
the Norway spruce and under the Norway spruce. The plants are
from 5-15 cm. high, the cap from 5-12 cm. in diameter, and the
stem 6-8 mm. in thickness.

24 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The pileus when young is broadly ovate, then becomes convex or
fully expanded and flat in age, and is quite thin. The ground color
is whitish, often with a yellowish tinge, while the surface is orna-
mented with numerous minute brownish scales which are scattered
over a large part of the cap, but crowded or conjoined at the center
into a large circular patch. This gives to the plant with its shapely
form a beautiful appearance. In the young stage the entire surface
of the pileus is quite evenly brown. As it expands the outer brown
portion is torn asunder into numerous scales because the surface
threads composing this brown layer cease to grow. These scales are
farther apart toward the margin of the cap, because this portion of
the cap always expands more than the center, in all mushrooms.
The gills are at first white, or very soon pink in color, and in age are
blackish brown. Spores 5-8 x 3-4 //.

The stem is nearly cylindrical, hollow or stuffed, white or whitish,
smooth, bulbous, and the bulb is sometimes tinged with yellow.
The veil is very handsome, and the way in which the annulus is
formed from it is very interesting. The veil is quite broad, and it
is double, that is, it consists of two layers which are loosely joined
by threads. In the young stage the veil lies between the gills and
the lower two-thirds of the stem. As the pileus expands the lower
(outer part) layer of the veil is torn, often in quite regular radiating
portions, as shown in Fig. 22. An interesting condition of the veil is
shown in the middle plant in Fig. 23. Here the outer or lower layer
of the veil did not split radially, but remained as a tube surrounding
the stem, while the two layers were separated, the inner one being
still stretched over the gills. It is customary to speak of the lower
part of the veil as the outer part when the cap is expanded and the
veil is still stretched across over the gills, while the upper portion is
spoken of as the inner layer or part. It is closely related to A.
arvensis, and may represent a wood inhabiting variety of that species.

Agaricus (Psalliota) comtulus Fr. This pretty little agaric seems to
be rather rare. It was found sparingly on several occasions in open
woods under pines at Ithaca, N. Y., during October, 1898. Lloyd
reports it from Ohio (Mycolog. Notes, No. 56, Nov. 1899), and
Smith from Vermont (Rhodora I, 1899). Fries' description (Epicrisis,
No. 877) runs as follows: "Pileus slightly fleshy, convex, plane,
obtuse, nearly smooth, with appressed silky hairs, stem hollow, sub-
attenuate, smooth, white to yellowish, annulus fugacious ; gills free,
crowded, broad in front, from flesh to rose color. In damp grassy
places. Stem 2 inches by 2 lines, at first floccose stuffed. Pileus
i-i l /2 inch diameter. Color from white to yellowish."

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.

jr.

The plants collected at Ithaca are illustrated in Fig. 24 from a
photograph of plants (No. 2879 C. U. herbarium). My notes on
these specimens run as follows : Plant 3-6 cm. high, pileus 1.5-3 cm.
broad, stem 3-4 mm. in thickness. Pileus convex to expanded,
fleshy, thin on the margin, margin at first incurved, creamy white
with egg yellow stains, darker on the center, in age somewhat darker
to umber or fuliginous, moist when fresh, surface soon dry, flesh
tinged with yellow. The gills are white when young, then grayish
to pale rose, and finally light purple brown, rounded in front, taper-
ing behind (next the stem) and rounded, free from the stem, 4-5
mm. broad. Basidia clavate, 25-30x5-6^. Spores small, oval,

FIGURE 24. Agaricus comtulus (natural size, sometimes larger). Cap creamy
white with egg-yellow stains, smoky when older. Stem same color ; gills grayish,
then rose, then purple-brown. Copyright.

3-4x2-3 fj, in mass light purple brown. The stem tapers above,
is sub-bulbous below, yellowish and stained with darker yellowish
threads below the annulus, hollow, fibrous, fleshy. The veil whitish
stained with yellow, delicate, rupturing irregularly, portions of it
clinging to margin of the pileus and portions forming a delicate ring.
When parts of the plant come in contact with white paper a blue
stain is apt to be imparted to the paper, resembling the reaction of
iodine on starch. This peculiarity has been observed also in the
case of another species of Agaricus. The species is regarded with
suspicion by some. 1 collected the plant also at Blowing Rock, N. C.,

26 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

in September, 1899. The caps of these specimens measure 4 cm. in
diameter.

Agaricus diminutivus Pk., is a closely related species. It is distin-
guished chiefly by its somewhat larger size, and purplish to reddish
brown hairs on the surface of the pileus, and by the somewhat larger
spores, which, however, are small. I have found it at Ithaca, the
surface of the pileus hairy, with beautiful, triangular, soft, appressed,
purplish scales.

HYPHOLOMA Fr.

In the genus Hypholoma the spores are purple brown, the gills
attached to the stem, and the veil when ruptured clings to the mar-
gin of the cap instead of to the stem, so that a ring is not formed, or
only rarely in some specimens. The stem is said to be continuous
with the substance of the cap, that is, it is not easily separated from
it. The genus is closely related to Agaricus (Psalliota) and Stropharia,
from both of which it differs in the veil not forming a ring, but
clinging to the margin of the cap. It further differs from Agaricus
in the stem being continuous with the substance of the cap, while
Stropharia seems to differ in this respect in different species. The
plants grow both on the ground and on wood. There are several
species which are edible and are very common. Peck gives a
synopsis of six species in the 49th Report New York State Mus.,
page 61, 1896, and Morgan describes 7 species in Jour. Cinn. Soc.
Nat. Hist. 6: 113-115.

Hypholoma sublateritium Schaeff. Edible, bitter sometimes. The
name of this species is derived from the color of the cap, which is
nearly a brick red color, sometimes tawny. The margin is lighter
in color. The plants grow usually in large clusters on old stumps or
frequently appearing on the ground from buried portions of stumps
or from roots. There are from six to ten, or twenty or more plants
in a single cluster. A single plant is from 8-12 cm. high, the cap is
5-8 cm. broad, and the stem 6-8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex to expanded, smooth, or sometimes with
loose threads from the veil, especially when young, even, dry.
The flesh is firm, whitish, and in age becoming somewhat yellowish.
The gills are adnate, sometimes decurrent by a little tooth, rather
crowded, narrow, whitish, then dull yellow, and becoming dark from
the spores, purplish to olivaceous. The stem usually tapers down-
ward, is firm, stuffed, smooth, or with remnants of the veil giving it
a floccose scaly appearance, usually ascending because of the crowded

-d
a"
n"

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O

EL
a3 .

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS. 27

growth. The veil is thin and only manifested in the young stage of
the plant as a loose weft of threads. As the cap expands the veil is
torn and adheres to the margin, but soon disappears.

The flesh of this plant is said by European writers to be bitter to
the taste, and it is regarded there as poisonous. This character
seems to be the only distinguishing one between the Hypholoma sub-
lateritium Schaeff., of Europe, and the Hypholoma perp/exum Pk.,
of this country which is edible, and probably is identical with H.
sublateritiutn. If the plant in hand agrees with this description in
other respects, and is not bitter, there should be no danger in its use.
According to Bresadola, the bitter taste is not pronounced in H. sub-
lateritium. The taste probably varies as it does in other plants.
For example, in Pholiota ptnrox, an edible species, I detected a
decided bitter taste in plants collected in June, 1900. Four other
persons were requested to taste the plants. Two of them pronounced
them bitter, while two did not detect the bitter taste.

There is a variety of Hypholoma siiblateritium, with delicate
floccose scales in concentric rows near the margin of the cap, called
var. squamosum Cooke. This is the plant illustrated in Fig. 25, from
specimens collected on rotting wood in the Cascadilla woods, Ithaca,
N. Y. It occurs from spring to autumn.

Hypholoma epixanthum Fr., is near the former specjes, but
has a yellow pileus, and the light yellow gills become gray, not
purple.

Hypholoma appendiculatum Bull. Edible. -- This species is common
during late spring and in the summer. It grows on old stumps and
logs, and often on the ground, especially where there are dead roots.
It is scattered or clustered, but large tufts are not formed as in H.
siiblateritium. The plants are 6-8 cm. high, the cap 5-7 cm. broad,
and the stem 4-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is ovate, convex to expanded, and often the margin
elevated, and then the cap appears depressed. It is fleshy, thin,
whitish or brown, tawny, or with a tinge of ochre, and becoming
pale in age and when dry. As the plant becomes old the pileus
often cracks in various ways, sometimes splitting radially into several
lobes, and then in other cases cracking into irregular areas, showing
the white flesh underneath. The surface of the pileus when young
is sometimes sprinkled with whitish particles giving it a mealy
appearance. The gills are attached to the stem, crowded, becoming
more or less free by breaking away from the stem, especially in old
plants. They are white, then flesh colored, brownish with a slight
purple tinge. The stem is white, smooth, or with numerous small

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

white particles at the apex, becoming hollow. The veil is very deli-
cate, white, and only seen in quite young plants when they are fresh.
It clings to the margin of the cap for a short period, and then soon
disappears.

Sometimes the pileus is covered with numerous white, delicate
floccose scales, which give it a beautiful appearance, as in Fig. 26,
from specimens (No. 3185 C. U. herbarium), collected on the campus
of Cornell University among grass. The entire plant is very brittle,

FIGURF. 27. Hypholoma appendiculatum (natural size), showing
appendiculate veil. Copyright.

and easily broken. It is tender and excellent for food. 1 often eat
the caps raw.

Hypholoma candolleanum Fr., occurs in woods on the ground, or on
very rotten wood. It is not so fragile as H. appendiculatum and the
gills are dark violaceous, not flesh color as they are in H. appendicu-
latum when they begin to turn, and nearly free from the stem.

Hypholoma lacrymabundum Fr. This plant was found during Sep-
tember and October in wet grassy places in a shallow ditch by the
roadside, and in borders of woods, Ithaca, N. Y., 1898. The plants
are scattered or clustered, several often joined at the base of the
stem. They are 4-8 cm. high, the cap 2-5 cm. broad, and the stem
4-8 mm. in thickness.

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS. :ii

The pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate in
age, and usually with radiating wrinkles extending irregularly. On
the surface are silky or tomentose threads not much elevated from
the surface, and as the plant ages these are drawn into triangular
scales which are easily washed apart by the rains. The color is
tawny or light yellowish with intermediate shades, darker on the
umbo and becoming darker in age, sometimes umber colored, and
stained with black, especially after rains where the spores are washed
on the pileus. The flesh is tinged with light yellow, or tawny, or

FIGURE 28. Hypholoma lacrymabundum (natural size). Cap and stem tawny or
light yellowish, with intermediate shades or shades of umber, surface with soft
floccose scales. Copyright.

brown, soft, and easily broken. The gills are sinuate, adnate, some-
what ventricose, very rarely in abnormal specimens anastomosing
near the margin of the pileus, at first light yellowish, then shading
to umber and spotted with black and rusty brown as the spores
mature, easily breaking away from the stipe, whitish on the edge.
Drops of moisture sometimes are formed on the gills. Basidia abruptly
clavate, 30-35 x 10-12 /<. Cystidia hyaline, thin walled, projecting
above the hymenium 40 /v, and 14-1 5 /< broad. Spores black, purple
tinged, broadly elliptical and somewhat curved, 9-11 x 7-8 //.

30 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The stem is fleshy to fibrous, the same color as the pileus, floccose
scaly more or less up to the veil, smooth or white pruinose above
the veil, straight or curved, somewhat striate below.

The veil in young plants is hairy, of the same texture as the surface
of the pileus, torn and mostly clinging to the margin of the pileus,
and disappearing with age.

The general habit and different stages of development as well as
some of the characters of the plant are shown in Fig. 28 (No. 4620
Cornell University herbarium). The edible qualities of this plant
have not been tested.

Hypholoma rugocephalum Atkinson. This interesting species grows
in damp places in woods. The plants are tufted or occur singly.
They are 8-12 cm. high, the cap 6-10 cm. broad, and the stem 6-10
mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex to expanded, and the margin at last revolute
(upturned). The surface is marked by strong wrinkles (rugae),
which radiate irregularly from the center toward the margin. The
pileus is broadly umbonate, fleshy at the center and thinner toward
the margin, the flesh tinged with yellow, the surface slightly viscid,
but not markedly so even when moist, smooth, not hairy or scaly,
the thin margin extending little beyond ends of the gills. The color
is tawny (near fulvus). The gills are adnate, slightly sinuate, 5-7
mm. broad, in age easily breaking away from the stem and then
rounded at this end, spotted with the black spores, lighter on the
edge. The spores are black in mass (with a suggestion of a purple
tinge), oval to broadly elliptical, inequilateral, pointed at each end,
echinulate, or minutely tuberculate, 8-iix6-8/*. The basidia
are short, cylindrical ; cystidia cylindrical, somewhat enlarged at the
free end, hyaline, delicate, thin-walled, in groups of two to six or
more (perhaps this is partly responsible for the black spotted condi-
tion of the gills). The stem is cylindrical, even, somewhat bulbous,
of the same color as the pileus, but lighter above the annulus,
irregular, smooth, fleshy, hollow, continuous with the substance of
the pileus. The annulus is formed of a few threads, remnants of the
veil, which are stained black by the spores. Figure 29 is from plants
(No. 3202 C. U. herbarium) collected near Ithaca, July 18, 1899.

M
to

9 3

N
(T

PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.

STROPHARIA Fr.

The genus Stropharia has purple-brown spores, the gills are
attached to the stem, and the veil forms a ring on the stem.

Stropharia semiglobata Batsch. This species is rather common
and widely distributed, occurring in grassy places recently manured,
or on dung. The plants are scattered or clustered, rarely two or

FIGURE 30. Stropharia semiglobata (natural size). Cap and stem light
yellow, viscid ; gills brownish-purple. Copyright.

three joined at the base. They are 5-12 cm. high, the cap 1-3 cm.
broad, and the stems 2-4 mm. in thickness. The entire plant is
light yellow, and viscid when moist, the gills becoming purplish
brown, or nearly black. Stevenson says it is regarded as
poisonous.

32 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The pileus is rounded, then hemispherical (semi-globate), smooth,
fleshy at the center, thinner toward the margin, even, very viscid
or viscous when moist, light yellow. The gills are squarely set
against the stem (adnate), broad, smooth, in age purplish brown to
blackish, the color more or less clouded. The spores in mass, are
brownish purple. The stem is slender, cylindrical, becoming hollow,
straight, even or bulbous below, yellowish, but paler at the apex
where there are often parallel strict, marks from the gills in the
young stage. The stem is often viscid and smeared with the glutin-
ous substance which envelopes the plant when young, and from the
more or less glutinous veil. The ring is glutinous when moist.

Figure 30 is from plants (No. 4613 C. U. herbarium) collected on
one of the streets of Ithaca.

Stropharia stercoraria Fr., is a closely related plant, about the
same size, but the pileus, first hemispherical, then becoming ex-
panded and sometimes striate on the margin, while the stem is
stuffed. The gills are said to be of one color and the ring floccose,
viscose, and evanescent in drying. It occurs on dung, or in grassy
places recently manured.

Stropharia reruginosa Curt., the greenish Stropharia, is from 6-8
cm. high, and the pileus 5-7 cm. broad. The ground color is yellow-
ish, but the plant is covered with a greenish slime which tends to
disappear with age. It is found in woods and open places during
late summer and in autumn. According to Stevenson it is poisonous.

CHAPTER V.

THE BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are black in mass, not purple tinged. For analytical
keys to the genera see Chapter XXII.

COPRINUS Pers.

The species of Coprinus are readily recognized from the black
spores in addition to the fact that the gills, at maturity, dissolve into
a black or inky fluid. The larger species especially form in this way
an abundance of the black fluid, so that it drops from the pileus and
blackens the grass, etc., underneath the plant. In some of the

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

smaller species the gills do not wholly deliquesce, but the cap splits
on top along the line of the longer gills, this split passing down
through the gill, dividing it into two thin lamina?, which, however,
remain united at the lower edge. This gives a fluted appearance to
the margin of the pileus, which is very thin and membranaceous.

The plants vary in size, from tiny ones to those which are several
inches high and more than an inch broad. Their habitat (that is,
the place where they grow) is peculiar. A number of the species

FIGURE 31. Coprinus comatus, "shaggy-mane," in lawn.

grow on dung or recently manured ground. From this peculiarity
the genus received the name Coprinus from the Greek word uopi'os,
meaning dung. Some of the species, however, grow on decaying
logs, on the ground, on leaves, etc.

Coprinus coraatus Fr. Edible. One of the finest species in this
genus is the shaggy-mane, or horse-tail mushroom, as it is popularly
called. It occurs in lawns and other grassy places, especially in
richly manured ground. The plants sometimes occur singly, or a
few together, but often quite large numbers of them appear in a
small area. They occur most abundantly during quite wet weather,

34 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

or after heavy rains, in late spring or during the autumn, and also
in the summer. From the rapid growth of many of the mush-
rooms we are apt to be taken by surprise to see them all up some
day, when the day before there were none. The shaggy-mane
often furnishes a surprise of this kind. In our lawns we are accus-
tomed to a pretty bit of greensward with clumps of shrubbery, and
here and there the overhanging branches of some shade tree. On
some fine morning when we find a whole flock of these shaggy-
manes, which have sprung up during the night, we can imagine that

FIGURE 32. Coprinus comatus. " Buttons," some in section showing gill slits
and hollow stem ; colors white and black. (Natural size.)

some such kind of a surprise must have come to Browning when he
wrote these words :

" By the rose flesh mushroom undivulged
Last evening. Nay, in to-day's first dew

Yon sudden coral nipple bulged,
Where a freaked, fawn colored, flaky crew

Of toadstools peep indulged."

The plant is called shaggy-mane because of the very shaggy
appearance of the cap, due to the surface being torn up into long
locks. The illustrations of the shaggy mane shown here represent
the different stages of development, and the account here given is
largely taken from the account written by me in Bulletin 168 of the
Cornell University Agr. Exp. Station.

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. 35

In Fig. 32 are shown two buttons of the size when they are just
ready to break through the soil. They appear mottled with dark
and white, for the outer layer of fungus threads, which are dark
brown, is torn and separated into patches or scales, showing between
the delicate meshes of white threads which lie beneath. The upper

FIGURE 33. Coprinus comatus (natural size).

part of the button is already forming the cap, and the slight con-
striction about midway shows the lower boundary or margin of the
pileus where it is still connected with the undeveloped stem.

At the right of each of these buttons in the figure is shown a sec-
tion of a plant of the same age. Here the parts of the plant, though

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

still undeveloped, are quite well marked out. Just underneath the
pileus layer are the gills. In the section one gill is exposed to view
on either side. In the section of the larger button the free edge of

the gill is still closely applied to the
stem, while in the small one the gills
are separated a short distance from
the stems showing " gill slits." Here,
too, the connection of the margin of
the pileus with the stem is still shown,
and forms the veil. This kind of a
veil is a marginal veil.

The stem is hollow even at this
young stage, and a slender cord of
mycelium extends down the center of
the tube thus formed, as is shown in
the sections.

The plants are nearly all white
when full grown. The brown scales,
so close together on the buttons, are
widely separated except at the top or
center of the pileus, where they remain
close together and form a broad cap.
A study of the different stages,
which appear from the button stage
to the mature plant, reveals the cause
of this change in color and the wide
separation of the dark brown scales.
The threads of the outer layer of the
pileus, and especially those in the
brown patches seen on the buttons,
soon cease to grow, though they are
firmly entangled with the inner layers.
Now the threads underneath and all
through the plant, in the gills and in
the upper part of the stem, grow and
elongate rapidly. This pulls on the
outer layer, tearing it in the first place
into small patches, and causing them
later to be more widely separated on
FIGURE 34. Coprinus comatus the mature plant. Some of these
(natural size). This one entirely sca i es remain quite large, while others

white, none of the scales black .

tipped. are torn up into quite small tufts.

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. 37

As the plant ages, the next inner layers of the pileus grow less
rapidly, so that the white layer beneath the brown is torn up into an
intricate tangle of locks and tufts, or is frazzled into a delicate pile
which exists here and there between well formed tufts. While all

FIGURE 35. Coprinus comatus, sections of the plants in Fig. 33 (natural size).

present the same general characters there is considerable individual
variation, as one can see by comparing a number of different plants.
Figure 34 shows one of the interesting conditions. There is little of
the brown color, and the outer portion of the pileus is torn into long
locks, quite evenly distributed and curled up at the ends in an inter-

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

esting fashion which merits well the term " shaggy." In others the
threads are looped up quite regularly into triangular tresses which
appear to be knotted at the ends where the tangle of brown threads
holds them together.

There is one curious feature about the expansion of the pileus of
the shaggy-mane which could not escape our attention. The pileus

has become very
long while compar-
atively little lateral
expansion has
taken place. The
pileus has remained
cylindrical or bar-
rel-shaped, while in
the case of the com-
mon mushroom the
pileus expands into
the form of an um-
brella.

The cylindrical
or barrel -shaped
pileus is character-
istic of the shaggy-
mane mushroom.
As the pileus elong-
ates the stem does
also, but more
rapidly. This tears
apart the connec-
tion of the margin
of the pileus with
the base of the
stem, as is plainly
shown in Fig. 33.
In breaking away,
the connecting por-
tion or veil is freed
both from the stem
and from the margin
of the pileus, and is
left as a free, or

FIGURE 30. Loprinus comatus, early stages of deliques-
cence; the ring is lying on the sod (natural size), loose, ring around

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

the stem. In the shaggy-mane the veil does not form a thin, ex-
panded curtain. It is really an annular outer layer of the button
lying between the margin of the cap and the base of the stem. It
becomes free from the stem. As the stem elongates more rapidly
than the cap, the latter is lifted up away from the base of the stem.

Sometimes the free ring is left as a

collar around the! . ^*r" '^^m base of the stem,

still loosely ad- jtff ^ \_ herent to the

superficial layer of ' Jllk- 1|. the same,

for a time
adherent

or it remains
more or less r
to the margin
of the pileus

as shown in the plant at
It is often lifted higher
becomes free from the
dangling somewhere on
break and fall down on
stances it may remain
the margin of the pileus
as the pileus in age ex-
such cases one often
to discover it clinging
the cap. It is interest-
of the plants at this
can be made by split-
lengthwise through the
knife, as shown in Fig.
at the right hand, the
plainly seen running
stem. The gills form
plant, for they are very

the left hand in Fig. 33.
up on the stem before it
cap, and is then left
the stem, or it may
the sod. In other in-
quite firmly adherent to
so that it breaks apart
pands somewhat. In
searches for some time
as a sterile margin of
ing to observe a section
stage. These sections
ting the pileus and stem
middle line with a sharp
315. Here, in the plant

FIGURE 37. Copnnus

comatus, later stage of ' COrd " of mycelium is
deliquescence, pileus through t h e h 1 1 W
becoming more ex-
panded (natural size), a large portion of the

broad and lie closely
packed side by side. They are nowhere attached to the stem, but
at the upper end round off to the cap, leaving a well defined space
between their ends and the stem. The cap, while it is rather thick
at the center, i. e., where it joins the stem, becomes comparatively
thin where it spreads out over the gills. At this age of the plant

40 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the gills are of a rich salmon color, i. e., before the spores are ripe,
and the taste when raw is a pleasant nutty flavor, reminding one of
the meat of fresh green hickory nuts. In a somewhat earlier stage
the edges of all the gills are closely applied to the stem which they
surround. So closely are they applied to the stem in most cases that
threads of mycelium pass from the stem to the edge of the gills. As
the cap expands slightly in ageing, these threads are torn asunder
and the stem is covered with a very delicate down or with flocculent
particles which easily disappear on handling or by the washing of the
rains. The edges of the gills are also left in a frazzled condition, as
one can see by examining them with a good hand lens.

The spores now begin to ripen and as they become black the color
of the gills changes. At the same time the gills and the cap begin to
dissolve into an inky fluid, first becoming dark and then melting into
a black liquid. As this accumulates it forms into drops which dangle
from the cap until they fall away. This change takes place on the
margin of the cap first, and advances toward the center, and the con-
trast of color, as the blackening invades the rich salmon, is very
striking. The cap now begins to expand outward more, so that it
becomes somewhat umbrella shaped. The extreme outer surface
does not dissolve so freely, and the thin remnant curls upward and
becomes enrolled on the upper side as the cap with wasted gills
becomes nearly flat.

Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.) Fr. Edible. --The ink-cap (Copri-
nus atramentarius') occurs under much the same conditions as the
shaggy-mane, and is sometimes found accompanying it. It is usually
more common and more abundant. It springs up in old or newly
made lawns which have been richly manured, or it occurs in other
grassy places. Sometimes the plants are scattered, sometimes two
or three in a cluster, but usually large clusters are formed where ten
to twenty or more are crowded closely together (Fig. 39). The
stems are shorter than those of the shaggy-mane and the cap is dif-
ferent in shape and color. The cap is egg-shaped or oval. It varies
in color from a silvery grey, in some forms, to a dark ashen grey, or
smoky brown color in others. Sometimes the cap is entirely smooth,
as I have seen it in some of the silvery grey forms, where the deli-
cate fibres coursing down in lines on the outer surface cast a beauti-
ful silvery sheen in the light. Other forms present numerous small
scales on the top or center of the cap which are formed by the
cleavage of the outer surface here into large numbers of pointed
tufts. In others, the delicate tufts cover more or less the entire
surface, giving the plant a coarsely granular aspect. This is perhaps

PLATE 9, FIGURE 38. Coprinus comatus, drops of inky fluid about to fall from

wasted pileus (natural size).

I)
s

rt
Sc

a
s.

fcu
o'

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

the more common appearance, at least so far as my observation
goes. But not infrequently one finds forms which have the entire
outer surface of the cap torn into quite a large number of coarse
scales, and these are often more prominent over the upper portion.
Fine lines or striations mark also the entire surface of all the forms,
especially toward the margin, where the scales are not so prominent.
The marginal half of the cap is also frequently furrowed more or
less irregularly, and this forms a crenate or uneven edge.

FIGURE 40. Coprinus atramentarius, scaly form (natural size).

The annulus or ring on the stem of the ink-cap is very different
from that of the shaggy-mane. It forms an irregularly zigzag
elevated line of threads which extend around the stem near the base.
It is well shown in Fig. 41 as a border line between the lower scaly
end of the stem and the smooth white upper part. It is formed at
the time of the separation of the margin of the cap from the stem,
the connecting fibres being pulled outward and left to mark the line

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

of junction, while others below give the scaly appearance. It is
easily effaced by rough handling or by the washing of the rains. A
section of a plant is illustrated by a photograph in Fig. 42. On
either side of the stem is shown the layer of fibres which form the
annulus, and this layer is of a different texture from that of the stem.
The stem is hollow as seen here also. In this figure one can see
the change in color of the gills just at the time when they begin
to deliquesce. This deliquescence proceeds much in the same way

FIGURE 41. Coprinus atramentarius, showing annulus as border line between scaly
and smooth part of the stem (natural size).

as in the shaggy-mane, and sometimes the thin remnant of the cap
expands and the margin is enrolled over the top.

Coprinus micaceus (Bull.) Fr. Edible. --The glistening coprinus
received its name because of the very delicate scales which often
cover the surface of the cap, and glisten in the light like particles of
mica. This plant is very common during the spring and early sum-
mer, though it does appear during the autumn. It occurs about the
bases of stumps or trees or in grassy or denuded places, from dead

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

roots, etc., buried in the soil. It occurs in dense tufts of ten to thirty
or more individuals ; sometimes as many as several hundred spring
up from the roots of a dead tree or stump along the streets or in
lawns, forming large masses. More rarely it occurs on logs in the
woods, and sometimes the plants are scattered in lawns. From the
different habits of the plant it is sometimes difficult to determine,
especially where the individuals are more or less scattered. How-
ever, the color, and
the m a r k i n g s on
the cap, especially
the presence of the
small shining scales
when not effaced,
char act e r i ze the
plant so that little
difficulty is experi-
enced in determin-
ing it when one has
once carefully noted
these peculiarities.
Figure 43 is
from a group of
three young Indi-
vid u a 1 s photo-
graphed just as the
margin of the pileus
is breaking away
from the lower part
of the stem, show-
ing the deli cate
fibrous ring which
is formed in the
same way as in

FIGURE 42. Coprinus atramentarius, section of one of the plants
in Fig. 41 (natural size).

Coprinus atramen-
tarius. The ring is
much more delicate
and is rarely seen except in very young specimens which are
carefully collected and which have not been washed by rains. The
mature plants are 8-10 cm. high (3-4 inches), and the cap varies
from 2-4 cm. in diameter. The stem is quite slender and the cap
and gills quite thin as compared with the shaggy-mane and ink-cap.
The gills are not nearly so crowded as they are in the two other

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

species. The cap is tan color, or
light buff, or yellowish brown.
Except near the center it is marked
with quite prominent striations
which radiate to the margin.
These striations are minute fur-
rows or depressed lines, and form
one of the characters of the species,
being much more prominent than
on the cap of the ink-cap.

In wet weather this coprinus
melts down into an inky fluid also,
but in quite dry weather it remains
more or less firm, and sometimes it
does not deliquesce at all, but dries
with all parts well preserved, though
much shrunken of course, as is the case with all the very fleshy fungi.

FIGURE 43. Coprinus micaceus, young
stage showing annulus, on the cap
the "mica" particles (natural size).

44. Coprinus micaceus, plants natural size, from floor of coal
mine at Wilkesbarre. Caps tan color. Copyright.

PLATE 1 1, FIGURE 45. Panaeolus retirugis, group of plants from lawn along street,
showing veil in young plants at the left, which breaks into V-shaped loops and
clings to margin of the cap. Cap dark smoky color at first, becoming grayish
in age (natural size). Copyright.

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. 45

PANAEOLUS Fr.

In Panccolus the pileus is somewhat fleshy, or thin, the margin
even, that is, not striate. The margin extends beyond the gills, and
the gills are not uniform in color, being clouded or spotted with black
and brown colors, the edge of the gills often white in contrast. The
spores are black. The stem is usually smooth, sometimes tloccose
scaly, often long, firm, generally hollow. The veil is of interwoven
threads, sometimes quite compact, especially when the plants are
young. Peck, 23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 10 et seq., gives a
synopsis of five species.

I'ana'ohis retirugis Fr. The color of this plant is not attractive,
but it is one of the most beautiful species I have studied, if one
regards form and the general features in its development. It is said
to occur on dung. I have found it in lawns or grassy places,
especially freshly made lawns or greenswards which have been
heavily manured. The illustrations in Figs. 45-48 were made from
photographs of plants which grew in a newly made boulevard along
Buffalo street, Ithaca, N. Y. (No. 2356 C. U. herbarium). The
plants are from 7-1 5 cm. high, the cap from 1-3 cm. in diameter, and
the stem is 3-4 mm. in thickness. The size of the plants varies
greatly according to the environment, being larger in moist soil and
wet weather and smaller in dry soil and dry weather. It occurs in
late spring and during the summer.

The pileus is oval to ovate and conic, and in some cases it
becomes more or less expanded, but never, so far as I have observed,
does it become depressed or even plane. In wet weather it is usually
at first dark smoky in color, viscid, becoming grayish in age, and as
the pileus dries it becomes shining. In lighter colored forms the
pileus is at first light leather color to cream color. Toward the
center of the pileus are irregular wrinkles or shallow pits, the
wrinkles anastomosing more or less, and it is because of this char-
acter of the surface of the pileus that the plant receives its specific
name. During dry weather there is a tendency for the pileus to
crack, separating the dark color of the surface into patches showing
the white flesh beneath. The pileus is often umbonate or gibbous,
and the center is often darker than the margin. The pileus in rare
cases is entirely white. The gills are adnate, broad in the middle,
and in the more expanded forms as the gills separate more and more
from the stem there is a tendency for them to become somewhat
triangular. The spores are black in mass, are elliptical or short
fusiform, and measure from 10-12 x I5~i8//. The stem is cylin-

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

FIGURE 46. Panaeolus retirugis, section of caps showing form and position of

gills (natural size).

drical, sometimes tortuous, smoky gray, light reddish brown, or
paler, sometimes entirely white, the lighter forms of the stem
accompanying the light forms of the pileus ; cartilaginous in texture,
becoming hollow, always darker below and paler above, smooth,
granulate with minute darker points, bulbous. The veil is very

Fua'RK 47. Panreolus retirugis, showing rugose character of cap in left-
hand plant (natural size). Copyright.

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

prominent and stout when the plant is young, and extends from the
margin of the pileus to the stem when the plant is very young and
the stem has not elongated. As the stipe elongates the veil sepa-
rates from the stipe as a ring, and then, as the pileus expands, it is
broken quite regularly into short segments which become arranged
regularly around the margin of the pileus in the form of the letter V,
which gives a beautiful appearance to this stage of the plant. It is
only when the plants are fresh and moist that this condition of the

FIGURE 48.^Panaeolus retirugis, showing cracked surface of cap in the left-
hand plant, also in same plant the ring mark of black spores which lodged
before veil ruptured ; in other plants showing well the V-shaped loops of veil
on margin of cap (natural size). Copyright.

veil can be seen, for on drying the veil collapses. Water is some-
times caught under the veil before the pileus separates far from the
stem, and the spores falling thus float against the stem at this point
and make a dark ring around the stem, which, however, should not
be mistaken for the annulus. In no case was the veil observed to
cling to the stem, and many plants have been observed to see if
this variation might present itself.

This peculiarity of the veil in clinging to the margin of the pileus

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

has led Hennings to place the plant in Karsten's genus (Engler and
Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien) Chalymotta, as Chalymotta retinigis. The
plants have several times been eaten raw by me, and while they
have a nutty flavor and odor, the taste is not entirely agreeable in
this condition, because of the accompanying slimy sensation.

A number of smaller species, among them P. fimicola Fr., and P.
papilionaceus Fr., occur in similar places. Panaeolus solidipes Pk., is a
large species with a long, solid stem, growing on dung. Psilocybe
fcenisecii, abundant in lawns and grassy places during late spring and
summer, resembles a Panasolus. The cap shows zones of light and
dark color, due to different amounts of water, which disappear as
the plant matures. It belongs to the purple-brown-spored agarics.

PSATHYRELLA Fr.

The pileus is thin, membranaceous, striate, the margin not ex-
tending beyond the edge of the gills, and when young the margin
of the pileus lies straight against the stem. The gills are black to

fuliginous, of a
uniform color, i.e.,
not spotted as in
Pa n a- o his and
And! aria. The
spores are black.
The plants are all
fragile. Only one
species is men-
tioned here. In
appearance the
species are like
Psathyra of the
pur pie- b rown-
spored agarics,
but much thinner.
Peck describes
three species in
the 23d Report N.
Y. State Mus., p.
iO2etseq. Only
one species is de-

IGURE 49. Psathyrella disseminata (natural size), caps whitish,
grayish, or grayish-brown. Copyright.

scribed here.

Psathyrella disseminata Pers. This is a very common and widely
distributed species, appearing from late spring until late autumn. It

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. 49

sometimes appears in greenhouses throughout the year. The plants
are 2-3 cm. high, and the caps 6-10 mm. broad. The plants are
crowded in large tufts, often growing on decaying wood, but also on
the ground, especially about much decayed stumps, but also in lawns
and similar places, where buried roots, etc., are decaying. They
resemble small specimens of a Coprinus.

The pileus is whitish or gray, or grayish brown, very thin, oval,
then bell-shaped, minutely scaly, becoming smooth, prominently
sulcate or plicate, plaited. The gills are adnate, broad, white, gray,
then black. The spores are black, oblong, 8x6 /<. The stem is
very slender, becoming hollow, often curved. The entire plant is
very fragile, and in age becomes so soft as to suggest a Coprinus in
addition to the general appearance. Figure 49 is from plants collected
on decaying logs at Ithaca.

GOMPHIDIUS Fr.

The genus Gomphidius has a slimy or glutinous universal veil
enveloping the entire plant when young, and for a time is stretched
over the gills as the pileus is expanding. The gills are somewhat
mucilaginous in consistency, are distant and decurrent on the stem.
The gills are easily removed from the under surface of the pileus in
some species by peeling off in strips, showing the imprint of the gills
beneath the projecting portions of the pileus, which extended part
way between the laminae of the gills. The spores in some species
are blackish, and for this reason the genus has been placed by many
with the black-spored agarics, while its true relationship is probably
with the genus Hygrophorus or Paxilhis.

Gomphidius nigricans Pk. The description given by Peck for this
plant in the 48th Report, p. 12, 1895, reads as follows :

" Pileus convex, or nearly plane, pale, brownish red, covered
with a tough gluten, which becomes black in drying, flesh firm,
whitish ; lamella? distant, decurrent, some of them forked, white,
becoming smoky brown, black in the dried plant ; stem subequal,
longer than the diameter of the pileus, glutinous, solid, at first
whitish, especially at the top, soon blackish by the drying of the
gluten, whitish within, slightly tinged with red toward the base ;
spores oblong fusoid, 15-25 /< long, 6-7 /< broad. Pileus 1-2 inches
broad ; stem 1.5-2.5 inches long, 2-4 lines thick."

"This species is easily known by the blackening gluten which
smears both pileus and stem, and even forms a veil by which the
lamella? in the young plant are concealed. In the dried state the
whole plant is black."

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

d, Pi

0) U
C/J

Z2 <U

O <*

- -o

'So is

" Under pine trees, Westport, September."

What appears to be the same plant was collected by me at

Blowing Rock, N. C.,
under a pine tree, in
September, 1899 (No.
3979 C. U. herbari-
um).

The notes taken
on the fresh plant are
as follows :

Very viscid, with
a ^ick, tough viscid
cut i c ' e > cortina or veil
viscid, and collapsing
on the stem, forming
coarse, walnut-brown
or dark vinaceous
reticulations, termi-
nating abruptly near
the gills, or reaching
them.

The stem is white
underneath the slimy
veil covering, tough,
fibrous, continuous,
and not separable
from the hymeno-
phore, tapering below.
The pileus is con-
vex, the very thin
margin somewhat in-
curved, disk ex-
panded, uneven, near
the center cracked
into numerous small
viscid brownish are-
oles; pileus flesh color,
flesh same color ex-
cept toward the gills.
Gills dark drab gray, arcuate, distant, decurrent, many of them
forked, separating easily from the hymenophore, peeling off in broad
sheets, and leaving behind corresponding elevations of the hymeno-

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w

BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

phore which extended between the laminae of the lamella*. Pileus
7 cm. in diameter ; stem 4-5 cm. long by 2 cm. diameter.

In drying, the entire plant as well as the gluten becomes black,
on the pileus a shining black.

The spores are rusty to dark brown, or nearly black, fusoid or
oblong, and measure 15-22 x 5-6 //.

In Fig. 50 a side and under view of the plant are given, and
in Fig. 51 a view after a portion of the lamella? have been peeled off,

FIGURE 51. Gomphidius nigricans. Under view with portion of gills
stripped off from hymenophore, showing forked character of gills
(natural size). Copyright.

showing how nicely the separation takes place, as well as showing
the forked character of the lamellae and the processes of the pileus,
which extend between the laminae of the lamellae.

This plant seems to be very near Gomphidius glutinosm (Schaeff.),
Fr., if not identical with it, though the illustrations cited in Schaeffer
and in Krombholz seem to indicate a stouter plant. The descriptions
say nothing as to the appearance of the dried plant.

CHAPTER VI.

THE WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are white in mass, or sometimes with a faint yellow-
ish or lilac tinge. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter
XXII.

AMANITA Pers.

The genus Amanita has both a volva and a veil ; the spores are
white, and the stem is easily separable from the cap. In the young
stage the volva forms a universal veil, that is, a layer of fungus
tissue which entirely envelops the young plant. In the button
stage, where this envelope runs over the cap, it is more or less free
from it, that is, it is not " concrete " with the surface of the pileus.
As the pileus expands and the stem elongates, the volva is ruptured
in different ways according to the species. In some the volva splits
at the apex and is left as a "cup" at the base of the stem. In
others it splits circularly, that is, transversely across the middle, the
lower half forming a shallow cup with a very narrow rim, or in other
cases it is closely fitted against the stem, while the upper half
remains on the cap and is broken up into patches or warts. In still
other cases the volva breaks irregularly, and only remnants of
it may be found on either the base of the stem or on the pileus. For
the various conditions one must consult the descriptions of the
species. The genus is closely related to Lepiota, from which it is
separated by the volva being separate from the pileus. This genus
contains some of the most deadly poisonous mushrooms, and also
some of the species are edible. Morgan, Jour. Mycol. 3: 25-33,
describes 28 species. Peck, 33d Report N. Y. State Mus., pp. 38-49,
describes 14 species. Lloyd, A Compilation of the Volv:e of the U.
S., Cincinnati, 1898, gives a brief synopsis of our species.

Amanita muscaria Linn. Poisonous. This plant in some places is
popularly known as the fly agaric, since infusions of it are used as a
fly poison. It occurs during the summer and early autumn. It grows
along roadsides near trees, or in groves, and in woods, according to
some preferring a rather poor gravelly soil. It attains its typical
form usually under these conditions in groves or rather open woods
where the soil is poor. It is a handsome and striking plant because

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 53

of the usually brilliant coloring of the cap in contrast with the white
stems and gills, and the usually white scales on the surface. It
usually ranges from 10-15 cm. high, and the cap from 8-12 cm.
broad, while the stem is 1-1.5 cm - m thickness, or the plant may
be considerably larger.

The pileus passes from convex to expanded and nearly flat in age,
the margin when mature is marked by depressed lines forming par-
allel striations, and on the surface are numbers of scattered floccose
or rather compact scales, formed from the fragments of the upper
part of the volva or outer veil. These scales are usually white in
color and are quite easily removed, so that old plants are sometimes
quite free from them. The scales are sometimes yellowish in color.
The color of the pileus varies from yellow to orange, or even red,
the yellow color being more common. Late in the season the color
is paler, and in old plants also the color fades out, so that white
forms are sometimes found. The flesh is white, sometimes yellowish
underneath the cuticle. The gills in typical forms are white, in
some forms accredited to this species they are yellowish. The stem
is cylindrical, hollow, or stuffed when young, and enlarged below
into a prominent bulb. It is white, covered with loose floccose
scales, or more or less lacerate or torn, and the lower part of the
stem and upper part of the bulb are marked usually by prominent
concentric scales forming interrupted rings. These are formed by
the splitting of the outer veil or volva, and form the remnants of the
volva present on the base of the stem.

The main features in the development of the plant are shown in
Figs. 52-54, where a series from the button stage to the mature
plant is represented. In the youngest specimens the outline of the
bulb and the young convex or nearly globose cap are only seen,
and these are covered with the more or less floccose outer veil or
volva. The fungus threads composing this layer cease to grow, and
with the expansion of the cap and the elongation of the stem, the
volva is torn into patches. The upper and lower surface of the inner
veil is attached to the edge of the gills and to the outer surface of
the stem by loose threads, which are torn asunder as the pileus
expands. Floccose scales are thus left on the surface of the stem
below the annulus, as in the left hand plant of Fig. 53. The veil
remains attached longer to the gills and is first separated from the
stem. Again, as in the right hand plant, it may first be separated
from the gills when it is later ripped up from the stem.

The fly agaric is one of the well known poisonous species and is
very widely distributed in this country, as well as in other parts of

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the world. In well developed forms there should be no difficulty in
distinguishing it from the common mushroom by even a novice. Nor
should there be difficulty in distinguishing it from the royal agaric,
or CiEsar's agaric {Amanita ccesarea) , by one who has become
reasonably familiar with the characters and appearance of the two.
But small and depauperate specimens of the two species run so
nearly together in form, color, and surface characters, that it
becomes a matter of some difficulty for even an expert to distinguish
them.

FIGURE 54. Amanita muscaria. View of upper side of cap (natural size). Colors

as in Fig. 53. Copyright.

Figures 52-54 are from plants (No. 2065 C. U. herbarium) col-
lected in an open woods near Ithaca. For the poisonous property
of the plant see Chapter XX.

Amanita frostiana Pk. Poisonous. According to Dr. Peck, who
published the first description of this plant, it grows in company
with Amanita muscaria, but seems to prefer more dense woods,
especially mixed or hemlock woods, and occurs from June to
October. The plant is 5-8 cm. high, the caps 2-5 cm. broad, and
the stems 3-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is " convex to expanded, bright orange or yellow,
warty, sometimes nearly or quite smooth, striate on the margin ;

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 00

lamellae white or tinged with yellow ; stem white or yellowish, stuffed,
bearing a slight, sometimes evanescent annulus, bulbous at the
base, the bulb sliglitly margined by the volva ; spores globose,"
7.5-10^ in diameter. He notes that it appears like a small form of
A. muscaria, to which it was first referred as -car. minor, " The
only characters for distinguishing it are its small size and its globose
spores." It is near A. muscaria var. puella Pers.

I have several times found this plant in the Adirondack moun-
tains, N. Y., and Ithaca, and also at Blowing Rock, N. C. The
volva is often yellowish, so that the warts on the pileus are also
yellow, and sometimes the only remnants of the volva on the base
of the stem are yellow or orange particles. The annulus is also
frequently yellow. In our plants, which seem to be typical, the
spores are nearly globose, varying to oval, and with the minute
point where the spore was attached to the sterigma at the smaller
end, the spores usually being finely granular, 6-9 ^ in diameter,
and rarely varying towards short elliptical, showing a tendency to
approach the shape of the spores of A. muscaria. The species as 1
have seen it is a very variable one, large forms being difficult to
separate from A. muscaria, on the one hand, and others difficult to
separate from the depauperate forms of A. ccesarea. In the latter,
however, the striae are coarser, though the yellow color may be
present only on portions of the pileus. The spores of A. ccesarea
are from globose to oval, ovate or short elliptical, the globose ones
often agreeing in size with the spores of A. frostiana, but they
usually contain a prominent oil drop or " nucleus," often nearly
filling the spore. In some specimens of A '. frostiana the spores are
quite variable, being nearly globose, ovate to elliptical, approaching
the spores of A. muscaria. These intermediate forms should not in
themselves lead one to regard all these three species as representing
variations in a single variable species. With observations in the
field I should think it possible to separate them.

Amanita phalloides Fr. Deadly Poisonous. The Amanita phall aides
and its various forms, or closely related species, are the most
dangerous of the poisonous mushrooms. For this reason the A.
phalloides is known as the deadly agaric, or deadly amauita. The
plant is very variable in color, the forms being pure white, or
yellowish, green, or olive to umber. Variations also occur in the
way in which the volva ruptures, as well as in the surface characters
of the stem, and thus it is often a difficult matter to determine
whether all these forms represent a single variable species or whether
there are several species, and if so, what are the limits of these

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

species. Whether these are recognized as different forms of one
species or as different species, they are all very poisonous. The

plant usually occurs in woods
or along the borders of woods.
It does, however, sometimes
occur in lawns. It varies from
6-20 cm. high, the cap from
3-10 cm. broad, and the stem
6-10 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, viscid
or slimy when moist, smooth,
that is, not striate, orbicular
to bell-shaped, convex and
finally expanded, and in old
specimens more or less de-
pressed by the elevation of
the margin. The cap is often
free from any remnants of the
volva, while in other cases
portions of the volva or outer
veil appear on the surface of
the cap in rather broad patches,
or it may be broken up into a
number of smaller ones quite
evenly distributed over the
surface of the cap. The pres-
ence or absence of these scales
on the cap depends entirely on
the way in which the volva
ruptures. When there is a
clean rupture at the apex the
pileus is free from scales, but

if portions of the apex of the volva are torn away they are apt to
remain on the cap.

The white form is common in this country, and so is the olive or
umber form. The yellow form is rarer. Sometimes there is only a
tinge of yellow at the center of the white pileus, while in other cases
a large part of the pileus may be yellow, a deeper shade usually on
the center. The green form is probably more common in Europe
than in this country. The olive form varies considerably also in the
depth of the color, usually darker on the center and fading out to
light olive or gray, or whitish, on the margin. In other cases the

FIGURE 55. Amanita phalloides, white
form, showing cap, stem, ring, and cup-
like volva with a free, prominent limb
(natural size).

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

entire pileus may be dark olive or umber color. The gills in
all the forms are white, and free from the stem or only joined
by a narrow line. The stem is stuffed when young, but in age
is nearly or quite hollow. It is cylindrical, 6-20 cm. long x 6-12
mm. in thickness. In the larger specimens the bulb is quite prom-
inent and abrupt,
while in the smaller
specimens it is not
always proportionally
so large. The stem is
usually smooth and
the color is white, ex-
cept in the dark forms,
when it is dingy or
partakes more or less
of the color of the
pileus, though much
lighter in shade.
There is a tendency
in these forms to a
discoloration of the
stem where handled
or bruised, and this
should caution one in
comparing such forms
with the edible A.
rubescens.

Perhaps no part of
the plant is more vari-
able than the outer
veil or volva. Where
the volva is quite thick
and stout it usually
splits at the apex, and
there is a prominent
free limb, as shown in
Fig. 55. Sometimes thin portions of the volva are caught, and remain
on the surface of the pileus. But when the volva is thinner and of a
looser texture, it splits transversely about the middle, circumscissile,
and all or a large part of the upper half of the volva then clings to the
cap, and is separated into patches. Between this and the former
condition there seem to be all gradations. Some of these are shown

FIGURE 57. Amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, cap
scaly, limb of volva not prominent, cap dark, scales white
(natural size). Copyright.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

in Fig. 56, which is from a photograph of dark olive and umber
forms, from plants collected in the Blue Ridge mountains, at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. In the very young plant the

volva split transversely (in a
circumscissile fashion) quite
clearly, and the free limb is
quite short and distant from
the stem on the margin of the
saucer-like bulb. In the large
and fully expanded plant at
the center, the volva ruptured
irregularly at the apex, and
portions of the thin upper half
remain as patches on the cap
while the larger part remains
as the free limb, attached at
the margin of the broad saucer-
shaped bulb, and collapsed up
against the base of the stem.
Figure 58 and the small
plant in Fig. 56, both from
photographs of the sooty form
of Amanita pJialloides, show in
a striking manner the typical
condition of the circumsissle
volva margining the broad
saucer-like bulb as described
for Amanita mappa. The color
of A. mappa is usually said to
be straw color, but Fries even
says that the color is as in A.
plialloides, " now white, now
green, now yellow, now dark
brown' (Epicrisis, page 6).
According to this, Fig. 58
would represent A. mappa.

The variable condition in
this one species A. pballoidcs.
now splitting at the apex, now

Fir.URE 58. Amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile,
concave bulb margined by definite short limb of
volva; upper part of volva has disappeared from
cap ; cap whitish, tinged with brown.

tearing up irregularly, now
splitting in a definitely cir-
cumscissile manner, seems to

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

bid defiance to any attempt to separate the species of Amanita into
groups based on the manner in which the volva ruptures. While it
seems to be quite fixed and
characteristic in certain species,
it is so extremely variable in
others as to lead to the suspicion
that it is responsible in some
cases for the multiplication and
confusion of species. At the
same time, the occurrence of
some of these forms at certain
seasons of the year suggests
the desirability of prolonged and
careful study of fresh material,
and the search for additional
evidence of the unity of these
forms, or of their definite segre-
gation.

Since the Amanita ph alloides
occurs usually in woods, or along
borders of woods, there is little
danger of confounding it with
edible mushrooms collected in
lawns distant from the woods,
and in open fields. However,
it does occur in lawns bordering
on woods, and in the summer of
1899 I found several of the white
forms of this species in a lawn
distant from the woods. This
should cause beginners and
those not thoroughly familiar
with the appearance of the plant
to be extremely cautious against
eating mushrooms simply be-
cause they were not collected in
or near the woods. Further-
more, sometimes the white form
of the deadly amanita possesses
a faint tinge of pink in the gills,
which might lead the novice

., , FIGURE 59. Amanita verna, white (natural size).

to mistake it for the common Copyright.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

mushroom. The bulb of the deadly amanita is usually inserted
quite deep in the soil or leaf mold, and specimens are often picked
leaving the very important character of the volva in the ground, and
then the plant might easily be taken for the common mushroom, or
more likely for the smooth lepiota, Lepiota naucina, which is entirely
white, the gills only in age showing a faint pink tinge. It is very
important, therefore, that, until one has such familiarity with these
plants that they are easily recognized in the absence of some of
these characters, the stem should be carefully dug from the soil.
In the case of the specimens of the deadly amanita growing in the
lawn on the campus of Cornell University, the stems were sunk to
three to four inches in the quite hard ground.

Amanita verna Bull. Deadly Poisonous. The Amanita verna is by
some considered as only a white form of the Amanita phalloides.

It is of a pure white color,
and this in addition to its
very poisonous property
has led to its designation
as the "destroying
angel."

The pileus is smooth
and viscid when moist ;
the gills free ; the stem
stuffed or hollow in age ;
the annulus forms a broad
collar, and the volva is
split at the apex, and
being quite stout, the
free limb is prominent,
and it hugs more or less
closely to the base of the
stem. Figure 59 repre-
sents the form of the
plant which Gillet recog-
nizes as A. Tcnu ; the pilus convex, the annulus broad and entire,
and the stem scaly. These floccose scales are formed as a result of
the separation of the annulus from the outer layer of the stem.

The characters presented in the formation of the veil and annulus
in this species are very interesting, and sometimes present two of
the types in the formation of the veil and annulus found in the genus
Amanita. In the very young plant, in the button stage, as the
young gills lie with their edges close against the side of the stem,

FIC.URE 60. Amanita verna, " buttons," cap bursting through
the volva ; left-hand plant in section (natural size). Copy-
right.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

loose threads extend from the edges of the gills to the outer layer of
the stem. This outer layer of the stem forms the veil, and is more
or less loosely connected with the firmer portion of the stem by loose
threads. As the pileus expands, the threads connecting the edges
of the gills with the veil are stronger than those which unite the veil
with the surface of the stem. The veil is separated from the stem
then, simultaneously, or nearly
so, throughout its entire extent,
and is not ripped up from below
as in Amanita velatipes.

As the pileus expands, then,
the veil lies closely over the edges
of the gills until finally it is freed
from them and from the margin
of the pileus. As the veil is split
off from the surface of the stem,
the latter is torn into numerous
floccose scales, as shown in Fig.

59-

In other cases, in addition to
the primary veil which is sep-
arated from the stem in the man-
ner described above, there is a
secondary veil formed in exactly
the same way as that described
for Amanita velatipes.

In such cases there are two
veils, or a double veil, each at-
tached to the margin of the pileus,
the upper one ascending over the
edges of the gills and attached
above on the stem, while the
lower one descends and is at-
tached below as it is being ripped
up from a second layer of the
stem. Figures 59-61 are from
plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899.

Amanita virosa Fr. Deadly Poisonous. This plant also by some is
regarded as only a form of Amanita phut-hides. It is a pure white
plant and the pileus is viscid as in the A. rerna and A. plul hides.
The volva splits at the apex as in A. -ccrna. but the veil is very
fragile and torn into shreds as the pileus expands, portions of it cling-

FIGURE 61. Amanita verna, small form, white
(natural size). Copyright.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ing to the margin of the cap as
well as to the stem, as shown in
Fig. 62. The stem is also adorned
with soft floccose scales. Gillet
further states that the pileus is
conic to campanulate, not becom-
ing convex as in A. venia and A.
ph til /aides.

The variability presented in
the character of the veil and in
the shape of the pileus suggests,
as some believe, that all these
are but forms of a single variable
species. On the other hand, we
need a more careful and extended
field study of these variations.
Doubtless different interpreta-
tions of the specific limits by
different students will lead some
to recognize several species where
others would recognize but one.
Since species are not distinct
creations there may be tolerably
good grounds for both of these
views.

Amanita floccocephala Atkinson.
Probably Poisonous. This species
occurs in woods and groves at
Ithaca during the autumn. The
plants are medium sized, 6-8 cm.
high, the cap 3-6 cm. broad, and
the stems 4-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is hemispherical to
convex, and expanded, smooth,
whitish, with a tinge of straw
color, and covered with torn,
thin floccose patches of the upper
half of the circumscissile volva.
The gills are white and adnexed.
The spores are globose, 7-10 //.
The stem is cylindrical or slightly
tapering above, hollow or stuffed,

FIGURE 62. Amanita virosa, white (natural size).
Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 03

floccose scaly and abruptly bulbous below. The annulus is superior,
that is, near the upper end of the stem, membranaceous, thin, some-
times tearing, as in A. virosa. The volva is circumscissile, the margin
of the bulb not being clear cut and prominent, because there is much
refuse matter and soil interwoven with the lower portion of the volva.
The bulb closely resembles those in Cooke's figure (Illustrations, 4)
of A. mappa. Figure 63 shows these characters well.

FIGURE 63. Amanita floccocephala (natural size). Copyright.

Amanita velatipes Atkinson. Properties Unknown. This plant is very
interesting since it shows in a striking manner the peculiar way
in which the veil is formed in some of the species of Amanita.
Though not possessing brilliant colors, it is handsome in its form and
in the peculiar setting of the volva fragments on the rich brown or
faint yellow of the pileus. It has been found on several occasions
during the month of July in a beech woods on one of the old flood
plains of Six-mile creek, one of the gorges in the vicinity of Ithaca,
N. Y. The mature plant is from 15-20 cm. high, the cap from
8-10 cm. broad, and the stem 1-1.5 cm - m thickness.

The pileus is viscid when moist, rounded, then broadly oval and
convex to expanded, striate on the margin, sometimes in old

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

plants the margin is elevated. It is smooth throughout, and of a
soft, rich hair brown, or umber brown color, darker in the center.
Sometimes there is a decided but dull maize yellow tinge over the
larger part of the pileus, but even then the center is often brown
in color, shading into the yellow color toward the margin ; the light
yellow forms in age, often thinning out to a cream color. The flesh
of the pileus is rather thin, even in the center, and becomes very
thin toward the margin, as shown in Fig. 67. The scales on the
pileus are more or less flattened, rather thin, clearly separated from
the pileus, and easily removed. They are more or less angular, and
while elongated transversely at first, become nearly isodiametric as

FIGURE 65. Amanita velatipes. Different stages of "buttons," in the right-hand
plant the upper part of the volva separating to form the scales (natural size).
Copyright.

the pileus becomes fully expanded, passing from an elongated form
to rectangular, or sinuous in outline, the margin more or less upturned,
especially in age, when they begin to loosen and " peel " from the
surface of the cap. They are lighter in color than the pileus and I
have never observed the yellow tint in them. The gills are white,
broad at the middle, about i cm., and taper gradually toward each
end. The spores are usually inequilaterally oval, 8-10 x 6-7 /<,
granular when young, when mature with a large oil drop.

The stem is cylindrical, somewhat bulbous, the bulb often taper-
ing abruptly, as shown in Figs. 64, 66. The stem is white, smooth,
or floccose scaly where the veil has been ripped off from it. It is

PLATE 15, FIGURE 64. Amanita velatipes (3/4 natural size). Cap hair-brown, or
umber-brown, sometimes with tinge of lemon-yellow, or entirely maize-yellow.
Scales, gills, and stem white. Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

hollow and stuffed with loose cottony threads, as shown in Fig. 67.
The veil is formed by the ripping up of the outer layer of the stem
as the latter elongates and as the pileus expands. When it is freed
from the margin of the cap it collapses and hangs downward as a
broad collar (Fig. 64). The annulus is inferior, its position on the
stem being due to the peculiar way in which it is formed.

FIGURE 66. Amanita velatipes. Three plants natural size, the left-hand one
sectioned, showing stuffed center of stem. Others show how veil is ripped up
from the stem. For other details see text. Copyright.

Some of the stages of development are illustrated in Figs. 64-67.
The buttons are queer looking objects, the bulb being the most
prominent part. It tapers abruptly below, and on the upper side is
the small rounded young cap seated in the center. The volva is
present as a rough floccose layer, covering the upper part of the bulb

<'. STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

and the young cap. As the stem elongates and the pileus enlarges
and expands, the volva is torn into areolate patches. The lower
patches, those adjoining the margin of the cap and the upper part of
the bulb, are separated in a more or less concentric manner. One or
more of them lie on the upper part of the bulb, forming the " limb '
of the " ocreate " volva. Others lie around the margin of the pileus.
Sometimes an annular one bordering the pileus and bulb is left cling-
ing part way up on the stem, as shown in Fig. 66. The concentric
arrangement on the pileus is sometimes shown for a considerable
time, as in Fig. 67, the elongated areas being present in greater num-
ber at this age of the pileus. However, as the pileus expands more,
these are separated into smaller areas and their connection with the
surface of the pileus becomes less firm.

The formation of the veil and annulus can be easily followed in
these figures. The margin of the cap in the button stage is firmly
connected with the outer layer of the stem at its lower end. This
probably occurs by the intermingling growth of the threads from the
lower end of the stem and the margin of the cap, while the edges of
the gills are quite free from the stem. Now as the stem elongates
and the cap expands the veil is " ripped " up from the outer part of
the stem. This is very clearly shown in Fig. 66, especially where
two strips on the stem have become disconnected from the margin
of the cap and are therefore left in position on the outside of the stem.

This species is related to A, excelsa Fr., which is said to have a
superior ring.

Amanita cothurnata Atkinson. Probably Poisonous. The booted
amanita, Amanita cothurnata, I have found in two different years in
the Blue Ridge mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., once in 1888,
during the first week of September, and again during the three first
weeks in September, 1899. It occurs sparingly during the first week
or so of September, and during the middle of the month is very
abundant. The species seems to be clearly distinct from other
species of Amanita, and there are certain characters so persistent as
to make it easily recognizable. It ranges in height from 7-12 cm.
and the caps are 1-1 cm. or more broad, while the stems are 4-10
mm. in thickness. The entire plant is usually white, but in some
specimens the cap has a tinge of citron yellow, or in others tawny
olive, in the center.

The pileus is fleshy, and passes, in its development, from nearly
globose to hemispherical, convex, expanded, and when specimens
are very old sometimes the margin is elevated. It is usually white,
though specimens are found with a tinge of citron yellow in the

PLATE 16, FIGTRE 67. Amanita velatipes. The right-hand plant shows how the
veil is ripped up from the stem, and also shows the transversely elongate
scales on the cap. For details see text (natural size). Copyright.

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

center, or of tawny olive in the center of other specimens. The
pileus is viscid, strongly so when moist. It is finely striate on the
margin, and covered with numerous, white, floccose scales from the
upper half of the volva, forming more or less dense patches, which
may wash off in heavy rains. The gills are rounded next the stem,
and quite remote from it. The edge of the gills is often eroded or
frazzly from the torn out threads with which they were loosely con-
nected to the upper side of the veil in the young or button stage.
The spores are globose
or nearly so, with a
large " nucleus " nearly
filling the spore.

The stem is cylin-
drical, even, and ex-
panded below into quite
a large oval bulb, the
stem just above the
bulb being margined by
a close fitting roll of the
volva, and the upper
edge of this presenting
the appearance of hav-
ing been sewed at the
top like the rolled edge
of a garment or buskin.
The surface of the stem
is minutely floccose
scaly or strongly so,
and decidedly hollow
even from a very young
stage, or sometimes
when young with loose

FIGURE 69. Amanita cothurnata. Different stages opening up
of plant, the two center ones showing veil being ripped from
stem, but veil narrow The right-hand illustration has been
scratched transversely, these marks not being characteristic
of the plant (natural size). Copyright.

threads in the cavity.

Figures 68-70, from plants (No. 3715, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899, illustrate certain
of the features in the form and development of this plant.

In Amanita frostiana the remains of the volva sometimes form a
similar collar, but not so stout, on the base of the stem. The varia-
tions in A, frostiana where the stem, annulus and gills are white
might suggest that there is a close relationship between A. frostiana
and A. cothurnata, and that the latter is only a form of the former.
From a careful study of the two plants growing side by side the

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

evidence is convincing that the two are distinct. Am unit a frostiana
occurs also at Blowing Rock, appearing earlier in the season than
A. cothurnata, and also being contemporary with it. A.frstiana is
more variable, not nearly so viscid, nor nearly so abundant, the
stem is solid or stuffed, the annulus is more frail and evolved from
the stem in a different manner. The volva does not leave such a
constant and well defined roll where it separated on the stem trans-
versely, and the pileus is yellow or orange. When A. cothurnata is

yellowish at all it is a
different tint of yellow
and then only a tinge
of yellow atthe center.
Albino or faded forms
of A. frostiana might
occur, but we would
not expect them to ap-
pear at a definite
season of the year in
great abundance while
the normal form, show-
ing no intergrading
specimens in the same
locality, continued to
appear in the same
abundance and with
the same characters
as before. The dried
plants of A. cothurnata
are apt to become
tinged with yellow on
the gills, the upper
part of the stem and
upper part of the an-
nulus during the processes of drying, but the pileus does not change
in like manner, nor do these plants show traces of yellow on these
parts when fresh. The spores are also decidedly different, though
the shape and size do not differ to any great extent. In A. frostiana
and the pale forms of the species the spores are nearly globose or
oval, rarely with a tendency to become elliptical, but the content is
quite constantly finely trranular, while the spores of A. cothurnata are
perhaps more constantly globose or nearly so, but the spore is nearly
tilled icith a highly refractive oil globule or " nucleus." The pileus of

FIC.CRK 70. Amanita cothurnata. Two plants in section show-
ing clearly hollow stem, veil attachment, etc. (natural size).
Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

A. fi'ostiana is also thinner than that of A. cotlnimata. It is nearer,
in some respects, to specimens of Amanita panther ina received from
Bresadola, of Austria-Hungary.

Amanita spreta Pk. Said to be Poisonous. According to Peck this
species grows in open or bushy places. The specimens illustrated
in Fig. 71 grew in sandy ground by the roadside near trees in the
edge of an open field at Blowing Rock, N. C., and others were found
in a grove. The plants are 10-15 cm - high, the caps 6-12 cm.
broad, and the stems 8-12 mm. in thickness. The pileus is convex

FIGURE 71. Amanita spreta. The two outside plants show the free limb of the
volva lying close against the stem (natural size, often larger). Copyright.

to expanded, gray or light drab, and darker on the center, or
according to Dr. Peck it may be white. It is smooth, or with only
a few remnants of the volva, striate on the margin, and i-.5 cm.
thick at the center. The gills are white, adnexed, that is they reach
the stem by their upper angle. The stem is of the same color as the
pileus, but somewhat lighter, white to light gray or light drab,
cylindrical, not bulbous, hollow or stuffed. The annulus is thin and
attached above the middle of the stem. The volva is sordid white,
and sheathes the stem with a long free limb of 3-5 lobes. It splits at

T<> STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the apex, but portions sometimes cling to the surface of the pileus.

Figure 71 is from plants (No. 3707, C. U.) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., September, 1899.

Amanita caesarea Scop. Edible, but use great caution. This plant
is known as the orange amanita, royal agaric, Caesar's agaric, etc.
It is one of the most beautiful of all the agarics, and is well dis-
tributed over the earth. With us it is more common in the Southern
States. It occurs in the summer and early autumn in the woods.
It is easily recognized by its usually large size, yellow or orange
color of the cap, gills, stem and ring, and the prominent, white,
sac-like volva at the base of the stem. It is usually 12-20 cm. high,
the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stems 6-10 mm. in thickness,
though it may exceed this size, and depauperate forms are met with
which are much smaller.

The pileus is ovate to bell-shaped, convex, and finally more or less
expanded, when the surface may be nearly flat or the center may be
somewhat elevated or umbonate and the margin curved downward.
The surface is smooth except at the margin, where it is prominently
striate. The color varies from orange to reddish or yellow, usually
the well developed and larger specimens have the deeper and richer
colors, while the smaller specimens have the lighter colors, and the
color is usually deeper on the center of the pileus. The gills are
yellow, and free from the stem. The stem is hollow, even in young
plants, when it may be stuffed with loose threads. It is often very
tloccose scaly below the annulus. It is cylindrical, only slightly
enlarged below, where it is covered by the large, fleshy, sac-like
white volva. The annulus is membranaceous, large, and hangs like
a broad collar from the upper part of the stem. The stem and ring
are orange or yellow, the depth of the color varying more with the
size of the plant than is the case with the color of the cap. In small
specimens the stem is often white, especially in depauperate speci-
mens are the stem and annulus white, and even the gills are white
when the volva may be so reduced as to make it difficult to distinguish
the specimens from similar specimens of the poisonous fly agaric.

In the button stage the plant is ovate and the white color of the
volva, which at this time entirely surrounds the plants, presents an
appearance not unlike that of an egg. The volva splits open at the
apex as the stem elongates. The veil is often connected by loose
threads with the outer portion of the stem and as the pileus expands this
is torn away, leaving coarse tloccose scales on the stem. Some of the
different stages in the opening of the plant are shown in Fig. 72.
This illustration is taken from a photograph of plants (No. 3726, C.

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PLATE 19.

FIG. i. Amanita rubescens
FIG. 2. A. Cccsaria.
Copyright 1900-

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899.
The plant is said to be one of the best esculents, and has been prized
as an article of food from
ancient times. Great cau-
tion should be used in dis-
tinguishing it from the fly
agaric and from other ama-
nitas.

Amanita rubescens Fr.
Edible, but use great cau-
tion. The reddish amanita,
Amanita rubescens, is so
called because of the sordid
reddish color diffused over
the entire plant, and espec-
ially because bruised por-
tions quickly change to a
reddish color. The plant
is often quite large, from
12-20 cm. high, the cap
8-12 cm. broad and the
stem 8-12 mm. in thick-
ness, but it is sometimes
much smaller. It occurs
during the latter part of
the summer and in early
autumn, in woods and open
places.

The pileus is oval to
convex, and becoming ex-
panded when old. It is
smooth or faintly striate on
the margin, and covered
with numerous scattered,
thin, tloccose, grayish
scales, forming remnants of
the larger part of the volva
or outer veil. The color of
the cap varies correspond-
ingly, but is always tinged more or less distinctly with pink,
red, or brownish red hues. The gills are white or whitish and
free from the stem. The stem is nearly cylindrical, tapering some

FIGURE 73. Amanita rubescens. Plant partly expanded.
Dull reddish brown, stains reddish where bruised; for
other details see text (natural size). Copyright.

7-2 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

above, and with a prominent bulb which often tapers abruptly below.
In addition to the suffused dull reddish color the stem is often stained
with red, especially where handled or touched by some object. There
are very few evidences of the volva on the stem since the volva is so
floccose and torn into loose fragments, most of which remain on the
surface of the cap. Sometimes a few of these loose fragments are seen
on the upper portion of the bulb, but they are easily removed by
handling or by rains. The annulus is membranous, broad, and fragile-.

Since the plant has become well known it is regarded as excel-
lent and wholesome for food and pleasant to the taste. In case of
the larger specimens there should be no difficulty in distinguishing it
from others by those who care to compare the descriptions closely
with the fresh specimens. But as in all cases beginners should use
extreme caution in eating plants they have not become thoroughly
familiar with. Small specimens of this species sometimes show but
little of the reddish color, and are therefore difficult to determine.

Figures 73 and 74 are from plants (No. 3727 C. U. herbarium)
collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Amanita solitaria Bull. Edible, but use caution. - - The solitary
amanita, like many other plants, is not always true to its name.
While it often occurs solitary, it does occur sometimes in groups. It
is one of the largest of the amanitas. Its large size, together with its
chalky white or grayish white color, and ragged or shaggy appear-
ance, makes it a striking object in the woods, or along roadsides in
woods where it grows. Frequently parts of the cap, the entire stem
and the gills are covered with a white, crumbly, floccose substance
of a mealy consistency which often sticks to the hands or other ob-
jects. The plant ranges from 15-20 cm. or more high, the cap from
8-15 cm. broad, and the stems are 1-2 cm. or more in thickness.

In form the pileus ranges from nearly globose in the button stage,
to hemispherical, convex and expanded, when quite old the margin
becoming more or less elevated. It is covered either with flaky or
floccose portions of the volva, or with more or less distinct conic
white scales, especially toward the center. The conic scales are
easily rubbed off in handling or are easily washed off by rains.
Many of them are loosened and fall because of the tension produced
by the expanding pileus on the surface of which they rest. These
scales vary in size from quite small ones, appearing like granules, to
those fewer in number and larger, 3 mm. high and nearly as broad
at the base. In other cases the scales are harder and stouter and
dark colored. These forms will be discussed after the description of
the other parts of the plant.

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

The gills are free, or are only attached by the upper inner angle ;
the edges are often floccose where they are torn from the slight union
with the upper surface of the veil. The stem is cylindrical, solid or
stuffed when old, enlarged usually below into a prominent bulb which
then tapers into a more or less elongated root-like process, sometimes
extending 5-10 cm. in the ground below the bulb. In rare cases the
bulb is not present, but the cylindrical stem extends for a consider-
able distance into the ground. The veil is a very interesting part of
the plant and the manner in which it forms and disappears as the
cap expands is worth a careful study. This is well shown in Figs.
75, 76, from photographs of plants (No. 3731 C. U. herbarium) made
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

During the latter part of August and the first three weeks of Sep-
tember the plants were quite cofnmon in the mountain woods at
Blowing Rock. In certain features there was close agreement in the
case of all the specimens examined, especially in the long rooting
character of the base of the stem. The veil and annulus were also
quite constant in their characters, though sometimes a tendency was
manifested to split up more irregularly than at other times. In the
character of the warts of the pileus there was great variation, show-
ing typical forms of Amanita solitaria and grading into forms which
might be taken for typical Amanita strobiliformis. Especially is this
so in the case of some of my specimens (No. 3733), where the scales
are pyramidal, dark brown, surrounded by a sordid buff or grayish
area, and these latter areas separated by narrow chinks whitish in
color. The scales in this specimen are fixed quite firmly to the sur-
face of the pileus. In other specimens (No. 3732) these hard scales
remove quite easily, while in still another the pileus is almost smooth,
even the floccose scales having been obliterated, while a very few of
the hard angular warts are still present. In another half expanded
plant (of No. 3732) the warts are pyramidal, 4-6 mm. long at the cen-
ter of the pileus and rather closely imbricated, hard, and firmly joined
to the surface of the cap. In Nos. 3733 and 3731 the spores meas-
ure 7-9 x 4-6 yw. In 3732 they are longer, varying from 7-11 //.

The specimens with the long hard scales suggest Amanita stro-
biliformis Vittad., but the long rooting base of the stem does not agree
with the description of that plant, but does clearly agree with Amanita
solitaria Bull. A study of the variations in these plants suggests
that Amanita solitaria and strobiliformis Vittad., represent only varia-
tions in a single species as Bulliard interpreted the species more than
a century ago. Forms of the plant are also found which suggest that

74 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

A. poly pyramid B. & C., collected in North Carolina, is but one of the
variations of A. solitaria.

Figures 75, 76 show well certain stages in the development of
this plant. The conical or pyramidal warts are formed in a very
young stage of the plant by the primary separation of the outer part
of the volva, and as the pileus expands more, and the cessation of
growth of the outer veil proceeds inward, the scales become more
widely separated at the apex and broader at the base. In some
cases the volva is probably thinner than in others, and with the
rapid expansion of the pileus in wet weather the scales would be
smaller, or more floccose. But with different conditions, when it is
not so wet, the plant expands less rapidly, the surface of the pileus
becomes drier, the volva layer does not separate so readily and the
fissures between the scales proceed deeper, and sometimes probably
enter the surface of the pileus, so that the size of the warts is aug-
mented. A similar state of things sometimes takes place on the
base of the stem at the upper margin of the bulb, where the con-
centric fissures may extend to some distance in the stem, making the
scales here more prominent in some specimens than in others. A
similar variation in the character of the scales on the bulb of Amanita
nniscaria is sometimes presented.

The veil is often loosely attached to the edges of the gills, and so
is stripped off from the stem quite early. Sometimes it is more
strongly adherent to the stem, or portions of it may be, when it is
very irregularly ruptured as it is peeled off from the stem, as
shown in the plant near the left side in Fig. 75. The veil is very
fragile and often tears a little distance from the margin of the cap,
while the portion attached to the stem forms the annulus. This
condition is shown in the case of three plants in Fig. 75. The plant
is said to be edible.

AMANITOPSIS Roze.

This genus has white spores, and a volva, but the annulus and
inner veil are wanting. In other respects it agrees with Amanita.
It is considered as a subgenus of Amanita by some.

Amanitopsis vaginata (Bull.) Roz. Edible. The sheathed amani-
topsis, A. vaginata, is a quite common and widely distributed plant
in woods. It is well named since the prominent volva forms a large
sheath to the cylindrical base of the stem. The plant occurs in
several forms, a gray or mouse colored form, and a brownish or
fulvous form, and sometimes nearly white. These forms are recog-

PLATE 22, FIGURE 76. Amanita solitaria. Three plants, 3/4 natural size. Copyright.

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 75

nized by some as varieties, and by others as species. The plants
are 8-15 cm. high, the caps 3-7 cm. broad, and the stems 5-8 mm.
in thickness.

The pileus is from ovate to bell-shaped, then convex and expanded,
smooth, rarely with fragments of the volva on the surface. The
margin is thin and marked by deep furrows and ridges, so that it is
deeply striate, or the terms sulcate or pectinate sulcate are used to
express the character of the margin. The term pectinate sulcate is
employed on account of a series of small elevations on the ridges,
giving them a pectinate, or comb-like, appearance. The color varies
from gray to mouse color, brown, or ochraceous brown. The flesh
is white. The gills are white or nearly so, and free. The spores
are globose, 7-10 /< in diameter. The stem is cylindrical, even, or
slightly tapering upward, hollow or stuffed, not bulbous, smooth, or
with mealy particles or prominent floccose scales. These scales are
formed by the separation of the edges of the gills from the surface of
the stem, to which they are closely applied before the pileus begins
to expand. Threads of mycelium growing from the edge of the
lamellae and from the stem intermingle. When the pileus expands
these are torn asunder, or by their pull tear up the outer surface of
the stem. The volva forms a prominent sheath which is usually
quite soft and easily collapses (Fig. 77).

The entire plant is very brittle and fragile. It is considered an
excellent one for food. 1 often eat it raw when collecting.

Authors differ as to the number of species recognized in the plant
as described above. Secretan recognized as many as ten species.
The two prominent color forms are quite often recognized as two
species, or by others as varieties ; the gray or mouse colored form
as A. livida Pers., and the tawny form as A. spadicea Pers. Ac-
cording to Fries and others the livida appears earlier in the season
than spadicea, and this fact is recognized by some as entitling the two
to specific rank. Plowright (Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., p. 40,
1897-98) points out that in European forms of spadicea there is a
second volva inside the outer, and in livid a there are "folds or
wrinkles of considerable size on the inner surface of the volva."
He thinks the two entitled to specific rank. At Ithaca and in the
mountains of North Carolina 1 have found both forms appearing at
the same season, and thus far have been unable to detect the differ-
ences noted by Plowright in the volva. But 1 have never found
intergrading color forms, and have not yet satisfied myself as to
whether or not the two should be entitled to specific rank.

Some of the other species of Amanitopsis found in this country

7<i STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

are A. nivalis Grev., an entirely white plant regarded by some as
only a white form of A. vaginata. Another white plant is A. volvata
Pk., which has elliptical spores, and is striate on the margin instead
of sulcate.

Amanitopsis farinosa Schw. The mealy agaric, or powdery ama-
nita, is a pretty little species. It was first collected and described
from North Carolina by de Schweinitz (Synop. fung. Car. No. 552,
1822), and the specimens illustrated in Fig. 78 were collected by me
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. Peck has given
in the 33rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 49, an excellent description

FIGURE 78. Amanitopsis farinosa. Cap grayish (natural size). Copyright.

of the plant, though it often exceeds somewhat the height given by
him. It ranges from 5-8 or 10 cm. high, the cap from 2-3 cm. broad,
and the stem 3-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is from subglobose to convex and expanded, becoming
nearly plane or even depressed by the elevation of the margin in old
specimens. The color is gray or grayish brown, or mouse colored.
The pileus is thin, and deeply striate on the margin, covered with a
grayish floccose, powdery or mealy substance, the remnant of the
evanescent volva. This substance is denser at the center and is
easily rubbed off. The gills are white and free from the stem. The

'35

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o:
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O

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 77

spores are subglobose and ovate to elliptical, 6-7 /< long. The stem is
cylindrical, even, hollow or stuffed, whitish or gray and very slightly
enlarged at the base into a small rounded bulb which is quite constant
and characteristic, and at first is covered on its upper margin by the
floccose matter from the volva.

At Blowing Rock the plants occurred in sandy soil by roadsides
or in open woods. In habit it resembles strikingly forms of Amani-
topsis vaginata, but the volva is entirely different (Fig. 78). Although
A. 'vaginata was common in the same locality, 1 searched in vain for
intermediate forms which I thought might be found. Sometime,- the
tloccose matter would cling together more or less, and portions of
it remained as patches on the lower part of the stem, while depau-
perate forms of A. vaginata would have a somewhat reduced volva,
but in no case did I find intermediate stages between the two kinds
of volva.

LEPIOTA Fr.

The genus Lepiota lacks a volva, but the veil is present forming
a ring on the stem. The genus is closely related to Amanita, from
which it differs in the absence of the volva, or perhaps more properly
speaking in the fact that the universal veil is firmly connected
(concrete with) with the pileus, and with the base of the stem, so
that a volva is not formed. The gills are usually free from the stem,
some being simply adnexed, but in some species connected with a
collar near the stem. The stem is fleshy and is easily separable from
the cap. A number of the species are edible. Peck, 35th Report
N. Y. State Mus., p. 150-164, describes 18 species. Lloyd, Mycol.
Notes, November, 1898, describes 9 species.

Lepiota naucina Fr. {Lepiota naudnoides Pk., Annularia Icevis
Krombh.) Edible. The smooth lepiota, L. naucina, grows in lawns,
in pastures and by roadsides, etc. It occurs during the latter part of
summer and during autumn, being more abundant in September and
early October. It is entirely white, or the cap is sometimes buff,
and in age the gills become dirty pink in color. It is from 8-12 cm.
high, the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem 8-15 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is very fleshy, nearly globose, then convex to nearly
expanded, smooth, or rarely the surface is broken into minute scales.
The gills are first white, free from the stem, and in age assume a dull
pink tinge. The spores are usually white in mass, but rarely when
caught on white paper they show a faint pink tinge. The spores
are elliptical to oval. The stem is nearly cylindrical, gradually
enlarging below so that it is clavate, nearly hollow or stuffed with
loose threads.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Since the plant occurs in the same situations as the Agaricus
t'stris it might be mistaken for it, especially for white forms.
But of course no harm could come by eating it by mistake for the
common mushroom, for it is valued just as highly for food by some
who have eaten it. If one should look at the gills, however, they
would not likely mistake it for the common mushroom because the
gills become pink only when the plant is well expanded and quite
old. There is much more danger in mistaking it for the white
amanitas, A. phalloidcs, A. rerna, or A. virosa, since the gills of these
deadly plants are white, and they do sometimes grow in lawns and

FIGURE 80. Lepiota naucina. Section of three plants, different ages.

other grassy places where the smooth lepiota and the common
mushroom grow. For this reason one should study the descriptions
and illustrations of these amanitas given on preceding pages, and
especially should the suggestions given there about care in collecting
plants be followed, until one is- so certainly familiar with the
characters that the plants would be known "on sight."

The pink color of the gills of this lepiota has led certain students
of the fungi into mistakes of another kind. This pink color of the
gills has led some to place the plant among the rosy spored agarics
in the genus Annul aria, where it was named Annularici Icrcis by
Krombholtx (vide Bresadola Funghi Mangerecci e velenosi, p. 29,

; ;

I'l \ IK 25, FKIFRK 81. Lepiota procera. Grayish brown to reddish brown, gills and flesh

white (3/4 natural size). Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 79

1899). It fits the description of that plant exactly. The pink color
of the gills, as well as the fact that the gills turn brownish when dry,
has led to a confusion in some cases of the Lepiota naitdna with the
chalky agaric, Agariciis cretaceus. The external resemblance of the
plants, as shown in various illustrations, is very striking, and in the
chalky agaric the gills remain pink very late, only becoming brown
when very old.

Lepiota procera Scop. Edible. The parasol mushroom, Lepiota
proccra, grows in pastures, lawns, gardens, along roadsides, or in thin
woods, or in gardens. It is a large and handsome plant and when
expanded seems not inappropriately named. It is from 12-20 cm. or
more high, the cap expands from 5-12 cm., while the stem is 4-7 mm.
in thickness. It occurs during summer and in early autumn.

The pileus is oval, then bell-shaped, convex and nearly expanded,
with usually a more or less prominent elevation (umbo) at the
center. Sometimes it is depressed at the center. It is grayish
brown or reddish brown in color on the surface and the flesh is
whitish. As the cap expands the surface layer ceases to grow and
is therefore cracked, first narrow chinks appearing, showing white or
grayish threads underneath. As the cap becomes more expanded
the brown surface is torn into scales, which give the cap a more or
less shaggy appearance except on the umbo, where the color is more
uniform. The torn surface of the pileus shows numerous radiating
fibres, and it is soft and yielding to the touch. The gills are remote
from the stem, broad and crowded. The spores are long, elliptical,
12-17 n long. The stem is cylindrical, hollow, or stuffed, even,
enlarged below into a prominent bulb, of the same color as the pileus,
though paler, especially above the annulus. The surface is usually
cracked into numerous small scales, the chinks between showing the
white inner portion of the stem. The ring is stout, narrow, usually
quite free from the stem, so that it can be moved up and down on
the stem, and is called a movable ring.

Figure 81 is from plants (No. 3842, C. U. herbarium) collected
in a garden at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

A closely related plant, Lepiota rachodes Vitt., has smaller spores,
9-12 x 7-9 /<. It is also edible, and by some considered only a variety
of L. procera. It is rare in this country, but appears about Boston
in considerable quantities "in or near greenhouses or in enriched
soil out of doors," where it has the appearance of an introduced
plant (Webster, Rhodora, 1: 226, 1899). It is a much stouter plant
than L. procera, the pileus usually depressed, much more coarsely
scaly, and usually grows in dense clusters, while L. procera usually

80 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

occurs singly or scattered, is more slender, often umbonate. L.
rachodes has a veil with a double edge, the edges more or less fringed.
The veil is fixed to the stem until the plant is quite mature, when it
becomes movable. The flesh of the plant on exposure to the air
becomes a brownish orange tint.

Lepiota morgani Pk. This plant occurs from Ohio, southward and
west. It grows in grassy places, especially in wet pastures. It is

FIGURE 82. Lepiota americana. Scales and center of cap reddish or
reddish brown. Entire plant turns reddish on drying (natural size).
Copyright.

one of the largest of the lepiotas, ranging from 20-40 cm. high, the
cap 20-30 cm. broad, and the stem about 2 cm. in thickness. The
pileus, when fully expanded, is whitish, with large dark scales,
especially toward the center. The ring is large, sometimes movable,
and the gills and spores are greenish. Some report the plant as
edible, while others say illness results from eating it.

Lepiota americana Pk. Edible. This plant is widely distributed in
the United States. The plants occur singly or are clustered, 6-12

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 81

cm. high, the cap 4-10 cm. broad, and the stem 4-10 mm. in thick-
ness. The cap is adorned with reddish or reddish brown scales
except on the center, where the color is uniform because the surface
is not broken up into scales. The flesh is white, but changes to
reddish when cut or bruised, and the whole plant becomes reddish
on drying.

Figure 82 is from plants (No. 2718, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Ithaca.

The European plant, L. bciJIiami, also reported in this country,
changes to a brownish red. It is believed by some to be identical
with L. americaiia.

FIGURE 83. Lepiota cristata. Entirely white, but scales grayish or pinkish brown,
stem often flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

Lepiota acutesquatnosa Weinm. This is a medium or small sized
plant with a floccose pileus adorned with small, acute, erect scales,
and has a loose, hairy or wooly veil which is often torn irregularly.
The erect scales fall away from the pileus and leave little scars
where they were attached.

Lepiota cristata A. & S. Edible. The crested lepiota, Lepiota cris-
tjta, occurs in grassy places and borders of woods, in groves, etc.,
from May to September, and is widely distributed. The plant is
small, 3-5 cm. high, the cap 1-4 cm. broad, and the stem 2-5 mm. in
thickness. It grows in clusters or is scattered.

The pileus is ovate, bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, and
thin. The surface is at first entirely dull reddish or reddish brown,
but soon cracks into numerous scales of the same color arranged in a
crested manner, more numerous between the margin and the center,
and often arranged in a concentric manner. The center of the cap

82 STUDIES OF AMKRICAN FUNGI.

often preserves the uniform reddish brown color because the pileus
at this point does not expand so much and therefore the surface does
not crack, while the margin often becomes white because of the dis-
appearance of the brown covering here. The gills are free from the
stf m, narrow, crowded, and close to the stem. The spores are more
or less angular, elongated, more narrowed at one end, and measure
5-8 x 3-4 /<. The stem is slender, cylindrical, hollow, whitish,
smooth. The ring is small, white, and easily breaks up and disappears.

The characters of the plant are well shown in Fig. 83 from plants
collected at Ithaca. Lepiota angnstana Britz. is identical, and accord-
ing to Morgan L. iniamcnsis Morgan is a white form of L, angustana.

Lepiota asperula Atkinson. This lepiota resembles A. jsperm some
respects, but it is smaller and the spores are much smaller, being very
minute. The plant is 5-8 cm. high, the pileus 2-4 cm. broad, and the
stem 4-6 mm. in thickness. It grows in leaf mould in the woods
and has been found at Ithaca, N. Y., twice during July and Septem-
ber, 1897.

The pileus is convex and bell-shaped, becoming nearly or quite
expanded. It is hair brown to olive brown in color. The surface is
dry, made up of interwoven threads, and is adorned with numerous
small, erect, pointed scales resembling in this respect A. asper Fr.
The gills are white or yellowish, free, but rather close to the stem,
narrow, often eroded on the edge, sometimes forked near the stem,
and some of them arranged in pairs. The spores are oblong, smooth,
and very minute, measuring 5 x 2 yw. The stem is the same color as
the pileus, cylindrical, hollow, with loose threads in the cavity, en-
larged into a rounded bulb below, minutely downy to pubescent.
The outer portion of the bulb is formed of intricately interwoven
threads, among which are entangled soil and humus particles. The
veil is white, silky, hairy, separating from the stem like a dense cor-
tina, the threads stretched both above and below as shown in Fig.
84 from plants (No. 3157 C. U. herbarium), collected at Ithaca.

In some specimens, as the pileus expands, the spaces between
the pointed scales are torn, thus forming quite coarse scales which
are often arranged in more or less concentric rows, showing the
yellow-tinged flesh in the cracks, and the coarse scales bearing the
tine point at the center. A layer connecting the margin of the pileus
with the base of the stem and covered with fine brown points, some-
times separates from the edge of the cap and the base of the stem,
and clings partly to the cortina and partly to the stem in much the
same way that portions of the volva cling to the stem of certain
species of Aiminita, as seen in A. TV/J///VS (Fig. 66). Sometimes

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. *;{

this is left on the base of the stem and then resembles a short, free
limb of a volva, and suggests a species of Amanita. The scales,
however, are concrete with the pileus, and the species appears to
show a closer relationship with Lepiota.

ARMILLARIA Fr.

In the genus Armillaria the inner veil which forms a ring on the
stem is present. The stem is fibrous, or the outer portion cartilagin-
ous in some species, and not easily separable from the substance of
the pileus (continuous with the hymenophore), and the gills are
attached to the stem, sinuate, or decurrent, spores white. Peck,
43rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 40-45, describes 6 species.

Some of the species resemble very closely certain species of Ama-
nita or Lepiota, but can be distinguished by the firm continuity of
the substance of the stem and cap.

Armillaria mellea Vahl. Edible. This is one of the most common of
the late summer and autumn fungi, and is widely distributed over
the world. It grows about the bases of old stumps or dead trees, or
from buried roots. Sometimes it is found attached to the living roots
of trees. The plant occurs in tufts or clusters, several to many indi-
viduals growing together, the bases of their stems connected with a
black rope-like strand from which they arise. The entire plant is
often more or less honey colored, from which the plant gets its specific
name. Its clustered habit, the usually prominent ring on the stems,
and the sharp, blackish, erect scales which usually adorn the center
of the cap, mark it as an easy plant to determine in most cases.
The colors and markings, however, vary greatly, so that some of the
forms are very puzzling. The plant varies in height from 10-1 5 cm.,
the cap from 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem 4-10 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is oval to convex and expanded, sometimes with a slight
umbo or elevation at the center. The color varies from honey color
to nearly white, or yellowish brown to dull reddish brown, usually
darker on the center. In typical forms the pileus is adorned with
pointed dark brown, or blackish, erect, scales especially abundant
over the center, while the margin is often free from them, but may
be marked with looser floccose, brownish, or yellowish scales. Some-
times there are no blackish pointed scales anywhere on the cap, only
loose floccose colored scales, or in some forms the cap is entirely
smooth. The margin in old specimens is often striate. The pileus
is usually dry, but Webster cites an instance in which it was viscid
in wet weather.

The gills are attached to the stem squarely (adnate) or they are

S4 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

decurrent (extend downward on the stem), are white, or whitish,
becoming in age more or less dingy or stained. The spores are
rounded or elliptical, 6-9 yw. The stem is elastic, spongy within and
sometimes hollow. It is smooth or often rloccose scaly below the
ring, sometimes with prominent transverse bands of a hairy sub-
stance. It is usually whitish near the upper end, but dull brown or
reddish brown below the annulus, sometimes distinctly yellowish.
The veil varies greatly also. It may be membranaceous and thin, or
quite thick, or in other cases may be absent entirely. The ring of
course varies in a corresponding manner. As shown in Fig. 85 it is
quite thick, so that it appears double on the edge, where it broke
away from the inner and outer surfaces of the margin of the cap. It
is frequently fixed to the stem, that is, not movable, but when very
thin and frail it often disappears.

The honey colored agaric is said by nearly all writers to be edible,
though some condemn it. It is not one of the best since it is of rather
tough consistency. It is a species of considerable economic import-
ance and interest, since it is a parasite on certain coniferous trees,
and perhaps also on certain of the broad-leaved trees. It attacks the
roots of these trees, the mycelium making its way through the outer
layer, and then it grows beneath the bark. Here it forms fan-like
sheets of mycelium which advance along both away from the tree
and towards the trunk. It disorganizes and breaks down the tissues
of the root here, providing a space for a thicker growth of the mycel-
ium as it becomes older. In places the mycelium forms rope-like
strands, at first white in color, but later becoming dark brown and
shining. These cords or strands, known as rhi^omorphs, extend for
long distances underneath the bark of the root. They are also found
growing in the hollow trunks of trees sometimes. In time enough
of the roots are injured to kill the tree, or the roots are so weakened
that heavy winds will blow the trees over.

The fruiting plants always arise from these rhizomorphs, and by
digging carefully around the bases of the stems one can find these
cords with the stems attached, though the attachment is frail and
the stems are easily separated from the cords. Often these cords
grow for years without forming any fruit bodies. In this condition
they are often found by stripping off the bark from dead and rotting
logs in the woods. These cords were once supposed to be separate
fungi, and they were known under the name Rhi%pmorptia subcor-
ticalis.

Armillaria aurantia Schaeff. (Tricholoma peckii Howe) Suspected.
This is a very pretty species and rare in the United States. The

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 85

plants are 6-8 cm. high, the cap 4-7 cm. broad, and the stem 6-8
mm. in thickness. It occurs in woods. It is known by its viscid
pileus, the orange brown or ochraceous rufus color of the pileus and
stem, and the color of the stem being confined to the superficial layer,
which becomes torn into concentric floccose scales, forming numerous
minute floccose irregular rings of color around the stem.

The pileus is convex to expanded, with an umbo, and the edge
inrolled, fleshy, thin, viscid, ochraceous rufus (in specimens collected

FIGURE 86. Armillaria aurantia Schaeff. ( = Tricholoma peckii Howe). Cap
orange-brown or ochraceous rufus, viscid ; floccose scales on stem same
color (natural size). Copyright.

by myself), darker on the umbo, and minutely scaly from tufts of
hairs, and the viscid cuticle easily peeling off. The gills are narrow,
crowded, slightly adnexed, or many free, white, becoming brown dis-
colored where bruised, and in drying brownish or rufus. The spores
are minute, globose to ovoid, or rarely sub-elliptical when a little
longer, with a prominent oil globule usually, 3-3.5x3-5 //, some-
times a little longer when the elliptical forms are presented. The
stem is straight or ascending, even, very floccose scaly as the pileus
is unrolled from it, scales same color as the pileus, the scales running

Sf,

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

transversely, being separated perhaps by the elongation of the stem
so that numerous floccose rings are formed, showing the white tlesh
of the stem between. The upper part of the stem, that above the
annulus, is white, but the upper part floccose.

This plant has been long known in Europe. There is a rather
poor figure of it in Schaeffer Table 37, and a better one in Gillet
Champignons de France, Hymenomycetes, 1, opposite page 76, but
a very good one in Bresadola Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi, Tavel
18, 1899. A good figure is also given by Barla, Les Champignons

des Alpes Mari-
times, PI. 19, Figs.
1-6. The plant was
first reported from
America in the 4ist
Report, State Muse-
um, N. Y., p. 82,
1888, under the name
Tricholoma pechii
Howe, from the
Catskill Mountains,
N. Y. Figure 86 is
from plants (No.
3991, C. U. herbari-
um) collected in the
Blue Ridge moun-

tains, at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during
September, 1899.
The European and
American description
both ascribe a bitter

FIGURE 87. Tricholoma personatum. Entire plant grayish brown,
tinged with lilac or purple, spores light ochraceous (natural
size, often larger).

taste to the flesh of the pileus, and it is regarded as suspicious.

There does not seem to be a well formed annulus, the veil only
being present in a rather young stage, as the inrolled margin of the
pileus is unrolling from the surface of the stem. It seems to be more
in the form of a universal veil resembling the veil of some of the
lepiotas. It shows a relationship with Tricholoma which possesses in
typical forms a delicate veil present only in the young stage. Per-
haps for this reason it was referred by Howe to Tricholoma as an
undescribed species when it was named T. pechii. If its affinities
should prove to be with Tricholoma rather than with Armillaria, it
would then be known as Tricholoma aurantium.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

TRICHOLOMA Fr.

In the genus Tricholoma the volva and annulus are both wanting,
the spores are white, and the gills are attached to the stem, but are
more or less strongly notched or sinuate at the stem. Sometimes
the notch is very slight. The stem is fleshy-fibrous, attached to the
center of the pileus, and is usually short and stout. In some speci-
mens when young there is a slight cobwebby veil which very soon
disappears. The genus is a very large one. Some species are said
to be poisonous and a few are known to be edible. Peck, 44th
Report, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 38-64, describes 46 species.

Tricholoma persona
turn Fr. Edible. This
plant occurs during the
autumn and persists up
to the winter months.
It grows on the ground
in open places and in
woods. The stem is
short, usually 3-7 cm.
long x 1-2 cm. in thick-
ness, and the cap is
from 5-10 cm. or more
broad. The entire plant
often has a lilac or pur-
ple tint.

The pileus is con-
vex, expanded, moist,
smooth, grayish to
brownish tinged with
lilac or purple, especi-
ally when young, fading out in age. When young the pileus is
sometimes adorned with white mealy particles, and when old the
margin may be more or less upturned and wavy. The gills are
crowded, rounded next the stem, and nearly free but close to the
stem, violet or lilac when young, changing to dull reddish brown
when old. The spores when caught in mass are dull pink or salmon
color. They measure 7-9 // long. The stem is solid, fibrous,
smooth, deep lilac when young and retaining the lilac color longer
than the pileus. Sometimes the base is bulbous as in Fig. 87.

This plant is regarded by all writers as one of the best of the
edible fungi. Sometimes the pileus is water soaked and then the

FIGURE 88. Tricholoma personatum. Section (natural size).

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

flavor is not so tine. The position of the plant is regarded as doubt-
ful by some because of the more or less russety pink color of the
spores when seen in mass, and the ease with which the gills sepa-
rate from the pileus, characters which show its relationship to the
genus Paxillus.

Tricholoma sejunctum Sowerb. Edible. - - This plant occurs on the
ground in rather open woods during late summer and in the autumn.
It is 8-12 cm. high, the cap 5-8 cm. broad, and the stem 10-15 mm -
in thickness.

FIGURE 89 Tricholoma sejunctum. Cap light yellow, streaked with dark
threads on the surface, viscid. Stem and gills white (natural size, often
larger). Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, umbonate, viscid when moist,
light yellow in color and streaked with dark threads in the surface.
The flesh is white, and very fragile, differing in this respect from T.
equi'sti't', which it resembles in general form. The gills are broad,
rather distant, broadly notched near the stem, and easily separating
from the stem. The stem is solid, smooth and shining white. Figure
89 is from plants collected at Ithaca. It is said to be edible.

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 89

CLITOCYBE Fr.

The volva and annulus are wanting in this genus, and the spores
are white. The stem is elastic, spongy within, the outside being
elastic or fibrous, so that the fibres hold together well when the stem
is twisted or broken, as in Tricholoma. The stem does not separate
readily from the pileus, but the rather strong fibres are continuous
with the substance of the pileus. The gills are narrowed toward the
stem, joined squarely or decurrent (running down on the stem), very
rarely some of them notched at the stem while others of the same
plant are decurrent. In one species at least (C. laccata, by some
placed in the genus Laccaria) the gills are often strongly notched or
sinuate. The cap is usually plane, depressed, or funnel-shaped,
many of the species having the latter form. The plants grow chiefly
on the ground, though a number of species occur on dead wood. The
genus contains a very large number of species. Peck describes ten
species in the 23rd Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 76, et. seq., also 48th
Report, p. 172, several species. Morgan, Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist.
6:70-73, describes 12 species.

Clitocybe Candida Bres. Edible. This is one of the large species of
the genus. It occurs in late autumn in Europe. It has been found
on several occasions during late autumn at Ithaca, N. Y., on the
ground in open woods, during wet weather. It occurs in clusters,
though the specimens are usually not crowded. The stem is usually
very short, 2-4 cm. long, and 2-3 cm. in thickness, while the cap is
up to 10-18 cm. broad.

The pileus is sometimes regular, but often very irregular, and
produced much more strongly on one side than on the other. It is
convex, then expanded, the margin first incurved and finally wavy
and often somewhat lobed. The color is white or light buff in age.
The flesh is thick and white. The gills are white, stout, broad,
somewhat decurrent, some adnate.

The taste is not unpleasant when raw, and when cooked it is
agreeable. I have eaten it on several occasions. Figures 90, 91 are
from plants (No. 4612 C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca.

Clitocybe laccata Scop. Edible. This plant is a very common and
widely distributed one, growing in woods, fields, roadsides and other
waste places. It is usually quite easily recognized from the whitish
scurfy cap, the pink or purplish gills, though the spores are white,
from the gills being either decurrent, adnate, or more or less strongly
notched, and the stem fibrous and whitish or of a pale pink color.
When the plants are mature the pale red or pink gills appear

90 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

mealy from being covered with the numerous white spores.

The pileus is thin, convex or later expanded, of a watery appear-
ance, nearly smooth or scurfy or slightly squamulose. The spores are
rounded, and possess spine-like processes, or are prominently rough-
ened. In the warty character of the spores this species differs from
most of the species of the genus Clitocybe, and some writers place it in a
different genus erected to accommodate the species of Clitocybe which
have warty or spiny spores. The species with spiny spores are few.
The genus in which this plant is placed by some is Laccaria, and
then the plant is called Laccaria laccata. There are several other
species of Clitocybe which are common and which one is apt to run
across often, especially in the woods. These are of the funnel form
type, the cap being more or less funnel-shaped. Clitocybe infumlibuli
formis Schaeffer is one of these. The cap, when mature, is pale red
or tan color, fading out in age. It is 5-7 cm. high, and the cap 2-4
cm. broad. It is considered delicious. Clitocybe cyathiformis, as its
name indicates, is similar in form, and occurs in woods. The pileus
is of a darker color, dark brown or smoky in color.

Clitocybe illudens Schw. Not Edible. This species is distributed
through the Eastern United States and sometimes is very abundant.
It occurs from July to October about the bases of old stumps, dead
trees, or from underground roots. It is one of the large species, the
cap being 15-20 cm. broad, the stem 12-20 cm. long, and 8-12 mm.
in thickness. It occurs in large clusters, several or many joined at
their bases. From the rich saffron yellow color of all parts of the
plant, and especially by its strong phosphorescence, so evident in the
dark, it is an easy plant to recognize. Because of its phosphorescence
it is sometimes called "Jack-my-lantern."

The pileus is convex, then expanded, and depressed, sometimes
with a small umbo, smooth, often irregular or eccentric from its
crowded habit, and in age the margin of the pileus is wavy. The
flesh is thick at the center and thin toward the margin. In old plants
the color becomes sordid or brownish. The gills are broad, not
crowded, decurrent, some extending for a considerable distance down
on the stem while others for a less distance. The stem is solid, firm,
smooth, and tapers toward the base.

While the plant is not a dangerously poisonous one, it has
occasioned serious cases of illness, acting as a violent emetic, and of
course should be avoided. Its phosphorescence has often been
observed. Another and much smaller plant, widely distributed in
this country as well as Europe, and belonging to another genus, is
also phosphorescent. It is Panus stipticus, a small white plant with

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

a short lateral stem, growing on branches, stumps, trunks, etc.
When freshly developed the phosphorescence is marked, but when
the plants become old they often fail to show it.

FIGURE 92. Clitocybe illudens. Entire plant rich saffron yellow, old plants become
sordid brown sometimes ; when fresh shows phosphorescence at night (2/3 natural
size, often much larger). Copyright.

Clitocybe muhiceps Peck. Edible. This plant is not uncommon dur-
ing late summer and autumn. It usually grows in large tufts of 10
to 30 or more individuals. The caps in such large clusters are often
irregular from pressure. The plants are 6-12 cm. high, the caps
5-10 cm. broad, and the stems 8-15 mm. in thickness. The pileus
is white or gray, brownish gray or buff, smooth, dry, the flesh

92 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

white. The gills are white, crowded, narrow at each end. The
spores are smooth, globose, 5-7 ^ in diameter. The stems are tough,
fibrous, solid, tinged with the same color as cap. Fig. 93 is from
plants (No. 5467, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, October
14, 1900.

COLLYBIA Fr.

In the genus Collrbiathe annulus and volva are both wanting, the
spores are white, the gills are free or notched, or sinuate. The stem
is either entirely cartilaginous or has a cartilaginous rind, while the
central portion of the stem is fibrous, or fleshy, stuffed or fistulose.
The pileus is fleshy and when the plants are young the margin of
the pileus is incurved or inrolled, i. e., it does not lie straight against
the stem as in Mycena.

Many of the species of Collybia are quite firm and will revive
somewhat after drying when moistened, but they are not coriaceous
as in Marasmius, nor do they revive so thoroughly. It is difficult,
however, to draw the line between the two genera. Twenty-five
of the New York species of Collybia are described by Peck in the
49th Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 32 et seq. Morgan describes
twelv.e species in Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist., 6: 70-73.

Collybia radicata Rehl. Edible. This is one of the common and
widely distributed species of the genus. It occurs on the ground in
the woods or groves or borders of woods. It is quite easily recog-
nized by the more or less flattened cap, the long striate stem some-
what enlarged below and then tapering off into a long, slender
root-like process in the ground. It is from this " rooting " character
that the plant gets its specific name. It is 10-20 cm. high, the cap
3-7 cm. broad, and the stem 4-8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, thin, convex to nearly plane, or even with
the margin upturned in old plants, and the center sometimes
umbonate. It is smooth, viscid when moist, and often with wrinkles
on the surface which extend radially. The color varies from nearly
white in some small specimens to grayish, grayish brown or umber.
Thev flesh is white. The gills are white, broad, rather distant,
adnexed, i. e., joined to the stem by the upper angle. The spores
are elliptical and about 15x10 /'. The stem is the same color as the
pileus though paler, and usually white above, tapers gradually above,
is often striate or grooved, or sometimes only mealy. The long
tapering " root " is often attached to some underground dead root.
Fig. 94 is from plants (No. 5641, C. U. herbarium) collected at
Ithaca, August, 1900.

Collybia velutipes Curt. Edible. This is very common in woods or

PLATE 31, FIG. 94. Collybia radicata. Caps grayish-brown to grayish and
white in some small forms. (Natural size.) Copyright.

is
r.

."2
5

O 73

-I

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a

r
<~1

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. !3

groves during the autumn, on dead limbs or trunks, or from dead places
in living ones. The plants are very viscid, and the stem, except in
young plants, is velvety hairy with dark hairs. Figure 95 is from plants
(No. 5430, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, October, 1900.

Collybia longipes Bull., is a closely related plant. It is much
larger, has a velvety, to hairy, stem, and a much longer root-like
process to the stem. It has been sometimes considered to be merely
a variety of C. radicata, and may be only a large form of that species.
I have found a few specimens in the Adirondack mountains, and one
in the Blue Ridge mountains, which seem to belong to this species.

Collybia platyphylla Fr. Edible. This is a much larger and stouter
plant than Collybia radicata, though it is not so tall as the larger
specimens of that species. It occurs on rotten logs or on the ground
about rotten logs and stumps in the woods from June to September.
It is 8-12 cm. high, the cap 10-15 cm - broad, and the stem about 2
cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex becoming expanded, plane, and even the
margin upturned in age. It is whitish, varying to grayish brown or
dark brown, the center sometimes darker than the margin, as is
usual in many plants. The surface of the pileus is often marked in
radiating streaks by fine dark hairs. The gills are white, very
broad, adnexed, and usually deeply and broadly notched next the
stem. In age they are more or less broken and cracked. The spores
are white, elliptical, 7-10x6-7/4.

The plant resembles somewhat certain species of Tricholoma and
care should be used in selecting it in order to avoid the suspected
species of Tricholoma.

MYCENA Fr.

The genus Mycena is closely related to Collybia. The plants are
usually smaller, many of them being of small size, the cap is usually
bell-shaped, rarely umbilicate, but what is a more important charac-
ter the margin of the cap in the young stage is straight as it is applied
against the stem, and not at first incurved as it is in Collybia, when
the gills and margin of the pileus lie against the stem. The stem is
cartilaginous as in Collybia, and is usually hollow or fistulose. The
gills are not decurrent, or only slightly so by a tooth-like process.
Some of the species are apt to be confused with certain species of
Omphalia in which the gills are but slightly decurrent, but in Omphalia
the pileus is umbilicate in such species, while in Mycena it is blunt
or umbonate. The spores are white. A large number of the plants
grow on leaves and wood, few on the ground. 'fSome of those which
grow on leaves might be mistaken for species of Marasmius, but in

'.14

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Marasmius the plants are of a tough consistency, and when dried will

. revive again if moistened with
..^j^^^ water.

Some of the plants have dis-
tinct odors, as alkaline, or the
odor of radishes, and in collecting
them notes should be made on
all these characters which usually
disappear in drying. A few of
the plants exude a colored or
watery juice when bruised, and
should not be confounded with
species of Lactarius.

Mycena galericulata Scop. Edible.
Mycena galericulata grows on
dead logs, stumps, branches, etc.,
in woods. It is a very common
and very widely distributed
species. It occurs from late
spring to autumn. The plants
are clustered, many growing in
a compact group, the hairy bases
closely joined and the stems usu-
ally ascending. The plants are
from 5-12 cm. high, the caps from
1-3 cm. broad, and the slender
stems 2-3 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is conic to bell-
shaped, sometimes umbonate,
striate to near the center, and in
color some shade of brown or
gray, but variable. The gills
are decurrent by a tooth, not
crowded, connected by veins over
the interspaces, white or flesh
colored. The slender stems are
firm, hollow, and hairy at the
base.
v,,, Mycena polygramma Bull. This

Hr.i-RK 96. Mycena polygramma, long-stemmed

form growing on ground (=M. praelonga Pk.). plant is very closely related to M.

Cap dark brown with a leaden tint, striate on o;jl,'rirulnta nnH hi<= thp Qamp
margin; stem finely and beautifully longitudi- 8*^10410,10,, and

nally striate (natural size). Copyright. habit. It might be easily mistaken

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

for it. It is easily distinguished by its peculiar bright, shining, longi-
tudinally striate to sulcate stem. It usually grows on wood, but
does occur on the ground, when it often has a very long stem. In
this condition it was described by Peck in the 23rd Report, N. Y.
State Mus., p. 81, as Mycena prcclonga, from plants collected in a
sphagnum moor during the month of June. This form was also col-
lected at Ithaca several times during late autumn in a woods near
Ithaca, in 1898. The plants are from 12-20 cm. high, the cap 1-2
cm. broad, and the stem 2-3 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is first nearly cylindrical, then conic, becoming bell-
shaped and finally nearly expanded, when it is umbonate. It is
smooth, striate on the margin, of a dark brown color with a leaden
tint. The gills are narrow, white, adnate and slightly decurrent on
the stem by a tooth. The very long stem is smooth, but marked
with parallel grooves too fine to show in the photograph, firm, hollow,
somewhat paler than the pileus, usually tinged with red, and hairy
at the base. Figure 96 is from plants (No. 3113 C. U. herbarium),
collected in a woods near Ithaca in damp places among leaves. A
number of the specimens collected were attacked by a parasitic mucor
of the genus Spinelhis. Two species, S. fusiger (Link.) van Tiegh.,
and S. macrocarpus (Corda) Karst., were found, sometimes both on
the same plant. The long-stalked sporangia bristle in all directions
from the cap.

Mycena pura Pers. This plant is quite common and very widely
distributed, and oc-
curs in woods and
grassy open places,
during late summer
and in the autumn.
The entire plant is
nearly of a uniform
color, and the color
varies from rose, to
rose purple, violet,
or lilac. Plants from
the Blue Ridge
mountains of North
Carolina were chiefly
rose purple, very
young plants of a

much deeper COlor FIGURE 97. Mycena pura. Entire plant rose, rose-purple,

violet, or lilac. Striate on margin of pileus (natural
(auricula purple of size, often much larger).

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Ridgeway), while those collected at Ithaca were violet. The
plants vary from 5-8 cm. high, the cap 2-3 cm. broad, and the
stem 2-4 mm. stout. The plants are scattered or somewhat clus-
tered, sometimes occurring singly, and again many covering a small
area of ground.

The pileus is thin, conic, bell-shaped to
convex and nearly expanded, sometimes
with a small umbo, smooth, and finely
striate on the margin, in age the stria? some-
times rugulose from the upturning of the
margin. Sometimes the pileus is rugose on
the center. The gills vary from white to
violet, rose, etc., they are adnate to sinuate,
and in age sometimes become free by break-
ing away from the stem. They are broad
in the middle, connected by vein-like eleva-
tions over the surface, and sometimes wavy
and crenate on the edge, the edge of the
gills sometimes white. The spores are white,
oblong, 2.5-3.5 x 6-7 //, smooth. The
basidia are cylindrical, 20-25 x 3-4 /<, four-
spored. .There are a few cystidia in the
hymenium, colorless, thin walled, clavate,
the portion above the hymenium cylindrical,
and 30-40 x 10-12 yu.

The stem is sometimes white when young,
but later becomes of the same color as the
pileus, often a lighter shade above. It is
straight, or ascending, cylindrical, even,
smooth, hollow, with a few white threads
at the base.

Sometimes on drying the pileus becomes
deeper in color than when fresh. The gills
also become deeper in color in drying, though
the edge remains white if white when fresh.
Figure 97 is from plants (No. 3946, C. U.
herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in August, 1899.
The plants are often considerably larger than shown in the figure.
Mycena epipterygia Scop. This pretty little species is quite readily
distinguished by the gray, conic or bell-shaped cap, the long, hollow,
slender stem, and the viscid pellicle or skin which is quite easily
peeled off from the stem or cap when moist. It grows in woods or

FIGI-RK 98. Mycena epipterygia.
Cap viscid, grayish, often tinged
with yellowish or reddish in age,
gills white, sometimes tinged with
blue or red, stem yellowish, or same
color as cap (natural size). Copy-
right.

\\HITE-SPORHD AGARICS.

grassy places, or among moss, etc., on the ground or on very rotten
wood. The plants are from 5-10 cm. high, the cap 1-2 cm. broad,
and the stem about 2 mm. in thickness. It is widely distributed in
Europe, America, and other North temperate countries.

The pileus is viscid when moist, ovate to conic or campanulate,
and later more or less expanded, obtuse, the margin striate, and some-
times minutely toothed. The usual color is grayish, but in age it often
becomes reddish. The gills are decurrent by a small tooth, and quite
variable in color, whitish, then gray, or tinged with blue or red.

The stem is very slender, flexuous, or straight, fistulose, tough,
with soft hairs at the base, usually yellowish, sometimes the same
color as the cap, and viscid like the cap when moist. Figure 98 is
from plants (No. 4547, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca in
August, 1899.

Mycena vulgaris Pers. This common and pretty species is easily
recognized by its smoky or grayish color, the umbilicate pileus and
very slimy stem. It grows on decaying leaves, sticks, etc., in woods.
It occurs in clusters. The plants are small, 3-5 cm. high, the cap
4-7 mm. broad, and the stem about 1.5 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is thin, bell-shaped, then convex, and depressed
at the center, with a papilla usually in the center, finely striate on
the margin, and slightly viscid. The gills are white, thin, and finally
decurrent, so that from
the form of the cap and
the decurrent gills the
plant has much the ap-
pearance of an Ompha-
lia. The stem is very
viscid, grayish in color,
often rooting at the
base, and with white
fibrils at the base, be-
coming hollow.

Figure 99 is from
plants collected in woods
near Ithaca, during
August, 1899.

Mycena acicula
Schaeff. This is one
of the very small my-
cenas, and with the
brilliant red pileus and

FIGURE 99. Mycena vulgaris. Entirely white, center
of cap grayish, entire plant very slimy when moist
(natural size). Copyright.

'* STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

yellow gills and stem it makes a very pretty object growing on
leaves, twigs, or rotten wood in the forest. It occurs during sum-
mer and autumn. It is 2-5 cm. high, the cap 2-4 mm. broad, and
the stem is thread-like.

The pileus is very thin, mem-
branaceous, bell-shaped, then con-
vex, when the pointed apex appears
as a small umbo. It is smooth, striate
on the margin, and of a rich vermil-
ion or orange color. The gills are
rounded at the stem and adnexed,
rather broad in the middle, distant,
yellow, the edge white, or sometimes
the gills are entirely white. The
stem is very slender, with a root-like
FIGURE ioo.--Mycenaacicu]a. Cap process entering the rotten wood,

brilliant red, gills and stem yel-
lowish (natural size). Copyright. smooth except the hairs on the root-
like process, yellow.

Figure 100 is from plants (No. 2780, C. U. herbarium) collected
in a woods near Ithaca. It has been found here several times.

Mycena cyanothrix Atkinson. This is a very pretty plant growing
on rotting wood in clusters, often two or three joined at the base, the
base of the stem inserted in the rotten wood for 1-2 cm., and the
base is clothed with blue, hair-like threads. The plants are 6-9 cm.
high, the cap 1-2 cm. broad, and the stem not quite 2 mm. in
diameter.

The pileus is ovate to convex, viscid when young. The color is
bright blue when young, becoming pal'e and whitish in age, with A
tendency to fuscous on the center. The cap is smooth and the
margin finely striate. After the plants have dried the color is nearly
uniform ochraceous or tawny. The gills are close, free, narrow,
white, then grayish white, the edge finely toothed or fimbriate.
The spores are globose, smooth, 6-9 //. The stem is slender, hollow,
faintly purple when young, becoming whitish or flesh color, tlexuous,
or nearly straight, even, often two united at the base into a root-like
extension which enters the rotten wood. The base of the stem is
covered with deep blue mycelium which retains its color in age, but
disappears on drying after a time. Figure 101 is from plants (No.
2382, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, in woods, June 16, 1898.

Mycena hsmatopa Pers. This is one of the species of Mycena with
a red juice which exudes in drops where wounds occur on the plant.
It is easily recognized by its dense cespitose habit, the deep blood

WHITH-SPORED AGARICS.

red juice, the hollow stem, and the crenate or denticulate sterile
margin of the cap. Numbers of the plant occur usually in a single
cluster, and their bases are closely joined and hairy. The stems are
more or less ascending according to the position of the plant on the
wood. The plants are 5-10 cm. high, the cap is 1-2.5 cm - broad,
and the stem 2-3 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is conic, then bell-shaped, and as the margin of the cap

FIGURE 101. Mycena cyanothrix. Cap viscid when young, blue, be-
coming pale and whitish in age, and fuscous in center; gills white;
stem faintly purple when young, then flesh color or white, blue,
clothed with blue hairs at base (natural size). Copyright.

expands more appears umbonate, obtuse, smooth, even or somewhat
striate on the margin. The color varies from whitish to flesh color,
or dull red, and appears more or less saturated with a red juice.
The thin margin extends a short distance beyond the ends of the
gills, and the margin is then beautifully crenate. The gills are
adnate, and often extend down on the stem a short distance by a
little tooth. The stem is firm, sometimes smooth, sometimes with

Kill

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

minute hairs, at the base with long hairs, hollow, in color the same

as that of the pileus.

The color varies some-
what, being darker in some
plants than in others. In
some plants the juice is more
abundant and they bleed
profusely when wounded,
while in other cases there
is but little of the juice,
sometimes wounds only
showing a change in color
to a deep red without any
free drops exuding. Figure
102 is from plants collected
at Ithaca, in August, 1899.
It is widely distributed in
Europe and North America.
Mycena succosa Pk. ,
another species of Mvccna
with a juice, occurs on very
rotten wood in the woods.
It is a small plant, dull
white at first, but soon
spotted with black, and
turning black in handling
or where bruised, and when
dried. Wounds exude a
"serum-like juice," and the
wounds soon become black.

FIGURE 102. Mycena haematopa. Dull red or flesh color,
or whitish, a dull red juice exudes where broken or cut,
margin of cap serrate with thin sterile flaps (natural
size). Copyright.

It was described by Peck
under Collybia in the 25th
Report, p. 74.

OMPHALIA Fr.

The genus Omphcilia is closely related to Mycena and Collybia.
It differs from these mainly in the decurrent gills. In the small
species of Mycena where the gills are slightly decurrent, the pileus is
not umbilicate as it is in corresponding species of Omphalia. In some
of the species of Ompbalia the pileus is not umbilicate, but here the
gills are plainly decurrent. The stem is cartilaginous.

U-S?
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V 3J
5 ~

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

Kll

'..

Omphalia campanella Batsch. One of the most common and widely
distributed species of the genus is
the little bell-omphalia, Omphalia
campanella. It occurs throughout
the summer and autumn on dead
or rotten logs, stumps, branches,
etc., in woods. It is often clustered,
large numbers covering a consider-
able surface of the decaying log.
It is 1-3 cm. high, the cap 8-20
mm. broad, and the stem very
slender.

The pileus is convex, umbilicate,
faintly striate, dull reddish yellow,
in damp weather with a watery ap-
pearance. The gills are narrow,
yellow, connected by veins, strongly
curved because of the form of the
pileus, and then being decurrent on
the stem. The stem is slender, often
ascending, brownish hairy toward
the base, and paler above.

Omphalia epichysium Pers. This
plant occurs during the autumn in
woods, growing usually on much
decayed wood, or sometimes appar-
ently on the ground. The smoky,
or dull gray color of the entire
plant, the depressed or funnel-
shaped pileus, and short, slender
stem serve to distinguish it. The
cap is 2-4 cm. broad, the plant is
3-5 cm. high, and the stem 2-4 mm.
in thickness.

The pileus is convex, becoming
expanded, umbilicate or depressed
at the center or nearly funnel-
shaped, smooth, smoky or gray
with a saturated watery appearance,
light gray or nearly white when dry.

The gills are narrow, crowded, or a little decurrent. The slender
stem is smooth, hollow, equal. Figure 104 is from plants (No. 3373,

'SI

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OTQ

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o

era'

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

C. U. herbarium) collected in woods near Ithaca, N. Y., in the
autumn of 1899.

PLEUROTUS Fr.

The genus Pleurotus is usually recognized without difficulty among
the fleshy, vvhite-spored agarics, because of the eccentric (not quite
in the center of the pileus) or lateral stem, or by the pileus being
attached at one side in a more or less shelving position, or in some
species where the upper side of the pileus lies directly against the
wood on which the plant is growing, and is then said to be resitpinate.

The gills are
either decurrent
(extending
downward ) on
the stem, or in
some species
they are rounded
or notched at the
junction with the
stem. There is
no a n n u 1 u s ,
though some-
times a veil, and
the genus re-
sembles both
THc/ioloiiu a n d
Clitocvbe, except
for the position
of the stem on
the pileus. In

Tricboloma and Clitocvbe the stem is usually attached at the center,
and the majority of the species grow on the ground, while the species
of Pleurotus are especially characterized by growing on wood. Some
species, at least, appear to grow from the ground, as in Pleurotus
petaloides, which is sometimes found growing on buried roots or
portions of decayed stumps which no longer show above ground.
On the other hand species of Clitocvbe, as in C. Candida (Fig. 91),
often have an eccentric stem. This presents to us one of the many
difficulties which students, especially beginners, of this group of
fungi meet, and also suggests how unsatisfactory any arrangement
of genera as yet proposed is.

Pleurotus ulmarius Bull. Edible. The elm pleurotus is so called

105. Pleurotus ulmarius. Cap white, or with shades of yellow
or brown near the center (natural size). Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

103

because it is often found growing on dead elm branches or trunks, or
from wounds in living trees, but it is not confined to the elm. It is a
large species, easily distinguished from the oyster agaric and the
other related species by its long stem attached usually near the center
of the cap, and by the gills being rounded or notched at their inner

FIGURE 106. Pleurotus ulmarius. Under view and section (natural size).

extremity. The cap is 5-12 cm. broad, the stem 5-10 cm. long, and
1-2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, the margin incurved, then nearly expanded,
smooth, firm, white or whitish, or with shades of yellow or brown on
the center, and the flesh is white. The gills are broad, rather distant,

H>4 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

sinuate, white or nearly so. The spores are globose, 5-8 yu in diam-
eter. The stem is firm, eccentric, usually curved because of its lat-
eral attachment on the side of the tree, and the horizontal position
of the pileus.

The elm pleurotus has been long known as an edible fungus, and
is regarded as an excellent one for food on account of its flavor and
because of its large size. It occurs abundantly during the late
autumn, and at this season of the year is usually well protected from
the attacks of insects. It occurs in the woods, or fields, more fre-
quently on dead trees. On shade trees which have been severely
pruned, and are nearly or quite dead, it sometimes appears at the
wounds, where limbs have been removed, in great abundance. In the
plants shown in Fig. 105 the stems are strongly curved because the
weight of the cap bore the plant downward. Sometimes when the
plant is growing directly on the upper side of a branch or log, the
stem may be central.

Pleurotus ostreatus Jacq. Edible. This plant is known as the oyster
agaric, because the form of the plant sometimes suggests the outline
of an oyster shell, as is seen in Fig. 107. It grows on dead trunks
and branches, usually in crowded clusters, the caps often overlapping
or imbricated. It is large, measuring 8-20 cm. or more broad.

The pileus is elongated and attached at one side by being sessile,
or it is narrowed into a very short stem. It is broadest at the outer
extremity, where it becomes quite thin toward the margin. It is
more or less curved in outline as seen from the side, being depressed
usually on the upper side near the point of attachment, and toward
the margin convex and the margin incurved. The color is white,
light gray, buff or dark gray, often becoming yellowish on drying.
The gills are white, broad, not much crowded, and run down on the
stem in long elevated lines resembling veins, which anastomose
often in a recticulate fashion. The spores are white, oblong, 7-10 /<
long. The stem when present is very short, and often hairy at the
base.

The oyster agaric has long been known as an edible mushroom,
but it is not ranked among the best, because, like most Pleuroti, it is
rather tough, especially in age. It is well to select young plants.
Figure 107 is from plants (No. 2097, C. U. herbarium) collected at
Ithaca, N. Y.

Pleurotus sapidus Kalchb. Edible. This plant usually grows in large
clusters from dead trunks or branches or from dead portions of living
trees. It grows on a number of different kinds of trees. The stems are
often joined at the base, but sometimes the plants are scattered over a

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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 105

portion of the branch or trunk. The cap is from 5-10 cm. broad.
The plants occur from June to November.

The pileus is convex, the margin incurved when young, and more
or less depressed in age, smooth, broadened toward the margin and
tapering into the short stem, which is very short in some cases and
elongated in others. Often the caps are quite irregular and the mar-
gin wavy, especially when old. It is quite firm, but the margin splits
quite readily on being handled. The color varies greatly, white,
yellowish, gray, or brownish and lilac tints. The flesh is white.
The stems are usually attached to the pileus, at or near one edge.
The gills are white, broad, not at all crowded, and extend down on
the stem as in the oyster agaric. They are white or whitish, and as
in the other related species are sometimes cracked, due probably to
the tension brought to bear because of the expanding pileus. The
spores are tinged with lilac when seen in mass, as when caught on
paper. The color seems to be intensified after the spores have lain
on the paper for a day or two.

It is very difficult to distinguish this species from the oyster
agaric. The color of the spores seems to be the only distinguishing
character, and this may not be constant. Peck suggests that it may
only be a variety of the oyster agaric. I have found the plant
growing from a dead spot on the base of a living oak tree. There
was for several years a drive near this tree, and the wheels of
vehicles cut into the roots of the tree on this side, and probably so
injured it as to kill a portion and give this fungus and another one
(Polystictus pergamenus) a start, and later they have slowly
encroached on the side of the tree.

Figure 108 represents the plant (No. 3307, C. U. herbarium)
from a dead maple trunk in a woods near Ithaca, collected during the
autumn of 1899. This plant compares favorably with the oyster
agaric as an edible one. Neither of these plants preserve as well as
the elm pleurotus.

Pleurotus dryinus Pers. Edible. Pleurotus dryinus represents a sec-
tion of the genus in which the species are provided with a veil when
young, but which disappears as the pileus expands. This species
has been long known in Europe on trunks of oak, ash, willow, etc.,
and occurs there from September to October. It was collected near
Ithaca, N. Y., in a beech woods along Six-mile creek, on October
24th, 1898, growing from a decayed knothole in the trunk of a living
hickory tree, and again in a few days from a decayed stump. The
pileus varies from 5-10 cm. broad, and the lateral or eccentric stem
is 2-12 cm. long by 1-2 cm. in thickness, the length of the stem

106 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

depending on the depth of the insertion of the stem in a hollow por-
tion of the trunk. The plant is white or whitish, and the substance
is quite firm, drying quite hard.

The pileus is convex to expanded, more or less depressed in the
center, the margin involute, and the surface at first floccose, becom-
ing in age floccose scaly, since the surface breaks up into triangular
scales more prominent in and near the center, smaller and inconspic-
uous toward the margin. The prevailing color is white, but in age
the scales become cream color or buff (in European plants said to
become fuscous). The pileus is either definitely lateral (Fig. 109)
or eccentric when the stem is attached near the center as in Fig. 1 10.
The gills are white, becoming tinged with yellow in age, decurrent
(running down on the stem) in striae for short distances, 4-5 mm.
broad, not crowded. The stem is nearly central (Fig. no), or
definitely lateral (Fig. 109), the length varying according to condi-
tions as stated above. It is firm, tough, fibrous. The veil is promi-
nent in young and medium plants, floccose, tearing irregularly as
the pileus expands.

Figure no is from plants (No. 2478*2 C. U. herbarium) growing
from knothole in living hickory tree, and Fig. 109 from plants (No.
2478^) growing on a dead stump, near Ithaca.

According to the descriptions of P. dryinus as given by Persoon,
and as followed by Fries and most later writers, the pileus is defi-
nitely lateral, and more or less dimidiate, while in P. corticatus Fr.,
the pileus is entire and the stem rather long and eccentric. Steven-
son suggests (p. 166) that corticatus is perhaps too closely allied to
dryinus. The plants in our Fig. no agree in all respects with P. cor-
ticatus,, except that possibly the lamella do not anastomose on the
stem as they are said to in corticatus. According to the usual descrip-
tions corticatus is given as the larger species, while Fig. 109 of our
plant, possessing the typical characters of dryinus, is the larger. The
form of the pileus, the length and position of the stem, depends, as we
know, to a large extent on the position of the plant on the tree.
When growing from the upper side, so that there is room above for
the expansion of the cap, the pileus is apt to be more regular, just as
is the case in Pleurotus ulmarius, and the stem more nearly central.
When the plant grows from a hollow place in the trunk as those
shown in Fig. no did, then there is an opportunity for them to grow
more or less erect, at least until they emerge from the hollow, and
then the pileus is more nearly equal in its expansion and the stem is
longer. Berkeley describes specimens of P. dryinus with long stems

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ft

PLATK 37, FIGUKK no. Pleurotus dryinus, form corticatus. Entire
plant white, scales cream or buff in age sometimes. The ruptured
veil shows in the small plant below (natural size). Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

KIT

growing from a hollow in an ash, and Stevenson (p. 167) reports the
same condition.

Pleurotus sulfureoides Pk. This rare species, first collected in the
Catskill Mountains 1869, and described by Peck in the 23rd Report,
N. Y. State Mus., p. 86, 1870, was found by me on two different
occasions at Ithaca, N. Y., during the autumn of 1898, on rotting
logs, Ithaca Flats, and again in Enfield Gorge, six miles from Ithaca.
The plants are from 5-8 cm. high, the cap 3-5 cm. broad, and the
stem 5-7 mm. in thickness, and the entire plant is of a dull, or pale,
yellow.

The pileus is nearly regular, fleshy, thin toward the margin, con-
vex, umbonate, smooth or with a few small scales. The gills are

FIGURE 1 1 1. Pleurotus sulfureoides. Entire plant dull or pale yellow (natural

size). Copyright.

rather crowded, broad, rounded or notched at the stem, pale yellow.
The spores are elliptical, 7-9 x 5-6 //. The stem is ascending and
curved, nearly or quite central in some specimens in its attachment
to the pileus, whitish or yellowish, mealy or slightly tomentose at
the apex.

Figure in is from plants (No. 2953, C. U. herbarium) on rot-
ting log, Ithaca Flats, October, 1898.

Pleurotus petaloides Bull. Edible. The petal-like agaric is so called
from the fancied resemblance of the plant to the petal of a flower.
The plant usually grows in a nearly upright or more or less ascend-
ing position, or when it grows from the side of a trunk it is somewhat
shelving. It is somewhat spathulate in form, i. e., broad at the free

108

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

end and tapering downward into the short stem in a wedge-shaped

FIGURE 112. Pleurotus petaloides. Color pale reddish brown or brown,
sometimes entirely white; gills white (natural size). Copyright.

manner, and varies from 2-10 cm. long and 1-5 cm. in breadth. It
grows on fallen branches or trunks, on stumps, and often apparently

from the ground,
but in real ity
from under-
ground roots or
buried portionsof
decayed stumps,
etc.

The pileus
varies from a
regular wedge-
shape to spathu-
late, or more or
less irregularly
petaloid, or
conchoid forms,
the extremes of
size and form be-
ing shown in
Figs. 112, 113.
The margin is at
first involute,

FIGURE 113. Pleurotus petaloides. More irregular form than that
shown in figure 112; color same as there described (natural size).
Copyright.

finally fully ex-
panded, and the upper surface is nearly plane or somewhat depressed,
The color is often a pale reddish brown, or brown, and sometimes

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

109

pure white. The margin is sometimes marked with fine striations
when moist. The upper portion near the union with the stem is
sometimes tomentose, sometimes smooth. The gills are narrow,
white, or yellowish, crowded and strongly decurrent. While the
plant varies greatly in form and size, it is easily recognized by the
presence of numerous short whitish cystidia in the hymenium, which
bristle over the surface of the hymenium and under a pocket lens
present a " fuzzy " appearance to the lamella?. They are 70-80 x
10-12 //. The spores are white.

Figures 112, 113 are from plants collected at Ithaca.

Pleurotus serotinus Schrad. This is an interesting plant and occurs
during the autumn on dead trunks, branches, etc., in the woods.
The stem is want-
ing, and the cap is
shelving, dimidi-
ate, reniform or
suborbicular. The
plants occur singly
or are clustered
and overlapping,
about the same
size and position
as Oaudopus nid-
u I ti n s , from
which it is readily
told by its white
gills and spores.

FIGURE 114. Pleurotus applicatus. Color gray to dark bluish gray,
or black with a bluish tinge (natural size). Copyright.

The color varies

from dull yellow to brownish, often with shades of olive or green.

Pleurotus applicatus Batsch. This is a pretty little species and
usually occurs on much decayed wood, lying close to the ground so
that it is usually directly on the under side of the log or branch. It
does occur, however, on the side of the log when it is more or less
shelving, because of the tendency of the pileus always to be more
or less horizontal.

The pileus is 4-6 mm. broad, its upper surface closely applied to
the wood or bark on which it is growing when it appears directly on
the under side. The margin is sometimes free and involute. Some-
times it is attached only by the center of the pileus. There is then
often a short process. When it grows on the side of the log it is
attached laterally, or on the upper side of one margin, while the greater
portion of the pileus is free and shelving. The surface is smooth or

110

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

somewhat hairy. The color varies from gray to dark bluish gray,
or black with a bluish tinge. The gills are thick, broad in propor-
tion to the size of the cap, distant, and are said by some to be paler
than the pileus. In plants collected at Ithaca, the gills are often as
dark as the pileus. The entire plant is rather tough, and revives
after being dried if placed in water, resembling in this respect Maras-
Diius, Panus, or Trogia, and it may be more nearly related to one of
these. Figure 114 is from plants (No. 4599, C. U. herbarium)
collected at Ithaca.

HYGROPHORUS Fries.

The genus Hygrophorus is one which presents some difficulties in
the case of some of the species, especially to beginners, and plants
need to be studied in the fresh condition to understand the most im-

FlGURF.115. -Hygrophorus chrysodon. Entirely white with golden yellow granules
on cap and stem (natural size). Copyright.

portant character which separates it from certain of the other white-
spored agarics. The substance of the pileus is continuous with that
of the stem, that is, the stem is not easily separated from the cap at
the point of junction, but is more or less tenacious. The gills may
be adnexed, adnate, sinuate, or decurrent, but what is important
they are usually rather distant, the edge is acute or sharp, and grad-
ually thickened toward the junction with the cap, so that a section
of the gill is more or less triangular. This is brought about by the
fact that the substance of the cap extends downward into the gill
between the lamina? or surfaces of the gill. But the most important
character for determining the genus is the fact that the surfaces of the
gills become rather of a waxy consistency at maturity, so that they
appear to be full of a watery substance though they do not bleed,

VVHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 111

and the surface of the gill can be rather easily removed, leaving the
projecting line of the irama. This is more marked in some species
than in others. The waxy consistency of the gills then, with the
gills acute at the edge, broad at the point of attachment to the pileus,
and the gills being rather widely separated are the important charac-
ters in determining the species which belong to this genus. The
nearest related genus is Cantharellus, which, however, has blunt
and forked gills. A number of the plants are brilliantly colored.

Hygrophorus chrysodon (Batsch.) Fries. Edible. This plant has
about the same range as Hygrophorus eburneus, though it is said to be
rare. It is a very pretty plant and one quite easily recognized
because of the uniform white ground color of the entire plant when
fresh, and the numerous golden floccules or squamules scattered over
the cap and the stem. The name chrysodon means golden tooth, and
refers to these numerous golden flecks on the plant. A form of the
plant, variety leucodon, is said to occur in which these granules are
white. The plant is 4-7 cm. high, the cap 4-7 cm. broad, and the
stem 6-10 mm. in thickness. The plants grow on the ground in the
woods, or rather open places, during late summer and autumn.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, the margin strongly involute
when young, and unrolling as the cap expands, very viscid, so that
particles of dirt and portions of leaves, etc., cling to it in drying.
The golden or light yellow granules on the surface are rather num-
erous near the margin of the pileus, but are scattered over the entire
surface. On the margin they sometimes stand in concentric rows
close together. The gills are white, distant, decurrent, 3-6 mm.
broad, white, somewhat yellowish in age and in drying, and con-
nected by veins. The spores white, oval to ovate, the longer ones
approaching elliptical, 6-10 x 5-6 //.

The stem is soft, spongy within, nearly equal, white, the yellow-
ish granules scattered over the surface, but more numerous toward
the apex, where they are often arranged in the form of a ring.
When the plant is young these yellow granules or squamules on the
stem and the upper surface of the inrolled margin of the pileus meet,
forming a continuous layer in the form of a veil, which becomes
spread out in the form of separated granules as the pileus expands,
and no free collar is left on the stem.

Figure 115 is from plants (No. 3108, C. U. herbarium) collected
in October, 1898, in woods, and by roadsides, Ithaca, N. Y.

Hygrophorus eburneus (Bulliard) Fries. Edible. This plant is widely
distributed in Europe and America. It is entirely white, of medium
size, very viscid or glutinous, being entirely covered with a coating

112

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

of gluten, which makes it very slippery in handling. The odor is
mild and not unpleasant like that of a closely related species, H.
cossits. The plants are 6-1 5 cm. high, the cap is from 3-8 cm. broad,

and the stem 3-8

mm. in thickness. It
grows on the ground
in woods, or in open
grassy places.

The pileus is
fleshy, moderately
thick, sometimes
thin, convex to ex-
panded, the margin
uneven or sometimes
wavy, smooth, and
shining. When
young the margin of
the cap is incurved.
The gills are strongly
decurrent, distant,
with vein-like eleva-
tions near the stem.
Spores rather long,
oval, 6-10 x 5-6 //,
granular. The stem
varies in length, it is
spongy to stuffed
within, sometimes
hollow and tapers
below. The slime
which envelops the
plant is sometimes so
abundant as to form
a veil covering the
entire plant and ex-
tending across from
the margin of the cap
to the stem, covering

the gills. As the plant dries this disappears, and does not leave an
annulus on the stem.

Figure 116 is from a photograph of plants (No. 2534, C. U. her-
barium) collected in Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, N.Y., Nov. 5th, 1898.

US
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SP ~
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O
43

O.
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WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 113

Hygrophorus fuligineus Frost. Edible. The smoky hygrophorus was
described in the 35th Report of the N. Y. State Museum, p. 134. It
is an American plant, and was first collected at West Albany, dur-
ing the month of November. It is one of the largest species of the
genus, and grows on the ground in woods, in late autumn. The
plants are 5-10 cm. high, the cap from 3-10 cm. broad, and the stem
1-2 cm. in thickness. The large size of the plarrt together with the
smoky, brown, viscid cap aid in the recognition of the plant.

The pileus is convex, becoming expanded, smooth, very viscid,
dull reddish brown or smoky brown, darker on the center ; the mar-
gin of the pileus is even in young specimens, becoming irregular in
others ; and in age often elevated more or less. The gills are broad,
distant, usually decurrent, often connected by veins, white, with
yellowish tinge in drying. The spores oval to elliptical, 8-12 x 5-7 //.
The stem is stout, sometimes ascending, equal, or enlarged in the
middle, or tapering toward the base, solid, viscid like the pileus,
usually white, sometimes tinged with the same color as pileus, some-
what yellowish tinged in drying.

Figure 117 is from plants (No. 2546, C. U. herbarium) collected
in Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, Nov. 5, 1898.

Hygrophorus pratensis (Pers.) Fr. Edible. This hygrophorus grows
on the ground in pastures, old fields, or in waste places, or in thin
and open woods, from mid-summer to late autumn. The plants are
3-5 cm. high, the cap 2-5 cm. or more broad, and the stem 6-12 mm.
in thickness. The cap being thick at the center, and the stem being
usually stouter at the apex, often gives to the plant a shape like
that of a top.

The pileus is hemispherical, then convex, then nearly or quite
expanded, white, or with various shades of yellow or tawny, or buff,
not viscid, often cracking in dry weather. Flesh very thick at the
center, thinner at the margin. The flesh is firm and white. The
gills are stout, distant, long decurrent, white or yellowish, and
arcuate when the margin of the pileus is incurved in the young
state, then ascending as the pileus takes the shape of an inverted
cone. The gills are connected across the interspaces by vein-like
folds, or elevations. The spores are nearly globose to ovate or nearly
elliptical, white, 6-8 x 5-6 //. The stem is smooth, firm outside
and spongy within, tapering downward.

Hygrophorus miniatus Fr. The vermilion hygrophorus is a very
common plant in the woods during the summer. The cap and stem
are bright red, sometimes vermilion. The gills are yellow and often
tinged with red. The gills are adnate or sinuate. The plant is a

114 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

small one but often abundant, and measures from 3-5 cm. high, and
the cap 2-4 cm. broad. Hygrophorus coccineus (Schaeff.) Fr., is a some-
what larger plant and with a scarlet cap, which becomes yellowish
in age, and the gills are adnate. Hygrophorus conicus (Scop.) Fr., is
another bright red plant with a remarkable conical pileus, and the
gills are annexed to free.

Hygrophorus psittacinus Fr., is a remarkably pretty plant, the cap
being from bell-shaped to expanded, umbilicate, striate, and covered
with a greenish slime. It occurs in woods and open places. The
prevailing color is yellow, tinged with green, but it varies greatly,
sometimes yellow, red, white, etc., but nearly always is marked by
the presence of the greenish slime, the color of this disappearing as
the plant dries. It occurs in pastures, open woods, etc., from mid-
summer to autumn.

Hygrophorus hypothejus Fr., is another very variable plant in color
as well as in size, varying from yellow, orange, reddish, sometimes
paler, usually first grayish when covered with the olive colored slime.
The gills are decurrent, white, then yellow. It occurs in autumn.

LACTARIUS Fr.

The genus Lactarius is easily distinguished from nearly all the
other agarics by the presence of a milky or colored juice which exudes
from wounded, cut, or broken places on the fresh plant. There are
a few of the species of the genus Mycena which exude a watery or
colored juice where wounded, but these are easily told from Lactarius
because of their small size, more slender habit, and bell-shaped cap.
By careful observation of these characters it is quite an easy matter
to tell whether or not the plant at hand is a Lactarius. In addition
to the presence of this juice or milk as it is commonly termed, the
entire plant while firm is quite brittle, especially the gills. There are
groups of rounded or vesiculose cells intermingled with thread-like
cells in the substance of the cap. This latter character can only be
seen on examination with the microscope. The brittleness of the
plant as well as the presence of these groups of vesiculose cells is
shared by the genus Russula, which is at once separated from
Lactarius by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops. -

In determining the species it is a very important thing to know
the taste of the juice or of the fresh plant, whether it is peppery, or
bitter, or mild, that is, tasteless. If one is careful not to swallow
any of the juice or flesh of the plant no harm results from tasting any
of the plants, provided they are not tasted too often during a short
time, beyond the unpleasant sensation resulting from tasting some

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

115

of the very " hot " kinds,
the milk when it first
exudes from wounds and
if it changes color on ex-
posure to the air. These
tests of the plant should
be made of course while
it is fresh. The spores
are white, globose or
nearly so in all species,
and usually covered with
minute spiny processes.
There are a large number
of species. Peck, 38th
Report, N. Y. State Mus.,
pp. 1 1 1-133, describes 40
American species.

Lactarius volemus Fr.
Edible. This species is
by some termed the
orange brown lactarius
because of its usual color.
It was probably termed
Lactarius volemus be-
cause of the voluminous
quantity of milk which
exudes where the plant is
broken or bruised, though
it is not the only species
having this character.
In fresh, young plants, a
mere crack or bruise will
set loose quantities of the
milky juice which drops
rapidly from the plant.
The plant is about the
size of Lactarius Jelicio-
sus and occurs in damp
woods, where it grows
in considerable abund-
ance from July to Sep-
tember, several usually

It is important also to know the color of

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116 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

growing near each other. The pileus is convex, then expanded,
often with a small elevation (umbo) at the center, or sometimes
plane, and when old a little depressed in the center, smooth or
somewhat wrinkled. The cap is dull orange or tawny, the shade of
color being lighter in some plants and darker in others. The flesh
is white and quite firm. The gills are white, often tinged with the
same color as the pileus, but much lighter ; they are adnate or
slightly decurrent. The stem is usually short, but varies from
3-10 x 1-2 cm. It is colored like the pileus, but a lighter shade.

The milk is white, abundant, mild, not unpleasant to the taste,
but sticky as it dries. This plant has also long been known as one
of the excellent mushrooms for food both in Europe and America.
Peck states that there are several plants which resemble Lactarius
Tolemus in color and in the milk, but that no harm could come from
eating them. There is one with a more reddish brown pileus, Lac-
tarius rufus, found sparingly in the woods, but which has a very pep-
pery taste. It is said by some to be poisonous.

Lactarius corrugis Pk. Edible. This species occurs with Lactarius
rolemus and very closely resembles it, but it is of a darker color, and
the pileus is more often marked by prominent wrinkles, from which
character the plant has derived its specific name. It is perhaps a
little stouter plant than L. rolemus, and with a thicker cap. The
surface of the pileus seems to be covered with a very fine velvety
tomentum which glistens as the cap is turned in the light. The gills
are much darker than in L. rolemus. The plants are usually clearly
separated on account of these characters, yet there are occasionally
light colored forms of L. corrugis which are difficult to distinguish from
dark forms of L. rolemus, and this fact has aroused the suspicion that
corrugis is only a form of rolemus.

The milk is very abundant and in every respect agrees with that
of L. rnlemns. 1 do not know that any one has tested L. corrugis for
food. But since it is so closely related to L. rolemus 1 tested it dur-
ing the summer of 1899 in the North Carolina mountains. 1 consider
it excellent. The methods of cooking there were rather primitive.
It was sliced and fried with butter and salt. It should be well cooked,
for when not well done the partially raw taste is not pleasant. The
plant was very abundant in the woods, and for three weeks an
abundance was served twice a day for a table of twelve persons.
The only disagreeable feature about it is the sticky character of the
milk, which adheres in quantity to the hands and becomes black.
This makes the preparation of the plant for the broiler a rather un-
pleasant task.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

117

Figure 118 is from plants (No. 3910, C. U. herbarium) collected
in the woods at Blowing Rock, during September, 1899. Just before
the exposure was made to get the photograph several of the plants
were wounded with a pin to cause the drops of milk to exude, as is
well shown in the illustration.

The dark color of the lamella? in L. corrugis is due to the number
of brown cystidia or seta?, in the hymenium, which project above the
surface of the gills, and they are especially abundant on the edge of
the gills. These setae are longfusoid, 80-120 x 10-12 /<. The vari-
ations in the color of the gills, in some plants the gills being much
darker than in others, is due to the variations either in the number
of these setae or to the variation in their color. Where the cystidia
are fewer in number or are lighter in color the lamellae are lighter
colored. Typical forms of Lcictarins rolemus have similar setae, but
they are very pale in color and not so abundant over the surface of
the gills. In the darker forms of L. ivlemusthe setae are more abun-
dant and darker in color, approaching those found in L. corrugis.
These facts, supported by the variation in the color of the pileus in
the two species
and the varia-
tions in the ru-
gosities of the
pileus, seem to
indicate that
the two species
areveryclosely
related.

Lactarius lig=
ny ot us Fi .
This is known
as the sooty
1 actarius and
occurs in woods
along with the
smoky lactari-
us. It is dis-
tinguished from
the latter by
the dark brown
color of the pi-
leus and by the presence usually of rugose wrinkles over the center
of the cap. In size it agrees with the smoky lactarius.

FIGURE 119. Lactarius lignyotus. Cap and stem sooty, cap wrinkled,
gills white, then tinged with ochre (natural size, sometimes larger).
Copyright.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The pileus is convex, then plane, or somewhat depressed in the
center, dry, sometimes with a small umbo, dark brown or sooty
(chocolate to seal brown as given in Ridgeway's nomenclature of
colors), covered with a very fine tomentum which has the appear-
ance of a bloom. The margin of the cap, especially in old plants, is
somewhat wavy or plicate as in Lactarins fuliginosus. The gills are
moderately crowded when young, becoming distant in older plants,
white, then cream color or yellow, changing to reddish or salmon
color where bruised. The spores are yellowish in mass, faintly so
under the microscope, globose, strongly echinulate, 6-10 /<. The
taste is mild, or sometimes slowly and slightly acrid. The plants
from North Carolina showed distinctly the change to reddish or sal-
mon color when the gills were bruised, and the taste was noted as
mild.

Figure 119 is from plants (No. 3864, C. U. herbarium) collected
in the Blue Ridge Mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C., September,

1899.

Lactarius fuliginosus Fr.

The smoky or dingy lactarius
occurs in woods and open
grassy places. It is widely-
distributed. The plants are
4-7 cm. high, the cap 3-5 cm.
broad, and the stem 6-10
mm. in thickness. The light
smoky color of the cap and
stem, the dull yellowish
white color of the gills, and
in old plants the wavy mar-
gin of the cap make it com-
paratively easy to recognize
the species.

The pileus is thin, at first
firm, becoming soft, convex,
then plane and often some-
what depressed in the center,
usually even, dry, the mar-
gin in old plants crenately
wavy, dull gray or smoky gray in color, with a fine down or
tomentum. The gills are adnate, distant, more so in old plants,
white, then yellowish, sometimes changing to salmon color or reddish
where bruised. The spores are yellowish in mass, faintly yellow

FIGURK T20. Lactarius fuliginosus. Cap and stem
smoky, cap usually not wrinkled; gills white, then
light ochre, distant (natural size). Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

119

o
a
73
w

QfQ

n
93

under the microscope, strongly echinulate or tuberculate, globose,
6-10 //. The stem is usually paler than the pileus, firm, stuffed.
The milk is white, slowly acrid to the taste.

Figure 120 is from plants (No. 3867, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Lactarius gerardii Pk. This plant was described by Dr. Peck in
the 26th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 65, and in the 28th Rept. p.
129. According to the de-
scriptions it differs from Lac-
tarius fuliginosus only in the
spores being white, the gills
more distant, and the taste
being constantly mild. Since
the taste in L. fuliginosus is
sometimes mild, or slowly
acrid, and the lamellae in the
older plants are more distant,
the spores sometimes only
tinged with yellow, there
does not seem to be a very
marked difference between
the two species. In fact all
three of these species, fuligi-
nosus, lignyotus and gerardii,
seem to be very closely re-
lated. Forms of fuliginosus
approach lignyotus in color,

CT5 3"

and the pileus sometimes is
rugose wrinkled, while in lig-
nyotus pale forms occur, and
the pileus is not always
rugose wrinkled. The color
of the bruised lamellae is the
same in the two last species
and sometimes the change in
color is not marked.

Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Fr. This plant is widely distribu-
ted in Europe, Asia, as well as in America. It is easily recognized
by the uneven mixture of pink and ochraceous colors, and the very
hairy or tomentose margin of the cap. The plants are 5-10 cm. high,
the cap about the same breadth, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.
It occurs in woods on the ground during late summer and autumn.

3
6 o

-0

a o-

B-U

1-20 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The pileus is convex, depressed in the center, and the margin
strongly incurved when young, the abundant hairs on the margin
forming an apparent veil at this time which covers up the gills. The
upper surface of the pileus is smooth, or sometimes more or less cov-
ered with a tomentum similar to that on the margin. The color is
an admixture of ochraceous and pink hues, sometimes with concen-
tric zones of darker shades. The gills are crowded, narrow, whitish,
with a tinge of yellowish flesh color. The stem is cylindrical, even,
hollow, whitish.

The milk is white, unchangeable, acrid to the taste. Figure 121,
left hand plants, is from plants (No. 3911, C. U. herbarium) collected
in the Blue Ridge Mountains, N. C., in September, 1899, and the
right hand plant (No. 2960, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. V.

FIGURE 122. Lactarius piperatus. Entirely white, milk very peppery (natural

size, often larger). Copyright.

Lactarius piperatus (Scop.) Fr. This species is very hot and pep-
pery to the taste, is of medium size, entirely white, depressed at the
center, or funnel-shaped, with a short stem, and very narrow and
crowded gills, and abundant white milk. The plants are 3-7 cm.
high, the cap 8-12 cm. broad, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.
It grows in woods on the ground and is quite common, sometimes
very common in late summer and autumn.

The pileus is fleshy, thick, firm, convex, umbilicate, and then
depressed in the center, becoming finally more or less funnel-shaped
by the elevation of the margin. It is white, smooth when young, in
age sometimes becoming sordid and somewhat roughened. The gills

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

1-21

are white, very narrow, very much crowded, and some of them
forked, arcuate and then ascending because of the funnel-shaped
pileus. The spores are smooth, oval, with a small point, 5-7 x 4-5 /<.
The stem is equal or tapering below, short, solid.

The milk is white, unchangeable, very acrid to the taste and
abundant. The plant is reported as edible. A closely related spe-
cies is L. pergamenus (Swartz) Fr., which resembles it very closely,
but has a longer, stuffed stem, and thinner, more pliant pileus, which
is more frequently irregular and eccentric, and not at first umbilicate.
Figure 122 is from plants (No. 3887, C. U. herbarium) collected at
Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

FIGURE 123. Lactarius resimus. Entire plant white, in age scales
on cap dull ochraceous (natural size). Copyright.

Lactarius resimus Fr. ? This plant is very common in the woods
bordering a sphagnum moor at Malloryville, N. Y., ten miles from
Ithaca, during July to September. I have found it at this place
every summer for the past three years. It occurs also in the woods
of the damp ravines in the vicinity of Ithaca. It was also abundant

122

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina, during September,
1899. The plants are large, the caps 10-15 cm - broad, the stem 5-8
cm. long, and 2-3 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, umbilicate, then depressed and more or less
funnel-shaped in age, white, in the center roughened with fibrous
scales as the plant ages, the scales becoming quite stout in old plants.
The scales are tinged with dull ochraceous or are light brownish in
the older plants. The ochre colored scales are sometimes evident
over the entire cap, even in young plants. In young plants the
margin is strongly involute or inrolled, and a loose but thick veil of

interwoven threads ex-
tends from the surface
of the roll to the stem.
This disappears as the
margin of the cap un-
rolls with the expanding
pileus. The margin of
the pileus is often ster-
ile, that is, it extends
beyond the ends of the
gills. The gills are
white, stout, and broad,
decurrent, some of them
forked near the stem.
When bruised, the gills
after several hours be-
come ochraceous brown.
The spores are s u b-
globose, minutely
spiny, 8-12 //. The stem
is solid, cylindrical,
minutely tomentose, spongy within when old.

The taste is very acrid, and the white milk not changing to yel-
low. While the milk does not change to yellow, broken portions of
the plant slowly change to flesh color, then ochraceous brown. Fig-
ures 123, 124 are from plants collected in one of the damp gorges
near Ithaca, during September, 1896. The forked gills, the strongly
inrolled margin of the cap and veil of the young plants are well
shown in the illustration.

Lactarius chrysorrheus Fr. This is a common and widely distribu-
ted species, from small to medium size. The plants are 5-8 cm. high,
the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem 1-1.5 cm - m thickness. It

FIGURE 124. Lactarius resimus. Section of young
plant showing inrolled margin of cap, and the
veil (natural size). Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

123

grows in woods and groves during late summer and autumn.
The pileus is fleshy, of medium thickness, convex and depressed
in the center from the young condition, and as the pileus expands
the margin becomes more and more upturned and the depression
deeper, so that eventually it is more or less broadly funnel-form.
The color varies from white to flesh color, tinged with yellow some-
times in spots, and marked usually with faint zones of brighter yellow.
The zones are sometimes very indistinct or entirely wanting. The
gills are crowded, white then yellow, where bruised becoming yellow-
ish, then dull reddish. The stem is equal or tapering below, hollow

FIGURE 125. Lactarius chrysorrheus. Cap white or flesh color, often tinged with
yellowish, and with darker zones (natural size). Copyright.

or stuffed, paler than the pileus, smooth (sometimes pitted as shown
in the Fig. 125).

The plant is acrid to the taste, the milk white changing to citron
yellow on exposure. Figure 125 is from plants (No. 3875, C. U. her-
barium) collected in the Blue Ridge Mountains at Blowing Rock, N.
C., September, 1899. The species was quite abundant in this local-
ity during August and September, in chestnut groves, mixed woods,
and borders of woods.

Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Fr. Edible. Lactarius deliciosus grows in
damp woods, is widely distributed and sometimes is quite common.
It occurs from July to October. It is one of the medium or large
sized species, being 3-10 cm. high, the cap 5-12 cm. broad, and the

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

stem 1-2 cm. in thickness. It is easily recognized by its orange
color and the concentric zones of light and dark orange around on the
pileus, and by the orange milk which is exuded where wounded.

The pileus is first convex, then slightly depressed in the center,
becoming more expanded, and finally more or less funnel-shaped by
the elevation of the margin. It is usually more or less orange in
color or mottled with varying shades, and with concentric bands of a
deeper color. The gills are yellowish orange often with darker spots.
The stem is of the same color as the pileus but paler, sometimes with
darker spots. The flesh of the plant is white, shaded with orange.
In old plants the color fades out somewhat and becomes unevenly
tinged with green, and bruised places become green. Peck states
that when fresh the plant often has a slight acrid taste.

Being a widely distributed and not uncommon plant, and one so
readily recognized, it has long been known in the old world as well
as here. All writers on these subjects concur in recommending it
for food, some pronouncing it excellent, some the most delicious
known. Its name suggests the estimation in which it was held
when christened.

Lactarius chelidonium Pk. Edible. This pretty little Lactarins was
described by Peck in the 24th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 74. It
is closely allied to Lactarius deliciosus, from which it is said to differ
in its " more narrow lamella?, differently colored milk, smaller
spores." The plant is about 5 cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. broad,
and the stem 1-1.5 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, firm, convex and depressed in the center,
smooth, slightly viscid when moist, " of a grayish green color with
blue and yellow tints, and a few narrow zones on the margin." The
gills are crowded, narrow, some of them forked at the base, and
sometimes joining to form reticulations. The spores are yellowish.
The short stem is nearly equal, smooth, hollow, and the same color
as the pileus.

The taste is mild, the milk not abundant, and of a yellowish color,
" resembling the juice of Celandine or the liquid secreted from the
mouth of grasshoppers." Wounds on the plant are first of the color
of the milk, changing on exposure to blue, and finally to green. The
plant occurs during late summer and in the autumn in woods. Peck
reported it first from Saratoga, N. Y. It has been found elsewhere
in the State, and it has probably quite a wide distribution. I found
it during September, 1899, in the Blue Ridge Mountains of N. C.
Figure i, plate 39, is from some of the water color drawings made by
Mr. Franklin R. Rathbun.

PLATE 39.

FIG. i. Lactarius deliciosus.
FIG. 2. L. chelidonium.
FIG. 3. L. indigo.
Copyright 1900.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 125

Lactarius indigo (Schw.) Fr. The indigo blue lactarius is a very
striking and easily recognized plant because of the rich indigo blue
color so predominant in the entire plant. It is not very abundant,
but is widely distributed in North America. The plant is 5-7 cm.
high, the cap 5-12 cm. broad, and the stem is 1-2 cm. in thickness.
The plants occur during late summer and in the autumn.

The pileus when young is umbilicate, the margin involute, and in
age the margin becomes elevated and then the pileus is more or less
funnel-shaped. The indigo blue color is deeply seated, and the sur-
face of the pileus has a silvery gray appearance through which the
indigo blue color is seen. The surface is marked by concentric zones
of a darker shade. In age the color is apt to be less uniformly dis-
tributed, it is paler, and the zones are fainter. The gills are crowded,
and when bruised, or in age, the indigo blue color changes somewhat
to greenish. The milk is dark blue.

RUSSULA Pers.

The species of Russula are very characteristic, and the genus is
easily recognized in most cases after a little experience. In the very
brittle texture of the plants the genus resembles Lactarius, and many
of them are more brittle than the species of this genus. A section
of the pileus shows under the microscope a similar vesicular condi-
tion, that is the grouping of large rounded cells together, with threads
between. But the species of Russula are at once separated from
those of Lactarius by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops
from bruised parts of Lactarius. While some of the species are white
and others have dull or sombre colors, many of the species of Russula
have bright, or even brilliant colors, as red, purple, violet, pink, blue,
yellow, green. In determining many of the species, however, it is
necessary to know the taste, whether mild, bitter, acrid, etc., and in
this respect the genus again resembles Lactarius. The color of the
gills as well as the color of the spores in mass should also be deter-
mined. The genus is quite a large one, and the American species
are not well known, the genus being a difficult one. In Jour. Myco-
log., 5: 58-64, 1889, the characters of the tribes of Russula with
descriptions of 25 species are quoted from Stevenson, with notes on
their distribution in N. A. by MacAdam.

Russula alutacea Fr. Edible. This handsome Russula differs from
the others described here in the color of the gills and spores. The
plant is common and occurs in mixed woods during the summer and
early autumn. It is 5-10 cm. high, the cap 5-12 cm. broad, and the
stem 1.5-2.5 cm. in thickness.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The pileus is fleshy, oval to bell-shaped, becoming plane, and
sometimes umbilicate. It is red or blood red in color, sometimes
purple, and becoming pale in age, especially at the center. It is vis-
cid when moist, the margin thin and striate-tuberculate. The gills
are free from the stem, stout, broad, first white, becoming yellow,
and in age ochraceous. The gills are all of the same length, not
crowded, and they are connected by vein-like elevations over the
surface. The stem is stout, solid, even, white, portions of the stem
are red, sometimes purple.

The taste is mild, and the plant is regarded as one of the very
good ones for food.

Russula lepida Fr. Edible. --This elegant Rnssula occurs in birch
woods or in mixed woods during late summer and autumn. It is 5-8
cm. high, the cap 6-8 cm. broad, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, convex, then expanded, obtuse, not shining,
deep red, becoming pale in age, often whitish at the center, silky, in
age the surface cracking, the margin blunt and not striate. The gills
are rounded next the stem, thick, rather crowded, and sometimes
forked, white, sometimes red on the edge near the margin of the
pileus. The gills are often connected by vein-like elevations over
the surface. The stem is equal, white or rose color. The taste is
mild.

Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr. Edible. This plant grows on the
ground in woods or in grassy places in groves from July to September.
The stem is short, 2-7 cm. long x 1-2 cm. thick, and the cap is 5-10
cm. broad. The plant is well known by the green color of the pileus
and by the surface of the pileus being separated into numerous, quite
regular, somewhat angular areas or patches, where the green color
is more pronounced.

The pileus is first rounded, then convex and expanded, and when
old somewhat depressed in the center. It is quite firm, dry, green-
ish, and the surface with numerous angular tloccose areas or patches
of usually a deeper green. Sometimes the pileus is said to be tinged
with yellow. The gills are adnate, nearly free from the stem, and
crowded. The stem is white and firm.

The greenish Russula, Russule "circscens, like a number of other
plants, has long been recommended for food, both in Europe and in
this country. There are several species of Russula in which the
pileus is green, but this species is readily distinguished from them by
the greenish floccose patches on the surface of the pileus. Russula
furcata is a common species in similar situations, with forked gills,
and the cap very variable in color, sometimes reddish, purple, purple

PLATE 40.

FIG. i. Russula vircscens.
FIG. 2. R. alulae r;i.
FIG. 3. R. lepida.
FIG. 4. R. emetica.
FIG. 5. Yellow Russula.
FIG. 6. R. adusta.
Copyright 1900.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. 1-7

brown, or in one form green. 1 know of the Russula furcata having
been eaten in rather small quantities, and while in this case no harm
resulted the taste was not agreeable.

Russula fragilis (Pers.) Fr. This plant is very common in damp
woods, or during wet weather from July to September. It is a
small plant and very fragile, as its name suggests, much more so
than most other species. It is 2-4 cm. high, the cap 2-5 cm. broad,
and the stem about i cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, then plane,
and in age somewhat depressed. The cuticle peels off very easily.
The color is often a bright red, or pink, sometimes purple or violet,
and becomes paler in age. It is somewhat viscid when moist, and
the margin is very thin and strongly striate and tuberculate, i. e., the
ridges between the marginal furrows are tuberculate. The gills are
lightly adnexed, thin, crowded, broad, all of the same length, white.
The stem is usually white, sometimes more or less pink colored,
spongy within, becoming hollow. The taste is very acrid.

Russula emetica Fr. Poisonous. This Russula has a very wide dis-
tribution and occurs on the ground in woods or open places during
summer and autumn. It is a beautiful species and very fragile. The
plants are 5-10 cm. high, the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem 1-2
cm. in thickness. The pileus is oval to bell-shaped when young,
becoming plane, and in age depressed. It is smooth, shining, the
margin furrowed and tuberculate. The color is from pink or rosy
when young to dark red when older, and fading to tawny or some-
times yellowish in age. The cuticle is easily separable as in R. fra-
o-ilis, the flesh white, but reddish just beneath the cuticle. The gills
are nearly free, broad, not crowded, white. The stem is stout,
spongy within, white or reddish, fragile when old.

The plant is very acrid to the taste and is said to be poisonous,
and to act as an emetic.

Russula adusta (Pers.) Fr. This plant occurs on the ground in
woods during late summer and in autumn. It is 3-6 cm. high, the
cap 5-15 cm. broad, and the stem is 1-1.5 cm - m thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, firm, convex, depressed at the center, and
when old more or less funnel-shaped from the upturning of the mar-
gin, which is at first incurved and smooth. It varies from white to
gray and smoky color. The gills are adnate, or decurrent, thin,
crowded, of unequal lengths, white, then becoming dark. The stem
is colored like the pileus. The entire plant becomes darker in dry-
ing, sometimes almost black. It is near Russula nigricans, but is
smaller, and does not have a red juice as R. nigricans has.

128

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

CANTHARELLUS Adanson.

From the other white-spored agarics of a fleshy consistency Can-
is distinguished by the form of the gills. The gills are gen-
erally forked, once or several times, in a dichotomous manner,
though sometimes irregularly. They are blunt on the edge, not
acute as in most of the other genera. The gills are usually narrow

and in many species
look like veins, folds,
or wrinkles, but in
some species, as in
Cantharellus aurantia-
cns, they are rather
thin and broad.

Cantharellus cibarius
Fr. Edible. This plant
is known as the chan-
terelle. It has a very
wide distribution and
has long been regarded
as one of the best of
the edible mushrooms.
Many of the writers on
fungi speak of it in
terms of high praise.
The entire plant is a
uniform rich chrome
yellow. Sometimes
it is symmetrical in
form, but usually it is
more or less irregular
and unsymmetrical in
form. The plants are
5-10 cm. high, the cap
4-8 cm. broad, and the
stem short and rather
thick.

FIGURE 126 Cantharellus cibarius. Under view showing
forked gills with veins connecting them. Entire plant rich
chrome yellow (natural size).

The pileus is fleshy, rather thick, the margin thick and blunt and
at first inrolled. It is convex, becoming expanded or sometimes
depressed by the margin of the cap becoming elevated. The margin
is often wavy or repand, and in irregular forms it is only produced at
one side, or more at one side than at the other, or the cap is irregu-

D
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o;
'33

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13

Hi
ec

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tn

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O

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

1-29

larly lobed. The gills are very narrow, stout, distant, more or less
sinuous, forked or anastomosing irregularly, and because of the pileus
being something like an inverted cone the gills appear to run down
on the stem. The spores are faintly yellowish, elliptical, 7-10 //.
Figure 126 represents but a single specimen, and this one with a
nearly lateral pileus.

FIGURE 128. Cantharellus aurantiacus, under view, enlarged nearly twice, showing regularly

forked gills.

Cantharellus aurantiacus Fr. This orange cantharellus is very
common, and occurs on the ground or on very rotten wood, logs,
branches, etc., from summer to very late autumn. It is widely dis-
tributed in Europe and America. It is easily known by its dull orange
or brownish pileus, yellow gills, which are thin and regularly forked,

130 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

and by the piieus being more or less depressed or funnel-shaped.
The plants are from 5-8 cm. high, the cap from 2-7 cm. broad, and
the stem about 4-8 mm. in thickness.

The piieus is fleshy, soft, flexible, convex, to expanded, or obconic,
plane or depressed, or funnel-shaped, the margin strongly inrolled
when young, in age simply incurved, the margin plane or repand and
undulate. The color varies from ochre yellow to dull orange, or
orange ochraceous, raw sienna, and tawny, in different specimens.
It is often brownish at the center. The surface of the piieus is
minutely tomentose with silky hairs, especially toward the center, and
sometimes smooth toward the margin. The flesh is 3-5 mm. at the
center, and thin toward the margin. The gills are arcuate, decur-
rent, thin, the edge blunt, but not so much so as in a number of
other species, crowded, regularly forked several times, at length
ascending when the piieus is elevated at the margin. The color of
the gills is orange to cadmium orange, or sometimes paler, cadmium
yellow or deep chrome. The stem is clay color to ochre yellow, en-
larged below, spongy, stuffed, fistulose, soft, fibrous, more or less
ascending at the base.

The taste is somewhat nutty, sometimes bitterish. The plants
in Fig. 127 (No. 3272, C. U. herbarium) were collected near Ithaca,
October 7, 1899.

MARASMIUS Fr.

In this genus the plants are tough and fleshy or membranaceous,
leathery and dry. They do not easily decay, but shrivel up in dry
weather, and revive in wet weather, or when placed in water. This
is an important character in distinguishing the genus. It is closely
related to Collvbia, from which it is difficult to separate certain spe-
cies. On the other hand, it is closely related to Lentimts and Panus,
both of which are tough and pliant. In Marasmius, however, the
substance of the piieus is separate from that of the stem, while in
Lentinus and Panus it is continuous, a character rather difficult for
the beginner to understand. The species of Marasmius, however,
are generally much smaller than those of Lentimts and Panus, espe-
cially those which grow on wood. The stem in Marasmius is in
nearly all species central, while in Lentinus and Panus it is generally
more or less eccentric. Many of the species of the genus Marasmius
have an odor of garlic when fresh. Besides the fairy ring (M. orea-
des) which grows on the ground, M. roiula is a very common spe-
cies on wood and leaves. It has a slender, black, shining stem, and
a brownish piieus usually with a black spot in the depression in the

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

131

center. The species are very numerous. Peck, 23rd Report, N. Y.
State Mus., p. 124-126, describes 8 species. Morgan Jour. Cinn.
Soc. Nat. Hist. 6: 189-194, describes 17 species.

Marasmius oreades Fr. Edible. This is the well known " fairy ring "
mushroom. It grows during the summer and autumn in grassy
places, as in lawns, by roadsides, in pastures, etc. It appears most
abundantly during wet weather or following heavy rains. It is found
usually in circles, or in the arc of a circle, though few scattered
plants not arranged in this way often occur. The plants are 7-10
cm. high, the cap 2-4 cm. broad, and the stem 3-4 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes the center elevated,
fleshy, rather thin, tough, smooth, buff color, or tawny or reddish,
in age, or in drying, paler. When moist the pileus may be striate

FIGURE 129. Marasmius oreades. Caps buff, tawny, or reddish.

on the margin. The gills are broad, free or adnexed, rounded near
the stem, white or dull yellowish. The spores are elliptical, 7-8 //
long. The stem is tough, solid, whitish.

This widely distributed fungus is much prized everywhere by
those who know it. It is not the only fungus which appears in rings,
so that this habit is not peculiar to this plant. Several different
kinds are known to appear in rings at times. The appearance of the
fungus in rings is due to the mode of growth of the mycelium or
spawn in the soil.

Having started at a given spot the mycelium consumes the food
material in the soil suitable for it, and the plants for the first year
appear in a group. In the center of this spot the mycelium, having
consumed all the available food, probably dies after producing the

132 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

crop of mushrooms. But around the edge of the spot the mycelium
or spawn still exists, and at the beginning of the next season it starts
into growth and feeds on the available food in a zone surrounding
the spot where it grew the previous year. This second year, then,
the plants appear in a small ring. So in succeeding years it advances
outward, the ring each year becoming larger. Where the plants
appear only in the arc of a circle, something has happened to check
or destroy the mycelium in the remaining arc of the circle.

It has been noted by several observers that the grass in the ring
occupied by the mushrooms is often greener than that adjoining.
This is perhaps due to some stimulus exerted by the mycelium of the
fungus on the grass, or possibly the mycelium may in some way
make certain foods available for the grass which gives an additional
supply to it at this point.

Fig. 129 is from plants (No. 5503, C. U. herbarium) collected in
a lawn, October 25, 1900, Ithaca.

Illustrations of some fine large rings formed by this fungus
appeared in circular No. 13 by Mr. Coville, of the Division of Botany
in the U. S. Dept. Agr.

Marasmius cohsrens (Fr.) Bres. (Mycena cohcerens Fr. Collybia lach-
nopbyllaEerk. Collybia spinnlif era Pk.) This plant grows in dense
clusters, ten to twenty individuals with their stems closely joined
below and fastened together by the abundant growth of threads from
the lower ends. From this character the name cohccrens was derived.
The plants grow on the ground or on very rotten wood in woods dur-
ing late spring and in the summer. The plant is not very common
in this country, but appears to be widely distributed both in Europe
and here, having been collected in Carolina, Ohio, Vermont, New
York, etc. The plants are 12-20 cm. high, the cap 2-2.5 crn - broad,
and the stem 4-7 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, tough, convex or bell-shaped, then expanded,
sometimes umbonate, or in age sometimes the margin upturned and
more or less wavy, not viscid, but finely striate when damp, thin.
The color varies from vinaceous cinnamon to chestnut or light leather
color, or tawny, paler in age, and sometimes darker on the center.
The gills are sometimes more or less crowded, narrow, 5-6 mm. broad,
adnate, but notched, and sometimes becoming free from the stem.
The color is light leather color, brick red or bay, the color and color
variations being due to numbers of colored cystida or spicules scat-
tered over the surface of the gills and on the edge. The cystidia are
fulvous, fusoid, 75-90 //long. The spores are oval, white, small, 6x 3 /^.
The stem is long and slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering some-

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

133

what above, slightly enlarged below, and rooting. The color is the
same as that of the pileus or dark bay brown, and shining, and
seems to be due to large numbers of spicules similar to those on the
gills. The color
is paler below in
some cases, or
gradually darker
below in others.
The stems are
bound together
below by numer-
ous threads.

Figure 1 30 is
from plants (No.
2373, C. U. her-
ba r ium) co 1-
lected in woods
near Freeville,
N . Y . The
plants have been
collected near
Ithaca on three
different occas-
ions, twice near
Freeville about
nine miles from
Ithaca, and once
in the woods at
Ithaca. It is
easily disting-
uished by its
color and the
presence of the
peculiar sete or
cystidia.

Although the plant has been collected on several different occa-
sions in America, it does not seem to have been recognized under
this name until recently, save the record of it from Carolina by
de Schweinitz (Synop. fung. Car. No. 606, p. Si).

FIGURE 130. Marasmius cohaerens (Fr.) Bres. (= Mycena cohaerens
Fr. - -- Collybia lachnophylla Berk. == C. spinulifera Pk.) Color
chestnut, light leather color, tawny or vinaceous cinnamon, darker
in center; stems dark, shining; gills leather color, or fulvous, or
wine color, brick red or bay, varying in different specimens (natural
size). Copyright.

134 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

LENTINUS Fr.

The plants of this genus are tough and pliant, becoming hard
when old, unless very watery, and when dry. The genus differs
from the other tough and pliant ones by the peculiarity of the gills,
the gills being notched or serrate on the edges. Sometimes this
appearance is intensified by the cracking of the gills in age or in
drying. The nearest ally of the genus is Panus, which is only sep-
arated from Lentiuus by the edge of the gills being plane. This does
not seem a very good character on which to separate the species of
the two genera, since it is often difficult to tell whether the gills are
naturally serrate or whether they have become so by certain tensions
which exist on the lamella during the expansion and drying of the
pileus. Schntter unites Panus with Lentinus (Cohn's Krypt. Flora,
Schlesien, 3, i ; 554, 1889). The plants are usually very irregular
and many of them shelving, only a few grow upright and have reg-
ular caps.

Lentinus vulpinus Fr. This is a large and handsome species, having
a wide distribution in Europe and in this country, but it does not
seem to be common. It grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in the
woods. It was quite abundant during late summer and in the autumn
on fallen logs, in a woods near Ithaca. The caps are shelving, closely
overlapping in shingled fashion (imbricated), and joined at the nar-
rowed base. The surface is convex, and the margin is strongly
incurved, so that each of the individual caps is shell-shaped (con-
chate). The surface of the pileus is coarsely hairy or hispid, the
surface becoming more rough with age. Many coarse hairs unite to
form coarse tufts which are stouter and nearly erect toward the base of
the cap, and give the surface a tuberculate appearance. Toward the
margin of the cap these coarse hairs are arranged in nearly parallel
lines, making rows or ridges, which are very rough. The hairs and
tubercles are dark in color, being nearly black toward the base,
especially in old plants, and sometimes pale or of a smoky hue, espe-
cially in young plants. The pileus is flesh color when young, becom-
ing darker when old, and the flesh is quite thin, whitish toward the
gills and darker toward the surface. The gills are broad, nearly
white, flesh color near the base, coarsely serrate, becoming cracked
in age and in drying, narrowed toward the base of the pileus, not
forked, crowded, 4-6 mm. broad. The cap and gills are tough even
when fresh. The plant has an intensely pungent taste.

Figures 131, 132 represent an upper, front, and under view of
the pilei (No. 3315, C. U. herbarium).

e_^

"5.

"o e
e >s.

0> O

x O

f ^ P

^^ EL
rT

w ft)
vj

2. cr

OQ JT

~ o

EL
5

-K

I
o

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

135

C
tfl

Lentinus lecomtei Fr., is a very common and widely distributed
species growing on wood.
When it grows on the upper
side of logs the pileus is some-
times regular and funnel-
shaped (cyathiform), but it is
often irregular and produced
on one side, especially if it
grows on the side of the sub-
stratum. In most cases, how-
ever, there is a funnel-shaped
depression above the attach-
ment of the stem. The pileus
is tough, reddish or reddish
brown or leather color, hairy
or sometimes strigose, the
margin incurved. The stem is
usually short, hairy, or in age
it may become more or less
smooth. The gills are narrow,
crowded, the spores small,
ovate to elliptical 5-6x2~3/<.
According to Bresadola this is
the same as Panus mdis Fr.
It resembles very closely also
PJHUS cyathiformis (Schaeff.)
Fr., and P. strigosus B. & C.

Lentinus lepideus Fr., \_L.
sqiiamosus (Schaeff. )Schroet.]
is another common and widely
distributed species. It is much
larger than L. lecomtei, whitish
with coarse brown scales on
the cap. It is 12-20 cm. high,
and the cap is often as broad.
The stem is 2-8 cm. long and
1-2 cm. in thickness. It
grows on wood.

Lentinus stipticus (Bull.)
Schroet. (Panus stipticus Bull.)
is a very small species com-
pared with the three named

n
o

Orq

136

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

above. It is, however, a very common and widely distributed one,
growing on wood, and may be found the year around. The pileus

is 1-3 cm. in diameter, whitish
or grayish, very tough, ex-
panded in wet weather, and
curled up in dry weather. The
stem is very short, and attached
to one side of the cap. When
freshly developed the plant is
phosphorescent.

I SCHIZOPHYLLUM Fr.

This is a very interesting
genus, but the species are very
few. The plants are tough,
pliant when fresh, and dry.
The gills are very character-
istic, being split along the edge
and generally strongly revolute,
that is, the split edges curve
around against the side of the
gill. This character can be
seen sometimes with the aid of
a hand lens, but is very evident
when a section of the cap and
gills is made and then examined
with a microscope. The spores
are white.

Schizophyllum alneum (L.)

Schroet. This species usually
goes by the name of Schiqpphyl-
lum commune, but the earlier
name is 5. alneum. It is a very
common plant and is world wide
in its distribution, growing on
wood, as on branches, trunks,
etc. It is white, and the pileus
is very hairy or tomentose, with
coarse white hairs. It is 1-3
cm. in diameter, and the cap is
FIGURE 133. Schizophyllum alneum (=S. sess ji e , either attached at one

commune). View of under side (natural

size). Copyright. side when the cap is more pro-

PLATE 43, FIGURE 134. Trogia crispa. Large cluster of caps, view
of underside (natural size). Copyright.

WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. loT

duced on one side than on the other, or it may be attached at or
near the center of the top, when the cap is more evenly developed
on all sides. It is often crenate or lobed on the margin, the
larger plants showing this character more prominently. The margin
is incurved. The gills are white, wooly, branched and extend out
toward the margin of the cap like the radiations of a fan. The gills
are deeply split along the edge, and strongly revolute. It is a very
pretty plant, but one becomes rather tired of collecting it because it
is so common. It may be found at all seasons of the year on dead
sticks and branches, either in the woods or elsewhere, if the branches
are present. It is very coriaceous, and tough. During dry weather
it is much shrunken and curled up, but during rains it expands
quickly and then it is seen in its beauty.

Figure 133 shows the plant in the expanded condition, from the
under side. The plants were growing on a hickory branch, and
were dry and shrunken when brought in the laboratory. The branch
and the fungus were placed in water for a few hours, when the fun-
gus expanded, and was then photographed in this condition.

TROGIA Fr.

This genus is characterized, according to Fries, by the gills being
channeled along the edge, but singularly the only species attributed
to the genus in Europe and in our country has not channeled gills,
but only somewhat crisped along the edges. It is usually, therefore,
a difficult matter for a beginner to determine the plant simply from
this description. The gills are furthermore narrow, irregular, and
the plants are somewhat soft and flabby when wet, but brittle and
persistent when dry, so that when moistened they revive and appear
as if fresh.

Trogia crispa Fr. This species is the principal if not only one in
Europe and America. It is widely distributed, and sometimes not
very uncommon. It occurs on trunks, branches, etc., often on the
birch. The plants are from 0.5-1 cm. broad, usually sessile. The
upper surface is whitish or reddish yellow toward the attachment,
sometimes tan color, and when young it is sometimes covered with
whitish hairs. The gills are very narrow, vein-like, irregular, inter-
rupted or continuous, and often more or less branched. The gills are
very much crisped, hence the name, blunt at the ed.ee and white or
bluish gray. The caps are usually much crowded and overlapped in
an imbricated fashion as shown in Fig. 134; a photograph of a fine
specimen after being moistened.

CHAPTER VII.

THE ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are rosy, pink, salmon colored, tlesh colored, or red-
dish. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXII.

PLUTEUS Fr.

In the genus Pluteus the volva and annulus are both wanting, the
gills are usually free from the stem, and the stem is easily broken

FIGURE 135. Pluteus cervinus. Cap grayish brown, or sooty, smooth or some-
times scaly, rarely white, stem same color, but paler; gills first white, then
flesh color (natural size, often larger). Copyright.

out from the substance of the cap, reminding one in some cases of a
ball and socket joint. The substance of the cap is thus said to be
not continuous with that of the stem. The spores seen in mass are
flesh colored as in other genera of this subdivision of the agarics.

Pluteus cervinus Schaeff. Edible. This is one of the very common
species of the higher fungi, and is also very widely distributed. It

138

ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

139

varies considerably in size and appearance. It is 7-15 cm. high, the
cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem 6-12 mm. in thickness. It occurs
on the ground from underground roots or rotten wood, or grows on
decaying stumps, logs, etc., from spring until late autumn. Some-
times it is found growing in sawdust.

The pileus is fleshy, bell-shaped, then convex, and becoming
expanded, the surface usually smooth, but showing radiating fibrils,
grayish brown, or sometimes sooty, sometimes more or less scaly.
The gills are not crowded, broad, free from the stem, white, then

FIGURE 136. Pluteus tomentosulus. Cap and stem entirely white, gills flesh
color, stem furrowed and tomentose (natural size). Copyright.

becoming flesh color with the maturity of the spores. One very
characteristic feature of the plant is the presence of cystidia in the
hymenium on the gills. These are stout, colorless, elliptical, thick-
walled, and terminate in two or three blunt, short prongs.

The stem is nearly equal, solid, the color much the same as that
of the pileus, but often paler above, smooth or sometimes scaly.

In some forms the plant is entirely white, except the gills. In
addition to the white forms occurring in the woods, I have found them
in an old abandoned cement mine growing on wood props.

140 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Pluteus tomentosulus Pk. This plant was described by Peck in the
32d Report, N. Y. State Mus., page 28, 1879. It grows on decaying
wood in the woods during July and August. The plants are 5-12
cm. high, the cap 3-7 cm. broad, and the stem 4-8 mm. in thickness.
The description given by Peck is as follows : " Pileus thin, convex
or expanded, subumbonate, dry, minutely squamulose-tomentose,
white, sometimes pinkish on the margin ; lamella* rather broad,
rounded behind, free, crowded, white then flesh colored ; stem equal,
solid, striate, slightly pubescent or subtomentose, white ; spores sub-
globose, 7 /< in diameter, generally containing a large single nucleus."
From the plant collected at Ithaca the following notes were made.
The pileus and stem are entirely white, the gills tlesh color. The
pileus is expanded, umbonate, thin except at the umbo, minutely
floccose squamulose, no pinkish tinge noted ; the tlesh is white, but
on the umbo changing to flesh color where wounded. The gills are
free, with a clear white space between stem and rounded edges,
crowded, narrow (about 3-4 mm. broad) edge finely fimbriate, prob-
ably formed by numerous bottle-shaped cystidia on the edge, and
which extend up a little distance on the side of the gills, but are not
distributed in numbers over the surface of the gills ; cystidia thin
walled, hyaline. The spores are tlesh colored, subglobose, 5-7 //.
Stem cylindrical, even, twisted somewhat, white, striate and minutely
squamulose like the pileus, but with coarser scales, especially toward
the base, solid, flesh white.

The species received its name from the tomentose, striate charac-
ter of the stem. The plants (No. 3219, C. U. herbarium) illustrated
in Fig. 136 were collected in Enfield Gorge, vicinity of Ithaca, July

28, 1899.

VOLVARIA Fr.

This genus takes its name from the volva, which means a wrap-
per, and which, as we know from our studies of Amanita, entirely
envelops the plant at a young stage. The genus is characterized
then by the rosy or reddish spores, the presence of a volva, and the
annulus is wanting. The stem is easily separable from the pileus at
its junction, in this respect being similar to Amanita, Amanitopsis,
Lepiota and others. The gills are usually, also, free from the stem.
The species grow on rotting wood, on leaf mould and on richly man-
ured ground, etc. They are of a very soft texture and usually soon
decay.

Volvaria bombycina (Pers.) Fr. Edible. The silky volvaria is so
called because of the beautiful silky texture of the surface of the cap.
It is not very common, but is world wide in its distribution, and occurs

ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

141

on decayed wood of logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and
in autumn. It is usually of a beautiful white color, large, the volva
large and thick, reminding one of a bag, and the stem is ascending when
the plant grows on the side of the
trunk, or erect when it grows on
the upper side of a log or stump.
The plant is from 8- 16 cm. high,
the cap 6-20 cm. broad, and the
stem 1-1.5 cm - m thickness.

The pileus is globose, then bell-
shaped, and finally convex and
somewhat umbonate, white, accord-
ing to some becoming somewhat red-
dish. The entire surface is silky,
and numerous hairs stand out in the
form of soft down, when older the
surface becoming more or less scaly,
or rarely becoming smooth at the
apex. The flesh is white. The
gills are crowded, very broad along
the middle, flesh colored, the edge
sometimes ragged. The spores are
rosy in mass, oval to broadly el-
liptical, 6-9 x 5-6 /<, smooth. The
stem tapers from the base to the
apex, is solid, smooth. The volva
is large and bag-like. The plant
is considered edible by some. Fig-
ure 137 is from a plant (No. 3096,
C. U. herbarium) collected on a 1'og
of Acer rubrum in Cascadilla woods,
Ithaca, on August loth, 1898.

Volvaria speciosa Fr. This plant
seems to be rare, but it has a wide
distribution in Europe and the
United States. It occurs on richly
manured ground, on dung, etc.
The plants are 10-20 cm. high, the
cap 6-12 cm. broad, and the stem
1-2 cm. in thickness. The entire plant is white or whitish, some-
times grayish, especially at the center, where it is also sometimes
darker and of a smoky color.

FIGURE 137. Volvaria bombycina. Cap, stem
and volva entirely white, gills flesh color (nat-
ural size). Copyright.

142 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The pileus is globose when young, then bell-shaped, and finally
more or less expanded, and umbonate, smooth, very viscid, so that
earth, leaves, etc., cling to it. The flesh is white and very soft.
The gills are free, flesh colored to reddish or fulvous, from the deeply
colored spores. The spores are broadly elliptical, or oval, 12-18 x
8-10 yu. The stem is nearly cylindrical, or tapering evenly from the
base, when young more or less hairy, becoming smooth. The volva
is large, edge free, but fitting very close, flabby and irregularly torn.

The species is reported from California by McClatchie, and from
Wisconsin by Bundy.

Specimens were received in June, 1898, from Dr. Post of Lansing,
Mich, which were collected there in a potato patch. It was abundant
during May and June. Plants which were sent in a fresh condition
were badly decayed by the time they reached Ithaca, and the odor
was very disagreeable. It is remarkable that the odor was that of
rotting potatoes ! In this connection might be mentioned Dr. Peck's
observation (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 26: p. 67, 1899) that Agaricus
maritimus Pk., which grows near the seashore, possessed " a taste
and odor suggestive of the sea."

McClatchie reports that it is common in cultivated soil, especially
grain fields and along roads, and that it is " a fine edible agaric and
our most abundant one in California."

CLITOPILUS Fr.

In the rosy-spored agarics belonging to this genus the gills are
decurrent, that is, extend for some distance down on the stem. The
stem is fleshy. The gills are white at first and become pink or sal-
mon color as the plants mature, and the spores take on their charac-
teristic color. The plants should thus not be confused with any of
the species of Agaricus to which the common mushroom belongs,
since in those species the gills become dark brown or blackish when
mature. The genus corresponds with Clitocybe among the white-
spored ones.

Clitopilus prunulus Scop. Edible. This species grows on the ground
in the woods from mid-summer to autumn. It is not very common,
but sometimes appears in considerable quantities at one place.
During the autumn of 1898 quite a large number of specimens were
found in a woods near Ithaca, growing on the ground around an old
stump. The plants are 3-8 cm. high, the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and
stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, firm, convex and becoming nearly plane, and
sometimes as the plants become old the center may be slightly de-

G
W

t/i

o
p

O
-^

n
o

ROSY-SPORED AGARICS. 143

pressed. It is whitish in color, or dark gray, or with a leaden tint,
dry, sometimes with a distinct bloom on the surface, and the margin
is often wavy. The cap is sometimes produced more on one side than
on the other. The gills are not close, at first whitish, then salmon
colored as the spores mature, and they are decurrent as is character-
istic of the genus. The spores are elliptical or nearly so, and meas-
ure 10-12 /< long.

Figure 138 is from plants collected near Ithaca, in the autumn of
1898. This species is considered to be one of the excellent mush-
rooms for food. When fresh it has a mealy odor and taste, as do
several of the species of this genus. It is known as the prune
mushroom.

Clitopilus orcella Bull. Edible. This plant is sometimes spoken of
as the sweet-bread mushroom. It is much like the prune mushroom
just described, in odor and taste, and sometimes resembles it in form
and other characters. It is white in color, and the plants are usually
considerably smaller, and the pileus is, according to my observations,
sometimes more irregular, lobed and wavy on the margin. The flesh
is also softer, and the cap is said to be slightly viscid in wet weather.
The plant grows in the woods and sometimes in open fields.

ENTOLOMA Fr.

The volva and annulus are absent in this genus, the spores are
rosy, the gills adnate to sinuate or adnexed, easily separating from
the stem in some species. The stem is fleshy or fibrous, sometimes
waxy, and the pileus is fleshy with the margin incurved, espe-
cially when young. The spores are prominently angular. The genus
corresponds with Triclioloma of the white-spored agarics, and also
with Hebeloma and Inocybe of the ochre-spored ones. Entoloma re-
pandum Bull., is an Inocybe [/. rcpjudwn (Bull.) Bres.] and has
angular spores resembling those of an Entoloiuci, but the spores are
not rosy.

Entoloma jubatum Fr. Growing on the ground in woods. The
plants are 5-10 cm. high, the cap 3-6 cm. broad, and the stem 3-6
mm. in thickness.

The pileus is conic in some plants, to convex and umbonate, thin,
minutely scaly with blackish hairy scales, dull heliotrope purple,
darker on the umbo. The gills are vinaceous rufus to deep flesh
color, strongly sinuate, and irregularly notched along the edge. The
spores are irregularly oval to short oblong, coarsely angular, with an
oil drop, 5-7 angled, 7-1 1 x 6-7 //. The stem is of the same color as
the pileus, sometimes deeply rooting, hollow. Figure 139 is from

144

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

plants (No. 4000, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C.,
during September, 1899.

Entoloma grayanum Pk. This plant grows on the ground in woods.
It is from 6-8 cm. high, the cap is 3-6 cm. broad, and the stem 4-6
mm. in thickness.

FIGURE 139. Entoloma jubatum. Entire plant dull heliotrope purple, gills later
flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate,
drab in color, the surface wrinkled or rugose, and watery in appear-
ance. The flesh is thin and the margin incurved. The gills are first
drab in color, but lighter than the pileus, becoming pinkish in age.

ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

145

The spores on paper are very light salmon color. They are globose
or rounded in outline, 5-7 angled, with an oil globule, 8-10 yu in diam-
eter. The stem is the same color as the pileus, but lighter, striate,
hollow, somewhat twisted, and enlarged below. Figure 140 is from
plants (No. 3998, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C.,
during September, 1899.

FIGURE 140. Entoloma grayanum. Cap and stem drab, gills flesh color (natural

size). Copyright.

Entoloma strictius Pk. The plants grow in grassy places, pastures,
etc. They are clustered, sometimes two or three joined at the base
of the stem. They are 7-10 cm. high, the caps 2-4 cm. broad, and
the stems 3-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, the disk expanded, and the margin incurved
and more or less wavy or repand on the extreme edge. It is umbo-
nate at the center with usually a slight depression around the umbo,
smooth, watery (hygrophanous) in appearance, not viscid, of an
umber color, shining, faintly and closely striate on the margin.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

In drying the surface of the pileus loses some of its dark umber color
and presents a silvery sheen. The flesh is fibrous and umber color
also. The gills are grayish white, then tinged with flesh color, slightly
sinuate, the longer ones somewhat broader in the middle ( ventricose),
rather distant, and quite thick as seen in cross section, the center of
the gill (trama) presenting parallel threads. The subhymenium
is very thin and composed of small cells ; the basidia are clavate,
25-30x9-10 //, and four-spored. The spores are dull rose color on

FIGURE 141 Entoloma strictius. Cap umber or smoky, stem paler, gills grayish,
then flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

paper, subgloblose, 5-8 // in diameter, angular with 5-6 angles as
seen from one side. The stem is the same color as the pileus, but
considerably lighter. It is hollow with white fibers within, fibrous
striate on the surface, twisted, brittle, and somewhat cartilaginous,
partly snapping, but holding by fibers in places, cylindrical, even,
ascending, with delicate white fibers covering the lower end.

Figure 141 is from plants (No. 2461, C. U. herbarium) collected
near Ithaca, October, 1898.

ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

147

LEPTONIA Fr.

In Leptonia the stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed, smooth
and somewhat shining. The pileus is thin, umbilicate or with the
center darker, the surface hairy or scaly, and the margin at first
incurved. The gills are adnate or adnexed at first, and easily
separating from the stem in age. Many of the species are bright
colored.

Leptonia asprella
Fr. This species
occurs on the
ground in woods
or in open grassy
places. The
plants are 3-5 cm.
high, the cap 2-4
cm. broad, and
the stem 2-3 mm.
in thickness.

The pileus is
convex, then more
or less expanded,
umbilicate, rarely

umbonate, hair ^EH

brown (mouse
colored), with
dark scales on the
center and minute
scales over the
surface, striate.

The gills are sinuate to adnexed. The spores are strongly 5-6
angled, 10-12 x 8-10 //. The stem is smooth, even, usually the same
color as the cap, but sometimes it is reddish brown, green, or blue.
Figure 142 is from plants (No. 3996, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Leptonia incana Fr., is a more common species, and is character-
ized by an odor of mice.

FIGURE 142. Leptonia asprella. Cap hair brown (mouse
colored), minute dark scales at center, stem same
color, but sometimes reddish brown, green or blue,
gills flesh color.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ECCILIA Fr.

The genus Eccilia corresponds with Omphilia of the white-
spored agarics. The stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed. The
pileus is thin and somewhat membranaceous, plane or depressed at

the center, and the
margin at first in-
curved. The gills are
more or less decur-
rent.

Eccilia polita Pers.
-This plant occurs
on the ground in
woods. Itis6-iocm.
high, the cap 2-4 cm.
broad, and the stem
is 3-4 mm. in thick-
ness.

The pileus is con-
vex and umbilcate,
somewhat membra-
naceous, smooth,
watery in appearance,
finely striate on the
margin, hair brown to
olive in color. The
gills are decurrent. In
the specimens illus-
trated in Fig. 143 the
gills are very irregular
and many of them ap-
pear sinuate. The
spores are strongly 4-5
angled, some of them
square, 10-12 /< in
diameter, with a prominent mucro at one angle. The stem is
cartilaginous, becoming hollow, lighter in color than the pileus, and
somewhat enlarged below. Figure 143 is from plants (No. 3999,
C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during Sep-
tember, 1899.

FIGURE 143. Eccilia polita. Cap hair brown to olive,
stem lighter, gills flesh color, notched and irregular
(natural size). Copyright.

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ROSY-SPORED AGARICS. 14!)

CLAUDOPUS W. Smith.

In the genus Claudopus, recognized by some, the pileus is eccen-
tric or lateral, that is, the stem is attached near the side of the cap,
or the cap is sessile and attached by one side to the wood on which
the plant is growing ; or the plants are resupinate, that is, they may
be spread over the surface of the wood.

The genus is perhaps not well separated from some of the species
of Pleurotus with lilac spores like P. sapidus. In fact, a number of the
species were formerly placed in Pleurotus, while others were placed
in Crcpidotus among the ochre-spored agarics. Several species are
reported from America. Peck in 3Qth Report N. Y. State Mus., p.
67, et seq., 1886, describes five species.

Claudopus nidulans (Pers.) Pk. This is one of the very pretty
agarics growing on dead branches and trunks during the autumn, and
is widely distributed. It has, however, been placed in the genus
Pleurotus, as P. nidulans. But because of the pink color of the spores
in mass, Peck places it in the genus Claudopus, where Fries sug-
gested it should go if removed from Pleurotus. It seems to be
identical with Panus dorsalis Bosc. It is usually sessile and attached
to the side of dead branches, logs, etc., in a shelving manner, or
sometimes it is resupinate.

The pileus is sessile, or sometimes narrowed at the base into a
short stem, the caps often numerous and crowded together in an over-
lapping or imbricate manner. It is nearly orbicular, or reniform,
and 1-5 cm. broad. The margin is at first involute. The surface is
coarsely hairy or tomentose, or scaly toward the margin, of a rich
yellow or buff color. It is soft, but rather tough in consistency.
The gills are broad, orange yellow. The spores, pink in mass, are
smooth, elongated, somewhat curved, 6-8 // long.

Figure 144 is from plants (No. 2660, C. U. herbarium) collected
in woods near Ithaca.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, or some shade
of yellow. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXII.

PHOLIOTA Fr.

The genus Pholiota has ferruginous or ferruginous brown spores.
It lacks a volva, but has an annulus ; the gills are attached to the
stem. It then corresponds to Annillaria among white-spored agarics,
and Stropharia among the purple-brown-spored ones. There is one
genus in the ochre or yellow-spored plants with which it is liable to
be confused on account of the veil, namely Cortinaiius, but in the lat-
ter the veil is in the form of loose threads, and is called an arachnoid
veil, that is, the veil is spider-web-like. Many of the species of
Pholiota grow on trunks, stumps, and branches of trees, some grow
on the ground.

Pholiota prsecox Pers. Edible. (Agaricus candicans Bull. T. 217,
1770: Pholiota candicans Schroeter, Krypt, Flora, Schlesien, p. 608,
1889. This plant occurs during late spring and in the summer, in
pastures, lawns and grassy places, roadsides, open woods, etc. Some-
times it is very common, especially during or after prolonged or heavy
rains. The plants are 6-10 cm. high, the cap from 5-8 cm. broad,
and the stem 3-5 mm. in thickness. The plants are scattered or a
few sometimes clustered.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, whitish to cream color or
yellowish, then leather color, fleshy, the margin at first incurved,
moist, not viscid. Sometimes the pileus is umbonate. The sur-
face is sometimes uneven from numerous crowded shallow pits, giving
it a frothy appearance. In age the margin often becomes upturned
and fluted. The gills are adnate or slightly decurrent by a tooth, 3-4
mm. broad, a little broader at or near the middle, crowded, white,
then ferruginous brown, edge sometimes whitish. There is often a
prominent angle in the gills at their broadest diameter, not far from
the stem, which gives to them, when the plants are young or mid-
dle age, a sinuate appearance. The spores are ferruginous brown,
elliptical. Cystidia abruptly club-shaped, with a broad apiculus. The

150

- 2.

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3 -.
P Ul

ELo

tft_ Q

is' ft

n a
^

f 3"

a
cr?

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS.

stem is stuffed, later fistulose, even, fragile, striate often above the
annulus. The stem is whitish or sometimes flesh color. The veil is
whitish, large, frail, and sometimes breaks away from the stem and
clings in shreds to the margin of the cap.

Figure 145 is from plants (No. 2362, C. U. herbarium) collected
on the campus of Cornell University, June, 1898. The taste is often
slightly bitter.

Pholiota marginata Batsch. This is one of the very common species,
a small one, occurring all during the autumn, on decaying trunks, etc.,
in the woods. The plants are usually clustered, though appearing
also singly. They are from 4-10 cm. high, the cap 34 cm. broad,
and the stem 3-5 yu in thickness.

The pileus is con-
vex, then plane, tan
or leather colored,
darker when dry. It
has a watery appear-
ance (hygropha-
nous), somewhat
fleshy, smooth, stri-
ate on the margin.
The gills are joined
squarely to the stem,
crowded, at maturity
dark reddish brown
from the spores.

The stem is cy-
lindrical, equal, smooth, fistulose, of the same color as the pileus,
becoming darker, and often with whitish fibrils at the base. The
annulus is distant from the apex of the stem, and often disappears
soon after the expansion of the pileus. Figure 147 is from plants
(No. 2743, C. U. herbarium) collected near Ithaca.

Pholiota unicolor Vahl, is a smaller plant which grows in similar
situations. The plants are usually clustered, 3-5 cm. high, and the
caps 6-12 mm. in diameter, the annulus is thin but entire and per-
sistent. The entire plant is bay brown, becoming ochraceous in
color, and the margin of the cap in age is striate, first bell-shaped,
then convex and somewhat umbonate. The gills are lightly
adnexed.

Pholiota adiposa Fr. The fatty pholiota usually forms large clus-
ters during the autumn, on the trunks of trees, stumps, etc. It is
sometimes of large size, measuring up to 15 cm. and the pileus up to

FIGURE 147. Pholiota marginata. Cap and stem tan or
leather color, gills dark reddish brown when mature (natural
size). Copyright.

152 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

17 cm. broad. Specimens collected at Ithaca during October, 1899,
were 8-10 cm. high, the pileus 4-8 cm. broad, and the stems 5-9 mm.
in thickness. The plants grew eight to ten in a cluster and the bases
of the stems were closely crowded and loosely joined.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, the margin more or less in-
rolled, then incurved, prominently umbonate, very viscid when moist,
the ground color a saffron yellow or in the center burnt umber to wood
brown. The cuticle of the pileus is plain or torn into scales which
are wood brown, or when close together they are often darker, some-
times nearly black. The flesh is saffron yellow, thick at the center
of the cap, thinning out toward the margin, spongy and almost taste-
less. The gills are adnate, and sometimes a little notched, brown
(mars brown), and the edge yellow, 6-7 mm. broad. The spores are
8 x 5 f-i. The stem tapers downward, is compact, whitish then yellow,
saffron yellow, flesh vinaceous, viscid, and clothed more or less with
reflexed (pointing downward) scales. The stem is somewhat carti-
laginous, tough, but snapping off in places. The veil is thin floccose
and sometimes with coarse scales, soon disappearing.

Figure 146 is from plants (No. 3295, C. U. herbarium) col-
lected on the Ithaca flats from a willow trunk, Oct. 10, 1899.

Pboliota aurivella Batsch, which has been found in the United
States, is closely related to P. adiposa.

Pholiota squarrosa Mull., widely distributed and common in the
autumn, both in Europe and America, on stumps and trunks, is a
large, clustered, scaly plant, the scales " squarrose ", and abundant
over the pileus and on the stem below the annulus. It is brownish
or ferruginous in color.

Pholiota squarrosoides Pk., as its name indicates, is closely related
to P. squarrosa. It has erect, pointed, persistent scales, especially
when young, and has a similar habit to squarrosa, but differs chiefly
in the pileus being viscid, while that of P. squarrosa is dry. P.
subsquarrosa Fr., occurring in Europe, and also closely related to P.
squarrosa, is viscid, the scales are closely appressed to the surface of
the cap, while in squarrosa they are prominent and revolute.

Pholiota cerasina Pk., occurs on decaying trunks of trees during
late summer. The plants grow in tufts. They are 5-12 cm. high,
the caps 5-10 cm. in diameter, and the stems 4-8 mm. in thickness.
The pileus is smooth, watery when damp, cinnamon in color when
fresh, becoming yellowish in drying, and the flesh is yellowish.
The stem is solid, and equal, the apex mealy. The annulus is not
persistent, and the gills are crowded and notched. The spores are
elliptical, and rugose, 5x8 //.

PLATE 48, FIGURE 148. Pholiota squarrosoides. Entire plant brownish or reddish
brown; pileus viscid (three-fourths natural size). Copyright.

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3
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OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. 153

Pholiota johnsoniana Pk. Edible. This species was described from
specimens collected at Knowersville, N. Y., in 1889, by Peck, in the
23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 98, as Agancus john^niianus. I
found it at Ithaca, N. Y., for the first time during the summer of
1899, and it was rather common during September, 1899, in the Blue
Ridge Mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C. It grows in woods or in
pastures on the ground. The larger and handsomer specimens I
have found in rather damp but well drained woods. The plants are
7-15 cm. high, the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem 6-12 mm. in
thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, very thick at the center, convex, then ex-
panded and plane, smooth, sometimes finely striate on the thin mar-
gin when moist, yellowish, or fulvous, the margin whitish. The gills
are attached to the stem by the upper angle (adnexed), rounded, or
some of them angled, some nearly free. In color they are first gray,
then rusty brown. They appear ascending because of the somewhat
top-shaped pileus. The spores are irregularly ovoid, 4-6 x 3-3.5 /'.
The stem is cylindrical or slightly tapering upward, smooth, slightly
striate above the annulus, whitish, solid, with a tendency to become
hollow. The veil is thick, and the annulus narrow and very thick or
"tumid," easily breaking up and disappearing. The plant is quite
readily distinguished by the form of the pileus with the ascending
gills and the tumid annulus. Peck says it has a "somewhat nutty
flavor."

Figure 149 is from plants (No. 4014, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

NAUCORIA Fr.

This genus, with ferruginous spores, corresponds with Cillvbia
among the white-spored agarics. The gills are free or attached, but
not decurrent, and the stem is cartilaginous. The plants grow both
on the ground and on wood. Peck, 23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p.
91, et seq., gives a synopsis of seven species.

Naucoria semNorbicularis Bull. Edible. This is one of the common
and widely distributed species. It occurs in lawns, pastures, road-
sides, etc., in waste places, from June to autumn, being more abund-
ant in rainy weather. The plants are 7-10 cm. high, the cap 3-5
cm. broad, and the stem 2-3 mm. in thickness. The pileus is convex
to expanded, and is remarkably hemispherical, from which the species
takes the name of semi-orbicularis. It is smooth, viscid when moist,
tawny, and in age ochraceous, sometimes the surface is cracked
into areas. The gills are attached, sometimes notched, crowded,

154

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

much broader than the thickness of the pileus, pale, then reddish
brown. The stem is tough, slender, smooth, even, pale reddish
brown, shining, stuffed with a whitish pith. Peck says that the
plants have an oily flavor resembling beechnuts.

Naucoria vernalis Pk. Naucoria vernalis was described by Peck in
23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 91, from plants collected in May.
The plants described here appeared in woods in late autumn. The
specimens from which this description is drawn were found growing
from the under side of a very rotten beech log, usually from deep
crevices in the log, so that only the pileus is visible or exposed well
to the view. The plants are 4-8 cm. high, the cap 2-3 cm. broad,
and the stem 4-5 mm. in thickness. The taste is bitter.

FIGURE 150. Naucoria vernalis. Cap hair brown to clay color; gills grayish
brown to wood brown ; stem clay color (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, then the center is nearly or quite expanded,
the margin at first inrolled and never fully expanded, hygrophanous,
smooth (not striate nor rugose), flesh about 5-6 mm. thick at center,
thin toward the margin. The color changes during growth, it is from
ochraceous rufus when young (1-2 mm. broad), then clove brown to
hair brown and clay color in age. The gills are grayish brown to
wood brown, at first adnate to slightly sinuate, then easily breaking
away and appearing adnexed. The spores are wood brown in color,
oval to short elliptical and inequilateral 6-8x4-^1. Cystidia hya-
line, bottle shaped, 40-50x8-12 /.t. The stem is somewhat hollow
and stuffed, rather cartilaginous, though somewhat brittle, especially

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. 155

when very damp, breaking out from the pileus easily though with
fragments of the gills remaining attached, not strongly continuous
with the substance of the pileus. The color is buff to pale clay color ;
the stem being even, not bulbous but somewhat enlarged below,
mealy over the entire length, which may be washed off by rains,
striate at apex either from marks left by the gills or remnants of the
gills as they become freed from the stem. Base of stem sometimes
with white cottony threads, especially in damp situations. In the
original description the stem is said to be " striate sulcate." Figure
150 is from plants (No. 3242, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods
near Ithaca, October i, 1899.

GALERA Fr.

Gale m with ochraceous (ochraceous ferruginous) spores corres-
ponds to Mvccna among the white-spored agarics. The pileus is
usually bell-shaped, and when young the margin fits straight against
the stem. The stem is somewhat cartilaginous, but often very
fragile. The genus does not contain many species. Peck gives a
synopsis of five American species in the 23rd Report N. Y. State
Mus., p. 93, et seq., and of twelve species in the 46th Report,
p. 61, et seq. One of the common species is Galera tenera Schaeff.
It occurs in grassy fields or in manured places. The plants are
5-8 cm. high, the cap 8-16 mm. broad, and the stem 2-3 mm. in
thickness. The pileus is oval to bell-shaped, and tawny in color,
thin, smooth, finely striate, becoming paler when dry. The gills
are crowded, reddish-brown, adnexed and easily separating. The
stem is smooth, colored like the pileus but a little paler, sometimes
striate, and with mealy whitish particles above. Galera lateritia is
a related species, somewhat larger, and growing on dung heaps
and in fields and lawns. Galera ovalis Fr., is also a larger plant,
somewhat shorter than the latter, and with a prominent ovate cap
when young. Galera antipoda Lasch., similar in general appearance
to G. tenera, has a rooting base by which it is easily known. Galera
flava Pk., occurs among vegetable mold in woods. The pileus is
membraneous, ovate or companulate, moist or somewhat watery,
obtuse, plicate, striate on the margin, yellow. The plants are 5-8
cm. high, the caps 12-25 mm. broad, and the stem 2-3 mm. in
thickness. The plant is recognized by the pale yellow color of the
caps and the plicate striate character of the margin. The plicate
striate character of the cap is singular among the species of this
genus, and is shared by another species, G. coprinoides Pk.

15U

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

FLAMMULA Fr.

In the genus l : lammula, the pileus is fleshy, stem fleshy-fibrous,
and the gills adnate to decurrent.

Flammula polychroa Berk. This is a beautiful plant with tints of
violet, lavender, lilac and purple, especially on the scales of the pi-
leus, on the veil and on the stem. It occurs in clusters during late
summer and autumn, on logs, branches, etc., in the woods. The
plants occur singly, but more often in clusters of three to eight or

FIGURE 151. Flammula polychroa, under view. Cap vinaceous buff to orange buff,
scales lilac, purple or lavender; gills drab to hair brown (natural size). Copyright.

more. The plants are 4-7 cm. high, the cap 3-5 cm. broad, and the
stem 4-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, and in the young stage the margin strongly
incurved, later the cap becomes expanded and has a very broad umbo.
It is very viscid. The surface is covered with delicate hairs which
form scales, more prominent during mid-age of the plant, and on the
margin of the cap. These scales are very delicate and vary in color
from vinaceous-buff, lilac, wine-purple, or lavender. The ground
color of the pileus is vinaceous-buff or orange-buff, and toward the
margin often with shades of beryl-green, especially where it has been

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. 157

touched. In the young plants the color of the delicate hairy surface
is deeper, often phlox-purple, the color becoming thinner as the cap
expands.

The gills are notched (sinuate) at the stem, or adnate, sometimes
slightly decurrent, crowded. Before exposure by the rupture of the
veil they are cream-buff in color, then taking on darker shades, drab
to hair brown or sepia with a purple tinge. The stem is yellowish,
nearly or quite the color of the cap, often with a purplish tinge at
the base. It is covered with numerous small punctate scales of the
same color, or sulphur yellow above where they are more crowded
and larger. The scales do not extend on the stem above the point
where the veil is attached. The stem is slightly striate above the
attachment of the veil. It is somewhat tough and cartilaginous, solid,
or in age stuffed, or nearly hollow. The veil is floccose and quite
thick when the plant is young. It is scaly on the under side,
clinging to the margin of the pileus in triangular remnants, appearing
like a crown. The color of the veil and of its remnants is the same
as the color of the scales of the cap.

The spores in mass are light brown, and when fresh with a slight
purple tinge. (The color of the spores on white paper is near wal-
nut brown or hair brown of Ridgeway's colors.) Under the micro-
scope they are yellowish, oval or short oblong, often inequilateral,
6-8 x 4-5 n.

Figure 151 is from plants (No. 4016, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899, on a fallen maple
log. The plants sometimes occur singly. It has been collected at
Ithaca, N. Y., and was first described from plants collected at
Waynesville, Ohio.

HI a m mil I a sapinea Fr., is a common plant growing on dead conifer-
ous wood. It is dull yellow, the pileus 1-4 cm. in diameter, and
with numerous small scales.

HEBELOMA Fr.

In Hebeloma the gills are either squarely set against the stem
(adnate) or they are notched (sinuate), and the spores are clay-col-
ored. The edge of the gills is usually whitish, the surface clay-col-
ored. The veil is only seen in the young stage, and then is very
delicate and fibrillose. The stem is fleshy and fibrous, and some-

what mealy at the apex. The genus corresponds with Tricholoma
of the white-spored agarics. All the species are regarded as unwhole-
some, and some are considered poisonous. The species largely
occur during the autumn. Few have been studied in America.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Hebeloma crustuliniforme Bull. This plant is usually common in
some of the lawns, during the autumn, at Ithaca, N. Y. It often
forms rings as it grows on the ground. It is from 5-7 cm. high, the
cap 4-8 cm. in diameter, and the stem is 4-6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex and expanded, somewhat umbonate, viscid
when moist, whitish or tan color, darker over the center, where it is
often reddish-brown. The gills are adnexed and rounded near the
stem, crowded, whitish, then clay color and reddish-brown, the edge

FIGURE 152. Hebeloma crustuliniforme, var. minor. Cap whitish or tan color, or
reddish-brown at center; gills clay color (natural size). Copyright.

whitish and irregular. The gills are said to exude watery drops
in wet weather. The stem is stuffed, later hollow, somewhat en-
larged at the base, white, and mealy at the apex. Figure 1 52 is from
plants (No. 271 3, C. U. herbarium) collected in lawns on the Cornell
University campus. The plants in this figure seem to represent
the variety minor.

INOCYBE Fr.

In the genus Inocybe there is a universal veil which is fibrillose in
character, and more or less closely joined with the cuticle of the
pileus, and the surface of the pileus is therefore marked with fibrils
or is more or less scaly. Sometimes the margin of the pileus pos-
sesses remnants of a veil which is quite prominent in a few species.
The gills are adnate, or sinuate, rarely decurrent, and in one species
they are free. It is thus seen that the species vary widely, and
there may be, after a careful study of the species, grounds for the
separation of the species into several genera. One of the most
remarkable species is Inocybe echinata Roth. This plant is covered
with a universal veil of a sooty color and powdery in nature. The
gills are reddish purple, and the stem is of the same color, the spores
on white paper of a faint purplish red color. Some place in it
Psalliota. Collected at Ithaca in August, 1900.

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS.

159

TUBARIA W. Smith.

In the genus Tubaria the spores are rust-red, or rusty brown
(ferruginous or fuscous-ferruginous), the stem is somewhat cartilagi-
nous, hollow, and, what is more important, the gills are more or less
decurrent, broad next to the stem, and thus more or less triangular
in outline. It is related to Naucoria and Galera, but differs in the
decurrent gills. The pileus is convex, or with an umbilicus.

Tubaria pellucida Bull. This species grows by roadsides in grassy
places. The
plants are from
3-4 cm. high, and
the cap 1-2 cm.
in diameter, and
the stem 2-3 mm.
in thickness.

The pileus i s
conic, then bell-
shaped, often ex-
panded and with
a slight u m b o ;
the color is dull,
reddish brown,

FIGURE 153. Tubaria pellucida. Dull reddish brown (natural size).

and it has a watery
appearance. The
plant is sometimes enveloped with a loose and delicate universal
or outer veil, which remains on the margin of the cap in the form
of silky squamules as shown in the figure. The margin of the pileus
is faintly striate. The gills are only slightly decurrent. Figure 153
is from plants (No. 2360 C. U. herbarium) collected along a street
in Ithaca.

The stem is at first solid, becoming hollow, tapering above, and
the apex is mealy.

CREPIDOTUS Fr.

In Crepidotus the pileus is lateral, or eccentric, and thus more or
less shelving, or it is resupinate, that is, lying flat or nearly so on
the wood. The species are usually of small size, thin, soft and
fleshy. The spores are reddish brown (ferruginous). The genus
corresponds to Pleurotus among the white-spored agarics, or to Clau-
dopns among the rosy-spored ones. Peck describes eleven species
in the 39th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 69 et seq., 1886.

160

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Crepidotus versutus Pk. This little Crepidotus has a pure white
pileus which is covered with a soft, whitish down. The plants grow
usually on the underside of rotten wood or bark, and then the upper
side of the cap lies against the wood, and is said to be resupinate.
Sometimes where they grow toward the side of the log the cap has a
tendency to be shelving. In the resupinate forms the cap is attached
usually near one side, and then is produced more at the opposite side,
so that it is more or less lateral or eccentric. As the plant becomes
mature the edge is free from the wood for some distance, only being
attached over a small area. The cap is somewhat reniform, thin,
and from 6-12 cm. in diameter. The gills radiate from the point

FIGURE 154. Crepidotus versutus. Cap white, downy ; gills whitish, then
rusty (twice natural size). Copyright.

where the cap is attached to the substratum, are not crowded,
rounded behind, that is, at the lateral part of the cap where they con-
verge. They are whitish, then ferruginous from the spores. The
spores are sub-elliptical, sometimes inequilateral, and measure from
8-12 x 4-6 yw.

Crepidotus herbarum Pk., is a closely related species, separated on
account of the smaller spores. Both species grow either on herbs or
decaying wood. As suggested by Peck they are both closely related
to C. ckimonophilus Berk., which has "oblong elliptical' spores.
The shape of the spores does not seem to differ from the specimens
which 1 have taken to be C. versutus.

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. Kil

Crepidotus applanatus Fr., is a larger species, shelving and often
imbricated. Crepidotus fulvotomentosus Pk., is a pretty species with a
tomentose cap and tawny scales, usually occurring singly. It is
closely related to C. calolepis Fr.

Figure 154 is from plants of Crepidotus rersutus Pk., (No. 2732
C. U. herbarium) collected on rotting wood at Freeville, N. Y., eight
miles from Ithaca. The plants are represented twice natural size.

CORTINARIUS Fr.

The genus Cortinarius is chiefly distinguished from the other
genera of the ochre-spored agarics by the presence of a spider-web-
like (arachnoid) veil which is separate from the cuticle of the pileus,
that is, superficial. The gills are powdered by the spores, that is,
the spores fall away with difficulty and thus give the gills a pulveru-
lent appearance. The plants are fleshy and decay easily. It is
necessary to have plants in the young as well as the old state to
properly get at the characters, and the character of the veil is only
seen in young or half developed specimens. The species are to be
distinguished from other ochre-spored agarics with a cobwebby veil
by the fact that the veil in Cortinarius is superficial and the gills
powdery. The number of species is very large, and they are diffi-
cult to determine. They mostly occur in northern countries and in
the autumn or late summer ; some species, however, occur during
early summer. Peck, 23d Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 105-112,
describes 21 species.

Cortinarius (Inoloma) violaceus (L.) Fr. Edible. This species is known
by the violet or dark violet color which pervades all parts of the
plant. The plants are 8-10 cm. high, the pileus 7-1 5 cm. broad, and
the stem is bulbous, 6-8 mm. in thickness. The veil is single. It
occurs in woods and open places during late summer and in the
autumn. The flesh of the plant is also violet, and this color is
imparted to the liquid when the plant is cooked. The flavor is said
to be something like that of Agaricns campestris.

Cortinarius (Myxacium) collinitus (Pers.) Fr. Edible. This is known
as the smeared cortinarius because of the abundant glutinous sub-
stance with which the plant is smeared during moist or wet weather,
It grows in woods. The plants are 7-10 cm. high, the cap 5-8 cm.
in diameter, and the stem is 8-12 mm. in thickness. It is usually
known by the smooth, even, tawny cap, the great abundance of
slimy substance covering the entire plant when moist, and when dry
the cracking of the gluten on the stem into annular 'patches.

The pileus is convex to expanded, smooth, even, glutinous when

lli-J

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

-a

wet, shining when dry, tawny. The gills are adnate with a peculiar
bluish gray tinge when young, and clay color to cinnamon when old.
The spores are nearly elliptical, and 12-15 x 6-7 n. The stem is
cylindrical, even, and with patches of the cracked gluten when

dry.

Cortinarius (Dermocybe) cinnamomeus (L.) Fr. Edible. The cinna-
mon cortinarius is so called
< because of the cinnamon color
of the entire plant, especially
of the cap and stem. It
grows in the woods during
summer and autumn. It is a
very pretty plant, and varies
from 5-8 cm. high, the cap
_ re from 2-iocm. broad, and the

B ^ jg ^~ stem 4-6 mm. in thickness.

' -^ The pileus is conic, or con-

vex, and nearly expanded,
sometimes nearly plane, and
again with a prominent blunt
or conic umbo. Sometimes
the pileus is abruptly bent
downward near the margin
as shown in the plants in
Fig- T 55> gi ym g the appear-
ance of a "hip-roof." The
surface is smooth, silky, with
innate fibrils. Sometimes
there are cinnabar stains on
parts of the pileus, and often
there are concentric rows of
scales near the margin. The
flesh is light yellowish and
with stains of cinnabar. The
gills are adnate, slightly sinu-
ate, and decurrent by a tooth,
easily separating from the

stem, rather crowded, slightly ventricose. The color of the gills
varies greatly ; sometimes they are the same color as the pileus,
sometimes reddish brown, sometimes blood red color, etc. This
latter form is a very pretty plant, and is var. semi-sangnimiis Fr.
Figure 155 is from plants (No. 2883 C. U. herbarium) collected

en
2 O

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so

'73

c^
5 O
.~ O

en
3

-
O

D
O

'-n

rt
C
-

-
3

O
n

2_
3"

3
fo

N
(B

'f.

a
<u

o
p

si
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O

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. 163

at Ithaca. The species is widely distributed in this country as well
as in Europe.

Cortinarius (Dermocybe) ochroleucus (Schaeff.) Fr. This is a
very beautiful plant because of the soft, silky appearance of the sur-
face of pileus and stem, and the delicate yellowish white color.
It occurs in woods, on the ground among decaying leaves. The
plants are 4-12 cm. high, the cap 4-7 cm. broad, and the stem above
is 6-10 mm. in thickness, and below from 2-3 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex to nearly expanded, and sometimes a little
depressed, usually, however, remaining convex at the top. It is dry,
on the center finely tomentose to minutely squamulose, sometimes
the scales splitting up into concentric rows around the cap. The cap
is fleshy at the center, and thin at the margin, the color is from cream
buff to buff, darker on the center. The gills are sinuate or adnate,
slightly broader in the middle (ventricose) in age, pale at first, then
becoming ochre yellow, and darker when the plant dries. The spores
are tawny in mass, oval, elliptical, minutely tuberculate when mature,
6-9 x 4-6 yu. The stem is clavate, pale cream buff in color, solid,
becoming irregularly fistulose in age, bulbous or somewhat ventri-
cose below, the bulb often large and abrupt, 1.5-3 cm. in diameter.
The veil is prominent and attached to the upper part of the stem, the
abundant threads attached over an area i cm. in extent and forming
a beautiful cortina of the same color as the pileus and stem, but be-
coming tawny when the spores fall on it. The stem varies consid-
erably in length and shape, being rarely ventricose, and then only
at the base ; the bulbous forms predominate and the bulb is often
very large.

Figures 156, 157 are from plants (No. 3674 C. U. herbarium)
collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

BOLBITIUS Fries.

The genus Bolbitins contains a few species with yellowish or yel-
lowish brown spores. The plants are very fragile, more or less
mucilaginous when moist, usually with yellowish colors, and, what is
the most characteristic feature beside the yellowish color of the
spores, the gills are very soft, and at maturity tend to dissolve into
a mucilaginous consistency, though they do not deliquesce, or only
rarely dissolve so far as to form drops. The surface of the gills at
maturity becomes covered with the spores so that they appear pow-
dery, as in the genus Cortinarius, which they also resemble in the
color of the spores. In the mucilaginous condition of the gills the
genus approaches Coprinus. It is believed to occupy an intermediate

Hi4

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

position between Coprinus and Cortinarius. The species usually
grow on dung or in manured ground, and in this respect resemble
many of the species of Coprinus. Some of the species are, however,
not always confined to such a substratum, but grow on decaying
leaves, etc.

Bolbitius variicolor Atkinson. This plant was found abundantly
during May and June, 1898, in a freshly manured grass plat between
the sidewalk and the pavement along Buffalo street, Ithaca, N. Y.

FIGURE 158. Bolbitius variicolor. Cap viscid, various shades of yellow, or smoky
olive; gills yellowish, then rusty (natural size).

The season was rainy, and the plants appeared each day during
quite a long period, sometimes large numbers of them covering a
small area, but they were not clustered nor cespitose. They vary
in height from 4-10 cm., the pileus from 2-4 cm. broad, and the stem
is 3-8 mm. in thickness. The colors vary from smoky to fuliginous,
olive and yellow, and the spores are ferruginous.

The pileus is from ovate to conic when young, the margin not at
all incurved, but lies straight against the stem, somewhat unequal.

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. !<'>;>

In expanding the cap becomes convex, then expanded, and finally
many of the plants with the margin elevated and with a broad umbo,
and finely striate for one-half to two-thirds the way from the margin
to the center. When young the pileus has a very viscid cuticle,
which easily peels from the surface, showing the yellow flesh.
The cuticle is smoky olive to fuliginous, darker when young, becom-
ing paler as the pileus expands, but always darker on the umbo.
Sometimes the fibres on the surface of the cap are drawn into strands
which anastomose into coarse reticulations, giving the appearance of
elevated veins which have a general radiate direction from the center
of the cap. As the pileus expands the yellow color of the flesh shows
through the cuticle more and more, especially when young, but
becoming light olive to fuliginous in age. In dry weather the surface
of the pileus sometimes cracks into patches as the pileus expands.
The gills are rounded next the stem, adnate to adnexed, becoming
free, first yellow, then ferruginous. The basidia are abruptly club-
shaped, rather distant and separated regularly by rounded cells, four
spored. The spores are ferruginous, elliptical, 10-1 5 x 6-8 /<, smooth.
The stem is cylindrical to terete, tapering above, sulphur and ochre
yellow, becoming paler and even with a light brown tinge in age.
The stem is hollow, and covered with numerous small yellow floccose
scales which point upward and are formed by the tearing away of the
edges of the gills, which are loosely united with the surface of the
stem in the young stage. The edges of the gills are thus sometimes
finely fimbriate.

At maturity the gills become more or less mucilaginous, depend-
ing on the weather. Plants placed in a moist chamber change to a
mucilaginous mass. When the plants dry the pileus is from a drab
to hair brown or sepia color (Ridgeway's colors). Figure 158 is
from plants (No. 2355 C. U. herbarium).

PAXILLUS Fr.

In the genus Paxillus the gills are usually easily separated from
the pileus, though there are some species accredited to the genus that
do not seem to possess this character in a marked degree. The
spores are ochre or ochre brown. Often the gills are forked near
the stem or anastomose, or they are connected by veins which them-
selves anastomose in a reticulate fashion so that the meshes resemble
the pores of certain species of the family Polyporacece. The pileus
may be viscid or dry in certain species, but the plant lacks a viscid
universal veil. The genus is closely related to Gomphidius, where
the gills are often forked and easily separate from the pileus, but

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Gomphidins possesses a viscid or glutinous universal veil. Peck in
the Bull. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 2 : 29-33, describes five species.

Paxillus involutus (Batsch.) Fr. Edible. This plant is quite common
in some places and is widely distributed. It occurs on the ground in
grassy places, in the open, or in woods, and on decaying logs or
stumps. The stem is central, or nearly so, when growing on the
ground, or eccentric when growing on wood, especially if growing
from the side of a log or stump. The plants are 5-7 cm. high, the
cap 3-7 cm. broad, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness. The plant
occurs from August to October.

The pileus is convex to expanded, and depressed in the center.
In the young plant the margin is strongly inrolled, and as the pileus

FIGURE 159. Paxillus involutus. Cap and stem gray, olive-brown, reddish
brown or tawny (natural size). Copyright.

expands it unrolls in a very pretty manner. The young plant is
covered with a grayish, downy substance, and when the inrolled
margin of the cap comes in contact with the gills, as it does, it presses
the gills against this down, and the unrolling margin is thus marked
quite prominently, sometimes with furrows where the pressure of the
gills was applied. The color of the pileus varies greatly. In the
case of plants collected at Ithaca and in North Carolina mountains
the young plant when fresh is often olive umber, becoming reddish
or tawny when older, the margin with a lighter shade. As Dr. Peck
states, " it often presents a strange admixture of gray, ochraceous,
ferruginous, and brown hues." The flesh is yellowish and changes

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS. 167

to reddish or brownish where bruised. The gills are decurrent, when
young arcuate, then ascending, and are more or less reticulated on
the stem. They are grayish, then greenish yellow changing to
brown where bruised. The spores are oval, 7-9 x 4-5 /<. The stem
is short, even, and of the same color as the cap.

At Ithaca, N. Y., the plant is sometimes abundant in late autumn
in grassy places near or in groves. The Figure 159 is from plants
(No. 2508 C. U. herbarium) growing in such a place in the suburbs
of Ithaca. At Blowing Rock, N. C., the plant is often very abun-
dant along the roadsides on the ground during August and Sep-
tember.

Paxillus rhodoxanthus (Schw.) This species was first described by
de Schweinitz as Agaricus rhodoxanthus, p. 83 No. 640, Synopsis fun-
gorum Carolina superioris, in Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesell-
schaft 1 : 19-131, 1822. It was described under his third section
of Agaricus under the sub-genus Gymnopus, in which are mainly spe-
cies now distributed in Clitocybc and Hygrophorus. He remarks on
the elegant appearance of the plant and the fact that it so nearly
resembles Boletus subtomentosus as to deceive one. The resemblance
to Boletus subtomentosus as one looks upon the pileus when the
plant is growing on the ground is certainly striking, because of the
reddish yellow, ochraceous rufus or chestnut brown color of the cap
together with the minute tomentum covering the surface. The sug-
gestion is aided also by the color of the gills, which one is apt to get
a glimpse of from above without being aware that the fruiting sur-
face has gills instead of tubes. But as soon as the plant is picked
and we look at the under surface, all suggestion of a Boletus vanishes,
unless one looks carefully at the venation of the surface of the gills
and the spaces between them. The plant grows on the ground in
woods. At Blowing Rock, N. C., where it is not uncommon, I have
always found it along the mountain roads on the banks. It is 5-10
cm. high, the cap from 3-8 cm. broad, and the stem 6-10 mm. in
thickness.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, plane or convex, and when
mature more or less top-shaped because it is so thick at the middle.
In age the surface of the cap often becomes cracked into small areas,
showing the yellow flesh in the cracks. The flesh is yellowish and
the surface is dry. The gills are not very distant, they are stout,
chrome yellow to lemon yellow, and strongly decurrent. A few of
them are forked toward the base, and the surface and the space
between them are marked by anastomosing veins forming a reticulum
suggestive of the hymenium of the Polyporacece. This character is

1(58 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

not evident without the use of a hand lens. The surface of the gills
as well as the edges is provided with clavate cystidia which are filled
with a yellow pigment, giving to the gills the bright yellow color so
characteristic. These cystidia extend above the basidia, and the
ends are rounded so that sometimes they appear capitate. The
yellow color is not confined to the cystidia, for the sub-hymenium is
also colored in a similar way. The spores are yellowish, oblong to
elliptical or spindle-shaped, and measure 8-12 x 3-5 //. The stem
is the same color as the pileus, but paler, and more yellow at the base.
It is marked with numerous minute dots of a darker color than the
ground color, formed of numerous small erect tufts of mycelium.

Figure 160 is from plants (No. 3977 C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. As stated above,
the plant was first described by de Schweinitz as Agaricus rhodoxan-
thits'm 1822. In 1834 (Synop. fung. Am. Bor. p. 151, 1834) he
listed it under the genus Gomphus Fries (Syst. Mycolog. 319, 1821).
Since Fries changed Gomphus to Gomphidius (Epicrisis, 319, 1836-
1838) the species has usually been written Gomphidius rhodoxanthm
Schweinitz. The species lacks one very important characteristic of
the genus Gomphidius, namely, the slimy veil which envelops the
entire plant. Its relationship seems rather to be with the genus
Paxillus, though the gills do not readily separate from the pileus, one
of the characters ascribed to this genus, and possessed by certain
species of Gomphidius in even a better degree. (In Paxillus involu-
tus the gills do not separate so readily as they do in certain species
of Gomphidius.) Berkeley (Decades N. A. Fungi, 1 16) has described
a plant from Ohio under the name Paxillus flaridits. It has been
suggested by some (see Peck, 29th Report, p. 36 ; Lloyd, Mycolog.
Notes, where he writes it as Flammula rhodoxanthus!) that
Paxillus ftavidus Berk., is identical with Agaricns rhodoxanthus,
Schw.

Paxillus rhodoxanthus seems also to be very near if not identical
with Clitocybe pelle fieri Lev. (Gillet, Hymenomycetes 1: 170), and
Schroeter (Cohn's Krypt, Flora Schlesien, 3, i : 516, 1889) trans-
fers this species to Paxillus as Paxillus pelletieri. He is followed by
Hennings, who under the same section of the genus, lists P. flaridus
Berk., from N. A. The figure of Clitocybe pelletieri in Gillet Hymen-
omycetes, etc., resembles our plant very closely, and Saccardo
(Syll. Fung. 5 : 192) says that it has the aspect of Boletus subtomento-
sus, a remark similar to the one made by de Schweinitz in the original
description of Agaricns rhodoxanthus. Flammnla paradoxa Kalch.
(Fung. Hung. Tab. XVII, Fig. i) seems to be the same plant, as

OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS.

well as F. tammtiFr., with which Patouillard (Tab. Anal. N. 354)
places F. paradoxa and Clitocybe pellctieri.

Paxillus atro tomentosus (Batsch) Fr. This plant is not very com-
mon. It is often of quite large size, 6-15 cm. high, and the cap 5-10
cm. broad, the stem very short or sometimes long, from 1-2.5 cm<
in thickness. The plant is quite easily recognized by the stout and
black hairy stem, and the dark brown or blackish, irregular and
sometimes lateral cap, with the margin incurved. It grows on wood,
logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and autumn.

The pileus is convex, expanded, sometimes somewhat depressed,

FIGURE 161. Paxillus atro-tomentosus, form hirsutus. Cap and stem
brownish or blackish (natural size, small specimens, they are often
larger). Copyright.

lateral, irregular, or sometimes with the stem nearly in the center,
brownish or blackish, dry, sometimes with a brownish or blackish
tomentum on the surface. The margin is inrolled and later incurved.
The flesh is white, and the plant is tough. The gills are adnate, often
decurrent on the stem, and easily separable from the pileus, forked
at the base and sometimes reticulate, forming pores. Spores yellow-
ish, oval, 4-6 x 3-4 /<. Stevenson says that the gills do not form
pores like those of P. involutus, but Fig. 161 (No. 3362 C. U. her-
barium) from plants collected at Ithaca, shows them well. There is,

170 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

as it seems, some variation in this respect. The stem is solid, tough
and elastic, curved or straight, covered with a dense black tomen-
tum, sometimes with violet shades. On drying the plant becomes
quite hard, and the gills blackish olive.

Paxillus panuoides Fr. This species was collected during August,
1900, on a side-walk and on a log at Ithaca. The specimens collected
were sessile and the pileus lateral, somewhat broadened at the free
end, or petaloid. The entire plant is pale or dull yellow, the surface
of the pileus fibrous and somewhat uneven but not scaly. The plants
are 2-12 cm. long by 1-8 cm. broad, often many crowded together
in an imbricated manner. The gills are pale yellow, and the
spores are of the same color when caught on white paper, and they
measure 4-5 x 3-4 /<, the size given for European specimens of
this species. The gills are forked, somewhat anastomosing at the
base, and sinuous in outline, though not markedly corrugated as in
the next form. From descriptions of the European specimens the
plants are sometimes larger than these here described, and it is very
variable in form and often imbricated as in the following species.

Paxillus corrugatus Atkinson. This very interesting species was
collected at Ithaca, N. Y.. on decaying wood, August 4, 1899. The
pileus is lateral, shelving, the stem being entirely absent in the
specimens found. The pileus is 2-5 cm. broad, narrowed down in an
irregular wedge form to the sessile base, convex, then expanded,
the margin incurved (involute). The color of the cap is yellow,
maize yellow to canary yellow, with a reddish brown tinge near the
base. It is nearly smooth, or very slightly tomentose. The flesh
is pale yellow, spongy. The gills are orange yellow, 2-3 mm. broad,
not crowded, regularly forked several times, thin, blunt, very wavy
and crenulate, easily separating from the hymenophore when fresh ;
the entire breadth of the gills is fluted, giving a corrugated appear-
ance to the side. The spores in these specimens are faintly yellow,
minute, oblong, broadly elliptical, short, sometimes nearly oval,
3 xi. 5-2 yu. The basidia are also very minute. The spores are
olive yellow on white paper. The plant has a characteristic and
disagreeable odor. This odor persists in the dried plant for several
months.

Figure 162 is from the plants (No. 3332 C. U. herbarium) collected
as noted above on decaying hemlock logs in woods. A side and
under view is shown in the figure, and the larger figure is the under-
view, from a photograph made a little more than twice natural size,
in order to show clearly the character of the gills. The two smaller
plants are natural size. When dry the plant is quite hard.

- - "

'^^' : ''-.' -i

r * -' - ' > k .,

.-'///"/-:

'1 &?$&* ' S <

1 , -~ . ^*: ** . *,

f. *.-

" '

PLATE 53, FIGURE 162. Paxillus corrugatus. Cap maize yellow to orange yellow, reddish
brown near the base ; gills orange yellow. Two lower plants natural size ; upper one
2 1/2 times natural size. Copyright.

o
U

1
5

RANKLIN 1
3?OT *l 9

^TMBUN Q

PLATE 55.

FIG. i. Boletus felleus,
FIG, 2. B, edulis,
Copyright 1900,

CHAPTER IX.

THE TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. POLYPORACEAE.

The plants belonging to this family are characterized especially
by a honeycombed fruiting surface, that is, the under surface of the
plants possesses numerous tubes or pores which stand close together
side by side, and except in a very few forms these tubes are joined
by their sides to each other. In Fistulina the tubes are free from
each other though standing closely side by side. In Memlius dis-
tinct tubes are not present, but the surface is more or less irregu-
larly pitted, the pits being separated from each other by folds which
anastomose, forming a network. These pits correspond to shallow
tubes.

The plants vary greatly in consistency, some are very fleshy and
soft and putrify readily. Others are soft when young and become
firmer as they age, and some are quite hard and woody. Many of
the latter are perennial and live for several or many years, adding a
new layer in growth each year. The larger number of the species
grow on wood, but some grow on the ground; especially in the genus
Boletus, which has many species, the majority grow on the ground.
Some of the plants have a cap and stem, in others the stem is ab-
sent and the cap attached to the tree or log, etc., forms a shelf, or
the plant may be thin and spread over the surface of the wood in a
thin patch.

In the genus Dcedalea the tubes become more or less elongated
horizontally and thus approach the form of the gills, while in some
species the tubes are more or less toothed or split and approach the
spine-bearing fungi at least in appearance of the fruit-bearing sur-
face. Only a few of the genera and species will be described.

The following key is not complete, but may aid in separating
some of the larger plants :

Tubes or pores free from each other, though stand-
ing closely side by side, Fistnlina.

Tubes or pores not free, joined side by side, . . I.
i Plants soft and fleshy, soon decaying, 2.

Plants soft when young, becoming firm, some
woody or corky, stipitate, shelving, or spread
over the wood, Polyporus.

171

17-J STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Tubes or pores shallow, formed by a network of
folds or wrinkles, plants thin, sometimes spread
over the wood, and somewhat gelatinous, . . Merulius.
2 Mass (stratum) of tubes easily separating from the
cap when peeled off, cap not with coarse scales,
tubes in some species in radiating lines, .... Boletus.
Stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, cap

with coarse, prominent scales, Strobttomyces.

Stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, tubes
arranged in distinct radiating lines. In one
species (B. porosus) the tubes do not separate

from the cap, Boletinus.

This last genus is apt to be confused with certain species of Bo-
letus which have a distinct radiate arrangement of the tubes. It is
questionable whether it is clearly distinguished from the genus
Boletus.

BOLETUS Dill.

Of the few genera in the Poh'poracece which are fleshy and pu-
trescent, Boletus contains by far the largest number of species. The
entire plant is soft and fleshy, and decays soon after maturity. The
stratum of tubes on the under side of the cap is easily peeled off and
separates as shown in the portion of a cap near the right hand side of
Fig. 169. In the genus Polypoms the stratum of tubes cannot thus
be separated. In the genera Strobilomyccs and Boletinus, two other
fleshy genera of this family, the separation is said to be more diffi-
cult than in Boletus, but it has many times seemed to me a <( dis-
tinction without a difference."

The larger number of the species of Boletus grow on the ground.
Some change color when bruised or cut, so that it is important to
note this character when the plant is fresh, and the taste should be
noted as well.

Boletus edulis Bull. Edible. \_Ag. bulbosiis Schaeff. Tab. 134, 1763.
Boletus bulbosus (Schaeff.) Schroeter. Cohn's Krypt, Flora. Schles-
ien, p. 499, 1889]. This plant, which, as its name implies, is edible,
grows in open woods or their borders, in groves and in open places,
on the ground. It occurs in warm, wet weather, from July to Sep-
tember. It is one of the largest of the Boleti, and varies from 5-12
cm. high, the cap from 8-25 cm. broad, and the stem 2-4 cm. in
thickness.

The pileus is convex to expanded, smooth, firm, quite hard when
young and becoming soft in age. The color varies greatly, from

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. 173

buff to dull reddish, to reddish-brown, tawny-brown, often yellowish
over a portion of the cap, usually paler on the margin. The flesh is
white or tinged with yellow, sometimes reddish under the cuticle.
The tubes are white when young and the mouths are closed (stuffed),
the lower surface of the tubes is convex from the margin of the cap to
the stem, and depressed around the stem, sometimes separating from
the stem. While the tubes are white when young, they become
greenish or greenish-yellow, or entirely yellow when mature. The
spores when caught on paper are greenish-yellow, or yellow. They
are oblong to fusiform, 12-15 // long. The stem is stout, even, or
much enlarged at the base so that it is clavate. The surface usually
shows prominent reticulations on mature plants near the tubes,
sometimes over the entire stem. This is well shown in Fig. 164 from
plants (No. 2886, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y.

Figure 165 represents plants (No. 41 34, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The plant is widely
distributed and has long been prized as an esculent in Europe and
America. When raw the plant has an agreeable nutty taste, some-
times sweet. The caps are sometimes sliced and dried for future
use. It is usually recommended to discard the stems and remove the
tubes since the latter are apt to form a slimy mass on cooking.

Boletus felleus Bull. Bitter. This is known as the bitter boletus,
because of a bitter taste of the flesh. It usually grows on or near
much decayed logs or stumps of hemlock spruce. It is said to be
easily recognized by its bitter taste. 1 have found specimens of a
plant which seems to have all the characters of this one growing at
the base of hemlock spruce trees, except that the taste was not bit-
ter. At Ithaca, however, the plant occurs and the taste is bitter.
It is one of the large species of the genus, being from 8-12 cm. high,
the cap 7-20 cm. broad, and the stem 1-2.5 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex becoming nearly plane, firm, and in age soft,
smooth, the color varying from pale yellow to various shades of
brown to chestnut. The flesh is white, and where wounded often
changes to a pink color, but not always. The tubes are adnate, long,
the under surface convex and with a depression around the stem.
The tubes are at first white, but become flesh color or tinged with
flesh color, and the mouths are angular. The stem is stout, tapering
upward, sometimes enlarged at the base, usually reticulated at the
upper end, and sometimes with the reticulations over the entire sur-
face (Fig. 166). The color is paler than that of the cap. The spores
are oblong to spindle-shaped, flesh color in mass, and single ones
measure 12-18x4-5 /<.

174 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The general appearance of the plant is somewhat like that of the
Boletus edit/is, and beginners should be cautioned not to confuse the
two species. It is known by its bitter taste and the flesh-colored
tubes, while the taste of the B. eJulis is sweet, and the tubes are
greenish-yellow, or yellowish or light ochre.

Plate 55 represents three specimens in color.

Boletus scaber Fr. Edible. This species is named the rough-stemmed
boletus, in allusion to the rough appearance given to the stem from
numerous dark brown or reddish dots or scales. This is a character-
istic feature, and aids one greatly in determining the species, since
the color of the cap varies much. The cap is sometimes whitish,
orange red, brown, or smoky in color. The plant is 6-15 cm. high,
the cap 3-7 cm. broad, and the stem 8-12 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is rounded, becoming convex, smooth, or nearly so,
sometimes scaly, and the flesh is soft and white, sometimes turning
slightly to a reddish or dark color where bruised. The tubes are
small, long, the surface formed by their free ends is convex in out-
line, and the tubes are depressed around the stem. They are first
white, becoming darker, and somewhat brownish. The stem is solid,
tapering somewhat upward, and roughened as described above.

The plant is one of the common species of the genus Boletus. It
occurs in the woods on the ground or in groves or borders of woods
in grassy places. Writers differ as to the excellence of this species
for food ; some consider it excellent, while others regard it as less
agreeable than some other species. It is, at any rate, safe, and Peck
considers it "first-class."

Boletus retipes B. & C. This species was first collected in North
Carolina by Curtis, and described by Berkeley. It has since been
reported from Ohio, Wisconsin, and New England (Peck, Boleti of
the U. S.). Peck reported it from New York in the 23d Report, N.
Y. State Mus., p. 132. Later he recognized the New York plant as
a new species which he called B. ornatipes (29th Report, N. Y. State
Mus., p. 67). 1 collected the species in the mountains of North
Carolina, at Blowing Rock, in August, 1888. During the latter part
of August and in September, 1899, I had an opportunity of seeing
quite a large number of specimens in the same locality, for it is
not uncommon there, and two specimens were photographed and are
represented here in Fig. 167. The original description published in
Grevillea 1 : 36, should be modified, especially in regard to the size
of the plant, its habit, and the pulverulent condition of the pileus.
The plants are 6-15 cm. high, the cap 5-10 cm. broad, and the stem
0.5-1.5 cm. in thickness.

PLATE 58, FIGURE 166. Boletus felleus. Cap light brown, tubes flesh color,
stem in this specimen entirely reticulate (natural size, often larger).
Copyright.

TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

175

The pileus is convex, thick, soft and somewhat spongy, especially
in large plants. The cap is dry and sometimes, especially when
young, it is powdery ; at other times, and in a majority of cases
according to my observations, it is not powdery. It is smooth or
minutely tomentose, sometimes the surface cracked into small patches,

FIGURE 167. Boletus retipes. Cap yellowish brown, to olive-brown or nearly black,
stem yellow, beautifully reticulate, tubes yellow (natural size). Copyright.

but usually even. The color varies greatly between yellowish
brown to olive brown, fuliginous or nearly black. The tubes are
yellow, adnate, the tube surface plane or convex. The spores are
yellowish or ochraceous, varying somewhat in tint in different spec-
imens. The stem is yellow, yellow also within, and beautifully retic-

176 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ulate, usually to the base, but sometimes only toward the apex. It
is usually more strongly reticulate over the upper half. The stem is
erect or ascending.

The plant grows in woods, in leaf mold or in grassy places. It
is usually single, that is, so far as my observations have gone at
Blowing Rock. Berkeley and Curtis report it as cespitose. 1 have
never seen it cespitose, never more than two specimens growing near
each other.

Boletus ornatipes Pk., does not seem to be essentially different from
B. retipes. Peck says (Boleti U. S., p. 126) that "the tufted mode
of growth, the pulverulent pileus and paler spores separate this spe-
cies" (retipes') " from the preceding one " (ornatipes). Inasmuch as I
have never found B. retipes tufted, and the fact that the pileus is not
always pulverulent (the majority of specimens I collected were not),
and since the tint of the spores varies as it does in some other species,
the evidence is strong that the two names represent two different hab-
its of the same species. The tufted habit of the plants collected by
Curtis, or at least described by Berkeley, would seem to be a rather
unusual condition for this species, and this would account for the
smaller size given to the plants in the original description, where the
pileus does not exceed 5 cm. in diameter, and the stem is only 5 cm.
long, and 6-12 mm. in thickness. Plants which normally occur
singly do on some occasions occur tufted, and then the habit as well
as the size of the plant is often changed.

A good illustration of this I found in the case of Boletus edulis
during my stay in the North Carolina mountains. The plant usually
occurs singly and more or less scattered. 1 found one case where
there were 6-8 plants in a tuft, the caps were smaller and the stems
in this case considerably longer than in normal specimens. A plant
which agrees with the North Carolina specimens I have collected at
Ithaca, and so 1 judge that B. retipes occurs in New York.

Boletus chromapes Frost. This is a pretty boletus, and has been
reported from New England and from New York State. During the
summer of 1899 it was quite common in the Blue Ridge mountains,
North Carolina. The plant grows on the ground in woods. It is
6-10 cm. high, the cap is 5-10 cm. in diameter, and the stem is 8-12
mm. in thickness. It is known by the yellowish stem covered with
reddish glandular dots.

The pileus is convex to nearly expanded, pale red, rose pink to
vinaceous pink in color, and sometimes slightly tomentose. The
flesh is white, and does not change when cut or bruised. The tube
surface is convex, and the tubes are attached slightly to the stem.

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. 177

or free. They are white, then flesh color, and in age become brown.
The stem is even, or it tapers slightly upward, straight or ascending,
whitish or yellow above, or below, sometimes yellowish the entire
length. The flesh is also yellowish, especially at the base. The
entire surface is marked with reddish or pinkish dots.

Figure 168 is from plants (No. 4085 C. U. herbarium) collected
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Boletus vermiculosus Pk. This species was named B. vermiculosus
because it is sometimes very "wormy." This is not always the
case, however. It grows in woods on the ground, in the Eastern
United States. It is from 6-12 cm. high, the cap from 7-12 cm.
broad, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is thick, convex, firm, smooth, and varies in color from
brown to yellowish brown, or drab gray to buff, and is minutely
tomentose. The flesh quickly changes to blue where wounded,
and the bruised portion, sometimes, changing to yellowish. The
tubes are yellowish, with reddish-brown mouths, the tube surface
being rounded, free or nearly so, and the tubes changing to blue
where wounded. The stem is paler than the pileus, often dotted with
short, small, dark tufts below, and above near the tubes abruptly
paler, and sometimes the two colors separated by a brownish line.
The stem is not reticulated. Figure 169 is from a photograph of
plants (No. 4132 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C.,
during September, 1899.

Boletus obsonium (Paul.) Fr. This species was not uncommon in
the woods at Blowing Rock, N. C., during the latter part of August
and during September, 1899. It grows on the ground, the plants
usually appearing singly. It is from 10-15 cm. high, the cap 8-13
cm. broad, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness, considerably broader
at the base than at the apex.

The pileus is convex to expanded, vinaceous cinnamon, to pinkish
vinaceous or hazel in color. It is soft, slightly tomentose, and when
old the surface frequently cracks into fine patches showing the pink
flesh beneath. The thin margin extends slightly beyond the tubes,
so that it is sterile. The flesh does not change color on exposure to
the air. The tubes are plane, adnate, very slightly depressed around
the stem or nearly free, yellowish white when young, becoming dark
olive green in age from the color of the spores. The tube mouths
are small and rotund. The spores caught on white paper are dark
olive green. They are elliptical usually, with rounded ends, 12-15
x 4-5 /^. The stem is white when young, with a tinge of yellow
ochre, and pale flesh color below. It is marked with somewhat par-

178 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

allel elevated lines, or rugae below, where it is enlarged and nearly
bulbous. In age it becomes tlesh color the entire length and is more
plainly striate rugose with a yellowish tinge at the base. The stem
tapers gradually and strongly from the base to the apex, so that it
often appears long conic.

The plant is often badly eaten by snails, so that it is sometimes
difficult to obtain perfect specimens. Figure 170 is from a photo-
graph of plants (No. 4092 C. U. herbarium) from Blowing Rock,

N. C.

Boletus americanus Pk. This species occurs in woods and open
places, growing on the ground in wet weather. It occurs singly or
clustered, sometimes two or three joined by their bases, but usually
more scattered. It is usually found under or near pine trees. The
plant is 3-6 cm. high, the cap 2-7 cm. broad, and the stem is 4-8
mm. in thickness. It is very slimy in wet weather, the cap is yellow,
streaked or spotted with faint red, and the stem is covered with
numerous brown or reddish brown dots.

The pileus is rounded, then convex, becoming nearly expanded
and sometimes with an umbo. It is soft, very slimy or viscid when
moist, yellow. When young the surface gluten is often mixed with
loose threads, more abundant on the margin, and continuous with
the veil, which can only be seen in the very young stage. As the
pileus expands the margin is sometimes scaly from remnants of the
veil and of loose hairs on the surface. The cap loses its bright color
as it ages, and is then sometimes streaked or spotted with red. The
tube surface is nearly plane, and the tubes join squarely against the
stem. The tubes are rather large, angular, yellowish, becoming dull
ochraceous. The stem is nearly equal, yellow, and covered with
numerous brownish or reddish brown glandular dots. No ring is
present.

This species grows in the same situations as the B. granulatus,
sometimes both species are common over the same area. Figure 171
is from plants (No. 3991 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock,
N. C., September, 1899. The species is closely related to B.flircLlus
Fr., and according to some it is identical with it.

Boletus granulatus L. Edible. This species is one of the very com-
mon and widely distributed ones. It grows in woods and open
places on the ground. Like B. americanus, it is usually found under
or near pines. It occurs during the summer and autumn, sometimes
appearing very late in the season. The plants are 3-6 cm. high, the
cap is 4-10 cm. broad, and the stem is 8-12 mm. in thickness. The
plants usually are clustered, though not often very crowded.

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

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The pileus is convex to nearly expanded, flat
very viscid and reddish
brown, paler and yellow-
ish when it is dry, but
very variable in color,
pink, red, yellow, tawny,
and brown shades. The
flesh is pale yellow.
The tubes are joined
squarely to the stem,
short, yellowish, and the
edges of the tubes, that
is, at the open end (often
called the mouth), are
dotted or granulated.
The stem is dotted in the
same way above. The
spores in mass are pale
yellow ; singly they are
spindle-shaped.

The species is edible,
though some say it should
be regarded with sus-
picion. Peck has tried
it, and 1 have eaten it,
but the viscid character
of the plant did not make
it a relish for me. There
are several species
closely related to the
granulated Boletus. B.
brevipes P k . , is one
chiefly distinguished by
the short stem, which
entirely lacks the gland-
ular dots. It grows in
sandy soil, in pine groves
and in woods.

Boletus punctipes Pk.
This species has been re-
ported from New York
State by Peck. During

When moist it is

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180

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

September, 1899, I found it quite common in the Blue Ridge
mountains of North Carolina, at an elevation of between 4000 and
5000 feet. It grows on the ground in mixed woods. The plants
are 5-8 cm. high, the caps 5-7 cm. broad, and the stem 6-10 mm. in
thickness.

The pileus is convex, sometimes becoming nearly plane, and it is
quite thick in the center, more so than the granulated boletus, while
the margin is thin, and when young with a minute gray powder.
The margin often becomes upturned when old ; the cap is viscid when

FKJURE 172. Boletus punctipes. Cap viscid when moist, reddish brown, pink, yellow,
tawny, etc., tubes yellowish, stem dark punctate (natural size). Copyright.

moist, dull yellow. The tubes are short, their lower surface plane,
and they are set squarely against the stem. They are small, the
mouths rounded, brownish, then dull ochraceous, and dotted with
glandules. The stem is rather long, proportionately more so than in
the granulated boletus. It distinctly tapers upwards, is "rhubarb
yellow," and dotted with glandules. This character of the stem sug-
gested the name of the species. The spores are 8-10x4-5;*.
Figure 172 is from plants (No. 4067 C. U. herbarium) collected at
Blowing Rock, N. C. It is closely related to B. grauulatiis and by
some is considered the same.

TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

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Boletus luteus Linn. (B. siiblnteus Pk.) This species is widely dis-
tributed in Europe and America, and grows in sandy soil, in pine or
mixed woods or groves. The plants are 5-8 cm. high, the cap 3-12
cm. in diameter, and the stem 6-10 mm. in thickness. The general
color is dull brown or yel-
lowish brown, and the
plants are slimy in moist
weather, the stem and
tubes more or less dotted
with dark points. These
characters vary greatly
under different condi-
tions, and the fact has led
to some confusion in the ,
discrimination of species.

The pileus is convex, EL

, \

becoming nearly plane,
viscid or glutinous when
moist, dull yellowish to
reddish brown, some-
times with the color ir-
regularly distributed in
streaks. The flesh is
whitish or dull yellowish.
The tube surface is plane
or convex, the tubes set
squarely against the stem
(adnate), while the tubes
are small, with small,
nearly rounded, or
slightly angular mouths.
The color of the tubes is
yellowish or ochre col-
ored, becoming darker in
age, and sometimes
nearly brown or quite
dark. The stem is pale

yellowish, reddish or brownish, and more or less covered with
glandular dots, which when dry give a black dotted appearance to
the stem. In the case of descriptions of B. In fens the stem is said
to be dotted only above the annulus, while the description of B.
siiblnteus gives the stem as dotted both above and below the annulus.

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182 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

The spores are yellowish brown or some shade of this color in mass,
lighter yellowish brown under the microscope, fusiform or nearly
so, and 7-10 x 2-4 //. The annulus is very variable, sometimes col-
lapsing as a narrow ring around the stem as in Fig. 173, from
plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899 (B. sub-
luteus Pk.), and sometimes appearing as a broad, free collar, as in
Fig. 174. The veil is more or less gelatinous, and in an early stage
of the plant may cover the stem as a sheath. The lower part of
the stem is sometimes covered at maturity with the sheathing por-
tion of the veil, the upper part only appearing as a ring. In this
way, the lower part of the stem being covered, the glandular dots
are not evident, while the stem is seen to be dotted above the
annulus. But in many cases the veil slips off from the lower portion
of the stem at an early stage, and then in its slimy condition
collapses around the upper part of the stem, leaving the stem
uncovered and showing the dots both above and below the ring
(B. subluteus}.

An examination of the figures of the European plant shows that
the veil often slips off from the lower portion of the stem in B. luteus,
especially in the figures given by Krombholtz, T. 33. In some of
these figures the veil forms a broad, free collar, and the stem is then
dotted both above and below, as is well shown in the figures. In
other figures where the lower part of the veil remains as a sheath
over the lower part of the stem, the dots are hidden. I have three spec-
imens of the B. luteus of Europe from Dr. Bresadola, collected at Tren-
to, Austria-Hungary : one of them has the veil sheathing the lower
part of the stem, and the stem only shows the dots above the an-
nulus ; a second specimen has the annulus in the form of a collapsed
ring near the upper end of the stem, and the stem dotted both above
and below the annulus ; in the third specimen the annulus is in the
form of a broad, free collar, and the stem dotted both above and be-
low. The plants shown in Fig. 174 (No. 4124, C. U. herbarium) were
collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. They
were found in open woods under Kalmia were the sun had an op-
portunity to dry out the annulus before it became collapsed or agglut-
inated against the stem, and the broad, free collar was formed. My
notes on these specimens read as follows: "The pileus is convex,
then expanded, rather thick at the center, the margin thin, some-
times sterile, incurved. In color it runs from ecru drab to hair-brown
with streaks of the latter, and it is very viscid when moist. When
dried the surface of the pileus is shining. The tubes are plane or
concave, adnate, tawny-olive to walnut-brown. The tubes are

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

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small, angular, somewhat as in B. granulatus, but smaller, and they
are granulated with reddish or brownish dots. The spores are wal-
nut brown, oblong to el-
liptical, 8-10 x 2-3 //.
The stem is cylindrical,
even, olive yellow above,
and black dotted both
above and below the
annulus.

Boletinus pictus Pk.
This very beautiful plant
is quite common in damp
pine woods. It is easily
recognized by the red-
dish cottony layer of
mycelium threads which
cover the entire plant
when young, and form a
veil which covers the
gills at this time. As the
plant expands the red-
dish outer layer is torn
into scales of the same
color, showing the yel-
lowish, or pinkish, flesh
beneath, and the flesh
often changes to pink or
reddish where wounded.
The tubes are first pale
yellow, but become
darker in age, often
changing to pinkish, with
a brown tinge where
bruised. The stem is
solid, and is thus differ-
ent from a closely related
species, B. cavipes Kalchb.
The stem is covered with
a coat like that on the
pileus and is similarly
colored, though often
paler. The spores are

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184 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ochraceous, 15-18x6-8 //. The plants are 5-8 cm. high, the caps
5-8 cm. broad, and the stems 6-12 mm. in thickness.

Figure 175 is from plants collected in the Blue Ridge mountains,
Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899.

Boletinus porosus (Berk.) Pk. This very interesting species is
widely distributed in the Eastern United States. It resembles a Polyp-
orus, though it is very soft like a Boletus, but quite tenacious. The
plants are dull reddish-brown, viscid when moist, and shining. The
cap is more or less irregular and the stem eccentric, the cap being
sometimes more or less lobed. The plants are 4-6 cm. high, the
cap 5-12 cm. broad, and the short stem 8-12 mm. in thickness. It
occurs in damp ground in woods.

The pileus is fleshy, thick at the middle, and thin at the margin.
The tubes are arranged in prominently radiating rows, the partitions
often running radiately in the form of lamellae, certain ones of them
being more prominent than others as shown in Fig. 176. These branch
and are connected by cross partitions of less prominence. This char-
acter of the hymenium led Berkeley to place the plant in the genus
Paxillus, with which it does not seem to be so closely related as with
the genus Boletus. The stratum of tubes, though very soft, is very
tenacious, and does not separate from the flesh of the pileus, thus
resembling certain species of Polyponis. Figure 176 is from plants
collected at Ithaca.

Strobilomyces strobilaceus Berk. Edible. This plant has a peculiar
name, both the genus and the species referring to the cone-like ap-
pearance of the cap with its coarse, crowded, dark brown scales,
bearing a fancied resemblance to a pine cone. It is very easily dis-
tinguished from other species of Boletus because of this character of
the cap. The plant has a very wide distribution though it is not
usually very common. The plant is 8-14 cm. high, the cap 5-10
cm. broad, and the stem 1-2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is hemispherical to convex, shaggy from numerous large
blackish, coarse, hairy, projecting scales. The margin of the cap is
fringed with scales and fragments of the veil which covers the tubes
in the young plants. The flesh is whitish, but soon changes to red-
dish color, and later to black where wounded or cut. The tubes are
adnate, whitish, becoming brown and blackish in the older plants.
The mouths of the tubes are large and angular, and change color
where bruised, as does the flesh of the cap. The stem is even, or
sometimes tapers upward, often grooved near the apex, very tomen-
tose or scaly with soft scales of the same color as the cap. The
spores are in mass dark brown, nearly globose, roughened, and

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

FIGURK 178. Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Sections of plants. Copyright.

10-12 yu long. Figs. 177-179 are from plants collected at Ithaca,
N. Y. Another European plant, 5. floccopus Vahl, is said by Peck to
occur in the United States, but is much more rare. The only dif-

FIGURE 179. Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Under view. Copyright.

ference in the two noted by Peck in the case of the American plants
is that the tubes are depressed around the stem in S. floccopus.

186 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

FISTULINA Bull.

In the genus Fistulina the tubes, or pores, are crowded together,
but stand separately, that is, they are not connected together, or
grown together into a stratum as in Boletus, and other genera of the
family Polyporacece. When the plant is young the tubes are very
short, but they elongate with age.

Fistulina hepatica Fr. Edible. This is one of the largest of the
species in the genus and is the most widely distributed and common
one. It is of a dark red color, very soft and juicy. It has usually a
short stem which expands out into the broad and thick cap. When
young the upper side of the cap is marked by minute elevations of a
different color, which suggest the papilla? on the tongue ; in age
the tubes on the under surface have also some such suggestive ap-
pearance. The form, as it stands outward in a shelving fashion
from stumps or trees, together with the color and surface characters,
has suggested several common names, as beef tongue, beef-steak fun-
gus, oak or chestnut tongue. The plant is 10-20 cm. long, and 8-15
cm. broad, the stem very short and thick, sometimes almost wanting,
and again quite long. I have seen some specimens growing from a
hollow log in which the stems were 12-15 cm. long.

The pileus is very thick, 2 cm. or more in thickness, fleshy, soft,
very juicy, and in wet weather very clammy and somewhat sticky
to the touch. When mature there are lines of color of different shades
extending out radially on the upper surface, and in making a longi-
tudinal section of the cap there are quite prominent, alternating, dark
and light red lines present in the flesh. The tubes, short at first,
become 2-3 mm. long, they are yellowish or tinged with flesh color,
becoming soiled in age. The spores are elliptical, yellowish, and
5-6 ^ long.

The plant occurs on dead trunks or stumps of oak, chestnut, etc.,
in wet weather from June to September. 1 have usually found it on
chestnut.

The beef-steak fungus is highly recommended by some, while
others are not pleased with it as an article of food. It has an acid
flavor which is disagreeable to some, but this is more marked in
young specimens and in those not well cooked. When it is sliced
thin and well broiled or fried, the acid taste is not marked.

Fistulina pallida B. & Rav. {Fistulina finna Pk.) This rare and
interesting species was collected by Mrs. A. M. Hadley, near Man-
chester, New Hampshire, October, 1898, and was described by Dr.
Peck in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 26: 70, 1899, as

PLATE 65.

FIG. i. Fistulina hepatica.
FIG. 2. F. pallida.

PLATE f>6, FIGURE 180. Fistulina pallida. Cap wood-brown to fawn or clay color, tubes
and lower part of the stem whitish (natural size). Copyright.

TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. 1ST

Fistulina finna. But two plants were then found, and these were
connected at the base. During August and September it was quite
common in a small woods near Ithaca, N. Y., and was first collected
growing from the roots of a dead oak stump, August 4 (No. 3227
C. U. herbarium), and afterward during October. During Septem-
ber I collected it at Blowing Rock, N. C., in the Blue Ridge moun-
tains, at an elevation of nearly 5000 feet, growing from the roots of
a dead white oak tree. It was collected during September, 1899, by
Mr. Frank Rathbun at Auburn, N. Y. It was collected by Ravenel
in the mountains of South Carolina, around a white oak stump by
Peters in Alabama, and was first described by Berkeley in 1872, in
Grev. 1: 71, Notices of N. A. F. No. 173. Growing from roots or
wood underneath the surface of the ground, the plant has an erect
stem, the length of the stem depending on the depth at which the
root is buried, just as in the case of Polyporus radicatus, which has
a similar habitat. The plants are 5-12 cm. high, the cap is 3-7 cm.
broad, and the stem 6-8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is wood brown to fawn, clay color or isabelline color.
It is nearly semi-circular to reniform in outline, and the margin
broadly crenate, or sometimes lobed. The stem is attached at the con-
cave margin, where the cap is auriculate and has a prominent boss or
elevation, and bent at right angles with a characteristic curve. The
pileus is firm, flexible, tough and fibrous, flesh white. The surface
is covered with a fine and dense tomentum. The pileus is 5-8 mm.
thick at the base, thinning out toward the margin. The tubes are
whitish, 2-3 mm. long and 5-6 in the space of a millimeter. They
are very slender, tubular, the mouth somewhat enlarged, the margin
of the tubes pale cream color and minutely mealy or furfuraceous,
with numerous irregular, roughened threads. The tubes often stand
somewhat separated, areas being undeveloped or younger, so that
the surface of the under side is not regular. The tubes are not so
crowded as is usual in the Fistulina hepatica. They are not decurrent,
but end abruptly near the stem. The spores are subglobose, 3 /< in
diameter. The stem tapers downward, is whitish below, and near
the pileus the color changes rather abruptly to the same tint as the
pileus. The stem is sometimes branched, and two or three caps
present, or the caps themselves may be joined, as well as the stems,
so that occasionally very irregular forms are developed, but there is
always the peculiar character of the attachment of the stem to the
side of the cap.

Figure 180 is from plants (No 3676, C. U. herbarium) collected

188 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899. Figures on the colored
plate represent this plant.

Polyporus frondosus Fr. Edible. This plant occurs in both Europe
and America, and while not very common seems to be widely dis-
tributed. It grows about old stumps or dead trees, from roots, often
arising from the roots below the surface of the ground, and also is
found on logs. The plant represents a section of the genus Poh'porus,
in which the body, both the stem and the cap, are very much
branched. In this species the stem is stout at the base, but it
branches into numerous smaller trunks, which continue to branch
until finally the branches terminate in the expanded and leaf-like
caps as shown in Figs. 181-182. The plants appear usually during
late summer and in the autumn. The species is often found about
oak stumps. Some of the specimens are very large, and weigh 10
to 20 pounds, and the mass is sometimes 30 to 60 cm. (1-2 feet) in
diameter.

The plant, when young and growing, is quite soft and tender,
though it is quite firm. It never becomes very hard, as many of the
other species of this family. When mature, insects begin to attack
it, and not being tough it soon succumbs to the ravages of insects and
decay, as do a number of the softer species of the Polyporacece. The
caps are very irregular in shape, curved, repand, radiately furrowed,
sometimes zoned ; gray, or hair-brown in color, with a perceptibly
hairy surface, the hairs running in lines on the surface. Sometimes
they are quite broad and not so numerous as in Plate 67, and in
other plants they are narrow and more numerous, as in Plate 68.
The tubes are more or less irregular, whitish, with a yellowish tinge
when old. From the under side of the cap they extend down on the
stem. When the spores are mature they are sometimes so numerous
that they cover the lower caps and the grass for quite a distance
around as if with a white powder.

This species is edible, and because of the large size which it often
attains, the few plants which are usually found make up in quantity
what they lack in numbers. Since the plant is quite firm it will
keep several days after being picked, in a cool place, and will serve
for several meals. A specimen which I gathered was divided
between two families, and was served at several meals on successive
days. When stewed the plant has for me a rather objectionable
taste, but the stewing makes the substance more tender, and when
this is followed by broiling or frying the objectionable taste is
removed and it is quite palatable. The plants represented in Plates
67 and 68 were collected at Ithaca.

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

189

There are several species which are related to the frondose polyp-
orus which occur in this country as well as in Europe. Polyporus
intybaceus Fr., is of about the same size, and the branching, and form
of the caps is much the same, but it is of a yellowish brown or red-
dish brown color. It grows on logs, stumps, etc., and is probably
edible. It is not so common at Ithaca as the frondose polyporus.

Polyporus umbellatus Fr. This species is also related to the fron-
dose polyporus, but is very distinct. It is more erect, the branching

FIGURE 183. Polyporus umbellatus. Caps hair-brown (natural size, often much

larger). Copyright.

more open, and the caps at the ends of the branches are more or less
circular and umbilicate. The branches are long, cylindrical and
united near the base. The spreading habit of the branching, or the
form of the caps, suggests an umbel or umbrella, and hence the spe-
cific name umbellatus.

The tufts occur from 12-20 cm. in diameter, and the individual
caps are from 1-4 cm. in diameter. It grows from underground roots
and about stumps during summer. It is probably edible, but I have

19< STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

never tried it. Figure 183 is from a plant (No. 1930, C. U. herba-
rium) collected in Cascadilla woods, Ithaca.

Polyporus sulphureus ( Bull. ) Fr. Edible. (Boletus caudicinits
Schaeff. T. 131, 132: Polyporus caudicinus Schroeter , Cohn's Krypt.
Flora, Schlesien, p. 471, 1899). The sulphur polyporus is so-called
because of the bright sulphur color of the entire plant. It is one of
the widely distributed species, and grows on dead oak, birch, and
other trunks, and is also often found growing from wounds or knot-
holes of living trees of the oak, apple, walnut, etc. The mycelium
enters at wounds where limbs are broken off, and grows for years in
the heart wood, disorganizing it and causing it to decay. In time the
mycelium has spread over a considerable area, from which nutriment
enough is supplied for the formation of the fruiting condition. The
caps then appear from an open wound when such an exit is present.

The color of the plant is quite constant, but varies of course in
shades of yellow to some extent. In form, however, it varies greatly.
The caps are usually clustered and imbricated, that is, they overlap.
They may all arise separately from the wood, and yet be overlap-
ping, though oftener several of them are closely joined or united at
the base, so that the mass of caps arises from a common outgrowth
from the wood as shown in Fig. 184. The individual caps are flat-
tened, elongate, and more or less fan-shaped. When mature there
are radiating furrows and ridges which often increase the fan-like
appearance of the upper surface of the cap. Sometimes also there
are more or less marked concentric furrows. The caps may be con-
vex, or the margin may be more or less upturned so that the central
portion is depressed. When young the margin is thick and blunt
and of course lighter in color, but as the plant matures the edge is
usually thinner.

In some forms of the plant the caps are so closely united as to
form a large rounded or tubercular mass, only the blunt tips of the
individual caps being free. This is well represented in Fig. 185, from
a photograph of a large specimen growing from a wound in a butter-
nut tree in Central New York. The plant was 30 cm. in diameter.
The plants represented in Plate 69 grew on an oak stump. The
tree was affected by the fungus while it was alive, and the heart
wood became so weakened that the tree broke, and later the fruit
form of the fungus appeared from the dead stump.

The tubes are small, and the walls thin and delicate, and are
sometimes much torn, lacerated, and irregular. When the mycelium
has grown in the interior of a log for a number of years it tends to
grow in sheets along the line of the medullary rays of the wood or

PLATE 69, FIGURE 184. Polyporus sulphureus, on
sulphur-yellow (1/6 natural size).

oak stump.
Copyright.

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PLATE 71, FIGURE 186. Polyporus brumalis. Cap and stem brown, tubes white.
Lower three plants natural size, upper one enlarged twice natural size. Copy-
right.

TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. 191

across in concentric layers corresponding to the summer wood. Also
as the wood becomes more decomposed, cracks and rifts appear along
these same lines. The mycelium then grows in abundance in these
rifts and forms broad and extensive sheets which resemble somewhat
chamois skin and is called "punk." Similar punk is sometimes
formed in conifers from the mycelium of Pomes pinicola.

Pulyporus sulphurciis has long been known as an edible fungus,
but from its rather firm and fibrous texture it requires a different
preparation from the fleshy fungi to prepare it for the table, and this
may be one reason why it is not employed more frequently as an
article of food. It is common enough during the summer and espe-
cially during the autumn to provide this kind of food in considerable
quantities.

Polyporus brumalis ( Pers. ) Fr . This pretty plant is found at all sea-
sons of the year, and from its frequency during the winter was named
brumalis, from bmma, which means winter. It grows on sticks and
branches, or on trunks. It usually occurs singly, sometimes two or
three close together. The plants are 3-6 cm. high, the cap 2-6
cm. in diameter, and the stem is 3-6 mm. in thickness.

The cap is convex, then plane, and sometimes depressed at the
center or umbilicate. When young it is somewhat fleshy and pliant,
then it becomes tough, coriaceous, and hard when dry. During wet
weather it becomes pliant again. Being hard and firm, and tough,
it preserves long after mature, so that it may be found at any season
of the year. The cap is smoky in color, varying in shade, some-
times very dark, almost black, and other specimens being quite light
in color. The surface is hairy and the margin is often fimbriate with
coarse hairs. The stem is lighter, hairy or strigose. The tubes are
first white, then become yellowish. The tubes are very regular in
arrangement.

Figure 186 represents well this species, three plants being grouped
rather closely on the same stick ; two show the under surface and
one gives a side view. The upper portion of the plate represents
two of the plants enlarged, the three lower ones being natural size.
The plant is very common and widely distributed over the world.
Those illustrated in the plate were collected at Ithaca. This species
is too tough for food.

Many of the thin and pliant species of Polyporus, are separated by
some into the genus Polystictus. The species are very numerous, as
well as some of the individuals of certain species. They grow on
wood or on the ground, some have a central stem, and others are
shelving, while some are spread out on the surface of the wood. One

19-2

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

very pretty species is the Polystictus perennis Fr. This grows on the
ground and has a central stem. The plant is 2-3 cm. high, and the
cap 1-4 cm. broad. The pileus is thin, pliant when fresh and some-
what brittle when dry. It is minutely velvety on the upper surface,
reddish brown or cinnamon in color, expanded or umbilicateto nearly
funnel-shaped. The surface is marked beautifully by radiations and
fine concentric zones. The stem is also velvety. The tubes are
minute, the walls thin and acute, and the mouths angular and at last
more or less torn. The margin of the cap is finely fimbriate, but in
old specimens these hairs are apt to become rubbed off. The left
hand plant in Fig. 187 is Poly porus perennis.

Polystictus cinnamomeus (Jacq.) Sacc., (P. oblcctans Berk. Hook.
Jour. p. 51, 1845, Dec. N. A. F. No. 35: P. splciuiens Pk., 26th
Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 26) is a closely related species with the

FIGURE 187. Left-hand plant Polystictus perennis ; vight-hand three
plants Polystictus cinnamomeus. All natural size. Copyright.

same habit, color, and often is found growing side by side with P.
perennis. The margin of the cap is deeply and beautifully lacerate,
as shown in the three other plants in Fig. 187. Polystictus connatus
Schw., grows in similar situations and one sometimes finds all three
of these plants near each other on the ground by roadsides. P. con-
natus has much larger pores than either of the other two, and it is a
somewhat larger plant. Figure 187 is from a photograph of plants
collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Polystictus versicolor (L.) Fr., is a very common plant growing on
trunks and branches. It is more or less shelving, with a leaf-like
pileus, marked by concentric bands of different colors. P. hirsutus
Fr., is a somewhat thicker and more spongy plant, whitish or gray-
ish in color, with the upper surface tomentose with coarse hairs. P.
cinnabarinus (Jacq.) Fr., is shelving, spongy, pliant, rather thick,
cinnabar colored. It grows on dead logs and branches. It is some-

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TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. 193

times placed in the genus Trametes under the same specific name.
Polystictus pergamenus Fr., is another common one growing on wood of
various trees. It is thin and very pliant when fresh, somewhat
tomentose above when young, with faint bands, and the tubes are
often violet or purple color, and they soon become deeply torn and
lacerate so that they resemble the teeth of certain of the hedgehog f u ngi.

Polyporus lucidus (Leys.) Fr. \_Fomes lucidus (Leys.) Fr.]
This species is a very striking one because of the bright red or chest-
nut color, the hard and brittle crust over the surface of the cap, which
has usually the appearance of having been varnished. It grows on
trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in woods or groves. The cap is 5-20 cm.
in diameter, and the stem is 5-20 cm. long, and 1-2 cm. in thickness.
The stem is attached to one side of the pileus so that the pileus is
lateral, though the stem is more or less ascending.

The cap is first yellowish when young, then it becomes blood red,
then chestnut color. The stem is the same color, and the tubes are
not so bright in color, being a dull brown. The substance of the
plant is quite woody and tough when mature. When dry it is soon
attacked and eaten by certain insects, which are fond of a number of
fungi, so that they are difficult to preserve in good condition in her-
baria without great care.

The surface of the pileus is quite uneven, wrinkled, and coarsely
grooved, the margin sometimes crenate, especially in large speci-
mens. Figure 188 represents the plant growing on a large hemlock
spruce stump in the woods. The surface character of the caps and
the general form can be seen. This photograph was taken near
Ithaca, N. Y.

Polyporus applanatus (Pers.) \.\_Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr.]
-This plant is also one of the very common woody Polyporacece.
It grows on dead trunks, etc., and sometimes is found growing
from the wounds of living trees. It is very hard and woody. It
has a hard crust, much harder than that of the Polrpoms lucidus.
The surface is more or less marked by concentric zones which mark
off the different years' growth, for this plant is perennial. At cer-
tain seasons of the year the upper surface is covered with a powdery
substance of a reddish brown color, made up of numerous colored
spores or conidia which are developed on the upper surface of this
plant in addition to the smaller spores developed in the tubes on the
under surface.

The plant varies in size from 5-20 cm. or more in diameter, and
i-io cm. in thickness, according to the rapidity of growth and the age
of the fungus. The fruiting surface is white, and the tubes are very

194 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

minute. They scarcely can be seen with the unaided eye. Bruises
of the tubes turn brown, and certain " artists '' often collect these
plants and sketch with a pointed instrument on the tube surface.
For other peculiarities of this plant see page 15. The age of the
plant can usually be told by counting the number of the broader
zones on the upper surface, or by making a section through the
plant and counting the number of tube strata on the lower surface
of the cap at its base.

Polyporus leucophseus Mont., is said to differ from this species in
being more strongly zonate, and in the crust being whitish instead
of reddish brown.

Polyporus fomentarius (L.) Fr. \_Fomcs foment arms (L.) Fr.,] is
hoof-shaped, smoky in color, or gray, and of various shades of dull
brown. It is strongly zoned and sulcate, marking off each year's
growth. The margin is thick and blunt, and the tube surface con-
cave, the tubes having quite large mouths so that they can be readily
seen, the color when mature being reddish brown. Sections of the
plant show that the tubes are very long, the different years' growth
not being marked off so distinctly as in P. applanatus and leucophceus.
The plant grows on birch, beech, maple, etc. The inner portion
was once used as tinder.

Polyporus pinicola (Swartz.) Fr.[Fomcspimcola (Swartz.) Fr.] occurs
on dead pine, spruce, balsam, hemlock spruce, and other conifers. The
cap is about the width of the F. applanatus, but it is stouter, and does
not have the same hard crust. The young growth at the margin,
which is very thick, is whitish yellow, while the old zones are red-
dish. The tubes are yellowish, and sections show that they are in
strata corresponding to the years' growth. Polyporus igniarius (L.)
Fr. [Fames igniarius (L.) Fr.J is a black species, more or less trian-
gular, or sometimes hoof-shaped. The yearly zones are smaller,
become much cracked, and the tubes are dark brown. One of these
plants which I found on a birch tree in the Adirondacks was over 80
years old.

The genus Merulius has a fruiting surface of irregular folds or
wrinkles, forming shallow, irregular pits instead of a deeply honey-
combed surface. Merulius lacrymans (Jacq.) Fr., the" weeping" meru-
lius, or "house fungus," often occurs in damp cellars, buildings,
conduit pipes, etc. It is very destructive to buildings in certain parts
of Europe (see Figs. 189, 190). Merulius tremellosus Schrad., is very
common in woods during autumn. It is of a gelatinous consistency,
and spread on the under surface of limbs or forms irregular shelves
from the side (see Figs. 191, 192).

PLATE 73. Merulius lacrymans. FIGURE 189. Upper plant in conduit pipe leading
from wash room, Gymnasium C. U., Autumn, 1899. FIGURE 190. Lower
plant from under surface decaying hemlock spruce log in woods near Freeville,
N. Y., October, 1899. Margin of plants white, fruiting surface a network of
irregular folds, golden brown, or brown. Copyright.

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PLATE 75, FIGURE 193. Phlebia merismoides. On rotting log, woods near Ithaca,
November 23, 1898 (No. 2634 C. U. herbarium). Various shades of orange,
yellow or yellow brown when old. Copyright.

I'IVLK 76 FIGURK 194. Phlebia merismoides. Portion' of a plant 2^ times
natural size, to show interrupted folds of fruiting surface, tor colors see
Fig. 193. Copyright.

CHAPTER X.

HEDGEHOG FUNGI: HYDNACEAE.

The plants belonging to this family vary greatly in size, form,
and consistency. Some of them are very large, some quite small,
some are fleshy in consistency, some are woody, corky ; some mem-
branaceous ; and if we include plants formerly classed here, some are
gelatinous, though there is a tendency in recent years on the part of
some to place the gelatinous ones among the trembling fungi. The
special character which marks the members of this family is the pecu-
liarity of the fruiting surface, just as a number of the other families
are distinguished by some peculiarity of the fruiting surface. In
the Hydnacece it covers the surface of numerous processes in the form
of spines, teeth, warts, coarse granules, or folds which are inter-
rupted at short intervals. These spines or teeth always are directed
toward the earth when the plant is in the position in which it grew.
In this way the members of the family can be distinguished from cer-
tain members of the club fungi belonging to the family Clavariacece,
for in the latter the branches or free parts of the plant are erect.

In form the Hydnacece are shelving, growing on trees ; or growing
on the ground they often have a central or eccentric stem, and a
more or less circular cap ; some of them are rounded masses, grow-
ing from trees, with very long spines extending downward ; others
have ascending branches from which the spines depend ; and still
others form thin sheets which are spread over the surface of logs and
sticks, the spines hanging down from the surface, or roughened with
granules or warts, or interrupted folds (see Phlebia, Figs. 193, 194).
In one genus there is no fruit body, but the spines themselves extend
downward from the rotten wood, the genus Mucronella. This is only
distinguished, so far as its family position is concerned, from such a
species as Clavaria mucida by the fact that the plant grows downward
from the wood, while in C. mucida it grows erect.

HYDNUM Linn.

The only species of the Hydnacece described here are in the genus
Hydmim. In this genus the fruiting surface is on spine, or awl-
shaped processes, which are either simple or in some cases the tips
are more or less branched. The plants grow on the ground or on

195

HMJ

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

wood. The species vary greatly in form. Some are provided with
a more or less regular cap and a stem, while others are shelving or
bracket shaped, and still others are spread out over the surface of
the wood (resupinate).

Hydnum coralloides Scop. Edible. Among the very beautiful species
of the genus Hydnum, \s the coral one, Hydnum coralloides. It grows
in woods forming large, beautiful, pure white tufts on rotten logs,
branches, etc. The appearance of one of these tufts is shown in

FIGURE 195. Hydnum coralloides. Entirely white (natural size). Copyright.

Fig. 195. There is a common stem which arises from the wood,
and this branches successively into long, ascending, graceful shoots.
The spines are scattered over the entire under side of these branches
and hang down for 3-6 mm. They are not clustered at the ends of the
branches, as in the bear's head hydnum, and the species can be easily
distinguished by giving attention to the form of the branching and
the distribution of the spines on the under side of the branches.
Figure 195 represents a plant collected at Ithaca, and it is natural

HEDGEHOG FUNGI.

HIT

size. They grow, however, much larger than this specimen. The
species is widely distributed, and not uncommon. It is excellent for
food.

Hydnum caput-ursi Fr. Edible. This plant is also a beautiful one.
It is more common than the coral hydnum so far as my observation
goes. It is known by the popular name of " bear's head hydnum '
in allusion to the groups of spines at the ends of the branches. It

FIGURE 197. Hydnum erinaceus. Entirely white (natural size, often larger).

occurs in woods with a similar habit of growing on trunks, branches,
etc. This plant also arises from the wood with a single stout stem,
which then branches successively, the ends of the branches having
groups of long pendant spines appearing like numerous heads.
Sometimes the spines on the top of the group are twisted or curled
in a peculiar way. Large tufts are sometimes formed, varying from
12-20 or more centimeters in diameter. Figure 196 is from a plant
collected at Ithaca.

198 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Hydnum caput=medusae Bull. Edible. The medusa's head hydnum is
a rarer species than either of the above in this country. It forms a
large, tubercular mass which does not branch like the coral hydnum
or the bear's head, but more like the Satyr's beard hydnum, though
the character of the spines will easily separate it from the latter.
The spines cover a large part of this large tubercle, and hang down-
ward. The plant is known by the additional character, that, on the
upper part of the tubercle, the spines are twisted and interwoven in
a peculiar fashion.

Hydnum erinaceus Bull. Edible. This plant is sometimes called
" Satyr's beard." It grows on dead trunks in the woods or groves,
and is often found growing from wounds in living trees. It forms a
large, tubercular mass which does not branch. The spines are very
long and straight and hang downward in straight parallel lines from
the sides of the mass. The spines are from 1-2 cm. or more long.
Figure 197 represents one of the plants, showing the long spines.

Hydnum repandum L. Edible. This plant is not uncommon, and it is
widely distributed. It grows usually in woods, on the ground. It
varies greatly in size, from very small specimens, 1-2 cm. high to
others 10-12 cm. high. The cap is 2-18 cm. broad, and the stem
6-12 mm. in thickness.

It is entirely white or the cap varies to buff, dull yellow reddish
or dull brown. It is very brittle, and must be handled with the
utmost care if one wishes to preserve the specimen intact. The
pileus is more or less irregular, the stem being generally eccentric,
so that the pileus is produced more on one side than on the other,
sometimes entirely lateral at the end of the stem. The margin is
more or less wavy or repand. The spines are white, straight, and
very brittle. The stem is even or clavate. Figure 198 is from plants
collected at Ithaca during August, 1899, and represents one of the
large specimens of the species. In one plant the pileus is entirely
lateral on the end of the long clavate stem, and is somewhat reni-
form, the stem being attached at the sinus. In the other plant the
stem is attached near the center. This species is considered one
of the best mushrooms for the table.

Hydnum imbricatum L. Edible. This is a very variable species both
in size and in the surface characters of the pileus. It occurs in woods,
groves, or in open places under trees. The plants are 3-7 cm. high,
and the pileus varies from 5-15 cm. broad, the stem from .5-2.5 cm.
in thickness. The pileus is convex and nearly expanded, fleshy,
thinner at the margin, regular or very irregular. The color is gray-
ish in the younger and smaller plants to umber or quite dark in the

Swlli! '

PLATE 78, FIGURK 198. Hydnum repandum. Cap whitish or yellowish, or pale yellowish
brown ; spines whitish or yellowish (natural size, often smaller). Copyright.

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HEDGEHOG FUNGI.

larger and older ones. The surface is cracked and torn into triangu-
lar scales, showing the whitish color of the flesh between the scales.
The scales are small in the younger plants and larger in the older
ones. Figure 200 is from plants collected at Ithaca, and the pileus
in these specimens is irregular. The species is edible, but bitter to
the taste.

FIGURE 200. Hydnum imbricatum. Caps brownish, spines whitish (natural size,

often larger).

Hydnum putidum Atkinson. This plant grows on the ground in
woods, and was collected in the Blue Ridge mountains at Blowing
Rock, N. C., at an elevation of about 4000 feet. It is remarkable
for its peculiar odor, resembling, when fresh, that of an Ethiopian ;
for its tough, zonate pileus with a prominent white edge, and the
stout irregular stem, resembling the stem of Hydnum velutiniim.
The plants are 8-12 cm. high, the cap 8-12 cm. broad, and the stem
2-4 cm. in thickness. The plants grow singly, or sometimes a few
close together, and then two or more may be conjoined.

The pileus is first umbilicate or depressed, becoming depressed or
infundibuliform, irregular, eccentric, the margin repand, and some-
times lobed, and lobes appearing at times on the upper surface of the
cap. The surface is first tomentose or pubescent, becoming smooth,
with prominent concentric zones probably marked off by periodical
growth ; the color is first white, so that the edge is white, becoming
cream color to buff, and in age dull brown and sometimes blackish
brown in the center of the old plants. The pubescence disappears
from the old portions of the cap, so that it is smooth. The pubes-
cence or tomentum is more prominent on the intermediate zones.
The margin is rather thick, somewhat acute or blunt, the upper por-

JOIl STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

tion of the flesh is spongy and the middle portion tough and coria-
ceous, and darker in color. The pileus is somewhat pliant when
moist or wet, and firm when dry, the dark inner stratum hard.

The spines are first white or cream color, in age changing through
salmon color, or directly into grayish or grayish brown. The spines
when mature are long, slender, crowded, and decurrent on the upper
part of the stem. The spores are white, globose, echinulate, 3-4 /x
The stem is stout and irregular, very closely resembling the stem of
Hydnnm velutinum, with a thick, spongy, outer layer and a central
hard core.

The odor, which resembles that of a perspiring darkey, before the
plant is dry, disappears after drying, and then the plant has the same
agreeable odor presented by several different species of Hydnum.
The odor suggests H. graveolens, but the characters of the stem and
surface of the pileus separate it from that species, while the tough
and pliant character of the cap separates it from H. fragile. Figure
199 is from plants (No. 4334, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

CHAPTER XI.

CORAL FUNGI: CLAVARIACEAE.

This family is a very characteristic one, and very interesting
from the large number of beautiful species in one genus, the genus
Clavaria. The plants all are more or less erect, or at least stand out
from the substratum, that is, the substance on which they are grow-
ing. The fruiting surface covers the entire upper part of the plant,
all but the bases of the stems. Some of the branched species of the
Thdephoracecv resemble the branched species of the Clavariacece, but
in the former there is a more or less well defined upper portion on
the tips of the branches which is flat, or truncate, and sterile, that is,
lacks the fruiting surface. Some of the species are simple, elongate
and clavate bodies. Some stand singly, others are clustered, or
others are joined by their bases, and others still are very much
branched. All of the species are said to be edible, that is, they are
not poisonous. A few are rather tough, but they are mostly the
small species which would not be thought of for food. The spores
are borne on club-shaped basidia, as in the common mushrooms.

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CORAL FUNGI.

CLAVARIA Vaill.

The genus Clavaria is one of the most common ones in the family,
and is one of the most attractive from the variety and beauty of sev-
eral of the species. All of the plants are more or less erect, and at
least stand out from the substratum on which they grow. They are
either long and simple and more or less club-shaped, as the name
implies, or they are branched, some but a few times, while others are
very profusely branched. The plants vary in color, some are white,
some yellow, some red, and some are red-tipped, while others are
brownish in color.

Clavaria formosa Pers. Edible. This is one of the handsomest of
the genus. It is found in different parts of the world, and has been
collected in New England and in the Carolinas in this country. It is
usually from 15-20 cm. high, and because of the great number of
branches is often broader in extent. There is a stout stem from 2-4

FIGURE 202. Clavaria botrytes. Branches red tipped (natural size).

cm. in diameter, deep in the ground. This branches into a few stout
trunks, which then rapidly branch into slender and longer branches,

2(\'2

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

terminating into numerous tips. The entire plant is very brittle,
and great care is necessary to prevent its breaking, both before dry-
ing and afterward. When the plant is young and is just pushing out
of the ground, the branches, especially the tips, are bright colored,
red, pink, or orange, the color usually brighter when young in the

younger plants. As the
plant becomes older the
color fades out, until at
maturity the pink or red
color has in many cases
disappeared, and then the
entire plant is of a light
yellowish, or of a cream
buff color. The spores are
in mass light yellow, and
the spores on the surface
of the plant probably give
the color to the plant at
this stage. The spores
are long, oval or oblong,
10-15 x 2.5-3^, and are
minutely spiny. Figure
201 is from a plant (No.
4343, C. U. herbarium)
collected at Blowing Rock,
N. C., in September, 1899.
The plant is very common
in the mountain woods of
North Carolina.

Specimens of this Cla-
varia were several times
prepared for table use dur-
ing my stay in the mount-
ains, but the flavor was
not an agreeable one, pos-
sibly due to the fact that
it needs some special
preparation and season-
ing.

FIGURE 203. Clavaria pistillaris. Dull whitish, tan or
reddish (natural size).

Clavaria botrytes Pers. Edible. This plant is much smaller than C.
formosa. but has much the same general habit and color, especially
when C. formosa is young. The plant has a stout stem which soon

CORAL FUNGI.

203

dissolves into numerous branches, which are red tipped. The spores
are white, and in this way it may be distinguished from C. formosa,
or from Clavaria aurca (Schaeff.), which has yellow or ochre spores,
and which has also much the same habit as C. botrytes, and is nearer
in size.

Clavaria pistillaris Linn. Edible. This plant is a characteristic one
because of its usually large size and simple form. It is merely a
club-shaped body, growing from the ground. It has a wide range,
both in Europe and North America, but does not seem to be common,
though I have found it more common in the mountain woods of North
Carolina than in New York. The plant is 5-20 cm. high, and 1-3
cm. thick at the upper end. It is smooth, though often irregularly
grooved and furrowed, due probably to unequal tensions in growth.
The apex in typical specimens is rounded and blunt. It is dull white

FIGURE 204. Clavaria mucida. White (natural size). Copyright.

or tan color or rufescent. The tlesh is white, and very spongy,
especially in age, when it is apt to be irregularly fistulose. Figure
203 is from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during
September 1899.

There is what seems to be an abnormal form of this species figured
by Schaeffer, Table 290, which Fries separated as a distinct species
and placed in the genus Craterellus, one of the Thelephoracea\ and
called by him Craterellus pistillaris. This plant has been found at
Ithaca, and the only difference between this and the Clavaria pistil-
laris L., seems to be in the fact that in Craterellus pistillaris the end
is truncate or in some specimens more or less concave. The spores
seem to be the same, and the color and general habit of the two
plants are the same. It is probably only a form of Clavaria pistillaris.

Clavaria mucida Pers. This is one of the smallest species of the
genus Chrcaria. It grows on rotten wood, and appears throughout

204

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the year. It is usually simple and clavate, but sometimes branched.
The plant is white, or yellowish, or sometimes rose color, and meas-
ures from 0.5 to 2 cm. in height, though I have usually found it from
0.5-1 cm. in height. It is soft and watery. Figure 204 is from
plants (No. 4998, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca in October,
1899.

CHAPTER XII.

THE TREMBLING FUNGI: TREMELLINEAE.

These fungi are called the trembling fungi because of their gelat-
inous consistency. The colors vary from white, yellow, orange,
reddish, brownish, etc., and the form is various, often very irregu-
lar, leaf-like, or strongly folded and uneven. They are when fresh
usually very soft, clammy to the touch, and yielding like a mass of
gelatine. They usually grow on wood, but some species grow on
the ground, and some are parasitic. The fruit surface usually covers
the entire outer surface of the plant, but in some it is confined to one
side of the plant. The basidia are peculiar to the order, are deeply
seated in the substance of the plant, rounded or globose, and divided
into four cells in a cruciate manner. From each one of these cells of
the basidium a long, slender process (sterigma) grows out to the

surface of the plant and
bears the spore. A few
species only are treated
of here.

FIGURE 205. Tremella mycetophila, on Collybia
dryophila (natural size).

TREMELLA Dill.

In this genus the
plants are gelatinous or
cartilaginous. The
form of the plant is usu-
ally very much con-
torted, fold-like or leaf-
like, and very much
branched. The fruit-
ing surface extends over
the entire upper surface
of the plant.

TREMBLING FUNGI.

JO 5

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Tremella lutescens Pers. This plant is entirely yellow, and occurs
on branches. It is 2-5 cm. in diameter, and is strongly folded, some-
what like the folds of a brain (gyrose). It is very soft and inclined
to be watery and fluid, and is of a bright yellow color, spread out on
the surface of rotten wood. It is of world-wide distribution, and
appears from mid-
summer to late
autumn.

Tremella myce =
tophila Pk. - This
plant is interesting
from the fact that
it is parasitic on a
mushroom, Collybia
dryophila. It grows
on the stem or on
the top of the cap of
the Collybia, and it
is white, or yellow-
ish, very much con-
torted (gyrose-pli-
cate), nearly
rounded, and 8-16
mm. in diameter.
Figure 205 repre-
sents this Tremella
growing on the Col-
lybia dryophila, from
plants collected at
Freeville woods
near Ithaca.

Tremella frondosa
Fr. This is said to
be the largest spe-
cies of the genus.
It grows on rotton
wood. It occurs in

Europe, has been collected in New York State, and the Fig. 206 is
from a plant (No. 4339, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The plant figured here was 10
cm. long and about 8 cm. high. It is very much twisted and con-
torted, leaf-like, and the middle and base all united. It is of a

12.
5'

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

pinkish yellow color, one plant being vinaceous pink and another
cream buff in color. When young the leaf-like lobes do not show
well, but as it expands they become very prominent.

Several other species of Tremella are probably more common
than the ones illustrated here. One of the commonest of the Tre-
mellincce probably is the Exidia glandulosa, which in dry weather
appears as a black incrustation on dead limbs, but during rains it
swells up into a large, black, very soft, gelatinous mass. It is com-
monly found on fallen limbs of oak, and occurs from autumn until
late spring. It is sometimes called " witch's butter."

FIGURE 207. Tremella fuciformis. Entirely white (natural size). Copyright.

Tremella fuciformis Berk. This is a very beautiful white tremella
growing in woods on leaf mold close to the ground. It forms a large
white tubercular mass resting on the ground, from the upper surface of
which numerous stout, short, white processes arise which branch a few
times in a dichotomous manner. The masses are 10-1 5 cm. in diam-
eter, and nearly or quite as high. The flesh is very soft, and the
parts are more or less hollow. The basidia are like those of the
genus, globose, sunk in the substance of the plant, and terminate
with four long, slender, sterigmata which rise to the surface and bear
the spores. The spores are white, nearly ovoid, but inequilateral
and somewhat reniform, continuous, 7-9 x 5-6 //.

TREMBLING FUNGI.

20-

Figure 207 is from a plant collected in a woods near Ithaca, in
August, 1897.

GYROCEPHALUS Pers.

The genus Gyrocephalus differs from the other Tremellinece in hav-
ing the fruiting surface on the lower side of the fruit body, while the
upper side is sterile.

FIGURE 208. Gyrocephalus rufus. Reddish or reddish yellow (natural size).

Gyrocephalus rufus (Jacq.) Bref. This species is sometimes very
abundant. It grows on the ground, generally from buried wood, or
from dead roots. It is erect, stout at the base, and the upper end flat-
tened and thinner. It is more or less spatulate, the upper side some-
what concave, and the lower somewhat convex. In some plants
the pileus is more regular and there is then a tendency to the funnel
form. It is reddish, or reddish yellow in color, smooth, clammy,
watery, and quite gelatinous. When dry it is very hard. Figure

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

208 represents the form of the plant well, from plants collected at
Ithaca. The plant is quite common in the damp glens and woods at
Ithaca during the autumn.

CHAPTER XIII.

THELEPHORACEAE.

Many of the species of the Thelephoraceas to which the following
two species belong are too tough for food. A large number of these
grow on wood. They are known by their hard or membranaceous
character and by the fruiting surface (under surface when in the
position in which they grew) being smooth, or only slightly uneven,
or cracked.

Craterellus cantharellus (Schw.) Fr., is an edible species. In gen-
eral appearance it resembles the Cantharellus cibarius. The color is
the same, and the general shape, except that the former is perhaps
more irregular in form. It may, however, be in most cases easily
distinguished from C. cibarius by the absence of folds on the under
or fruiting surface, since the fruiting surface is smooth, especially
when the plants are young or middle age. However, when the plants
get quite large and old, in some cases the fruiting surface becomes
very uneven from numerous folds and wrinkles, which, however,
are more irregular than the folds of C. cibarius.

Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers., is another edible species.
It grows on the ground in woods. It is of a dusky or dark smoky
color, and is deeply funnel-shaped, resembling a " horn of plenty,"
though usually straight. The fruiting surface is somewhat uneven.

The genus Stereum is a very common one on branches, etc.,
either entirely spread out on the wood, or with the margin or a large
part of the pileus free. Hymenochcete is like Stereum, but has numer-
ous small black spines in the fruiting surface, giving it a velvety
appearance. Corticium is very thin and spread over the wood in
patches.

4-1

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CHAPTER XIV.

PUFF-BALLS: LYCOPERDACEAE.

This is not the place for a discussion of the different genera of
the puff-balls, etc., but it might be well to say that in recent years
the old genus Lycoperdon has been divided into several genera. The
giant buff-ball, and the L. cyathiforme, where the wall or peridium
ruptures irregularly, have been placed in a genus called Cakatia ;
certain other species which are nearly globose, and in which the wall
is of a papery texture at maturity, are placed in the genus Bovista.
There is one genus belonging to the same family as the lycoperdons,
the species of which are very interesting on account of the peculiar
way in which the wall is ruptured. This is the genus Geaster, that
is, "earth star." The wall, or peridium, is quite thick in the
members of this genus, and when it matures it separates into several
layers which need not all be discussed here. A thick outer portion
which separates from a thinner inner portion further splits radially
into several star-like divisions, which spread outward and give to the
plant the form of a star. Since the plants lie on the earth the name
earth star was applied to them. This opens out in dry weather,
even curving around under the plant, so that the plant is raised above
the ground. Then in wet weather it closes up again. The inner
portion of the wall opens at the apex in various ways, in the different
species, so that the spores may escape. A closely related genus has
several small perforations like a pepper box in the upper surface of
the inner wall, Myriostoma.

LYCOPERDON Tourn.

To this genus belong most of the " puff-balls," as they are com-
monly called, or, as they are denominated in the South, " Devil's snuff
box." All, or a large portion, of the interior of the plant at matur-
ity breaks down into a powdery substance, which with the numer-
ous spores is very light, and when the plant is squeezed or pressed,
clouds of this dust burst out at the opening through the wall. The
wall of the plant is termed the peridium. In this genus the wall is
quite thin, and at maturity opens differently in different species. In
several species it opens irregularly, the entire wall becoming very
brittle and cracking up into bits, as in the giant puff-ball. In the

209

1M(I STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

remaining species it opens by a distinct perforation at the apex, and
the remainder of the wall is more or less pliant and membranous.
All of the puff-balls are said to be edible, at least are harmless, if
eaten when the flesh is white. They should not be eaten when the
flesh is dark, or is changing from the white color.

Lycoperdon giganteum Batsch. Edible. This, the giant puff-ball, is
the largest species of the genus. Sometimes it reaches immense
proportions, two to three or even four feet, but these large sizes are
rare. It is usually 20 to 40 cm. (8-16 in.) in diameter. It grows
on the ground in grassy places during late summer and in the autumn.
It is a large rounded mass, resting on the ground, and near or at the
center of the under side, it is attached to the cords of mycelium in
the ground. It is white in color until it is ripe, that is, when the
spores are mature, and it should be gathered for food before it is thus
ripe. When it is maturing it becomes yellowish, then dusky or
smoky in color. The flesh, which is white when young, changes to
greenish yellow and finally brownish, with usually an olivaceous
tinge, as the spores ripen.

The plant is so large that it may be sliced, and should be sliced
before broiling. A single specimen often forms enough for a meal
for a large family, and some of the larger ones would serve for
several meals.

Lycoperdon cyathiforme Bosc. Edible. This is called the beaker-
shaped puff-ball because the base of the plant, after the spores have
all been scattered, resembles to some extent a beaker, or a broad
cup with a stout, stem-like base. These old sterile bases of the plant
are often found in the fields long after the spores have disappeared.
The plants are somewhat pear-shaped, rounded above, and tapering
below to the stout base. They are 7-15 cm. in diameter, and white
when young. At maturity the spore mass is purplish, and by this
color as well as by the sterile base the plant is easily recognized.
Of course these characters cannot be recognized in the young and
growing plant at the time it is wanted for food, but the white color
of the interior of the plant would be a sufficient guarantee that it was
edible, granted of course that it was a member of the puff-ball family.
Sometimes, long before the spores mature, the outer portion of the
plant changes from white to pinkish, or brownish colors. At maturity
the wall, or peridium, breaks into brittle fragments, which disappear
and the purplish mass of the spores is exposed. The plant grows in
grassy places or even in cultivated fields.

Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch. Edible. This puff-ball is widely dis-
tributed throughout the world and is very common. It grows in the

PUFF-BALLS.

211

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era

woods, or in open places on the ground, usually. It is known from

its characteristic top shape, the more or less erect scales on the upper

surface intermingled with smaller ones, the larger ones falling away

and leaving circular scars over the surface, which gives it a reticu-

late appearance. The plants are white, becoming dark gray or gray-

ish brown when mature. They vary

in size from 3-7 cm. high to 2-5 cm.

broad. They are more or less top-

shaped, and the stem, which is stout,

is sometimes longer than the rounded

portion, which is the fruiting part.

The outer part of the wall (outer

peridium) when quite young sep-

arates into warts or scales of varying

size, large ones arranged quite reg-

ularly with smaller ones between.

These warts are well shown in the

two plants at the left in Fig. 210, and

the third plant from the left shows

the reticulations formed of numerous

scars on the inner peridium where

the larger scales have fallen away.

The plant at the extreme right is
mature, and the inner peridium has
ruptured at the apex to permit the
escape of the spores. The spore
mass, together with brownish threads
which are intermingled, are greenish
yellow with an olive tinge, then they
become pale brown. The spores are
rounded, 3.5-4.5 /LI in diameter,
smooth or minutely warted.

Another small puff-ball every-
where common in woods is the Lyco-
perdon pyriformc, so called because of
its pear shape. It grows on very
rotten wood or on decaying logs in
woods or groves, or in open places

where there is rotting wood. It is somewhat smaller than
gem-bearing lycoperdon, is almost sessile, sometimes many crowded
very close together, and especially is it characterized by prominent
root-like white strands of mycelium which are attached to the base

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the

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

where the plant enters the rotton wood. While these small species
of puff-balls are not injurious to eat, they do not seem to possess an
agreeable flavor. There are quite a number of species in this
country which cannot be enumerated here.

Related to the puff-balls, and properly classed with them, are the
species of Scleroderma. This name is given to the genus because
of the hard peridium, the wall being much firmer and harder than in
Lycoperdon. There are two species which are not uncommon, Sclero-
derma vulgare and 5. -cerrncosum. They grow on the ground or on
very rotten wood, and are sessile, often showing the root-like white
strands attached to their base. They vary in size from 2-6 cm. and
the outer wall is cracked into numerous coarse areas, or warts, giving
the plant a verrucose appearance, from which one of the species gets
its specific name.

Calostoma cinnabarinum Desv. This is a remarkably beautiful plant
with a general distribution in the Eastern United States. It has often
been referred to in this country under the genus name Mitremyces,
and sometimes has been confused with a rarer and different species,
Calostoma lutescens (Schw.) Burnap. It grows in damp woods,
usually along the banks of streams and along mountain roads. It is
remarkable for the brilliant vermilion color of the inner surface of the
outer layer of the wall (exoperidium) t which is exposed by splitting
into radial strips that curl and twist themselves off, and by the ver-
milion color of the edges of the teeth at the apex of the inner wall
(endoperidiuiri). The plant is 2-8 cm. high, and 1-2 cm. in diam-
eter. When mature the base or stem, which is formed of reticulated
and anastomosing cords, elongates and lifts the rounded or oval fruit-
ing portion to some distance above the surface of the ground, when
the gelatinous volva ruptures and falls to the ground or partly clings
to the stem, exposing the peridium, the outer portion of which then
splits in the manner described.

When the plant is first seen above the ground it appears as a
globose or rounded body, and in wet weather has a very thick gelatin-
ous layer surrounding it. This is the volva and is formed by the
gelatinization of the outer layer of threads which compose it. This
gelatinous layer is thick and also viscid, and when the plants are
placed on paper to dry, it glues them firmly to the sheet. When the
outer layer of the peridium splits, it does so by splitting from the base
toward the apex, or from the apex toward the base. Of the large
number of specimens which I have seen at Blowing Rock, N. C., the
split more often begins at the apex, or at least, when the slit is com-
plete, the strips usually stand out loosely in a radiate manner, the

5L
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N
ft

STINK-HORN FUNGI. 213

tips being free. At this stage the plant is a very beautiful object
with the crown of vermilion strips radiating outward from the base
of the fruit body at the top of the stem, and the inner peridium rest-
ing in the center and terminated by the four to seven teeth with ver-
milion edges. At this time also the light yellow spore mass is oozing
out from between the teeth. The spores are oblong to elliptical,
marked with very fine points, and measure 15-18 x 8-10 /^.

Figure 211 is from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in
September, 1899. The Mytremyces lutescens reported in my list of
" Some Fungi of Blowing Rock, N. C.," in Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci.
Soc. 9: 95-107, 1892, is this Calostoma cinnabarinum.

CHAPTER XV.

THE STINK-HORN FUNGI : PHALLOIDEAE Fries.

Most of the stink-horn fungi are characterized by a very offensive
odor. Some of them at maturity are in shape not unlike that of a
horn, and the vulgar name is applied because of this form and the
odor. The plants grow in the ground, or in decaying organic matter
lying on the ground. The spawn or mycelium is in the form of rope-
like strands which are usually much branched and matted together.
From these cords the fruit form arises. During its period of growth
and up to the maturity of the spores, the fruit body is oval, that is,
egg form, and because of this form and the quite large size of these
bodies they are often called "eggs." The outer portion of the egg
forms the volva. It is always thick, and has an outer thin coat or
membrane, and an inner membrane, while between the two is a thick
layer of gelatinous substance, so that the wall of the volva is often
3-6 mm. in thickness, and is very soft. The outline of the volva
can be seen in Fig. 215, which shows sections of three eggs in differ-
ent stages. Inside of the volva is the short stem (receptacle) which
is in the middle portion, and covering the upper portion and sides of
this short stem is the pileus ; the fruit-bearing portion, which is
divided into small chambers, lies on the outside of the pileus. In
the figure there can be seen cross lines extending through this part
from the pileus to the wall of the volva. These represent ridges or
crests which anastomose over the pileus, forming reticulations. The
stem or receptacle is hollow through the center, and this hollow opens

214 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

out at the end so that there is a rounded perforation through the
upper portion of the pileus.

The spores are borne on club-shaped basidia within the chambers
of the fruit-bearing portion (gleba), and at maturity of the spores the
stem or receptacle begins to elongate. This pushes the gleba and
the upper part of the receptacle through the apex of the volva, leav-
ing this as a cup-shaped body at the base, much as in certain species
of Amanita, while the gleba is borne aloft on the much elongated
stem. During this elongation of the receptacle a large part of the
substance of the gleba dissolves into a thick liquid containing the
spores. This runs off and is washed off by the rains, leaving the
inner surface of the gleba exposed, and showing certain characters
peculiar to the various genera.

Among the stink-horns are a number of genera which are very
interesting from the peculiarities of development ; and some of which
are very beautiful and curious objects, although they do possess
offensive odors. In some of the genera, the upper part of the plant
expands into leaf-like or petal-like, bodies, which are highly colored
and resemble flowers. They are sometimes called " fungus flowers."

DICTYOPHORA Desvaux.

Dictyophora means " net bearer," and as one can see from Fig.
212 it is not an inappropriate name. The stem or receptacle, as one
can see from the illustrations of the two species treated of here, pos-
sesses a very coarse mesh, so that not only the surface but the sub-
stance within is reticulated, pitted and irregularly perforated. In
the genus Dictyophora an outer layer of the receptacle or stem is sep-
arated as it elongates, breaks away from the lower part of the stem,
is carried aloft, and hangs as a beautiful veil. This veil is very
conspicuous in some species and less so in others.

Dictyophora duplicate (Bosc.) Ed. Fischer. This species is illus-
trated in Fig. 212, made from plants collected at Ithaca. The plants
are from 15-22 cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. in diameter, and the
stem 2-3 cm. in thickness. According to Burt (Bot. Gaz. 22: 387,
1896) it is a common species in the Eastern United States. The cap
is more or less bell-shaped and the sculptured surface is marked in a
beautiful manner with the reticulations.

PLATE 83, FIGURE 212. Dictyophora duplicata. White (natural size).

PLATE 84, FIGURE 213. Dictyophora ravenelii. Mature plants, showing volva at
base ; elongated receptacle, cap at the top, and veil surrounding the receptacle
under the cap (natural size). Copyright.

STINK-HORN FUNGI.

215

Dictyophora ravenelii (B. & C.) Burt. This plant also has a
wide distribution in the Eastern United States. The stem is more
slender than in the
other species, D.
dnplicata, the pile-
us more nearly
conic, and the sur-
face of the pileus
is merely gran-
ular or minutely
wrinkled after the
disappearance of
the gleba, and
does not present
the strong reticu-
lating ridges and
crests which that
species shows.
The plants are
from 10 to 18 cm.
high. It grows in

WOOds and fields

about rotting
wood, and in sawdust.

FIGURE 214. Dictyophora ravenelii. Egg stage, caps just bursting
through the volva (natural size). Copyright.

The veil is very thin and delicate, form-

FIGURE 215. Dictyophora ravenelii. Sections of eggs, and showing cords of

mycelium (natural size). Copyright.

210 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ing simply a membrane, and does not possess the coarse meshes
present in the veil of D. duplicata. The Figs. 214, 215 represent
the different stages in the elongation of the receptacle of this
plant, and the rupture of the volva. This elongation takes place
quite rapidly. While photographing the plant as it was bursting
through the volva, I had considerable difficulty in getting a picture,
since the stem elongated so rapidly that the plant would show that
it had moved perceptibly, and the picture would be blurred.

In a woods near Ithaca a large number of these plants have
appeared from year to year in a pile of sawdust. One of the most
vile smelling plants of this family is the Ithyphallus impndicus.

CHAPTER XVI.

MORELS, CUP-FUNGI, HELVELLAS, ETC.: DISCOMY-

CETES.

The remaining fungi to be considered belong to a very different
group of plants than do the mushrooms, puff-balls, etc. Neverthe-
less, because of the size of several of the species and the fact that
several of them are excellent for food, some attention will be given
to a few. The entire group is sometimes spoken of as Discomycetes
or cup-fungi, because many of the plants belonging here are shaped
something like a disk, or like a cup. The principal way in which
they differ from the mushrooms, the puff-balls, etc., is found in the
manner in which the spores are borne. In the mushrooms, etc., the
spores, we recollect, are borne on the end of a club-shaped body,
usually four spores on one of these. In this group, however, the
spores are borne inside of club-shaped bodies, called sacs or asci
(singular, ascus). These sacs, or asci, are grouped together, lying
side by side, forming the fruiting surface or hymenium, much as the
basidia form the fruiting surface in the mushrooms. In the case of
the cup or disk forms, the upper side of the disk, or the upper and
inner surface of the cap, is covered with these sacs, standing side by
side, so that the free ends of the sacs form the outer surface. In the
case of the morel the entire outer surface of the upper portion of the
plant, that where there are so many pits, is covered with similar
sacs. Since so few of the genera and species of the morels and cup-
fungi will be treated of here, I shall not attempt to compare the genera
or even to give the characters by which the genera are known. In

PLATK 85, FIGURK 216. Morchella esculenta (natural size). Copyright.

MORELS, CUP-FUNGI, HELVELLAS, ETC. 217

most cases the illustrations will serve this purpose so far as it is desi-
able to accomplish it in such a work as the present. Certain of the
species will then be described and illustrated.

MORCHELLA Dill.

The morels are all edible and they are usually easy to recognize.
The plant consists of two distinct, prominent parts, the cap and the
stem. The cap varies in form from rounded, ovate, conic or cylin-
drical, or bell-shaped, but it is always marked by rather broad pits,
covering the entire outer surface, which are separated from each
other by ridges forming a network. The color of the plants does not
differ to any perceptible extent in our species. The cap is usually
buff or light ochre yellow, becoming darker with age and in drying.

The stem in all our species is usually quite stout, though it varies
to some extent in some of the different species, in proportion to the
thickness of the cap. The stem is marked in some of the species by
large wrinkles or folds extending irregularly but with considerable
uniformity over the surface. The surface is further minutely
roughened by whitish or grayish elevations, giving it a granular
appearance. Sometimes these granules are quite evenly distributed
over the surface, and in some species they are more or less separated
into small areas by narrow lines.

The morels appear early in the season, during May and June.
They grow usually in damp situations, and are more abundant
during rainy weather. Three species are illustrated here.

Morchella esculenta Pers. Edible. The name of this species, the
esculent morel, indicates that it has been long known as an edible
plant, especially since the man who named it lived a century ago.
The plant is from 5-15 cm. high, the stem is 1-3 cm. in thickness,
and the cap is broader than the stem. The cap is somewhat longer
than broad, and is more or less oval or rounded in outline. The
arrangement of the pits on the surface of the cap is regarded by some
as being characteristic of certain species. In this species the pits are
irregularly arranged, so that they do not form rows, and so that the
ridges separating them do not run longitudinally from the base toward
the apex of the cap, but run quite irregularly. This arrangement
can be seen in Fig. 216, which is from a photograph of this species.
The stem is hollow.

Morchella conica Pers. Edible. This species is very closely related
to the preceding one, and is considered by some to be only a form of
the Morchella esculenta. The size is about the same, the only differ-
ence being in the somewhat longer cap and especially in the arrange-

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ment of the pits. These are arranged more or less in distinct rows,
so that the ridges separating them run longitudinally and parallel
from the base of the cap to the apex, with connecting ridges extend-

FIGURK 217. Morchella conica (natural size). Copyright.

ing across between the pits. The cap is also more or less conic, but
not necessarily so. Figure 217 illustrates this species. The plant
shown here is branched, and this should not be taken to be a char-
acter of the species, for it is not, this form being rather rare.

PLATE 86, FICURE 218. Morchella crassipes (natural size). Copyright.

MORELS, CUP-FUNGI, HELVELLAS, ETC.

Morchella crassipes (Vent.) Pers. Edible This species differs from
the two preceding in the fact that the stem is nearly equal
in width with the cap. Figure 218 illustrates a handsome speci-
men which was 17 cm. high. The granular surface and the folds
of the stem show very distinctly and beautifully. Collected at
Ithaca.

Morchella deliciosa Fr. Edible, has the cap cylindrical or nearly so.
It is longer than the stem, and is usually two or three times as long
as it is broad. The plant is smaller than the preceding, though large
ones may equal in size small ones of those two. The plant is from
4-8 cm. high.

Morchella semilibera DC., and M. bispora Sor., \_Verpa bohemica
(Kromb.) Schroet.] occur in this country, and are interesting from
the fact that the cap is bell-shaped, the lower margin being free from
the stem. In the latter species there are only two spores in an ascus.

HELVELLA L.

The helvellas are pretty and attractive plants. They are smaller
than the morels, usually.
They have a cap and stem,
the cap being very irregular
in shape, often somewhat
lobed or saddle-shaped. It
is smooth, or nearly so, at
least it is not marked by
the large pits present in
the cap of the morel, and
this is one of the principal
distinguishing features of
the helvellas as compared
with the morels. In one
species the thin cap has its
lower margin free from the
stem. This is Helvella
crispa Fr., and it has a
white or whitish cap, and
a deeply furrowed stem.
It occurs in woods during
the summer and autumn,
and is known as the white

helvella. FIGURE 219. Helvella lacunosa (natural size). Copyright.

-4k

220

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Another species which has a wide range is the Helvella lacunosa, so
called because of the deep longitudinal grooves in the stem. The
cap is thin, but differs from the H. crispa in that the lower margin is
connected with the stem. This species is illustrated in Fig. 219 from
plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

The genus Gyromytra is very closely related to Helvetia, and is
only distinguished by the fact that the cap is marked by prominent
folds and convolutions, resembling somewhat the convolutions of the
brain. Its name means convoluted cap. The Gyromytra esculenta Fr.,
is from 5-10 cm. high, and the cap from 5-7 cm. broad. While this
species has long been reported as an edible one, and has been
employed in many instances as food with no evil results, there are
known cases where it has acted as a poison. In many cases where
poisoning has resulted the plants were quite old and probably in the
incipient stages of decay. However, it is claimed that a poisonous
principle, called hehellic acid, has been isolated by a certain chemist,
which acts as a violent poison. This principle is very soluble in hot

water, and when
care is used to
drain off first
water in which
they have been
cooked, squeezing
the water well
from the plants,
they are pro-
nounced harm-
less. The safer
way would be to
avoid such sus-
picious species.

Spathularia velu*
tipes Cooke &
Far 1 o w. T h i s
species represents
another interest-
ing genus of the
Discomycetes. 1 1
is in the form of a
"spatula," and
from this shape of the plant the genus takes its name. There
are several species known in this country, and this one is quite

FIGURF. 220. Spathularia velutipes (natural size). Copyright.

MORELS, CUP-FUNGI, HELVELLAS, ETC. '1'1\

common. The stem extends the entire length of the plant, running
right through the cap, or perhaps it would be better to say that
the cap or fruiting portion forms two narrow blades or wings on
opposite sides of the upper part of the stem. These wing-like ex-
pansions of the cap on the opposite sides of the stem give the spathu-
late form to the plant. Figure 220 is from plants collected in the
woods near Ithaca.

FIGURE 221. Leotia lubrica (natural size). Copyright.

Leotia lubrica Pers. The genus Leotia is quite readily recognized
by its form, and because the plants are usually slimy. This species
is called lubrica because of the slippery character of the entire plant.
It is dull yellowish or olive yellow in color. The cap, as can be seen
from the figure (221), is irregularly rounded, and broader than the
stem. The plant is illustrated natural size from specimens collected
near Ithaca.

THE TRUE CUP-FUNGI.

By far the larger number of the Discomycetes are cup-shaped, and
are popularly called " cup-fungi." They vary from plants of very
minute size, so small that they can be just seen with the eye, or some
of the larger ones are several inches in breadth. They grow on the
ground, on leaves, wood, etc. The variety of form and color is great.
They may be sessile, that is, the cup rests immediately on the
ground or wood, or leaves, or they may possess a short, or rather
long stalk. The only species illustrated here has a comparatively
long stalk, and the cap is deep cup-shaped, almost like a beaker.
This plant is technically known as Sarcoscvpha floccosa. It is repre-

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

sented here natural size (Fig. 222). The stem is slender, and the
rim of the cup is beset with long, strigose hairs. The inner surface

of the cup is lined with
the sacs (asci) and sterile
threads (paraph yses),
spoken of on a former
page, when treating of
the fruiting character of
the morels and cup-fungi.
In this plant the color of
the inside of the cup is
very beautiful, being a
bright red. Another spe-
cies, Sarcoscypha cocdnca,
the scarlet sarcoscypha,
is a larger plant which
appears in very early
spring, soon after the frost
is out of the ground. It
grows on rotting logs and

FIGURE 222. Sarcoscypha floccosa (natural wooc j j n the woods or in
size). Copyright. .

groves. The inside of the

cup in this species is a rich scarlet, and from this rich color the
species takes its name.

CHAPTER XVII.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF THE FLESHY

FUNGI.

In the collection of the higher fungi it is of the utmost importance
that certain precautions be employed in obtaining all parts of the
plant, and furthermore that care be exercised in handling, in order
not to remove or efface delicate characters. Not only is it important
for the beginner, but in many instances an " expert " may not be able
to determine a specimen which may have lost what undoubtedly seem,
to some, trivial marks. The suggestions given here should enable
one to collect specimens in such a way as to protect these characters
while fresh, to make notes of the important evanescent characters
and to dry and preserve them properly for future study. For col-
lecting a number of specimens under a variety of conditions the
following list of " apparatus " is recommended :

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION, ETC. 223

One or two oblong or rectangular hand baskets, capacity from
8-12 quarts.

Or a rectangular zinc case with a closely fitting top (not the
ordinary botanical collecting case).

Half a dozen or so tall pasteboard boxes, or tins, 3 x 3, or 4x4, x 5
inches deep, to hold certain species in an upright position.

A quantity of tissue paper cut 8 x 10 or 6 x 8 inches.

Smaller quantity of waxed tissue paper for wrapping viscid or
sticky plants.

Trowel ; a stout knife ; memorandum pad and pencil.

Collecting. During the proper season, and when rains are abun-
dant, the mushrooms are to be found in open fields, waste places,
groves and woods. They are usually more abundant in the forests.
Especially in dry weather are specimens more numerous in rather
damp woods, along ravines or streams. In collecting specimens
which grow on the ground the trowel should be used to dig up the
plant carefully, to be sure that no important part of the plant is left
in the ground. After one has become familiar with the habit of the
different kinds the trowel will not be necessary in all cases. For
example, most species of Russula, Lactarius, Tricholoma, Boletus, etc.,
are not deeply seated in the soil, and careful hand-picking will in
most cases secure specimens properly, especially if one does not
object to digging in the soil with the fingers. But in the case of most
species of Amanita, certain species of Lepiota, Collybia, etc., a trowel
is necessary to get up the base of the plant in such a way as to pre-
serve essential characters. Even then it is possible, if the ground is
not too hard, to dig them out with the fingers, or with a stout knife,
but I have often found specimens which could only be taken up with
a trowel or spade.

Species growing on sticks or leaves are easily collected by taking
a portion of the substratum on which they grow. Specimens on the
larger limbs or trunks or stumps can sometimes be " picked," but
until one is accustomed to certain individualities of the plant it is
well to employ the knife and to cut off a portion of the wood if nec-
essary, to avoid cutting off the base of the stem.

It is necessary also to handle the specimens with the greatest
care to avoid leaving finger marks where the surface of the stem or
cap is covered with a soft and delicate outer coat, especially if one
wishes to photograph the plant, since rubbed or marked places spoil
the plant for this purpose. Also a little careless handling will remove
such important characters as a frail annulus or volva, which often
are absolutely necessary to recognize the species.

224 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Having collected the specimens, they should be properly placed in
the basket or collecting case. Those which are quite firm, and not
long and slender, can be wrapped with tissue paper (waxed tissue
paper if they are viscid or sticky), and placed directly in the basket,
with some note or number to indicate habitat or other peculiarity
which it is desirable to make at the time of collection. The smaller,
more slender and fragile, specimens can be wrapped in tissue paper
(a cluster of several individuals can be frequently rolled up together)
made in the form of a narrow funnel and the ends then twisted.
The shape of the paper enables one to wrap them in such a way as
to protect certain delicate characters on the stem or cap. These can
then be stood upright in the small pasteboard boxes which should
occupy a portion of the basket. A number of such wrappers can be
placed in a single box, unless the specimens are of considerable size
and numerous. In these boxes they are prevented from being
crushed by the jostling of the larger specimens in the basket. These
boxes have the additional advantage of preserving certain specimens
entire and upright if one wishes later to photograph them.

Field Notes. The field notes which may be taken upon the collec-
tion will depend on circumstances. If one goes to the sorting room
soon after the collection is made, so that notes can be made there
before the more delicate specimens dry, few notes will answer in the
field, and usually one is so busy collecting or hunting for specimens
there is not much inclination to make extended notes in the field.
But it is quite important to note the habitat and environment, i. e.,
the place where they grow, the kind and character of the soil, in
open field, roadside, grove, woods,. on ground, leaves, sticks, stumps,
trunks, rotting wood, or on living tree, etc. It is very important
also that different kinds be kept separate. The student will recog-
nize the importance of this and other suggestions much more than
the new "fungus hunter."

Sorting Room. When one returns from a collecting trip it is best
to take the plants as soon as possible to a room where they can be
assorted. An hour or so delay usually does not matter, but the
sooner they are attended to the better. Sometimes when they are
carefully placed in the basket, as described above, they may be kept
over night without injury, but this will depend on the kinds in the
collection. Coprini are apt to deliquesce, certain other specimens,
especially in warm weather, are apt to be so infested with larvae
that they will be ruined by morning, when immediate drying might
save them. Other thin and delicate ones, especially in dry weather,
will dry out so completely that one loses the opportunity of taking

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION, ETC. '225

notes on the fresh specimen. Specimens to be photographed
should be attended to at once, unless it is too late in the day,
when they should be set aside in an upright position, and if
necessary under a bell-jar, until the following day. As far as
possible good specimens should be selected for the photograph,
representing different stages of development, and one to show
the fruiting surface. Sometimes it will be necessary to make
more than one photograph to obtain all the stages. Also on
different days one is apt to obtain a specimen representing an im-
portant stage in development not represented before. The plants
should be arranged close together to economize space, but not usually
touching nor too crowded. They should be placed in their natural
position as far as possible, and means for support, if used, should be
hidden behind the plant. They should be so arranged as to show
individual as well as specific character and should be photographed if
possible natural size, or at least not on a plate smaller than 5x7
inches unless the plants are small ; while larger ones are better on
6x8 or larger. Some very small ones it may be necessary to
enlarge in order to show the character of the fruiting surface, and
even large specimens can sometimes have a portion of the hymenium
enlarged to good advantage if it is desirable to show the characters
clearly. The background should be selected to bring out the char-
acters strongly, and in the exposure and developing it is often neces-
sary to disregard the effect of the background in order to bring out
the detail of texture on the plant itself. The background should be
renewed as often as necessary to have it uniform and neat. There
is much more that might be said under this head, but there is not
space here.

To Obtain Spore Prints. In many cases it is desirable to obtain
spores in a mass on paper in order to know the exact tint of color
produced by the species. Often the color of the spores can be satis-
factorily determined by an examination of them under the micro-
scope. One cannot always depend on the color of the lamellae since
a number of the species possess colored cystidia or spines in the
hymenium which disguise the color of the spores. The best way
to determine the color of the spores in mass is to catch them as
they fall from the fruiting surface on paper. For the ordinary
purpose of study and reference in the herbarium the spores caught
on unprepared paper, which later may be placed in the packet with
the specimen, will answer. This method has the advantage of
saving time, and also the danger of injury to the spores from
some of the fixatives on prepared paper is avoided. If for pur-

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

poses of illustration one wishes pretty spore prints, perfect caps
must be cut from the stem and placed fruiting surface downward
on paper prepared with some gum arabic or similar preparation
spread over it, while the paper is still moist with the fixative, and ,
then the specimen must be covered with a bell-fyar or other receiver
to prevent even the slightest draft of air, otherwise the spores will
float around more or less. The spores may be caught on a thin,
absorbent paper, and the paper then be floated on the fixative in
a shallow vessel until it soaks through and comes in contact with
the spores. 1 have sometimes used white of egg as a fixative.
These pieces of paper can then be cut out and either glued to card-
boards, or onto the herbarium sheet.

Sorting the Plants. This should be done as soon as possible after
collection. A large table in the sorting room is convenient, upon
which the specimens may be spread, or grouped rather, by species,
the individuals of a species together, on sheets of paper. Surplus
dirt, or wood, leaves, etc., can be removed. A few of the specimens
can be turned so that spores can be caught on the papers. If only
one or a few specimens of a given species have been found, and it is
desirable not to cut off the cap from the stem, the plant can be sup-
ported in an upright position, a small piece of paper slit at one side
can be slipped around the stem underneath the cap, on which the
spores will fall. Sometimes it will be necessary to cover the plant
with a bell-jar in order to prevent it from drying before the spores
are shed. Experience with different species will suggest the treat-
ment necessary.

Taking Notes on the Specimens. Very few probably realize the de-
sirability of making notes of certain characters while the plants are
fresh, for future reference, or for use by those to whom the plants
may be sent for determination. It is some trouble to do this, and
when the different kinds are plentiful the temptation is strong to neg-
lect it. When one has available books for determination of the spe-
cies, as many as possible should be studied and determined while
fresh. But it is not always possible to satisfactorily determine all.
Some may be too difficult for ready recognition, others may not be
described in the books at hand, or poorly so, and further the number
of kinds may be too great for determination before they will spoil.
On these as well as on some of the interesting ones recognized, it is
important to make A record of certain characters. These notes
should be kept either with the specimen, or a number should be
given the specimen and the notes kept separately with the cor-
responding number.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION, ETC. 227

MEMORANDA.

No. . Locality, Date. Name of collector.

Weather.

Habitat. If on ground, low or high, wet or dry, kind of soil ; on fallen
leaves, twigs, branches, logs, stumps, roots, whether dead or
living, kind of tree ; in open fields, pastures, etc., woods, groves,
etc., mixed woods or evergreen, oak, chestnut, etc.

Plants. Whether solitary, clustered, tufted, whether rooting or not,
taste, odor, color when bruised or cut, and if a change in color
takes place after exposure to the air.

Cap. Whether dry, moist, watery in appearance (hygrophanous),
slimy, viscid, glutinous ; color when young, when old ; whether
with fine bloom, powder ; kind of scales and arrangement, whether
free from the cuticle and easily rubbed off. Shape of cap.

Margin of Cap. Whether straight or incurved when young, whether
striate or not when moist.

Stem. Whether slimy, viscid, glutinous, kind of scales if not smooth,
whether striate, dotted, granular, color ; when there are several
specimens test one to see if it is easily broken out from the cap,
also to see if it is fibrous, or fleshy, or cartilaginous (firm on the
outside, partly snapping and partly tough). Shape of the stem.

Gills or Tubes. Color when young, old, color when bruised, and if
color changes, whether soft, waxy, brittle, or tough ; sharp or
blunt, plane or serrate edge.

Milk. Color if present, changing after exposure, taste.

Veil. (Inner veil.) Whether present or not, character, whether
arachnoid, and if so whether free from cuticle of pileus or attached
only to the edge ; whether fragile, persistent, disappearing,
slimy, etc., movable, etc.

Ring. Present or absent, fragile, or persistent, whether movable,
viscid, etc.

Volva. Present or absent, persistent or disappearing, whether it
splits at apex or is circumscissile, or all crumbly and granular or
floccose, whether the part on the pileus forms warts, and then
the kind, distribution, shape, persistence, etc.

Spores. Color when caught on white paper.

To the close observer additional points of interest will often be

noted.

To Dry the Specimens. Frequently the smaller specimens will dry

well when left in the room, especially in dry weather, or better if

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

they are placed where there is a draft of air. Some dry them in the
sun. But often the sun is not shining, and the weather may be
rainy or the air very humid, when it is impossible to dry the specimens
properly except by artificial heat. The latter method is better for
the larger specimens at all times. During the autumn when radia-
tors are heated the fungi dry well when placed on or over them.
One of the best places which I have utilized is the brick work around
a boiler connected with a mountain hotel. Two other methods are,
however, capable of wider application.

is t. A tin oven about 2x2 feet, and two or several feet high,
with one side hinged as a door, and with several movable shelves of
perforated tin, or of wire netting ; a vent at the top, and perforations
around the sides at the bottom to admit air. The object being to
provide for a constant current of air from below upwards between
the specimens. This may be heated, if not too large, with a lamp,
though an oil stove or gas jet or heater is better. The specimens
are placed on the shelves with the accompanying notes or numbers.
The height of this box can be extended where the number of
specimens is great.

2d. A very successful method which 1 employed at a summer
resort at Blowing Rock, N. C., in the mountains of North Carolina,
during September, 1899, was as follows : An old cook stove was set
up in an unoccupied cottage, with two wire screens from 3x4 feet,
one above the other, the lower one about one foot above the top of
the stove. Large numbers can be dried on these frames. Care of
course must be taken that the plants are not burned. In all cases
the plants must be so placed that air will circulate under and around
them, otherwise they are apt to blacken.

When the plants are dry they are very brittle and must be
handled carefully. When removed from the drier many kinds soon
absorb enough moisture to become pliant so that they are not easily
broken. Others remain brittle. They may be put away in small
boxes ; or pressed out nearly flat, not so as to crush the gills, , and then
put in paper packets. The plants which do not absorb sufficient
moisture from the air, so that they are pliant enough to press, can be
placed in small boxes or on paper in a large box with peat moss in
the bottom, and the box then closed tightly until they absorb enough
moisture to become flexible. The plants must not get wet, and they
should be examined every half hour or so, for some become limp
much sooner than others. If the plants get too moist the gills crush
together when pressed, and otherwise they do not make such good
specimens. When the specimens are dried and placed in the herba-

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF MUSHROOMS. 229

rium they must be protected from insects. Some are already infested
with insects which the process of drying does not kill. They must
be either poisoned with corrosive sublimate in alcohol, or fumigated
with carbon disulphide, and if the latter it must be repeated one or
two times at an interval of a month to catch those which were in the
egg state the first time. When placed in the herbarium or in a box
for storage, naphtha balls can be placed with them to keep out insects,
but it should be understood that the naphtha balls will not kill or drive
away insects already in the specimens. Where there are enough
duplicates, some specimens preserved in 75 per cent, alcohol, under
the same number, are of value for the study of structural characters.

CHAPTER XVIII.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF MUSHROOMS

FOR THE TABLE,

In the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution should be em-
ployed by those who are not reasonably familiar with the means of
determination of the species, or those who have not an intimate
acquaintance with certain forms. Rarely should the beginner be
encouraged to eat them upon his own determination. It is best at
first to consult some one who knows, or to send first specimens away
for determination, though in many cases a careful comparison of the
plant with the figures and descriptions given in this book will enable
a novice to recognize it. In taking up a species for the first time it
would be well to experiment cautiously.

No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the Edible. There is
no certain test, like the " silver spoon test," which will enable one
to tell the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones. Nor is the
presence of the so-called " death cup " a sure sign that the fungus is
poisonous, for the Amanita ccesarea has this cup. For the beginner,
however, there are certain general rules, which, if carefully followed,
will enable him to avoid the poisonous ones, while at the same time
necessarily excluding many edible ones.
1st. Reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are

infested with larvae.

2d. Reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters
are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera
and species. Buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface

230 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

of the ground and not deep-seated in the soil, would very likely
not belong to any of the very poisonous kinds.

3d. Reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the
base of the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer
at the base of the stem, and rather loose warts on the pileus,
especially if the gills are white. Amanita ccesarea has a sac-like
envelope at the base of the stem, and yellow gills as well as a
yellow cap, and is edible. Amanita rubescens has remnants of a
scaly envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the
cap, and the flesh where wounded becomes reddish. It is edible.
(See plate 19.)

4th. Reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish.
Several species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the
taste, are edible (see Lactarins -volemus and corrupts).
5th. Reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length,
where the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright
caps.

6th. Reject all Boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised

or cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also

those the taste of which is bitter. Strobilomyces strobilaceus

changes color when cut, and is edible.

7th Reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young,

and those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores.
In addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point
to become very familiar with a few species first, and gradually
extend the range of species, rather than attempt the first season to
eat a large number of different kinds.

All puff-balls are edible so long as they are white inside, though
some are better than others. All coral-like or club fungi are edible.
To Clean and Prepare the Specimens. The mushrooms having been
collected, all tough stems, the parts to which earth clings, should be
removed. After the specimens are selected, if there is danger that
some of them may be infested with Iarv:e, it is well to cut off the
stem close to the cap, for if the insects are in the stem and have not
yet reached the cap they may thus be cast away. Some recommend
that the tubes of all Boleti be removed, since they are apt to make
a slimy mass in cooking.

Where the plants are small they may be cooked entire. Large
ones should be quartered, or cut, or sliced, according to the size and
form of the plant, or method of cooking.

CHAPTER XIX.

USES OF MUSHROOMS.*

The most prominent and at present important use of mushrooms
from the standpoint of the utilitarian is as an article of food. We
have now learned that their food value as a nutrient substance is
not so great as has been fondly supposed, but, as Mr. Clark points
out in Chapter XXII, in addition to the value they certainly do pos-
sess as food, they have very great value as condiments or food
ascessories, and "their value as such is beyond the computation of
the chemist or physiologist. They are among the most appetizing
of table delicacies, and add greatly to the palatability of many foods
when cooked with them." Mushrooms undoubtedly possess a food
value beyond that attributed to them by the chemist or physiologist,
since it is not possible in laboratory analysis to duplicate the condi-
tions which exist in the natural digestion and assimilation of foods.

Probably the larger number of persons, in America, at present
interested in mushrooms, are chiefly concerned with them as an
article of food, but a great many of these persons love to tramp to
the fields and woods in quest of them just as the sportsman loves to
hunt his game with dog and gun. It is quite likely that there will
always be a large body of persons who will maintain a lively interest
in the collection of game mushrooms for food. There are several
reasons for this. The zest of the search, the pleasure of discovery,
and the healthfulness of the outdoor recreation lend an appetizing
flavor to the fruits of the chase not to be obtained by purchasing a
few pounds of cultivated mushrooms on the market. It cultivates
powers of observation, and arouses a sympathetic feeling toward
nature, and with those outdoor environments of man which lend
themselves so happily in bettering and brightening life, as well as in
prolonging it.

Many others are discovering that the observation of form and
habits of mushrooms is very interesting occupation for those who
have short periods of time at their disposal weekly. It requires but
a little observation to convince one that there is an interesting
variety of form among these plants, that their growth and expansion

rooms."

* There is not room here to discuss the uses of other fungi than the " mush-

231

232 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

operate in conformity with certain laws which result in great
variation in form and habit of the numerous kinds on the ground, on
leaves, on branches, on tree trunks, etc.

Another very favorable indication accompanying the increasing
interest in the study of these plants, is the recognition of their im-
portance as objects for nature study. There are many useful as
well as interesting lessons taught by mushrooms to those who stop
to read their stories. The long growth period of the spawn in the
ground, or in the tree trunk, where it may sometimes be imprisoned
for years, sometimes a century, or more, before the mushroom
appears, is calculated to dispel the popular notion that the mushroom
" grows in a night." Then from the button stage to the ripe fruit,
several days, a week, a month, or a year may be needed, according
to the kind, while some fruiting forms are known to live from several
to eighty or more years. The adjustment of the fruit cap to a posi-
tion most suitable for the scattering of the spores, the different ways
in which the fruit cap opens and expands, the different forms of the
fruit surface, their colors and other peculiarities, suggest topics for
instructive study and observation. The inclination, just now be-
coming apparent, to extend nature study topics to include mushrooms
is an evidence of a broader and more sympathetic attitude toward
nature.

A little extension of one's observation on the habits of these
plants in the woods will reveal the fact that certain ones are serious
enemies of timber trees and timber. It is quite easy in many cases
for one possessing no technical knowledge of the subject to read the
story of these " wood destroying " fungi in the living tree. Branches
broken by snow, by wind, or by falling timber provide entrance
areas where the spores, lodging on the heart wood of broken timber,
or on a bruise on the side of the trunk which has broken through the
living part of the tree lying just beneath the bark, provide a point
for entrance. The living substance {protoplasm') in the spawn
exudes a "juice " {enzyme') which dissolves an opening in the wood
cells and permits the spawn to enter the heart of the tree, where
decay rapidly proceeds as a result. But very few of these plants
can enter the tree when the living part underneath the bark is
unbroken.

These observations suggest useful topics for thought. They
suggest practical methods of prevention, careful forestry treatment
and careful lumbering to protect the young growth when timber trees
are felled. They suggest careful pruning of fruit and shade trees,

USES OF MUSHROOMS. 233

by cutting limbs smooth and close to the trunk, and then painting
the smooth surface with some lead paint.

While we are thus apt to regard many of the mushrooms as
enemies of the forest, they are, at the same time, of incalculable use
to the forest. The mushrooms are nature's most active agents in
the disposal of the forest's waste material. Forests that have de-
veloped without the guidance of man have been absolutely dependent
upon them for their continued existence. Where the species of
mushrooms are comparatively few which attack living trees, there
are hundreds of kinds ready to strike into fallen timber. There is a
degree of moisture present on the forest floor exactly suited to the
rapid growth of the mycelium of numbers of species in the bark, sap
wood, and heart wood of the fallen trees or shrubs. In a few years
the branches begin to crumble because of the disorganizing effect of
the mycelium in the wood. Other species adapted to growing in
rotting wood follow and bring about, in a few years, the complete
disintegration of the wood. It gradually passes into the soil of the
forest floor, and is made available food for the living trees. How
often one notices that seedling trees and shrubs start more abund-
antly on rotting logs.

The fallen leaves, too, are siezed upon by the mycelium of a
great variety of mushrooms. It is through the action of the mycelium
of mushrooms of every kind that the fallen forest leaves, as well as
the trunks and branches, are converted into food for the living trees.
The fungi, are, therefore, one of the most important agents in
providing available food for the virgin forest.

The spawn of some fungi in the forest goes so far, in a number of
cases, as to completely envelop those portions of the roots of certain
trees as to prevent the possibility of the roots taking up food material
and moisture on their own account. In such cases, the oaks, beeches,
hornbeams, and the like, have the younger parts of their roots com-
pletely enveloped with a dense coat of mycelium. The mycelium
in these cases absorbs the moisture from the soil or forest floor and
conveys it over to the roots of the tree, and in this way supplies
them with both food and water from the decaying humus, the oak
being thus dependent on the mycelium. In the fields, however,
where there is not the abundance of humus and decaying leaves
present in the forest, the coating of mycelium on the roots of these
trees is absent, and in this latter case the young roots are provided
with root hairs which take up the moisture and food substances
from the soil in the ordinary way.

The mushrooms also prevent the forest from becoming choked

234 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

or strangled by its own fallen members. Were it not for the action
of the mushroom mycelium in causing the decay of fallen timber in
the forest, in time it would be piled so high as to allow only a
miserable existence to a few choked individuals. The action of the
mushrooms in thus disposing of the fallen timber in the forests, and
in converting dead trees and fallen leaves into available food for the
living ones, is probably the most important role in the existence of
these plants. Mushrooms, then, are to be given very high rank
among the natural agencies which have contributed to the good of
the world. When we contemplate the vast areas of forest in the
world we can gain some idea of the stupendous work performed by
the mushrooms in "house cleaning," and in "preparing food,"
work in which they are still engaged.

FUNGI IN THE ARTS.

A number of different species of mushrooms have been employed
in the manufacture of useful articles. Their use for such purposes,
however, was more common in the past than at present, and it is
largely therefore a matter of interest at the present time, though
some are still employed for purposes of this kind.

Tinder mushroom, or amadou. - - The Polypoms fomentarius, or
" tinder mushroom " or, as it is sometimes called, " German tinder,"
was once employed in the manufacture of tinder. The outer hard
coat was removed and the central portion, consisting almost entirely
of the tube system of several years' growth, was cut into strips and
beaten to a soft condition. In this form it was used as tinder for
striking fire.

The inner portion was also used in making caps, chest-protectors,
and similar articles. A process now in vogue in some parts of
Germany, is to steam the fruit bodies, remove the outer crust, and
then, by machinery constructed for the purpose, shave the fruit
body into a long, thin strip by revolving it against a knife in much
the same way that certain woods are shaved into thin strips for the
manufacture of baskets, plates, etc. Some articles of clothing made
from this fungus material are worn by peasants in certain parts of
Europe.

Mushrooms for razor strops. The beech polyporus (P. be tn linns')
several centuries ago was used for razor strops. The fruit body
after being dried was cut into strips, glued upon a stretcher, and
smoothed down with pumice stone (Asa Gray Bull. 7: 18, 1900).
The sheets of the weeping merulius (see Fig. 189) were also em-
ployed for the same purpose, as were also the sheets of " punk '

USES OF MUSHROOMS. 235

formed from mycelium filling in cracks in old logs or between boards
in lumber piles. Sometimes extensive sheets of this punk are found
several feet long and a foot or more wide. These sheets of pure
mycelium resemble soft chamois skin or soiled kid leather.

Mushrooms employed for flower pots. In Bohemia (according to
Cooke, Fungi, etc., p. 103) hoof-shaped fruit bodies of Polypoms
fomentarins and igniarius are used for flower pots. The inner, or
tube portion, is cut out. The hoof-shaped portion, then inverted
and fastened to the side of a building or place of support, serves as
a receptacle for soil in which plants are grown.

Curios. The Polypoms applanatus is much sought by some per-
sons as a " curio," and also for the purpose of etching. In the latter
case they serve as pastels for a variety of art purposes. The under
surface of the plant is white. All collectors of this plant know that
to preserve the white fruiting surface in a perfect condition it must
be handled very carefully. A touch or bruise, or contact with other
objects mars the surface, since a bruise or a scratch results in a
rapid change in color of the injured surface. Beautiful etchings can
thus be made with a fine pointed instrument, the lines of color
appearing as the instrument is drawn over the surface.

Fungi for medicinal purposes. A number of the fungi were formerly
employed in medicine for various purposes, but most of them have
been discarded. Some of the plants were once used as a purgative,
as in the case of the officinal polyporus, the great puff ball, etc.
The internal portion of the great puff ball has been used as an
anodyne, and " formidable surgical operations have been performed
under its influence." It is frequently used as a narcotic. Some
species are employed as drugs by the Chinese. The anthelmintic
polyporus is employed in Burmah as a vermifuge. The ergot of rye
is still employed to some extent in medicine, and the ripe puff balls
are still used in some cases to stop bleeding of wounds.

Luminosity of fungi. While the luminosity possessed by certain
fungi cannot be said to be of distinct utility, their phosphorescence
is a noteworthy phenomenon. That decaying wood often emits this
phosphorescent light has been widely observed, especially in wooded
districts. It is due to the presence of the mycelium of one of the
wood destroying fungi. The luminosity is often so bright that when
brought near a printed page in the dark, words can be read. Haw-
thorne " reported the light from an improvised torch of mycelium
infected wood, to have carried him safely several miles through an
otherwise impassable forest." (Asa Gray, Bull. 7: 7, 1900). The
sulphur polyporus is said sometimes to be phosphorescent. The

^36 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Clitocybe illudens (see Fig. 92) has long been known to emit a strong
phosphorescent light, and has been called " Jack-my-lantern."
This plant often occurs in great abundance. At mountain hotels it
is often brought in by day, and the guests at night, discovering its
luminosity, trace grotesque figures, or monograms, on the ground
by broken portions, which can be seen at a considerable distance.
Lentinus stipticus in this country is also phosphorescent. In Europe,
the Pleurotus olearius (very closely related to our Clitocybe illudens)
on dead olive trunks is one of the best known of the phosphorescent
species. Other phosphorescent species are, according to Tulasne,
A. igneus from Amboyna, A. noctileucus in Manila, and A. gardneri
in Brazil.

The use of certain mushrooms in making intoxicant beverages is
referred to in Chapter XXII.

Since the artificial cultivation of mushrooms for food is becoming
quite an industry in this country with some, the following chapter
is devoted to a treatment of the subject. Mention may be made
here, however, of the attempts in parts of France to cultivate
truffles, species of subterranean fungi belonging to the ascomycetes
(various species of the genus Tuber). It had long been observed
that truffles grow in regions forested by certain trees, as the oak,
beech, hornbeam, etc. Efforts were made to increase the production
of truffles by planting certain regions to these trees. Especially in
certain calcareous districts of France (see Cooke, Fungi, etc., p.
260) young plantations of oak, beech, or beech and fir, after the
lapse of a few years, produced truffles. The spores of the truffles
are in the soil, and the mycelium seems to maintain some symbiotic
relation with the roots of the young trees, which results in the
increase in the production of the fruit bodies. Dogs and pigs are
employed in the collection of truffles from the ground.

Comparatively few of the truffles, or other subterranean fungi,
have been found in America, owing probably to their subterranean
habit, where they are not readily observed, and to the necessity of
special search to find them. In California, however, Dr. Harkness
(Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci.) has collected a large number of species and
genera. Recently (Shear. Asa Gray Bull. 7: 118, 1899) reports
finding a ''truffle' 1 (Terfc^ia oligospemu Tul.) in Maryland, and
T. leonis occurs in Louisiana.

CHAPTER XX.

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

The increasing interest in mushrooms during the past few years
has not been confined to the kinds growing spontaneously in fields
and woods, but the interest aroused in the collection and study of
the wild varieties has been the means of awakening a general inter-
est in the cultivation of mushrooms. This is leading many persons
to inquire concerning the methods of cultivation, especially those
who wish to undertake the cultivation of these plants on a small
scale, in cellars or cool basements, where they may be grown for
their own consumption. At somewhat frequent intervals articles
appear in the newspapers depicting the ease and certainty with
which mushrooms can be grown, and the great profits that accrue to
the cultivator of these plants. While the profits in some cases, at
least in the past, have been very great to cultivators of mushrooms,
the competition has become so general that through a large part of
the year the market price of mushrooms is often not sufficient to
much more than pay expenses. In fact, it 'is quite likely that in
many cases of the house cultivation of mushrooms the profits are no
larger, taking the season through, than they are from the cultivation
of tomatoes or other hothouse vegetables. Occasionally some
persons, who may be cultivating them upon a small scale in houses
erected for some other purpose, or perhaps partly used for some
other purpose, may succeed in growing quite a large crop from a
small area with little expenditure of time and money. The profits
figured from such a crop grown on a small scale where the invest-
ment in houses, heating apparatus, and time, is not counted, may
appear to be very large, but they do not represent the true condi-
tions of the industry where the expense of houses and the cost of
time and labor are taken into consideration.

Probably the more profitable cultivation of mushrooms in this
country is where the cultivation is practiced on quite a large scale,
in tunnels, or caves, or abandoned mines, where no expense is
necessary in the erection of houses. The temperature throughout
the year is favorable for the growth of the mushrooms without
artificial heating. It is possible, also, to grow them on a large scale
during the warm summer months when it is impossible to grow

237

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

them under the present conditions in heating house structures, and
also when the market price of the mushrooms is very high, and can
be controlled largely by the grower. For this reason, if it were
possible to construct a house with some practical system of cooling
the air through the summer, and prevent the drip, the cultivation in
houses would probably be more profitable.

For the past few years the writer has been giving some attention
to the different methods of the cultivation of mushrooms in America,
and in response to the growing interest for information concerning

FIGURE 223. View in Akron "tunnel," N. V. Mushroom Co. Beds beginning to

bear. Copyright.

the artificial cultivation of these plants, it has seemed well to add
this chapter on the cultivation of mushrooms to the second edition of
the present work. The cultivation as practiced in America exists
under a great variety of conditions. All of these conditions have
not been thoroughly investigated, and yet a sufficient number of
them have been rather carefully studied to warrant the preparation
of this chapter. The illustrations which have been made from time
to time, by flash light, of the cave culture of mushrooms in America,
as well as of the house culture, will serve to illustrate graphically
some of the stages in the progress of the work. For present purposes

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

239

we will consider, first, the conditions under which the cultivation is
carried on, followed by a discussion of the principles involved in the
selection and preparation of the material, the selection and planting
of the spawn, as well as the harvesting of the crop.

THE CAVE CULTURE OF MUSHROOMS IN AMERICA.

This has been practiced for a number of years in different parts
of the Eastern United States, but perhaps only a small portion of
the available caves or tunnels are at present used for this purpose.

FIGURE 224. View in Akron "tunnel," N. Y. Mushroom Co.

bear. Copyright.

Beds beginning to

These subterranean mushroom farms are usually established in some
abandoned mine where, the rock having been removed, the space
is readily adapted to this purpose, if portions of the mine are not wet
from the dripping water. The most extensive one which 1 have
visited is located at Akron, New York, and is operated by the New
York Mushroom Company. In a single abandoned cement mine
there are 12 to 15 acres of available space ; about 3 to 5 acres of this
area are used in the operations of the culture and handling of
materials. The dry portions of the mine are selected, and flat beds
are made upon the bottom rock, with the use of hemlock boards,

240

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

making the beds usually 16 feet long by 4 feet wide, the boards
being 10 inches wide. In this case, the beds, after soiling or finish-
ing, are 9 inches deep, the material resting directly upon the rock,
the boards being used only to hold the material on the edges in posi-
tion. Figures 223 and 224 illustrate the position of the beds and
their relation to each other, as well as showing the general structural
features of the mine. The pillars of rock are those which were left
at the time of mining, as supports for the rock roof above, while
additional wood props are used in places. In this mine all of the
beds are constructed upon a single plan.

FIGURE 225. View in Wheatland cave, showing ridge beds, and one flat bed.

At another place, Wheatland, New York, where the Wheatland
Cave Mushrooms are grown, beds of two different styles are used,
the flat beds supported by boards as described in the previous case,
and the ridge beds, where the material, without any lateral support,
is arranged in parallel ridges as shown in Fig. 225. This is the
method largely, if not wholly employed in the celebrated mushroom
caves at Paris, and is also used in some cases in the outdoor cultiva-
tion of mushrooms. As to the advantage of one system of bed over
the other, one must consider the conditions involved. Some believe
a larger crop of mushrooms is obtained where there is an opportunity,
as in the ridge beds, for the mushrooms to appear on the sides as
well as on the upper surface of the beds. In the flat beds the mush-

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

CTQ

THE HOUSE CULTURE OF
MUSHROOMS.

Where this method of cultivation is
employed, as the main issue, houses are
constructed especially for the purpose.
In general the houses are of two kinds.
Those which are largely above the
ground, and those where a greater or
lesser pit is excavated so that the larger
part of the house is below ground. Be-
tween these extremes all gradations ex-
ist. Probably it is easier to maintain an
equable temperature when the house is
largely below ground. Where it is largely
above ground, however, the equability

if
re

3
(TO

po
re"

tr.

3"
O

e
n>

rooms can appear only at the upper surface, though occasionally
single ones crop out in the crevice between the side board and the
rock below.

Probably at Paris, and perhaps also
at some other places where the system
of ridge beds is used, the question of the
cost of the lumber is an important one,
and the system of ridge beds avoids the
expense of this item of lumber. In other
cases, where the flat beds are used with
the board supports, the cost of lumber is
considered a small item when compared
with the additional labor involved in
making the ridge bed. The flat beds are
very quickly made, and the material in
some cases is not more than 7 inches
deep, allowing a large surface area com-
pared with the amount of food material,
for the growth of the mushrooms. It
may be possible, with the flat, shallow
bed system, that as many or more mush-
rooms are obtained from the same amount
of manure, as in the case of the ridge
beds. When we consider the cost of the
manure in some places, this item is one
which is well worth considering.

242

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

X
OJ

tfi

of the temperature can be controlled to a certain extent by the
structure of the house. In some cases a wall air space is maintained

around the sides and also over the roof of
the building. And in some cases even a
double air space of a foot or 18 inches
each is maintained over the roof. In
some cases, instead of an air space, the
space is filled with sawdust, single on
the sides of the house, and also a 12 or
i8-inch space over the roof. The sides
of the house are often banked with earth,
or the walls are built of stone or brick.

All of these houses, no matter what
the type of construction, require venti-
lation. This is provided for by protected
openings or exits through the roof. In
some cases the ventilators are along the
side of the roof, when there would be two
rows of ventilators upon the single gable
roof. In other cases a row of ventilators
is placed at the peak, when a single row
answers. These ventilators are provided
with shut-offs, so that the ventilation can
be controlled at will. The size of the
house varies, of course, according to the
extent of the operations which the grower
has in mind.

The usual type of house is long and
rather narrow, varying from 50 to 150
feet long by 18 to 21 or 24 feet wide. In
some cases the single house is constructed
upon these proportions, as shown by Fig.
226, with a gable roof. If it is desired to
double the capacity of a house, two such
houses are built parallel, the intercepting
wall supporting the adjacent roof of the
two houses, as shown in Fig. 227. A still
further increase in the capacity of the *
house is often effected by increasing the
number of these houses side by side.
This results in a series of 8 or 10 houses
forming one consolidated block of houses,

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CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

243

each with its independent ridge roof and system of ventilation. The
separating walls between the several houses of such a block are
probably maintained for the purpose of better controlling the tem-
perature conditions and ventilation in various houses. If desired,
cummunication from one house to another can be had by doors.

Interior structure and position of the beds. The beds are usually
arranged in tiers, one above the other, though in some houses the
beds are confined only to the floor space. Where they are arranged
in tiers in a house of the proportions given above, there are three
tiers of beds. There is one tier on either side, and a tier through the

FIGURE 228. View in mushroom house (Wm. Swayne), showing upper bed in left

hand tier. Copyright.

middle ; the middle tier, on account of the peak of the roof at this
point, has one more bed than the tiers on the side. The number of
beds in a tier will depend on the height of the house. Usually the
house is constructed of a height which permits three beds in the side
tier and four in the center tier, with an alley on either side of the
center tier of beds, giving communication to all. If the house is
very long and it is desirable, for convenience in passing from one
house to another, to have cross alley-ways, they can be arranged,
but the fewer cross alleys the larger surface area there is for beds.
The size of the beds is governed by convenience in making the
beds and handling the crop. The beds on the side tiers, therefore,
are often three to three and one-half feet in width, affording a con-

J44 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

venient reaching distance from the alley. The beds of the center
tier have access from the alley on either side and are usually seven
feet in width. The width of the alley varies according to the mind
of the owner, from two to three or three and one-half feet. The
narrow alley economizes space in the structure of a house ; the
wide alley, while slightly increasing the cost of the structure, makes
it much more convenient in handling the material, and in moving
about the house. The beds are constructed of one-inch boards.
Various kinds of lumber are used, the hemlock spruce, the oak, Georgia
pine, and so on. The beds are supported on framework constructed
of upright scantling and cross stringers upon which the bottom
boards are laid. These occur at intervals of three to four feet. The
board on the side of each bed is 10 to 12 inches in width. The
bottom bed, of course, is made on the ground. The upper beds in
the tier are situated so that the distance is about three feet from the
bottom of one bed to the bottom of the next above. Figs. 228 to
231 show the general structure of the beds.

Heating. One portion of the house is set apart for the boiler
room, where a small hot water heater is located. The position of the
heater in one of these houses is shown in Fig. 227. In other cases,
where the plant is quite a large one, a small separate or connecting
boiler apartment is often constructed. In other cases, where the
house is connected with or adjoining a system of greenhouses
devoted to hothouse vegetables, the water pipes may run from the
general boiler house which supplies the heat for all the houses.
The water pipes in the mushroom houses are sometimes run beneath
the boards or the walk in the alley, or in other cases are run just
beneath the roof of the building.

Cultivation of mushrooms under benches in greenhouses. This method
is practiced to quite a large extent by some growers. In the house
of Mr. William Swayne, Kennett Square, Pa., a number of large
houses, devoted through the winter to the growing of carnations, are
also used for the cultivation of mushrooms, a single long bed being
made up underneath the beds of carnations. In these houses the
water pipes providing heat for the building run along the sides of
the building underneath the carnation beds at this point. Under
these beds, where the water pipes run, no mushroom beds are made,
since the heat would be too great, but under the three middle rows
of beds in the house, mushroom beds are located. In this way, in a
number of houses, several thousand square feet of surface for mush-
room beds can be obtained. The carnations are grown, not in pots,
but in a general bed on a bench. In watering the carnations, care

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

245

is used in the distribution of the water, and in the amount used, to
prevent a surplus of water dripping through on the mushrooms
below.

Cellar culture. For the cultivation of mushrooms on a small scale,
unoccupied portions of cellars in a dwelling house are often used.
The question is sometimes asked if it is injurious to the health of the
family in a dwelling house when mushrooms are grown in the cellar.
Probably where the materials used in making up the beds are thor-
oughly cured before being taken into the cellar, no injurious results

FIGURE 229. View in mushroom house (Wm. Swayne). View down alley on right

hand side. Copyright.

would come from the cultivation of the plant there. In case the
manure is cured in the cellar, that is, is there carried through the
process of heating and fermentation in preparation for the beds, the
odors arising from the fermenting material are very disagreeable to
say the least, and probably are not at all beneficial to one's general
health.

In the cellar culture of mushrooms the places selected are along
the sides of the cellar in unused portions. Floor beds alone may be
made by using the boards to support one side, while the wall forms

246 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the support on the other side as in the arrangement of beds on the
side tiers in the mushroom houses ; or tiers of beds may be arranged
in the same way, one bed on the bottom, and one or two beds above.
The number of beds will vary according to the available space.
Sometimes, where it is not convenient to arrange the larger beds
directly on the bottom of the cellar, or in tiers, boxes three or four
feet, or larger, may be used in place of the beds. These can be
put in out of the way places in the cellar. The use of boxes of this
description would be very convenient in case it was desired to
entirely do away with the possibility of odors during the fermenta-
tion of the manure, or in the making up of the bed. Even though
the manure may be cured outside of the cellar, at the time it is made
in the beds the odors released are sometimes considerable, and for
several days might be annoying and disagreeable to the occupants
of the dwelling, until such a time as the temperature of the manure
had dropped to the point where the odors no longer were perceptible.
In this case, with the use of boxes, the manure can be cured outside,
made into beds in the boxes and taken into the cellar after the
temperature is down to a point suitable for spawning, and very little
odor will be released. If there is a furnace in the cellar it should be
partitioned off from the portion devoted to mushroom culture.

Cultivation in sheds or out of the way places. It is possible to grow
mushrooms in a number of places not used for other purposes. In
sheds where the beds may be well protected from the rain and from
changing currents of air, they may be grown. In open sheds the
beds could be covered with a board door, the sides of the bed being
high enough to hold the door well above the mushrooms. In the
basements of barns, or even in stables where room can be secured
on one side for a bed, or tier of beds, they are often grown success-
fully.

Garden and field culture of mushrooms. In Europe, in some cases,
mushrooms are often grown in the garden, ridge beds being made up
in the spring and spawned, and then covered with litter, or with
some material similar to burlaps, to prevent the complete drying out
of the surface of the beds. Sometimes they are cultivated along
with garden crops. Field culture is also practiced to some extent.
In the field culture rich and well drained pastures are selected, and
spawned sometime during the month of May. The portions of
spawn are inserted in the ground in little T-shaped openings made
by two strokes of the spade. The spade is set into the ground once,
lifted, and then inserted again so that this first slit is on one side of
the middle of the spade and perpendicular to it. The spade is in-

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

'24'

serted here and then bent backwards partly so as to lift open the
sod in the letter T. In this opening the block of spawn is inserted,
then closed by pressure with the foot. The spawn is planted in this
way at distances of 6 to 8 feet. It runs through the summer, and
then in the autumn a good crop often appears.

CURING THE MANURE.

Selection of manure. Horse manure is the material which is most
generally used, though sometimes a small percentage of other
manures, as sheep manure, is added. In the selection of the manure

FIGURE 230. View in mushroom house (L. S. Bigony). View on top of
fourth bed, middle tier. Copyright.

it is desirable to obtain that which is as fresh as possible, which has
not passed through the stage of fermentation, and which contains
some straw, usually as litter, but not too large a percentage of straw.
Where there is a very large percentage of straw the manure is
usually shaken out with a fork, and the coarser portion removed.
If there is not too much of this coarse material the latter is often
cured in a separate pile and used for the bottom of the beds, the
finer portions of the manure, which have been separated, are used
for the finishing and for the bulk of the bed.

Where manure is obtained on a large scale for the cultivation in
houses or in caves, it is usually obtained by the carload from liveries
in large cities. It is possible to contract for manure of certain livery

J4s STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

stables so that it may be obtained in a practically fresh condition,
and handled by the liverymen according to directions, which will
keep it in the best possible condition for the purpose. In the cave
culture of mushrooms the manure is usually taken directly into the
caves, and cured in some portion of the cave. In the house culti-
vation of mushrooms there is usually a shed constructed with an
opening on one or two sides, at the end of the house connected with
the beds, where the manure may be cured. In curing it, it is placed
in piles, the size of which will depend upon the amount of manure
to be cured, and upon the method employed by the operator. The
usual size, where considerable manure is used, is about three feet in
depth by ten or twelve feet wide, and fifteen to twenty feet long.
The manure is laid in these piles to heat, and is changed or turned
whenever desirable to prevent the temperature from rising too high.
The object of turning is to prevent the burning of the material,
which results at high degrees of temperature in fermentation. It is
usually turned when the temperature rises to about 130 F. At
each turning the outside portions are brought to the center of the
pile. The process is continued until the manure is well fermented
and the temperature does not rise above 100 to 120 degrees, and
then it is ready for making into beds.

There are several methods used in the process of curing, and it
does not seem necessary that any one method should be strictly
adhered to. The most important things to be observed are to
prevent the temperature from rising too high during the process of
fermentation, to secure a thorough fermentation, and to prevent the
materal from drying out, or burning, or becoming too wet. The
way in which the material is piled influences the rapidity of fermen-
tation, or the increase of temperature. Where the material is
rather loosely piled it ferments more rapidly, and the temperature
rises quickly. Watering the manure tends to increase the rapidity of
fermentation and the elevation of the temperature. It is necessary,
though, sometimes to water the material if the heat has reached
such a point that it is becoming too dry, or if there is a tendency for
it to burn. The material is then turned, and watered some, but
care should be used not to make it too wet, since the spawn will
not run in wet material.

In general we might speak of three different methods in the
curing of the manure. First, the s/o-ic process of curing. According
to this method, which is practiced by some, the time of fermenta-
tion may extend from four to five weeks. In this case the manure
is piled in such a way that the temperature does not rise rapidly.

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

During the four or five weeks the manure is turned four or five
times. The turning occurs when the temperature has arisen to such
a point as to require it.

Another met J i od , used by some, might be called a rapid process of curing.
According to this, the time for curing the manure extends over a
period of about a week, or five to ten days. The material is piled
in such a way as to cause rapid fermentation and rapid rising of
temperature, the material sometimes requiring to be turned every
day or two, sometimes twice a day, in order to lower the tempera-
ture and prevent the material from burning or drying out. Between

FIGURE 231. View in mushroom house (L. S. Bigony's Mushroom Plant, Lans-
dale, Pa.), showing alley and side tier of beds. Copyright.

this rapid process of curing, and the slow process of curing, the
practice may extend so that, according to the method of different
operators, the period of curing extends from one week to a month
or five weeks.

The third method of curing consists in putting the material at once
into the beds before curing, and mixing in with the manure, as it is
placed in the bed, about one part of loam or garden soil to four or
five parts of the fresh manure. The material is then left in this
condition to cure without changing or turning, the temperature ris-
ing perhaps not above 130 F. With some experience in determin-
ing the firmness with which the bed should be made to prevent a too
high rise of temperature, this practice might prove to be successful,

250 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

and would certainly save considerable labor and expense in the
making of the beds. Mr. William Swayne of Kennett Square, Pa.,
in the winter of 1900-1901, made up a portion of one of his beds
in this way, and no difference could be seen in the results of
the crop, the crop from the beds made in this way being as good as
that of the adjoining beds, and he intends the following year to make
up all of his beds in the same way.

Mixing soil with the manure at the time of fermentation. While in the
cave culture of mushrooms the manure is usually fermented and
used without the admixture of soil, usually in the house or cellar
culture rich loam soil, or rotted sod, is mixed with the manure
at the time of turning it, during the process of fermentation.
At the time of the first turning, soil is mixed in, a layer of the
manure being spread out on the ground, and then a sprinkling of
soil over this. Then another layer of the manure is added with
another sprinkling of soil, and so on as the new pile is built up. In
the first turning of the manure, about one part of soil is used to eight
or nine parts of manure. Then at the last turning another mixture
of soil is added, so that there is about one-fifth part soil in the mix-
ture. The soil aids somewhat in lowering the temperature, and
also adds some to the bulk, so that more beds can be made up with
the same amount of manure.

Horse droppings free from straw. For growing mushrooms on a
small scale, as in cellars or boxes, some prefer to select the horse
droppings free from straw.

MAKING UP THE BEDS.

Making up beds without the addition of soil. In the cave culture of
mushrooms the beds are usually made from manure alone, there
being no addition of soil. This is perhaps partly due to the expense
of getting the soil in and out from the caves as well as to the low tem-
perature prevailing there. It is believed by many that the results
are equally as good in beds from the manure alone as in those which
contain an admixture of soil. The method of making the beds in
the Akron cave, or " tunnel," is as follows : The manure, imme-
diately after it has passed through the process of fermentation and
curing in the pile, is carted to the district in the mine where the beds
are to be made and is dumped in a long windrow on the ground.
The length of the windrow depends of course upon the amount of
material which is ready, as well as upon the amount necessary for
making up the beds for that distance. Two hemlock boards, six-
teen feet long and ten inches wide, and two, four feet long and the

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

253

same width, are then hastily nailed into the form of a rectangular
frame. This is placed upon the rock bottom at one end of the row
of material, perpendicular to it usually.

The workmen then, with forks, distribute the material in this
frame. If there is coarser material which has been separated from
the finer material, this is placed in the bottom of the bed and the
finer material is then filled on top. A layer of material is distributed
over the bottom and then tamped down by striking with the back of
the fork, as shown in Fig. 232. In this figure the material is shown
to be off at one end of the bed. This was in a section of the mine
where it was not convenient to follow the beds in the direction of

FIGURE 232. View in Akron " tunnel," N. V. Mushroom Co. Making up the

beds. Copyright.

the pile of manure, so that the material is distributed on from the
end of the bed instead of from the side, as is the usual method.
After several inches have been distributed in this way and tamped
down with the back of the fork, the operator tramps over the mate-
rial with his feet and presses it down more firmly. Another layer
of material is distributed over this, and tamped and tramped down
in a similar manner. The operation is repeated until the depth of
the manure after tramping down is about seven inches. It is then
left for the completion of the curing process and for the lowering of
the temperature to the desired point. Usually, after making the bed
in this way, there is a rise in the temperature for several days,
gradually lowering until finally it reaches the point favorable for
planting the spawn.

'2^-2 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Where the beds are made successively, one after another, follow-
ing the windrow of manure, the material used for the first bed
removes from the windrow a sufficient amount to make room for the
second bed, and in like manner room for the successive beds is pro-
vided for as the material is taken for each one, so that the frames
are put together and the beds are formed rapidly and easily.

Making ridge beds in caves. In the making of the ridge beds in
caves there are two methods which might be spoken of. One
method is the well known one practiced in certain of the caves near
Paris, where the material is taken by workmen in large baskets and
distributed in rows. The ridge is gradually formed into shape by
walking astride of it, as additional material is emptied on from the
baskets, the workmen packing and shaping the ridge by pressure
from their limbs as they stand astride of the row. In this way the
ridges are made as high or somewhat higher than their breadth at
the base, and quite near together, so that there is just room in
many cases to walk between the beds. In one cave in America,
where the ridge system is used to some extent, the ridges are made
with the aid of a board frame the length of the bed and the width of
the base of the ridge. The long boards of this frame are slanting so
that they are more or less the shape of the ridge, but not equal to its
height. This frame is placed on the rock bottom, filled with manure
and tramped on by the workmen. Then the frame is lifted on the
ridge and more material is added and tramped on in like manner,
until the bulk of the ridge bed is built up in this way and com-
pressed into shape.

Beds in Houses Constructed for the Purpose of Growing Mushrooms.
Where only the floor of the house is used, a middle bed and two side
beds are sometimes formed in the same manner as described in the
construction of the house for the tiers of beds, with an alley on
either side of the large center bed, giving access to all. In some
cases the entire surface of the bottom is covered with material, but
divided into sections of large beds by framework of boards, but with
no alleys between. Access to these beds is obtained by placing
planks on the top of the boards which make the frame, thus form-
ing walks directly over portions of the bed. In some cases ridge
beds, as described for cave cultivation, are made on the floor of
these houses. The beds are filled in the same way as described for
the cave culture of mushrooms, but usually, in the beds made in
houses built for the purpose of growing mushrooms, a percentage of
soil is mixed in with the manure, the soil being usually mixed in
at the time of turning the manure during the process of fermentation.

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. 253

Garden soil or rich loam is added, say at the first time the manure
is turned while it is fermenting. Then, some time later during the
process of fermenting, another admixture of soil is added. The total
amount of soil added is usually equal to about one-fifth of the bulk
of the manure.

As this material, formed of the manure with an admixture of soil,
is placed in the beds it is distributed much in the same manner as
described for the making of flat beds in caves or tunnels. Usually,
however, if there is coarse material which was separated from the
manure at the first sorting, this without any mixture of soil is placed
in the bottom of the bed, and then the manure and soil is used for
the bulk of the bed above. This coarser material, however, is not
always at hand, and in such cases the beds are built up from the
bottom with the mixture of manure and soil. The depth of the
material in the beds in these houses varies according to the experi-
ence of the operator. Some make the beds about eighteen inches in
depth, while others do not make the beds more than eight or ten or
twelve inches in depth. Where there are tiers of beds, that is, one
bed above the other, very often the lowest bed, the one which rests
directly upon the ground, is made deeper than the others.

While it is the general custom to use material consisting of an
admixture of manure and soil in the proportions described, this cus-
tom is not always followed. In the case of the beds which are
made up in the summer for the fall and early winter crop, soil, being
easily obtained at that season of the year, is mixed with the manure.
Some growers, however, in making the beds in midwinter for the
spring crop, do not use any soil since it is more difficult to obtain it
at that season. In such cases the beds are made up of manure
alone. The experience in some cases shows that the crop resulting
from this method is equally as good as that grown where soil has
been added. In the experience of some other growers a bin of soil
is collected during the summer or autumn which can be used in the
winter for mixing in with the manure and making the beds for the
spring crop. Where sod is used this is collected in pastures or
fence rows in June, piled, and allowed to rot during the summer.

In distributing the material in the beds, the methods of packing
it vary according to the wishes or experience of the grower. It is
often recommended to pack the material very firmly. The feeling
that this must be packed very firmly has led to the disuse of beds
in tiers by some, because it is rather difficult to pack the material
down very firmly where one bed lies so closely above another.
Where the practice is followed of packing the material very firmly in

l!r>4 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the bed, some instrument in the form of a maul is used to tamp it
down. Where there are tiers of beds an instrument of this kind
cannot well be used. Here a brick or a similar heavy and small in-
strument is used in the hand, and the bed is thus pounded down
firmly. This is a tedious and laborious operation. Many growers
do not regard it as essential that the beds should be very firmly
packed. In such cases the material is distributed on the beds and
the successive layers are tamped down as firmly as can well be
done with the back of a fork or an ordinary potato digger, which
can be wielded with the two hands in between the beds. In the ex-
perience of these growers the results seem to be just as good as
where the beds are more firmly packed down.

It is the practice in some cases where the bed lies against the
side of the house to build up the material of the bed at the rear,
that is, at the side of the house, much deeper than at the front, so
that the depth of the bed at the back may be eighteen to twenty
inches or two feet, while the front is eight to ten or twelve inches.
This provides a slightly increased surface because of the obliquity
of the upper surface of the bed, but it consumes probably a greater
amount of material. It probably is not advantageous where the op-
erations are carried on on a large scale, where abundant room is
available, where the material for making the beds is expensive,
and it is desirable to obtain from the material all that can be drawn
in a single crop. The same practice is sometimes recommended and
followed in the case of the beds made in cellars.

In the making of beds with fresh material, that is, with unfer-
mented manure, as was done by Mr. William Swayne of Kennett
Square, Pa., one season, the coarser material is put in the bottom of
the bed, and then as the manure is distributed in the bed the soil is
sprinkled on also, so that finally when the bed is completed the pro-
portions of soil and manure are the same as when it is mixed in at
the time of fermentation. In making the beds in this way, should
any one be led to attempt it, it would be necessary to guard against
a too high temperature in the fermentation of this fresh material;
the temperature should not run above 130 degrees. It would also
require a longer time from the making of the bed to planting the
spawn than in the case of those beds where the manure is fermented
and cured before being made up. Probably the total amount of
time from the beginning to the completion of the preparation of the
bed for spawning would not be greater, if it would be so great.

The beds all having been made, they are left until they are in a
suitable condition for spawning. The determination of this point,

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. 255

that is, the point when the beds are ready for planting the spawn,
seems to be one of the most important and critical features of the
business. The material must be of a suitable temperature, prefer-
ably not above 90 F., and not below 70. The most favorable
temperature, according to some, other conditions being congenial,
ranges from 80 to 85 F., while many prefer to spawn at 70 to 75.
Many of the very successful growers, however, do not lay so much
stress upon the temperature of the bed for the time of spawning as
they do upon the ripeness, or the cured condition, of the material in
the bed. This is a matter which it is very difficult to describe to
one not familiar with the subject, and it is one which it is very dif-
ficult to properly appreciate unless one has learned it by experience.
Some judge more by the odor, or the " smell," as they say, of the
manure. It must have lost the fresh manure " smell," or the
" sour smell," and possess, as they say, a " sweet smell." Some-
times the odor is something like that of manure when spawn has
partly run through it. It sometimes has a sweetish smell, or a
smell suggestive of mushrooms even when no spawn has run
through it.

Another important condition of the material is its state of dry-
ness or moisture. It must not be too dry or the spawn will not run.
In such cases there is not a sufficient amount of moisture to provide
the water necessary for the growth of the mycelium. On the other
hand, it must not be too wet, especially at the time of spawning and
for i few weeks after. Some test the material for moisture in this
way. Take a handful of the material and squeeze it. If on releas-
ing the hold it falls to pieces, it is too dry. By squeezing a hand-
ful near the ear, if there is an indication of running water, even
though no water may be expressed from the material, it is too wet.
If on pressure of the material there is not that sense of the move-
ment of water in it on holding it to the ear, and if on releasing the
pressure of the hand the material remains in the form into which it
has been squeezed, or expands slightly, it is considered to be in a
proper condition so far as moisture is concerned for planting the
spawn.

WHAT SPAWN IS.

The spawn of the mushroom is the popular word used in speak-
ing of the mycelium of the mushroom. The term is commonly used
in a commercial sense of material in which the mycelium is grow-
ing. This material is horse manure, or a mixture of one or two
kinds of manure with some soil, and with the threads of the mycel-
ium growing in it. The mycelium, as is well known, is the growing

256 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

or vegetative part of the mushroom. Sometimes the word " fiber '
is used by the mushroom growers in referring to the mycelium
which appears in the spawn, or in the mushroom bed. The
mycelium is that portion of the plant which, in the case of the wild
varieties, grows in the soil, or in the leaf mold, in the tree trunk or
other material from which the mushroom derives its food. The
threads of mycelium, as we know, first originated from the spore
of the mushroom. The spore germinates and produces delicate
threads, which branch and increase by growth in extent, and form
the mycelium. So the term spawn is rarely applied to the pure
mycelium, but is applied to the substratum or material in which
spawn is growing ; that is, the substratum and mycelium together
constitute the spawn.

Natural spawn or virgin spawn. This is termed natural spawn
because it occurs under natural conditions of environment. The
original natural spawn was to be found in the fields. In the early
history of mushroom culture the spawn from the pastures and mead-
ows where mushrooms grew was one of the sources of the spawn
used in planting. The earth containing the spawn underneath
clumps of mushrooms was collected and used.

It occurs more abundantly, however, in piles of horse manure
which have stood for some time in barn yards, or very often in stalls
where the manure is allowed to accumulate, has been thoroughly
tramped down and then has been left in this condition for some
time. It occurs also in composts, hothouse beds, or wherever
accumulations of horse manure are likely to occur, if other conditions
are congenial. The origin of the natural spawn under these condi-
tions of environment is probably accounted for in many cases by
the presence of the spores which have been in the food eaten by the
horse, have passed through the alimentary canal and are thus dis-
tributed through the dung.

The spores present in the food of the horse may be due to
various conditions. Horses which go out to pasture are likely to
take in with the food obtained in grazing the spores scattered around
on the grass, and in the upper part of the sod, coming from mush-
rooms which grew in the field. In other cases, the spores may be
present in the hay, having been carried by the wind from adjacent
fields, if not from those which have grown in the meadow. In like
manner they may be present in the oats which have been fed to the
horse. In the case of stable-fed animals, the inoculation of the
manure in this way may not always be certain or very free. But
in the case of pasture-fed horses which are stalled at night probably

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. '257

the inoculation is very -certain and very abundant, so that a large
number of spores would be present in the manure from horses fed in
this way.

The natural spawn also may originate from spores which are
carried by the wind from the pasture or meadow mushrooms upon
manure piles, or especially from spores which may lodge in the dust
of the highways or street. Many of these spores would cling to the
hoofs of the horses and at night, or at times of feeding, would
be left with the manure in the stall. At other times horse drop-
pings may be gathered from roads or streets where spores may be
present in the dust. The piles of the droppings accumulated in this
way, if left a sufficient time, may provide natural spawn by this
accidental inoculation from the spores.

Probably few attempts have been made to grow the natural
spawn with certainty in this country, though it does not appear to
be an impracticable thing to do, since formerly this was one source
of the virgin spawn in Europe. It is usually obtained by search
through stables and barn yards or other places where piles of horse
manure have accumulated and have remained for several months.
In some cases the growers keep men employed through the summer
season searching the yards and stables over a considerable area for
the purpose of finding and gathering this natural spawn. It is prob-
ably termed virgin spawn because of its origin under these natural
conditions, and never having been propagated artificially.

The natural spawn, as indicated above, is employed for a variety
of purposes. It is used for inoculating the bricks in the manufac-
ture of brick spawn. It is used for propagating once or twice in the
mushroom beds, for the purpose of multiplying it, either in the man-
ufacture of brick spawn, or for flake spawn, which is planted
directly in the beds to be used for the crop. In some places in
America it is collected on a large scale and relied on as the chief
source of spawn for planting beds. In such cases the natural or
virgin spawn is used directly and is of the first and most vigorous
generation. It is believed by growers who employ it in this way
that the results in the quality and quantity of the crop exceed those
produced from the market spawn. But even these growers would
not always depend on the natural spawn, for the reason, that col-
lecting it under these conditions, the quantity is certain to vary
from year to year. This is due probably to varying conditions of
the season and also to the varying conditions which bring about the
chance inoculation, or the accumulation of the material in the yard
for a sufficient amount of time to provide the mycelium.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

It would be interesting, and it might also prove to be profitable
to growers, if some attempt were made to grow natural spawn under
conditions which would perhaps more certainly produce a supply.
This might be attempted in several different ways. Stall-fed horses
might be fed a ripe mushroom every day or two. Or from the cap
of ripe mushrooms the spores might be caught, then mixed with oats
and fed to the horse. Again, the manure piles might be inoculated
by spores caught from a number of mushrooms. Manure might also
be collected during the summer months from the highways and aside
from the probable natural inoculation which this material would
probably have from the spores blown from the meadow and pasture
mushrooms, additional inoculation might be made. The manure
obtained in this way could be piled under sheds, packed down thor-
oughly, and not allowed to heat above 100 F. These piles could
then be left for several months, care being used that the material
should have the proper moisture content, not too dry nor too wet.
This is given only as a suggestion and it is hoped that some practi-
cal grower will test it upon a small scale. In all cases the tempera-
ture should be kept low during the fermentation of these piles, else
the spawn will be killed.

One of the methods of obtaining natural spawn recommended by
Cuthill ("Treatise on the Cultivation of the Mushroom") is to
collect horse droppings all along the highways during the summer,
mixing it with some road sand and piling it in a dry shed. Here it
is packed down firmly to prevent the heat rising too high. A " trial '
stick is kept in the pile. When this is pulled out, if it is so hot as
to " burn the hand," the heat is too great and would kill the spawn.
In several months an abundance of the spawn is generated here.

Mill=track spawn. " Mill-track " spawn originated from the spawn
found in covered roadways at mills or along tram-car tracks where
horses were used. The accumulation of manure trodden down in
these places and sometimes mixed with sawdust or earth, provided
a congenial place for the growth of the mycelium. The spawn was
likely introduced here through spores taken in with the food of the
horse, or brought there from highways, if they were not already in
the soil from mushrooms grown there. It would be then multiplied
by the growth of the spawn, and from spores of mushrooms which
might appear and ripen. The well tramped material in which the
mycelium grew here, when broken up, formed convenient blocks of
spawn for storage and transportation, and probably led to the
manufacture of brick spawn.

Manufactured spawn. The manufactured spawn, on the other

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

259

hand, is that which is propagated artificially by the special prepara-
tion of the substratum or material in which the mycelium is to grow.
This material is inoculated either with a piece of natural spawn, or
with pieces of previously manufactured spawn. It is put upon the
market in two different forms ; the brick spawn, and the flake spawn.
The latter is sometimes known as the French spawn, while the
former, being largely manufactured in England, is sometimes spoken
of as the English spawn.

Brick spawn. The brick spawn is so called because the material in
which the mycelium is present is in the form of bricks. These
bricks are about 5 by 8 inches by \y 2 inches in thickness, and weigh
about 134" pounds each when dried. The proportions of different

FIGURE 233. Brick spawn. Three " bricks," one marked to show into how many

pieces one brick may be broken.

kinds of material used in the manufacture of brick spawn probably
vary with different manufacturers, since there is a difference in the
size and texture of bricks from different sources. One method of
making the brick spawn is as follows : Equal parts of horse dung,
and cow dung, and loam soil are thoroughly mixed together to a con-
sistency of mortar. This is pressed into the form of bricks and
stood on edge to dry. When partly dry, a piece of spawn about an
inch in diameter is pressed into one side of each brick. The bricks
are then stood up again until thoroughly dried. They are then piled
upon a layer of fresh horse manure about 8 inches deep, the pile of
bricks being about 3 feet high. This pile is then covered over
loosely with fresh horse manure, a sufficient amount to produce,

260 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

when heating, a temperature of about 100 F. They are left in this
condition until the mycelium or "fiber" has thoroughly permeated
the bricks. The spawn is now completed, and the bricks are allowed
to dry. In this condition they are put upon the market. The bricks
made with a very high percentage of soil often have the appearance
of dried soil, with a slight admixture of vegetable matter.

Brick spawn from other sources presents a very different texture
and contains probably a much larger percentage of horse manure,
or, at least, a much smaller percentage of soil. The appearance of
the brick is not that of soil with a slight admixture of vegetable
materials, but has much the appearance of a dried and compressed
mixture of horse dung and cow dung, with an abundance of the
"fiber" or mycelium, "the greyish moldy, or thready matter,"
which constitutes the vital part of the spawn. In the selection of
spawn this is an important item, that is, the presence of an abund-
ance of " fiber " or mycelium. It can be seen on the surface, usually
showing an abundance of these whitish threads or sheets, or a
distinct moldy appearance is presented. On breaking the brick the
great abundance of the "fiber' or whitish mycelium is seen all
through it. This indicates that the brick possesses a high percentage
of the " fiber," an important part of the spawn.

One not accustomed to the quality of spawn can therefore judge
to a certain extent by the appearance of the bricks as to the quality,
at least they can judge as to the presence of an abundance or a
scanty quantity of the "fiber." Since the spawn remains in good
condition for several years, there is usually no danger in the use of
spawn which may be one or two years old. But it does deteriorate
to some extent with age, and young spawn is therefore to be pre-
ferred to old spawn, provided the other desirable qualities are equal.
Those who attempt to cultivate mushrooms, and depend on com-
mercial or manufactured spawn, should see to it that the spawn
purchased possesses these desirable qualities of texture, and the
presence of an abundance of the mycelium. That which appears
devoid of an abundance of mycelium should be rejected, and good
spawn should be called for. There is no more reason why a grower
should accept a worthless spawn from his seedsman than that he
should accept "addled" eggs from his grocer. In this business,
that is, the manufacture and sale of spawn, poor material is apt to
be thrown on the market just as in the case of seeds, poor material
may find its way upon the market. Sometimes this occurs through un-
scrupulous dealers, at other times through their ignorance, or through
their failure to know the quality of the product they are handling.

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

There are some brands of spawn, that is, those manufactured by
certain houses, which rank very high among those who know the
qualities and the value of good spawn. Some large growers send
direct to the manufacturer for their spawn, and where it is to be
obtained in large quantities this is a desirable thing to do, since the
cost is much less. Where obtained from seedsmen in large quanti-
ties, the prices are much lower than where small quantities are
purchased. One of these brands of spawn, the Barter spawn, is for
sale by several different dealers, by Mr. H. E. Hicks, Kennett
Square, Pa., by Henry F. Michell, 1018 Market street, Philadelphia,
and by Henry Dreer, 724 Chestnut street, Philadelphia. Another
brick spawn, known as " Watson Prolific," is for sale by George C.
Watson, Juniper and Walnut streets, Philadelphia. James Vicks
Sons, Rochester, N. Y., and Peter Henderson & Co., New York
City, have their spawn manufactured expressly for their trade.

The Barter spawn is said to be made fresh every year, or every
other year. Instead of the "continued culture' of spawn,
that is, inoculating the bricks each succeeding year from the same
line of spawn, which is, as it were, used over and over again, a re-
turn is made each year, or in the alternate years, to the natural or
virgin spawn, which is obtained from old manure heaps. In this
way, the Barter spawn* is within two to three, or four, generations
of the natural spawn. The number of generations distant the brick
is from the natural spawn, depends upon the number of times it may
have been multiplied before it is inoculated into the bricks. That is,
the natural spawn is probably first grown in large beds in order to
multiply, to produce a sufficiently large quantity for the inoculation
of the immense number of bricks to be manufactured. For it is
likely that a sufficient amount of natural spawn could not be ob-
tained to inoculate all the bricks manufactured in one year. If a
sufficient amount of the natural or virgin spawn could be obtained
to inoculate all the bricks of one year's manufacture, this would pro-
duce a spawn removed only one generation from that of natural
spawn.

If the natural spawn were first grown in beds, and from here in-
oculated into bricks, this particular brick spawn would be removed
two generations from the natural spawn. So the number of times
that successive inoculations are made to multiply the spawn, the
manufactured products are removed that many generations from the
natural spawn. Where recourse is had to the natural, or virgin

* 1 have not learned the history of the other kinds of spawn referred to above.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

spawn only once in two years, the second year's product would
then be further removed from the natural spawn than the first year's
product. Where we know that it is removed but one or a few gen-
erations from the natural spawn, it is a more desirable kind. For
the nearer it is to the natural spawn, other things being equal, the
more vigorous the mycelium, and the finer will be the mushrooms
produced.

The brick spawn is sometimes manufactured in this country by
growers for their own use, but at present it is manufactured on such
a large scale in England that little or no saving is effected by an
attempt to manufacture one's own brick spawn in this country.

Flake Spawn. The flake spawn, or " flakes," is commonly known
as the French spawn, because it is so extensively manufactured in

FIGURE 234. French spawn, or " flakes," ready to plant.

France. It is made by breaking down beds through which the my-
celium has run, and before the crop of mushrooms appears. That
is, the bed is spawned in the ordinary way. When the mycelium
has thoroughly permeated the bed, it is taken down and broken into
irregular pieces, six to eight inches in diameter. Thus, the French
spawn, where the beds are made entirely of horse manure, with no
admixture of soil, consist merely of the fermented and cured manure,
through which the mycelium has run, the material, of course, being
thoroughly dried. This spawn may be removed one or several gen-
erations from the natural spawn.

The French growers depend on natural spawn much more than
American growers do. The natural spawn is collected from old

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. 263

manure heaps. Beds made up in the ordinary way for the cultiva-
tion of mushrooms are planted with this. The mycelium is allowed
to run until it has thoroughly permeated the manure. These beds
are broken down and used to spawn the beds for the crop. In this
case the crop would be grown from spawn only one generation re-
moved from the virgin spawn. If a sufficient amount of natural
spawn could not be obtained, to provide the amount required one
generation old, it might be run through the second generation be-
fore being used. From the appearance of any spawn, of course, the
purchaser cannot tell how many generations it is removed from the
natural spawn. For this quality of the spawn one must depend
upon the knowledge which we may have of the methods practiced
by the different producers of spawn, if it is possible even to deter-
mine this.

SPAWNING THE BEDS.

The beds for growing the mushrooms having been made up, the
spawn having been selected, the beds are ready for planting when-
ever the temperature has been sufficiently reduced and the material
is properly cured. It is quite easy to determine the temperature of
the beds, but it is a more difficult problem for the inexperienced to
determine the best stage in the curing of the material for the recep-
tion of the spawn. Some growers rely more on the state of curing
of the manure than they do upon the temperature. They would
prefer to spawn it at quite a low temperature, rather than to spawn
at what is usually considered an optimum temperature, if the ma-
terial is not properly cured. The temperature at which different
treatises and growers recommend that the bed should be spawned
varies from 70 to 90 F. Ninety degrees F. is considered by many
rather high, while 70 F. is considered by others to be rather low ;
80 to 85 is considered by many to be the most favorable temper-
ature, provided of course the other conditions of the bed are con-
genial. But some, so far as temperature is concerned, would prefer
to spawn the bed at 75 F. rather than at 90, while many recom-
mend spawning at 70 to 75. In some cases, I have known the
growers to allow the temperature of the beds to fall as low as 60
before spawning, because the material was not, until that time, at
the proper state of curing. Yet an experienced grower, who under-
stands the kind of spawn to plant in such a bed, can allow the tem-
perature to go down to 60 without any very great risk. Fresh
spawn in an active state, that is, spawn which is in a growing con-
dition, as may be obtained by tearing up a bed, or a portion of one,

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

through which the spawn has run, is better to plant in a bed of such
low temperature. Or, a bed of such low temperature, after spawn-
ing, might be " warmed up," by piling fresh horse manure over it
loosely for a week or ten days, sufficient to raise the temperature to
80 or 90.

When the brick spawn is used, the method of planting varies, of
course, with the methods of different operators. Some break the
bricks into the desired size and plant the pieces directly in the bed,
without any special preparation. The brick is broken into pieces
about two or three inches in diameter. Some recommend breaking
the brick of the ordinary size into about twelve pieces, some into
nine pieces, so the custom varies with different operators. These
pieces are planted from seven to nine inches apart in the bed. For

FIGURE 235. Pieces of brick spawn ready to plant.

example, if they are to be planted nine inches apart in the bed, holes
are made, either with the hand or with some instrument, by press-
ing the material to one side sufficiently to admit of the piece .of spawn
being pressed in tightly. These openings are made, say, the first
row on one side of the bed, about four and one-half inches from the
side, and nine inches apart in the row. The second row is made
nine inches from the first row, and so on. The pieces of spawn are
inserted in the opening in the bed, and at a slight distance, two to
three inches, below the surface. Some, however, insert the piece
of spawn just at the level of the bed, the opening being such that
the piece of spawn pressed into the opening is crowded below in
place, and the surrounding material fits snugly on the sides. Thus,
when the bed is spawned, the pieces may be a slight distance below
the top of the bed when they can be covered by some material, or in

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

265

other cases, where the operator varies the method, they would lie
just at the surface of the bed.

The bed is now firmed down according to the custom of the
operator, either tamped down with some instrument very firmly, or
by others, with the back of the fork or other similar instrument, the
bed is made firm, but not quite so hard. The object in firming it
down after spawning is to make the surface of the bed level, and
also to bring the material in the bed very closely in touch on all
sides with the spawn with which it is impregnated.

Some growers follow the method of giving the spawn some little
preparation before putting it into the bed. This preparation varies
with different operators. Its object, however, is to slightly moisten

Piece of French Spawn.

FIGURE 236.
Piece of Natural Spawn.

" Flakes" many generations
old, " running out."

the dry spawn, and perhaps, also, to very slightly start the growth.
To accomplish this, some will cover the bricks, before breaking them,
with fresh horse manure, and allow this to remain several days, so
that the warmth and moisture generated here penetrate the
material and soften somewhat the brick. Some pile it in a room
or compartment where there is little moisture, until the bricks are
permeated to some extent with the moisture, so that they are a lit-
tle easier broken. They should not, under any circumstances, be
wet or soft in the sense of having absorbed an excess of water, nor
should they be stored for any length of time where they will be
damp. Still others break the bricks into the desired pieces and
place these directly on the top of the bed, at the place where they

266 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

wish to plant the piece of spawn. They are left here for two or
three days on the surface of the beds. These pieces absorb some
moisture and take up some warmth from the bed. Then they are
planted in the ordinary way.

Spawning with Flake Spawn, or Natural Spawn. In the use of the
tlake or natural spawn, the planting is accomplished in a similar
way, but larger pieces of the spawn are used, two or three times the
size of the pieces of brick employed. Some use a large handful. In
some few cases, the growers use a flake spawn from their own crop.
That is, each year a few beds are spawned from material which has
been kept over from the previous season. This is often kept in
boxes, in cool places, where it does not thoroughly dry out. In this
way, the spawn is used over and over again, until it becomes much
less vigorous than natural spawn, or a spawn which is only one or
only a few generations distant from the natural spawn. This is
seen in the less certainty with which the spawn runs through the
bed, in the smaller crop of mushrooms, and their gradual deteriora-
tion in size. Some few practice the method of breaking down the
bed after the crop has been nearly gathered, using this weak spawn
to inoculate fresh beds. This practice is objectionable for the same
reason that long cultivated spawn is objectionable.

Soiling the Beds. After the beds have been planted with the
spawn, the next thing is to soil them. That is, the manure in the
bed is covered with a layer of loam soil, or garden soil, to the depth
of two inches, then spread evenly over the bed, leveled off, and
tamped down, though not packed too hard, and the surface is
smoothed off. The time at which the soiling is done, varies also
with different operators. Some soil immediately after planting the
spawn. Others believe that the spawn will most certainly fail to
run if the beds are soiled immediately after planting. These opera-
tors wait two or three weeks after the spawn has been planted to
soil it. Others wait until the temperature of the bed has fallen from
80 or 85 at the time of spawning, to 70 or 60 F. Soiling at this
temperature, that is, at 60 or 70 F., probably prevents the rapid
cooling down of the bed, and it is desirable to soil, at least at this
temperature, for that purpose. When the beds are soiled, they are
then left until the crop is ready to gather. Some operators give no
further attention to the beds after soiling, other than to water the
beds, if that becomes necessary. It is desirable to avoid watering,
if the bed can be kept at the right state of moisture without. In
watering the beds while the spawn is running, there is danger of
killing the young spawn with the water. Wherever it is necessary,

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

however, if the material in the bed becomes too dry, lukewarm
water should be used, and it should be applied through a fine rose of
a watering pot.

While some operators after soiling the bed give no further care to
it until the bed is bearing, others cover the beds with some litter, in
the form of straw or excelsior. This is done for the purpose of
conserving the moisture in the bed, and especially the moisture on
the surface of the bed. Sometimes where there is a tendency for
the material in the bed to become too dry, this litter on the surface
retards the loss of moisture. Also, the litter itself may be moistened
and the bed can absorb some moisture in this way, if it is desirable
to increase the moisture content of the bed slightly.

When the spawn has once run well through the bed, watering
can be accomplished with less danger of injury, yet great care must
be used even now. The spawn will run through a bed with a some-
what less moisture content in the material than is necessary for
drawing off the crop of mushrooms, though, of course, the spawn will
not run if the bed is too dry. The only way to see if the spawn
has run satisfactorily is to open up the bed at one or two points to
examine the material, opening it up slightly. If the spawn has run
well, a very delicate white "fiber," the mycelium, can be seen
penetrating all through the material. This handful can be replaced
in the bed, packed down, and the soil covered over and firmed again
at this point.

When the mushrooms begin to appear, if the bed is a little dry,
it should be watered from time to time through the fine rose of a
watering pot. Lukewarm water should be used. Nearly all grow-
ers water the beds during the picking of the crop, or during the
period of gathering the crop. At the first few waterings, water
should not be sprinkled on the beds to wet them entirely through.
Enough water is applied to diffuse a short distance only through the
upper surface of the bed. At the next watering, several days later,
the moisture is carried further down in the bed, and so on, through
the several weeks, or months, over which the harvesting season ex-
tends. The object of thus gradually moistening the bed from above,
is to draw the crop from the spawn at the surface of the bed first,
and then, as the moisture extends downward, to gradually bring on
the crop from the " fiber " below.

Gathering the Mushrooms. In artificial cultivation, the mushrooms
usually formed are very near, or on, the surface of the bed. In the
case of the meadow or pasture mushrooms, they are formed further
below the surface. This is probably due to the fact that the con-

268 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ditions under which the mushrooms grow in cultivation are such
that the surface of the bed is more moist, and is less subject to vari-
ations in the content of moisture, than is the surface of the ground
in pastures. Although there may be abundant rains in the fields,
the currents of air over the surface of the ground, at other times,
quickly dries out the upper layers of the soil. But indoors the
mycelium often runs to the surface of the bed, and there forms the
numerous pinheads which are the beginnings of the mushrooms.
The beds at this stage often present numerous clusters of the
mycelium and these minute pinheads crowded very closely together.
Hundreds or perhaps thousands of these minute beginnings of
mushrooms occur within a small space. There are very few of
these, however, that reach the point of the mature mushroom. Few
only of the pinheads grow to form the button, and the others abort,
or cease to grow. Others are torn out while the larger ones are
being picked.

The time at which the mushrooms are picked varies within cer-
tain limits, with the different growers. Most cultivators, especially
those who grow the mushrooms in houses, consider 60 F. the desir-
able temperature for the growth of mushrooms, that is, at a room
temperature of 60 (while some recommend 57). The temper-
ature of the beds themselves will be slightly above this. Under
these conditions, that is, where the mushrooms are grown at a room
temperature of about 60, they open very quickly. It is necessary
here to gather the mushrooms before they open, that is, before the
veil on the under surface breaks to expose the gill surface. This
practice is followed, of course, within certain limits. It is not possi-
ble in all cases, to pick every mushroom before the veil breaks.
They are collected once a day usually. At the time of collection all
are taken which are of suitable size. Many of them may not yet
have opened. But in the case of some of the older or more rapidly
growing ones, the veil may have broken, although they have not
expanded very much.

Some follow the method of having the fireman, on his round at
night, when he looks after the fires in the heating room, gather the
mushrooms. He passes through all parts of the house and picks the
mushrooms which are of suitable size. These are gathered by
grasping a single mushroom by the cap, or where there is a cluster
of mushrooms close together, several are taken in the hand. The
plant is twisted slightly to free the stem from the soil, without tear-
ing it up to any great extent. They are thrown in this condition
into baskets. The collector then takes them to the packing room,

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS.

JlJil

and the following morning the plants are trimmed, that is, the part of
the stems to which the earth is attached is cut away, the plants are
weighed, put in baskets, and prepared for the markets. In other
cases, the mushrooms are gathered early in the morning, in the
same way, taken to the packing room, where the lower part of the
stem is cut away, the plants are weighed, placed into the baskets
and shipped to market.

In some of the caves, or abandoned mines, which I have visited,
where the mushrooms are grown on a large scale, the practice in
picking the mushrooms varies somewhat from that just described.

FIGURE 237. View in Packing Room (H. E. Hicks' Mushroom House,
Kennett Square, Pa.) Copyright.

In the first place, the mushrooms are allowed to stand on the bed
longer, before they are picked. They are rarely, if ever, picked
before they open. Mushrooms may be quite large, but if they have
not opened, they are not picked. Very frequently, the plant may
open, but, the operator says, it is not open enough. It will grow
more yet. The object of the grower, in this case, is to allow the
mushrooms to grow as long as it is possible, before picking, for the
larger the mushroom, the more water it will- take from the bed, and
the more it weighs. This may seem an unprofessional thing for a
grower to do, and yet it must be remembered that a large water
content of the mushroom is necessary. The mushrooms grown in
these mines are very firm and solid, qualities which are desired, not

270 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

only by the consumer, but are desirable for shipment. These mush-
rooms are much thicker through the center of the cap than those
usually grown in houses at a room temperature of 60 F. For this
reason, the mushrooms in these caves spread out more, and the
edges do not turn up so soon. Since the cap is so thick and firm at
the center, it continues to grow and expand for some little time after
having opened, without turning up on the edges, and without be-
coming black and unsightly underneath. These large and firm
mushrooms are not only desirable for their shipping qualities, but
also, if they are not too large, they are prized because they are of
such a nice size for broiling.

It is quite likely that one of the important conditions in produc-
ing mushrooms of this character is the low temperature of the mine.
The temperature here, in July and August, rises not higher than 58
F., that is, the room temperature of the mines ; while in the winter
it falls not lower than 52. The growth of mushrooms, under these
conditions, may not be quite so rapid as in a house maintaining a
room temperature of 60. The operator may not be able to grow
so many crops from the same area, during the same length of time ;
but the very fact that this low temperature condition retards the
growth of the mushrooms is perhaps an important item in produc-
ing the firm and more marketable product, which can be allowed to
grow longer before it is picked. It is possible, also, that another
condition has something to do with the firmness and other desirable
qualities of these mushrooms. It is, perhaps, to be found in the
fact that natural spawn is largely used in planting the beds, so that
the spawn is more vigorous than that which is ordinarily used in
planting, which is several or many generations distant from the
virgin condition.

The methods of picking in this mine differ, also, from those
usually employed by growers of mushrooms. The mushrooms are
pulled from the bed in the same way, but the operator carries with
him two baskets and a knife. As fast as the mushrooms are pulled,
and while they are still in hand, before the dirt can sift upon the
other mushrooms, or fall in upon the gills of those which are open,
the lower part of the stem is cut off. This stem end is then placed in
one basket, while the mushrooms which have been trimmed are
placed in another basket. In cutting off the stems, just enough is
cut to remove the soil, so that the length of the stem of the mush-
room varies. The mushrooms are then taken to the packing room
in the cleanest possible condition, with no soil scattering therefrom
or falling down among the gills, as occurs to a greater or lesser ex-

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. 271

tent where the mushrooms are picked and thrown indiscriminately
into baskets.

Packing the Mushrooms. In the packing room the mushrooms are
prepared for shipment to market. The method at present usually
employed is to ship them in baskets. The baskets vary in size, ac-
cording to the market to which the mushrooms are to be shipped.
They hold from three, to four, five, six, or ten pounds each. The
larger baskets are only used where the mushrooms are shipped
directly to the consumers. When the customer requires a large
number of mushrooms, they can be shipped in these larger baskets.
Where they are shipped to commission merchants, and the final
market is not known to the packer, they are usually packed in small
baskets, three to four or five pounds. The baskets are sometimes
lined with paper; that is, at the time of the packing the paper is
placed in the basket, one or two thicknesses of paper. The number
of layers of paper depends somewhat upon the conditions of trans-
portation. The greater amount of paper affords some protection
from cold, in cold weather, and some protection from the evapora-
tion of the moisture, in dry weather. When the basket is filled with
the required quantity of mushrooms, which is usually determined
first by weight, the surplus paper is folded over them. This is
covered in most cases by thin board strips, which are provided for
basket shipment of vegetables of this kind. In some cases, how-
ever, where shipped directly to customers so that the baskets soon
reach their destination, additional heavy paper, instead of the board,
may be placed over and around the larger part of the basket, and
then tied down neatly with cord.

Placing the Mushrooms in the Basket. Some growers do not give
any attention to placing the mushrooms in the baskets. The stems
are cut off in the packing room, they are thrown into the weighing
pan, and when the beam tips at three, or four, or five pounds, as
the case may be, the mushrooms are emptied into the baskets,
leveled down, and the baskets closed for shipment. Others use
more care in the packing of the mushrooms; especially is this the
case on the part of those who pick the mushrooms when they are
somewhat larger and more open, though the practice of placing the
mushrooms in a basket is followed even by those who pick before
the mushrooms are open. In placing them, one mushroom is taken
at a time and put stem downward into the basket, until the bottom
is covered with one layer, and then successive layers are placed on
top of these. The upper layers in the basket then present a very
neat and attractive appearance. In thus placing the mushrooms in

'21-2

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the basket, if there are any mushrooms which are quite large, they
are placed in the bottom. The custom of the operator here is dif-
ferent from that of the grower of apples, or of other fruit, where the
larger and finer samples are often placed on top, the smaller ones
being covered below. It is a curious fact, however, that this prac-
tice of placing the largest mushrooms below in the basket is due to
the fact that usually the larger mushrooms are not considered so
marketable.

FIGURE 238. View in packing room, Akron "tunnel," N. Y. Mushroom Co.; placing

mushrooms in basket. Copyright.

There are several reasons why the larger mushrooms are not
considered so desirable or marketable as the medium-sized or
smaller ones. In the first place, the larger mushrooms, under cer-
tain conditions, especially those grown in house culture at a com-
paratively high temperature, are apt to be very ripe, so that the
gills are black from over-ripe spores, and are thus somewhat un-
sightly. Those grown at a lower temperature, as is the case in
some mines, do not blacken so soon, and are therefore apt to be free
from this objection. Another objection, however, is on the part of

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. '273

the restaurant owner where mushrooms are served. In serving the
mushrooms broiled on toast, the medium-sized one is more desirable
from the standpoint of the restaurant owner, in that two medium-
sized ones might be sufficient to serve two persons, while one quite
large one, weighing perhaps the same as the two medium ones,
would only be sufficient to serve one person at the same price,
unless the large mushroom was cut in two. If this were done, how-
ever, the customer would object to being served with half a mush-
room, and the appearance of a half mushroom served in this way is
not attractive.

Reselling. Once or twice a week during the harvesting period all
loose earth, broken bits of spawn, free buttons, etc., should be
cleaned out where the mushrooms have been picked. These places
should be filled with soil and packed down by hand. All young
mushrooms that "fog off" should be gathered up clean. Some
persons follow the practice of growing a second crop on the same
bed from which the first crop has been gathered. The bed is
resoiled by placing about two inches of soil over the old soil. The
bed is then watered, sometimes with lukewarm water to which a
small quantity of nitrate of soda has been added. The large grow-
ers, however, usually do not grow a second crop in this way, but
endeavor to exhaust the material in the bed by continuous growth.

Use of manure from beds which have failed. Manure in which the
spawn has failed to run is sometimes removed from the bed and
mixed with fresh manure, the latter restoring the heat. If the
manure was too wet, the moisture content can now be lessened by
the use of dry soil.

Cleaning house to prepare for successive crops. When the crop is
harvested, all the material is cleaned out to prepare the beds for the
next crop. The material is taken out " clean," and the floors, beds,
walls, etc., swept off very clean. In addition, some growers white-
wash the floors and all wood-work. Some whitewash only the
floors, depending on sweeping the beds and walls very clean. Still
others whitewash the floors and wash the walls with some material
to kill out the vermin. Some trap or poison the cockroaches, wood-
lice, etc., when they appear. Some growers who succeed well for
several years, and then fail, believe that the house " gets tired," as
they express it, and that the place must rest for a few years before
mushrooms can be grown there again. Others grow mushrooms
successfully year after year, but employ the best sanitary methods.

Number of crops during a year. In caves or mines, where the
temperature is low, the beds are in process of formation and cropping

274 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

continuously. So soon as a bed has been exhausted the material is
cleaned out, and new beds are made as fast as the fresh manure is
obtained. In houses where the mushrooms cannot be grown during
the summer, the crops are grown at quite regular periods, the first
crop during fall and early winter, and the second crop during spring.
Some obtain the manure and ferment it during August and Septem-
ber, spawning the beds in September and October. Others begin
work on the fermentation of the manure in June or July, make up
the beds in July and August, spawn, and begin to draw off the crop
somewhat earlier. The second crop is prepared for whenever the
first one is drawn off, and this varies even in the experience of the
same grower, since the rate of the running of the spawn varies from
time to time. Sometimes the crop begins to come four or five weeks
from the time of planting the spawn. At other times it may be two
or three months before the spawn has run sufficiently for the crop
to appear. Usually the crop begins to come on well in six to eight
weeks. The crop usually lasts for six weeks to two months, or
longer.

Productivity of the beds. One pound of mushrooms from every
two square feet of surface is considered a very good crop. Some-
times it exceeds this, the beds bearing one pound for every square
foot, though such a heavy yield is rare. Oftener the yield is less
than half a pound for a square foot of surface.

Causes of failure. The beginner should study very carefully the
conditions under which he grows his crops, and if failure results, he
should attempt to analyze the results in the light of the directions
given for the curing of the manure, its moisture content, "sweet-
ness," character of the spawn, temperature, ventilation, etc. While
there should be good ventilation, there should not be drafts of air.
A beginner may succeed the first time, the second or third, and then
may fail, and not know the cause of the failure. But given a good
spawn, the right moisture content of the material at time of planting
and running of the spawn, the sweet condition, or proper condition
of the curing of the manure, proper sanitary conditions, there should
be no failure. These are the most important conditions in mush-
room culture. After the spawn has run and the crop has begun to
come, the beds have been known to freeze up during the winter, and
in the spring begin and continue to bear a good crop. After the
spawn has run well, beds have accidentally been flooded with water
so that manure water would run out below, and yet come on and
bear as good a crop as adjoining beds.

Volunteer mushrooms in greenhouses. Volunteer mushrooms some-

CULTIVATION OF MUSHROOMS. 275

times appear in greenhouses in considerable quantity. These start
from natural spawn in the manure used, or sometimes from the
spawn remaining in "spent" mushroom beds which is mixed with
the soil in making lettuce beds, etc., under glass. One of the
market gardeners at Ithaca used old spawn in this way, and had
volunteer mushrooms among lettuce for several years. In making
the lettuce beds in the autumn, a layer of fresh horse manure six
inches deep is placed in the bottom, and on this is placed the soil
mixed with the old, spent mushroom beds. The following year the
soil and the manure at the bottom, which is now rotten, is mixed
up, and a fresh layer of manure is placed below. In this way the
lettuce bed is self-spawned from year to year. About every six
years the soil in the bed is entirely changed. This gardener, during
the winter of 1900-1, sold $30.00 to $40.00 worth of volunteer
mushrooms. Another gardener, in a previous year, sold over $ 50.00
worth.

Planting mushrooms with other vegetables. In some cases gardeners
follow the practice of inserting a forkful of manure here and there
in the soil where other vegetables are grown under glass, and
planting in it a bit of spawn.

Mushroom and vegetable house combined. Some combine a mushroom
house and house for vegetables in one, there being a deep pit where
several tiers of beds for mushrooms can be built up, and above this
the glass house where lettuce, etc., is grown, all at a temperature of
about 60 F.

THREE METHODS SUGGESTED FOR GROWING MUSHROOMS IN

CELLARS AND SHEDS.

First Method. Obtain fresh stable horse manure mixed with straw used in
bedding the animals. Shake it out, separating the coarse material from the
droppings. Put the droppings in a pile two to three feet deep. Pack down
firmly. When the heat rises to near 130 F., turn and shake it out, making a
new pile. Make the new pile by layers of manure and loam soil, or rotted sod,
one part of soil to eight or nine parts of manure. Turn again when the heat rises
to near 130 F., and add the same amount of soil. When the temperature is
about 100 F., the material is ready for the beds.

Preparing the beds. Make the beds as described under the paragraph on pages
250-253, or use boxes. Place the coarse litter in the bottom three to four inches
deep. On this place three to four inches of the cured material, pack it down, and
continue adding material until the bed is ten to fifteen inches deep. Allow the beds
to stand, covering them with straw or excelsior if the air in the cellar or shed is
such as to dry out the surface.

Test the moisture content according to directions on page 255.

Watch the temperature. Do not let it rise above 130 F. When it is down

27<i STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

to 90 F. or 70 F., if the manure has a "sweetish" or " mushroomy " smell
it is ready to spawn.

Spawn according to directions on page 263.

Soil according to directions on page 266 ; cover bed with straw or excelsior.

Second Method. Use horse droppings freed from the coarser material.
Proceed as in//>s/ method.

Third Method. Use horse droppings freed from coarser material. Pile and
pack firmly. Do not let temperature rise above 130 F. When it has cooled to
100 F., make up the beds, at the same time mixing in an equal quantity of rich
loam or rotted sod. Spawn in a day or two.

In beginning, practice on a small scale and study the conditions thoroughly,
as well as the directions given in this chapter.

CHAPTER XXI.

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS.

By MRS. SARAH TYSON RORER.

As varieties of mushrooms differ in analysis, texture and density
of flesh, different methods of cooking give best results. For instance,
the Coprinus micaceus, being very delicate, is easily destroyed by
over-cooking; a dry, quick pan of the "mushroom bells" retains
the best flavor ; while the more dense Agaricus campestris requires
long, slow cooking to bring out the flavor, and to be tender and digest-
ible. Simplicity of seasoning, however, must be observed, or the
mushroom flavor will be destroyed. If the mushroom itself has an
objectionable flavor, better let it alone than to add mustard or lemon
juice to overcome it. Mushrooms, like many of the more succulent
vegetables, are largely water, and readily part with their juices on
application of salt or heat ; hence it becomes necessary to put the
mushroom over the fire usually without the addition of water, or the
juices will be so diluted that they will lack flavor. They have much
better flavor cooked without peeling, with the exception of puff-balls,
which should always be pared. As they lose their flavor by soak-
ing, wash them quickly, a few at a time ; take the mushroom in the
left hand and with the right hand wash the top or pileus, using either
a very soft brush or a piece of flannel ; shake them well and put
them into a colander to dry.

AGARICUS.*

The wild or uncultivated Agaricus campestris, which is usually
picked in open fields, will cook in less time than those grown in caves
and sold in our markets during the winter and spring. Cut the
stems close to the gills ; these may be put aside and used for flavor-
ing sauces or soups. Wash the mushrooms carefully, keeping the
gills down ; throw them into a colander until drained.

Stewed. To each pound, allow two ounces of butter. Put the
butter into a saucepan, and when melted, not brown, throw in the
mushrooms either .whole or cut into slices ; sprinkle over a teaspoon-
ful of salt ; cover the saucepan closely to keep in the flavor, and

* The recipes for Agaricus are intended for the several species of this genus
(Psalliota).

J77

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

cook very slowly for twenty minutes, or until they are tender.
Moisten a rounding tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk ; when
perfectly smooth, add sufficient milk to make one gill ; stir this into
the mushrooms, add a salt-spoon of white pepper, stir carefully until
boiling, and serve at once. This makes a fairly thick sauce. Less
flour is required when they are to be served as a sauce over chicken,
steak, or made dishes.

Broiled. Cut the stems close to the gills ; wash the mushrooms
and dry them with a soft piece of cheesecloth ; put them on the
broiler gills up. Put a piece of butter, the size of a marrowfat pea,
in the center of each ; sprinkle lightly with salt and pepper. Put
the broiler over the fire skin side down ; in this way, the butter will
melt and sort of baste the mushrooms. Have ready squares of
neatly toasted bread ; and, as soon as the mushrooms are hot on the
skin side, turn them quickly and broil about two minutes on the gill
side. Five minutes will be sufficient for the entire cooking. Dish
on toast and serve at once.

Panned on Cream Toast. Cut the stem close to the gills ; wash and
dry as directed for broiling. Put them into a pan, and pour over a
very little melted butter, having gill sides up ; dust with salt and
pepper, run into a hot oven for twenty minutes. While these are
panning, toast sufficient bread to hold them nicely ; put it onto a hot
platter, and just as the mushrooms are done, cover the bread with
hot milk, being careful not to have too much or the bread will be
pasty and soft. Dish the mushrooms on the toast, putting the skin
side up, pour over the juices from the pan, and serve at once.

These are exceedingly good served on buttered toast without the
milk, and will always take the place of broiled mushrooms.

In the Chafing Dish. Wash, dry the mushrooms, and cut them into
slices. To each pound allow two ounces of butter. Put the butter
in the chafing dish, when hot put in the mushrooms, sprinkle over
a teaspoonful of salt, cover the dish, and cook slowly for five min-
utes, stirring the mushrooms frequently ; then add one gill of milk.
Cover the dish again, cook for three minutes longer, add the beaten
yolks of two eggs, a dash of pepper, and serve at once. These must
not be boiled after the eggs are added ; but the yolk of egg is by far
the most convenient form of thickening when mushrooms are cooked
in the chafing dish.

Under the Glass Cover or " Bell " with Cream. With a small biscuit
cutter, cut rounds from slices of bread ; they should be about two
and a half inches in diameter, and about a half inch in thickness.
Cut the stems close to the gills from fresh mushrooms ; wash and

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS. 279

wipe the mushrooms. Put a tablespoonful of butter in a saucepan ;
when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin side down ; cook just a
moment, and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Arrange the
rounds of bread, which have been slightly toasted, in the bottom of
your " bell " dish ; heap the mushrooms on these ; put a little piece
of butter in the center ; cover over the bell, which is either of glass,
china, or silver ; stand them in a baking pan, and then in the oven
for twenty minutes. While these are cooking, mix a tablespoonful
of butter and one of flour in a saucepan, add a half pint of milk, or you
may add a gill of milk and a gill of chicken stock ; stir until boiling,
add a half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. When the mush-
rooms have been in the oven the allotted time, bring them out ; lift
the cover, pour over quickly a little of this sauce, cover again, and
send them at once to the table.

Another Method. Wash and dry the mushrooms ; arrange them at
once on the " bell plate." The usual plates will hold six good sized
ones. Dust with pepper and salt ; put in the center of the pile a
teaspoonful of butter ; pour over six tablespoonfuls of cream or milk ;
cover with the bell ; stand the dish in a baking pan, and then in a
hot oven for twenty minutes.

These are arranged for individual bells. Where one large bell is
used, the mushrooms must be dished on toast before they are served.
The object in covering with the bell is to retain every particle of
the flavor. The bell is then lifted at the table, that the eater may
get full aroma and flavor from the mushroom.

Puree. Wash carefully a half pound of mushrooms ; chop them
fine, put them into a saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter, and
if you have it, a cup of chicken stock ; if not, a cup of water. Cover
the vessel and cook slowly for thirty minutes. In a double boiler,
put one pint 'of milk. Rub together one tablespoonful of butter and
two tablespoonfuls of flour ; add it to the milk ; stir and cook until
thick ; add the mushrooms, and press the whole through a sieve ;
season to taste with salt and pepper only.

Cream of Mushroom Soup. This will be made precisely the same as
in the preceding recipe, save that one quart of milk will be used
instead of a pint with the same amount of thickening, and the
mushrooms will not be pressed through a sieve.

280 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

COPRINUS COMATUS and COPRINUS ATRAMEN-

TARIUS.

As these varieties usually grow together and are sort of compan-
ion mushrooms, recipes given for one will answer for the cooking of
the other. Being soft and juicy, they must be handled with care,
and are much better cooked with dry heat. Remove the stems, and
wash them carefully ; throw them into a colander until dry ; arrange
them in a baking pan ; dot here and there with bits of butter, allow-
ing a tablespoonful to each half pound of mushrooms ; dust with salt
and pepper, run them into a very hot oven, and bake for thirty min-
utes ; dish in a heated vegetable dish, pouring over the sauce from
the pan.

The C. micaceus may also be cooked after the same fashion-
after dishing the mushrooms boil down the liquor.

Stewed. Wash and dry them ; put them into a large, flat pan,
allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each half pound of mushrooms ;
sprinkle at once with salt and pepper ; cover the pan, and stew for
fifteen minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk ;
when smooth, add a half cup of cream, if you have it ; if not, a half
cup of milk. Push the mushrooms to one side ; turn in this mixture,
and stir until boiling. Do not stir the mushrooms or they will fall
apart and become unsightly. Dish them ; pour over the sauce, and
serve at once. Or they may be served on toast, the dish garnished
with triangular pieces of toast.

COPRINUS MICACEUS.

Wash and dry the mushrooms ; put them into a deep saucepan
with a tablespoonful of butter to each quart ; stand over a quick fire,
sort of tossing the saucepan. Do not stir, or you will break the
mushrooms. As soon as they have reached the boiling point, push
them to the back part of the stove for five minutes ; serve on toast.
These will be exceedingly dark, are very palatable, and perhaps are
the most easily digested of all the varieties.

LEPIOTA.

These mushrooms, having very thin flesh and deep gills, must be
quickly cooked to be good. Remove the stem, take the mushrooms
in your hand, gill side down, and with a soft rag wash carefully the
top, removing all the little brown scales. Put them into a baking
pan, or on a broiler. Melt a little butter, allow it to settle, take the

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS. 281

clear, oily part from the top and baste lightly the mushrooms, gill
sides up ; dust with salt and pepper. Place the serving dish to heat.
Put the mushrooms over a quick fire, skin side down, for just a
moment ; then turn and boil an instant on the gill side, and serve at
once on the heated plate.

In this way Lepiota procera is most delicious of all mushrooms;
but if cooked in moist heat, it becomes soft, but tough and unpalat-
able ; if baked too long, it becomes dry and leathery. It must be
cooked quickly and eaten at once. All the edible forms may be
cooked after this recipe.

These are perhaps the best of all mushrooms for drying. In this
condition they are easily kept, and add so much to an ordinary meat
sauce.

OYSTER MUSHROOMS (Pleurotus).

Wash and dry the mushrooms ; cut them into strips crosswise of
the gills, trimming off all the woody portion near the stem side.
Throw the mushrooms into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of
butter to each pint ; sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt; cover,
and cook slowly for twenty minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of
flour in a half cup of milk ; when perfectly smooth, add another half
cup ; turn this into the mushroom mixture ; bring to boiling point,
add just a grating of nutmeg, a few drops of onion juice, and a dash
of pepper. Serve as you would stewed oysters.

To make this into a la poulette, add the yolks of two eggs just
as you take the mixture from the fire, and serve on toast.

Mock Oysters. Trim the soft gill portion of the Pleurotus ostreatus
into the shape of an oyster ; dust with salt and pepper ; dip in beaten
egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry in smoking hot fat as you would
an oyster, and serve at once. This is, perhaps, the best method of
cooking this variety.

RUSSULA.

While in this group we have a number of varieties, they may all
be cooked after one recipe. The stems will be removed, the mush-
rooms carefully washed, always holding the gill side down in the
water, drained in a colander ; and while they apparently do not con-
tain less water than other mushrooms, the flesh is rather dense, and
they do not so quickly melt upon being exposed to heat. They are
nice broiled or baked, or may be chopped fine and served with may-
onnaise dressing, stuffed into peeled tomatoes, or with mayonnaise

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

dressing on lettuce leaves, or mixed with cress and served with
French dressing, as salads.

The " green " or Russula -cirescens may be peeled, cut into thin
slices, mixed with the leaves of water-cress which have been picked
carefully from the stems, covered with French dressing, and served
on slices of tomato. It is well to peel all mushrooms if they are to
be served raw. To bake, follow recipes given for baking campestris,
In this way they are exceedingly nice over the ordinary broiled steak.

One of the nicest ways, however, of preparing them for steak is
to wash, dry and put them, gills up, in a baking pan, having a goodly
quantity ; pour over just a little melted butter ; dust with salt and
pepper, and put them into the oven for fifteen minutes. While you
are broiling the steak, put the plate upon which it is to be served
over hot water to heat ; put on it a tablespoonful of butter, a little
salt, pepper, and some finely chopped parsley. Take the mushrooms
from the oven, put some in the bottom of the plate, dish the steak on
top, covering the remaining quantity over the steak. Add two table-
spoonfuls of stock or water to the pan in which they were baked ;
allow this to boil, scraping all the material from the pan ; baste this
over the steak, and serve at once.

Agaricus campestris and many other varieties may also be used
in this same way.

LACTARII.

Remove the stems, and wash the mushrooms. Put them into a
saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter and a half teaspoonful of
salt to each pint. Add four tablespoonfuls of stock to the given
quantity ; cover the saucepan, and cook slowly three-quarters of an
hour. At the end of this time you will have a rich, brown sauce to
which you may add a teaspoonful of Worcestershire sauce, and, if
you like, a tablespoonful of sherry. Serve in a vegetable dish.

Lactarius deliciosus Stewed. Wash the mushrooms ; cut them into
slices; put them into a saucepan, allowing a half pint of stock to
each pint of mushrooms ; add a half teaspoonful of salt ; cover and
stew slowly for three-quarters of an hour. Put a tablespoonful of
butter in another saucepan, mix with it a tablespoonful of flour ; add
the mushrooms, stir until they have reached the boiling point ; add
a teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet, a dash of pepper, and serve it at
once in a heated vegetable dish.

A nice combination for a steak sauce is made by using a dozen
good sized Lactarius deliciosus with four "beefsteak" mushrooms,
using then the first recipe.

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS.

BEEFSTEAK SMOTHERED WITH MUSHROOMS.

Wash a dozen good sized mushrooms, either Lactarii or Agarici,
also wash and remove the pores from half a dozen good sized " beef-
steak " mushrooms, cutting them into slices. Put all these into a
baking pan, sprinkle over a h.\lf teaspoonful of salt, add a tablespoon-
ful of butter, and bake in a moderate oven three-quarters of an hour.
Broil the steak until it is nearly done ; then put it into the pan with
the mushrooms, allowing some of the mushrooms to remain under
the steak, and cover with the remaining portion ; return it to the
oven for ten minutes ; dish and serve at once.

BOLETI.

These are more palatable baked or fried. Wash the caps and
remove the pores. Dip the caps in beaten egg, then in bread
crumbs, and fry them in smoking hot fat ; oil is preferable to butter ;
even suet would make a drier fry than butter or lard. Serve at
once as you would egg plant.

Baked Wash and remove the pores ; put the mushrooms into a
baking pan ; baste them with melted butter, dust with salt and pep-
per, and bake in a moderately hot oven three-quarters of an hour ;
dish in a vegetable dish. Put into the pan in which they were baked,
a tablespoonful of butter. Mix carefully with a tablespoonful of flour
and add a half pint of stock, a half teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet or
browning, the same of salt, and a dash of pepper ; pour this over the
mushrooms, and serve.

In Fritter Batter. Beat the yolk of one egg slightly, and add a half
cup of milk ; stir into this two-thirds of a cup of flour ; stir in the
well beaten white of the egg and a teaspoonful of olive oil. Wash
and remove the pores from the boleti. Have ready a good sized shal-
low pan, the bottom covered with smoking hot oil ; dip the mush-
rooms, one at a time, into this batter, drain for a moment, and drop
them into the hot fat. When brown on one side, turn and brown on
the other. Drain on soft paper and serve at once.

Boleti in Brown Sauce. Wash and dry the boleti ; remove the
pores ; cut them into small pieces. To each pound allow a table-
spoonful of butter. Put the butter into a saucepan with the mush-
rooms ; add a half teaspoonful of salt ; cover the pan, and stew
slowly for twenty minutes ; then dust over a tablespoonful of flour ;
add a half cup of good beef stock ; cook slowly for ten minutes
longer, and serve.

284 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

HYDNUM.

As these mushrooms are slightly bitter, they must be washed,
dried, and thrown into a little boiling water, to boil for just a moment ;
drain, and throw away this water, add a tablespoonful of butter, a
teaspoonful of salt, a dash of pepper, and a half cup of milk or stock ;
cover the pan, and cook slowly for twenty minutes. As the milk
scorches easily, cook over a very slow fire, or in a double boiler.
Pour the mixture over slices of toast, and serve at once. A table-
spoonful or two of sherry may be added just as they are removed
from the fire.

CLAVARIA.

Wash, separating the bunches, and chop or cut them rather fine,
measure, and to each quart allow a half pint of Supreme sauce.
Throw the clavaria into a saucepan, cover, and allow it to stew gently
for fifteen minutes while you make the sauce. Put a tablespoonful
of butter and one of flour in the saucepan ; mix, and add a half pint
of milk or chicken stock ; or you may add half of one and half of the
other ; stir until boiling ; take from the fire, add a half teaspoonful
of salt, a saltspoonful of pepper, and the yolks of two eggs. Take
the clavaria from the fire, and when cool stir it into the sauce.
Turn into a baking dish, sprinkle the top with crumbs, and brown in
a quick oven. Do not cook too long, as it will become watery.

Pickled Clavaria. Wash the clavaria thoroughly without breaking
it apart ; put into a steamer ; stand the steamer over a kettle of boil-
ing water, and steam rapidly, that is, keep the water boiling hard
for fifteen minutes. Take from the fire, and cool. Put over the fire
sufficient vinegar to cover the given quantity ; to each quart, allow
two bay leaves, six cloves, a teaspoonful of whole mustard, and a
dozen pepper corns, that is, whole peppers. Put the clavaria into
glass jars. Bring the vinegar to boiling point, and pour it over ;
seal and put aside.

This may be served alone as any other pickle, or on lettuce
leaves with French dressing as a salad.

Escalloped Clavaria. Wash, separate and cut the clavaria as in first
recipe. To each quart allow a half pint of chicken stock, a teaspoon-
ful of salt, a tablespoonful of chopped parsley. Put a layer of bread
crumbs in the bottom of the dish, then a layer of chopped clavaria,
and so continue until you have the dish filled. Pour over the stock,
which you have seasoned with salt and pepper ; dot bits of butter

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS. 285

here and there over the top, and bake in a moderate oven thirty
minutes.

This recipe is excellent for the young or button Hypholoma, except
that the time of baking must be forty-five minutes.

PUFF-BALLS.

To be eatable, the puff-balls must be perfectly white to the very
center. Pare off the skin ; cut them into slices ; dust with salt and
pepper. Have ready in a large, shallow pan a sufficient quantity of
hot oil to cover the bottom. Throw in the slices and, when brown
on one side, turn and brown on the other ; serve at once on a heated
dish.

A la Roulette. Pare the puff-balls ; cut them into slices and then
into dice ; put them into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of
butter to each pint of blocks. Cover the saucepan ; stew gently for
fifteen minutes ; lift the lid ; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt and
a dash of pepper. Beat the yolks of three eggs until light ; add a
half cup of cream and a half cup of milk ; pour this into the hot
mixture, and shake until smoking hot. Do not allow them to boil.
Serve in a heated vegetable dish, with blocks of toast over the top.

Puff=Ball Omelet. Pare and cut into blocks sufficient puff-balls to
make a pint. Put a tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan ; add
the puff-balls, cover and cook for ten minutes. Beat six eggs with-
out separating, until thoroughly mixed, but not too light; add the
cooked puff-balls, a level teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper.
Put a tablespoonful of butter into your omelet pan ; when hot, turn
in the egg mixture ; shake over the hot fire until the bottom has
thoroughly set, then with a limber knife lift the edge, allowing the
soft portion to run underneath ; continue this operation until the
omelet is cooked through ; fold and turn onto a heated dish. Serve
at once.

Other delicate mushrooms may be used in this same manner.

Puff=Balls with Agaricus campestris. As the Agariciis campestris has
a rather strong flavor and the puff-balls are mild, both are better for
being mixed in the cooking. Take equal quantities of Agaricus cam-
pestris and puff-balls ; pare and cut the puff-balls into blocks ; to
each half pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. Put the butter in a
saucepan, add the mushrooms, sprinkle over the salt (allowing a
half teaspoonful always to each pint) ; cover the saucepan and stew
slowly for twenty minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a
half cup of milk, add it to the mixture, stir and cook for just a
moment, add a dash of pepper, and serve in a heated dish.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

This recipe may be changed by omitting the flour and adding the
yolks of a couple of eggs ; milk is preferable to stock, for all the
white or light-colored varieties.

MORCHELLA.

Select twelve large-sized morels ; cut off the stalks, and throw
them into a saucepan of warm water ; let them stand for fifteen min-
utes ; then take them on a skimmer one by one, and drain carefully.
Chop fine sufficient cold boiled tongue or chicken to make one cupful ;
mix this with an equal quantity of bread crumbs, and season with
just a suspicion of onion juice, not more than ten dops, and a dash
of pepper. Fill this into the mushrooms, arrange them neatly in a
baking pan, put in a half cup of stock and a tablespoonful of butter,
bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes, basting frequently. When
done, dish neatly. Boil down the sauce that is in the pan until it is
just sufficient to baste them on the dish ; serve at once.

A Second Method. Select large-sized morels ; cut off the stalk ;
wash well through several waters. Put into a frying pan a little
butter, allowing about a tablespoonful to each dozen mushrooms.
When hot, throw in the mushrooms, and toss until they are thor-
oughly cooked ; then add a half pint of milk or stock ; cover the
vessel, and cook slowly twenty minutes ; dust with salt and pepper,
and serve in a vegetable dish. This method gives an exceedingly
palatable and very sightly dish if garnished with sweet Spanish
peppers that have been boiled until tender.

Another Method. Remove the stems, and wash the morels as
directed in the preceding recipe. Make a stuffing of bread crumbs
seasoned with salt, pepper, chopped parsley, and sufficient melted
butter to just moisten. Place them in a baking pan ; add a little
stock and butter ; bake for thirty minutes. When done, dish. Into
the pan in which they were cooked, turn a cupful of strained toma-
toes ; boil rapidly for fifteen minutes until slightly thickened ; pour
this over the mushrooms ; garnish the dish with triangular pieces of
toasted bread, and serve.

GENERAL RECIPES.

In the following recipes one may use Agaricus campestris, silvi-
cola, arvensis, or Pleiirotus ostreatus, or sapidus, or Coprinus comatus,
or any kindred mushrooms. The Agaricus campestris, however, are
to be preferred.

To Serve with a Boiled Leg of Mutton, wash well the mushrooms and

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS. '287

dry them ; dip each into flour, being careful not to get too much on
the gill side. In a saucepan have a little hot butter or oil ; drop these
in, skin side down ; dust them lightly with salt and pepper. After
they have browned on this side, turn them quickly and brown the
gills ; add a half pint of good stock ; let them simmer gently for
fifteen minutes. Take them up with a skimmer, and dish them on a
platter around the mutton. Boil the sauce down until it is the proper
consistency ; pour it over, and serve at once. These are also good
to serve with roasted beef.

Mushroom Sauce for Game. Wash well one pound of fresh mush-
rooms ; dry, and chop them very fine. Put them into a saucepan
with one and a half tablespoonfuls of butter ; cover, and cook slowly
for eight minutes ; then add a half cup of fresh rubbed bread crumbs,
a half teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of white pepper ; cover and
cook again for five minutes ; stir, add a tablespoonful of chopped
parsley, and, if you like, two tablespoonfuls of sherry ; turn into a
sauce-boat.

A Nice Way to Serve with Fricassee of Chicken. Wash and dry the
mushrooms ; sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Put some oil or
butter in a shallow pan ; when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin
side down ; cover the pan, put in the oven for fifteen minutes ; baste
them once during the baking. Lift them carefully and put them on
a heated dish. Add to the fat in the pan two tablespoonfuls of finely
chopped mushrooms, a half cup of good stock ; boil carefully for five
minutes. Have ready rounds of bread toasted ; dish the mushrooms
on these ; put on top a good sized piece of carefully boiled marrow ;
season the sauce with salt, and strain it over. Use these as a gar-
nish around the edge of the plate, or you may simply dish and serve
them for breakfast, or as second course at lunch.

Oysters and Mushrooms. Wash and remove the stems from a half
pound of fresh mushrooms ; chop them fine ; put them into a sauce-
pan with a tablespoonful of butter, a half teaspoonful of salt, and a
dash of pepper ; cover closely, and cook over a slow fire for ten
minutes. Have ready, washed and drained, twenty-five good sized
fat oysters ; throw them perfectly dry into this mushroom mixture.
Pull the saucepan over a bright fire; boil, stirring carefully, for
about five minutes. Serve on squares of carefully toasted bread.

Tomatoes Stuffed with Mushrooms. Wash perfectly smooth, solid
tomatoes ; cut a slice from the stem end, and remove carefully the
seeds and core. To each tomato allow three good sized mushrooms ;
wash, dry, chop them fine, and stuff them into the tomatoes ; put a
half saltspoon of salt on the top of each and a dusting of pepper.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Into a bowl put one cup of soft bread crumbs ; season it with a half
teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper ; pour over a tablespoonful
of melted butter ; heap this over the top of the tomato, forming a
sort of pyramid, packing in the mushrooms ; stand the tomatoes in a
baking pan and bake in a moderate oven one hour. Serve at once,
lifting them carefully to prevent breaking.

Or, the mushrooms may be chopped fine, put with a tablespoon-
ful of butter into a saucepan and cooked for five minutes before they
are stuffed into the tomatoes ; then the bread crumbs packed over
the top, and the whole baked for twenty minutes. Each recipe wil
give you a different flavor.

CHAPTER XXII.

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS.

By J. F. CLARK.

Regarding the chemical composition of mushrooms, we have in
the past been limited largely to the work of European chemists.
Recently, however, some very careful analyses of American mush-
rooms have been made. The results of these investigations, while
in general accord with the work already done in Europe, have em-
phasized the fact that mushrooms are of very variable composition.
That different species should vary greatly was of course to be ex-
pected, but we now know that different specimens of the same species
grown under different conditions may be markedly different in chem-
ical composition. The chief factors causing this variation are the
composition, the moisture content, and the temperature of the soil in
which they grow, together with the maturity of the plant. The tem-
perature, humidity, and movement of the atmosphere and other local
conditions have a further influence on the amount of water present.

The following table, showing the amounts of the more important
constituents in a number of edible American species, has been com-
piled chiefly from a paper by L. B. Mendel (Amer. Jour. Phy. 1 :
225-238). This article is one of the most recent and most valuable
contributions to this important study, and anyone wishing to look
into the methods of research, or desiring more detailed information
than is here given, is referred to the original paper.

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROO.MS.

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Water. Like all growing plants, the mushroom contains a very
large proportion of water. The actual amount present varies greatly
in different species. In the above table it will be seen that Polyponis
sulphureus, with over 70 per cent, of water, has the least of any
species mentioned, while the species of Coprinus and Agaricus have
usually fully 90 per cent, water. The amount of water present,
however, varies greatly in the same species at different seasons and
in different localities, and with variations in the moisture content of
soil and atmosphere, also with the age and rapidity of development
of the individual plant.

Total Nitrogen. The proportion of nitrogen in the dry matter of
different species varies from 2 per cent, to 6 per cent. This com-
paratively high nitrogen content was formerly taken to indicate an
unusual richness in proteid substances, which in turn led to very
erroneous ideas regarding the nutritive value of these plants. The
nitrogenous substances will be more fully discussed later, when we
consider their nutritive value.

Ether Extract. This consists of a variety of fatty substances solu-
ble in ether. It varies greatly in quality and quantity in different
species. The amount is usually from 4 per cent, to 8 per cent, of
the total dry matter. It includes, besides various other substances,
several free fatty acids and their glycerides, the acids of low melt-
ing point being most abundant. These fatty substances occur in the
stem, but are much more abundant in the cap, especially in the fruit-
ing portion. Just what nutritive value these fatty matters may
have has never been determined.

Carbohydrates. The largest part of the dry matter of the mush-
rooms is made up of various carbohydrates, including cellulose or
fungocellulose, glycogen, mycoinuline, trehalose, mannite, glucose,
and other related substances. The cellulose is present in larger pro-
portion in the stem than in the cap, and in the upper part of the cap
than in the fruiting surface. This is doubtless related to the sus-
taining and protective functions of the stem and the upper part of
the cap. Starch, so common as a reserve food in the higher plants,
does not occur in the mushrooms. As is the case with the fats, no
determination of the nutritive value of these substances has been
made, but it may be assumed that the soluble cabohydrates of the
mushrooms do not differ greatly from similar compounds in other
plants.

Ash. The ash of mushrooms varies greatly. Polyponts ojficinalis
gives but i. 08 per cent, of ash in dry matter, Pleurotus u/tnaiius gives
12.6 per cent., and Clitopilus prunulus gives 15 per cent. The aver-

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS. '291

age of twelve edible species gave 7 per cent, ash in the stem and
8.96 per cent, in the cap.

In regard to the constituents of the ash, potassium is by far the
most abundant the oxide averaging about 50 per cent, of the total
ash. Phosphoric acid stands next to potassium in abundance and
importance, constituting, on an average, about one-third of the entire
ash. Oxides of manganese and iron are always present ; the former
averaging about 3 per cent, and the latter 5 per cent, to 2 per cent,
of the ash. Sodium, calcium, and chlorine are usually present in
small and varying quantities. Sulphuric acid occurs in the ash of all
fungi, and is remarkable for the great variation in quantity present
in different species ; e. g., ash of Helvetia esculenta contains 1.58 per
cent. Ho SO 4 while that of Agaricus campestris contains the relatively
enormous amount of 24.29 per cent.

Any discussion of the bare composition of a food is necessarily
incomplete without a consideration of the nutritive value of the various
constituents. This is especially desirable in the case of the mush-
rooms, for while they are frequently overestimated and occasionally
ridiculously overpraised by their friends, they are quite generally
distrusted and sometimes held in veritable abhorrence by those who
are ignorant of their many excellent qualities. On the one hand, we
are told that " gastronomically and chemically considered the flesh
of the mushroom has been proven to be almost identical with meat,
and possesses the same nourishing properties." We frequently hear
them referred to as " vegetable beefsteak," " manna of the poor,"
and other equally extravagant and misleading terms. On the other
hand, we see vast quantities of the most delicious food rotting in the
fields and woods because they are regarded by the vast majority of
the people as "toad-stools" and as such particularly repulsive and
poisonous.

Foods may be divided into three classes according to the functions
they perform :

(j) To form the material of the body and repair its wastes.

() To supply energy for muscular exertion and for the main-
tenance of the body heat.

The formation of the body material and the repair of its wastes
is the function of the proteids of foods. It has been found by care-
ful experiment that a man at moderately hard muscular exertion
requires .28 Ib. of digestible proteids daily. The chief sources of our
proteid foods are meats, fish, beans, etc. It has been as a proteid
food that mushrooms have been most strongly recommended. Refer-

292 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

ring to Table I, it will be seen that nitrogen constituted 5.79 per cent.
of the total dry substance ot Coprinns comatus. This high nitrogen
content, which is common to the mushrooms in general, was formerly
taken to indicate a very unusual richness in proteid materials. It is
now known, however, that there were several sources of error in
this assumption.

Much of the nitrogen is present in the form of non-proteid sub-
stances of a very low food value. Another and very considerable
portion enters into the composition of a substance closely related to
cellulose. A third source of error was the assumption that all the
proteid material was digestible. It is now known that a very con-
siderable portion is not digestible and hence not available as food.
Thus, notwithstanding the 5.79 per cent, of nitrogen in Coprimts
comatus, we find but .82 per cent, in the form of actually available
(i. e., digestible) proteids, or approximately one-seventh of what
was formerly supposed to be present.

The digestibility of the proteids varies very greatly with the spe-
cies. Morner found the common field mushroom, Agaricus campes-
tris, to have a larger amount of proteids available than any other
species studied by him. Unfortunately, the digestibility of the
American plant has not been tested. There is great need for further
work along this line. Enough has been done, however, to demon-
strate that mushrooms are no longer to be regarded as a food of the
proteid class.

The energy for the muscular exertion and heat is most economi-
cally derived from the foods in which the carbohydrates and fats
predominate.

The common way of comparing foods of the first two classes
scientifically is to compare their heat-giving powers. The unit of
measurement is termed a calorie. It represents the amount of heat
required to raise a kilogram of water i Centigrade. (This is
approximately the heat required to raise one pound of water 4 Fahr-
enheit.) A man at moderately hard muscular labor requires daily
enough food to give about 3500 calories of heat-units. The major part
of this food may be most economically derived from the foods of the
second class, any deficiency in the .28 Ib. of digestible protein being
made up by the addition of some food rich in this substance.

In the following table the value of ten pounds of several food sub-
stances of the three classes has been worked out. Especial atten-
tion is called to the column headed " proteids " and to the last column
where the number of heat-units which may be purchased for one
cent at current market rates has been worked out.

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS.

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The mushrooms have been valued at 25 cents per pound, which
is probably considerably below the average market price for a good
article. It should also be remarked that the amounts given in this
table are the digestible and hence available constituents of the foods.
The only exception to this is in the case of the fats and carbohy-
drates of the mushrooms, no digestion experiments having been
reported on these constituents. In the absence of data we have
assumed that they were entirely digested.

The beef and beans are typical animal and vegetable foods of the
proteid class. A glance at the table will show how markedly they
differ from the mushrooms. The latter are nearest the cabbage in
composition and nutritive value. The similarity between the cab-
bage and the Agaricus campestris here analyzed is very striking.
The potato is somewhat poorer in fat, but very much richer than the
mushroom in carbohydrates.

The figures in the last column will vary of course with fluctua-
tions in the market price, but such variation will not interfere at any
time with the demonstration that purchased mushrooms are not a
poor man's food. Here we find that one cent invested in cabbage
at i YI cents per pound, gives 93 calories of nutrition, while the same
amount invested in Agaricus campestris, the common mushroom of
our markets would give but 5.3 calories, although they are almost
identical so far as nutritive value is concerned.

The same sum invested in wheat flour, with its high carbohydrate
and good proteid content, would yield 658 calories or one-sixth the
amount necessary to sustain a man at work for one day. The
amount of mushrooms necessary for the same result is a matter of
simple computation.

Mushrooms, however, have a distinct and very great value as a
food of the third class, that is, as condiments or food accessories, and
their value as such is beyond the computation of the chemist or the
physiologist, and doubtless varies with different individuals. They
are among the most appetizing of table delicacies and add greatly to
the palatability of many foods when cooked with them. It is surely
as unfair to decry the mushroom on account of its low nutritive
value, as it is wrong to attribute to it qualities which are nothing
short of absurd in view of its composition. In some respects its place
as a food is not unlike that of the oyster, celery, berries, and other
delicacies, Worked out on the basis of nutritive value alone they
would all be condemned ; the oyster for instance presents a showing
but little better than the mushroom, and vastly inferior, so far as
economy is concerned, to the common potato. This, too, for oysters

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS. 295

purchased by the quart. The nutritive value of one cent's worth of
oysters " on the half shell " would be interesting !

The question of the toxicology of the higher fungi is one of very
great theoretical and practical interest. But on account of the great
difficulties in the way of such investigations comparatively little has
yet been accomplished. A few toxic compounds belonging chiefly to
the class termed alkaloids have, however, been definitely isolated.

Choline. This alkaloid is of wide occurrence in the animal and
vegetable kingdoms. It has been isolated from Amanita muscaria,
A. pantherina , Boletus luridus, and Helve/la esculenta. It is not very
toxic, but on uniting with oxygen it passes over to muscarine.
According to Robert the substance formed from choline on the decay
of the mushrooms containing it is not muscarine, but a very closely
related alkaloid, neurin. This transformation of a comparatively
harmless alkaloid to an extremely deadly one simply by the partial
decay of the plant in which the former is normally found, emphasizes
very much the wisdom of rejecting for table use all specimens which
are not entirely fresh. This advice applies to all kinds of mush-
rooms, and to worm-eaten and otherwise injured, as well as decayed
ones. Neurin is almost identical in its physiological effects with
muscarine, which is described below.

Muscarine. This is the most important because the most danger-
ous alkaloid found in the mushrooms. It is most abundant in Ama-
nita muscaria, it is also found in considerable quantity in Amanita
pantherina, and to a lesser, but still very dangerous extent in Boletus
luridus and Russula emetica. It is quite probably identical with bul-
bosine, isolated from Amanita phalloides by Boudier. Muscarine is an
extremely violent poison, .003 to .005 of a gram (.06 grain) being a
very dangerous dose for a man. Like other constituents of mush-
rooms, the amount of muscarine present varies very greatly with
varying conditions of soil and climate. This, indeed, may account
for the fact that Boletus luridus is regarded as an edible mushroom in
certain parts of Europe, the environment being such that little or no
muscarine is developed.

According to Kobert, Amanita muscaria contains, besides choline
and muscarine, a third alkaloid, pil^-atropin. This alkaloid, like
ordinary atropin, neutralizes to a greater or less extent the musca-
rine. The amount of pilz-atropin present varies, as other constit-
uents of mushrooms vary, with varying conditions of soil, climate,
etc., and it may be that in those localities where the Amanita
muscaria is used for food the conditions are favorable for a large pro-
duction of pilz-atropin which neutralizes the muscarine, thus making

296 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

the plant harmless. Be this as it may, Amanita muscaria, so deadly
as ordinarily found, is undoubtedly used quite largely as food in parts
of France and Russia, and it has been eaten repeatedly in certain
localities in this country without harm.

Fortunately muscarine has a very unpleasant taste. It is inter-
esting in this connection to note that the Amanita muscaria is said to
be used by the inhabitants of Northern Russia particularly the
Koraks as a means of inducing intoxication. To overcome the
extremely unpleasant taste of the plant they swallow pieces of the
dried cap without chewing them, or boil them in water and drink the
decoction with other substances which disguise the taste.

The symptoms of poisoning with muscarine are not at once evi-
dent, as is the case with several of the less virulent poisons. They
usually appear in from one-half to two hours. For the symptoms in
detail we shall quote from Mr. V. K. Chestnut, Dept. of Agr., Wash-
ington (Circular No. 13, Div. of Bot.) : "Vomiting and diarrhoea
almost always occur, with a pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of
the urine, and various cerebral phenomena beginning with giddiness,
loss of confidence in one's ability to make ordinary movements, and
derangements of vision. This is succeeded by stupor, cold sweats,
and a very marked weakening of the heart's action. In case of rapid
recovery the stupor is short and usually marked with mild delirium.
In fatal cases the stupor continues from one to two or three days,
and death at last ensues from the gradual weakening and final
stoppage of the heart's action."

The treatment for poisoning by muscarine consists primarily in
removing the unabsorbed portion of the mushroom from the alimen-
tary canal and in counteracting the effect of muscarine on the heart.
The action of this organ should be fortified at once by the subcuta-
neous injection, by a physician, of atropine in doses of from one
one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain. The strongest emetics, such
as sulphate of zinc or apomorphine, should be used, though in case of
profound stupor even these may not produce the desired action.
Freshly ignited charcoal or two grains of a one per cent, alkaline
solution of permanganate of potash may then be administered, in
order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb the poison, or,
in the case of the latter, to decompose it. This should be followed
by oils or oleaginous purgatives, and the intestines should be cleaned
and washed out with an enema of warm water and turpentine.

Experiments on animals poisoned by Amanita muscaria and with
pure muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly
ceased to beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS. "297

by the use of atropine. Its use as thus demonstrated has been the
means of saving numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost
perfect physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore in such
cases of poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically as the symp-
toms of the case will warrant. The presence of phallin in Amanita
muscaria is possible, and its symptoms should be looked for in the
red color of the blood serum discharged from the intestines.

Phallin. The exact chemical nature of this extremely toxic sub-
stance is not certainly known, but it is generally conceded to be of
an albuminous nature. That it is an extremely deadly poison is shown
by the fact that .0015 grain per 2 Ibs. weight of the animal is a fatal
dose for cats and dogs. It is the active principle of the most deadly of
all mushrooms, the Amanita phalloides, or death-cup fungus. We quote
again from Mr. Chestnut's account of phallin and its treatment :
" The fundamental injury is not due, as in the case of muscarine, to
a paralysis of the nerves controlling the action of the heart, but to a
direct effect on the blood corpuscles. These are quickly dissolved
by phallin, the blood serum escaping from the blood vessels into the
alimentary canal, and the whole system being rapidly drained of its
vitality. No bad taste warns the victim, nor do the preliminary
symptoms begin until nine to fourteen hours after the poisonous
mushrooms are eaten. There is then considerable abdominal pain and
there may be cramps in the legs and other nervous phenomena, such
as convulsions, and even lockjaw or other kinds of tetanic spasms.
The pulse is weak, the abdominal pain is rapidly followed by nausea,
vomiting, and extreme diarrhoea, the intestinal discharges assuming
the "rice-water' condition characteristic of cholera. The latter
symptoms are persistently maintained, generally without loss of con-
sciousness, until death ensues, which happens in from two to four
days. There is no known antidote by which the effects of phallin
can be counteracted. The undigested material, if not already vom-
ited, should, however, be removed from the stomach and intestines
by methods similar to those given for cases of poisoning by Amanita
muscaria.

" After that the remainder of the poison, if the amount of phallin
already taken up by the system is not too large, may wear itself out on
the blood and the patient may recover. It is suggested that this
wearing-out process may be assisted by transfusing into the veins
blood freshly taken from some warm-blooded animal. The depletion
of the blood serum might be remedied by similar transfusions of salt
and warm water."

Helvellic Acid. This very deadly poison is sometimes found in

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Helvetia esculenta Persoon (Gyromytra esculenta), particularly in old
or decaying specimens. It has been studied and named by Boehm. It
is quite soluble in hot water, and in some localities this species of Hel-
vella is always parboiled the water being thrown away before it is
prepared for the table. It seems to be quite generally agreed that
young and perfectly fresh specimens are free from the poison. As
the poison is very violent, however, this plant should be carefully
avoided.

The symptoms resemble in a very marked degree those of the
deadly phallin, the dissolution of the red corpuscles of the blood being
one of the most marked and most dangerous ; this is accompanied by
nausea, vomiting, jaundice, and stoppage of the kidneys. There is
no known antidote for this poison, hence the little that can be done
would be similar to that mentioned under phallin.

When poisoning by mushrooms is suspected, one cannot too
strongly urge that the services of a competent physician should be
secured with the least possible delay.

CHAPTER XXIII.

DESCRIPTION OF TERMS APPLIED TO CERTAIN
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF MUSHROOMS.

By H. HASSELBR1NG.

In fungi, as in higher plants, each organ or part of the plant is
subject to a great number of variations which appeal to the eye of
the student, and by which he recognizes relationship among the
various individuals, species, and genera of this group. For the pur-
pose of systematic studies of mushrooms or even for the recognition
of a few species, it is of primary importance to be acquainted with
terms used in describing different types of variation. Only a few
of the more important terms, such as are employed in this book,
together with diagrams illustrating typical cases to which they are
applied, will be given here.

The pileus. The pileus or cap is the first part of a mushroom which
attracts the attention of the collector. It is the fleshy fruit body of
the plant. This, like all other parts of the mushroom, is made up,
not of cellular tissue as we find it in flowering plants, but of numer-
ous interwoven threads, called hypbce, which constitute the flesh or
trama of the pileus. Ordinarily, the filamentous structure of the

CHARACTERS OF MUSHROOMS.

flesh is very obvious when a thin section of the cap is examined
under the microscope, but in certain genera, as Russiila and Lactarius,
many branches of the hyphce become greatly enlarged, forming little
vesicles or bladders. These vesicles lie in groups all through the
flesh of the pileus, sometimes forming the greater part of its sub-
stance. The filamentous hyphce pass around and through these
groups, filling up the interstices. In cross section this tissue resem-
bles parenchyma, and appears as if it were made up of rounded cells.
Such a trama is said to be vesiculose to distinguish it from the ordinary
or ftoccose trama. The threads on the outer surface of the pileus

FIGURE 239.

Portion of vesiculose trama in the pileus of a
Russula.

FIGURE 240.
Portion of a floccose trama.

constitute the cortex or cuticle. They are thick walled and often
contain coloring matter which gives the plants their characteristic
color. In many species their walls become gelatinized, covering the
outside of the pileus with a viscid, slimy, or glutinous layer, often
called pellicle. In other instances the corticle layer ceases to grow
with the pileus. It is then torn and split by the continued expand-
ing of the rest of the plant, and remains on the surface in the form
of hairs, fibers, scales, etc.

As an example of the most usual form of the pileus, we may take
that of the common mushroom (Agaricus campestris') when it is nearly
expanded. The pileus is then quite regular in outline and evenly
convex (Fig. 243). Many mushrooms during the early stages of their
development have this form, which is variously changed by later

300

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

growth. The convex pileus usually becomes plane or expanded as it
grows. If the convexity is greater it is said to be campannlate (Fig.
245), conical hemispherical, etc., terms which need no explanation.
The pileus is itmhilicate when it has an abrupt, sharp depression at
the center (Fig. 241), infundibuliform when the margin is much
higher than the center, so that the cap resembles a funnel (Fig. 244),

FIGURE 241. FIGURE 242. FIGURE 243.

FIGURE 241. Omphalia campanella, pileus umbilicate, gills decurrent.

FIGURE 242. Lepiota procera, pileus convex, umbonate; armulus free, movable;

gills free.
FIGURE 243. Agaricus campestris, pileus convex, gills free.

and depressed when the center is less, or irregularly, sunken. When
the center of the pileus is raised in the form of a boss or knob it is
umbonate (Fig. 242). The umbo may have the form of a sharp ele-
vation at the center, or it may be rounded or obtuse, occupying a
larger part of the disc. When it is irregular or indistinct the pileus
is said to be gibbous (Fig. 246).

The gills. The "ills or lamella are thin blades on the under side

CHARACTERS OF MUSHROOMS.

301

of the pileus, radiating from the stem to the margin. When the
pileus is cut in halves the general outline of the gills may be observed.
In outline they may be broad, narrow, lanceolate, triangular, etc.
In respect to their ends they are attenuate when gradually narrowed
to a sharp point, acute when they end in a sharp angle, and obtuse
when the ends are rounded. Again, the gills are arcuate when they
arch from the stem to the edge of the pileus, and ventricose when
they are bellied out vertically toward the earth.

FIGURE 244.

Clitocybe infundibuliformis, pileus in-
fundibuliforni, gills decurrent.

FIGURE 245.

Mycena galericulata, pileus conic to
campanulate, gills decurrent by a
tooth, stem fistulose.

The terms given above are often used in descriptive works, but
the most important feature to be noted in the section of the plant is
the relation of the gills to the stem. This relation is represented by
several distinct types which are sometimes used to limit genera or
sub-genera, since the mode of attachment is usually constant in all
species of a group. The principal relations of the gills to the stem
are described as follows : Adnate when they reach the stem and are
set squarely against it (Fig. 247) ; decurrent when they run down
the stem (Fig. 244); sinuate or emarginate when they have a notch or
vertical curve at the posterior end (Fig. 246) ; and free when they

302

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

are rounded off without reaching the stem (Fig. 243). In all cases
when the lamellae reach the stem and are only attached by the
upper angle they are said to be adnexed. This term is often used in
combination with others, as sinuate-adnexed (Fig. 248, small figure),
or ascending adnexed (Fig. 248, larger plant). Sometimes the lamellae
are adnate, adnexed, etc., and have a slight decurrent process or
tooth as in Mycena galericulata (Fig. 245). In many plants the gills

FIGURE 246. FIGURE 247. FIGURE 24^.

FIGURE 246. Tricholoma, "ills sinuate, stipe solid.
FIGURE 247. Panasolus papilionaceus, gills adnate.

FIGURE 248. Left-hand small plant, Hygrophorus, gills sinuate, adnexed. Right-
hand plant Panaeolus retirugis, gills ascending adnexed ; veil appendiculate.

separate very readily from the stem when the plants are handled.
Sometimes merely the expansion of the pileus tears them away, so
that it is necessary to use great caution, and often to examine plants
in different stages of development to determine the real condition of
the lamella'.

In certain genera the gills have special characteristics which may
be noted here. Usually the edge of the lamellae is acute or sharp
like the blade of a knife, but in Cantharellus and Trogia the edges are
very blunt or obtuse. In extreme forms the lamellae are reduced to

CHARACTERS OF MUSHROOMS.

303

mere veins or ridges. Again, the edge is generally entire, i. e., not

noticeably toothed, but in Lcntinus it is often toothed or cut in various

ways. In some other

plants the edges are

serrulate, crenulate,

etc. In Schi^ophyl-

lum alneum, a small

whitish plant very

common on dead

sticks, the gills are

split lengthwise

along the edge with

the halves revolute,

i. e., rolled back. In

Cop-nuns the gills

and often a large

part of the pileus

melt at maturity into

FIGURE 249.-

cohaerens.

Section of portion of gill of Marasmius
/, trama of gill ; s/i, subhymenium ; //,
hymenium layer. The long, dark cells are brown
cystidia, termed spicules by some to distinguish them
from the colorless cystidia. The long cells bearing
the oval spores are the basidia.

a dark, inky fluid.
The hymenium.

The term hymenium

is applied to the

spore-bearing tissue

of many fungi. In the Agaricacece the hymenium covers the entire

surface of the gills and usually the portion of the pileus between

the gills. It originates
in the following man-
ner : the threads form-
ing the trama of the
gills grow out from the
lower side of the pileus
and perpendicular to its
under surface. As
growth advances many
branches of the threads
turn outward toward
either surface of the gill
and finally terminate

FIGURK -50. Inocybe repanda (Bull.) Bres. (= Ento- m clut) ' sna P ec

lotna repandum Bull.), f, trama of pileus ; s/i, sub- These cells, therefore,

hymenium; //, the hymenial layer; the long cells ij e side bv side nernen-
with a drop of moisture at the ends are cystidia ' G ' " C

(sing, cystidium). dicular to the surface,

804 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

forming a pavement, as it were, over the entire surface of the gills.
Some of them put out four little prongs, on each of which a spore is
borne, while others simply remain as sterile cells (Figs. 249, 250).
The spore-bearing cells are basidia ; the others are called pamphyses.
They resemble each other very much, except that the basidia bear
four sterigmata and a spore on each. In a few species the number of
sterigmata is reduced to two and in some low forms the number is
variable. The layer just beneath the basidia is usually more or less
modified, being often composed of small cells different from the rest
of the trama. This is called the sub-hy menial layer or sub-hymenium
(Fig. 250).

Other cells called cystidia occur in the hymenia of various species
distributed through nearly all the genera of the agarics. Cystidia
are large, usually inflated, cells which project above the rest of the
hymenium (Fig. 250). They originate either like the basidia, from
the sub-hymenial cells (Fig. 250), or from special hypha? deeper
down in the trama of the gill (Fig. 249). They are scattered over
the entire surface of the hymenium, but become more numerous on
the edge of the lamella?. Their number is much smaller than that of
the basidia, but in some species where they are colored they may
greatly change the appearance of the gills. Cystidia often secrete
moisture which collects in drops at their tips, a phenomenon common
to all free fungous cells.

The stem. The stem is usually fixed to the center of the pileus,
but it may be eccentric, i. e., fixed to one side of the center, or entirely
lateral. When the stem is wanting the pileus is sessile. With
regard to its interior the stem is solid, when it is evenly fleshy
throughout (Fig. 246), or hollow when the interior is occupied by a
cavity (Fig. 248). If the cavity is narrow and tubular the stem
is fistulose (Fig. 245) ; and if the center is filled with a pithy sub-
stance it is stuffed (Fig. 243). These terms apply only to the nat-
ural condition of the stem, and not the condition brought about by
larvae, which eat out the interior of the stem, causing it to be hollow
or fistulose.

The terms applicable to the consistency of the stem are difficult
to define. In general, stems may be either fleshy or cartilaginous.
The meaning of these terms can best be learned by careful study of
specimens of each, but a few general characters can be given here.
Fleshy, fibrous stems occur in the genera Clitocvbe and Tricholoma,
among the white-spored forms. Their consistency is like that of the
pileus, namely, made up of fleshy, fibrous tissue. They are usually
stout, compared with the size of the plant, and when bent or broken

CHARACTERS OF MUSHROOMS. 305

they seem to be more or less spongy or tough, fibrous, so that they
do not snap readily. Cartilaginous stems have a consistency resem-
bling that of cartilage. Their texture is always different from that
of the pileus, which is fleshy or membranous. In general such stems
are rather slender, in many genera rather thin, but firm. When bent
sufficiently they either snap suddenly, or break like a green straw,
without separating. In regard to their external appearance some
resemble fibrous stems, while others are smooth and polished as in
Myccna and Omphalia.

The veil. In the young stages of development the margin of the
pileus lies in close contact with the stipe, the line of separation being
indicated by a kind of furrow which runs around the young button
mushroom. In many genera, as Collybia, Mycena, Omphalia, etc.,
the pileus simply expands without having its margin ever united to
the stipe by any special structure, but in other forms, which include
by far the greater number of genera of the Agaricacece and some
Boleti, the interval between the stem and pileus is bridged over by
threads growing from the margin of the pileus and from the outer
layers of the stem. These threads interlace to form a delicate mem-
brane, known as the veil, which closes the gap between the stem
and pileus and covers over the young hymenium.

The veil remains firm for a time, but it is finally torn by the
expanding pileus, and its remnants persist on the cap and stem in the
form of various appendages, whose character depends on the charac-
ter of the veil. In Cortinarius the veil is made up of delicate threads
extending radially from the stem to the margin of the cap without
forming a true membrane. From its resemblance to a spider's web
such a veil is said to be arachnoid. At maturity mere traces of it
can be found on the stem. In many genera the veil consists of a
delicate membrane which tears away from the stem and hangs in
flakes to the margin of the pileus. In these cases the veil is appen-
diculate (Fig. 248). Frequently it is so delicate that no trace of it
remains on the mature plant. Where the veil is well developed it
usually remains on the stem as a ring or annulus which becomes free
and movable in species of Lepiota (Fig. 242) and Coprimis, or forms
a hanging annular curtain in Amanita, or a thick, felty ring in Agar-
icus, etc. In some plants (species of Lepiota) the annulus is con-
tinuous with the outer cortex of the stem, which then appears as if
it were partially enclosed in a sheath, with the annulus forming a
fringe on the upper end of the sheath, from which the apex of the
stem projects.

No reference is here made to the vofaa, which encloses the entire

306 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

plant, and which is described in connection with the genera in which
it occurs.

The few typical characters described here will help the student
to become familiar with terms applied to them. In nature, however,
typical cases rarely exist, and it is often necessary to draw distinc-
tion between differences so slight that it is almost impossible to
describe them. Only by patient study and a thorough acquaintance
with the characters of each genus can one hope to become familiar
with the many mushrooms growing in our woods and fields.

CHAPTER XXIV.

ANALYTICAL KEYS.

By the Author.

CLASS FUNGI.

SUB-CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES.*

Plants of large or medium size ; fleshy, membranaceous, leathery, woody or
gelatinous ; growing on the ground, on wood or decaying organic matter ; usually
saprophytic, more rarely parasitic. Fruiting surface, or hymenium, formed of
numerous crowded perpendicular basidia, the apex of the latter bearing two to six
(usually four) basidiospores, or the basidiospores borne laterally ; in many cases
cystidia intermingled with the basidia. Hymenium either free at the beginning,
or enclosed either permanently or temporarily in a more or less perfect peridium
or veil. Basidiospores continuous or rarely septate, globose, obovoid, ellipsoidal
to oblong, smooth or roughened, hyaline or colored, borne singly at the apex of
sterigmata.

Order Gasteromycetes. Plants membranaceous, leathery or fleshy, furnished
with a peridium and gleba, the latter being sometimes supported on a receptacle.
Hymenium on the surface of the gleba which is enclosed within the peridium up to
the maturity of the spores or longer; spores continuous, sphaeroid or ellipsoid,
hyaline or colored. Puff-balls, etc.

Order Hymenomycetes. Hymenium, at the beginning, borne on the free outer
surface of the compound sporophore, or if at first enclosed by a pseudo-peridium
or veil it soon becomes exposed before the maturity of the spores ; mushrooms, etc.

* The sub-class Ascomycetes includes the morels, helvellas, cup fungi, etc., and
many microscopic forms, in which the spores are borne inside a club-shaped body,
the ascus. Only a few of the genera are described in this book, and the technical
diagnosis will be omitted. See page 216.

ANALYTICAL KEYS. : J ><>7

HYMENOMYCETES.

Analytical Key of the Families.

Plants not gelatinous ; basidia continuous i

Plants gelatinous or sub-gelatinous, basidia forked, or

divided longitudinally or transversely 4

1 Hymenium uneven, i. e., in the form of radiating plates,
or folds ; or a honey-combed surface, or recticulate,
warty, spiny, etc 2

Hymenium smooth (not as in B, though it may be con-
volute and irregular, or ribbed, or veined) 3

2 Hymenium usually on the under side, in the form of radi-
ating plates, or strong folds. The genus Phlebia in the
Hydnaceae has the hymenium on smooth, somewhat
radiating veins which are interrupted and irregular.
One exotic genus has the hymenium on numerous
irregular obtuse lobes (Rhacophyllus) Agaricacere. . 17

Hymenium usually below (or on the outer surface when
the plant is spread over the substratum ), honey-combed,
porous, tubulose, or reticulate ; in one genus with short,
concentric plates Polyporacese. . 171

Hymenium usually below (or on the outer surface when
the plant is spread over the substratum), warted, tuber-
culate, or with stout, spinous processes ; or with inter-
rupted vein-like folds in resupinate forms Hydnaceas. . . 195

3 Plants somewhat corky or membranaceous, more or less
expanded ; hymenium on the under surface (upper sur-
face sterile), or on the outer or exposed surface when
the plant is spread over the substratum (margin may
then sometimes be free, but upper surface, i. e., that
toward the substratum, sterile). (Minute slender spines
are sometimes intermingled with the elements of the
hymenium, and should not be mistaken for the stouter
spinous processes of the Hydnacea?) Thelephoracese. 208

Plants more or less fleshy, upright (never spread over the
surface of the substratum), simple or branched. Hyme-
nium covering both sides and the upper surface. . . . Clavariacea;. . 200
4 Basidia forked or longitudinally divided ; or if continuous
then globose, or bearing numerous spores ; or if the
plant is leathery, membranous, orfloccose, then basidia
as described. Hymenium covering the entire free sur-
face or confined to one portion ; smooth, gyrose, folded
or lobed ; or hymenium lamellate, porous, reticulate or
toothed forms which are gelatinous and provided with
continuous basidia may be sought here Tremellines. . 204

80S STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

FAMILY AGARICACEAE.

Pileus more or less expanded, convex, bell-shaped ; stipe central or nearly
so ; or the point of attachment lateral, when the stipe may be short or the pileus
sessile and shelving. Fruiting surface usually on the under side and exposed
toward the earth, lamellate, or prominently folded or veined. Lamella? or gills
radiating from the point of attachment of the pileus with the stipe or with the sub-
stratum in the sessile forms; lamella? simple or branched, rarely anastomosing
behind, clothed externally on both surfaces with the basidia, each of which bears
four spores (rarely two), cystidia often present.

Key to the North American genera.

THE WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

(Sometimes there is a faint tinge of pink or lilac when the spores are in bulk,
but the color is not seen under the microscope.)

Plants soft, fleshy or nearly so, usually soon decaying ;

dried plants do not revive well when moistened. ... i
Plants tough, either fleshy or gelatinous, membranaceous,

corky or woody, persistent, reviving when moistened. 13

1 Gills acute on the edge 2

Edge of the gills obtuse, or gills fold-like, or vein-like, but

prominent .... 12

2 Trama of the pileus of interwoven threads, not vesiculose. 3
Trama of the pileus vesiculose, plants rigid but quite

fragile 11

3 Gills thin, not much broadened toward the pileus 4

Gills broadened toward the pileus, of waxy consistency. Hygrophorus. . no
4 Stipe central or sub-central. (Some species of Pleurotus

are sub-central, but the gills are usually not decurrent. ) 5
Stipe on one side of the pileus, or none, rarely with the
stipe sub-central. (Some species of Clitocybe are sub-
central.) Pleurotus. . . 102

5 Stipe fleshy, pileus easily separating from the stipe, gills

usually free ... 6

Stipe fleshy or fibrous and elastic, pileus confluent with

the stipe and of the same texture 7

Stipe cartilaginous, pileus confluent with the stipe, but of

a different texture 9

6 Volva and annulus present on the stipe. . . . Amanita. . 52

Volva present, annulus wanting Amanitopsis. . 74

Volva wanting, annulus present. ... . Lepiota. . 77

7 Annulus and volva wanting 8

Annulus usually present (sometimes vague), volva want-
ing, gills attached to the stipe Armillaria. . 83

8 Gills sinuate Tricholoma. . . 87

Gills decurrent, not sinuate . . Clitocybe. . . 89

9 Gills decurrent, pileus umbilicate . Omphalia. . 100

Gills not decurrent i

ANALYTICAL KEYS. 309

10 Margin of pileus at first involute, pileus flat or nearly so,
somewhat fleshy (some plants rather tough and tending
toward the consistency of Marasmius). . Collybia. . 92
Margin of the pileus at first straight, pileus slightly bell-
shaped, thin . Mycena. . 93

Gills usually free, pileus deeply plicate so that the gills are
split where they are attached to the pileus, pileus mem-

branaceous, very tender but not diffluent. Hiatula.

11 Plants where bruised exuding a milky or colored juice. . . Lactarius. . 1 14

Plants not exuding a juice where bruised Russula. . 125

12 Gills decurrent, dichotomous, edge blunt Cantharellus. 128

Gills not decurrent, plants parastic on other mushrooms. Nyctalis.

13 Edge of gills not split into two lamina? 14

Edge of gills split into two lamina? and revolute Schizophyllum. 136

14 Plants leathery, either fleshy, membraneous, or gelat-
inous 1 5

Plants corky or woody (placed by some in Polyporacea?). Lenzites.
IS Stipe separate from the pileus (hymenophore), easily

separating 16

Stipe continuous with hymenophore. . 17

16 Plants tough and fleshy, membranaceous or leathery. . . Marasmius. . 130

Plants gelatinous and leathery. ... . Heliomyces.

17 Edge of the gills acute 18

Edge of the gills obtuse. . . 19

18 Edge of gills usually serrate . Lentinus. 134

Edge of gills entire . Panus. . .134

19 Gills dichotomous. . . Xerotus.

Gills fold-like, irregular Trogia. ... 137

There are only a few rare species of Hiatula, Nyctalis, Heliomyces and Xero-
tus in the United States. None are here described.

THE OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS.

(The spores are yellowish brown or rusty brown.)

Gills not separating readily from the pileus i

Gills sometimes separating readily from the pileus, forked
or anastomosing at the base, or connected with vein-
like reticulations Paxillus. 165

1 Universal veil not arachnoid (i. e., not cobwebby) 2

Universal veil arachnoid, distinct from the cuticle of the

pileus, gills powdery from the spores Cortinarius. . 161

2 Stipe central .3

Stipe eccentric or none .... Crepidotus. . 159

3 Volva or annulus present on stipe .4

Volva and annulus wanting 5

4 Stipe with an annulus Pholiota. 150

Stipe with a volva. Locellina (not reported in U. S.). . .

5 Gills free from the stem Pluteolus.

Gills attached 6

6 Gills not dissolving nor becoming powdery. .

310 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Gills dissolving into a gelatinous or powdery condition, not

diffluent as in Coprinus Bolbitius. . 163

7 Stipe fleshy 8

Stipe cartilaginous or sub-cartilaginous 10

8 Gills somewhat sinuate 9

Gills adnate or decurrent Flammula. 156

9 Cuticle of the pileus silky or bearing fibrils Inocybe. 158

Cuticle of pileus smooth, viscid Hebeloma. 157

10 Gills decurrent Tubaria. . 159

Gills not decurrent 11

11 Margin of pileus inflexed . . Naucoria. 153

Margin of pileus straight, from the first (ialera. . 155

No species of Pluteolus are here described.

THE ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

(The spores are rose color, pink, flesh or salmon color.)

Stipe central i

Stipe eccentric or none and pileus lateral Claudopus. . 149

1 Pileus easily separating from the stipe, gills free 2

Pileus confluent with the stipe and of the same texture,

gills attached, in some becoming almost free 3

2 Volva present and distinct, annulus wanting Volvaria. 140

Volva and annulus wanting Pluteus. 138

3 Stipe fleshy to fibrous, margin of pileus at first incurved. 4

Stipe cartilaginous 5

4 Gills sinuate Entoloma. 143

Gills decurrent Clitopilus. 142

5 Gills not decurrent (or if so only by a minute tooth), easily

separating from the stipe 6

Gills decurrent, pileus umbilicate Eccilia. . 148

6 Pileus slightly convex, margin at first incurved Leptonia. . 147

Pileus bell-shaped, margin at first straight and pressed

close against the stipe Nolanea.

No species of Nolanea are described here.

THE BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.

(The spores are dark brown or purplish brown.)

Pileus easily separating from the stem ; gills usually free, i

Pileus continuous with the stem : gills attached 2

1 Volva wanting, annulus present. ( Psalliota Fr.) . . . Agaricus. . 18

Volva present, annulus wanting. . Chitonia.

Volva and annulus wanting. ... . . Pilosace.

2 Veil present 3

Veil wanting or obsolete 4

3 Annulus present, gills attached Stropharia. 31

Annulus wanting, veil remaining attached to margin of

pileus Hypholoma. 26

4 Stipe tenaceous, margin of pileus first incurved. . 5

Stipe fragile, margin of pileus at first straight. . Psathyra.

ANALYTICAL KEYS. 311

5 Gills sub-triangularly decurrent. . . Deconica.

(Jills not decurrent Psilocybe.

But few species of Psathyra, Deconica, Chitonia and Pilosace are noted
from the United States. None are here described.

THE BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

Pileus present to which the gills are attached i

Pileus wanting, gills attached to a disk at apex of stem

from which they radiate Montagnites.*

1 Gills more or less deliquescing, or pileus thin, membranous
and splitting between the lamina? of the gills and becom-
ing more or less plicate . Coprinus. 32

Gills not deliquescing, etc. . . . . 2

2 Spores globose, ovoid 3

Spores elongate, fusiform (in some species brown), plants

with a slimy envelope Gomphidius. 49

3 Pileus somewhat fleshy, not striate, projecting beyond the
gills at the margin ; gills variegated in color from groups

of dark spores on the surface 4

Pileus somewhatfleshy, margin striate, gills not variegated. Psathyrella. . . 48

4 Annulus wanting, but veil often present Panaeolus. ... 45

Annulus wanting, veil appendiculate on margin of cap. . Chalymotta. . . 48

Annulus present Anellaria.

(* One American species in Texas.)

GLOSSARY OF THE MORE TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN

THIS WORK.

Abbreviations :

cm . = centimeter (about 2> 2 cm. make one inch).

mm.= millimeter (about 25 mm. make i inch).

H = one micron (iooo/- t = i mm.).

Adnate, said of the gills when they are attached squarely, or broadly, to the stem.
Adnexed, said of gills when they are attached only slightly or only by the upper

angle of the stem.

Anastomose, running together in a net-like manner.

Annulus, the ring or collar around the stem formed from the inner or partial veil.
Appendiculate, said of the veil when it clings in fragments to the margin of the

pileus.

Arachnoid, said of the veil when it is cobwebby, that is, formed of loose threads.
Ascus, the club-shaped body which bears the spores inside (characteristic of the

Ascomycetes).
Basidium (pi. basidia) the club-shaped body which bears the spores in the Basid-

iomycetes. These stand parallel, and together make up the entire or large

part of the hymenium or fruiting surface which covers the gills, etc. Par-

aphyses (sterile cells) and sometimes cystidia (longer sterile cells) or spines

are intermingled with the basidia.

Bulbous, said of the enlarged lower end of the stem in some mushrooms.
Circumscissile, splitting transversely across the middle, used to indicate one of

the ways in which the volva ruptures.

312 STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Cortina, a cobwebby veil.

Cuticle, the skin-like layer on the outside of the pileus.

Decurrent, said of the gills when they extend downward on the stem.

Diffluent, said of the gills when they dissolve into a fluid.

Dimidiate, halved, said of a sessile pileus semi-circular in form and attached by
the plane edge directly to the wood.

Echinulate, term applied to minute spinous processes, on the spores for example.

Eccentric, said of a stem when it is attached to some other point than the center
of the pileus.

Fimbriate, in the form of a delicate fringe.

Fistulose, becoming hollow.

Floccose, term applied to indicate delicate and soft threads, cottony extensions
from the surface of any part of the mushroom.

Flocculose, minutely floccose.

Fugacious, disappearing.

Fuliginous (or fuligineous), dark brown, sooty or smoky.

Fulvous, tawny, reddish yellow.

Fusiform, spindle-shaped.

Fusoid, like a spindle.

Furfuraceous, with numerous minute scales.

Gleba, the chambered tissue forming the hymenium (fruiting surface) in the puff-
balls and their allies.

Hygrophanous, appearing to be water soaked.

Hymenium, the fruiting surface of the mushrooms and other fungi.

Hymenomycetes, the subdivision of the Basidiomycetes in which the fruiting
surface is exposed before the spores are ripe.

Hymenophore, the portion of the fruit body which bears the hymenium.

Hypha (pi. hyphae), a single mycelium thread.

Imbricate, overlapping like the shingles on a roof.

Involute, folded or rolled inward.

Lamella (pi. lamella^), the gills of the mushroom.

Mycelium, the vegetative or growing portion of the mushrooms, and other fungi,
made up of several or many threads.

Ocreate, applied to the volva where it fits the lower part of the stem, as a stock-
ing does the leg.

Pectinate, like the teeth of a comb.

Peridium, the wall of the puff-balls, etc.

Pileus (pi. pilei), the cap of the mushroom.

Plicate, plaited, or folded like a fan.

Punctate, with minute points.

Pulverulent, with a minute powdery substance.

Repand, wavy.

Resupinate, spread over the matrix, the fruiting surface external and the pileus
next the wood.

Revolute, rolled backward.

Rugose, wrinkled.

Rugulose, with minute wrinkles.

Saprophytic, growing on dead organic matter.

Sessile, where the pileus is attached directly to the matrix without any stem.

Sinuate, said of the gilb when they are notched at their junction with the stem.

ANALYTICAL KEYS. 31 o

Stipe, the stem.

Sulcate, furrowed.

Squamulose, with minute scales.

Squarrose, with prominent reflexed scales.

Tomentose, with a dense, matted, hairy or woolly surface.

Trama, the interior portion of the gills or pileus.

Umbo, with a prominent boss or elevation, in the center of the pileus.

Umbilicate, with a minute abrupt depression in the center of the cap.

Veil, a layer of threads extending from the margin of the cap to the stem (partial

veil or marginal veil). A universal veil envelops the entire plant.
Veins, elevated lines or folds running over the surface of the lamella? in some

species, and often connected so as to form reticulations.
Ventricose, enlarged or broadened at the middle, bellied.

Vesiculose, full of small rounded vesicles, as the trama of the pileus of a Russula.
Volva, a wrapper or envelope, which in the young stage completely surrounds

the plant, same as universal veil. At maturity of the plant it may be left

in the form of a cup at the base of the stem, or broken up into fragments

and distributed over the cap and base of the stem.

INDEX OF GENERA, AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Annularia loevis < An-nu-la'ri-a la-Vis),

Agaricus ( A-gar'i-cus), 18-26.

arvensis (ar-ven'sis), 21, fig. 18.
campestris (cam-pes'tris), 1-9, 18,

figs. 1-7, 12.

comtulus (com'tu-lus), 24, tig. 24.
crctaceus (cre-ta'ce-us), 79.
diminutivus (di-min-u-ti'vus), 26.
echinatus (ech-i-na'tus), 158.
fabaceus (fa-ba'ce-us), 23.
maritimus (ma-rit'i-mus), 142.
placomyces (pla-com'y-ces), 23, pi.

4, 5, figs. 21, 22/23.
rodmani (rod'ma-ni), 20, fig. 17.
silvaticus (sil-vat'i-cus), 23.
silvicola(sil-vic / o-la), 20, figs. 19, 20.
subrufescens (sub-ru-fes'cens), 23.

Amanita ( Am-a-ni'ta ), 52.

ca?sarea (oe-sa're-a), 70, pis. 18,

19, fig. 72.
cothurnata (coth-ur-na / ta), 66-69,

pi. 17, figs. 68-70.
floccocephala (floc-co-ceph / a-la ), 62,

fig. 63.
frostiana (fros-ti-a'na), 54, 55, 67,

pi. i.

mappa (map / pa), 58.
muscaria (mus-ca'ri-a), 52-54, pis.

i, 12, 13, figs. 52-54.
pantherina (pan-the-ri'na), 69.
phalloides (phal-loi'des), 3, 14, 55-

61, 78, pi. 14, figs. 55-58.
polypyramis (pol-y-pyr / a-mis), 74.
rubescens (ru-bes'cens), 71, 72, pis.

19, 20, figs. 73, 74.
spreta (spre'ta), 69, 70, tig. 71.
solitaria (sol-i-ta'ri-a), 72-74, pis.

21, 22, figs. 75, 76.
strobiliformis (strob-i-li-for'mis ),73.
velatipes (ve-lat/i-pes), 63-66, pis.

15, 1 6, figs. 64-67.
verna (ver / na),6o, 61, 78, tigs. 59-61.
virosa (vi-rc/sa), 61, 62, fig. 62.

Amanitopsis (A-man-i-top'sis), 74.
fai inosa (far-i-no'sa), 76, 77, fig. 78.
livida (Iiv x i-da), 75.
nivalis (ni-va'lis), 76.
spadicea (spa-dic / e-a), 75.
vaginata (vag-i-na'ta), 74-76, pi.

23, fig- 77-
volvata (vol-va'ta), 76.

Armillaria (Ar-mil-la / ri-a), 83.

aurantia (au-ran'ti-a), 84-86, fig. 86.
mellea (meKle-a), 83, 84, pi. 27, fig.
85.

Ascomycetes ( As-co-my-ce'tes), 216.

Basidiomycetes ( Ba-sid-i-o-niy-ce'tes),
260.

Black-spored agarics, 32.

Bolbitius (Bol-bit'i-us) 163.

variicolor (va-ri-ic'o-lor), 164, tig.
158.

Boletinus (.Bo-le-ti'nus), 172.
pictus (pic'tus), 183, fig. 175.
porosus (po-ro x sus), 184, pi. 63, fig.
176.

Boletus (Bo-le^us), 172.

americanus (a-mer-i-ca'nus ), 178,

fig. 171.

brevipes (brev x i-pes), 179.
bulbosus (bul-bo'sus), 172.
chromapes (chro^a-pes), 176, pi.

59, fig. 1 68.
edulis (e-di/lis), 172, 173, 176, pis.

55, 56, 57, figs. 164, 165.
telleus (fel'le-us), 173, pi. 58, tig.

1 66.

flavidus (flav / i-dus), 178.
granulatus (gran-u-la'tus), 178.
luteus (lu'te-us), i8r, 182, pi. 62,

figs. 173, 174.
obsonium (ob-so'ni-um), 177, pi.

6 1, fig. 170.

ornatipes (or-nat'i-pes), 174, 176.
punctipes (punc'ti-pes), 179, fig.

172.

retipes (re'ti-pes), 174-176, tig. 167.
scaber (sca'ber), 174-
subluteus (sub-lu'te-us), 181, 182.
subtomentosus( sub-tom-en-tc/sus ),

167, i 68.
vermiculosus(ver-mic-u-lo / sus), 177

pi. 60, fig. 169.

Bovista (Bo-vis x ta), 209.

Calqstoma (Ca-los'to-ma), 212.
cinnabarinum (cin-na-ba-ri'num),

212, 213, pi. 82, tig. 211.
lutescens (lu-tes'cens), 212.

Calvatia ( Cal-va'ti-a ), 209.
Cantharellus (.Can-tha-reKlus), 128.

NOTE. In this index the generic and specific names have been divided into sylla-
bles, and the place of the primary accent has been indicated, with the single object of
securing a uniform pronunciation in accordance with the established rules of English
orthoepy. 315

316

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Cantharellus continued.

aurantiacus (au-ran-ti'a-cus), 129,

130, pi. 41, tigs. 127, 128.
cibarius (ci-ba'ri-us), 128, fig. 126.

Chalymotta retirugis (Chal-y-mot/ta
re-ti-ru / gis), 48.

Clavaria (Cla-va'ri-a), 201.

botrytes (. bo-try' tes), 202, fig. 202.
formosa (lor-mo'sa), 201, pi. 80,

tig. 201.

mucida ( mu'ci-da), 203, fig. 204.
pistillaris (pis-til-la'ris), 203, tig.

203.

Clavariaceas (Cla-va-ri-a'ce-a?), 200.
Coral fungi, 200.

Clitocybe (Cli-toc'y-be), 89.

Candida (can'di-da), 89, pis. 28, 29,

tigs. 90, 91.

cyathiformis (cy-a-thi-for'mis), 90.
illudens ( il-lu'dens), 90, fig. 92.
infundibuliformis (in-fun-dib-u-li-

for'mis), 90, tig. 244.
laccata (lac-ca'ta), 89.
multiceps (mul'ti-ceps), 91, pi. 30,

fig- 93-
pelletieri (pel-let-i-e'ri), 168.

Clitopilus (Cli-top'i-lus), 142.
orcella (or-cel'la), 143.
prunulus (pru'nu-lus), 142, pi. 44,
fig. 138.

Collybia (Col-lyb'i-a), 92.

dryophila (dry-oph'i-la), 204, fig.

205.

longipes (lon'gi-pes), 93.
lachnophylla (lach-no-phyl'la), 132.
piatyphylla (plat-y-phyl'la), 93.
radicata (rad-i-ca'ta),92, pi. 31, tig.

94.

spinulifera ( spin-u-lit v e-ra), 132.
velutipes ( ve-lu'ti-pes), 92, pi. 32,

fig- 95-

Coprinus (Co-primus), 32.

atramentarius (a-tra-men-ta'ri-us i,

40-42, pi. 10, tigs. 39-42.
comatus (co-ma'tus), 33-40, pi. 9,

tigs. 31-38-
micaceus (mi-ca / ce-us), 15, 42-44,

tigs. 43, 44-

Corticium ( Cor-tie'i-um), 208.

Cortinarius (Cor-ti-na x ri-us), 161.
cinnamomeus (cin-na-mo'me-us),

162, tig. 155.
collinitus (col-li-nKtus), 161.

Cortinarius continued.

ochroleucus (och-ro-leu'cus), 163,

pis. 50, 51, tigs. 156, 157.
violaceus (vi-o-la / ce-us), 161.

Craterellus (Crat-e-rel'lus), 208.
cantharellus (can-tha-reKlus), 208.
cornucopioidesCcor-nu-co-pi-oi'des i,

208.
pistillaris (pis-til-la'ris), 203.

Crepidotus (Crep-i-do'tus), 159.
applanatus (ap-pla-na'tus), 161.
calolepis (ca-loKe-pis), 161.
chimonophilus (chi-mo-noph / i-lus),

1 60.
fulvotomentosus ( ful-vo-tom-en-to'

sus), 161.

herbarum ( her-ba'rum), 160.
versutus (ver-su'tus ), 160, tig. 154.

Dsdaleaambigua ( Da?-da x le-a am-big 7 -
u-a), 16, 17, pi. 3, tig. 16.

Dictyophora (Dic-ty-oph'o-ra), 214.
duplicata (du-pli-ca'ta), 214, pi. 83,

fig. 212.
ravenelii (rav-e-ne'li-i ), 215, 216, pi.

84, tigs. 213-215.

Discomycetes (Dis-co-my-ce'tes), 216.

Eccilia (Ec-cil'i-a), 148.

polita (po-lKta), 148, tig. 143.

Entoloma (En-to-lo'ma), 143.

grayanum (gray-a'num), 144, 145,

fig. 140.
jubatum ( ju-ba'tum), 143, 144, fig.

139.
repandum ( re-pan'dum ), 143. 303.

fig. 250.'
strictius (stric'ti-us), 145, 146, fig.

141.

Exidia glandulosa (Ex-id'ia glan-du-lo'-
sa), 206.

Fistulina (Fis-tu-li'na), 171, 186.
firm a (fir' ma), 186.
hepatica (he-pat'i-ca), 186, pi. 65.
pallida (paKli-da), 186, 187, pis. 65,
66, tig. 1 80.

Flammula (Flam'mu-la), 156.
paradoxa (par-a-dox'a), 168.
polychroa (po-lycl/ro-a), 156, 157,

fig. 151.
rhodoxanthus ( rhod-o-xar/thus ),

1 68.

sapinea (sa-pin'e-a), 157.
tammii (tam'mi-i), 169.

INDEX TO GENERA.

317

Femes ( Fo'mes), 193, i<u.

Galera (Ga-le'ra), 155.

antipoda (.an-tip'o-da), 155.
coprinoides (cop-rin-oi'des), 155.

tlava (fla'va), 155.
lateritia (.lat-e-ri'ti-a), 155.
tenera (ten'e-ra), 155.

Geaster (Ge-as'ter), 209.

Gomphidius ( Gom-phid'i-us), 49.
glutinosus ( glu-ti-no'sus), 51.
nigricans (nig / ri-cans), 49-51, tigs.

50, 51.
rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus),

1 68.

Gomphus ( Gom'phus), 168.

Gyrocephalus (Gy-ro-ceph/a-lus), 207.
rufus (ru'fus), 207, fig. 208.

Gyromitra esculenta (Gy-rom / i-tra es-
cu-len'ta), 220.

Hebeloma ( He-be-lo'ma), 157.

crustuliniforme ( crus - tu - I'm - i -
for'me), 158, tig. 152.

Hedgehog fungi, 195.

Helvella (Hel-veKb), 219.
crispa (cris'pa), 219.
lacunosa ( lac-u-no'sa ), 220, tig. 219.

Hydnacea? ( Hyd-na'ce-a?), 195.

Hydnum (Hyd'num), 195.

caput-medusa? (ca / put--me-du / sa2~),

198.
caput-ursi (ca'put-ur'si ), 197, pi.

77, tig. 196.
coralloides (cor-al-loi'des), 196, tig.

195.
erinaceus (er-i-na'ce-us), 198, fig.

197.

fragile (frag'i-le), 200.
graveolens (gra-ve'o-lens), 200.
imbricatum ( im-bri-ca'turrO,i98, tig.

200.
repandum (re-pan'dum ), 198, pi. 78,

tig. 198.
putidum (pu'ti-dum), 199, pi. 79,

tig. 199.
velutinum (ve-lu'ti-num ), 200.

Hygrophorus (.Hy-groph / o-rus"), no.
chrysodon (chrys / o-don), in, tig.
115.

coccineus (coc-cin'e-us), 114.
conicus (con'i-cusX 114.

Hygrophorus continued.

eburneus (e-buKne-us), in, pi. 38,

tig. 1 1 6.
fuligineus ( fu-li-gin'e-us), 113, tig.

117.

hypothejus (hy-po-the / jus), 114.
miniatus ( min-i-a'tus), 113, 114.
pratensis (pra-ten r sis), 113.
psittacinus (psit-ta-ci'nus), 114.

Hymenocha^te (Hy-me-no-cha5 / te),2o8.

Hymenomycetes ( Hy-me-no-my-ce'tes)
261.

Hypholoma (Hyph-o-lo / ma), 26.
appendiculatum ( ap-pen-dic-u-la'-

tum ), 27, 28, pi. 7, figs. 26, 27.
candolleanum ( can-dol-le-a'num ).

28.
lachrymabundum ( lach-ry-ma-bun 7 -

dum), 28-30, tig. 28.
perplexum (per-plex'um ), 27.
rugocephalum ( ru-go-ceph'a-lum ),

30, pi. 8, tig. 29.
sublateritium (sub-la-te-ri'ti-um),

26, pi. 6, tig. 25.

Inocybe ( I-noc'y-be), 158.
echinata (ech-i-na'ta), 158.
repanda (re-pan / da), 303, fig. 250.

Ithyphallus impudicus (Ith-y-phaKlus
im-pu-dKcus), 216.

Lactarius (Lac-ta'ri-us), 114.

chelidonium (chel-i-do'ni-um"), 124,

pl. 39.
chrysorrheus (chrys-or / rhe-us),i22,

fig. 125.

corrugis (cor-ru'gis), 116, tig. 118.
deliciosus (de-Iic-i-o / sus),i23, pl. 39.
fuliginosus (fu-lig-i-no x sus), 118,

tig. 120.

gerardii (ge-rar'di-i), 119.
indigo (in'di-go), 125, pl. 39.
lignyotus (lig-ny-o'tus), 117, tig.

119.

pergamenus (per-ga-me'nus), 121.
piperatus (pip-e-ra'tus), 120, tig.

122.

resimus (re-si'mus"), 121, tigs. 123,

124.
torrninosus (tor-mi-no'sus), 119,

fig. 121.
volemus (vo-le'mus), 121.

Lentinus (Len-ti'nus), 134.
lecomtei (le-comt'e-i), 135.
lepideus (Je-pid'e-us), 135.
stipticus (stip'ti-cus), 135, 136.
vulpinus (vul-pi'nus). 134, pl. 42,
tigs. 131, 132.

318

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Leotia lubrica (Le-o'ti-a lu'bri-ca ), 221,
fig. 221.

Lepiota ( Lep-i-o'ta), 77.

acutesquamosa(a-cu-te-squa-mo / sa)

81.
americana (a-mer-i-ca'na), 80, 81,

fig. 82.
asperula (as-per'u-la), 82, 83, pi. 26,

fig. 84.

badhami (bad'ham-i), 81.
cristata (cris-ta'ta), 81, fig. 8?.
naucina (nau-ci'na), 13, 77-79, P'-

24, figs. 79, 8o -

naucinoides (nau-ci-noi'des), 77;
procera (pro-ce'ra), 79, pi- 25, figs.

81, 242.
rachodes (.ra-cho'des), 79.

Leptonia (Lep-tc/ni-a), 147.

asprella (as-prel'la), 147, fig. 142.
incana (in-ca'na), 147.

Lycoperdacea?( Ly-co-per-da'ce-se), 209.

Lycoperdon ( Ly-co-per'don), 209.
cyathiforme (cy-a-thi-for'me), 210,

pi. 81, fig. 209.
gemmatum (gem-ma'tum ), 210, fig.

210.

giganteum (gi-gan'te-um), 210.
pyriforme (pyr-i-for'me), 211.

Marasmius (Ma-ras'mi-us), 130.

cohn?rens (co-hs'rens), 132, 133,

figs. T 30, 249-

oreades (o-re'a-des), 131, tig. 129.
rotula (rot'u-la), 131.

Merulius ( Me-ru'li-us'), 171, 172, 194.
lacrymans (lac'ry-mans), 194, pi.

73, figs. 189, 150.
tremellosus (trem-el-lo'sus), 194,

pl. 74, figs. 191, 192.

Mitremyces lutescens ( Mi-trem / y-ces
lu-tes'cens), 213.

Morchella (Mpr-cheKla), 217.
bispora (bis'po-ra), 219.
conica (con^-ca), 217, fig. 217.
crassipes (cras^i-pes), 219, pl. 86,

fig. 218.

deliciosa (de-lic-i-c/sa), 219.
esculenta (es-cu-len^a), 217, pl. 85,

fig. 216.
semilibera (sem-i-liye-ra), 219.

Mucronella (Mu-cro-neKla), 200.

Mycena cMy-ce x na), 93.

acicula (a-cic/u-la), 97, 98, fig. 100.

Mycena continued.

cyanothrix (cy-an'o-thrix), 98, fig.

101.
epipterygia (e-pip-te-ryg'i-a), 96,

97, fig. 98.
galericulata (gal-e-ric-u-la'ta ), 94,

245.
ha^matopa (haj-mat'o-pa ), 98-100,

fig. 102.
polygramma (pol-y-gram'ma ), 94,

fig. 96.

pra?longa (pra?-lon / ga), 94, 95.
pura (pi^ra), 95, 96, fig. 97.
succosa (suc-co'sa,, ico.
vulgaris (vul-ga / ris), 97, tig- 99-

Myriostoma (Myr-i-os'to-ma ), 209.

Naucoria (Nau-co'ri-a), 153. "

semiorbicularis ( sem-i-or-bic-u-la'-

ris), 153, 154.
vernalis (ver-na'lis), 154, tig. 150.

Ochre-spored agarics, 150.

Omphalia (Om-pha'li-a), 100.

campanella (cam-pa-nel'la), 101,

254, pl. 33, figs- 103, 241.
epichysium (ep-i-chys'i-umjioi, tig.

104.

Pana?olus (Pa-na?'o-lus), 45.
fimicola (fi-mic'o-la), 48.
papilionaceus (pa-pil-i-o-na'ce-us),

48, fig. 247.
retirugis (re-ti-ru'gis ), 45-48, pl.

ii, figs. 45-48, 248.
solidipes (so-lid^-pes), 48.

Panus (Pa'nus), 134-

cyathitormis (cy-a-thi-for'misX 135.
rudis (ru'dis), 135.
strigpsus (stri-go'sus), 135.
stipticus (stip^i-cus), 135, 136.

Paxillus (Pax-iKlus) 165.

atro-tomentosus (at-ro-tom-en-to 7 -

sus), 169, fig. 161.
corrugatus (cor-ru-ga x tus), 170, pl.

53, fig. 162.

tlavidus (tlav^-dusX 168.
involutus (in-vo-lu'tus), 166, 167,

fig. 159-
panuoides (pan-u-ordes ), 170, pi.

54, fig. 163.
rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xair thus ),

167, 168, pl. 52, fig. 160.

Phalloidete ( Phal-loid'e-a-), 213.

Phlebia ( Phle'bi-a), 195.

merismoides Uner-is-moKdes), pis.
75, 76, figs. 193, 194-

INDEX TO GENERA.

81 '.

Pholiota (Pho-li-o'ta), 150.

adiposa (ad-i-po'sa), 151. IS2, pi.

47, fig. 146.

aurivella (au-ri-vel'la), 152.
cerasina (ce-ras'i-na ), 152.
johnsoniana (john-so-ni-a'na), 153,

p!. 49, fig. 149.
marginata (mar-gi-na'ta), 151, fig.

147.
praecox (pra?'cox), 150, 151, pi. 46,

tig. 145-

squarrosa (squar-ro'sa), 152.
squarrosoides ( squar-ro-soi'des),

152, pi. 48, fig. 148.
subsquarrosa ( i sub-squar-ro / sa),i52.
unicolor ( u-nic'o-lor, 151.

Pleurotus ( Pleu-rc/tus), 102.

applicatus (ap-pli-ca'tus), 109, no,

fig. 114.
corticatus (cor-ti-ca'tus), 106, pi. 37,

fig. 1 10.
dryinus (dry'i-nus), 105, 106, pi.

36, figs. 109, no.
ostreatus (os-tre-a'tus), 104, pi. 34,

fig. 107.
petaloides (pet-a-loKdes), 107-109,

figs. H2, 113.
sapidus (sap'i-dus), 104, 105, pi. 35,

fig. 1 08.

serotinus (se-rot'i-nus), 109.
sulfureoides (sul-fu-re-oi'des), 107,

tig. in.
ulmarius ( ul-ma'ri-us (,102-104, figs.

105, 106.

Pluteus (Plu'te-usX 138.

cervinus (cer-vi'nus), 138, 139, fig.

135-
tomentosulus (.to-men-tos'u-lus),

140, tig. 136.

Polyporacea? (.Pol-y-po-ra'ce-ae), 171.

PolyporuslPo-lyp^-rus), 171, 188-194.
applanatus (ap-pla-na'tus), 193, tig.

15-
borealis (.bo-re-a'lis), 9, 10, tigs. 9,

10.
brumalis ( bru-ma x lis), 191, pi. 71,

tig. 1 86.

fomentarius (fo-men-ta'rius), 194.
frondosus (fron-dc/sus), 188, pis.

67,68, figs. 181, 182.
igniarius ( ig-ni-a'ri-us), 194.
intybaceus ( in-ty-ba / ce-us), 184.
leucophaeus (leu-co-pha? / us), 194.
lucidus (lu'ci-dusX IQ3, pi. 72, fig.

1 88.
sulphureusCsul-phu're-us), 190, pis.

69, 70, figs. 184, 185.
umbellatus (um-bel-la^us), 189, tig.

183.

Polystictus (Pol-y-stic x tusj, 191.

cinnabarinus (cin-na-ba-ri / nus),i92.
cinnamomeus (cin-na-mo'me-us i,

192, tig. 187.

connatus (con-na / tusj, 192.
hirsutus (hir-su / tus), 192.
oblectans (ob-lec^ans), 192.
perennis (pe-ren x nis), 192, fig. 187.
pergamenus (per-ga-me x nus), 105,

193.

splendens (splen'dens), 192.
versicolor (ver-sic'o-lor), 192.

Psalliota (Psal-li-o x ta), 18-26, 158.

Psathyrella (Psath-y-reKla), 48.

disseminata (dis-sem-i-na'ta), 48,
49, fig- 49-

Psilocybe foenisecii (Psi-loc x y-be fct-ni-
se x ci-i), 48.

Purple-brown-spored agarics, 18.
Rosy-spored agarics, 138.

Russula (Rus^u-la), 125.

adusta (ad-us x ta), 127, pi. 40.
alutacea (al-u-ta x ce-a), 125, 126, pi.

40.

emetica (e-mefi-ca), 127, pi. 40.
fragilis (frag'i-lis), 127.
furcata (fur-ca'ta), 127.
lepida (lep'i-da"), 126, pi. 40.
nigricans (nig'ri-cans), 127.
virescens (vi-res / cens), 126, pi. 40.

Sarcoscypha tloccosa (Sar-cos^y-pha

tlOC-CO / Sa), 221, 222, fig. 222.

Schizophyllum (Schiz-o-phyl / lum),i36.
alneum (aKne-um), 136, 137, fig.

133-
commune (com-mu'ne), 136.

Scleroderma (Scler-o-der'ma ), 212.
verrucosum (ver-ru-co'sum ), 212.
vulgare (vui-ga^e), 212.

Spathularia velutipes (Spath-u-la / ri-a
ve-lu'ti-pes), 220, fig. 220.

Spinellus fusiger (Spi-neKlus fu'si-ger)

95-
macrocarpus (mac-ro-car / pus), 95.

Sterium (Ste"ri-um% 208.

Strobilomyces (Strob-i-lom'y-ces), 184.
floccopus (tloc'co-pus), i'85.
strobilaceus (strob-i-la x ce-us), 184,
pi. 64, tigs. 177-179-

320

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

Stropharia (Stro-pha'ri-a), 31.
ceruginosa ( a j -ru-gi-no / sa), 32.
semiglobata (sem-i-glo-ba'ta), 31,

fig. 30.
stercoraria (ster-co-ra'ri-a), 32.

Thelephoracea? (Thel-e-pho-ra'ce-ae),
208.

Trametes (Tra-me'tes), 16, 193.
ambigua (am-big'u-a), 16, 17.

Trembling fungi, 204.
Tremellinea? (Trem-el-lin'e-a?), 204.

Tremella (Tre-mel'la), 204.

frondosa (fron-do'sa), 205, fig. 206.
fuciformis (fu-ci-for'mis), 206, fig.

207.

lutescens (lu-tes'cens), 205.
mycetophila (my-ce-toph / i-la), 204,

fig. 205.

Tricholqma (Trich-o-lo'ma), 87.
peckii (peck'i-i), 85, 86.
personatum (per-so-na / tum), 87,

figs. 87, 88.
sejunctum (se-junc'tum ), 88, fig. 89.

Trogia (Tro'gi-a), 137.

crispa (cris'pa), 137, pi. 43, fig. 134.

Tubaria (Tu-ba'ri-a), 159.

pellucidaCpel-lu'ci-da), 159, fig. 153.

Tube-bearing fungi, 171.

Verpa bohemica (Ver'pa bo-hem'i-ca),
219.

Volvaria (Vol-va'ri-a), 140.

bombycina (bom-byc'i-na), 140,

141, fig. 137.
speciosa (spe-ci-o / sa), 141, 142.

White-spored agarics, 52.

INDEX TO SPECIES.

acicula (Mycena), 97.
acutesquamosa (Lepiota), 81.
adiposa (Pholiota), 151.
adusta (Russula), 127.
a?ruginosa (Stropharia), 32.
alneum (Schizophyllum), 136.
alutacea (Russula), 125.
ambigua (Da?dalea), 16.
ambigua (Trametes), 16.
americana (Lepiota), 80.
americanus (Boletus), 178.
antipoda (Galera), 155.
applanatus (Crepidotus), 161.
applanatus (Polyporus), 193.
appendiculatum (Hypholoma), 27.
applicatus (Pleurotus), 109.
arvensis (Agaricus), 20.
asperula (Lepiota), 82.
asprella (Leptonia), 147.
atramentarius (Coprinus), 40.
atro-tomentosus (Paxillus), 169.
aurantia (Armillaria), 84.
aurantiacus (Cantharellus), 129.
aurivella (Pholiota), 152.

badhami (Lepiota), 81.
bispora (Morchella), 219.
bohemica (Verpa), 219.
bombycina (Volvaria), 140.
botrytes (Clavaria), 202.
brevipes (Boletus), 179.
brumalis (Polyporus), 191.
bulbosus (Boletus), 172.
ca?sarea (Amanita), 70.
calolepis (Crepidotus), 161.
campestris (Agaricus), 18.

campanella (Dmphalia), 101.
Candida (Clitocybe), 89.
candolleanum (Hypholoma), 28.
cantharellus (Craterellus), 208.
caput-medusa? (Hydnum), 198.
caput-ursi (Hydnum), 197.
caudicinus (Polyporus), 190.
cerasina (Pholiota), 152.
cervinus (Piuteus), 138.
chelidonium (Lactarius), 124.
chimonophilus (Crepidotus), 160.
chromapes (Boletus), 176.
chrysodon (Hygrophorus), in.
chrysorrheus (Lactarius), 122.
cibarius (Cantharellus), 128.
cinnabarinum (Calostoma), 212.
cinnabarinus (Polystictus), 192.
cinnamomeus (Cortinarius), 162.
cinnamomeus (Polystictus), 192.
coccinea (Sarcoscypha), 222.
coccineus (Hygrophorus), 112.
coha?rens (Marasmius), 132.
coha?rens (Mycena), 132.
collinitus (Cortinarius), 161.
comatus (Coprinus), 33.
commune (Schizophyllum), 136.
comtulus (Agaricus), 24.
conica (Morchella), 217.
conicus (Hygrophorus), 114.
connatus (Polystictus), 192.
coprinoides (Galera), 155.
coralloides (Hydnum), 196.
carnucopioides (Craterellus), 208.
corrugatus (Paxillus), 170.
corrugis (Lactarius), 116.
corticatus (Pleurotus), 106.

INDEX TO SPECIES.

:\'2l

cothurnata (Amanita), 66.
cretaceus (Agaricus), 79.
crassipes (Morchella), 219.
crispa ( Helvella), 219.
crispa (Trogia), 139.
cristata (Lepiota), 81.
crustuliniforme ( Hebeloma ), 1 58.
cyanothrix (Mycena), 98.
cyathiforme (Lycoperdon), 209.
cyathiformis (Clitocybe), 90.
cyathiformis (Panus), 135.

deliciosa (Morchella), 219.
deliciosus (Lactarius), 123.
dimmutivus (Agaricus), 26.

disseminata ( Psathyrella), 48.
dryinus (Pleurotus), 105.
dryophila (Collybia), 204.
duplicata (Dictyophora), 214.

eburneus (Hygrophorous), in.
echinata (Inocybe), 158.
edulus (Boletus), 172.
emetica (Russula), 127.
epichysium (Omphalia), 101.
epipterygia (Mycena), 96.
erinaceus (Hydnum), 198.
esculenta (Gyromytra), 220.
esculenta (Morchella), 217.

farinosa ( Amanitopsis), 76.
felleus (Boletus), 173.
fimicola ( Paruvolus), 48.
firm a (Fistulina), 186.
flava (Galera), 155.
flavidus (Boletus), 178.
flavidus (Paxillus), 168.
floccocephala (Amanita), 62.
floccopus (Strobilomyces), 185.
floccosa (Sarcoscypha), 221.
fcrniscii (Psilocybe), 48.
fomentarius (Polyporus), 194.
formosa (Clavaria), 201.
fragile (Hydnum), 200.
fragilis (Russula), 127.
frondosa (Tremella), 205.
frondosus (Polyporus), iSS.
frostiana (Amanita), 54.
fuciformis (Tremella), 206.
fuligineus (Hygrophorus), 113.
fuliginosus (Lactarius), 118.
fulvo-tomentosus (Crepidotus), 161.
furcata (Russula), 127.
fusiger (Spinellus), 95.

galericulata (Mycena), 94.
gemmatum (Lycoperdon), 210.
gerardii (Lactarius), 119.
giganteum ( Lycoperdon), 210.
glandulosa ( Exidia), 206.
glutinosus (Gomphidius), 51.
granulatus (Boletus), 178.
graveolens (Hydnum), 200.

grayanum (Entoloma), 144.

h;i 4 inatopa ( Mycena), 98.
hepatica (Fistulina), 186.
herbarum (Crepidotus), 160.
hirsutus ( Polystictus), 192.
hypothejus (Hygrophorus), 114.

igniarius (Polyporus), 194.
illudens (Clitocybe), 90.
imbricatum (Hydnum), 198.
impudicus (Ithyphallus), 216.
incana (Leptonia), 147.
indigo (Lactarius), 125.
infundibuliformis (Clitocybe), 90.
intybaceus (Polyporus), 189.
involutus (Paxillus), 166.

johnsoniana (Pholiota), 153.
jubatum (Entoloma), 143.

laccata (Clitocvbe), 89.
lachnophylla (Collybia), 132.
lachrymabundum (Hypholoma), 28.
lacrymans (Merulius), 194.
lacunosa (Helvella), 220.
la?vis (Annularia), 78.
lateritia (Galera), 155.
lecomtei, (Lentinus), 135.
lepida (Russula), 126.
lepideus (Lentinus), 135.
lignvotus (Lactarius), 117.
livida (Amanitopsis), 75.
longipes (Collybia), 93.
lubrica (Leotia), 221.
lucidus (Polyporus), 193.
leucophaeus (Polyporus), 194.
lutescens (Calostoma), 212.
lutescens ( Mitremyces), 213.
lutescens (Tremella), 205.
luteus (Boletus), 181.

macrocarpus (Spinellus), 95.
mappa (Amanita), 58.
marginata (Pholiota), 151.
maritimus (Agaricus), 142.
merismoides (Phlebia), 195.
mellea ( Armillaria), 83.
micaceus (Coprinus), 42.
miniatus (Hygrophorus), 113.
morgani (Lepiota), 80.
mucida (Clavaria), 203.
muscaria (Amanita), 52.
mycetophila (Tremella), 205.

naucina (Lepiota), 77.
nigricans (Gomphidius), 49.
nigricans (Russula), 127.
nivalis (Amanitopsis), 76.

oblectans Polystictus), 192.
obsonium (Boletus), 177.
ochroleucus (Cortinarius), 163.
orcella (Clitopilus), 143.

322

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI.

oreades (Marasmius), 131.
ornatipes (Boletus), 174.
ostreatus (Pleurotus), 104.

pallida (Fistulina), 186.
pantherina ( Amanita), 69.
panupides (Paxillus), 170.
papilionaceus (Pana?olus), 48.
paradoxa ( Flammula), 168.
peckii ( Tricholoma), 85.
pelletieri (Clitocybe), 168.
pellucida (Tubaria), 159.
perennis (Polystictus), 192.
pergamenus (Lactarius), 121.
pergamenus (Polystictus), 193.
perplexum (Hyphoioma), 27.
personatum (Tricholoma), 87.
petaloides (Pleurotus), 107.
phalloides (Amanita), 55.
pictus (Boletinus), 183.
pinicola (Polyporus), 194.
piperatus (Lactarius), 120.
pistillaris (Clavaria), 203.
pistillaris ( Craterellus), 203.
placomyces (Agaricus), 19.
platyphylla (Collybia), 93.
polita ( Eccilia), 148.
polychroa (Flammula), 156.
polygramma (Mycena), 94.
polypyramis (Amanita), 74.
porosus (Boletinus), 184.
praecox, (Pholiota), 150.
pra?longa ( Mycena), 94.
pratensis (Hygrophorus), 113.
procera (Leoiota), 79.
prunulus (Clitopilus), 142.
psittacinus (Hygrophorus), 114.
punctipes (Boletus), 179.
pura ( Mycena), 95.
putidum (Hydnum), 199.
pyriforme ( Lycoperdon), 211.

rachodes ( Lepiota), 79.
radicata (Collybia), 93.
ravenelii ( Dictyophora), 215.
repanda (Inocybe), 257.
repandum ( Entoloma), 143.
repandum (Hydnum), 198.
resimus (Lactarius), 121.
retirugis ( Chalymotta), 48.
retirugis ( Pameolus), 45.
rhodoxanthus (Flammula), 168.
rhodoxanthus (Gomphidius ), 168.
rhodoxanthus (Paxillus), 167.
rodmani (Agaricus), 20.
rotula (Marasmius), 130.
rubescens (Amanita), 71.
rudis (Panus), 135.
rufus (Gyrocephalus), 207.
rugocephalum (Hyphoioma), 30.

sapidus (Pleurotus), 104.
sapinea (Flammula), 157.

scaber (Boletus ), 174.
sejunctum I Tricholoma), 88.
semiglobata ( Stropharia i, 31.
semilibera (Morchella), 219.
semiprbicularis (Naucoria), 153.
serotinus (Pleurotus), 109.
silvaticus (Agaricus), 21.
silvicola (Agaricus), 22.
solidipes (Pana?olus), 48.
solitaria (Amanita), 72.
spadicea ( Amanitopsis), 75.
speciosa (Volvaria\ 141.
spinulifera (Collybia), 132.
splendens (Polystictus), 192.
squarrosa (Pholiota), 152.
squarrosoides (Pholiota), 152.
spreta (Amanita), 69.
stercoraria (Stropharia), 32.
stipticus (Lentinus), 135.
stipticus (Panus), 135.
strictius (Entoloma), 145.
strigpsus (Panus), 135.
strobilaceus (Strobilomyces), 184.
strobiliformis (Amanita), 73.
sublateritium (Hyphoioma), 26.
subluteus (Boletus), 181.
subrufescens (Agaricus), 23.
subsquarrosa (Pholiota), 152.
subtomentosus (Boletus), 167.
succosa (Mycena), 100.
sulphureus (Polvporus), 190.
sult'ureoides (Pleurotus), 107.

tammii (Flammula), 179.
tenera (Galera), 155.
tomentosulus (Pluteus), 140.
torminosus (Lactarius), 119.
tremellosus (Merulius), 194.

ulmarius ( Pleurotus), 102.
umbellatus (Polyporus), 189.
unicolor (Pholiota), 151.

vaginata (Amanitopsis), 74.
variicolor (Bolbitius), 164.
velutinum (Hydnum), 200.
velatipes (Amanita), 63.
velutipes (Collybia), 92.
velutipes (Spathularia), 220.
vermiculosus ( Boletus), 177.
verna (Amanita), 60.
vernalis (Naucoria), 154.
verrucosum (Scleroderma), 212,
versicolor (Polystictus), 192.
versutus (Crepidotus), 160.
\'iolaceus (Cortinarius), 161.
virescens (Russula), 126.
virosa (Amanita), 61.
volemus (Lactarius), 115.
volvata (Amanitopsis), 76.
\ r ulgare (Scleroderma), 212.
vulgaris (Mycena), 97.
vulpinus (Lentinus), 134.