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Presented to the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY

In/ the

ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE
LIBRARY

1980

Frontispiece.

"Come forth into the hght of things,
Let Nature be your Teacher."

— Wordsworth.

>^'

STUDIES OF^ti

J. J. LEVISON, M.F.

Lecturer on, Ornamental and Shade Trees, Tale University Forest

School; Forester to the Department of Parks,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

FIRST EDITION
FIRST THOUSAND

NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited ,.#^^'-** flTs

1914

^'^^i

-•♦»■

LIBRARY C
JUL /

1!:82

\''

J. J. LEVISON

THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS

ROBERT DBUMMOND AND COMPAMV

BROOKLYN, N. Y.

PREFACE

In presenting this volume, the author is aware that there
are several excellent books, dealing with one phase or another
of tree life, already before the public. It is believed, how-
ever, that there is still need for an all-round book, adapted
to the beginner, which gives in a brief and not too technical
way the most important facts concerning the identification,
structure and uses of our more common trees, and which
considers their habits, enemies and care both when grow-
ing alone and when growing in groups or forests.

In the chapters on the identification of trees, the aim
has been to bring before the student only such characters
and facts as shall help him to distinguish the tree readily
dining all seasons of the year. Special stress is laid in each
case on the most striking peculiarities. Possible confusion
with other trees of similar appearance is prevented as far
as possible through comparisons with trees of like form or
habit.

Only such information is given concerning the structure
and requirements of trees as will enable the reader better
to understand the subsequent chapters. In the second half
of the book, practical application is made of the student's
general knowledge thus acquired, and he is acquainted with
the fundamental principles of planting, care, forestry, wood
identification and nature study.

The author recognizes the vastness of the field he is
attempting to cover and the impossibility of even touching,

vi rUKFACE

in a small hand-book of this oharacter, on every phase of
tree stutlw lie presumes no further; yet he hopes that
l»y adhcrinij; to what is salient and by eliminatinc; the less
important, thoujih i^ossibly interesting, facts, he is able
to olYer a giMieral and elementary remme of the whole
sui^ject of value to students, private owners, farmers
and teachers.

In the preparation of Chapter VIII on " Our Common
Woods: Their Identification, Properties and Uses," con-
siderable aid has been received from Prof. Samuel J, Record,
author of " Economic Woods of the United States."
Acknowledgment is also due to the U. S. Forest Service for
the pliotogra]>hs used in Figs. 18, 122 to 138 inclusive and
142; to Dr. George B. Sudworth, Dendrologist of the U. S.
Forest Service, for checking up the nomenclature in the
lists of trees under Chapter V; to Dr. E. P. Felt, Entomol-
ogist of the State of New York, for suggestions in the
preparation of the section of the book relating to insects;
to Dr. W. A. Murrill, Assistant Director of the New York
Botanical Gardens, for Fi^. 108; and to Mr. Hermann
W. ]\Ierkel, Chief Forester of the New York Zoological
Park, for Figs. 26, 59 and 60.

J.J. Levison.
Brooklyn'. N. Y.
June, 1914.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

How TO Identify Trees 1

. The Pines 2

The Spruce and Hemlock 11

The Red Cedar and Arbor- vita" 19

CHAPTER II

How TO Identify Trees {Continued) 25

The Larch and Cypress 25

The Horsechestnut, Ash, and Maple 31

Trees Told by their Form 4G

Trees Told by their Bark or Trunk 59

The Oaks and Chestnut 71

CHAPTER III

How TO Identify Trees {Continued) 83

The Hickories, Walnut, and Butternut S3

Tulip Tree, Sweet Gum, Linden, Magnolia, Locust, Catalpa,

Dogwood, Mulberry, and Osage Orange 90

CHAPTER IV

The Structure and Requirements of Trees 106

vii

viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

PAGE

\\ II AT Tkkks to Plant and I low 119

Tm-s for tlu- Lawn 119

Tm-s for the Street 123

Trees for \\<)()ill:iiul 120

Trees for Screeniiij!; 128

C11A1'TJ<:U VI

Tin; Cakk of Trees 134

Insects Injurious to Trees and How to Coinhat Tlieiii 134

Important Insects 141

Tree Diseases 153

Pruning Trees 160

Tree Repair 168

CHAPTER Vll

Fouestky 179

What Forestry Is and What It Does 179

Care of the Woodland . . . .- 203

CHAPTER VHI

Our Common Woods: Their Identification, Properties and

Uses 217

Woods Without Pores (Soft woods) 224

Woods with Pores (Hard woods) 226

CHAPTER IX
An Outdoor Lesson on Trees 234

ERRATA

Pages 1, 11, 13, 17, 25, 26, and 31, for leaflets read leaves.

Page 19, lines 17 and 18 from top, page 29, line 19 from top, and
page 30, line 2 from top, for leaves read twigs.

Page 23, the paragraph under Leaf should read: "Leaves of two
kinds, one scale-like and flat, the other keeled, all tightly pressed to
the twig (see Fig. 13)."

Page 29, line 2 from top, for half an inch read one inch.

Page 38, line 4 from top, for terminal twigs read tips of the twigs.

Page 55, last line shoidd read: "Leaf: Like that of a leaflet of
maidenhair fern, Fig. 45."

Page 90, line 4 from bottom, for an inch read three-quarters of
an inch.

Page 91, line 2 from top, for flower read fruit.

Page 100, paragraph "Distinguishing characters," under "Black
Locust" should read: "The bark of the trunk is rough and deeply
ridged, as shown in Fig. 81. The buds are hardly noticeable; the
twigs sometimes bear small spines on one side. The leaves are large,
compound, and fern-like. The individual leaflets are small and
delicate."

INTRODUCTION

A GOOD many popular books on trees have been published
in the United States in recent years. The continually
increasing demand for books of this character indicates the
growing public interest not only in the trees that we pass
in our daily walks, but also in the forest considered as a
community of trees, because of its aesthetic and protective
value and its usefulness as a source of important economic
products.

As a nation, we are thinking more about trees and woods
than we were wont to do in the years gone by. We are
growing to love the trees and forests as we turn more and
more to outdoor life for recreation and sport. In our
ramblings along shady streets, through grassy parks, over
wooded valleys, and in mountain wildernesses we find
that much more than formerly we are asking ourselves what
are these trees what are the leaf, flower, twig, wood and habit
characteristics which distinguish them from other trees;
how large do they grow; under what conditions of soil and
climate do they thrive best; what are their enemies and how
can they be overcome ; what is their value for wood and other
useful products ; what is their protective value ; are they use-
ful for planting along streets and in parks and in regenerat-
ing forests; how can the trees of our streets and lawns be
preserved and repaired as they begin to fail from old age

Z INTKODl'CTION

or other causes? All these questions and many more relat-
inji to the imiiortant native niul exotic trees commonly
found in the states east of the Great Lakes and north of
Maryland 'Slv. Levison has briefly answered in this book.
The autiior's traininii; as a forester and his experience as
a ]M-ofessional arl)o:iculturist has peculiarly fitted him to
speak in an authoritative and interesting way about trees
and woods.

The value of this book is not in new knowledge, but in
tlu> simple statement of the most important facts relating
to some of our common trees, individually and collectively
considered. A knowledge of trees and forests adds vastly
to the pleasures of outdoor life. The more we study trees
and the more intimate our knowledge of the forest as a unit
of vegetation in which each tree, each flower, each animal and
insect has its part to play in the complete structure, the
greater will l)e our admiration of the wonderful beauty and
variety exhibited in the trees and woods about us.

J. W. TOUMEY,

Director, Yale University Forest School.
New Haven, Conn.,
June, 1914.

STUDIES OF TREES

CHAPTER I
HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES

There are many ways in which the problem of identi-
fying trees may be aiDproaehecl. The majority attempt
to recognize trees by their leaf characters. Leaf charac-
ters, however, do not differentiate the trees during the other
half of the year when they are bare. In this chapter the
characterizations are based, as far as possible, on peculiarities
that are evident all year round. In almost every tree there
is some one trait that marks its individuality and separates
it, at a glance, from all other trees. It ma}' be the general
form of the tree, its mode of branching, bark, bud or fruit.
It may he some variation in color, or, in case of the ever-
green trees, it may be the numl^er and position of the
needles or leaflets. The species included in the followng
pages have thus been arranged in groups based on these
permanent characters. The individual species are further
described by a distinguishing paragraph in which the
main character of the tree is emphasized in heavy t\q3e.

The last paragraph under each species is also important
because it classifies all related species and distinguishes
those that are liable to be confused with the partic\ilar
tree under consideration.

STUDIES OF TREES

GROUP I. THE PINES

How to tell them from other trees: Tlio pines belong
to tho coniferous class of trees; that is, trees which bear

Fig. 1. — Twig of the Austrian Pine.

cones. The pines may be told from the other coniferous
trees by their leaves, which are in the form of needles two

THE PINES

inches or more
in length. These
needles keep
green throughout
the entire year.
This is character-
istic of all conif-
erous trees, ex-
cept the larch and

cypress, which shed

their leaves in winter. w W \ Twig of the

The pines are widely | \\ \ j White Pine,

distributed through-
o u t the Northern
Hemisphere, and in-
clude about 80 dis-
tinct species with over
GOO varieties. The
species enumerated

here are especially common in the eastern part of the United
States, growing either native in the forest or under cul-

4 STUDIES OF trep:s

tivatiou in the parks. Tlie pines form a very important
class of timber trees, and produce beautiful effects when
planted in groups in the parks.

How to tell them from each other: The pine needles
are arranged in cluaters; see Fig. 1. Each species has a
certain characteristic number of needles to the cluster and
this fact generally i)rovides the simplest and most direct
way of distinguishing the different pines.

In the white pine there are five needles to each cluster,
in the pitch ])ine three, and in the Scotch pine two. The
Austrian pine also has two needles to the cluster, but the
difference in size and character of the needles will dis-
tinguish this species from the Scotch pine.

THE WHITE PIXE (Pimis strobus)

Distinguishing characters : The tree can be told at close
range by the number of needles to each cluster, Fig. 2. There
are five needles to each cluster of the w^hite pine. They
are bluish green, slender, ancl about four inches in length.

At a distance the tree may be told bj^ the right angles
which the branches form with the main trunk, Fig. 3. No
other pine shows this character.

Form and size: A tall tree, the stateliest of the ever-
greens.

Range : Eastern North America.

Soil and location: Prefers a deep, sandy soil, but
will grow in almost any soil.

Enemies : Sucking insects forming white downj^ patches
on the bark and twigs, the white pine weevil, a boring insect,
and the white pine blister rust, a fungus, are among its prin-
cipal enemies.

Value for planting: Aside from its value as an orna-

THE PINES

Fig. 3.— The White Pine.

6 STUDIES OF TREES

mental tr(M>, the white pine is an excellent tree to plant
on abanilonetl farms and for woodlands and wind])reaks
througliout the New England States, New York, Pennsyl-
vania, and the I^ake States.

Commercial value: The wood is easily worked, light,
durable, and will not warp. It is used for naval con-
struction, lumber, shingles, laths, mterior finish, wooden
ware, etc.

Other characters: The fruit is a cone, four to six inches
long.

Comparisons: The tree is apt to be confused with the
Bhotun pine (Pinus excelsa), which is commonly grown as
an ornamental tree. The Bhotan pine, however, has needles
much longer and more drooping in appearance.

THE PITCH PINE (Pinus rigida)

Distinguishing characters: Here there are three needles
to each cluster. Fig. 4. They are dark, yellowish-green
needles about four inches long. The rough-looking branches
of the tree may be seen studded with cones throughout the
year, and clusters of leaves may be seen sprouting directly
from the trunk of the tree; see Fig. 5. The last two are
very characteristic and will distinguish the tree at a glance.

Form and size: It is a low tree of uncertain habit
and extremely rough looking at every stage of its life.
It is constantly full of dead branches and old cones which
persist on the tree throughout the year.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: Grows in the poorest and sandiest
soils where few other trees will grow. In New Jersey
and on Long Island where it is native, it proves so hardy

THE PINES 7

and persistent that it often forms pure stands excluding
other trees.

Fig. 4.— Twig of the Pitch Pine.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: Well adapted for the sea coast

STUDIED UF TREES

ami otluT (wposod lilaces. It is of oxtromcly iinoertain
liabit and is suhject to \\\v loss of the lower liiiil)s. It

Fig. 5— The Pitch Pine.

frequently presents a certain picturesqueness of outline,
but it could not be used as a specimen tree on the lawn.

Commercial value: The wood is coarse grained and is
used for rough lumber, fuel, and charcoal.

THE PINES 9

Other characters: The fruit is a cone one to three
inches long, persistent on the tree for several years.

THE SCOTCH PINE {Pimis sylvestris)

Distinguishing characters: There are two needles to
each cluster, and these are short compared with those of the
white pine, and slightly twisted; see Fig. 6. The bark,
especially along the upper portion of the trunk, is reddish
in color.

Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a short
crown.

Range: Europe, Asia, and eastern United States.

Soil and location: Will do best on a deep, rich, sandy
soil, Imt will also grow on a dry, porous soil.

Enemies: In Europe the Scotch pine has several
insect enemies, but in America it appears to be free from
injury.

Value for planting: Suitable for windbreaks and wood-
land planting. Many excellent specimens may also be
found in our parks.

Commercial value: In the United States, the wood
is chiefly used for fuel, though slightly used for barrels,
boxes, and carpentry. In Europe, the Scotch pine is an
important timber tree.

Comparisons: The Scotch pine is apt to be confused
with the Austrian pine {Pinus austriaca), because they
both have two needles to each cluster. The needles of
the Austrian pine, however, are much longer, coarser,
straighter, and darker than those of the Scotch pine;
Fig. 1. The form of the Austrian pine, too, is more sym-
metrical and compact.

6X1- DIES OF TREES

Fig. 6.— Twig of the Scotch Pine.

THE SPRUCE AND HEMLOCK 11

The red pine {Pinus resinosa) is another tree that has
two needles to each cluster, but these are much longer
than those of the Scotch pine (five to six inches) and are
straighter. The l^ark, which is reddish in color, also dif-
ferentiates the red pine from the Austrian pine. The
position of the cones on the red pine, which point outward
and downward at maturity, will also help to distinguish
this tree from the Scotch and the Austrian varieties.

GROUP II. THE SPRUCE AND HEMLOCK

How to tell them from other trees: The spruce and
hemlock belong to the evergreen class and may be told
from the other trees by their leaves. The characteristic
leaves of the spruce are shown in Fig. 9; those of the
hemlock in Fig. 10. These are much shorter than the
needles of the pines but are longer than the leaflets of the
red cedar or arbor vitae. They are neither arranged in
clusters like those of the larch, nor in feathery layers like
those of the cypress. They adhere to the tree throughout
the 3'ear, while the leaves of the larch and cypress shed in
the fall.

The spruces are pyramidal-shaped trees, with tall and
tapering trunks, thickly covered with branches, forming
a compact crown. They are widely distributed through-
out the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemi-
sphere, where they often form thick forests over extended
areas.

There are eighteen recognized species of spruce. The
Norway spruce has been chosen as a type for this group
because it is so commonly planted in the northeastern
part of the United States.

The hemlock is represented by seven species, confined

STUDIES OF TREES

a. ■

A--

--^l^*sjrf

-^^bl

^JfeA^

3s^

^;.?^

i???^^'

Fig. 7, — The Norway Spruce.

THE SPRUCE AND HEMLOCK 13

to temperate North America, Japan, and Central and
Western China.

How to tell them from each other: The needles and
branches of the spruce are coarse; those of the hemlock
are flat and graceful. The individual leaflets of the spruce,
Fig. 9, are four-sided and green or Ijlue on the under side,
while those of the hemlock, Fig. 10, are flat and are marked
by two white lines on the under side.

THE NORWAY SPRUCE {Picea excelsa)

Distinguishing characters: The characteristic appear-
ance of the full-grown tree is due to the drooping branch-
lets carried on main branches which bend upward (Fig. 7).

Leaf: The leaves are dark green in color and are
arranged spirally, thus making the twigs coarser to the
touch than the twigs of the hemlock or fir. In cross-sec-
tion, the individual leaflet is quadrilateral, while that of
the pine is triangular.

Form and size : A large tree with a straight, mitUvided
trunk and a well-shaped, conical croAni (Fig. 7).

Range: Northern Europe, Asia, northern North

America.

Soil and location: Grows in cool, moist situations.

Enemies: The foliage of the spruce is sometimes
affected by red spider, but is apt to be more seriously injured
by drought, wind, and late frosts.

Value for planting: Commonly planted as an orna-
mental tree antl for hedges. It does well for this purpose
in a cool northern climate, but in the vicinity of New York
City and further south it does not do as well, losing its
lower branches at an early age, and becoming generally
scraggly in appearance.

STUDIES OF THEES

Fig. 8.— a Group of Hemlock.

THE SPRUCE AND HEMLOCK 15

Commercial value: The wood is light and soft and is
used for construction timber, paper pulp, and fuel.

Other characters: The Jruit is a large slender cone,
four to seven inches long.

Comparisons: The lohite spruce {Picea canadensis)
may be told from the Norway spruce by the whitish color
on the under side of its leaves and the unpleasant, pungent
odor emitted from the needles when bruised. The cones
of the white spruce, about two inches long, are shorter
than these of the Norway spruce, but are longer than those
of the black spruce.

It is essentially a northern tree growing in all sorts of
locations along the streams and on rocky mountain slopes
as far north as the Arctic Sea and Alaska. It often appears
as an ornamental tree as far south as New York and Penn-
sylvania.

The black spruce {Picea mariana) may be told from the
other spruces by its small cone, which is usually only about
one inch in length. In New England it seldom grows to
as large a size as the other spruce trees.

It covers large areas in various parts of northern North
America and grows to its largest size in Manitoba. The
black spruce has little value as an ornamental tree.

The Colorado blue spruce {Picea parryana or Picea
punqens) which is commonly used as an ornamental tree
on lawns and in parks, can be told from the other spruces
by its pale-blue or sage-green color and its sharp-pointed,
coarse-feeling twigs. Its small size and sharp-pointed
conical form are also characteristic.

It grows to a large size in Colorado and the Middle West.
In the Eastern States and in northern Europe where it is
planted as an ornamental tree, it is usually much smaller.

STT'DIES OF THEES

Fig. 9. — Twig of the Norway ^'priu-e.

THE SPRUCE AND HEMLOCK 17

HEMLOCK (Tsuga canadensis)

Distinguishing characters: Its leaves are arranged in
flat layers, giving a flat, horizontal and graceful appear-
ance to the whole branch (Fig. 8). The individual leaflets
are dark green above, lighter colored below, and are marked
by two white lines on the under side (Fig. 10).

The leaflets are arranged on little stalks, a character-
istic that does not appear in the other evergreen trees.

Form and size: A large tree with a broad-based pyram-
idal head, and a trunk conspicuously tapering toward
the apex. The branches extend almost to the ground.

Range: The hemlock is a northern tree, growing in
Canada and the United States.

Soil and location: Grows on all sorts of soils, in the
deepest woods as well as on high mountain slopes.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: The hemlock makes an excellent
hedge because it retains its lowest branches and will stand
shearing. In this respect it is preferable to the spruce.
It makes a fair tree for the lawn and is especially desirable
for underplanting in woodlands, where the shade from
the surrounding trees is heavy. In this respect it is like
the beech.

Commercial value: The wood is soft, brittle, and
coarse-grained, and is therefore used mainly for coarse
lumlier. Its bark is so rich in tannin that it forms one of
the chief commercial products of the tree.

Other characters: The fruit is a sm.all cone about |
( f an inch long, which generally hangs on the tree all winter.

STI'DIKS OF TllEKS

^.^i

Fig. 10. — Twig of the Hemlock.

THE RED CEDAR AND ARBOR-VITAE 19

GROUP III. THE RED CEDAR AND ARBOR-VITAE

How to tell them from other trees: The red cedar
(juniper) and arbor-vitae may be told from other trees by
their leaves, which remain on the tree and keep green
throughout the entire year. These leaves differ from those
of the other evergreens in being much shorter and of a
distinctive shape as shown in Figs. 12 and 13. The trees
themselves are much smaller than the other evergreens
enumerated in this book. Altogether, there are thirty-
five species of juniper recognized and four of arbor vitse.
The junipers arc widely distributed over the northern
liemisphere, from the Arctic region down to Mexico in the
New World, and in northern Africa, China, and Japan
in the Old World. The arbor-vitae is found in northeastern
and northwestern America, China, and Japan. The species
mentioned here are those commonly found in America.

How to tell them from each other: The leaves of the
arbor-vitae arc flat and faii-h'kc as in Fig. 13; the leaves of
the red cedar are needle-sha'ped or scale-like as in Fig. 12.
The foliage of the arbor-vita? is of a lighter color than that
of the red cedar, which is sombre green. The arbor-vita;
will generally be found gro^\ing in moist locations, while
tl:e red cedar will grow in dry places as well. The arbor-
vitse generally retains its lower branches in open places,
while the branches of the red cedar start at some distance
from the ground.

RED CEDAR {Juniperus virginiana)

Distinguishing characters: The tree can best be told
at a glance by its general form, size and leaves. It is a
medium-sized tree with a symmetrical, cone-like form,

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 11.— The Red Cedar.

THE RED CEDAR AND ARBOR-VITAE

Fig. 11, which, however, broadens out somewhat Avhen
the tree grows old. Its color thi-oughout the year is dull
green with a tinge of brownish red, and its bark peels in
thin strips.

Fig. 12(a).
Twig of Young Cedar.

Fig. 12(6).
Twig of Cedar (Older Tree).

Leaf: In young trees the leaf is needle-shaped, pointed,
and marked by a white line on its under side, Fig. 12(a).
In older trees it is scale-like. Fig. 12(6), and the white line
on its under side is indistinct.

22 STUDIES OF TREES

Range: Widely (listrihiitccl over nearly all of eastern
and central North America.

Soil and location: (^irows on poor, gravelly soils as
well as in rich l)C)tt()ni lantls.

Enemies: 1 he " cedar apple," commonly found on
this tree, rei)resents a stage of tlie apple rust, and for that
reason it is not desirable to plant such trees near orchards.
Its wood is also sometimes attacked by small boring insects.

Value for planting: Its characteristic slender form
gives the red cedar an important place as an ornamental
tree, but its chief value lies in its commercial use.

Commercial value: The wood is durable, light, smooth
and fragrant, and is therefore used for making lead-pencils,
caljinets, boxes, moth-proof chests, shingles, posts, and
telegraph poles.

Other characters: The fruit is small, round and berry-
like, about the size of a pea, of dark blue color, and carries
from one to four bony seeds.

Other common names : The red cedar is also often called
juniper and red juniper.

Comparisons: The red cedar is apt to be confused
with the low juniper (Juniperus communis) which groAVS
in open fields all over the world. The latter, however,
is generally of a low form with a flat top. Its leaves are
pointed and prickly, never scale-like, and they are whitish
above and green below. Its bark shreds and its fruit is
a small round berry of agreeable aromatic odor.

ARBOR- VITAE; NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR {Thuja occi-

dentalis)

Distinguishing characters : The branchlets are extremely
flat and fan-like, Fig. 13, and have an agreeable aromatic

THE RED CEDAR AND ARBOR-VITAE

odor when bruised. The tree is an evergreen with a narrciD
conical form.

Fig. 1,3. — Twig of the Arbor-vitae.

Leaf: Each leaf consists of two flat leaflets in the
center surrounde<l hy two keel-shaped leaflets on the side.

Form and size: A close, conical head with dense
foliage near the base. Usually a small tree, but in some

24 STUDIES OF TREES

l^arts of llu> northeast cru States it grows to luediuui size
with a (Haiucl(>r of two feet.

Range: Nortliern part of North America.

Soil and location: Inhabits low, swampy lands; in
the State of Maine often forming thick forests.

Enemies: ^'ory seldom affected by insects.

Value for planting: Is hardy in New England, where
it is especially used for hedges. It is also frecjuently used
as a specimen tree on the lawn.

Commercial value: The wood is durable for posts,
ties, and shingles. The bark contains considerable tannin
and the juices from the tree have a medicinal value.

Other characters : The fruit is a cone about ^ inch long

Other common names: Arbor-vitae is sometimes called
ichitc cedar and cedar.

Comparisons: The arbor-vitae is aj^t to I^e confused
with the true ichifc cedar {CJuvma'cyparis ihyoieles) but the
leaves of the latter are sharp-pointed and not flattened
or fan-shaped.

CHAPTER II
HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES— (Continued)

GROUP IV. THE LARCH AND CYPRESS

How to tell them from other trees: In summer the
larch and cypress may easily be told from other trees
by their leaves. These are needle-shaped and arranged
in clusters with numerous leaflets to each cluster in the case
of the larch, and feathery and flat in the case of the
cypress. In winter, when their leaves have dropped off,
the trees can be told by their cones, which adhere to the
branches.

There are nine recognized species of larch and two of
bald cypress. The larch is characteristically a northern
tree, growing in the northern and mountainous regions
of the northern hemisphere from the Arctic circle to Penn-
sylvania in the New World, and in Central Europe, Asia,
and Japan in the Old World. It forms large forests in
the Alps of Switzerland and France.

The European larch and not the American is the prin-
cipal species considered here, because it is being planted
extensively in this country and in most respects is prefer-
able to the American species.

The bald cypress is a southern tree of ancient origin,
the well-known cypress of Montezuma in the gardens of
Chepultepec having been a species of Taxodium. The
tree is now confined to the swamps and river banks of the

STUDIES OF TREES

South Atlantic and Gulf States, whero it often forms
extensive forests to the exclusion of all other trees. In
those regions along the river swamps, the trees are often
submerged for several months of the year.

How to tell them from each other: In summer the
larch may be told from the ('y])rcss l)y its leaves (com.-
pare Figs. 14 and IG). In winter the two can be dis-
tinguished by their characteristic
forms. The larch is a broader tree
as compared with the cypress and
its form is more conical. The cy-
press is more slender and it is taller.
The two have been grouped together
in this study because they are both
coniferous trees and, unlike the other
Conifers, are both deciduous, their
leaves falling in October.

THE EUROPEAN LARCH (Lnrix

^ ' europaea)

Distinguishing characters : Its
leaves, which are needle-shaped and
about an inch long, are borne in
clusters close to the twig. Fig. 14.
There are many leaflets to each cluster. This character-
istic together with the spire-like form of the crown will
distinguish the tree at a glance.

Leaf: The leaves are of a light-green color but become
darker in the spring and in October turn yellow and drop
off. The cypress, which is described below, is another
cone-bearing tree which sheds its leaves in winter.

Fig. 14.— Twig of the
Larch in Summer.

THE LARCH AND CYPRESS

Fiu. lo. — Fwic

of the Larch

in Winter.

Form and size :
A m e d i u m-sizecl
tree with a conical
head and a straight
and tapering trunk.
(See Fig. 90.)

Range: Central
Europe and eastern
and central United
States.

Soil and loca-
tion : Requires a
deep, fresh, well-
drained soil and
needs plenty of
light. It flourishes
in places where our
native species would die. Grows
very rapidly.

Enemies : The larch is sub-
ject to the attacks of a sairfly,
which has killed many trees of
the American species. A fungus
{Trametes pini) which causes the
tree to break down with ease is
another of its enemies.

Value for planting: A well-
formed tree for the lawn. It is
also useful for group planting in
the forest.

Commercial value : Because
its wood is strong and durable
the larch is valuable for poles,
posts, railroad ties, and in ship buikimg.

STrniKS OF TUKKS

Fig. 16. — Twig of tlie Cypress.

THE LARCH AND CYPRESS

Other characters: The fruit is a small cone about
I alf an inch lon^, adhering to the tree throughout the
winter.

Comparisons : The tree
is apt to be confused with
the American larch, also
known as tamarack and
hackmatack, but differs
from it in having longer
leaves, cones twice as
large and more abundant
and branches which are
more pendulous.

The larch differs from
the bald cypress in the
broader form of its crown
and the cluster-like ar-
rangement of its leaves.
The leaves of the bald
cypress are flat and feath-
ery. The larch and bald
cypress have the common
characteristics of both
shedding their leaves in
winter and preferring to
grow in moist or swampy
soils. The larch, especi-
ally the native species,
forms the well-known
tamarack swamps of the

north. The bald cypress grows in a similar way in groups
in the southern swamps.

Fig. 17.— The Bald Cypress.

STUDIES OK TREES

BALD CYPRESS {Taxodium distichum)

Distinguishing characters: llu> feathery character of
tlic leaves, Fig. 16, and the spire-like form of the tree,
Fig. 17, Avliicli is taller and more slender than the larch,
will distingiiisli tills species from others.

Fig. is. — Cypress "Knees."

Leaf: The leaves drop off in October, though the tree
is of the cone-bearing kind. In this respect it is hke the
larch.

Form and size: Tall and pyramidal.

Range: The cypress is a southern tree, l)ut is found
under cultivation in parks and on la^\^ls in northern L'nited
States.

Soil and location: Grows naturally in swamps, but
will also do well in ordinary well-drained, good soil. In

THE LARCH AND CYPRESS 31

its natural habitat it sends out special roots above water.
These are known as " cyyress knees " (Fig. 18) and serve to
provide air to the submerged roots of the tree.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: An excellent tree for park and
lawn planting.

Commercial value: The wood is hght, soft, and easily
worked. It is used for general construction, interior finish,
railroad ties, posts and cooperage.

Other characters: The hark is thin and scaly. The
fruit is a cone about an inch in diameter. The general
color of the tree is a dull, deep green which, hoAvever, turns
orange brown in the fall.

Comparisons : The cypress and the larch are apt to be
confused, especially in the winter, when the leaves of both
have dropped. The cj^press is more slender and is taller
in form. The leaflets of each are very different, as will
be seen from the accompanying illustrations.

GROUP V. THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND M^ILE

How to tell them from other trees: The horscchestnut,
ash, and maple have their branches and buds arranged
on their stems opposite each other as shown in Figs. 20,
22 and 24. In other trees, this arrangement is alternate,
as shown in Fig. 19.

How to tell these three from each other. If the bud
is large- — an inch to an inch and a half long — dark brown,
and sticky, it is a horsechestnut.

If the bud is not stickij, much smaller, and rusty hrown
to black in color, and the ultimate twigs, of an olive green
color, are flattened at points below the buds, it is an ash.

STiniKS OK 'I'KKES

Fig. 19. — Alternate BranchinK (Beech.)

If it is not a horse-
chestnut nor an ash
and its small buds have
many scales covering
them, the specimen
with l)ranchcs and l)Utls
opposite must then l;e
a viable. Each of the
maples has one charac-
ter which distinguishes
it from all the other
majiles. For the sugar
maple, this distinguish-
ing character is the
sharp poijit of the bud.
For the silver maple
it is the bend in the ter-
minal twig. For the red
maple it is the smooth
gray-colored bark. For
the Norway maple it is
the reddish brown color
of the full, round bud,
and for the box elder
it is the greenish color
of its terminal twig.

The form of the
tree and the leaves are
also characteristic in
each of the maples, but
for the beginner who
does not wish to be
burdened with too

THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE 33

many of these facts at one time,
those just enumerated will ]je
found most certain and most
easily followed.

THE HORSECHESTNUT

(^sculus hippocastanum)

Distinguishing characters :
The sticky nature of the ter-
minal bud and its large size
(about an inch long). The bud
is dark brown in color. See Fig.
20.

Leaf: Five to seven leaflets,
usually seven. Fig. 21.

Form and size: Medium-
sized tree, pyramidal head and
coarse twigs.

Range: Europe and eastern
United States.

Soil and location: Prefers a
deep, rich soil.

Enemies: The leaves are
the favorite food of caterpillars
and are subject to a blight which
turns them brown prematurely.
The trunk is often attacked by
a disease which causes the flow
of a slimy sulistance.

Value for planting: On account of its showy flowers,
the horsechestnut is a favorite for tb.e park and lawn.

Fig. 20. — Opposite Branch-
ing (Horsechestnut.)

STUDIES OF TREES

Commercial value: Tlic wood is nut durable and is
not used conunercially.

Other characters: The flowers appear in larc;e wliite
clusters in May and June. The fndl is large, round, and
prickly.

Fig. 21. — Leaf of the Horseche.stnut.

Comparisons: The red horsechcsiniit differs from this
tree in having red flowers. The buckeye is similar to the
horsechestnut, but its bud is not sticky and is of a lighter
gray color, while the leaf generally has only five leaflets.

THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE

THE WHITE ASH {Fraxinus amerieana)

Distinguishing characters : The terminal twigs of glossy
olive green color are flattened below the bud. Fig. 22.
The bud is rusty-brown.

Leaf: Five to nine leaflets.
Fig. 23.

Form and size: A large tree
with a straight trunk.

Range : Eastern North Amer-
ica.

Soil and location: Rich,
moist soil.

Enemies: In cities it is very
often attacked by sucking in-
sects.

Value for planting : The
white ash grows rapidly. On
account of its insect enemies in
cities, it should be used more for
forest planting and only oc-
casionally for ornament.

Commercial value: It has a
heavy, tough, and strong wood,
which is valuable in the manu-
facture of cooperage stock, agri-
cultural implements, and carriages. It is superior in value
to the l)lack ash.

Other characters: The bark is gray. The flowers
appear in May.

Comparisons : The white ash is apt to be confused with
the black ash {Fraxinus nigra), but differs from the latter

Fic. 22.— Twii^ of White Ash.

STUDIES OF TREES

in having a lighter-colored bud. The bud of the black ash
is black. The bark of the Avhitc ash is darker in color

Fig. 23.— T.eaf of White Ash.

and the terminal twigs are more flattened than those of
the black ash.

THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE 37

SUGAR MAPLE [Acer saccharum)

Distinguishing characters: The bud is sharp-pointed,
scaly, and reddish brown. Fig. 24.

Leaf: Has sharp points
and round sinus. Fig. 25.

Form and size: The
crown is oval when the tree
is young and round in old
age. Fig. 26.

Range: Eastern United
States.

Soil and location: Moist
and deep soil, and cool, shady
positions.

Enemies : Subject to
drouth, especially in cities.
Is attacked by the sugar
maple borer and the maple
phenacoccus, a sucking insect.

Value for planting: Its
rich and yellow color in the
fall, and the fine spread of
its crown make it a desir-
able tree for the lawn, es-
pecially in the country.

Commercial value : Its
wood is hard and takes a

good polish; used for interior finish and furniture. The
tree is also the source of maple sugar. Fig. 27.

Other characters: The bark is smooth in young trees
and in old trees it shags in large plates. The flowers
appear in the early part of April.

Fig. 24.

-Twig of the Sugar
Maple.

STUDIKS OK I'KKES

Other common names: The sugiir maple is somc-
t'.mes called rock ma pic or lidrd maple.

SILVER MAPLE (Acer soccharinum)

Distinguishing characters: The terminal twigs curve
I p wards (Fi<>;. 28', the bark is scaly, and the leaves are
very d(>eply cleft and are silvery on the under side.

Fig. 25. — Leaf of Sugar Majile.

Leaf: Deeply cleft and silvery under side. Fig. 29.

Form and size: A large tree with the main branches
separating from the trunk a few feet from the ground.
The terminal twigs are long, slender, and drooping.

THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE

Range: Eastern United States.
Soil and location: Moist places.

Enemies: The leopard vioth, a wood-boring insect, and
the cottony-maple scale, a sucking insect.

Fig. 26.— The Sugar Maple.

Value for planting: Grows too rapidly and is too short-
lived to be durable.

Commercial value: Its wood is soft, weak, and little
used.

Other characters: The bark is light gray, smooth at
first and scaly later on. The scales are free at each end

STUDIES OF TREES

and attached in the center. The flowers appear before the
leaves in the latter part of March or early April.

Fiu. 27. — Tapping the Sugar Maple.

Other common names: The silver maple is sometimes
known as soft maple or white maple.

THE HOESECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE 41

RED MAPLE {Acer ruhrum)

Distinguishing characters: The bark is smooth and
light gray, like that of the beech, on the upper branches
in older trees, and in young trees over the whole trunk.

Fig. 30. The buds are in clusters,
and the terminal twigs. Fig. 31, are
quite red.

I'lG. 29. — Leaf of the Silver Maple.

Leaf: Whitish underneath with
three-pointed lobes. Fig. 32,
Fig. 28.— Terminal Twig ^orm and size: A medium-

of Silver Maple. sized tree with a narrow, round

head.
Range: Eastern North America.
Soil and location: Prefers moist places.
Enemies: Leaf blotches {Rhytisma acerinum) which,
however, are not very injurious.

Value for planting: Suitable as a shade tree for sl^|^r

^^(^littlMn

STUDIES OF TREES

lian streets. Its rich red leaves in the fall make it attractive
for the lawn.

Fig. 30.— Bark of the Red Maple.

Commercial value: Its wood is heavy, close-grained,
and takes a good polish. Used for furniture and fuel.

Other characters: The bud is small, round, and red.
The flowers appear before the leaves are out in the early
part of April.

THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE 43

Other common names: The
red maple is sometimes known
as sivo)))]) mapU.

Comparisons : The red maple

is apt to ])c confused with the

Fig.

-Leaf of the Red i\.ai)le.

silver maple, ])ut the latter can

Fig. 33.

Fig. 3L— Twig •-- - ""'^^^r. "V V"^./^7" ^"i" Twig of
of the Red be distmguished by its turned- Norway

Maple. up twigs and scaly bark over Maple.

the whole trunk of the tree,

which presents a sharp contrast to the straight twig and

smooth Ixark of the red maple. The latter has a l)ark

similar to the beech, l)ut its branches are opposite, while

those of the beech are alternate.

STUDIES OF TREES

NORA\'AY MAPLE (Acer plntanoides)

Distinguishing characters: The bud, Fis- 33, is oval
and reddish-brown in color; wlien broken off, a milky

juice exudes. The bark is close.
Fig. 34.

Leaf: Like the leaf of the
sugar maple but thicker in text-
ure and darker in color. Fig.
35.

Form and size: A tall tree
with a broad, round head.

Range : Europe and the
United States.

Soil and location: Will grow
in poor soil.

Enemies: Very few.

Value for planting: One of
the ])est shade trees.

Cormnercial value: None.

Other characters: The hark
is close like that of the mocker-
nut hickory.

Comparisons: The Norway
maple is apt to be confused
with the sycamore luaple (Acer
pscndoplatanus), but differs from the latter in having a
reddish bud instead of a green bud, and a close bark in-
stead of a scaly bark.

Fig. 34.

-Eark of Norway
Maple.

THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE 45

BOX ELDER {Acer negundo)

Distinguishing characters: The terminal twigs are
green, and the buds are round and small. Fig. 3G.
Leaf: Has three to seven leaflets.

Fig. 35. — Leaf of Norway Maple.

Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a short
trunk and wide-spreading top.

Range: Eastern United States to the Rocky l^loun-
tains.

Soil and location: Grows rapidly in deep, moist soil
and river valleys, but accommodates itself to the dry and
poor soil conditions of the city.

46 STUDIES OF TREES

Enemies ; Few.

Value for planting: Used as a shade tree in
the Middle West, Init the tree is so ill formed
and so short-lived that it is not to be recom-
mcndiHl.

Commercial value: None. The wood is
soft.

Other characters: The bark of the trunk is
smooth and yellowish-grcon in young trees and
grayish lirown in older specimens. The flowers
appear in the early part of April. The fndt
takes the form of yellowish-green keys which
hang on the tree till late fall.

Other common names : The box elder is also
commonly known as the ash-Ic( f maple,

GROUP VI. TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM:
ELM, POPLAR, GINGKO AND WILLOW

How to tell them from other trees: The

trees described in this group are so distinctive
Fig. 36. jj^ their general form that they may, for the
Twig of purpose of study, be grouped together, and dis-
■r^, j' tinguished from all other trees by this charac-

teristic.
How to tell them from each other: The American
elm is vcse-like in shape; the Lombardy poplar is narrow
and spire-like; the gingko, or maidenhair tree, is odd in its
mode of branching; and the weeping willow is extremely
pendulous.

TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM

AMERICAN ELM (Ulmus americana)

Distinguishing characters: The tree can be told at
a glance by its general branching habit. The limbs arch

Fig. 37. — American Elm.

out into a wide-spreading fan or vase-like crown which
loses itself in numerous fine drooping branchlets. See
Fig. 37.

STUDIES OV TKEES

Leaf: The loaves are simple, alternate, and from 2
to 0 inches long.

Fig. 38.— English Elm in Winter.

Form and size : It is a tall tree with a trunk that divides
a short distance above ground. Its general contour,
together with the numerous branches that interlace its

TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM

massive crown, give the
elm an interesting and
stately appearance which
is unequaled by any other
tree.

Range: Eastern North
America.

Soil and location : The
elm prefers a deep, rich
and moist soil, but will
adapt itself even to the
poor soil of the city street.

Enemies: The leopard
moth, a wood-boring in-
sect, and the elm leaf
beetle, a leaf-eating insect,
are fhe two most impor-
tant enemies of the tree.
Their ravages are very
extensive.

Value for planting :
The tree has a character
of its own which cannot
he duplicated for avenue
or lawn planting.

Commercial value :
The wood is strong and
tough and therefore has a
special value for cooper-
age, agricultural imple-
ments, carriages, and ship-
building.

Other characters: The

Fig. 39. — Lombardy Pojjlar.

STrniKS OF TKKES

buds are small, lu-own, and smooth, while those of tlu>
European elms arc covered with down. The small sulc
twigs come out at almost right angles to the larger terminal
twigs, which is not the case in other species of elm.

Other common
names: White elm.

Comparisons : The
English elm {Ulmus cam-
pestris) is also a tall,
dignified tree commonly
seen under cultivation
in America, but may be
told from the American
species by the dilTerence
in their general contour.
The branches of the
English species spread
out but do not arch like
those of the American
elm, and the bark of the
English elm is darker
and coarser. Fig. 38.
Little tufts of dead twigs
along the main branches
and trunk of the tree
are characteristic of the
English elm and will
frequently help to distinguish it from the American elm.

The Camperdown elm may be recognized readily by its
dwarf size and its low drooping umbrella-shaped crown.

Fig. 40. — Leaf of Carolina Poplar.

TREES TOLD BY THEIK FORM 51

LOMBARDY OR ITALIAN POPLAR (Populus nigra, var.

italica)

Distinguishing characters: Its tall, slender, spire-
like form aiul rigidly erect branches, which commence
low on the trunk, make this tree very cUstinct at all seasons
of the year. See Fig. 39.

Leaf: Triangular in shape, similar to that of the
Carolina poplar but smaller, see Fig. 40.

Range: Asia, Europe, and North America.

Soil and location: The poplar is easily grown in poor
soil, in any location, and is very hardy.

Value for planting: The tree has a distinctive form
which makes it valuable for special landscape effects. It
is also used for shelter belts and screening. Like all pop-
lars it is short lived and will stand pruning well.

Commercial value: None.

Comparisons: The Carolina poplar, or Cottonwood
(Populus deUoides) can be told from the Lomlmrdy poplar
by its wider crown and its more open l)ranching, Fig. 41.
It may be recognized by its big terminal twigs, which are
light yellow in color and coarser than those of the Lombardy
poplar, Fig. 42. Its bark is smooth, light and yellowish-
green in young trees, and dark gray and fissured in older
specimens. Its large, conical, glossy, chestnut-brown bud
is also characteristic. Fig. 42. Its flowers, in the form
of large catkins, a peculiarity of all poplars, appear in the
early spring. The Carolina poplar is commonly planted
in cities because it grows rapidly and is able to withstand
the smoke and drouth conditions of the city. Where other
trees, however, can be substituted with success, the poplar
should be avoided. Its very fast growth is really a point

STUDIES OF TREES

aeainst the lnH>, because it grows so fast that it becomes
tt)0 tall for surrouiulirit;- j^roperty, and its wood being

Fig. 41. — Carolina Poplar.

extremely soft and brittle, the tree frequently breaks in
windstorms. In many cases it is entirely uprooted, because
it is not a deep-rooted tree. Its larger roots, which spread

TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM

near the surface, upset the sidewalk or prevent the growth
of other vegetation on the lawn, while its finer rootlets,
in their eager search for moisture,
penetrate and clog the joints of
neighboring water and sewer pipes.
The tree is commonly attacked by
the oyster-shell scale, an insect which
sucks the sap from its bark and which
readily spreads to other more valuable
trees like the elm. The female form
of this tree is even more objectionable
than the male, because in the early
spring the former produces an abun-
dance of cotton from its seeds which
litters the ground and often makes
walking dangerous. The only justifi-
cation for planting the Carolina
poplar is in places where the con-
ditions for tree growth are so poor
that nothing else will grow, and in
those cases the tree should be cut
back periodically in order to keep it
from becoming too tall and scraggly.
It is also desirable for screening in
factory districts and similar situa-
tions.

The silver or white poplar (Populus
alba) may be told from the other
poplars by its characteristic smooth,
whitish-green hark, often spotted with
dark blotches, Fig. 43. The leaves
are silvery-white and downy on the under side. The twigs
are dark green in color and densely covered with a white

Fig. 42.— Bud of the
Carolina Poplar.

STUDIES OF TREES

down. It grows to very large size and forms an irregular,
wide-spreading, broad head, which is characteristically
different from that of any of the other poplars.

The quaking aspen {Populus tremuloides) , the large-
toothed aspen {Popidus grandidentata) and the balsam pop-
lar or balm of Gilead {Populus balsamifera) are other com-

FiG. 43. — Bark of the Silver Poplar.

mon members of the poplar group. The quaking aspen
may be told ])y its reddish-brown twigs, narrow sharp-
pointed buds, and by its small finely toothed leaves. The
large-toothed aspen has thicker and rather do\\Tiy buds
and broader and more widely toothed leaves. The balsam
poplar has a large bud thickly covered with a sticky, pun-
gent, gelatinous substance.

TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM

GINGKO OR MAIDENHAIR TREE (Ghigko biloba)

Distinguishing characters: The pecuUar branches of
this tree emerge upward from a straight tapering trunk

Fig. 44. — Gingko Trees.

at an angle of about 45° and give to the whole tree a strik-
ing, Oriental appearance, which is quite different from
that of any other tree. Fig. 44.

Leaf: Like that of the maidenhair fern, Fig. 45.

STUDIES OF TREES

Range: iV native of northern China and introduced
into eastern North Anieriea.

Soil and location: The gingko will grow in poor soils.
Enemies: Practicallv free from insects and disease.

Fig. 45. — Leaves of the Gingko Tree.

Value for planting: It makes a valuable tree for the
street where heavy shade is not the object and forms an
excellent Avide-spreading specimen tree on the lawn.

Other characters : The fruit consists of a stone covered

TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM

by sweet, ill-smelling flesh. The tree is dioecious, there

being separate male and female trees. The male tree is

preferable for planting in order to

avoid the disagreeable odor of the - ,

fruit which appears on the female

trees when about thirty years old.

The male tree has a narrower crown

than the female tree. The buds (Fig.

46) are very odd and are conspicuous

on the tree throughout the winter.

The leaves of the gingko shed in the

winter. In this respect the tree is

like the larch and the bald C3^press.

The gingko belongs to the yew
family, which is akin to the pine
family. It is therefore a very old
tree, the remains of the forests of
the ancient world. The gingko in its
early life is tall and slender with its
few branches close to the stem. But
after a time the branches loosen up
and form a Ande-spreading crown.
In the Orient it attains enormous
proportions and in this country it
also grows to a fairly large size when
planted on the open lawn or in
groups far apart from other trees so
that it can have plenty of room to

spread. It then produces a picturesque effect of unusual
interest.

Fig. 46.— Bud of
the Gingko Tree.

STUDIES OF TREES

WEEPING WILLOW (Salix babylonica)

Distinguishing characters: All tlu> Avillows have a
shiglo cai)-like scale to the bud, and this species has an

E^:..

fc^%l

|||W^

tki

H^''Jh

maja

l|- ^.

■ ' «

W^k

i^j¥I

Fig. 47. — Weeping Willow.

unusually drooping mass of slender branchlets which
characterizes the tree from all others, Fig. 47.

TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK 59

Form and size: It grows to large size.

Range: Asia and Europe and naturalized in eastern
United States.

Soil and location: Prefers moist places near streams
and ponds.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: The weeping willow has a special
ornamental effect in cemeteries and along lakes and river
banks in parks.

Commercial value: It is used in the United States for
charcoal and for fuel.

Comparisons: The pussy willow (Salix discolor) may
easily be told from the other willows by its small size;
it is often no higher than a tall shrub. Its branches are
reddish green and the buds are dark red, smooth and glossy.
The predominating color of the twigs and ])uds in the pussy
willow is therefore a shade of red, while in the weeping
willow it is yellowish green.

GROUP VII. TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK:
SYCAMORE, BIRCH; BEECH, BLUE BEECH, IRON-
WOOD, AND HACKBERRY

How to tell them from other trees: The color of the
hark or the form of the trunk of each of the trees in this group
is distinct from that of any other tree.

How to tell them from each other: In the sycamore,
the bark is mottled; in the white birch, it is dull white; in
the beech, it is smooth and gray; in the hackberry, it is
covered with numerous corky warts; in the blue beech, the
trunk of the tree is fluted, as in Fig. 54, and in the iron-
wood, the bark peels in thin perpendicular strips.

KTl'DIKS OF TREES

Fig. 48. — Bark of the Sycamore Tree.

THE SYCAMORE OR PLANE TREE {Platanus occidentalis)

Distinguishing characters : The peculiar mottled appear-
ance of the bark (Fig. 48) in the trunk and large branches
is the striking character here. The bark produces this

TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK

effect by shedding in large, thin, brittle plates. The newly
exposed bark is of a yellowish green color which often turns

Fig. 49. — Seed -balls of the Oriental Sycamore.
Note one Seed-ball cut in half.

nearly white later on. Round seed balls, about an inch in
diameter, may be seen hanging on the tree all winter. In

STUDIES OF TUKES

this species, the seed halls avc u.sually suhtiiry, while in the
Oriental sycamore, a European tree similar to the native

one, they appear in clusters
of tAvo, or occasionally of
three or four. See Fig. 49.

Leaf: The stem of the
l(\af completely covers the
bud. This is a characteris-
tic peculiar to sycamores.

Form and size: A large
tree with massive trunk and
branches and a broad head.

Range : Eastern and
southern United States.

Soil and location: Pre-
fers a deep rich soil, but will
adapt itself even to the poor
soil of the city street.

Enemies: The sycamore
is frequently attacked by a
fungus {Glocosporium nervise-
quum), which curls up the
young leaves and kills the
tips of the branches. Late
frosts also often injure its
young twigs. The Oriental
sycamore, which is the Euro-
pean species, is more hardy
in these respects than the
native one and is therefore
often chosen as a substitute.

Value for planting: The Occidental sycamore is now

Fig. 50. — Gray or White Birch
Trees.

TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK

planted very little, but the Oriental sycamore is used quite
extensively in its place, especially as a shade tree. The
Oriental sycamore is

superior to the native r~ BHi'/'.iiLl'jifiL lid? Ill t! L
species in many ways. i^tta«3tTS-- ^ .-, . .

It is more shapely,
faster growing, and
hardier than the na-
tive one. Both syca-
mores will bear trans-
planting and pruning
well.

Commercial value :
The wood of the syca-
more is coarse-grained
and hard to work;
used occasionally for
inside finishing in
buildings.

Other names : But-
to7ihall, hutionivoGcl.

Comparisons: The
Oriental sycamore
(Platanus orientalis)
an introduced species,
is apt to be confused
with the Occidental
sycamore, but may
be told from the lat-
ter by the number of
seed balls suspended

from the tree. In the case of the Oriental species, the
§eed balls hang in yairs or (rarely) three or four together.

Fig. 51. — Bark of the Black or Sweet
Birch.

64 STUDIES OF TREES

In the Oc'c'iilental, the seed balls are generally solitary and
very rarely in pairs.

GRAY OR WHITE BIRCH {Betida popuUfolia)

Distinguishing characters: The dull-white color of
the bark on the trunk and the dark triangular patches below
the insei'tion of the branches distinguish this tree; see Fig.
50. The bark of the young trunks and branches is red-
dish-brosvn in color and glossy. The bark adheres closely
to the trunk of the tree and does not peel in loose, shaggy
strips, as in the case of the yellow or golden birch. It is
marked by small raised horizontal lines which are the
lenticels or l)reathing pores. These lenticels are char-
acteristic of all birch and cherry trees. In addition to the
distinction in the color of the bark, an important char-
acter which distinguishes the gray birch from all other
species of birch, is found in the terminal twigs, which are
rough to the touch.

Form and size: A small tree. Frequently grows in
clumps.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: The gray birch does best in a deep,
rich soil, l)ut will also grow in poor soils.

Enemies : The bronze-birch borer, a wood-destroying
insect, and Polyporus betulinus, a fungus, are its chief
enemies.

Value for planting: Its graceful habit and attractive
bark gives the tree an important place in ornamental plant-
ing. It may be used to advantage with evergreens, and pro-
duces a charming effect when planted by itself in clumps.

TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK 65

Fig. 52.— Bark of the Beech.

STl'DIES OK TK'EES

Commercial value :
The wood is soft and
not durable. It is used
in the manufacture of
small articles and for
wood ])ulp.

Other characters :
The fruit is a catkin.

Comparisons : The
paper birch {Betula
papyrijera) is apt to
be confused with the
gray birch, because
both have a white
bark. The l)ark of the
paper birch, however,
is a clear white and
peels off in thin papery
layers instead of being
close. It very seldom
shows any dark tri-
angular markings on
the trunk. Its terminal
twigs are not rough
and its trunk is usually
straighter and freer
from branches.

The black or sweet
birch {Betula lento) has
a bark similar to the
gray birch, except that
its color is dark gray. See Fig. 51. The twigs have an
aromatic taste.

Fig. 53.— Buds of the Beech Tree.

TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK 67

Fig. 54.— Trunk of Blue
Beech,

Fig. 55. — Bark of the Ironwood.

68 STUDIES OF TREES

The Tjelloiu birch (Betula lutea) has a yellowish or golden
bark which constantly peels in thin, ragged., horizontal
films.

Tlie European white birch (Betula alba) has a dull-white
bark like the native white birch, but has smooth terminal
twigs instead of rougli ones. It is commonly seen in the
United States on lawns and in parks.

AMERICAN BEECH (Fagus americana)

Distinguishing characters: The close-fitting, smooth,
gray ba!rk will tell this tree from all others except the red
maple and yellow-wood. See Fig. 52. The red maple
may then be easily eliminated by noting whether the
branches are alternate or opposite. They are alternate
in the beech and opposite in the maple. The yellow- wood
may be eliminated by noting the size of the bud. The
bud in the yellow-wood is hardly noticeable and of a golden
yellow color, while that of the beech is very long, slender,
and sharp-pointed, and chestnut brown in color. See
Fig. 53.

Form and size: It grows tall in the woods, but on the
open lawn spreads out into a massive, round-headed tree.

Range: Eastern Canada and United States.

Soil and location: Prefers a rich, well-drained soil,
but will grow in any good soil.

Enemies: Aphides or plant lice that suck the sap from
the leaves in spring and early summer are the chief enemies
of the tree.

Value for planting: The pleasing color of its bark,
its fine spread of branches, which gracefully droop down

TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK

to the ground, and its autumnal coloring, make the beech
a favorite for \avni and park planting. The several Euro-
pean species of beech are equally charming.

Commercial value :
The wood is strong,
close-grained, and tough.
It is used mainly for
cooperage, tool handles,
shoe lasts, chairs, etc.,
and for fuel.

Other characters :
The fruit is a prickly
burr encasing a sharply
triangular nut which is
sweet and edible.

Comparisons : The
European beech {Fagus
sylvatica), and its weep-
ing, purple-leaved, and
fern-leaved varieties, are
frequently met vnih in
parks and may be told
from the native species
by its darker bark. The
weeping form may, of
course, be told readily Fig. 50. — Bark of the Hackben-y.

by its drooping branches.

The leaves of the European beeches are broader and less
serrated than those of the American beech.

70 STUDIES OF TREES

BLUE BEECH OR HOIIXBEAISI {Carpinus caroliniana)

Distinguishing characters : The fluted or muscular effect
of its trunk will distinguish the tree at a glance, Fig. 54.

Leaf: Doubly serrated; otherwise the same as that of
ironwDod.

Form and size: A low-spreading tree with branches
arching out at various angles, forming a flattened head
with a fine, slender spray.

Range: \ory common in the eastern United States.

Soil and location: Grows in low wet woods.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting: Its artistic branching and curious
trunk give the tree an important place in park planting.

Commercial value: None.

Other characters: The bark is smooth and bluish gray
in color.

Comparisons : The blue beech or hornbeam is often con-
fused with the ironwood or hop hornbeam {Ostrya virginiana) . '
The ironwood, however, has ^ characteristic bark that peels
in perpendicular, short, thin segments, often loose at the
ends. See Fig. 55. This is entirely different from the close,
smooth, and fluted bark of the blue beech. The color of
the bark in the ironwood is brownish, while that of the
blue beech is bluish-gray. The buds of the ironwood
are greenish with brown tips, while the bud of the blue
beech shows no green whatever.

HACKBERRY {Cellis occidentalis)

Distinguishing characters: The tree may be told
readily from other trees by the corky tubercles on the
bark of the lower portion of the trunk. See Fig. 56.

THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT 71

Leaf: Has three predominating veins and is a bit
more developed on one side than on the other.

Form and size: A small or medium-sized tree with
a single stem and broad conical crowTi.

Range: United States and Canada.

Soil and location: Grows naturally in fertile soils, but
will adapt itself to almost sterile soils as well.

Enemies: The hackberry is usually free from disease,
though often its leaves are covered with insect galls.

Value for planting: It is extensively planted as a shade
tree in the Middle West, and is frequently seen as an orna-
mental tree in the East.

Commercial value: It has little economic value except
for fuel.

Other characters : The fruit is berry-like, with a hard
pit. Tlie fleshy outer part is sweet.

Other common names: Nettle tree: sugarberry.

GROUP VIII. THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT

How to tell them from other trees: The oaks are
rather difficult to identify and, in studying them it will
often be necessary to look for more than one distinguishing
character. The oaks differ from other trees in bearing
acorns. Their leaves have many lobes and their upper
lateral huds cluster at the top of the twigs. The general
contour of each oak presents a characteristic branching
and sturdiness uncommon in other trees.

The chestnut differs from other trees in bearing burs
and its hark is also distinctly characteristic.

How to tell them from from each other: There are
two groups of oaks, the white oak and the black oak. The
white oaks mature their acorns in one year and, ±ki^«- ^y,

STUDIES OF TREES

fore, only acorns of the same year can be found on trees of
this group. Tlie black oaks take two years in which to ma-
ture their acorns and, tlierefore, young acorns of the present

year and mature acorns of
the previous year may be
found on the same tree at
one time. The leaves of the
white oaks have rounded
margins and rounded loljes
as in Fig. 57, while those
of the black oaks have
pointed margins and sharp
pointed lobes as shown in
Figs. 60, 62 and 64. The
hark of the white oaks is
light colored and l)reaks
up in loose flakes as in Fig.
58, while that of the black
oaks is darker and deeply
ridged or tight as in Figs.
59 and 61. The white oak
is the type of the white
oak group and the black,
red and pin oaks are types
of the other. For the char-
acterization of the individual species, the reader is re-
ferred to the following pages.

Fig. 57.— Leaf and Fruit of White
Oak. (Quercus alba.)

WHITE OAK {Quercus alba)
Distinguishing characters: The massive ramification
of its branches is characteristic of this species and often
an easy clue to its identification. The bark has a light

THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT

gray color — lighter than
that of the other oaks —
and breaks into soft,
loose flakes as in Fig. 58.
The leaves are deeply
lobed as in Fig. 57.
The buds are small,
round and congested at
the end of the year's
growth. The acorns
usually have no stalks
and are set in shallow,
rough cups. The kernels
of the acorns are white
and palata])le.

Form and size: The
white oak grows into a
large tree with a wide-
spreading, massive
crown, dissolving into
long, heavy, twisted
branches. When grown
in the open it possesses
a short sturdy trunk; in
the forest its trunk is
tall and stout.

Range : Eastern
North America.

Soil and location: The white oak thrives in almost
any well-drained, good, deep soil except in a very cold and
wet soil. It requires plenty of light and attains great age.

Fig. 58.— Bark of White Oak.
(Quercus alba.)

STUDIES OF TREES

Enemies: The tree i.s (■<)nii)a>^itively free from insects
and disease except in districts where the Gipsy moth is
common, in which case the leaves of tlie white oak are a
favorite food of its caterpillars.

Value for planting :
The white oak is one of
the most stately trees.
Its massive form and its
longevity make the tree
suitable for ])oth lawn
and woodland planting
but it is not used much
because it is difficult to
transplant and grows
rather slowly.

Commercial value :
The wood is of great
economic importance. It
is heavy, hard, strong and
durable and is used in
cooperage, construction
work, interior finish of
buildings and for railroad
ties, furniture, agricul-
tural implements and fuel.
Comparisons: The sivatnp white oak {Quercus plata-
noides) is similar to the white oak in general appearance
of the bark and form and is therefore liable to be confused
with it. It chffers from the white oak, however, in pos-
sessing a more straggly habit and in the fact that the bark
on the under side of its branches shags in loose, large
scales. Its buds are smaller, lighter colored and more
dow^ny and its acorns are more pointed and with cups

Fig. 59.— Bark of Black Oak.

( Quercus velutina).

THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT

more shallow than those of the white oak. The tree also
grows in moister ground, generally bordering swamps.

Fig. 60. — Leaf and Fruit of Black Oak.
(Quercus velutina).

BLACK OAK {QuercAis velutina)

Distinguishing characters: The bark is black, rough
and cut up into firm ridges especially at the base of the
tree, see Fig. 59. The inner bark has a bright yellow color:
the leaves have sharp points and are wider at the base
than at the tip as shown in Fig. 60. The buds are large,
doivny and sharp pointed. The acorns are small and have

76 STUDIES OK TREES

deep, scaly cups the inner margins of which are downy.
The kernels are yellow and bitter.

Form and size: The tree grows in an irregular form
to large size, with its branches rather slender as compared
with the white oak and Avith a more open and narrow
crown.

Range: Eastern North America.

Soil and location: It will grow in poor soils but does
best where the soil is rich and well drained.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting : The black oak is the poorest of the
oaks for planting and is rarely offered by nurserymen.

Commercial value : The wood is heavy, hard and strong,
but checks readily and is coarse grained. It is of little
value except for fuel. The bark is used for tannin.

Other common names: Yellow oak.

Comparisons: The black oak might sometimes be
confused with the red and scarlet oaks. The yellow, bitter
inner bark will distinguish the black oak from the other
two. The light-colored, smooth ])ark of the red oak and
the dark, ridged bark of the black oak will distinguish
the two, while the bark of the scarlet oak has an appear-
ance intermediate between the two. The l)uds of the three
species also show marked differences. The buds of the
black oak are covered with hairs, those of the scarlet oak
have fewer hairs and those of the red are practically free
from hairs. The leaves of each of the three species are
distinct and the growth habits are different.

RED OAK {Quercus rubra)

Distinguishing characters: The bark is perpendicularly
fissured into long, smooth, light gray strips giving the trunk

THE OAKS .VND CHESTNUT

a characteristic pillar effect as in Figs. 61 and 94, It has
the straightest trunk of all the oaks. The leaves possess
more lohes than the leaves
of any of the other
species of the black oak
group, see Fig. 62. The
acorns, the largest among
the oaks, are semisphcri-
cal with the cups ex-
tremely shallow. The
buds are large and sharp
pointed, but not as large ,
as those of the black
oak. They also have a
few fine hairs on their
scales, but are not nearly-
as downy as those of the
Hack oak.

Form and size: The
red oak is the largest
of the oaks and among
the largest of the trees
in the northern forests.
It has a straight trunk,
free from branches to a
higher point than in the
white oak, see Fig. 94.
The branches are less

twisted and emerge at sharper angles than do those o'
the white oak.

Bark of Red Oak.

STUDIES OF TREKS

Range: It grows all over Eastern North America antl
reaches north fartlu>r than any of the other oaks.

Soil and location: It is less fastidious in its soil and
moisture requirements than the other oaks and therefore

grows in a great variety
of soils. It requires plenty
of light.

Enemies: Like most
of the other oaks, this
species is comparatively
free from insects and dis-
ease.

Value for planting :
The red oak grows faster
and adapts itself better
to poor soil conditions
than any of the other
oaks and is therefore easy
to plant and easy to find
in the nurseries. It makes
an excellent street tree, is
equally desirable for the
lawn and is hardly sur-
p a s s e d for woodland
planting.

Commercial value :
The wood is hard and strong but coarse grained, and is
used for construction timber, interior finish and furniture.
It is inferior to white oak where strength and durability
are required.

Fig. 62.— Leaf and Fruit of Red
Oak.

THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT

PIN OAK {Quercus pahistris)

Distinguishing characters: Its method of branching
will characterize the tree at a glance. It develops a well-
defined inain ascending stem with numerous drooping side
branches as in Fig. 63. The buds
are very small and sharp pointed
and the leaves are small as in
Fig. 64. The bark is dark, firm,
smooth and in close ridges. The
acorn is small and carries a light
brown, striped nut, wider than
long and bitter. The cup is
shallow, enclosing only the base
of the nut.

Form and size: The pin oak
is a medium-sized tree in com-
parison with other oaks. It de-
velops a tall, straight trunk that
tapers continuously through a
pyramidal crown of low, droop-
ing tender, l^ranches.

Range : Eastern No rtli
America.

Soil and location : It requires
a deep, rich, moist soil and grows
naturally near swamps. Its roots are deep and spreading.
The tree grows rapidly and is easily transplanted.

Enemies: None of importance.

Value for planting : The pin oak is an extremely grace-
ful tree and is therefore extensively used for planting on

Fig. G3. — Pin Oaks in
Winter.

STI'DIKS OF TREES

lawns and on (.Tit a in streets where the tree can find plenty

of water and N\herc conditions will permit its branches to

droop low.

Commercial value: The wood is heavy and hard but

coarse grained and liable to clun'k and warj). Its i)rineipal

use is in the construction of
houses and for shingles.

CHESTNUT {Castanea dentata)

Distinguishing characters :
The bark in young trees is
smooth and of a marked red-
dish-l)ronze color, but when the
tree grows older, the bark
lireaks up into diamond-shaped
ridges, sufficiently characteris-
tic to distinguish the tree at a
glance, see Fig. 65. A close
examination of the terminal
twig will show three ridges and
two grooves running down along
the stem from the base of each
leaf or leaf-scar. The twig has
no true terminal bud. The

fruit, a large, round bur, prickly without and hairy within

and enclosing the familiar dark brown, sweet edible nuts

is also a distinguishing mark of the tree.

Leaf: The leaves are distinctly long and narrow.

They are from 6 to 8 inches long.

Fig. 64. — Leaf and Fruit of
Pin Oak.

THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT

Form and size: The chestnut is a large tree with
a massive trunk and broad spreading crown. The cliest-
nut tree when cut, sprouts readily from the stump and

Fig. 65.— Trunk of Chestnut Tree.

therefore in places where the trees have once been cut,
a group of two to six trees may be seen emerging from the
old stump.

Range: Eastern United States.

82 STUDIES OF TREES

Soil and location: It will grow on rocky as well as on
fertile soils and I'cciuiros plenty of light.

Enemies: During the past nine years nearly all the
chestnut trees in the United States have been attacked
by a fungus disease {Diaporthe parasitica, Mur.) which
still threatens the entire extinction of the chestnut trees
in this country. No remedy has been discovered and
all affected trees should be cut down and the wood utilized
before it decays and becomes worthless. No species of
chestnut tree is entirely immune from this disease, though
some species are highly resistant.

Value for planting: The chestnut is one of the most
rapidly growing hardwood trees but, on account of its
disease, which is now prevalent everj^vhere, it is not wise
to plant chestnut trees for the present.

Commercial value: The wood is light, not very strong
and lialjle to warp. It is durable when brought in contact
with the soil and is therefore used for railroad ties, fence-
posts, poles, and mine tim])ers. It is also valuable for
interior finish in houses and for fuel. Its bark is used in
the manufacture of tanning extracts and the nuts are sold
in cities in large quantities.

CHAPTER III
HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES— (Continued)

GROUP IX. THE HICKORIES, WALNUT AND
BUTTERNUT

How to tell them from other trees and from each other :

The hickory trees, though symmetrical, have a rugged
appearance and the branches are so sturdy and black as to
give a special distinction to this group. The huds are
different from the buds of all other trees and sufficiently
characteristic to distinguish the various species of the
group. The hark is also a distinguishing character.

The walnut and l)utternut have chambered piths which
distinguish them from all other trees and from each other.

SHAGBARK HICKORY {Hicoria ovata)

Distinguishing characters: The yellowish brown buds
nearly as large as those of the mockernut hickory, are
each provided with two long, dark, outer scales which stand
out very conspicuously as shown in Fig. 67. The bark
in older specimens shags off in rough strips, sometimes
more than a foot long, as shown in Fig. 68. These two
characters will readily distinguish the tree at all seasons

of the year.

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 66. — A Shagbark Hickory Tree.

THE HICKORIES, WALNUT AND BUTTERNUT 85

Leaf: The leaf is compound, consisting of 5 or 7 leaflets,
the terminal one generally larger.

Form and size: A tall, stately tree — the tallest of
the hickories — of rugged form and fine
symmetry, see Fig. 66.

Range: Eastern North America.
Soil and location: The shagbark
hickory grows in a great variety of
soils, but prefers a deep and rather
moist soil.

Enemies: The hickory hark borer
(Scolytus quadrispinosus) is its principal
enemy. The insect is now killing
thousands of hickory trees in the vicin-
ity of New York City and on several
occasions has made its appearance in
large numbers in other parts of the
country.

Value for planting: It is difficult
to transplant, grows slowly and is seldom
found in nurseries.

Commercial value: The w^ood is
extremely tough and hard and is used
for agricultural implements and for the
manufacture of wagons. It is excellent
for fuel and the nuts are of great value
as a food.

Other characters: The fruit is a nut
covered by a thick husk that separates into 4 or 5 seg-
ments. The kernel is sweet.

Other common names: Shellbark hickory.

Fig. 67.— Bud of the
Shagbark Hickory.

STUDIES OF TltEES

MOCKERNUT HICKORY (incorin alba)

Distinguishing characters: The bud is the largest
among the hickuries — nearly half an inch long — is hard

and oval and covered with yellowish
broirn downy scales which do not pro-
ject like those of the shagbark hickory,
sec Fig. G9. The twigs are extremely
coarse. The bark is very tight on the
trunk and branches and has a close,
hard, wavy appearance as in Fig. 70.

Leaf: The leaf consists of 5, 7 or 9
leaflets all of which are large and pubes-
cent and possess a distinct resinous
odor.

Form and size: A tall tree with
a broad spreading head.

Range: Eastern North America.
Soil and location: The mockernut
hickory grows on a great variety of
soils, l)ut prefers one which is rich and
well-drained.

Enemies: The same as for the
shagbark hickory.

Value for planting: It is not com-
monly planted.
Commercial value: The wood is similar to that of the
shagl:)ark hickory and is put to the same uses.

Other characters: The fruit is a nut, larger and cov-
ered with a shell thicker than that of the shagbark. The

Fig. 6S.— Bark of
the Shagbark Hick-
ory.

THE HICKORIES, WALNUT AND BUTTERNUT 87

husk is also thicker and separates
into four segments nearly to the
base. The kernel is small and sweet.

Other common names: Big-
hud hickory; whifcheart hickory.

Comparisons : The pignut hick-
ory (Hicoria glabra), sometimes
called broom hickory or brown
hickory, often has a shaggy bark,
but differs from both the shag-
bark and the mockernut hickory
in possessing buds very much
smaller, twigs more slender and
leaflets fewer. The nut has a
thinner husk which does not sep-
arate into four or five segments.
The tree prefers drier ground than
the other hickories.

The hitiernut {Hicoria min-
ima) can be told from the mock-
ernut and other species of hickory
by its bud, which has no scales at
all. The color of its bud is a
characteristic orange yellow. The
bark is of a lighter shade than the
bark of the mockernut hickory

Fig. 69.— Bud of the
Mockernut Hickory.

and the leaflets are more numerous than in any of the
hickories, varying from 7 to 11. Its nuts are bitter.

BLACK WALNUT {Juglans nigra)

Distinguishing characters: By cutting a twig length-
wise, it will be seen that its pith is divided into little

STUDIES OK 'I'lJEKS

chambers as shown in Fig. 71. The Inid is dark gray and
satiny. The bark is dark brown and deeply ridged and the
fruit is the familiar round walnut.

Form and size: A tall tree with a spreading crown
composed of stout branches. In the
open it grows very symmetrically.
Range: Eastern United States.
Soil and location: Thc^ black wal-
nut prefers a deep, rich, fertile soil and
requires a great deal of light.

Enemies: The tree is a favorite of
many caterpillars.

Value for planting: It forms a
])cautiful spreading tree on open ground,
l)ut is not planted to anj^ extent because
it is hard to transplant. It grows slowly
unless the soil is very deep and rich,
develops its leaves late in the spring
and sheds them early in the fall and
produces its fruit in great profusion.

Commercial value: The wood is
heavy, strong, of chocolate brown color
and capable of taking a fine polish. It
is used for cabinet making and interior
finish of houses. The older the tree,
usually, the better the wood, and the
consumption of the species in the past
has been so heavy that it is becoming
rare. The European varieties which are frequently planted
in America as substitutes for the native species yield
better nuts, but the American species produces better W'ood.
Other characters : The fruit is a large round nut about
two inches in diameter, covered with a smooth husk which

Fig. 70.— Bark of

the Mockernut

Hickory.

THE HICKORIES, WALNUT AND BUTTERNUT 8'

Fig. 71. — Twig of the
Black Walnut. Note the
large chambers in the pith.

Fiti. 72.— Twig of the But-
ternut. Note the small
chambers in the pith.

00 STUDIES OF TREES

at first is dull giTt'ii in color and later turns l)rown. The
husk does not separate into sections, 'i'he kernel is edible
and produces an oil of commercial value.

The leaves are compound and alternate with 15 to 23
leaflets to each.

Comparisons: The butternut {Juglans cinerea) is an-
other tree that has the pith divided into little chambers,
but the little chambers here are shorter than in the black
walnut, as may be seen from a comparison of Figs. 71
and 72. The bark of the butternut is liglit gray while that
of the black walnut is dark. The buds in the butternut
are longer than those of the black walnut and are light
brown instead of gray in color. The form of the tree is
low and spreading as compared with the black walnut.
The fruit in the butternut is elongated while that of the
black walnut is round. The leaves of the butternut have
fewer leaflets and these are lighter in color.

GROUP X. TULIP TREE, SWEET GUM, LINDEN, MAG-
NOLIA, LOCUST, CATALPA, DOGWOOD, MUL-
BERRY AND OSAGE ORANGE

TULIP TREE {Liriodendron tulipifera)

Distinguishing characters: There are four characters
that stand out conspicuously in the tulip tree — the bud,
the trunk, the persistent fruit cups and the wedged leaf.

The bud, Fig. 74, about an inch long, is covered by two
purplish scales which lend special significance to its whole
appearance. The trunk is extremely individual because it
rises stout and shaft-like, away above the ground without

TULIP TKEE

a Ijranch as shown in Fig. 73. The tree flowers in the latter
part of May but the cup that holds the flower persists

Fig. 73.— The Tulip Tree.

throughout the winter. The leaf, Fig. 75, has four lobes,
is nearly as broad as it is long and so notched at the upper
end that it looks different from any other leaf.

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 74.— Bud of the
Tulip Tree.

Form and size: The tulip tree
is one of the hu'sest, stateUest and
taUest of our trees.

Range: Eastern United States.

Soil and location: Requires a
deep, moist soil.

Enemies : Comparatively free
from insects and disease.

Value for planting: The tree has
great value as a specimen on the
lawn but is undesirable as a street
tree because it requires considerable
moisture and transplants w i t h
difficult}'. It should be planted
while 5'oung and where it can
obtain plenty of light. It grows
rapidly.

Commercial value: The w^ood
is commercially known as whitewood
and ijelloiv po])Iar. It is light, soft,
not strong and easily worked. It
is used in construction, for inte-
rior finish of houses, Avoodenware
and shingles. It has a medicinal
value.

Other characters: The flower,
shown in Fig. 75, is greenish yel-
low in color, appears in May and
resembles a tulip; hence the name
tulip tree. The fruit is a cone.

Other common names: White-
wood; yellow poplar; poplar and
tulip poplar.

SWEET GUM

SWEET GUM (Li'mdambar styracijliia)

Distinguishing characters: The persistent, spiny, long-
stemmed round fruit; the corky growths on the twigs, the

Fig. 75.— Leaf and Flower of the Tulip Tree.

characteristic star-shaped leaves (Fig. 76) and the very
shiny greenish brown buds and the perfect symmetry of

STUDIES OF TREES

the tree are the chief characters by which to identify
the species.

Form and size: The sweet gum has a beautiful sym-
metrical shape, forming a true monopodium.

Fig. 76. — Leaf and Fruit of the Sweet Gum.
Note the corky ridges along the twig.

Range: From Connecticut to Florida and west to
Missouri.

Soil and location: Grows in any good soil but prefers
low wet ground. It grows rapidly and needs plenty of
light.

AMERICAN LINDEN

Enemies: Is very often a favorite of
leaf-eating caterpillars.

Value for planting: The tree is
sought for the brilliant color of its foliage
in the fall, and is suital)le for planting
both on the lawn and street. In grow-
ing the tree for ornamental purposes it
is important that it should be fre-
quently transplanted in the nursery and
that ^it be transported with burlap wrap-
ping around its roots.

Commercial value: The wood is
reddish brown in color, tends to splin-
ter and is inclined to warp in drying.
It is used in cooperage, veneer work and
for interior finish.

Other characters: On the smaller
branches there are irregular develop-
ments of cork as shown in Fig. 7G,
projecting in some cases to half an inch
in thickness.

Other common names: Red gum.

Comparisons : The cork elm is another
tree that possesses corky ridges along its
twigs, but this differs from the sweet gum
in wanting the spiny fruit and its other
distinctive traits.

AMERICAN LINDEN {Tilia Amencana)

Distinguishing characters: The great

distinguishing feature of any linden is

the one-sided character of its bud and

Fi(i. 77. — Bud of
the Linden Tree,

STUDIES OF TREES

leaf. The bud, dark red and conical, carries a sort
of iirotul)erance which makes it extremely one sided as
shown in Fig. 77. The leaf, Fig. 78, is heart-shaped with
tiie side nearest the branch largest.

Fig. 78. — Leaves and Flowers of the European Linden.

Form and size: The American Linden is a medium-
sized tree with a inroad round head.

Range: Eastern North America and more common in
the north than in the south.

Soil and location: Requires a rich, moist soil.

AMERICAN LINDEN

Fig, 79. — European Linden Tree.

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 80.— Bud of the
Umbrella Tree.

Enemies: Its leaves are a
f a V o r i t e food of caterpillars
and its wood is frequently
attacked by a boring insect
known as the linden borer {Sa-
perdo vestita).

Value for planting: The lin-
den is easil}^ transplanted and
grows rapidly. It is used for
lawn and street planting ]>ut is
less desiralile for these purposes
than the European species.

Commercial value : The wood
is light and soft and used for paper
pulp, Avoodenware, cooperage and
furniture. The tree is a favorite
with bee keepers on account of
the large quantities of nectar
contained in its flowers.

Other characters: The fruit
is like a pea, gray and woody.
The flowers appear in early Julj^,
are greenish-yellow and very fra-
grant.

Other common names: Bass-
irood; lime-tree; whitewood.

Comparisons : The European
lindens, Fig. 79, of which there
are several species under cultiva-
t i o n , differ from the native
species in having buds and leaves
smaller in size, more numerous
and darker in color.

CUCUMBER TREE

THE MAGNOLIAS

The various species of
magnolia trees are readily
distinguished by their buds.
They all prefer moist, rich
soil and have their princi-
pal value as decorative trees
on the lawn. They are dis-
tinctly southern trees; some
species under cultivation in
the United States come from
Asia, but the two most
commonly grown in the
Eastern States are the cu-
cumber tree and the um-
brella tree.

CUCUMBER TREE {Mag-
nolia acuminata)

Distinguishmg charac-
ters : The buds are small and
slender compared with those
of the other magnolia trees
and are covered with small
silvery silky hairs. The
habit of the tree is to form
a straight axis of great
height with a symmetrical

mass of branches, producing a perfect monopodial crown.
The tree is sometimes known as mountain magnolia.

Fig. 81.— Bark of the Black
Locust.

100 STUDIES OF TREES

UMBRELLA TREE {Magnolia tripetala)

Distinguishing characters: The buds, Fig. 80, are
extremcl}- long, often one and a half inches, have a purple
color and arc smooth. The tree does not grow to large
size and ])roduces an open spreading head. Its leaves,
twelve to eighteen inches long, are larger than those of the
other magnolia trees. The tree is sometimes called elkwood.

BLACK LOCUST {Robinia pseudacacia)

Distinguishing characters: The bark of the trunk is
rough and deeply ridged, as shown in Fig. 8L The buds
are hardhj noticeable and often bear small spines on one
side. The leaves are small, delicate and fern-like.

Form and size: The locust is a medium-sized tree
developing a slender straight trunk when grown alongside
of others; see Fig. 82.

Range: Canada and United States.

Soil and location: The locust will grow on almost
any soil except a wet, heavy one. It requires plenty of
light.

Enemies: The locust borer has done serious damage to
this tree. The grubs of this insect burrow in the sapwood
and kill the tree or make it unfit for commercial use. The
locust miner is a beetle which is now annually defoliating
trees of this species in large numbers.

Value for planting: It has little value for ornamental
planting.

Commercial value: Though short-lived, the locust
grows very rapidly. It is extremely durable in contact

COMMON LOCUST

101

with the soil and possesses great strength. It is there-
fore extensively grown for fence-posts and railroad ties.
Locust posts will last from fifteen to twenty years. The
wood is valuable for fuel.

Other characters: The flowers are showy pea-shaped

v>v

•**.

W^J^^*^ ^'^^^<'% s:^-*''^'is^^ 4

v-^

Fig. 82. — Black Locust Trees.

panicles appearing in May and June. The fruit is a small
pod.

Other common names: Yellow locust; common locust;
locust.

102

STl'DTES OF TREES

Comparisons: The homy locust {Gkditsia triacanthos)
can be toUl from the black locust by the differences

in their bark. In the
honey locust the bark is
not ridged, has a sort
of dark iron-gray color
and is often covered
with clusters of stout,
sharp-pointed thorns as
in Fig. 83. The fruit is
a large pod often remain-
ing on the tree through
the winter. This tree
has an ornamental, but
no commercial value.

HARDY CATALPA

{Catalpa speciosa)

Distinguishing char-
acters: The tree may
, ,. --^ be told by its fruit,

(^ 'ij^^ j^ which hang in long

■^ ^^' ■- '' * ^ slender pods all winter.

The leaf-scars appear
on the stem in whorls
of three and rarely op-
posite each other.

Form and size: The catalpa has a short, thick and
twisted trunk with an irregular head.

Range: Central and eastern United States.

Fig. 83.

-Bark of the Honey
Locust.

HARDY CATALPA

103

Fig. 84. — Hardy Catalpa Trees.

104

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 85.— Bark of the Flowering
Dogwood.

Soil and location:
It grows naturally on
low bottom-lands but
will also do wvW in poor,
dry soils.

Enemies: Practically
free from disease and
insects.

Value for planting:
The catalpa grows very
rapidly and is cultivated
in parks for ornament
and in groves for com-
mercial purposes. The
hardy catalpa is pref-
erable to the common
catalpa for planting.

Commercial value :
The wood is extremely
durable in contact with
the soil and is conse-
cpiently used for posts
and railroad ties.

Other characters :
The flowers, which
appear in late June and
early July, are large,
white and very showy.
Other common

names: Indian bean; western catalpa.

Comparisons: The white flowering dog ivood {Cornus flor-
ida) is a small tree which also has its leaves in whorls of three:
or sometimes opposite. It can be readily told from other

WHITE MULBERRY 105

trees, however, by the small square plates into which the
outer bark on the trunk divides itself, see Fig. 85, and
by the characteristic drooping character of its branches.
It is one of the most common plants in our eastern deciduous
forests. It is extremely beautiful both in the spring and
in the fall and is frequently planted for ornament. There
are many varieties of dogwood in common use.

WHITE MULBERRY {Morus alba)

A small tree recognized by its stnall round reddish brown
buds and light brown, finely furrowed (wavy looking) bark.

The tree, probably a native of China, is grown under
cultivation in eastern Canada and United States. It grows
rapidly in moist soil and is not fastidious in its light require-
ments. Its chief value is for screening and for underplanting
in woodlands.

The red mulberry (Morus rubra) is apt to be confused
with the white mulberry, but differs in the following char-
acters: The leaves of the red mulberry are rough on the
upper side and downy on the under side, whereas the leaves
of the white mulberry are smooth and shiny. The buds
in the red are larger and more shiny than those of the white.

The Osage orange {Toxylon yomiferum) is similar to the
mulberry in the light, golden color of its bark, but differs
from it in possessing conspicuous spines along the twigs
and branches and a more ridged bark.

CHAPTER IV

THE STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES

To be able fully to appreciate trees, their mode of life,
their enemies and their care, one must know something of
their structure and life requirements.

Structure of trees: Among the lower forms of plants
there is very little distinction between the various parts —
no differentiation into root, stem, or crown. Often the
lower forms of animal and vegetable life are so similar
that one cannot discriminate between them. But as we
ascend in the scale, the various plant forms become more
and more complex until we reach the tree, which is the
largest and highest form of all plants. The tree is a living
organism composed of cells like any other living organism.
It has many parts, every one of which has a definite pur-
pose. The three principal parts are: the stem, the crown,
and the root.

The stem: If we examine the cross-section of a tree,
Fig. 86, we will notice that it is made up of numerous
rings arranged in sections of different color and structure.
The central part is known as the pith. Around the pith
comes a dark, close-grained series of rings known as the
heartwood, and outside the heart-wood comes a lighter
layer, the sap-wood. The cavibium layer surrounds the
sap-wood and the hark covers all. The cambium layer
is the most important tissue of the tree and, together with
part of the sap-wood, transports the water and food of

106

STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES 107

the tree. It is for this reason that a tree may be hollow,
without heart and sap-wood, and still produce foliage
and fruit.

The crown: The crown varies in form in different
species pnd is developed by the growth of new shoots from

bark

cambium

sap-wood

hrart-wocd

pith

Fig. 86. — The Cross-Section of a Tree.

buds. The bud grows out to a certain length and forms
the branch. Afterwards it thickens only and does not
increase in length. New branches will then form from
other buds on the same branch. This explains in part the
characteristic branching of trees, Fig. 87.

The leaves are the stomach and lungs of the tree.

108

STUDIES UV TREES

Their l)roa(l blades are a device to catch tlie sunhsht
which is needed in the process of (Ugesting the food of
the tree. The leaves are arranged on the twigs in such

Fig. 87. — Characteristic Form and Branchino; of Trees.
The trees in the photograph are pin oaks.

a way as to catch the most sunlight. The leaves take
up the carbonic acid gas from the air, decompose it under
the influence of light and combine it with the minerals
and water brought up by the roots from the soil. The re-
sulting chemical combinations are the sugars and starches

STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES 109

used by the caml^ium layer in building up the body of
the tree. A green pigment, chlorophyll, in the leaf is the
medium by which, with the aid of sunlight, the sugars
are manufactured.

t:i22^

.:«»*MiS3;sc<.. -^ I

Fig. 88. — Roots of a Hemlock Tree in their Search for Water.

The chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color, and this
explains why a tree pales when it is in a dying condition
or when its life processes are interfered with. The other
colors of the leaf — the reds, browns and yellows of the
fall or spring — are due to other pigments. These are

110 STUDIES OF TREES

angular crystals of different hues, which at certain times
of the year become more conspicuous than at others, a
plienomenon wliich exphiins the variation in the colors
of the leaves durinu; the different seasons.

It is evident that a tree is greatly dependent upon its
leaves for the manufacture of food and one can, therefore,
readil}^ see why it is important to prevent destruction of
the leaves by insects or through over-trimming.

The root: The root develops in much the same manner
as the crown. Its depth and spread will vary with the
species but will also depend somewhat upon the condition
of the soil around it. A deep or a dry soil will tend to
develop a deep root, while a shallow or moist soil will
produce a shallow root. Fig. 88.

The numerous fine hairs which cover the roots serve
the purpose of taking up food and water from the soil,
while the heavy roots help to support the tree. The root-
hairs are extremely tender, are easily dried out when
exposed to the sun and wind, and are apt to become over-
heated when permitted to remain tightly packed for any
length of time. These considerations are of practical im-
portance in the planting of trees and in the application
of fertilizers. It is these fine rootlets far away from the
trunk of the tree that have to be fed, and all fertilizers
must, therefore, be applied at points some distance from
the trunk and not close to it, where merely the large,
supporting roots are located. In the cultivation of trees
the same principle holds true.

Requirements of trees: Trees are dependent upon
certain soil and atmospheric conditions which influence
their growth and development.

(1) Influence of moisture: The form of the tree and
its growth and structure depend greatly upon the supply

STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES HI

of moisture. Botanists have taken the moisture factor
as the basis of classification and have subdivided trees

Fig, 89.— Dead Branches at the Top Caused by Insufficient Water.

into those that grow in moist places (hydrophytes), those
that grow in medium soils {mesophijtes) , and those that
grow in dry places (xerophytes) . Water is taken up by the

112 STUDIES OF TREES

roots of the tree from the soil. The liquid absorbed by the
roots carries in solution the mineral salts^the food of the
tree — and no food can be taken up unless it is in solution.
Much of the water is used by the tree and an enormous
amount is given off in the process of evaporation.

These facts will explain some of the fvmdamental prin-
ciples in the care of trees. To a tree growing on a city
street or on a lawn where nature fails to supply the requisite
amount of water, the latter must be supplied artificially,
especially during the hot summer months, or else dead
branches may result as seen in Fig. 89. Too much thinning
out of the crown causes excessive evaporation, and too much
cutting out m woodlands causes the soil to dry and the trees
to suffer for the want of moisture. This also explains why
it is essential, in wooded areas, to retain on the ground
the fallen leaves. In decomposing and mixing with the
soil, the fallen leaves not only supply the trees with food
material, but also tend to conserve moisture in the ground
and to prevent the drying out of the soil. Raking off the
leaves from wooded areas, d practice common in parks
and on private estates — hurts the trees seriously. Some
soils may have plenty of moisture, but may also be so
heavih^ saturated with acids or salts that the tree cannot
utilize the moisture, and it suffers from drought just the
same as if there had been no moisture at all in the soil.
Such soils are said to be " physiologically dry " and need
treatment.

In the development of disease, moisture is a contril>
uting factor and, therefore, in cavities or underneath band-
ages where there is likely to be an accumulation of moisture,
decay will do more damage than in places that are dry
and exposed to the sun.

(2) Influence of soil: Soil is made up of fine particles

STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES 113

of sand and rock and of vegetable matter called humus.
A tree will require a certain soil, and unsuitable soils can

Fig. 90. — A Tree in the Open. Note the full development of the wide
crown with branches starting near the ground. The tree is the
European larch.

be very often modified to suit the needs of the tree. A
deep, moderately loose, sandy loam, however, which is

lU STUDIKS OF THKEfc^

suffioientl.v aerated and Avell supi^licd with water, will
support almost any tree. Too mucli of any one con-
stituent will make a soil unfit for the production of
trees. If too much clay is present the soil becomes
" stiff." If too much vegetable matter is present, the
soil becomes " sour." The physical character of the soil
is also important. By physical character is meant the
porosity which results from breaking up the soil. This
is accomplished by ploughing or cultivation. In nature,
worms help to do this for the soil, but on streets an
occasional digging up of the soil about the base of the tree
is essential.

Humus or the organic matter in the soil is composed of
litter, leaves and animal ingredients that have decayed
under the influence of Ijacteria. The more vegetaljle
matter in the humus, the darker the soil; and therefore a
good soil such as one finds on the upper surface of a weU-
tilled farm has quite a dark color. When, however, a soil
contains an unusual quantity of humus, it is known as
"muck," and when there is still more humus present we
find peat. Neither of these two soils is suitable for proper
tree growth.

(3) Influence of light: Light is required by the leaves
in the process of assimilation. Cutting off some of the light
from a tree affects its form. This is why trees grown in
the open have wide-spreading crowns with branches starting
near the ground as in Fig. 90, while the same species
growing in the forest produces tall, lanky trees, free from
branches to but a few feet from the top as in Fig. 91. Some
trees can endure more shade than others, but all will grow
in full light. This explains why trees like the beech, hem-
lock, sugar maple, spruce, holly and dogwood can grow
in the shade, while the poplar, birch and willow require

STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES 115

Pjq 91 _ — X Tree in The Forest. Note the tall stem free from
branches and the small, narrow crown.

116 STUDIES OF TREES

light. It also explains why, in the forest, the lower branches
die and fall off— a process known in Forestry as " natural
pruning." The influence of light on the form of trees
should be well understood by all those who plant trees
and by those designing landscape effects.

(4) Influence of heat: Trees require a certain amount
of heat. They receive it partly from the sun and partly
from the soil. Evaporation prevents the overheating of
the crown. The main stem of the tree is heated by water
from the soil; therefore trees in the open begin growth
in the spring earlier than trees in the forest because the
soil in the open is warmer. Shrubs begin their growth
earlier than trees because of the nearness of their crowns
to their root systems. This also explains why a warm
rain will start vegetation quickly. Too much heat will
naturally cause excessive drying of the roots or excessive
evaporation from the leaves and therefore more water
is needed by the tree in summer than in winter.

(5) Influence of season and frost: The life processes of
a tree are checked when the temperature sinks below a
certain point. The tree is thus, during the winter, in a
period of rest and only a few chemical changes take place
which lead up to the starting of vegetation. In eastern
United States, growth starts in April and ceases during the
latter part of August or in early September. The different
parts of a tree may freeze solid during the winter without
injury, provided the tree is a native one. Exotic trees
may suffer greatly from extreme cold. This is one of the
main reasons why it is always advisable to plant native
trees rather than those that are imported and have not
yet been acclimatized. Frosts during mid-winter are not
quite as injurious as early and late frosts and, therefore,
if one is going to protect plants from the winter's cold.

STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES 117

it is well to apply the covering early enough and to keep
it on late enough to overcome this difficulty.

The mechanical injuries from frost are also important.
Snow and sleet will weigh down branches but rarely break
them, while frost will cause them to become brittle and to
break easily. Those who climb and prune trees should
be especially cautious on frosty days.

(6) Influence of air: On the under side of leaves and
on other surfaces of a tree little pores known as stomata
may be found. In the bark of birch and cherry trees these
openings are very conspicuous and are there known as
lenticels. These pores are necessary for the breathing
of the tree (respiration), whereby carbonic acid gas is
taken in from the air and oxygen given out. The process
of assimilation depends upon this breathing process and it
is therefore evident that when the stomata are clogged
as may occur where a tree is subjected to smoke or dust,
the life processes of the tree will be interfered with. The
same injurious effect results when the stomata of the roots
are interfered with. Such interference may occur in cases
where a heavy layer of soil is piled around the base of a
tree, where the soil about the base of a tree is allowed to
become compact, where a tree is planted too deep, or where
the roots are submerged under water for any length of
time. In any case the air cannot get to the roots and the
tree suffers. Nature takes special cognizance of this
important reciuirement in the case of cypress trees, which
habitually grow under water. Here the trees are provided
with special woody protuberances known as " cypress
knees," which emerge above water and take the necessary
air. See Fig. 18.

Conclusions: From the foregoing it will be seen that
trees have certain needs that nature or man must supply.

118 STUDIES OF TREES

These requirements differ with the different species, and in
all work of planting and care as well as in the natural
distribution of trees it is both interesting and necessary
to observe these individual wants, to select species in
accordance with local conditions and to care for trees in
conformity with their natural needs.

CHAPTER V
WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW

The following classification will show the value of the
more important trees for different kinds of planting. The
species are arranged in the order of their merit for the
particular object under consideration and the comments
accompanjdng each tree are intended to hnng out its special
qualifications for that purpose.

Conditions for tree growth in one part of the country
differ from those of another and these lists, especially
applicable to the Eastern States, may not at all fit some
other locality.

TREES BEST FOR THE LAWN

DECIDUOUS
1. American elm
{Ulmus americana)

2. Pin oak

{Querciis palustris)

3. European linden

(Tilia microphylla)

One of the noblest of trees.
Possesses a majestic, wide-
spreading, umbrella-shaped
crown; is easily transplanted,
and is suited to a variety of
soils.

Has a s>Tnmetrical crown
with low-drooping branches;
requires a moist situation.

Possesses a beautiful shade-
bearing crown; grows well in
ordinary soil.

119

120

STUDIES OF TREES

4. Red maple
(.Acer riibrum)

5. Copper beech

{Fagns sylmtica, atropurpurea)

Coffee tree
{Gymnocladus dioicus)

7. European white birch

{Bdula alba)

8. Gingko or Maiden-hair tree

{Gingko biloba)

9. Horsechestnut

{Aesculus hippocasianum)

Shows pleasing colors at all
seasons; grows best in a fairly
rich, moist soil.

Exceedingly beautiful in
form, bark, and foliage and
possesses great longevity and
sturdiness. It is difficult to
transplant and therefore only
small trees from 6 to 10 feet
in height should be used.

A unique and interesting
effect is produced by its
coarse branching and leaves.
It is free from insects and dis-
ease; requires plenty of hght;
will grow in poor soils.

A graceful tree and very
effective as a single specimen
on the lawn, or in a group
" among evergreens; should be
planted in early spring, and
special care taken to protect
its tender rootlets.

Where there is plenty of
room for the spread of its odd
branches, the gingko makes a
picturesque specimen tree. It
is hardy and free from insect
pests and disease.

Carries beautiful, showy
flowers, and has a compact,
symmetrical low-branched
crown; is frequently subject

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW

121

to insects and disease. The
red flowering horsechestnut
{A. ruhicinida) is equally
attractive.

Fig. 92. — A Lawn Tree. European Weeping Beech.

10. Sugar maple

{Acer saccharum)

11. Soulange's magnolia

{Magnolia soulangeana)

Has a s}Tnmetrical crown
and colors beautifully in the
fall; requires a rich soil and
considerable moisture.

Extremely hardy and flow-
ers in early spring before the
leaves appear.

122

STUDIES OF TREES

12. Flowering dogwood

{Curitu6 Jlorida)

13. Japanese maple

{Acer polymorplium)

CONIFEROUS

14. Oriental spruce

{Picea orientalis)

15: Austrian pine

{Pinus austriaca)

16. Bhotan pine

{Pinus excelsa)

17. White pine

{Pinus sirobus)

18. European larch
{Larix europaea)

Popular for its beautiful
white How(>rs in the early
spring and the rich coloring
of its leaves in the fall; does
not grow to large size. The
red-flowering variety of this
tree, though sometimes not
quite as hardy, is extremely
beautiful.

It has several varieties of
different hues and it colors
beautifully in the fall; it does
not grow to large size.

Forms a dignified, large
tree with a compact crown
and low branches; is hardy.

Is very hardy; possesses a
compact crown; will grow in
soils of medium quality.

Grows luxuriantly; is digni-
fied and beautiful; requires a
good soil, and in youth needs
some protection from extreme
cold.

Branches gracefully and
forms a large, dignified tree;
will thrive on a variety of
soils.

Has a beautiful appearance;
thrives best in moist situa-
tions.

WHAT TEEES TO PLANT AND HOW

123

19. Blue spruce

{Picea pungens)

20. Japanese umbrella pine

{Sciadopitys vcrliciUata)

21. Mugho pine

{Pinus mughus)

22. Obtuse leaf Japanese cypress

(Relinospora ob(usa)

23. English yew
(Taxus baccata)

Extremely harch" forms a
perfect specimen plant for
the lawn.

Very hardy; retains a com-
pact crown. An excellent
specimen plant when grouped
with other evergreens on the
lawn. Does not grow to large
size.

A low-growing evergreen;
hardy; important in group
planting.

Beautiful evergreen of small
size; hardy; desirable for group
planting.

An excellent evergreen
usually of low form; suitable
for the lawn, massed with
others or as a specimen plant;
will grow in the shade of other
trees. There are various

forms of this species of dis-
tinctive value.

TREES BEST FOR THE STREET

1. Oriental sycamore

{Platanus orientalis)

2. Norway maple

{Acer platanoides)

Very hardy; will adapt itself
to city conditions ; grows fairly
fast and is highly resistant
to insects and disease.

Very hardy; possesses a
straight trunk and symmetri-
cal crown; is comparatively

124

STUDIES OF TREES

3. Red oak

{Quercus rubra)

free from insects and disease
and will withstand the aver^
age city conditions.

Fastest grooving of the oaks;
very durable and highly resist-
ant to insects and disease;

Fig. 93.— Street Trees. Norway Maples.

4. Gingko

{Gingko biloba)

will grow in the average soil
of the city street.

Hardy and absolutely free
from insects and disease;
suited for narrow streets, and
will permit of close planting.

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW

125

5. European linden
{Tilia microphylla)

6. American elm

{Ulmus americana)

7. Pin oak

{Quercus palustris)

8. Red maple
{Acer rubrum)

Beautiful shade-bearing
crown; is very responsive to
good soil and plenty of moist-
ure.

When planted in rows along
an avenue, it forms a tall
majestic archway of great
beauty. It is best suited for
wide streets and should be
planted further apart than the
other trees hsted above. Re-
quires a fairly good soil and
plenty of moisture, and is
therefore not suited for plant-
ing in the heart of a large
city.

This tree exhibits its great-
est beauty when its branches
are allowed to droop fairly
low. It, moreover, needs
plenty of moisture to thrive
and the tree is therefore best
suited for streets in suburban
sections, where these condi-
tions can be more readily met.

Beautiful in all seasons of
the year; requires a rich soil
and considerable moisture.

126

STUDIES OF TREES

TREES BEST FOR WOODLAND

FOR OPEN PLACES

1. Red oak

{Qmrcus rubra)

2. White pine
{Pinus strobus)

3. Red pine

[Pinus rcsinosa)

4. Tulip tree

{Liriodcudron tulipifera)

5. Black locust

[Robinia pseudacacia)

6. White ash
{Fraxinus americana)

7. American elm

{Vlmus americana)

8. European larch
(Larix europaea)

Grows rapidly to large size
and produces valual)le wood;
will grow in poor soil.

Rapid grower; endures but
little shade; Avood valuable;
will do well on large range of
soils.

Very hardy; fairly rapid
growing tree.

Grows rapidly into a stately
forest tree with a clear tall
trunk; wood valuable; requires
a fairly moist soil. Use a
small tree, plant in the spring,
and pay special attention to
the protection of the roots in
planting.

Grows rapidly; adapts itself
to poor, sandy soils. The
wood is suitable for posts and
ties.

Grows rapidly; prefers moist
situations. Wood valuable.

Grows rapidly to great
height; will not endure too
much shade; does best in a
deep fertile soil. Wood valu-
able.

Grows rapidly; prefers moist
situations.

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW

127

Fig. 94,— Woodland Trees, lied Oaks.

128

STUDIES OF TREES

FOR PLANTING UNDER THE
SHADE OF OTHER TREES

9. Beech (Fagus)

10. Hemlock

{Tsuya canadensis)

11. Dogwood

{Cornus Jlorida)

12. Blue beech

{Carpinus caroliniana)

Will stand heavy shade;
holds the soil Avell along banks
and steep slopes. Both the
American and the English
species are desirable.

Will stand heavy shade
and look effective in winter
as well as in summer.

Will grow inider other trees;
flowers beautifully in the
spring and colors richly in the
fall.

Native to the woodlands
of the Eastern States; looks
well in spring and fall.

TREES BEST FOR SCREENING

1. Hemlock

{Tsuga canadensis)

2. Osage orange

(Toxylon -pomijerum)

3. English hawthorn

{CratcBQUs ozyacantha)

4. Lombardy poplar

{Populus nigra var. italica)

Will stand shearing and
will screen in winter as well
as in summer. Plant from
2 to 4 feet apart to form a
hedge.

Very hardy. Plant close.

Flowers beautifully and
grows in compact masses.
Plant close.

Forms a tall screen and
grows under the most unfavor-
able conditions. Plant 8 to
12 feet apart.

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW 129

Quality of trees: Trees grown in a nursery are
preferable for transplanting to trees grown in the forest.
Nursery-grown trees possess a well-developed root system
with numerous fibrous rootlets, a straight stem, a syra-
metrical crown, and a well-defined leader. Trees grown in
neighboring nurseries are preferable to those groAvn at
great distances, because they will be better adapted to local
climatic and soil conditions. The short distances over
which they must be transported also will entail less danger
to the roots through drying. For laA\Ti planting, the
branches should reach low to the ground, while for street
purposes the branches should start at about seven feet
from the ground. For street planting, it is also important
that the stem should be perfectly straight and about two
inches in diameter. For woodland planting, the form of
the tree is of minor consideration, though it is well to have
the leader well defined here as well as in the other cases.
See Fig. 95.

When and how to procure the trees: The trees should
be selectfed in the nursery personally'. Some persons prefer
to seal the more valuable specimens with leaden seals. Fall
is the best time to make the selection, because at that time
one can have a wider choice of material. Selecting thus
early will also prevent delay in delivery at the time when
it is desired to plant.

When to plant: The best time to plant trees is early
spring, just before growth begins, and after the frost is
out of the ground. From the latter part of March to the
early part of May is generally the planting period in the
Eastern States.

Where one has to plant both coniferous and deciduous
trees, it is best to get the deciduous in first, and then the
conifers.

130 STUDIES OF TREES

How to plant: The location of the trees with relation
to each other should Ije carefully considered. On the lawn,
they should be separated far enough to allow for the full
spread of the tree. On streets, trees should be planted
thirty to thirty-five feet apart and in case of the elm, forty
to fifty feet. In woodlands, it is well to plant as close as
six feet apart where small seedlings are used and about
twelve feet apart in the case of trees an inch or more in
diameter. An abundance of good soil (one to two cubic
yards) is essential with each tree where the specimens used
are an inch or two in diameter. A rich melloAv loam, such
as one finds on the surface of a well-tilled farm, is the ideal
soil. Manure should never be placed in direct contact with
the roots or stem of the tree.

Protection of the roots from drying is the chief pre-
caution to be observed during the planting process, and
for this reason a cloudy day is preferable to a sunny day
for planting. In case of evergreens, the least exposure
of the roots is hable to result disastrously, even more so
than in case of deciduous trees. This is why evergreens
are lifted from the nursery with a ball of soil around the
roots. All bruised roots should be cut off before the tree
is planted, and the crown of the tree of the deciduous
species should be slightly trimmed in order to equahze the
loss of roots by a corresponding decrease in leaf surface.

The tree should be set into the tree hole at the same
depth that it stood in the nursery. Its roots, where there
is no ball of soil around them, should be carefully spread
out and good soil should be worked in carefully with
the fingers among the fine rootlets. Every root fibre
is thus brought into close contact with the soil. More
good soil should be added (in layers) and firmly packed about
the roots. The last layer should remain loose so that it may

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW

131

straight stem.

Guard, 6 ft.
high of wire
netting of small
me.sh.

I Large compact
fibrous root.

Fig. 95. — Specifications for a Street Tree.

132

STUDIES OF TREES

act as a mulch or as an absorbent of moisture. The tree
should then be tlior()uj2;hly watered.

After care: During the first season the tree should be
watered antl the soil around its base slightly loosened at
least once a week, especially on hot summer days. Where

Fig. 96. — A Home Nursery. (Austrian pines in front.)

trees are planted on streets, near the curb, they should also
be fastened to stakes and protected with a wire guard
six feet high. See Fig. 95. Wire netting of ^-inch mesh
and 17 gauge is the most desirable material.

Suggestions for a home or school nursery: Schools,
farms, and private estates may conveniently start a tree
nursery on the premises and raise their own trees. Two-

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW 133

year seedling trees or four-year transplants are best suited
for this purpose. These may be obtained from several
reliable nurseries in various parts of the country that make
a specialty of raising small trees for such purposes. The
cost of such trees should be from three to fifteen dollars
per thousand.

The little trees, which range from one to two feet in
height, will be shipped in bundles. Immediately upon
arrival, the bundles should be untied and the trees immersed
in a. pail containing water mixed with soil. The bundles
should then be placed in the ground temporarily, until
they can be set out in their proper places. In this process,
the individual bundles should be slanted with their tops
toward the south, and the spot chosen should be cool and
shady. At no time should the roots of these plants be
exposed, even for a moment, to sun and wind, and they
should always be kept moist. The little trees may remain in
this trench for two weeks without injury. They should
then be planted out in rows, each row one foot apart for
conifers and two feet for broadleaf trees. The individual
trees should be set ten inches apart in the row. Careful
weeding and watering is the necessary attention later on.

CHAPTER VI
THE CARE OF TREES

STUDY I. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES AND HOW

TO COMBAT THEM

In a general way, trees are attacked l)y three classes of
insects, and the remedy to be employed in each case
depends upon the class to which the insect belongs. The
three classes of insects are:

1. Those that chew and swallow some portion of the
leaf; as, for example, the elm leaf l)eetle, and the tussock,
gipsy, and broA\Ti-tail moths.

2. Those that suck the plant juices from the leaf or
bark; such as the San Jose scale, oyster-shell, and scurfy
scales, the cottony maple scale, the maple phenacoccus on
the sugar maples, and the various aphides on beech, Nor-
way maple, etc.

3. Those that bore inside of the wood or inner bark.
The principal meml^ers of this class are the leopard moth,
the hickory-l^ark borer, the sugar-maple l^orer, the elm
borer, and the bronze-birch l^orer.

The chewing insects are destroyed by spraying the leaves
with arsenate of lead or Paris green. The insects feed upon
the poisoned foliage and thus are themselves poisoned.

The sucking insects are killed by a contact poison: that
is, by spraying or washing the afTected parts of the tree
with a solution which acts externally on the bodies of the

134

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES

135

insects, smothering or stifling them. The standard solu-
tions for this purpose are kerosene emulsion, soap and water,
tobacco extract, or lime-sulfur wash.

Fig. 97. — A Gas-power Spraying Apparatus.

The boring insects are eliminated by cutting out the
insect with a knife, by injecting carbon bisulphide into
the burrow and clogging the orifice immediately after
injection with putty or soap, or in some cases where the

136

STUDIES OF TREES

tree is hopelossly infested, by cutting down and burning the
entire tr(>e.

Fig. 98. — A Barrel Hand-pump Spraying Outfit.

For information regarding the one of these three
classes to which any particular insect belongs, and for

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES

137

specific instructions on the application of a remedy, the reader
is advised to write to his State Entomologist or to the
U. S. Bureau of Entom.ol-
ogy at Washington, D. C.
The letter should state the
name of the tree affected,
together with the character
of the injury, and should
be accompanied by a spec-
imen of the insect, or by
a piece of the affected leaf
or bark, preferably l)y
])oth. The advice received
will be authentic and will
be given without charge.

When to spray: Iji the
cose of chewing insects, the
latter part of May is the
time to spray. The cater-
pillars hatch from their
eggs, and the elm leaf
beetle leaves its winter
quarters at that time. In
the case of sucHng insects,
the instructions will have
to be more specific, de-
pending upon the partic-
ular insect in question.
Some sucking insects can
best be handled in May or

early June when their young emerge, others can be
effectively treated in the fall or winter when the trees
are dormant.

Fig. yy. — Egg-masses of the
Tussock Moth.

138 STUDIES OF TREES

How to spray: Thoroughness is the essential principle
in all spraying. In the case of leaf -eating insects, this
means covering every leaf with the poison and applying
it to the under side of the leaves, where the insects generally
feed. In the case of sucking insects, thoroughness means
an effort to touch every insect with the spray. It should
be borne in mind that the insect can be killed only
when hit with the chemical. The solution should be
well stirred, and should be applied by means of a nozzle
that will coat every leaf with a fine, mist-like spray.
Mere drenching or too prolonged an application will
cause the solution to run off. Special precautions should
be taken with contact poisons to see that the formula
is correct. Too strong a solution will burn the foliage
and tender bark.

Spraying apparatus: There are various forms of spray-
ing apparatus in the market, including small knapsack
pumps, barrel hand-pumps, and gasolene and gas-power
sprayers. Figs. 97 and 98. Hose and nozzles are essential
accessories. One-half inch, three-ply hose of the best
quality is necessary to stand the heavy pressure and wear.
Two 50-foot lengths is the usual quantity required for
use with a barrel hand-pump. Each line of hose should be
supplied with a baml)oo pole 10 feet long, having a brass
tube passed through it to carry the nozzle. The Vermorel
nozzle is the best type to use. The cost of a barrel outfit,
including two lines of hose, nozzles and truck, should be
from $30 to $40. Power sprayers cost from $150 to $300
or more.

Spraying material: Arsenate of lead should be used in
the proportion of 4 pounds of the chemical to 50 gallons
of water. A brand of arsenate of lead containing at least
14 per cent of arsenic oxid with not more than 50 per

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES 139

cent of water should l)e insisted upon. This spray may
be used successfully against caterpillars and other leaf-
eating insects in the spring or summer.

Whale-oil soap should be used at the rate of 1^ pounds of
the soap to 1 gallon of hot water, if applied to the tree
in winter. . As a spray in summer, use 1 pound of the
soap to 5 gallons of water. This treatment is useful
for most sucking insects.

Li)ne-sulfnr wash is an excellent material to use against
sucking insects, such as the San Jose scale and other armored
scales. The application of a lime-sulfur wash when put on
during the dormant season is not likely to harm a tree
and has such an excellent cleansing effect that the benefits
to be derived in this direction alone are often sufficient to
meet the cost of the treatment. Lime-sulfur wash consists
of a mixture, boiled one hour, of 40 pounds of lime and
80 pounds of sulfur, in 50 gallons of water. It may be
had in prepared form and should then be used at the rate
of 1 gallon to about 9 gallons of water in winter or early
spring before the buds open. At other times of the year
and for the softer-bodied insects a more diluted mixture,
possibly 1 part to 30 or 40 parts of water, should be used,
varying with each case separately.

Kerosene emulsion consists of one-half pound of hard
soap, 1 gallon of boiling water, and 2 gallons of kerosene.
It may be obtained in prepared form and is then to be used
at the rate of one part of the solution to nine parts of W'ater
when applied in winter or to the bark only in summer.
Use 2 gallons of the solution to a 40-gallon barrel of water
when applying it to the leaves in the summer. Kerosene
emulsion is useful as a treatment for scale insects.

Tobacco water should be prepared by steeping one-half
pound of tobacco stems or leaves in a gallon of boiling water

HO STUDIES OF TREES

and later diluting the product with 5 to 10 gallons of water.
It is particularly useful for plant lice in the summer.

The life history of an insect: In a general way, all
insects have four stages of transformation before a new
generation is produced. It is important to consider the
nature of these four stages in order that the habits of any
particular insect and the remedies applicable in combating
it may be understood.

All insects develop from eggs, Fig. 99. The eggs then
hatch into caterpillars or grubs, which is the larva stage,
in which most insects do the greatest damage to trees. The
caterpillars or grubs grow and develop rapidly, and hence
their feeding is most ravenous. Following the larva stage
comes the third or pupa stage, which is the dormant stage
of the insect. In this stage the insect curls itself up under
the protection of a silken cocoon like the tussock moth,
or of a curled leaf like the brown-tail moth, or it may be
entirely unsheltered like the pupa of the elm leaf beetle.
After the pupa stage comes the adult insect, which may be a
moth or a beetle.

A study of the four stages of any particular insect is
known as a study of its life history. The important facts
to know about the hfe history of an insect are the stage
in which it does most of its feeding, and the period of the
year in which this occurs. It is also important to know
how the insect spends the winter in order to decide upon
a winter treatment.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES 141

IMPORTANT INSECTS
THE ELM LEAF BEETLE

Life history: The elm leaf beetle, Fig. 100, is annually
causing the defoliation of thousands of elm trees throughout
the United States. Several successive defoliations are
liable to kill a tree. The insects pass the winter in the
beetle form, hiding themselves in attics and Avherever
else they can secure shelter. In the middle of ]\Iay when
the buds of the elm trees unfold, the beetles emerge from their
winter quarters, mate, and commence eating the leaves,
thus producing little holes through them. While this
feeding is going on, the females deposit little, 'bright yellow
eggs on the under side of the leaves, which soon hatch into
small larvse or grubs. The grubs then eat away the soft
portion of the leaf, causing it to look like lacework. The
grubs become full grown in twenty days, crawl down to the
base of the tree, and there transform into naked, orange-
colored pupae. This occurs in the early part of August.
After remaining in the pupa stage about a week, they change
into beetles again, which either begin feeding or go to
winter quarters.

Remedies: There are three ways of combating this
insect: First, by sprmjing the foliage A\ith arsenate of lead
in the latter part of May while the beetles are feeding,
and repeating the spraying in June when the larvse emerge.
The spraying method is the one most to be relied on in
fighting this insect. A second, though less important
remedy, consists in destroying the pupce when they gather
in large quantities at the base of the tree. This may be
accomplished by gathering them bodily and destroying them,
or by pouring hot water or a solution of kerosene over them.

Fig. 100.— The Elm Leaf Beetle. (After Dr. E. P. Felt.)

1. Egg cluster, enlarged. 1.7. Single egg, greatly enlarged. 2. Young larva,
enlarged. 3. Full grown larva, much enlarged. 4. Pupa, enlarged. 5. Over-
wintered beetle, enlarged. 6. Fresh, brightly colored beetle, enlarged. 7. Under
surface of leaf showing larvse feeding. 8. Leaf eaten by larvae. 9. Leaf showing
holes eaten by beetles.

142

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES 143

In large trees it may be necessary to climb to the crotches
of the main limbs to get some of them. The third remedy
lies in gathering and destroying the adult beetles when found
in their wdnter quarters. The application of bands of
burlap or " tanglefoot," or of other substances often seen
on the trunks of elm trees is useless, since these bands
only prevent the larvae from crawling down from the leaves
to the base and serve to prevent nothing from crawling up.
Scraping the trunks of elm trees is also a waste of effort.

THE TUSSOCK MOTH

Life history: This insect appears in the form of a
red-headed, yellow-colored caterpillar during the latter
part of May, and in June and July. The caterpillars
surround themselves with silken cocoons and change into
pupse. The mature moths emerge from the cocoons after
a period of about two weeks, and the females, which
are wingless, soon deposit their eggs on the bark of trees,
on twigs, fences, and other neighboring objects. These
eggs form white clusters of nearly 350 individual eggs each,
and are very conspicuous all winter, see Fig. 101.

Remedies: There are two ways of combating this
insect: (1) By spraying A\-ith arsenate of lead for the cater-
pillars during the latter part of May and early June.
(2) By removing and destroying the egg masses in the fall
or A\'inter.

THE GIPSY MOTH

Life history: This insect, imported from Europe to
this country in 1868, has ever since proved a serious enemy
of most shade, forest, and fruit trees in the New England

144

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 101.— The Tussock Moth. (After Dr. E. P. Felt.)

1. Caterpillar. 2. Male moth. 3. Female moth laying eggs. 4 Cocoons.
5. Ca.st skins of caterpillar. 6. Work of young caterpillar. 7. Male pupa.
8 and 9. Girdl.'d branches.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES 145

States. It even feeds on evergreens, killing the trees
by a single defoliation.

The insect appears in the caterpillar stage from April
to July. It feeds at night and rests by day. The mature
caterpillar, which is dark in color, may be recognized by
rows of blue and red spots along its back. After July,
egg masses are deposited by the female moths on the bark
of trees, and on leaves, fences, and other neighboring objects.
Here they remain over the winter until they hatch in the
spring. The flat egg masses are round or oval in shape,
and are yellowish-brown in color. See Fig. 102.

Remedies: Spray for the caterpillars in June with
arsenate of lead and apply creosote to the egg masses
whenever found.

THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH

Life history: This insect was introduced here from
Europe in 1890 and has since done serious damage to shade,
forest, and fruit trees, and to shrubs in the New England
States.

It appears in the caterpillar stage in the early spring
and continues to feed on the leaves and buds until the last
of June. Then the caterpillars pupate, the moths come out,
and in July and August the egg clusters appear. These
hatch into caterpillars Avhich form nests for themselves
by drawing the leaves together. Here they remain pro-
tected until the spring. See Fig. 103.

Remedies: Collect the winter nests from October to
April and burn them. Also spray the trees for caterpil-
lars in early May and especially in August with arsenate
of lead.

14G

STUDIES OF TREES.

Fig. 102.— The Gipsy Moth. (After F. W. Rane Mass. State Forester.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES

147

Fernale Moth

Fig. 103.— The Brown-tail Moth. (After F. W. Rane, Mass. State

Forester.)

148

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 104. — Larva of the Leopard Moth.

THE FALL WEBWORM

The caterpillars of this insect congregate in colonies
and surround themselves with a web which often reaches
the size of a foot or more in diameter. These webs are com-
mon on trees in July and August. Cutting off the webs
or burning them on the twigs is the most practical remedy.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TKEES

149

Fiu. 105. — Branch Showing Work of the Leopard Moth Larva.

THE LEOPARD MOTH

Life history: This insect does its serious damage in
the grub form. The grubs which are whitish in color
with broM-n heads, and which vary in size from | of an
inch to 3 inches in length (Fig. 104), may be found boring
in the wood of the branches and trunk of the tree all winter.
Fig. 105. The leopard moth requires two years to com-

150 STUDIES OF TllEES

])lotc its round of life. The mat inv mot lis arc marked with
dark spots resemblino; a leopard's skin, hence the name.
Fig. lOG. It is one of the commonest and most destructive
insects in the East and is responsible for the recent death
of thousands of the famous elm trees in New Haven and
Boston. Fig. 107.

Remedies: Trees likely to be infested with this insect
should be examined three or four times a year for wilted

Fig. 106.— The Leopard Moth.

twigs, dead branches, and strings of expelled frass; all
of which may indicate the presence of this borer. Badly
infested branches should be cut off and lourned. Trees so
badly infested that treatment becomes too complicated
should be cut down and destroyed. Where the insects
are few and can be readily reached, an injection of carbon
bisulphide into the burrow, the orifice of which is then
immediately closed with soap or putty, will often destroy
the insects w'ithin.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES

151

Fig. 107.— Elm Tree Attacked by the Leopard Moth.

THE HICKORY BARK BORER

Life history: This insect is a small brown or black
beetle in its mature form and a small legless white grub
in its winter stage. The beetles appear from .June to

152 STUDIES OF TREES

August. In July they deposit their eggs in the outer
sapwood, immediately under the bark of the trunk and larger
branches. The eggs soon hatch and the gru])s feed on
the living tissue of the tree, forming numerous galleries.
The grubs pass the winter in a nearly full-grown condition,
transform to pupse in May, and emerge as beetles in June.
Remedies: The presence of the insect can be detected
by the small holes in the bark of the trees and the fine
sawdust which is ejected from these holes, when the insects
are active. It is important to emphasize the advisability
of detecting the fine saAvdust because that is the best indi-
cation of the actual operations of the hickory bark borer.
These holes, however, AA-ill not be noticeable until the
insect has completed its transformation. In summer, the
infested trees show wilted leaves and many dead twdgs.
Holes in the base of the petioles of these leaves are also
signs of the working of the insect. Since the insect works
underneath the bark, it is inaccessible for treatment and
all infested trees should be cut down and burned, or the
bark removed and the insects destroyed. This should be
done before the beetles emerge from the tree in June.

PLANT LICE OR APHIDES

These often appear on the under side of the leaves of
the beech, Norway maple, tulip tree, etc. They excrete a
sweet, sticky liquid called " honey-dew," and cause the
leaves to curl or drop. Spraying with whale-oil soap solu-
tion formed by adding one pound of the soap to five
gallons of water is the remedy.

TREE DISEASES 153

STUDY II. TREE DISEASES

Becavise trees have wants analogous to those of human
beings, they also have diseases similar to those which
afflict human beings. In many cases these diseases act
like cancerous growths upon the human body; in some
instances the ailment may be a general failing due to im-
proper feeding, and in other cases it may be due to inter-
ference with the life processes of the tree.

How to tell an ailing tree: Whatever the cause, an
ailing tree Avill manifest its ailment by one or more symptoms.

A change of color in the leaves at a time when they should
be perfectly green indicates that the tree is not growing
under normal conditions, possibly because of an insufficiency
of moisture or light or an overdose of foreign gases or salts.
Withering of the leaves is another sign of irregularity in
water supply. Dead tops point to some difficulty in the
soil conditions or to some disease of the roots or branches.
Spotted leaves and mushroom-like growths or brackets
protruding from the bark as in Fig. 108, are sure signs of
disease.

In attempting to find out whether a tree is healthy or
not, one would therefore do well to consider whether the
conditions under which it is growing are normal or not;
whether the tree is suitable for the location; whether the
soil is too dry or too wet; whether the roots are deprived
of their necessary water and air by an impenetrable cover
of concrete or soil; whether the soil is well drained and
free from foreign gases and salts; whether the tree is receiving
plenty of light or is too much exposed; and whether it is
free from insects and fungi.

If, after a thorough examination, it is found that the

154

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 108. — A Bracket Fungus {Elfvingia megaloma) on a Tulip Tree.

TKEE DISEASES 155

ailment has gone too far, it may not be wise to try to save
the tree. A timely removal of a tree badly infested with
insects or fungi may often be the best procedure and may
save many neighboring trees from contagious infection.
For this, however, no rules can be laid down and much will
depend on the local conditions and the judgment and
knowledge of the person concerned.

Fungi as factors of disease: The trees, the shrubs and
the flowers with which we are familiar are rooted in the
ground and derive their food both from the soil and from
the air. There is, however, another group of plants,^ —
the fungi,— the roots of which grow in trees and other plants
and which obtain their food entirely from the trees or
plants upon which they grow. The fungi cannot manu-
facture their own food as other plants do and consequently
absorb the food of their host, eventually reducing it to
dust. The fungi are thus disease-producing factors and the
source of most of the diseases of trees.

When we can see fungi growing on a tree we may safely
assume that they are already in an advanced state of
development. We generally discover their presence when
their fruiting bodies appear on the surface of the tree as
shown in Fig 109. These fruiting bodies are the familiar
mushrooms, puffballs, toadstools or shelf-like brackets
that one often sees on trees. In some cases they spread
over the surface of the wood in thin patches. They vary
in size from large bodies to mere pustules barely visible
to the naked eye. Their variation in color is also significant,
ranging from colorless to black and red but never green.
They often emulate the color of the bark, Fig. 110.

Eadiating from these fruiting bodies into the tissues
of the tree are a large number of minute fibers, comprising
the mycelium of the fungus. These fibers penetrate the

15(5

STUDIES OF TREES

body of the tree in all direct ions and absorl) its food. The
mycelium is the most important part of the fungous growth.
If the fruiting body is removed, another soon takes its
place, but if the entiie mycelium is cut out, the fungus

Fig. 109. — The Fruiting Body of a Fungus.

will never come back. The fruiting body of the fungus
bears the seed or spores. These spores are carried by the
wind or insects to other trees where they take root in some
wound or crevice of the bark and start a new infestation.
The infestation will be favored in its growth if the spore

TREE DISEASES

157

can find plenty of food, water, Avarmth and darkness.
As these conditions generally exist in wounds and cavities
of trees, it is wise to keep all wounds well covered with

«i

^^vi

:':^--^-' -:

Fig. 110. — The Birch-fungus rot. {Polyporus behdinus Fr.) Note the
similarity in the color of the fruiting body and bark of the tree.

coal tar and to so drain the cavities that moisture cannot
lodge in them. This subject will be gone into more fully
in the following two studies on " Pruning Trees" and " Tree
Repair."

While the majority of the fungi grow on the trunks

158 STUDIES OF TREES

ami limbs of trees, some attack the leaves, some the twigs
and others the roots. Some fungi grow on living wood
some on dead wood avi some on both. Those that attack
the living trees are the most dangerous from the stand-
point of disease.

The chestnut disease: The disease which is threaten-
ing the destruction of all the chestnut trees in America
is a fungus which has, Avithin recent years, assumed such
vast proportions that it deserves special comment. The
fungus is known as Diaporthe parasitica (Murrill), and was
first observed in the vicinity of New York in 1905. At that
time only a few trees were known to have been killed by
this disease, but now the disease has advanced over the
whole chestnut area in the United States, reaching as far
south as Virginia and as far west as Buffalo. Fig. Ill
shows the result of the chestnut disease.

The fungus attacks the cambium tissue underneath
the bark. It enters through a wound in the bark and
sends its fungous threads from the point of infection all
around the trunk until the latter is girdled and killed.
This may all happen within one season. It is not until
the tree has practicallx^ been destroyed that the disease
makes its appearance on the surface of the bark in the
form of brown patches studded with little pustules that
carry the spores. When once girdled, the tree is killed
above the point of infection and everything above dies,
while some of the twigs below may live until they are
attacked individually by the disease or until the trunk
below their origin is infected.

All species of chestnut trees are subject to the disease.
The Japanese and Spanish varieties appear to be highly
resistant, but are not immune. Other species of trees
besides chestnuts are not subject to the disease.

TREE DISEASES

159

There is no remedy or preventive for this disease. From
the nature of its attack, which is on the inner layer of the

Fig. 111. — Chestnut Trees Killed by the Chestnut Disease.

tree, it is evident that all applications of fungicides, which
must necessarily be applied to the outside of the tree,
will not reach the disease. Injections are impossible and

160 STUDIES OF TREES

other suggested remedies, such as boring holes in the wood
for the purpose of inserting chemicals, are futile.

The wood of the chestnut tree, within three or four years
after its death, is still sound and may be used for telephone
and telegraph poles, posts, railroad ties, lumber and
firewood.

Spraying for fungous diseases : Where a fungous disease
is attacking the leaves, fruit, or twigs, spraying with
Bordeaux mixture may prove effective. The application
of Bordeaux mixture is deterrent rather than remedial,
and should therefore be made immediately before the
disease appears. The nature of the disease and the time
of treatment can be determined without cost, by submitting
specimens of affected portions of the plant for analysis
and advice to the State Agricultural Experiment Station
or to the United States Department of Agriculture.

Bordeaux mixture, the standard fungicide material,
consists of a solution of 6 pounds of copper sulphate (blue
vitriol) with 4 pounds of slaked lime in 50 gallons of
water. It may be purchased in prepared form in the open
market, and when properly made, has a brilliant sky-blue
color. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture should be done
in the fall, early spring, or early summer, but never during
the period when the trees are in bloom.

STUDY III. PRUNING TREES

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

Trees are very much like human beings in their require-
ments, mode of life and diseases, and the general principles
applicable to the care of one are equally important to the
intelligent treatment of the other. The removal of limbs

PRUNING TREES

161

from trees, as well as from human beings, must be done
sparingly and judiciously. Wounds, in both trees and

Fig. 112. — A Tree Pruned Improperly and too Severel}\

human beings, must be disinfected and dressed to keep out
all fungus or disease germs. Fungous growths of trees
are similar to human cancers, both in the manner of their

162 STUDIES OF TREES

development and the 8ursieal treatment wliich they require.
Improper pruning will invite fungi and insects to the tree,
hence the importance of a knowledge of fundamental
principles in this branch of tree care.

Time: Too much pruning at one time should never
be practiced (Fig. 112), and no branch should be removed
from a tree without good reason for so doing. Dead and
broken branches should be removed as soon as observed,
regardless of any special pruning season, because they are
dangerous, unsightly and carry insects and disease into the
heart of the tree. But all other pruning, wdiether it be for
the purpose of perfecting the form in shade trees, or for
increasing the production of fruit in orchard trees, should
be confined to certain seasons. Shade and ornamental
trees can best be pruned in the fall, while the leaves are
still on the tree and wdiile the tree itself is in practically
a dormant state.

Proper cutting: All pruning should be commenced
at the top of the tree and finished at the bottom. A
shortened branch (excepting in poplars and willows, w^hich
should be cut in closely) should terminate in small twigs
which may draw the sap to the freshly cut wound; where
a branch is removed entirely, the cut should be made
close and even with the trunk, as in Fig. 113. Wher-
ever there is a stub left after cutting off a branch, the
growing tissue of the tree cannot cover it and the stub
eventually decays, falls out and leaves a hole (see Fig.
114), which serves to carry disease and insects to the
heart of the tree. This idea of close cutting cannot be
over-emphasized.

Where large branches have to be removed, the splitting
and ripping of the bark along the trunk is prevented bj''
making one cut beneath the branch, about a foot or two

PRUNING TREES

163

away from the trunk, and then another above, close to the
trunk.

Fig. 113.— Branches Properly Cut Close to the Trunk.

Too severe pruning: In pruning trees, many people
have a tendency to cut them back so severely as to remove
everything but the bare trunk and a few of the main

1G4

STUDIES UF TKEES

branches. This process is known as " heading })ack." It
is a method, however, whicli shouhl not be resorted to
except in trees that are very ohl and faihng, and even
there only with certain species, hke the silver maple, syca-

FiG. 114. — ^A Limb Improperly Cut. Note how the stub is decaying
and the resulting cavity is becoming diseased.

more, linden and elm. Trees like the sugar maple will not
stand this treatment at all. The willow is a tree that
will stand the process very readily and the Carolina poplar
must be cut back ever}'- few years, in order to keep its crown
from becoming too tall, scraggy and unsafe.

Covering wounds: The importance of immediately

PRUNING TREES

165

covering all wounds with coal tar cannot be overstated.
If the wound is not tarred, the exposed wood cracks, as in
Fig. 115, providing suitable quarters for disease germs
that will eventually destroy the body of the tree. Coal tar

Fig. 115. — Result of a Wound not Covered with Coal Tar.
The exposed wood cracked and decay set in.

is by far preferable to paint and other substances for covering
the wound. The tar penetrates the exposed wood, pro-
ducing an antiseptic as well as a protective effect. Paint
only forms a covering, which may peel off in course of time
and which will later protrude from the cut, thus forming,
between the paint and the wood, a suitable breeding place

166 STUDIES OF TREES

for the development of destructive fungi or disease. The
application of tin covers, burlap, or other bandages to the
wound is equally futile and in most cases even injurious.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Prunixig shade trees: Here, the object is to produce a
symmetrical crown and to have the lowest branches raised
from the ground sufficiently high to enable pedestrians
to pass under with raised umbrellas. Such pruning should,
therefore, necessarily be light and confined to the low
limbs and dead branches.

Pruning lawn trees: Here the charm of the tree lies
in the low reach of the branches and the compactness
of the crown. The pruning should, therefore, be limited
to the removal of dead and diseased branches only.

Pruning forest trees : Forest trees have a greater com-
mercial value when their straight trunks are free from
branches. In the forest, nature generally accomplishes this
result and artificial pruning seldom has to be resorted to.
Trees in the forest grow so closely together that they shut out
the sunlight from their lower limbs, thus causing the latter
to die and fall off. This is known as natural pruning. In
some European forests, nature is assisted in its pruning by
workmen, who saw off the side branches before they fall
of their own accord; but in this country such practice would
be considered too expensive, hence it is seldom adopted.

TOOLS USED IN PRUNING

Good tools are essential for quick and effective work in
pruning. Tv.o or- three good saws, a pair of pole-shears, a
i:ole-saw, a 16-foot single ladder, a 40-foot extension ladder

PRUNING TREES 167

of light spruce or pine with hickory rungs, a good pruning
knife, plenty of coal tar, a fire-can to heat the tar, a pole-
brush, a small hand brush and plentj^ of good rope com-
prise the principal equipment of the pruner.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SAFETY OF TREE CLIMBERS

1. Before climbing a tree, judge its general condition.
The trunk of a tree that shows age, disease, or \\'ood-
destroying insects generally has its branches in an ccjually
unhealthy condition.

2. The different kinds of wood naturally differ in their
strength and elasticity. The soft and brash woods need
greater precautions than the strong and plial^le ones. The
wood of all the poplars, the ailanthus, the silver maple
and the chestnut, catalpa and willow is either too soft or
too l^rittle to be depended upon without special care. The
elm, hickory and oak have strong, flexiljle woods and are,
therefore, safer than others. The red oak is w^eaker than the
other oaks. The sjxamore and beech have a tough, cross-
grained wood which is fairly strong. The linden has a
soft wood, while the ash and gum, though strong and flexible,
are apt to split.

3. Look out for a liml) that shows fungous growths.
Every fungus sends fibers into the main body of the liml)
which draw out its sap. The interior of the branch then
loses its strength and becomes like a powder. Outside
appearances sometimes do not show the interior condition,
but one should regard a fungus as a danger sign.

4. When a limb is full of holes or knots, it generally
indicates that borers have been working all kinds of gal-
leries through it, making it unsafe. The silver maple and
sycamore maple are especially subject to borers which,

lOS STUDIES OF TKEES

in many cases, work on the under side of the branch so tluit
the man in the tree looking down cannot see its dangerous
eonchtion.

5. A dead Hmb with the bark faUing off indicates that it
died at least three months Ijefore and is, therefore, less
safe than one with its bark tightly adhering to it.

6. Branches are more apt to snap on a frosty day when
they are covered with an icy coating than on a warm
summer day.

7. Always use the pole-saw and pole-shears on the tips
of long branches, and use the pole-hook in removing dead
branches of the ailanthus and other brittle trees where it
would be too dangerous to reach them otherwise.

8. Be sure of the strength of a branch before tying an
extension ladder to it.

STUDY IV. TREE REPAIR

Where trees have been properly cared for from their
early start, wounds and cavities and their subsequent
elaborate treatment have no place. But where trees have
been neglected or improperly cared for, wounds and cavities
are bound to occur and early treatment becomes a necessity.

There are two kinds of wounds on trees: (1) surface
wounds, which do not extend beyond the inner bark, and
(2) deep wounds or cavities, which may range from a small
hole in a crotch to the hollow of an entire trunk.

Surface wounds: Surface wounds (Fig. 116) are due
to bruised l)ark, and a tree thus injured can no longer pro-
duce the proper amount of foliage or remain healthy very
long. The reason for this becomes very apparent when
one looks into the nature of the living or active tissue of a

TREE REPAIR

169

tree and notes how this tissue be-
comes affected by such injuries.

This Hving or active tissue is
known as the '' cambium layer,"
and is a thin tissue situated
immediately under the bark.
It must completely envelop the
stem, root and branches of the
trees. The outer bark is a
protective covering to this liv-
ing layer, while the entire inte-
rior wood tissue chiefly serves
as a skeleton or support for
the tree. The cambium layer
is the real, active part of the
tree. It is the part which
transmits the sap from the base
of the tree to its crown; it is
the part which causes the tree
to grow by the formation of new
cells, piled up in the form of
rings around the heart of the
tree; and it is also the part
which prevents the entrance of
insects and disease to the inner
wood. From this it is quite
evident that any injury to the
bark, and consequently to this
cambium layer alongside of it,

will not only cut off a portion of the sap supply and
hinder the growth of the tree to an extent proportional
to the size of the wound, but will also expose the inner wood
to the action of decay. The wound may, at first, appear

Fig. 116. — A Surface Wound
Properly Freed from De-
cayed Wood and Covered
with Coal Tar.

170 STUDIES OF TREES

insignificant, but, if negloctod, it will soon commence to
decay antl thus to carry disease and insects into tlie tree.
The tree then becomes hollow and tlangerous and its life
is doomed.

Injury to the cambium layer, resulting in surface wounds,
may be due to the improper cutting of a branch, to the
1 ite of a iiorse, to the cut of a knife or the careless wielding
of an axe, to the boring of an insect, or to the decay of a
fungous disease. (See Fig. 117.) Whatever the cause,
the remedy lies in cleaning out all decayed ivuod, removing
the loose bark and covering the exposed wood with coal tar.

In cutting off the loose bark, the edges should be made
smooth before the coal tar is applied. Loose bark, put
back against a tree, will never grow and will only tend to
harbor insects and disease. Bandages, too, are hurtful
because, underneath the bandage, disease will develop more
rapidly than where the wound is exposed to the sun and wind.
The application of tin or manure to w^ounds is often indulged
in and is eciually injurious to the tree. The secret of all
wound treatment is to keep the wound smooth, clean to the
live tissue, and well covered with coal tar.

The chisel or gouge is the best tool to employ in this
work. A sharp hawk-billed knife will be useful in cutting
off the loose bark. Coal tar is the best material for cover-
ing wounds because it has both an antiseptic and a pro-
tective effect on the wood tissue. Paint, which is very
often used as a substitute for coal tar, is not as effective,
because the paint is apt to peel in time, thus allowing
moisture and disease to enter the crevice between the
paint and the wood.

Cavities: Deep wounds and cavities are generally the
result of stubs that have been permitted to rot and fall out.
Surface wounds allowed to decay will deepen in course of

TEEE REPAIR

171

Fig. 117. — A Neglected Surface Wound. Note the rough surface of
the wound, the want of a coal tar covering and the fungous growth
that followed.

172 STUDIES OF TREES

time and produce cavities. Cavities in trees are especially
susceptible to the attack of disease because, in a cavity,
there is bound to exist an accumulation of moisture. With
this, there is also considerable darkness and protection
from wind and cold, and these are all ideal conditions for
the development of disease.

The successful application of a remedy, in all cavity
treatment, hinges on this principal condition — that all
traces of disease shall be entirely eliminated before treatment
is commenced.

Fungous diseases attacking a cavity produce a mass of
fibers, known as the " mycelium," that penetrate the body
of the tree or limb on which the cavity is located. In
eliminating disease from a cavity, it is, therefore, essential
to go beyond the mere decaying surface and to cut out all
fungous fibers that radiate into the interior of the tree.
Where these fibers have penetrated so deeply that it becomes
impossible to remove every one of them, the tree or limb
thus affected had better be cut down. (Fig. 118.) The
presence of the mycelium in wood tissue can readily be told
by the discolored and disintegrated appearance of the wood.

The filling in a cavity, moreover, should serve to prevent
the accumulation of water and, Avhere a cavity is perpen-
dicular and so located that the water can be drained off
without the filling, the latter should be avoided and the
cavity should merely be cleaned out and tarred. (Fig. 116.)
Where the disease can be entirely eliminated, where the
cavity is not too large, and where a filling will serve the
y^ractical purpose of preventing the accumulation of moisture,
the work of filling should be resorted to.

Filling should be done in the following manner: First,
the interior should be thoroughly freed from diseased
wood and insects. The chisel, gouge, mall and knife are

TREE REPAIR

173

Fig. 118. — A Cavity Filled in a Tree that Should Have Been Cut
Down. Note how the entire interior is decayed and how the tree
fell apart soon after treatment.

174

STUDIES OF TREES

the tools, and it is better to cut deep and remove every
trace of decayed wood than it is to leave a smaller hole in an

Fig. 119. — A Cavity in the Process of being Filled.

unhealthy state. The inner surface of the cavity should then
be covered with a coat of white lead paint, which acts as a

TREE REPAIR

175

disinfectant and helps to hold the filUng. Corrosive subUm-
ate or Bordeaux mixture may be used as a substitute for the

Fig, 120.— The Same Cavity Troperly iilled.

white lead paint. A coat of coal tar over the paint is the
next step. The cavity is then solidly packed with Ijricks,

176 studip:s of trees

stones and mortal as in Fig. 119, and finished with a layer
of cenient at the nouth of the orifice. This surface layer
of cement should r.ot be brought out to tlie same plane
with the outer bark of the tree, but should rather recede
a little beyond the growing tissue (cambium layer) which
is situated immediately below the l^ark. Fig. 120. In this
way the growing tissue will be enabled to roll over the
cement and to cover the whole cavity if it be a small one,
or else to grow out sufficiently to overlap the filling and
hold it as a frame holds a picture. The cement is used in
mixture with sand in the proportion of one-third of cement
to two-thirds of sand. When dry, the outer layer of cement
should be covered with coal tar to prevent cracking.

Trees that tend to split: Certain species of trees, like
the linden and elm, often tend to split, generally in the crotch
of several limbs and sometimes in a fissure along the trunk of
the tree. Midwinter is the period when this usually occurs
and timely action will save the tree. The remedy lies in
fastening together the various parts of the tree by means of
bolts or chains.

A very injurious method of accomplishing this end is
frequently resorted to, where each of the branches is bound
by an iron band and the bands are then joined by a bar.
The branches eventually outgTow the diameter of the bands,
causing the latter to cut through the bark of the limbs and
to destroy them.

Another method of bracing limbs together consists in
running a single bolt through them and fastening each end
of the bolt with a washer and nut. This method is prefer-
able to the first because it allows for the growth of the limbs
in thickness.

A still better method, however, consists in using a bar
composed of three parts as shown in Fig. 121. Each of the

TREE REPAIR

177

two branches has a short bolt passed through it horizontally,
and the two short l^olts are then connected by a third bar.
This arrangement will shift all the pressure caused by the
swaying of the limbs to the middle connecting-bar. In

Fig. 121. — Diagram Showing the Triple-bar Method of
Fastening Limbs.

case of a wind-storm, the middle bar will be the one to l)end,
while the bolts which pass through the limbs will remain
intact. The outer ends of the short bolts should have
their washers and nuts slightly embedded in the wood of the
tree, so that the living tissue of the tree may eventuall}^
grow over them in such a way as to hold the bars firmly

178 STUDIES OF TREES

lU ])lace and to exclude moisture and disease. The washers
and nuts on the inner side of the hmbs shoukl also be
emljeddcd.

A chain is sometimes advantageously substituted for
the middle section of the bar and, in some cases, where
more than two branches have to be joined together, a ring
might take the place of the middle bar or chain.

Bolts on a tree detract consideral)ly from its natural
beauty and should, therefore, he used only where they
arc absolutely necessary for the safety of the tree. The}'
should be placed as high up in the tree as possible without
weakening the limbs.

CHAPTER VII

FORESTRY

STUDY I. WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES

Although Forestry is not a new idea but, as a science
and an art, has been apphed for nearly two thousand years,
there are manj^ persons who still need an explanation of
its aims and principles.

Forestry deals with the establishment, protection and
utilization of forests.

By estal)lishmcnt, is meant the planting of new forests and
the cutting of mature forests, in such a way as to encourage
a natural growth of new trees without artificial planting or
seeding. The planting may consist of sowing seed, or of
setting out young trees. The establishment of a forest by
cutting may consist of the removal of all mature trees and
dependence upon the remaining stumps to reproduce the
forest from sprouts, or it may consist of the removal of only
a portion of the mature trees, thus giving the young seedlings
on the ground room in which to grow.

By protection, is meant the safeguarding of the forest
from fire, wind, insects, disease and injury for which man
is directly responsible. Here, the forester also prevents
injury to the trees from the grazing and browsing of sheep
and goats, and keeps his forest so well stocked that no wind
can uproot the trees nor can the sun dry up the moist
forest soil.

179

180

STUDIES OF TREES

By utilization, is meant the conservative and intelligent
harvesting of the forest, with the aim of obtaining the
greatest amount of product from a given area, with the
least waste, in the quickest time, and without the slightest
deterioration of the forest as a whole. The forester cuts

Fig. 122. — ^A Forest of Bull Pine Cut on Forestry Principles. (Photo-
graph taken on the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota.)

his mature trees, only, and generally leaves a sufficient
number on the ground to preserve the forest soil and to
cast seed for the production of a new crop. In this way, he
secures an annual output without hurting the forest itself.
He studies the properties and values of the different woods
and places them where they will be most useful. He lays

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES ISl

Fig. 123. A White Fine Flantation, in Rhode Island, Where the

' Crowns of the Trees Have Met. The trees are fifteen years old
and in many cases every other tree had to be removed.

182 STUDIES OF TREES

down principles for so harvesting the timl.er and the by-prod-
ucts of the forest that there will l)e the least waste and
injury to the trees -VAliich remain standing. He utilizes
the forest, but does not cut enough to interfere with the
neighboring water-sheds, which the forests protect.

Forestry, therefore, deals with a vast and varied mass of
information, comprising all the known facts relating to the
life of a forest. It does not deal with the individual tree
and its planting and care, — that would be arboriculture.
Nor does it consider the grouping of trees for aesthetic
effect, — that would be landscape gardening. It concerns
itself wath the forest as a community of trees and wdth the
utilization of the forest on an economic basis.

Each one of these activities in Forestry is a study in
itself and involves consideral)le detail, of w'hich the reader
may obtain a general knowledge in the following pages.
For a more complete discussion, the reader is referred to
any of the standard books on Forestry.

The life and nature of 4 forest: When we think of a
forest we are apt to think of a large numljer of individual
trees having no special relationship to each other. Closer
ol^servation, however, will reveal that the forest consists
of a distinct group of trees, sufficiently dense to form an
unbroken canopy of tops, and that, where trees grow so
closely together, they become very interdependent. It
is this interdependence that makes the forest different
from a mere group of trees in a park or on a lawn. In
this composite character, the forest enriches its own soil
from year to year, changes the climate within its ow^n bounds,
controls the streams along its borders and supports a
multitude of animals and plants peculiar to itself. This
communal relationship in the life history of the forest
furnishes a m.ost interesting story of struggle and mutual

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 183

aid. Different trees have different requirements with
regard to water, food and Hght. Some need more water
and food than others, some will not endure much shade,
and others will grow in the deepest shade. In the open,
a tree, if once established, can meet its needs quite readily

i>r> tic-*

Fig. 124. — Measuring the Diameter of a Tree and Counting
its Annual Rings.

and, though it has to ward off a number of enemies,
insects, disease and windstorm — its struggle for existence
is comparatively easy. In the forest, the conditions are
different. Here, the tree-enemies have to be battled
with, just as in the open, and in addition, instead of there
being only a few trees on a plot of ground, there are thousands

184 STUDIES OF TREES

growing on the same area, all demanding the same things
out of a limited supply. The struggle for existence, there-
fore, becomes keen, many falling behind and but few sur-
viving.

This struggle begins with the seed. At first there are
thousands of seeds cast upon a given area by the neighboring
trees or by the birds and the winds. Of these, only a few
germinate; animals feed on some of them, frost nips some
and excessive moisture and unfavorable soil conditions
prevent others from starting. The few successful ones
soon sprout into a number of young trees that grow thriftily
until their crowns begin to meet. When the trees have
thus met, the struggle is at its height. The side branches
encroach upon each other (Fig, 123), shut out the light
without which the branches cannot live, and finally kill
each other off. The upper branches vie with one another
for light, grow unusually fast, and the trees increase in
height with special rapidity. This is nature's method of
producing clear, straight trunks which are so desirable for
poles and large timljer. In this struggle for dominance,
some survive and tower above the others, but many become
stunted and fail to grow, while the majority become entirely
overtopped and succumb in the struggle; see Fig. 139.

But in this strife there is also mutual aid. Each tree
helps to protect its neighbors against the danger of being
uprooted by the wind, and against the sun, which is liable
to dry up the rich soil around the roots. This soil is different
from the soil on the open lawn. It consists of an accumula-
tion of decayed leaves mixed with inorganic matter, forming,
together, a rich composition known as humus. The trees
also aid each other in forming a close canopy that prevents
the rapid evaporation of water from the ground.

The intensity of these conditions will vary a great deal

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 185

Avith the composition of the forest and the nature and
habits of the individual trees. By composition, or type
of forest, is meant the proportion in which the various
species of trees are grouped; i.e., whether a certain section
of woodland is composed of one species or of a mixture of
species. By habit is meant the requirements of the trees
for light, water and food.

Fig. 125. — Mountain Slopes in North Carolina Well Covered

with Forests.

Some trees will grow in deep shade while others will
demand the open. In the matter of water and food, the
individual requirements of different trees are equally
marked.

The natural rapidity of growth of different species is
also important, and one caring for a forest must know
this rate of growth, not only as to the individual species,
but also with respect to the forest as a whole. If he knows

]8()

STUDIES OF TREES

liow fast the trees in a forest grow, both in height and
tUameter, he will know how much wood, in cubic feet, the
forest produces in a year, and he can then determine how
much he may cut without decreasing the capital stock.
The rate of growth is determined in this way: A tree is

Fig. 126. — Bottom Lands Buried in Waste from Deforested Mountains.
Wu-t'ai-shan, Shan-si Province, China.

cut and the rings on the cross-section surface are counted
and measured; see Fig. 124. Each ring represents one
year's growth. The total number of rings will show the
age of the tree. By a study of the rings of the various
species of trees on a given plot, the rate of growth of each
species in that location can be ascertained and, by knowing
the approximate number of trees of each species on the

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 187

forest area, the rate of growth of the whole forest for any
given year can be determined.

Forests prevent soil erosion and floods: Forests help
to regulate the flow of streams and prevent floods. Most
streams are bordered by vast tracts of forest growths.

"■r-^ r

■ -S

■1

i '■*

.,''

Fig. 127. — Eroded Slope in Western North Carolina.

The rain that falls on these forest areas is absorbed and
held by the forest soil, which is permeated with decayed
leaves, decayed wood and root fibers. The forest floor is,
moreover, covered with a heavy undergro\\i:h and thus
behaves hke a sponge, absorbing the water that falls upon
it and then permitting it to ooze out gradually to the valleys
and rivers laelow. A forest soil will retain one-half of its

188

STUDIES OF TKEES

own quantity of water; i.e., for every foot in depth of soil
there can be six inches of water and, when thus saturated,
the soil will act as a vast, underground reservoir from whic^h
the s])rine;s and streams are su])])lied (V\^. 125). Cut the
forest down and the land becomes such a desert as is shown
in Fig. 126. The soil, leaves, Ijranches and fallen trees

Fig. 128.— Flood in Pittsburgh, Pa.

dry to dust, are carried off by the wind and, with the fall
of rain, the soil begins to wash away and gullies, such as
are shown in Fig, 127, are formed. Streams generally
have their origins in mountain slopes and there, too, the
forests, impeding the sudden run off of the water which is
not immediately absorbed, prevent soil erosion.

Where the soil is allowed to wash off, frequent floods

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 189

are inevitable. Rain which falls on bare slopes is not caught
by the crowns of trees nor held by the forest floor. It does
not sink into the ground as readily as in the forest. The result
is that a great deal of water reaches the streams in a short
time and thus hastens floods. At other periods the streams
are low because the water which would have fed them for
months has run off in a few davs. The farms are the first

Fig. 129. — Planting a Poorest with Seedling Trees on the Nebraska
National Forest. The man on the right is placing the tree in a
slit just made with the spade. The man on the left is shoveling
the dry sand from the surface before making the slit for the tree.

to suffer from the drouths that follow and, during the period
of floods, whole cities are often inundated. Fig. 128
shows such a scene. The history of Forestry is full of
horrible incidents of the loss of life and property from
floods which are directly traceable to the destruction of
the local forests and, on the other hand, there are many
cases on record where flood conditions have been entirely

190

STUDIES OF TIJEEH

obviated by the planting of forests. France and Germany-
have suffered from inimdations rc^siilting from forest devasta-
tion and, more than a hundred years ago, ])()th of these
countries took steps to reforest their mountain slopes,
and thereby to prevent many horrible disasters.

How forests are established: New forests may be

Fig. 130. — Diagrammatic Illustration of a Selection Forest.

started from seed or from shoots, or suckers. If from seed,
the process may be carried on in one of three ways:

First, by sowdng the seed directly on the land.

Second, by first raising young trees in nurseries and later
setting them out in their permanent locations in the forest.
This method is applicable where quick results are desired,
where the area is not too large, or in treeless regions and

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 191

large open gaps where there is little chance for new trees
to spring up from seed furnished by the neighboring trees.
It is a method extensively practiced abroad where some of
the finest forests are the result. The U. S. government, as
well as many of the States, maintain forest-tree nurseries
where millions of little trees are grown from seed and
planted out on the National and State forests. Fig. 129
shows men engaged in this work. The fundamental prin-
ciples of starting and maintaining a nursery have already
been referred to in the chapter on " What Trees to Plant
and How."

The third method of estalilishing a forest from seed is
by cutting the trees in the existing forest so that the seed
falling from the remaining trees will, with the addition
of light and space, readily take root and fill in the gaps
with a vigorous growth of trees, without artificial seeding
or planting. This gives rise to several methods of cutting
or harvesting forests for the purpose of encouraging natural
reproduction. The cutting may extend to single trees
over the whole area or over only a part of the whole area.
Where the cutting is confined to single trees, the system is
known as the " Selection System," because the trees are
selected individually, with a view to retaining the best
and most vigorous stock and removing the overcrowding
specimens and those that are fully mature or infested with
disease or insects.

Fig. 130 is a diagrammatic illustration of the operation
of this system. In another system the cutting is done in
groups, or in strips, and the number of areas of the groups
or strips is extended from time to time until the whole
forest is cleared. This system is illustrated in Fig. 131.
Still another method consists in encouraging trees which
will thrive in the shade, such as the beech, spruce and

i' M*l .t

192

STUDIES OF TREES

hemlock, to c;row under li,t2;ht-dcmanding trees like the
pine. This system presents a " two-storied " forest and
is known hy that name. The under story often has to be
establislied l)y planting.

In the system of reproducing forests from shoots or
suckers, all trees of a certain species on a given area are

Fig. 131. — Diagrammatic Illustration of the Group or Strip System.

cut off and the old stumps and roots are depended upon
to produce a new set of sprouts, the strongest of which
will later develop into trees. The coniferous trees do not
lend themselves at all to this system of treatment, and,
among the broadleaf trees, the species vary in their ability
to sprout. Some, like the chestnut and poplar, sprout
profusely; others sprout very little.

How forests are protected: Forestry also tries to

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 193

protect the forests from many destructive agencies. Wasteful
lumbering and fire are the worst enemies of the forest.
Fungi, insects, grazing, wind, snow and floods are the other
enemies.

By wasteful lumliering is meant that the forest is cut
with no regard for the future and with considerable waste

Fig. 1.32. — The Result of a Forest Fire. The trees, lodgepole pine
and Englemann spruce, are all dead and down. Photogi'aph taken
in the Colorado National Forest, Colorado.

in the utilization of the product. Conservative lumbering,
which is the term used by foresters to designate the opposite
of wasteful lumbering, will be described more fully later
in this study.

Protection from fire is no less important than protection
from wasteful lumbering. Forest fires are very common
in this country and cause incalculable destruction to life

194 STUDIES OF TREES

and property; see Fig. 132. From ten to twelve million
acres of forest-land are burnt over annually and the timber
destroyed is estimated at fifty millions of dollars. The
history of Forestry aljounds in tales of destructive fires,
where thousands of persons have been killed or left desti-
tute, whole towns wiped out, and millions of dollars in
property destroyed. In most cases, these uncontrollable
fires started from small conflagrations that could readily,
with proper fire-patrol, have been put out.

There are various ways of fighting fires, depending on
the character of the fire, — whether it is a surface fire, burning
along the surface layer of dry leaves and small ground
vegetation, a ground fire, burning below the surface, through
the layer of soil and vegetable matter that generally lines
the forest floor, or a top fire, burning high up in the trees.

When the fire runs along the surface only, the injury
extends to the butts of the trees and to the young seedlings.
Such fires can be put out by throwing dirt or sand over the
fire, by beating it, and, sometimes, by merely raking the
leaves away.

Ground fires destroy the vegetable mold which the trees
need for their sustenance. They progress slowly and kill
or weaken the roots of the trees.

Top fires. Fig. 133, are the most dangerous, destroying
everything in their way. They generally develop from
surface fires, though sometimes they are started by lightning.
They are more common in coniferous forests, because the
leaves of hardwoods do not burn so readily. Checking
the progress of a top fire is a difficult matter. Some fires
will travel as rapidly as five miles an hour, and the heat
is terrific. The only salvation for the forest lies, in many
cases, in a sudden downpour of rain, a change of wind, or
some barrier which the fire cannot pass. A barrier of this

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 195

kind is often made by starting another fire some distance
ahead of the principal one, so that when the two fires meet,
they will die out for want of fuel. In well-kept forests,
strips or lanes, free from inflammable material, are often
purposely made through the forest area to furnish pro-

FiG. 133. — A Top Fire near Bear Canyon, Arizona.

tection against top fires. Carefully managed forests are
also patrolled during the dry season so that fires may be
detected and attacked in their first stages. Look-out
stations, watch-towers, telephone-connections and signal
stations are other means frequently resorted to for fire
protection and control. Notices warning campers and

196

STUDIES OF TREES

trespassers against starting fires are commonly posted in
such forests. (Fig. 143.)

Tlie grazing of sheep, goats and cattle in the forest is
another important source of injury to which foresters must
give attention. In the West this is quite a problem, for,

Fig. 134. — Sheep Grazing on Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado.
The drove consists of 1600 sheep, of which only part are shown iu
the photograph.

when many thousands of these animals pass through a
forest (Fig. 134), there is often very little young growth
left and the future reproduction of the forest is severely
retarded. Grazing on our National Forests is regulated
by the Government.

As a means of protection against insects and fungi, all

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 197

trees infested are removed as soon as observed and in
advance of all others, whenever a lumbering operation is
undertaken.

How forests are harvested: Forestry and forest pres-

FiG. 135. — A Typical Montana Sawmill.

ervation require that a forest should be cut and not merely
held untouched. But it also demands that the cutting
shall be done on scientific principles, and that only as much
timber shall be removed in a given time as the forest can
produce in a corresponding period. After the cutting, the
forest must be left in a condition to produce another crop

198 STUDIES OF TREES

of timber Avithin a reasonable time: see Fig. 122. These
fundamental requirements represent the difference between
conservative lumbering and ordinary lumbering. Besides
insuring a future sui)ply of timber, conservative lumbering,
or lumbering on forestry principles, also tends to preserve
the forest floor and the young trees growing on it, and
to prevent injury to the remaining trees through fire,
insects and disease. It provides for a working plan l)y
which the kind, number and location of the trees to be cut
are specified, the height of the stumps is stipulated and
the utilization of the wood and by-products is regulated.

Conservative lumbering provides that the trees shall
be cut as near to the ground as possible and that they shall
be felled with the least damage to the young trees growing
near by. The branches of the trees, after thej- have been
felled, must be cut and piled in heaps, as shown in Fig. 122,
to prevent fire. When the trunks, sawed into logs, are
dragged through the w^oods, care is taken not to break
down the young trees or to injure the bark of standing trees.
Waste in the process of manufacture is provided against,
uses are found for the material ordinarily rejected, and the
best methods of handling and drying lumber are employed.
Fig. 135 shows a typical savsmill capable of providing
lumber in large quantities.

In the utilization of the by-products of the forest, such
as turpentine and resin. Forestry has devised numerous
methods for harvesting the crops wdth greater economy
and with least waste and injurj" to the trees from which the
by-products are obtained. Fig. 136 illustrates an improved
method by which crude turpentine is obtained.

Forestry here and abroad: Forestry is practiced in
every civilized country except China and Turkey. In
Germany, Forestry has attained, through a long series of

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 199

Fig. 136. — Gathering Crude Turpentine by the Cup and Gutter
Method. This system, devised by foresters, saves the trees and
increases the output.

years, a remarkable state of scientific thoroughness and
has greatly increased the annual output of the forests of that
country.

In France, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Norway,

200 STUDIES OF TREES

Sweden, Russia and Denmark, Forestry, is also practiced
on scientific principles and the government in each of these
countries holds large tracts of forests in reserve. In British
India one finds a highly efficient Forest Service and in
Japan Forestry is receiving considera])le attention.

In the United States, the forest areas are controlled
by private interests, by the Government and by the States,
On privately owned forests, Forestry is practiced only in
isolated cases. The States are taking hold of the problem
very actively and in many of them we now find special
Forestry Commissions authorized to care for vast areas
of forest land reserved for State control. These Com-
missions employ technically trained foresters who not only
protect the State forests, but also plant new areas, encourage
forest planting on private lands and disseminate forestry
informtiaon among the citizens. New York State has
such a Commission that cares for more than a million acres
of forest land located in the northern part of the State.
Many other States are equally progressive.

The United States Government is the most active factor
in the preservation of our forests. The Government to-day
owns over two hundred million acres of forest land, set
aside as National Forests. There are one hundred and
fifty individual reserves, distributed as shown in Fig. 137
and cared for by the Forest Service, a bureau in the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Each of the forests is in charge of a
supervisor. He has with him a professional forester and a
body of men who patrol the tract against fire and the illegal
cutting of timber. Some of the men are engaged in planting
trees on the open areas and others in studying the important
forest problems of the region. Fig. 138.

Where cutting is to be done on a National Forest, the
conditions are investigated by a technically trained forester

WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES 201

202

STUDIES OF TREES

and the cutting is regulated according to his findings.
Special attention is given to discovering new uses for species
of trees which have hitherto been considered valueless,

Fig. 138. — Government Foresters in Missouri Studying the Growth
and Habits of Trees. They are standing in water three feet deep.

and the demand upon certain rare species is lessened by
introducing more common woods which are suitable for
use in their place.

Aside from the perpetuation of the national forests,

CARE OF THE WOODLAND 203

the U. S. Forest Service also undertakes such tree studies
as he beyond the power or means of private individuals.
It thus stands ready to cooperate with all who need assistance.

STUDY II. CARE OF THE WOODLAND

Almost every farm, large private estate or park has a
wooded area for the purpose of supplying fuel or for
enhancing the landscape effect of the place. In most
instances these wooded areas are entirely neglected or are so
improperly cared for as to cause injury rather than good.
In but very few cases is provision made for a future growth
of trees after the present stock has gone. Proper attention
will increase and perpetuate a crop of good trees just as
it will any other crop on the farm, while the attractiveness
of the place may be greatly enhanced through the intelligent
planting and care of trees.

How to judge the conditions: A close examination of
the wooded area may reveal some or all of the following
unfavorable conditions :

The trees may be so crowded that none can grow well.
A few may have grown to large size but the rest usually
are decrepit, and overtopped by the larger trees. They
are, therefore, unable, for the want of light and space, to
develop into good trees. Fig. 139 shows woodland in
such condition.

There may also be dead and dying trees, trees infested
with injurious insects and fungi and having any number
of decayed branches. The trees may be growing so far
apart that their trunks will be covered with suckers as far
down as the ground, or there may be large, open gaps with
no trees at all. Here the sun, striking with full force, may

204

STUDIES OF TliEES

Fig. 139. — Woodland which Needs Attencion. The trees are

overcrowded.

CARE OF THE WOODLAND

205

be drying up the soil and preventing the decomposition of
the leaves. Grass soon starts to grow in these open spaces

I'lG. 140. — First Stage of Deterioration. Tlie woodland is too oiien
and gi-ass has taken the place of the humus cover.

and the whole character of the woodland changes as shown
in Figs. 140 and 111.

Where any of these conditions exist, the woodland

206

STUDIES OF TREES

requires Immediate attention. Otherwise, as time goes on,
it deteriorates more and more, the struggle for space among
the croAvded and suppressed trees becomes more keen,
the insects in the dying trees multiply and disease spreads
from tree to tree. Under such conditions, the soil deteri-
orates and the older trees begin to suffer.

Fig. 141. — Second Stage of Deterioration. The Surface Soil of the
Wooded Area Has Washed Away and the Trees Have Died.

The attention required for the proper care of woodland
may be summed up under the four general heads of soil
preservation, planting, cutting, and protection.

Improvement by soil preservation : The soil in a wooded
area can best be preserved and kept rich by doing two

CARE OF THE WOODLAND 207

things; by retaining the fallen leaves on the ground and by
keeping the ground well covered with a heavy growth of
trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. The fallen leaves
decompose, mix with the soil and form a dark-colored
material known as humus. The humus supplies the tree
with a considerable portion of its food and helps to absorb
and retain the moisture in the soil upon which the tree is
greatl}^ dependent. A heavy growth of trees and shrubs
has a similar effect by serving to retain the moisture in the
soil.

Improvement by planting: The planting of new trees
is a necessity on almost any wooded area. For even where
the existing trees are in good condition, they cannot last
forever, and provision must be made for others to take their
place after they are gone. The majority of the wooded
areas in our parks and on private estates are not provided
with a sufficient undergrowth of desirable trees to take the
place of the older ones. Thus, also, the open gaps must
be planted to prevent the so.'l from deteriorating.

Waste lands on farms which are unsuited for farm
crops often offer areas on which trees may profitably
be planted. These lands are sufficiently good in most
cases to grow trees, thus affording a means of turning
into value ground which would otherwise be worthless.
It has been demonstrated that the returns from such
plantations at the end of fifty years will yield a six per cent
investment and an extra profit of $151.97 per acre, the
expense totaling at the end of fifty years, S307.03. The
value of the land is estimated at $4 per acre and the cost of
the trees and planting at $7 per acre. The species figured
on here is white pine, one of the best trees to plant from a
commercial standpoint. With other trees, the returns
will vary accordingly.

208

STUDIES OF TREES

The usual idea that it costs a great deal to plant several
thout?and youni!; trees is erroneous. An ordinary Avoodlot
may be stocked with a well-selected number of young trees
at a cost less than the price generally paid for a dozen good
specimen trees for the front lawn. It is not necessary to

Fig. 142. — A Farm Woudlot.

underplant the woodlot with big trees. The existing big
trees are there to give character to the forest and the new
planting should be done principally as a future investment
and as a means of perpetuating the life of the woodlot.
Young trees are even more desirable for such planting
than the older and more expensive ones. The young trees
will adapt themselves to the local soil and climatic con-

CARE OF THE WOODLAND 209

ditions more easily than the older ones. Their demand for
food and moisture is more easily satisfied, and because of
their small cost, one can even afford to lose a large per-
centage of them after planting.

The young plants should be two-year-old seedlings or
three-year-old " transplants."

Two-year-old seedlings are trees that have been grown
from the seed in seed beds until they reach that age. They
run from two to fifteen inches in height, depending upon
the species.

Three-year-old " transplants " have been grown from
the seed in seed beds and at the end of the first or second
year have been taken up and transplanted into rows, where
they grow a year or two longer. They are usually a little
taller than the two-year-old seedlings, are much stockier
and have a better root system. For this reason, three-j-ear-
old transplants are a little more desirable as stock for
planting. They will withstand drought better than seedlings.

The best results from woodland planting are obtained
with native-grown material. Such stock is stronger,
hardier and better acclimated. Foreign-grown stock is
usually a little cheaper, owing to the fact that it has been
grown abroad, under cheap labor conditions.

The trees may be purchased from reputable dealers,
of whom there are many in this country. These dealers
specialize in growing young trees and selling them at the
low cost of three to ten dollars per thousand. In States
in which a Forestry Commission has been inaugurated,
there have also been established State nurseries where
millions of little trees are grown for reforestation purposes.
In order to encourage private tree planting, the Forestry
Commissions are usually willing to sell some of these trees
at cost price, under certain conditions, to private land

210 STUDIES UF TREES

owners. Inquiries should be made to the State Forestry
Commission.

Great care must be taken to select the species most
suital)le for the particular soil, climatic and light conditions
of the woodlot. The trees which are native to the locality
and are found growing thriftily on the woodlot, are the
ones that have proven their adaptability to the local con-
ditions and should therefore be the principal species used
for underplanting. A list from which to select the main
stock would, therefore, varj^ with the locality. In the
Eastern States it would comprise the usual hardy trees
like the red, pin and scarlet oaks, the beech, the red and
sugar maples, the white ash, the tulip tree, sycamore, sweet
gum and locust among the deciduous trees; the white,
Austrian, red, pitch and Scotch pines, the hemlock and the
yew among the conifers.

With the main stock well selected, one may add a num-
ber of trees and shrubs that will give to the woodland scene
a pleasing appearance at all seasons. The brilliant autumnal
tints of the sassafras, pepperidge, l^lue beech, viburnum,
juneberry and sumach are strikingly attractive. The
flowering dogwood along the drives and paths mil add a
charm in June as well as in autumn and an occasional group
of white birch will have the same effect if planted among
groups of evergreens. Additional undergrowth of native
woodland shrubs, such as New Jersey tea, red-berried elder
and blueberry for the Eastern States, will augment the
naturalness of the scene and help to conserve the moisture
in the soil.

Two or three years' growth will raise these plants above
all grass and low vegetation, and a sprinkling of laurel,
rhododendron, hardy ferns and a few intermingling colonies
of native wild flowers such as bloodroot, false Solomon's seal

CARE OF THE WOODLAND 211

and columbines for the East, as a ground cover will put
the finishing touches to the forest scene.

As to methods of planting the little trees, the following
suggestions may prove of value. As soon as the plants
are received, they should be taken from the box and dipped
in a thick puddle of water and loam. The roots must be
thoroughly covered with the mud. Then the bundles
into which the little trees are tied should be loosened and
the trees placed in a trench dug on a slant. The dirt should
be placed over the roots and the exposed parts of the plants
covered with brush or burlap to keep away the rays of the sun.
When ready for planting, a few plants are dug up, set in
a pail with thin mud at the bottom and carried to the place
of planting. The most economical method of planting
is for one man to make the holes with a mattock. These
holes are made about a foot in diameter, by scraping off
the sod with the mattock and then digging a httle hole in
the dirt underneath. A second man follows with a pail
of plants and sets a single plant in this hole with his hands,
see Fig. 129, making sure that the roots are straight and
spread out on the bottom of the hole. The dirt should
then be packed firmly around the plant and pressed down
with the foot.

Improvement by cuttmg: The removal of certain trees
in a grove is often necessary to improve the quality of the
better trees, increase their growth, ro.ake the place accessible,
and enhance its beauty. Cutting in a wooded area should
be confined to suppressed trees, dead and dying trees and
trees badly infested with insects and disease. In case of
farm woodlands, mature trees of market value may be cut,
but in parks and on private estates these have a greater
value when left standing. The cutting should leave a
clean stand of well-selected specimens which will thrive

212 STUDIES OF TREES

under the favorable influence of more light and growing
space. Considerable tare is required to prevent injury
to the young trees wl.en the older specimens are cut and
hauled out of the woods. The marking of the trees to be
removed can best be done in summer w^hen the dead and
live trees can be distinguished with ease and when the
requisite growing space for each tree can be judged better
from the density of the crowns. The cutting, however,
can be done most advantageously in winter.

Immediately after cutting all diseased and infested
wood should be destroyed. The sound wood may be
utiUzed for various purposes. The bigger logs may be
sold to the local lumber dealers and the smaller material
may be used for firewood. The remaining brush should be
withdrawn from the woodlot to prevent fire during the dry
summer months.

In marking trees for removal, a number of considerations
are to be borne in mind besides the elimination of dead,
diseased and suppressed trees. When the marker is work-
ing among crowding trees of equal height, he should save
those that are most likely to grow into fine specimen trees
and cut out all those that interfere with them. The
selection must also favor trees which are best adapted
to the local soil and climatic conditions and those which
will add to the beauty of the place. In this respect the
method of marking will be different from that used in
commercial forestry, where the aim is to net the greatest
profit from the timber. In pure forestry practice, one
sees no value in such species as dogwood, iron wood, june-
berry, sumac and sassafras, and will therefore never allow
those to grow up in abundance and crowd out other trees
of a higher market value. But on private estates and in
park woodlands where beauty is an important consideration,

CARE OF THE WOODLAND 213

such species add wonderful color and attractiveness to the
forest scene, especially along the roads and paths, and
should be favored as much as the other hardier trees. One
must not mark too severely in one spot or the soil will be
dried out from exposure to sun and wind. When the gaps
between the trees are too large, the trees will grow m.ore
slowly and the trunks will become covered with numerous
shoots or suckers w^hich deprive the crowns of their necessary
food and cause them to "die back." Where the trees are
tall and slim or on short and steep hillsides, it is also
important to be conservative in marking in order that the
stand may not be exposed to the dangers of windfall. No
hard-and-fast rule can be laid down as to what would
constitute a conservative percentage of trees to cut down.
This depends entirely on the local conditions and on the
exposure of the woodlot. But in general it is not well to
remove more than twenty per cent of the stand nor to
repeat the cutting on the same spot oftener than once in
five or six years. The first cutting will, of course, be the
heaviest and all subsequent cuttings will becom-e lighter
and lighter until the woodlot is put in good growing con-
dition. On private estates and parks, where beauty is the
chief aim, the woodland should be kept as natural, informal
and as thick as possible. Where ihe woodland is cut up
by many paths and drives, density of veg tation will add
to the impression of depth and distance.

Protection. This subject has already been discussed
considera ly in the previous study on Forestry, and here
it becomes necessary merely to add a few suggestions with
special reference to private and park woodlands.

Guarding woodlands from fire is the most important
form of protection. Surface fires are very common on small
woodland holdings and the damage done to the standing

214 STUDIES OF TREES

vegetation is generally underestimated. An ordinary ground
or surface fire on a woodland area will burn up the leaf-
litter and vegetable mold, upon which the trees depend
so much for food and moisture, and will destroy the young
seedlings on the ground Where the fire is a little more
severe, the older trees are badly wounded and weakened
and the younger treei are frequently killed outright. Insects
and disease find these trees an easy prey, and all related
forest conditions commence to deteriorate.

Constant watchfulness and readiness to meet any emer-
gency are the keynote of effective fire protection. Notices
similar to the one shown in Fig. 143 often help to prevent
fires. It is also helpful to institute strict rules against
dropping lighted matches or tobacco, or burning brush
when the ground is very dry, or leaving smouldering wood
without waiting to see that the fire is completely out. Thera
should l)e many roads and foot-paths winding through the
woodland in order that they may serve as checks or " fire
lanes " in time of fire. These roads and paths should be
kept free from brush and leaves and should be frequently
patrolled. When made not too wide, unpretentious and
in conformity with the natural surroundings, such drives
and paths can become a very interesting feature of the
place, winding through the woodland, exposing its charms
and affording opportunity for pleasant driving and walking.
The borders of the paths can be given special attention by
placing the more beautiful native shrubs in prominent
positions where they can lend increased attractiveness.

In case of fire, it should be possible to call for aid by
telephone directly from the woodland and to find within
easy reach the tools necessary to combat fire. It is also
important to obtain the co-operation of one's neighbors
in protecting the adjoining woodlands, because the dangers

CARE OF THE WOODLAND 215

CAUTION!

Please help to prevent fire
and the destruction of plants and
animals in these woods by obser-
ving the following:

1. DO NOT Drop Burning Matches or Tobacco.

2. DO NOT Start a Fire for any Purpose.

3. DO NOT Injure the Trees or Shrubs.

4. DO NOT Shoot.

A Violation of the Above is a Violation of the Law.

OWNER

ATTENZIONE!

Siete pregati di aiutare a pre venire gl'incendi e la distru-
zione di piante ed axiimaU in questi boschi, osservaindo le seguenti
precauzioni:

1. NON gettate fiammiferi o sigari accesi.

2. NON accendete fuochi per ragione alcuiuu

3. NON rovinate gli alberi od i germogli.

4. NON sparate.

La violazione di quanto sopra e' violazione della legge.

05TRZEZENIE!

Prouf pomagac ochronie przed ogniem i zniszczeniem roslin
i zwierz^t w tym lesie przez stosoweoiie sif do nzistfpuj^cych
przepi*6w:

1. NIE wyrzucac zarz^cych tif zapatek lub tytonhi.

2. NIE rozniecac ognia pod zadnym warunldem.

3. NIE imrltadTor drzew ani krzakow.

4. NIE •trxelac.

Przekroczente powyzszych przepisow stanowi naruszenie ustawy.

I (^.^ O » » «» «» I* ■» OiO OOi W 0"0 Oii|1>'<» "»■»■<>&

Fig. 143. — Foster Suitable for Private Woodlands and Forest Parks.
The translations in Italian and Polish have been used by the writer
in this particular instance to meet the local needs.

216 STUDIES OF TREES

from insects, disease and fire threatening one bit of wood-
land area are more or less dependent u])on the conditions
in the adjoining woodland.

As to other forms of protection, i)as.sing mention may be
made of the importance of keeping out cattle, sheep and hogs
from the woods, of eliminating all insects and disease, of
keeping the ground free from brush and other inflammable
material, of retaining on the ground all fallen leaves and
keeping the forest well stocked with little trees and shrubs.

Forest lands may be exempted from taxation: In
New York and other States there exists a State law pro-
viding for exemption or reduction in taxes upon lands
which are planted with forest trees or maintained as wooded
areas. The object of the law is to encourage home forestry
and to establish fairness in the agricultural land-tax law
by placing forest lands in the same category with other
crop-producing lands. For detailed information and a
copy of the law, one should address the local State Forestry
Commission.

CHAPTER VIII

OUR COMMON WOODS: THEIR IDENTIFICATION,
PROPERTIES AND USES

Woods have different values for various practical pur-
poses because of their peculiarities in structure. A knowl-
edge of the structural parts of wood is therefore necessary
as a means of recognizing the wood and of determining
why one piece is stronger, heavier, tougher, or better
adapted for a given service than another.

Structure of wood: If one examines a cross-section cf
the bole of a tree, he will note that it is composed of several
distinct parts, as shown in Fig. 145. At the very center
is a small core of soft tissue known as the jnth. It is of
much the same structure as the pith of cornstalk or elder,
with which all are familiar. At the outside is the bark,
which forms a protective covering over the ent're woody
system. In any but the younger stems, the bark is com-
posed of an inner, live layer, and an cuter or dead portion.

Between the pith at the center and the bark at the outside
is the wood. It will be noted that the portion next to the
bark is white or yellowish in color. This is the sapwood. It
is principally through the sapwood that the water taken
in by the roots is carried up to the leaves. In some cases
the sapwood is very thin and in others it is very thi k,
depending partly on the kind of tree, and partly on it?
age and vigor. The more leaves on a tree the more sap-
wood it must have to supply them with moisture.

217

218

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 144.— Pine Wood. (Magnified 30 times.)

OUR COMMON WOODS

219

Very young trees are all sapwood, but, as they get older,
part of the wood is no longer needed to carry sap and it
becomes heartwood. Heartwood is darker than the sap-
wood, sometimes only slightly, but in other instances it
may vary from a light-brown color to jet black. It tends to

cambium layer
sapwood

medullary rays
Fig. 145. — Cross-section of Oak.

fill with gums, resins, pigments and other substances, but
otherwise its structure is the same as that of the sapwood.
The wood of all our common trees is produced by a thin
layer of cells just beneath the bark, the cambium. The
cambium adds new wood on the outside of that previously
formed and new bark on the inside of the old bark. A
tree grows most rapidly in the spring, and the wood formed

220

STUDIES OF TREES

at that time is much lip;htcr, softer and more porous than
that fornKMl hiter in the season, which is usually quite hard
and dense. These two portions, known as early wood
or spring wood, and late ivood or summer wood, together
make up one gear's growth and are for that reason called

annual rings. Trees such
as palms and yucca do
not grow in this way,
but their wood is not
important enough in this
country to warrant a
description.

If the end of a piece
of oak wood is examined,
a, number of lines will
be seen radiating out
toward the bark like
the spokes in a Avheel.
These are the medullary
rays. They are present
in all woods, but only in
a few species are they
very prominent to the
unaided eye. These rays
produce the " flakes "
or " mirrors " that make

Fig. 146.— White Oak Wood.
(Magnified 20 times.)

quartersawed (radially
cut) wood so beautiful. They are thin plates or sheets of
cells lying in lietween the other wood cells. They extend
out into the inner bark.

While much may be seen with the unaided eye, l^etter
results can be secured by the use of a good magnifying
flass. The end of the wood should be smoothed off with a

OUR COMMON WOODS

221

very sharp knife; a dull one will tear and break the cells
so that the structure becomes obscured. With any good
hand lens a great many details will then appear which
before were not visible. In the case of some woods like oak,
ash, and chestnut, it will be found that the early wood
contains many compara-
tively large openings,
called pores, as shown
in Figs. 146 and 147.
Pores are cross-sections
of vessels which are little
tube-like elements run-
ning throughout the tree.
The vessels are water
carriers. A wood with
its large pores collected
into one row or in a
single band is said to be
ring-porous. Fig. 146
shows such an arrange-
ment. A wood with its
pores scattered through-
out the year's growth
instead of collected in a
ring is diffuse-porous.
Maple, as shown in Fig.
152, is of this character.

All of our broadleaf
woods are either ring-porous or diffuse-porous, though
some of them, like the walnut, are nearly half way be-
tween the two groups.

If the wood of hickory, for example, be examined with
the magnifying lens, it will be seen that there are numerous

tsmisii^

Fig. 147. — Example of the Bla^k Oak
Group. (Querciis coccinea.)
(Magnified 20 times.)

222 STUDIES OF TREES

small pores in tho late wood, while running parallel with
the annual rings are little white lines such as are shown
in Fig. 149. These are lines of wood parenchyma. Wood
parenchyma is found in all woods, arranged sometimes in
tangential lines, sometimes surrounding the pores and
sometimes distributed over the cross-section. The dark,
horn-like portions of hickory and oak are the woodfibers.
They give the strength to wood.

In many of the diffuse-porous woods, the pores are too
small to be seen with the unaided eye, and in some cases
they are not very distinct even when viewed with a magni-
fier. It is necessary to study such examples closely in
order not to confuse them with the woods of conifers.

The woods of conifers are quite different in structure
from broadleaf woods, though the difference may not
always stand out prominently. Coniferous woods have no
pores, their rays are always narrow and inconspicuous,
and wood parenchyma is never prominent. The woods
of the pines, spruces, larches, and Douglas fir differ from
those of the other conifers in having resin ducts, Fig. 144.
In pines these are readily visible to the naked eye, appearing
as resinous dots on cross-sections and as pin scratches
or dark lines on longitudinal surfaces. The presence or
absence of resin ducts is a very important feature in identify-
ing woods, hence it is very important to make a careful
search for them when they are not readily visible.

How to identify a specimen of wood: The first thing
to do in identifying a piece of wood is to cut a smooth
section at the end and note (without the magnifier) the
color, the prominence of the rays and pores, and any other
striking features. If the pores are readily visible, the wood
is from a broadleaf tree; if the large pores are collected in
a ring it belongs to the ring-porous division of the broadleaf

OUR COMMON WOODS

223

woods. If the rays are quite conspicuous and the wood
is hard and heavy, it is oak, as the key given later will show.
Close attention to the details of the key will enal^le one to
decide to what group of oaks it belongs.

In most cases the structure will not stand out so promi-
nently as in oak, so that it is necessary to make a careful
study with the hand lens. If pores appear, their arrange-
ment, both in the early wood and in the late wood, should
be carefully noted; also whether the pores are open or
filled with a froth-like substance known as tyloses. Wood

White Ash

Black Ash

Fig. 148. — (Magnified about 8 times.)

parenchyma lines should l)e looked for, and if present, the
arrangement of the lines should be noted.

If no pores appear under the magnifying lens, look
closely for resin ducts. If these are found, note whether
they are large or small, numerous or scattered, open or
closed, lighter or darker than the wood. Note also whether
the late wood is very heavy and hard, showing a decided
contrast to the early wood, or fairly soft and grading into
the early wood without abrupt change. Weigh the piece
in your hand, smell a fresh-cut surface to detect the odor,
if any, and taste a chip to see if anything characteristic
is discoverable. Then turn to the following key:

224 STUDIES OF TREES

KEY

I. WOODS WITHOUT PORES— CONIFERS OR
SO-CALLED " SOFTWOODS "

Woods with resin ducts.

1. Pines. Fig. 144. Resin ducts numerous, prominent,
fairly evenly distributed. Wood often jiitchy. Resinous
odor distinct. Clear demarcation ijetwcen heart and sapwood.
Th(>re are two groups of pines — soft and hard.

(fl) Soft Pines. Wood light, soft, not strong, even-textured,
very easy to work. Change from early wood to late wood
is gradual and the difference in density is not great.
(Jj) Hard Pines. Wood variable but typically rather heavy,
hard and strong, uneven textured, fairly easy to work. Change
from early wood to late wood is abrupt and the difference
in density and color is very marked, consequently alternate
layers of light and dark wood show. The wood of nearly
all pines is very extensively employed in construction work
and in general carpentry.

2. Douglas fir. Resin ducts less numerous and conspicuous
than in the pines, irregularly distributed, often in small
groups. Odorless or nearly so. Heartwood and sapwood
distinct. The wood is of two kinds. In one the growth
rings are narrow and the wood is rather light and soft, easy
to work, reddish yellow in color; in the other the growth
rings are wide, the wood is rather hard to work, as there is
great contrast between the weak early wood and the very
dense late wood of the annual rings.

Douglas fir is a tree of great economic importance on the
Pacific Coast. The wood is much like hard pine both in its
appearance and its uses.

3. Spruces. Resin ducts few, small, unevenly distributed;
appearing mostly as white dots. Wood not resinous; odor-
less. The wood is white or very light colored with a silky
luster and with little contrast between heart and sapwood.
It is a great deal like soft pine, though lighter in color and
with much fewer and smaller resin ducts.

OUR COMxMON WOODS 225

The wood is used for construction, carpentry, oars, sounding
boards for musical instruments, and paper pulp.
4. Tamarack. Resin ducts the same as in the spruces. The
color of the heartwood is yellowish or russet brown; that of
the distinct sapwood much lighter. The wood is consider-
ably like hard pine, but lacks the resinous odor and the
resin ducts are much fewer and smaller.
The wood is used largely for cross-ties, fence posts, telegraph
and telephone poles, and to a limited extent for lumber in
general construction.

B. Woods without resin ducts.

1. Hemlock. The wood has a disagreeable, rancid odor,
is splintery, not resinous, with decided contrast between
early and late wood. Color light brown with a slight tinge
of red, the heart little if any darker than the sapwood.
Hemlock makes a rather poor lumber which is used for general
construction, also for cross-ties, and pulp.

2. Balsam fir. Usually odorless, not splintery, not resinous,
with little contrast between early and late wood. Color
white or very light brown with a pinkish hue to the late wood.
Heartwood little if any darker than the sapwood. Closely
resembles spruce, from which it can be distinguished by its
absence of resin ducts.

The wood is used for paper pulp in mixture with spruce.
Also for general construction to some extent.

3. Cypress. Odorless except in dark-colored specimens which
are somewhat rancid. Smooth surface of sound wood looks
and feels greasy or wax}'. Moderate contrast between early
and late wood. Color varies from straw color to dark brown,
often with reddish and greenish tinge. Heartwood more
deeply colored than the sapwood but without distinct boundary
line.

Wood used in general construction, especially in places where
durability is required; also for shingles, cooperage, posts,
and poles.

4. Red Cedar. Has a distinct aromatic odor. Wood uniform-
textured; late wood usually very thin, inconspicuous. Color
deep reddish brown or purple, becoming dull upon exposure;
numerous minute red dots often visible under lens. Sapwood

226 STUDIES OF TREES

white. Red cedar can be distinguished from all the other

conifers mentioned by the deep color of the wood and the

verj' distinct aromatic odor.

Wood larjiely used for pencils; also for chests and cabinets,

posts, and poles. It is very durable in contact with the

ground.

Western red cedar is lighter, softer, less deeply colored and less

fragi-ant than the common Eastern cedar. It grows along

the Pacific Coast and is extensively used for shingles

throughout the country.

5. Redwood. Wood odorless and tasteless, uniform-textured,

liglit and weak, rather coarse and harsh. Color light cherry.

Close inspection under lens of a small split surface will reveal

many little resin masses that appear as rows of black or aml^er

beads which are characteristic of this wood.

Redwood is confined to portions of the Pacific Coast. It is

used for house construction, interior finish, tanks and flumes,

shingles, posts, and boxes. It is very durable.

II. WOODS WITH PORES— BROADLEAF, OR SO-CALLED

" HARDWOODS "

A, Ring-porous.

1. Woods uilh a portion of the rays very larqe and conspicuous.
Oak. The wood of all of the oaks is heavy, hard, and
strong. They may be separated into two groups. The
white oaks and the red or black oaks.

(a) White oaks. Pores in early wood plugged with tyloses,
collected in a few rows. Fig. 146. The transition from
the large pores to the small ones in the late wood is abrupt.

The latter are very small, numerous, and appear as irregular
grayish bands widening toward the outer edge of the
annual ring. Impossible usually to see into the small pores
with magnifier.

(b) Red or black oaks. Pores are usually open though
tyloses may occur, Fig. 147; the early wood pores are in
several rows and the transition to the small ones in late
wood is gradual. The latter are fewer, larger and more

OUR COMMON WOODS 227

distinct than in white oak and it is possible to see into
them with a hand lens.

The wood of the oaks is used for all kinds of furniture,
interior finish, cooperage, vehicles, cross-ties, posts, fuel,
and construction timber.
\. Woods with none of the rays large and conspicuous.

(a) Pores in late wood small and in radial hues, wood
parenchyma in inconspicuous tangential lines.

Chestnut. Pores in early wood in a broad band, oval in
shape, mostly free from tyloses. Pores in late wood in
flame-like radial white patches that are plainly visible
without lens. Color medium brown. Nearly odorless
and tasteless. Chestnut is readily separated from oak
by its weight and absence of large rays; from black ash
by the arrangement of the pores in the late wood; from
sassafras by the arrangement of the pores in tlie late wood,
the less conspicuous rays, and the lack of distinct color.
The wood is used for cross-ties, telegraph and telephone
poles, i)osts, furniture, cooperage, and tannin extract. Dura-
ble in contact with the ground.

(b) Pores in late wood small, not radially arranged, being
distributed singly or in groups. Wood parenchyma around
])ores or extending wing-like from pores in late wood, often
forming irregular tangential lines.

1, Ash. Pores in early wood in a rather broad band (occa-
sionally narrow), oval in shape, see Fig. 148, tyloses present.
Color brown to white, sometimes with reddish tinge to
late wood. Odorless and tasteless. There are several
species of ash that are classed as white ash and one that
is called black or brown ash.

(a) White ash. Wood heavy, hard, strong, mostly light
colored except in old heartwood, which is reddish. Pores
in late wood, especially in the outer part of the annual ring,
are joined by lines of wood parenchj'ma.

(b) Black ash. Wood more porous, lighter, softer, weaker,
and darker colored than white ash. Pores in late wood
fewer and larger and rarely joined by tangential Unes of
wood parenchyma.

The wood of the ashes is used for wagon and carriage

228

STUDIES OF TREES

stock, agricultural implements, oars, furniture, interior
finish, and cooix'rago. It is the best wood for bent work.
2. Locust. Pores in early wood in a rather narrow band,
round, variable in size, densely filled with tyloses. Color
varying from golden yellow to brown, often with greenish
hue. A'cry thin sapwood, white. Odorless and almost

Fig. 149.— Hickory Wood. (Magnified 45 times.)

tasteless. Wood extremely heavy and hard, cutting like
horn. Locust bears little resemblance to ash, being harder,
heavier, of a different color, with more distinct rays, and
with the pores in late wood in larger groups.
The wood is used for posts, cross-ties, wagon hubs, and
insulator pins. It is very durable in contact with the
ground,
(c) Pores in late wood comparatively large, not in groups

OUR COMMON WOODS

229

or lines. Wood parenchyma in numerous fine but distinct

tangential lines.

Hickory, Fig. 149. Pores in early wood moderately large,
not abundant, nearly round, filled with tyloses. Color
brown to reddish brown; thick sapwood, white. Odorless
and tasteless. Wood very heavy, hard, and strong. Hick-

Fio. 150.— Elm. (Magnified 25 times.)

cry is readily separated from ash by the fine tangential
lines of wood parenchyma and from oak by the absence of
large rays.

The wood is largely used for vehicles, tool handles, agricul-
tural implements, athletic goods, and fuel.
(d) Pores in late wood small and in conspicuous wavy tan-
gential bands. Wood parenchyma not in tangential lines.
Elm. Pores in early wood not large and mostly in a single

230

STUDIES OF TREES

row, Fig. 150 (several rows in slii^pcry elm), round, tyloses
present. Color brown, often with reddish tinge. Odorless
and tasteless. Wood rather heavy and hard, tough, often
difficult to split. Tiie peculiar arrangenu^nt of the pores in
the late wood readily distinguishes (!hu from all other woods
except hnckherrji, from which it may be told by the fact
that in elm the medullary rays are indistinct, while they are
quite distinct in hackberry; moreover, the color of hackberry
is yellow or grayish yellow instead of brown or reddish
brown as in elm.

The wood is used principally for slack cooperage; also for
hubs, baskets, agricultural implements, and fuel.

Sycamore

Fig. 151.

Beech
-(Magnified about 8 times.)

Birch

B. Diffuse-porous.

1. Pores varying in size from rather large to minute, the largest
being in the early wood. Intermediate between ring-porous
and diffuse-jiorous.

Black Walnut. Color rich dark or chocolate brown. Odor
mild but characteristic. Tasteless or nearly so. Wood
parenchyma in numerous, fine tangential lines. Wood
heavj' and hard, moderately stiff and strong.
The wood is used principally for furniture, cabinets, interior
finish, moulding, and gun stocks.

2. Pores all minute or indistinct, evenly distributed throughout
annual ring.

(a) With conspicuously broad raj'S.

1. Sycamore. Fig. 151. Rays practically all broad.
Color light brown, often with dark stripes or " feather

OUR COMMON WOODS 231

grain." Wood of medium weight and strength, usually
cross-grained, difficult to split.

The wood is used for general construction, woodenware,
nnveltios, interior finish, and boxes.

2. Beech. With onl}- a part of the raj^s l:)road, the others
very fine, Fig. 151. Color pale reddish l^rown to white;
uniform. Wood heavy, hard, strong, usually straight-
grained.

The wood is used for cheap furniture, turnery, cooperage,
woodenware, novelties, cross-ties, and fuel. Much of it
is distilled.
(b) Without conspicuously broad raj^s.

1. Cherry. Ra^'S rather fine but very distinct. Color of
wood reddish brown. Wood rather heavy, hard, and
strong.

The wood is used for furniture, cabinet work, moulding,
interior finish, and miscellaneous articles.

2. Maple, Fig. 152. With part of the rays rather broad
and consi)icuous, the others ver}^ fine. Color light brown
tinged with red. Tiie wood of the hard maple is very
heavy, hard and strong; that of the soft maples is rather
light, fairly strong. IMaiile most closely resembles birch,
but can be distinguishetl from it through the fact that
in maple the rays are considerably more conspicuous than
in birch.

The wood is used for slack cooperage, flooring, interior
finish, furniture, musical instruments, handles, and destruc-
tive distillation.

3. Tulip-tree, yellow poplar or whitewood. Rays all fine
but distinct. Color yellow or brownish yellow; sapwood
white. Wood light and soft, straight-grained, easy to
work.

The wood is used for boxes, woodenware, tops and bodies
of vehicles, interior finish, furniture, and pulp.

4. Red or sweet gum. Rays all fine but somewhat less
distinct than in tulip tree. Color reddish brown, often
with irregular dark streaks producing a " watered " effect
on smooth boards; thick sapwood, grayish white. Wood
rather heavy, moderately hard, cross-grained, difficult to
work.

232

STUDIES OF TREES

The best grades of fiii'ured red gum resemble Circassian

walnut, but the latter has much larger jjores unevenly

distributed and is less cross-grained than red gum.

The wood is used for finishing, flooring, furniture, veneers,

slack cooperage, boxes, and gun stocks.

5, Black or sweet birch, Fig. 151. Hays variable in size

Fig. 152. — Maple. (Magnified 25 times,)

but all rather indistinct. Color brown, tinged with red,

often deep and handsome. Wood hea^y, hard, and strong,

straight-grained, readily worked. Is darker in color

and has less prominent rays than maple.

The wood is used for furniture, cabinet work, finishing, and

distillation.

6. Cottonwood. Raj'S extremely fine and scarcely visible

even under lens. Color pale dull brown or grayish brown.

OUR COMMON WOODS 233

Wood light, soft, not strong, straight-grained, fairly easy
to work. Cottonwood can be separated from other light
and soft woods by the fineness of its rays, which is equaled
only by willow, which it rather closely resembles.
The wood is largely used for boxes, general construction,
lumber, and pulp.

How to judge the quality of wood: To know the name
of a piece of wood means, in a general way, to know certain
qualities that are common to all other pieces of wood of that
species, but it docs not explain the special peculiarities of
the piece in question or why that particular piece is more
suitable or unsuitable for a particular purpose than another
piece of the same species. The mere identification of the
wood does not explain why a particular piece is tougher,
stronger or of darker color than another piece of the sam.e
species or even of the same tree. The reason for these
special differences lies in the fact that wood is not a homo-
geneous material like m-etal. Within the same tree different
parts vary in quality. The heartwood is generally heavier
and of deeper color than the sapwood. The butt is superior
to the top wood, and the manner in which the wood was
sawed and dried \\'ill affect its quality. Knots, splits,
checks, and discoloration due to incipient decay are defects
worth considering. Wood that looks lusterless is usually
defective, because the lack of luster is generally due to
disease. Woods that are hard wear best. Hardness can
be determined readily by striking the wood with a hammer
and noting the sound produced. A clear, ringing sound
is a sign of hardness. The strength of a piece of wood
can be judged by its weight after it is well dried. Heavy
woods are usually strong. A large amount of late wood
is an indication of strength and the production of a clear
sound when struck with a hammer is also an evidence of
strength.

CHAPTER IX
AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES

The importance of nature study in the training of the
cliikl is now wcU recognized. The influences of such study
from the hygienic, moral and a?sthetic point of view are
far reaching and cannot be expressed in dollars and cents.
In his association with nature, the child is led to observe
more closely and to know and to be fond of what is truly
beautiful in life — beautiful surroundings, beautiful thoughts
and beautiful deeds. He is' inspired with reverence for
law, order and truth because he sees it constantly reflected
in all works of nature. The social instinct is highly developed
and even the parents are often bettered through the agency
of their children.

The only way, however, to study nature — especially
plants — is to study it out of doors. Our present tendency
to gather in cities demands the upbuilding influences of
trips into the open in order to equip the child mentally and
physically to face the world and its work with the strength
and tenacity characteristic of the country-bred. Moreover,
the study of objects rather than books is an axiom in
modern education and here, too, we can readily see that
the best way to study trees is to take the pupil to the trees.
Such studies are more lasting than book study because
they emphasize the spirit and the goal rather than the
petty facts.

Educators and parents are now recognizing the value

234

AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES 235

of outdoor trips for their children and are beginning to
indulge in them quite frequently. In many instances
teachers about to take out their children for a day have
inquired of the writer how to go about giving a general
field lesson when they reached the park or woodland. The
purpose of this chapter is to answer such a question and
yet it is evident that it cannot be answered completely.
What to observe out doors and how to present one's impres-
sions is a broad question and varies with the knowledge
and ability of the teacher as well as with the age and experi-
ence of the children. The how and the what in nature
study is of greater import than the hard, dry facts and that
must be left entirely to the teacher. A few suggestions,
however, may not be amiss :

1. General observations with a view to character build-
ing: Fu-st of all it is important to remember that the
great value of all tree and nature study is the inculcation
in the minds of the children of an appreciation and love
for the beautiful. Inspiring them to love trees generally
means more than teaching them to know trees. Mere
facts about trees taught in an academic way are often no
more lasting than the formulae in trigonometry which most
of us have long ago forgotten. The important thing is
that permanent results be left and nothing else will produce
such lasting impressions as the study of trees out of doors.

General oljservations about trees can be made by
pointing out the beauty and character of the individual
forms and branching, their harmony in their relations
to each other as factors of a beautiful composition and the
wealth of shades and colors in their leaves, bark and flowers.
Compare, for instance, the intricate ramification of an
American elm with the simple branching of a sugar maple,
the sturdiness of a white oak with the tenderness of a soft

236

STUDIES OF TREES

maple, the ^\■\^\c spread of a ])ecch with the slender form
of a I.ombardy poplar, the upward pointing branches of a

Fig. 153. — Trees Have Individuality.

gingko with the drooping form of a weeping willoM'. At
close range, each of these trees reveals itself as an individual

AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES 237

with a character quite its own. At httle distance you
may see them grouped together, subordinating their individ-
uality and helping to blend into a beautiful composition
with a character all its own. There is nothing more inspir-
ing than the variety of greens in the spring foliage, the
diversity of color in the spring blossoms and the wonderful
display of autumnal tints offered by the sweet gum, sassa-
fras, dogwood, black gum, red maple, sugar maple, scarlet
oak, blue beech, sorrel tree, ash and gingko. The white
bark of the gray birch, the dark bark of the black oak,
the gray of the beech, the golden yellow of the mulberry
and the mottled bark of the sycamore are interesting com-
parisons. The smooth bark of the mockernut hickory
contrasts greatly with the shaggy bark of the shagbark
hickory— members of the same family and yet how different.
A wonderful opportunity is tlius offered for a comparative
study of human nature — individuality and community
life, all reflected in trees.

With this preliminary study and with the addition of
some remarks on the value of trees as health givers and
moral uplifters, the child is interested and attracted. The
lesson so far has attained its aim.

2. Specific observations with a view to training the
observative powers: The child's training in closeness of
observation and scientific precision may be the next con-
sideration. His enthusiasm will now prompt him to lend
his interest for greater detail. We can teach him to recognize
a few of the common trees by their general characters— -
an American elm by its fan-shaped form, a gray birch by
its white bark, a white pine by the five needles to each
cluster, a horsechestnut by its opposite branching and big
sticky bud and a willow by its drooping habit. After that
we may introduce, if the age of the pupils justifies, more

238 STUDIES OF TREES

details extending; to greater differences which distinguish
one species from another.

The lesson might continue by jwinting out the require-
ments of trees for water and light. Find a tree on some
slope where the roots are exposed and another which is
Ijeing encroached upon by its neighbor, and show how in
one case the roots travel in search of water and food and
in the other the ])ranches bend toward the light, growing
more vigorously on that side. Compare the trees on the
open lawn with those in the grove and show how those in
the open have groAvn with branches near the ground while
those in the woodland are slender, tall and free from
branches to some distance above the ground. Point out
the lenticels on the bark of birch and sweet cherry trees
and explain how trees breathe. Compare this process
with that of the human body. You may now come across
an old stump and here you can point out the structure of
the wood — the sapwood, cambium and bark. You can
illustrate the annual rings and count the age of the tree.
At another point you may find a tree with a wound or
bruised bark and here you can readily make a closer study
of the cambium layer and its manner of growth.

The adaptation of plants to the seasonal changes opens
another interesting field of study for beginners. If the
season is the fall or winter, note how the trees have pre-
pared themselves for the winter's cold by terminating the
flow of sap, Ijy dropping their leaves too tender to resist
the winter's cold, and by covering their buds with scales
lined with down on the inside. Observe how the insects
have spun for themselves silken nests or remain preserved
in the egg state over the winter. If the season is spring or
summer the opposite may be noted. See how everything
turns to life; how the buds are opening, the leaves

AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES 239

emerging, the sap running, seeds germinating and flowers
blooming.

The soil conditions on the lawn and in the grove furnish
another interesting feature of comparison and study. In
the grove, you can demonstrate the decomposition of the
fallen leaves, the formation of humus and its value to the
tree. The importance of the forest soil as a conservator
of water and its relation to stream flow and soil erosion
can be brought out at this juncture. An eroded bank
and a slope covered with trees and shrubs would provide
excellent models for this study. A consideration of the
economic value of the trees would also be in place.

3. Civic lessons reflected in trees: The community
life of trees in the grove, their growth, struggles for light
and food and their mutual aid can be brought out and
compared with the community life among people. The
'trees may here be seen struggling with each other for light
and food, forcing each other's growth upward, some winning
out and developing into stalwart and thrifty specimens and
others becoming suppressed or entirely killed. On the other
hand they may be seen helping each other in their com-
munity growth ))y protecting each other from windfall and
by contributing to the fertility of the forest soil in drop-
ping their leaves and shading the ground so that these
fallen leaves may decompose readily.

4. Enemies of trees : An old stump or tree may be seen
crumbling away under the influence of fungi and here the
children may be shown the effects of tree diseases both as
destroyers of life and as up-builders, because fungi turn
to dust the living trees and build up others by furnishing
them with the decomposed wood matter.

Insects too, may be invading the old dead tree, and
something of their nature, habits and influences may be

240

STUDIES OF TREES

Fig. 154. — Trees also Grow in Communities.

gone into. They may be shown as wood borers, leaf eaters,
or sap suckers, all injurious to the tree. On the other hand
they may be shown as seed disseminators and as parasites
on other injurious insects; all benefactors.

AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES

241

Forest fires as an enemy of trees might he touched upon
by noting how easily the leaves may be ignited and a sur-
face fire started when the season is dry. Top and ground fires
emanating from surface fires can then be readily explained.

5. Expression: The pupils have by this time been
taught to feel the beautiful, to observe carefully and to

Fig. 155. — Trees Blend Together to Form a Beautiful Composition.

reason intelligently and they may now be trained to
express themselves properly. Tliis may be accomplished
by asking them to remember their observations and to
write about them in the classroom. The lesson may be
supplemented with effective reading alDout trees and
forests. Interesting reading matter of this sort can be
found in abundance in children's readers, in special books

242 STUDIES OF TREES

on the subject and in Arbor Day Manuals puljlished by
the various State Education Departments.

6. Preparation: In order to save time looking for
objects of interest and for the purj:)ose of correlating the
various oliscrvations so that all will follow in orderly
sequence, it is well for the teacher or leader to go over the
ground beforehand and note the special features of interest
The various topics can then be given some thought and a
brief synopsis can be drawn up to serve as a memorandum
and guide on the trip.

It is also well to be provided with a hatchet to cut
into some decayed stump, a trowel to dig up the forest
soil, a knife for cutting off twigs and a hand reading glass
for examining the structural parts of the various objects
under observation. A camera is always a valuable asset
because the photographs hung in the classroom become
records of great interest to all participants.

7. Suggestions for forming tree clubs: A good way to
interest children in trees and nature study is to form,
among them, a Tree Club. The idea has been fully
developed in Brooklyn, N. Y., Newark, N. J., and other
cities and consists of forming cluljs of children in the public
schools and private institutions for the purpose of interest-
ing them in the trees around their school and their homes.
The members of these clubs are each given the tree warden's
badge of authority and assigned to some special duty in
the preservation of the local trees. A plan of study and of
outdoor trips is laid out for them by their director and at
stated periods they are given illustrated lectures on trees
and taken to the neighboring parks or woodlands.

INDEX

Acer negundo, 45

— platanoides, 44, 123

— I)olymorphum, 122

— pseudoi^latanus, 44

— rubriim, 120, 125

— saccharinum, 38

— saccharum, 37, 121
^sculus hippocastanum, 33, 120

— rubicunda, 121

Ailing tree, how to tell an, 153
Air, influence of, 117
Alternate branched trees, 31
American beech, 68

— elm, 47, 50, 119, 125, 126

— larch, 29

— linden, 95
Annual rings, 186, 220
Aphides or plant lice, 68, 152
Apjjle rust, 22

Arbor-vitan and red cedar, descrip-
tion of, 19

— (northern white cedar), 22
Arsenate of lead, 138

Ash, wood, 227

— black, 35, 227

— white, 35, 126
Ash-leaf maple, 46
Aspen, large-toothed, 54
— , quaking, 54
Austrian i^ine, 9, 11, 122

Bald cypress, 30
Balm of Gilead, 54
Balsam, fir, 225
'— , poplar, 54

Bark, 106

Bark, how to prevent splitting
when removing branches, 162

— or trunk, trees told by their, 59
Bass-wood, 98

Bean, Indian, 104

Beech, American, 68

— , blue, or hornbeam, 59, 70

— , copper, 120

— , European, 69

— tree, 59, 128, 231
Beetle, elm leaf, 49, 141
Betula alba, 68, 120

■ — lutea, 68

— lenta, 66

— papyrifera, 66
• — populifolia, 64
Bhotan pine, 6, 122
Bigbud hickory, 87
Birch, black, 66

■ — , European white, 68, 120

— fungus rot, 157
— , gray, 64

— , paper, 66
— , sweet, 66

— tree, 59
— , white, 64
— , yellow, 68
Bitternut hickory, 87
Black ash, 35, 227

— birch, 66

— locust, 100, 126

— oak, 75

— or sweet birch, 232

— spruce, 15

243

244

INDEX

Black walnut, S7, 230

Blotches, leaf, 41

Blue beech, or hornbeam, 59, 70,
128

— spruce, 123

Boltin<2; limbs, 17G

Bordeaux mixture, 160, 175

Borer, bronze-birch, 61

— , hickory bark. So, 151

— , linden, 98

— , locust, 100

— , sugar maple, 37

Borinsi insects, 22, 134

Box-elder, 45

Bracing limbs, various methods
of, 176

Bracket fungus, 154

Branches, dead and broken, re-
moval of, 162

— , how to prevent bark splitting
when removing, 162

Broadleaf or " hardwoods," 222,
226

Bronze-birch borer, 64

Brooklyn, N. Y., 242

Broom hickory, 87 ■■

Brown hickory, 87

Brown-tail moth, 145

Buckeye, 34

Butternut, S3, 90

Buttonball, 63

Buttonwood, 63

By-products of forests, utiliza-
tion of, 198

Cambium layer, 106, 109

Camperdown elm, 50

Care in selecting trees suitable

for the soil, 210
Carolina poplar, 51
Carpinus caroliniana, 70, 12S
Castanea dentata, 80
Catalpa speciosa, 102
Caterpillars, 33, 74

Caterpillars, leaf-eating, 95

— , .spraying for, 145

Catkin, 66

Cattle grazing in forests a source
of injur}', 196

Cavities, fungous diseases attack-
ing, 172

— how caused, 170

— , manner of filling, 172

Cedar apjjle, 22

— , white, 24

Celtis occidentalis, 70

Chama;cyi)aris thyoides, 24

Character building and trees, 235

Chestnut, 80, 227

— and oaks, 71

— disease, 158
Chewing insects, 134
Cherry, 231

Child training in observation and

precision, 237
Chlorophyll, 109

Civic lessons reflected in trees, 239
Climbing trees, precautions, 167
Clubs, tree, 242
Coffee tree, 120
Colorado blue spruce, 15
Color of leaves, 109
Common catalpa, 104

— locust, 101

Conununity life of trees, 182, 239
Conifers or " softwoods," 222, 224
Coniferous trees, 122
Copper beech, 120
Cork elm, 95

Cornus florida, 104, 122, 128
Corrosive sublimate, 175
Cottonwood, 51, 232
Cottony-maple scale, 39
Cratffigus oxyacantha, 128
Crown, 107
Cucumber tree, 99
Cyi)ress, 225

— and larch, description of, 25

INDEX

245

Cypress, bald, 30

— knees, 31, 117

— , obtuse leaf, Japanese, 123

Dead and broken branches, re-
moval of, 162

Deciduous trees, 119

Destroying injurious insects,
methods of, 134

— pupse, 141

Developing disease, moisture a

factor in, 112
Diaporthe parasitica, 82
Diffuse-porous woods, 221, 230
Disease, fungi as factors of, 15.5
— , moisture a factor in develop-
ing, 112
Dogwood, flowering, 104, 122
Douglas fir, 224

Effect of heat on trees, 116

Elk wood, 100

Elm, 229

— , American, 47, 50, 119, 126

— , Camperdown, 50

— , cork, 95

— , English, 50

— leaf beetle, 49, 141

— , poplar, gingko and willow trees,
told by their form, 46

— , white, 50

Enemies of trees, 239

Enemv of trees, forest fires as an
241

English elm, 50

— hawthorn, 128

— yew, 123
European beech, 69

— larch, 25, 122, 126

— linden, 98, 119

■ — weeping birch, 121

— white birch, 68, 120

Fall webworm, 148

Fagus, 128

— americana, 68

— sylvatica, 69/120
Fern, maidenhair, 55

Fighting forest fires, various ways

of, 194
Filling cavities, manner of, 172
Fire, guarding woodlands from,

193, 213, 215
Flowering dogwood, 104, 122
Foliage, spraying, 141
Forest fires as an enemy of trees,

241
, various ways of fighting,

194

— lands, exemption from taxa-

tion, 216
— , life and nature of, 182

— trees, pruning, 166
Forestry in various countries, 198
— , what it is and what it does, 179
Forests, grazing cattle in, a

source of injui-y, 196
Forest Service, tl. S., 200
— , harvesting, 196
— , harvesting of, to increase

]iroduction, 180
— , how established, 190
— , how harvested, 197
— , how protected, 193
— , how they help to regulate

streams and prevent floods,

187
— , method of establishing, 191
— , planting, with seedling trees,

189

— prevent soil erosion, 187

— , protecting from destructive

agencies, 193
— , safeguarding, 179
— , utilization of by-products, 198
Fraxinus americana, 35, 126

— nigra, 35

Frost, effect of, on trees, 116

246

INDEX

Fungi and insects, protection
ii}i;ain.st. 196

— as factors of disease, I/jS
Fungous diseases attacking cav-
ities, 172

— diseases, spraying for, UiO
Fungus, fruiting body of, 150

Clingko bikjba, 55, 120, 124

— or maidenhair tree, 55, 120
(lipsy moth, 7-4. 143
Cileditsia triacanthos, 102
Gloeosporium nervisequum, 62
Gray or white birch, 64
Grazing effect on forests, 196
Grove and lawn, study of soil

conditions on, 239
Gum, red or sweet, 95, 231
Gymnocladus dioicus, 120

Hackberry tree, 59, 70
Hackmatack, 29
Hard maple, 38

— pines, 224
"Hardwoods," or broadleaf trees,

226
Hardy catalpa, 102
Harvesting forests, 196
Harvesting of forests to increase

production, 180
Hawthorn, Enghsh, 128
Healthy tree, conditions which

indicate, 153
Heartwood, 106, 219
Heat, effect of, on trees, 116
Hemlock, 17, 128, 225

— and spruce, description of, 1 1
Hickory, 229

— bark borer, 85, 151
— , bigbud, 87

— , bitternut, 87

— , broom, 87

— , brown, 87

— , mockernut, 44, 86

Hickory, pignut, 87
— , shagbark, 83
— , shellbark, 85
— , wliitchcart, 87
Hicoria alba, 86

— glabra, 87

— minima, 87

— ovata, 83
Ploney locust, 102
Hop hornbeam, 70
Hornbeam, (blue beech). 70
Horsechestnut, 33, 120

— , red, 34, 121
Humus, 113, 207
Hydrophytes, 111

Important insects, 141
Improperly pruned trees, 161
Indian bean, 104

Individuality of trees, 1, 182, 239
Insects and fungi, protection

against, 196
— , boring, 22, 134
■ — , chewing, 134

— galls, 71

• — , imjiortant kinds of, 141

— injurious to trees, 134
— , leaf-eating, 49

■ — , methods of destroying injuri-
ous, 134

— , nature, habits and influences
of, 239

— , sucking, 134

— , the four stages, or life his-
tory of, 140

Ironwood tree, 59, 70

Italian or Lombardy poplar, 51,
128

Japanese maple, 122

— umbrella pine, 123
Juglans cinerea, GO

— nigra, 87
Juniper, 22

INDEX

247

Juniperns communis, 22
Juniperus virginiana, 19

Kerosene emulsion, 139
Knees, cypress, 31

Larch, American, 29

— and cypress, description of, 25

— European, 25, 122, 126
Large-toothed aspen, 54
Larix europaea, 26, 122, 12G
Lawn and grove, study of soil

conditions on, 239

Lawn trees, 119

, pruning, 166

Leaf blotches, 41

Leaf-eating caterpillars, 95

■ , insect, 49

Leaves, 107

— , needle-shajjed, 19

— , scale-like, 19

— , star-shaped, 93

Lenticels, 64, 117

Leopard moth, 39, 49, 149

Lesson on trees, outdoor, 234

Light, influence of, on trees, 114

Limbs, various methods of brac-
ing, 176

Lime-sulphur w^ash, 139

Lime-tree, 98

Linden, American, 95

— borer, 98

— , European, 99, 119
Liquidambar st3'raciflua, 93
Liriodendron, tulipifers, 90, 126,

231
Location of trees, care to be

exercised in, 130
Locust, 101, 228
— , black, 100, 126

— borer, 100

- — , common, 101
— , hone}-, 102

— miner, 100

Locust, 3'ellow, 101

Lombardy or Italian poplar, 51,

128
Low juniper, 22

Magnolia acuminata, 99
— , mountain, 99

— soulangeana, 121
— , Soulange's, 121

— tripetala, 100
Magnolias, the, 99
Maidenhair fern, 55

— or gingko tree, 55, 120
Maple wood, 231

— , ash-leaf, 46
— , hard, 38
— , Japanese, 122
— , Norway, 44, 123

— phenacoccus, 37
— , red, 120, 125
— , rock, 38

— , silver, 38
— , soft, 40

— sugar, 37, 121

— swamp, 43
— , sycamore, 44
— , white, 40
Mesophj'tes, 111

Method of covering wounds, 164
Methods of destroying injurious

insects, 134
Mockernut hickory, 44, 86
Moisture a factor in developing

disease, 112
— , influence of, on trees, 110
Moral influence of trees, 237
Morus alba, 105

— rubra, 105
Moth, gipsy, 74
— , leopard', 39, 49
Mountain magnolia, 99
Mugho pine, 123
Mulberry, red, 105

— , white, 105

248

INDEX

National forests, 200

Nocdle-shajied leaves, 19

Nettle tree, 71

Newark, N. J., 242

Northern white cedar (arbor-

vitaO, 22
Norway maple, 44, 123

— spruce, 13
Nursery, tree, 132

Oak 22G
— , black, 75
— , pin, 79, 119, 125
— , red, 7G, 124, 126
— , scarlet, 76
— , swamp white, 74
— , white, 72
— , yellow, 76
Oaks and chestnut, 71
Observations about trees, general,
235

— and precision, child training in,

237
Obtuse leaf Japanese cypress, 123
Opjiosite branched trees, 31
Orange, Osage, 105, 128
Oriental spruce, 122

— sycamore, 63, 123
Osage orange, 105, 128
Ostrya virginiana, 70
Outdoor lesson on trees, 234
Oystei'-shell scale, 53

Paper birch, 66
Picea canadensis, 15

— excelsa, 13

— mariana, 15

— orientalis, 122

— parryana, 15

— pungens, 15, 123
Pignut hickory, 87
Pin oak, 79, 119, 125
Pine, Austrian, 9, 11, 122
— , Bhotan, 6, 122

Pine, Mugho, 123

— red, 11, 126
— , Scotch, 9, 11

— trees, 1

— weevil, white, 4
— , white, 122, 126
Pines, 224

Pinus Austriaca, 9

— excelsa, 6

— mughus, 123

— resinosa, 11, 126

— rigida, 6

— strobus, 4, 122, 126

— sylvestris, 9
Pitch pine, 6
Pith, 106

Plane or sycamore tree, 60
Plant lice, or aphides, 68, 152

— study, value of, for children,

235

— trees, how to, 130
Planting forests, 179

— forests with seedling trees, 189

— little trees, methods of, 211
— , improving woodland by, 207

— new trees, 207

— trees, 128, 130

most economical method, 211

— — on land unsuitable for

crops, 207
Plants, adaptation of, to seasonal

changes, 238
Platanus occidentalis, 60

— orientalis, 63, 123
Polyporus betulinus, 157
Poplar, balsam, 54

— , Carolina, 51

— , Lombardy or Italian, 51

— , silver, 53

— , tulip, 92

■ — , white, 53

— , yellow, 92, 231

Populus alba, 53

— balsamifera, 54

INDEX

249

Populus deltoides, 51

— grandidentata, 54

— nigra, 51, 128

— tremuloides, 54
Pores in wood, 227

— small or indistinct, 230

— varying in size, 230

Poster for private woodlands, 215
Precautions against fire, 214
Protection against fungi and

insects, 19G
Pruning forest trees, 1G6

— lawn trees, 166

— shade trees, 166
— , tools used in, 166
— , too severe, 163

— trees, fundamental principles,

160

time for, 162

Pussy willow, 59

Quaking aspen, 54

Quality of trees, how to judge, 129

Quality of wood, how to judge,

233
Quercus alba, 72

— palustris, 79, 119, 125

— platanoides, 74

— rubra, 76, 124, 126

— velutina, 75

Red cedar, 225

— — and arbor-vitse, description

of, 19

— gum, 95, 231

— horsechestnut, 34

— juniper, 22

— maple, 41, 120, 125

— mulberry, 105

— oak, 76, 124, 126

— pine, 11, 126

— or black oaks, 226

— or sweet gum, 231

Red spider, 13
Redwood, 226
Removal of dead and broken

branches, 162
■ — of trees, how to mark, 212
Requirements of trees, 110
Retinospora obtusa, 123
Rliytisma acerinum, 41
Ring-porous woods, 221, 226
Robinia jjseudacacia, 100, 126
Rock maple, 38
Roots, 110

— , development of, 110
— , protection of, from drying, 130
Rust, apple, 22

(Safeguarding forests, 179

Salix babylonica, 58

Salix discolor, 59

Saperda vestita, 98

Sap-wood, 106

Sawfly, 27

Scale, cottony-maple, 39

— , oyster-shell, 53

Scale-like leaves, 19

Scarlet oak, 76

Sciadojntys verticillata, 123

Scolytus quadrispinosus, 85

Scotch pine, 9, 11

Screening trees, 128

Season, influence of, 116

Seasons for spraying trees, 137

Seedling trees, planting forests

with, 189
Shade trees, pruning, 163
Shagbark hickory, 83
Shellbark hickory, 85
Silver maple, 38

— poplar, 53
Soft maple, 40

— pines, 224

" Softwoods " or conifers, 224
Soil erosion, forests prevent, 187
— , influence of, on trees. 112

250

INDEX

Soil of wooded areas, ]ireservin{r,
20(j

— , i)}iysical character of, import-
ant lor pi'oiluiM ion of trees,
114

Soulanjic's magnolia, 121

Si)eciRcations for street tree, l."!!

Specimens of wood, how to
identify, 222

Split trees, 176

Spray trees, how to, 138

Spraying apparatus, 138

— foliage, 141

— for caterpillars, 145

— for fungous diseases, 160

— material, 138

arsenate of lead, 138
kerosene emulsion, 139
lime-sulfur wash, 139
tobacco water, 139
whale-oil soap, 139

— trees, seasons for, 137

— trees, thoroughness essential,

138

Spruce and hemlock, descrip-
tion of, 11

— , black, 15

— , blue, 123

— , Oriental, 122

— , Norway, 13

— , white, 15

Spruces, 224

Star-shaped leaves, 93

Stem, 106

Stomata, 117

Streets, trees for, 123

Structure of trees, 106

— of woods, 217
Sucking insects, 4, 134
Sugarberry, 71
Sugar maple, 37, 121

— maple borer, 37
Suggestions for forming tree clubs,

242

Suggestions for outdoor study of

trees, 234
• — for planting little trees, 211
— • for safety of tree climbers, 1(57

— for tree nursery, 132
Surface wountls, 168
Swamp maple, 43

— ■ white oak, 74
Sweet birch, 66

— gum, 93, 231
Sycamore, 230

— maple, 44

— tree, 59, 60, 123, 230

Tamarack, 29, 225

Taxation, forest lands exempt

from, 216
Taxodium distichum, 30
Taxus baccata, 123
Thuja occidentalis, 22
Tilia americana, 95

— microi^hylla, 119
Tobacco water, 139
Tools used in pruning, 163
Toxylon jwmiferum, 105, 128
Training a child to recognize

trees, 237

— children in observation and

precision, 237
Trametes pini, 27
Treating surface wounds, 168
Tree, ailing, how to tell an, 153

— and nature study, value of, 235
— , beech, 59, 128, 231

— , birch, 59

— •, blue beech, 59

— climbers, suggestions for safety

of, 167

— clubs, suggestions for forming,

242
— , cofTee, 120
■ — diseases, 153

— diseases, eiTects of, as destroy-

ers and upbuilders, 239

INDEX

251

Tree growth, conditions for, in

different localities, 119
— , hackberry, 59
— , ironwood, 59
— , nettle, 71

— nursery, suggestions for, 132
— , plane, 60

— repair, 168

— . sycamore, 59, 230

— tulip, 126, 231

— , weeping willow, 46, 59

Trees and character building, 235

— , care of, 134

— , care to be exercised in location

of, 130
— , civic lessons reflected in, 239
— , community life of, 239
— , coniferous, 122
— , crowding, 203
— , deciduous, 119
— , effect of frost on, 116
— , effect of heat on, 116
— , enemies of, 239

— for lawns, 119

— for screening, 128

— for streets, 123

— for woodland, 126

— , general observations about,

235
— , hickories, walnut, and butter-
nut, 83
— , how to identify, 1, 26, 83
— , how to mark for removal, 212
— , how to plant, 130
— , how to spray, 138
■ — , improperly pruned, 161
— , individuality of 1, 182, 239
— , influence of light on, 114
— , influence of moisture on, 110
— , influence of soil on, 112
— , insects injurious to, 134
— , measuring diameter of, 183
— , methods of planting little, 211
— , methods of removing, 212

Trees, nature and habits of indi-
vidual, 185
— , needs that nature or man

must supply, 117
— , outdoor lesson on, 234
— , physical character of soil

important for production of,

114
— , i)lanting, on land unsuitable

for crops, 207
— , pruning, fundamental jn-in-

cii)les, 160
— , — , how to cut properly, 162
— , quality, 129
— , rapidity of growth of different

species, 186
— , requirements of, 110
— , seasons for spraying, 137
— , setting, 130
— , structure of, 106
■ — , study of rings of various

species, 186
• — , suggestions for outdoor study

of, 234
— , suggestions, for planting little,

211
• — suitable for the soil, care in

selecting, 210
— , tendency to split, 176
— , thoroughness essential in

spraying, 138
— , time for pruning, 162
— told by their their bark or

. trunk, 59
— , training a child to recognize,

237
— , value of, as health givers and

moral uplifters, 237
— , what to plant and how, 119
— , when and how to procure, 129
— , when to plant, 129
— , when to spray, 137
— , wooded areas improved b}-

planting new, 207

252

INDEX

Trees, yew, 57

Tsuji;a canailcnsis, 17, 128

Tulip poplar, 92

— tree, 90, 120, 231
Tussock moth, 143

Ulinus amcricana, 47, 119, 125,
12G

— cainpestris, 50
Ihnbrella i)iiu', Japanese, 123

— tree, 100

Value of jilant study for cliililreu,
235

— of tree and nature study, 235

— of trees as health givers and

moral uplifters, 237

Walnut, 83

— , black, 87

Wasteful lumbering, 193

Weeping willow tree, 46, 59

Western catalpa, 104

Whale-oil soap, 139

White ash, 35, 126, 227

— birch, European, 68, 120

— cedar, 24

— elm, 50

— flowering dogwood, 104
\Miiteheart hickory, 87
White maple, 40

— mulberry, 105

— oak, 72

— oak, swamp, 74

• — or gray birch, 64

— pine, 4, 122, 126,

— pine weevil, 4

— poplar, 53

— spruce, 15
Whitewood, 92, 98, 231
Willow, weeping, 58
— , pussy, 59

Wood, diffuse-porous, 221, 233
^, diseased, disposal of, 212

Wood, early, 220

— fibers, 222

— , how to identify specimens, 222
— , how to judge quality of, 2'.y.]
— , late, 220

— medullary rays, 220

— l)arenchyma, 222

— resin ducts, 222
— , ring-porous, 221

— spring, 220

— , structure, of, 217

— summer, 220
Woodland, care of the, 203

— how to improve by removing

trees, 211

— how to judge, unfavorable

conditions, 203

— trees, 126

Woodlands, other means of pro-
tecting, 216

^\'oodlot, small cost of well-
selected young trees for the,
208

Wood, structure of, 217

Wooded areas improved by ],lant-
ing new trees, 207

— areas, preserving soil of, 206
AVoods, identification, i)roi)erties

and uses of common, 217
— ; ring-porous, 221, 226

— with large and conspicuous

rays, 226

— with pores, 226

— with resin ducst, 224

— with small and inconspicuous

rays, 227
— ■ without pores, 224

— without resin ducts, 225
Wounds, importance of covering,

164
— , methods of covering, 164
— , treating surface, 168

Xerophytes, 111

INDEX

253

Yellow birch, 68

— locust, 101

— oak, 76

— poplar, 92, 231
Yew, English, 123

Yew trees, 57

Young trees for the woodlot,

small cost of well-selected,

208

--■■0

•4,

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

lA
1914

Levsion, J. j. (Jacob Joshua)
Studies of trees

BioMed.

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