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The

Study of Breeds

In America

Cattle, S^eep and Swine

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By TtfOJVIAS SHAW

Professor of Animal Husbandry at the University cf Minnesota

Author of

" Public Schooj Agriculture " " Weeds and How to Eradicate Them "

" borage Crops Other Than Grasses "

'« Soiling Crops and the Silo," Etc.

New York and Chicago

Orange dudd Company
1912

Printed in U. S. A.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author desires lo acknowledge his indebtedness to
the secretaries of the various Live Stock Associations for infor-
mation furnished, to the owners of sketches previously made
and of animals sketched to provide the illustrations used, and
to Mr. Charles P. Taylor of the University of Minnesota for
valuable assistance in preparing many of the sketches and
otherwise assisting in the preparation of the book.

"b6

To the students of the agricultural colleger' and the grower*
of live stock in America, this work is most, respectfully dedi-
cated by The Author.
University of Minnesota, IQOO.

THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE

In this book it has been the aim of the author to
discuss, in a manner at once brief and concise, all the
pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep and swine at pres-
ent existing in America, and also the more important
of the sub-breeds. It has been written in the hope
that the student of the college and the farm will not
be necessitated to travel the same toilsome road trod-
den by the author when gathering the information
which it contains.

When the author was called to the chair of
Animal Husbandry, no way marks relating to this
study had been set up for the guidance of either
teacher or student. No work had ever been written
on the study of breeds as such. The historical truths
relating to the subject existed, but they were strewn
about as though with the winds of centuries. No
one had dealt in a systematic way with the character-
istics of the breeds. No one had presumed to formu-
late standards of excellence where they did not exist,
nor had the standards in existence for the pure
breeds been all collected and published in one volume.
The leading truths relating to this great study had
of course been discovered, but no one had undertaken
the work of collecting and systematizing them so
that they would be of easy access to the student or-
the farmer. To thus gather and systematize these
truths has been the aim of the author.

It is expected that exception will be taken to
some of the statements made, more especially with

vii

Vlll PREFACE.

reference to animal form, to type within the breeds
and to the comparisons drawn with reference to
breed characteristics. It could not be otherwise
when men differ so widely in regard to these ques-
tions, and more especially where those differences of
view rest upon a basis of self-interest, as they fre-
quently do. The foremost dairymen are not yet
agreed as to the exact furnishings of the highest type
of a dairy cow, nor can two judges of beef cattle be
found who are likely to work for one hour together
in the show-ring without differing in their opinions.
It is expected, therefore, that criticisms will be made
in the spirit of candor and fairness in which the
author has tried to discuss the whole question.

It is also believed that some of the comparisons
drawn will not hold good some years hence, owing
to the modifications in form and adaptation that will
be made with some of the breeds. It is not neces-
sary, however, to attempt to forecast these changes.
Posterity may be safely trusted to deal with them
when they arise.

Students of the agricultural colleges and of the
farms, and breeders of America, this is your book.
May it prove to you the stepping stone to higher
things in this great industry.
University Experiment Farm,

St. Anthony Park, Minn., igoo.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE.

Lecture No. i.
Origin of the Domesticated Races of Cattle ... I

Lecture No. 2.
Origin of the British Breeds of Cattle .... 4

Lecture No. 3.
Classification of Cattle 7

Lecture No. 4.
Indications of Correct Form Common to the Beef Breeds 10

Lecture No. 5.
Indications of Correct Form and Function Common to

the Dairy Breeds 13

Lecture No. 6.
Indications of Correct Form and Function in Dual-

Purpose Cattle 19

THE BEEF BREEDS.

Lecture No. 7.

Shorthorn Cattle — Their Origin and History ... 23

Lecture No. 8.
Shorthorns — Their Distribution in Other Countries . 28

Lecture No. 9.
Shorthorns — Their Leading Characteristics . 31

Lecture No. 10.
Shorthorns — Their Principal Points 34

Lecture No. 11.
Hereford Cattle — Their Origin and History ... 37

Lecture No. 12.
Hereford Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . 43

Lecture No. 13.
Hereford Cattle — Their Principal Points 46

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Lecture No. 14. page.

Aberdeen-Angus Cattle — Their Origin and History . 49

Lecture No. 15.
Aberdeen-Angus Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics

Lecture No. 16.
Aberdeen-Angus Cattle — Their Standard Points

Lecture No. 17.
Galloway Cattle — Their Origin and History .

Lecture No. 18.
Galloway Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics

Lecture No. 19.
Galloway Cattle — Their Standard Points .

Lecture No. 20.
Sussex Cattle — Their Origin and History, Character-
istics and Principal Points 72

Lecture No. 21.
West Highland Cattle — Their Origin and History, Char-
acteristics and Principal Points 78

55
58
63
67
70

DAIRY BREEDS.

Lecture No. 22.

Holstein-Friesian Cattle — Their Origin and History . 85

Lecture No. 23.
Holstein-Friesian Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics 89

Lecture No. 24.
Holstein-Friesian Cattle — Their Standard Points . . 92

Lecture No. 25.

Dutch Belted Cattle — Their Origin and History, Charac-
teristics and Standard Points 95

Lecture No. 26.
Ayrshire Cattle — Their Origin and History . . . 101

. Lecture No. 27.
Ayrshire Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . 106

Lecture No. 28.
Ayrshire Cattle — Their Standard Points .... 109

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xi

Lecture No. 29. page.

Guernsey Cattle — Their Origin and History . . .113

Lecture No. 30.
Guernsey Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . 116

Lecture No. 31.
Guernsey Cattle — Their Standard Points .... 119

Lecture No. 32.
Jersey Cattle — Their Origin and History .... 123

Lecture No. 33.
Jersey Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . . 127

Lecture No. 34.
Jersey Cattle — Their Standard Points .... 130

Lecture No. 35.
French Canadian Cattle — Their Origin and History,

Characteristics and Standard Points

Lecture No. 36.
Kerry Cattle — Their Origin and History, Characteristics

and Principal Points

133

139

THE DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS.

Lecture No. 37.

Polled Durham Cattle — Their Origin and History, Char-
acteristics and Principal Points 145

Lecture No. 38.

Brown Swiss Cattle — Their Origin and History, Charac-
teristics and Standard Points 151

Lecture No. 39.

Red Polled Cattle — Their Origin and History, Charac-
teristics and Standard Points 156

Lecture No. 40.
Devon Cattle — Their Origin and History .... 163

Lecture No. 41.
Devon Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . . 167

Lecture No. 42.
Devon Cattle— Their Standard Points . . . . 170

Xli TABLE OF CONTENTS.

SHEEP.

Lecture No. i. page.

Sheep — Their Introduction Into America .... 1/3

Lecture No. 2.
Sheep — Their Improvement and Classification . . . 177

Lecture No. 3.
Sheep — Leading Essentials as to Form and Wool . . 180

THE FINE WOOLED BREEDS.

Lecture No. 4.

The American Merino — Origin and History, Character-
istics and Principal Points 183

Lecture No. 5.

Delaine Merino — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Standard Points 192

Lecture No. 6.

Rambouillets — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Principal Points 198

THE MEDIUM WOOLED BREEDS.

Lecture No. 7.

Southdown Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Principal Points 206

Lecture No. 8.

Tunis Sheep — Their Origin and History, Characteristics

and Standard Points 211

Lecture No. 9.

Dorset Horn Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Principal Points 217

Lecture No. 10.

Shropshire Sheep — Their Origin and History, Charac-
teristics and Principal Points 225

Lecture No. ii.

Cheviot Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Principal Points 231

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll

Lecture No. 12. page.
Suffolk Down Sheep — Origin and History. Characteris-
tics and Standard Points 237

Lecture No. 13.

Hampshire Down Sheep — Origin and History, Charac-
teristics and Standard Points 243

Lecture No. 14.

Oxford Downs — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Standard Points 249

THE LONG WOOLED BREEDS.

Lecture No. 15.

Leicester Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Principal Points 257

Lecture No. 16.

Lincoln Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Standard Points 263

Lecture No. 17.

Cotswold Sheep— Origin and History, Characteristics

and Standar-.i Points 271

SWINE.

Lecture No. 1.
Swine — Origin of the Domesticated Races . . . 276

Lecture No. 2.
Swine — Their Improvement and Classification . . . 280

Lecture No. 3.
Swine — Leading Essentials as to Form .... 283

THE LARGE BREEDS.

Lecture No 4.

Chester Whites — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Principal Points ....... 287

Lecture No. 5.

The Improved Large Yorkshires — Origin and History,

Characteristics and Standard Points .... 295

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Lecture No. 6. paqb.

Tamworths — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Principal Points . , 301

THE MEDIUM BREEDS.

Lecture No. 7.

The Berkshires — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Standard Points 307

Lecture No. 8.

Poland-Chinas — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Standard Points 313

Lecture No. 9.

The Victorias — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Standard Points 321

Lecture No. 10.

The Duroc-Jersey — Origin and History, Characteristics

and Standard Points 327

Lecture No. ii.

The Cheshire — Origin and History, Characteristics and

Standard Points 333

THE SMALL BREEDS.

Lecture No. 12.

The Improved Suffolks — Their Origin and History,

Characteristics and Principal Points .... 339

Lecture No. 13.

Improved Essex Swine — Origin and History, Character-
istics and Standard Points 343

Lecture No. 14.

Small Yorkshire Swine — Origin and History, Character-
istics and Standard Points ...... 349

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece — "In the Shade of the Elms."

FIG.

i.
2.
3-
4-

7-
8.

10.

ii.

12.

13-

14.

15-
16.

17-
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23-
24.

25-

26.

CATTLE.

Typical Dual-Purpose Cow
" Shorthorn Bull

Shorthorn Cow

Hereford Bull

Hereford Cow

Aberdeen-Angus Bull

Aberdeen-Angus Cow

Galloway Buli

Galloway Cow

Sussex Cattle, Group o

West Highland Heifer

Holstein Bull .

Holstein Cow .

Dutch Belted Cow

Ayrshire Bull

Ayrshire Cow

Guernsey Bull

Guernsey Cow

Jersey Bull

Jersey Cow

French Canadian Cow

Kerry Cow
" Polled Durham Cow

Brown Swiss Cow .

Red Poll Cow
" Devon Cow .

PAGE.

18
24
27

41
50

53
62

65
73
80
84
86
96
102

105
112

115
122

125
134

140
14S
150
157
164

27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

SHEEP.

Typical American Merino Ewe 184

Delaine Merino Ewe 191

" Rambouillet Ewe 199

" Southdown Ewe 205

Tunis Ram 212

■ Dorset Ewe 218

XVI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.
33>
34
35-
36.
37-
38.
39-
40.

41.

42.
43-
44.
45-
46.
47-
48.

49-
50.

51-

PAGE.

Typical Shropshire Ewe 224

Cheviot Ewe 232

" Suffolk Down Ewe 238

Hampshire Down Ewe .... 244

Oxford Down Ewe 250

Leicester Ewe 256

* Lincoln Ewe 264

" Cots wold Ram 270

SWINE.

Typical Chester White Sow 288

Large Improved Yorkshire Sow . . . 294

Tamworth Sow 302

Berkshire Sow 308

Poland-China Sow 314

Victoria Sow 322

Duroc-Jersey Sow 326

Cheshire Sow 334

Suffolk Sow 338

Essex Sow 344

Small Yorkshire Sow 350

APPENDIX A.

52. Illustrating Points of Animal Form

53. Illustrating Points of Animal Form

356
357

PART I

BREEDS OF CATTLE

LECTURE NO. I.

ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED RACES OF CATTLR

I. Reliable information regarding- the differ-
ent races of cattle is very meager until we reach tht
seventeenth century, owing

(i) To the very partial references made to them by his
torians before that time, and

(2) To the imperfect nature of the sketches made by
artists, so far as these have been handed down to us.

II. It is noteworthy that the first shepherd and
the first farmer were cotemporaneous.

(1) Likewise the keeping of live stock and grain growing
have gone hand in hand through all the centuries wherever
agriculture has been distinctively progressive.

(2) The exceptions are mountainous and infertile dis-
tricts, and those with a great abundance of fertility.

(3) The comparatively unimproved condition of the live
stock interest is to-day the weakest point in American
agriculture

III. The term cattle is applied to the various
races of domesticated animals belonging to the genus

'Bos — the ox.

(1) It belongs to the class Mammalia, the order Ruminan-
tia, and the family Bovidae and comprises two primary groups,
viz: The Bos indicus and Bos taurus.

(2) The sub-genus, Bos indicus, includes the zebus or
humped cattle numerously found in some parts of Asia an^
\ f rica.

2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(3) The other sub-genus. Bos taunts, includes all cattle in
which the hump is absent, whether domesticated or otherwise.

IV. From the testimony of the rocks, we know
that the ox existed in northern Europe prior to the
glacial period.

(1) Whether the species then existing were the ancestors
of the breeds of the present time can never certainly be
known, but

(2) It is more probable that the present types are the
descendants of cattle brought by the various migrations of
the human family as they journeyed westward.

V. Cattle did not exist in America prior to its
discoveiy by Europeans.

(i) The bovine races in America are all descended from
the cattle of Europe.

(2) With but few exceptions they have been furnished
by Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain.

VI. It is generally supposed that the domes-
ticated cattle of Europe, including those of Great
Britain, have been derived from at least two distinct
species, namely the Bos primigenius or Bos urns,
and the Bos longifrons.

(1) The Bos urus were of extraordinary size, strength
and swiftness, and were withal very fierce.

(2) The Bos longifrons were small in size, short in body
and had fine, deer-like limbs.

(3) Other fossil specirrlens, formerly classified as Bos
frontosus and Bos trochocerus, have more recently been
identified as belonging to one or the other of the afore-
mentioned species.

VII. There is much difference of opinion as
to whether the domesticated cattle of Europe and
America are descended from the Bos urus, or the
Bos longifrons, or from a blending of the two
species.

(1) Some regard them as the degenerate offspring of the
former.

( ?> Others regard them as the improved offspring of the
latter, and

DOMESTICATED RACES OF CATTLE. 3

(3) Yet others regard them as the result from crossing
these.

(4) The second theory is more likely to he correct, since
improved environment is followed by improved development.

VIII. Nearly all the improved breeds of cat-
tle found in Anglo-Saxon speaking countries have
been derived from Great Britain, because

(1) Of the great variety and superior excellence of the
breeds found there, and

(2) Of the natural genius of her people for stock keeping
— a characteristic which the colonists have carried along
with them.

IX. In many of the older countries of the
Eastern world the cattle are probably descended
from an ancestry going far back beyond the Chris-
tian era.

(1) They have not improved because agriculture has not
materially improved, and

(2) This is more particularly true of pastoral countries.

X. Nature unaided can in suitable localities
maintain a certain standard of excellence through
the laws that govern natural selection, but she can-
not improve upon ther-e, hence

(1) Domestication is necessary to effect improvement, but

(2) It does not follow, of necessity, that domestication
always improves upon nature.

LECTURE NO. 2.

ORIGIN OF THE BRITISH BREEDS OF CATTLE.

I. The precise origin of the British breeds of
cattle will probably never be fully known.

(1) Fossiliferous remains prove that at least some of the
present types of cattle have been long in the land.

(2) Some are of the opinion that they came originally
from the continent, when the bed of the English Channel
was dry.

(3) Some regard them as the conglomerate produce of
two or more distinctly different species of the genus Bos.

(4) Others regard them as the differentiated offshoots of
one great parent stem.

II. It is not impossible, nor can it be said to
be improbable, that the many and varied breeds of
cattle now found in Great Britain came from the
one parent stem, the aboriginal cattle of the country.

(1) Great variations would be induced by locality, and
conditions belonging to the same.

(2) These variations would relate to such properties as
production, size, color, form, flesh, milk and maturity.

(3) They would be increased by fusion with other races
of cattle brought into the country through the successive
invasions of the Saxons, the Danes and the Normans.

(4) They would be further intensified by some public and
private importations from the continent, in the later centuries.

III. The principal agencies in producing evo-
lution or variation of race and type in cattle are
inter-breeding or crossing, climate, food, habit and
treatment.

(1) Inter-breeding or crossing is one of the most potent
agents in producing variation, especially as to form.

(2) Climate affects color, the nature of the coat, develop-
ment and maturity.

BRITISH BREEDS OF CATTLE. 5

(3) Food affects development both of the frame and
flesh, and also the milking qualities.

(4) Habit affects constitution and transmission.

(5) Treatment affects constitution and performance, and
qualifies all the influences indicated above.

IV. The great improvement in the many
breeds of cattle found in Great Britain has been
brought about through the molding influences of
man, operating in the line of natural laws.

(1) These influences are: Careful selection in breeding,
judicious mating, inter-crossing of the progeny for a time,
liberal sustenance and wise management generally.

(2) They have been aided by a favorable and varied soil
and climate and by the fusion of different breeds and types,
each possessing intensified peculiarities.

(3) The tastes of the British people, arising in part out
of their necessities, have conduced to the same end.

V. The aboriginal cattle of Great Britain are
probably represented in the Kyloes of Scotland and
the Black cattle of Wales, with little or no admix-
ture of other blood, and in purest form in the wild
white cattle still found in certain parks.

(1) The differences which characterize these arise from
some of the influences named as concerned in variation, more
especially climate and food.

(2) All or nearly all of the other races have probably
been influenced to a greater or less extent by the fusion of the
blood of other breeds.

VI. The chief of the herds of wild white cat-
tle still existing in Great Britain are found in Chil-
ling-ham park, Lyme park, Chartley and Chadzow
forest.

(1) The prevailing color is white with a few of the bulls
cream, but the whole of the ear inside and one-third outside
from tip down is red or brown.

(2) The horns are rather fine and white, with black tips.

(3) The color of the muzzle is black.

(4) The bulls have coarse hair on the neck from one and
one-haif to two inches long.

(5) They mature at six years, when the males weigh,
dressed, about "550 pounds."

6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VII. The many breeds of cattle in Great
Britain have been classified as Long-horned, Middle-
horned, Short-horned and Polled.

(i) The Long-horned varieties represented in the Long-
horns, prominent in the closing half of the last century, are
probably waning in popularity.

(2) The Middle-horned breeds include the Herefords, the
Sussex, the Devons, the West Highland and the Ayrshires.

(3) The Short-horned breeds include the Durham, more
frequently called Shorthorn, the Jersey, the Guernsey and
the Kerry.

(4) The Polled, or hornless breeds, which are an artificial
variety, include the Aberdeen-Angus Polls, the Galloways and
the Red Polls.

VIII. All the breeds named under Note VII
are more or less represented in the United States
and Canada, and in addition the following:

(1) The Holsteins and Dutch Belted breeds from the
Netherlands, the Brown Swiss from Switzerland, the Cana-
dian cow of French origin and the Texans of Spanish
ancestry.

(2) The Texans, numerous on southern ranges, are small
in size and long of horn, and they are kept pure as are the
other breeds, but are not registered.

LECTURE NO. 3.

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE.

I. The formal classification of cattle on the
basis of utility does not appear to have been
attempted by those who have written on bovine hus-
bandry, owing probably

(1) To the difficulties attending such classification,
arising from

(2) Variations in performance growing out of variations
in environment and treatment, and from the different ends
for which cattle of the same breed are kept, hence

(3) No classification can be adopted at the present time
that is likely wholly to escape criticism.

II. The classification of cattle, and indeed of
all domestic animals, cannot longer be deferred,
owing

(1) To the necessity for such classification.

(a) In the systematic teaching of live stock husbandry in
our public institutions, and

(b) In preventing unfair competition in public showrings.

(2) The general adoption of suitably prepared standards
of excellence will more and more simplify the work of classi-
fication, but

(3) No classification can be submitted that may not
require modification sometime in the future.

III. Cattle in the United States and Canada
may be classified as pure bred, common and "scrub"
or unimproved.

(1) Pure breds are those which have been bred without
admixture of alien blood and whose lineage is kept in suitable
public records.

(a) They possess marked adaptation to certain conditions
of environment, and

(b) The males are capable of effecting a marked improve-
ment in the offspring of common and unimproved cattle when
crossed upon these.

8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) Common cattle are those of mixed breeding, and of
what may be termed average development.

(a) Their blood elements may and do vary exceedingly,
but they are usually possessed of some pure blood.

(b) For various reasons their numbers are likely to con-
tinue to predominate.

(3) Scrub cattle are those of inferior individuality.

(a) They have not been improved by up-grading or cross-
ing, and

(b) They are usually inferior in form and low in
performance.

IV. The pure breeds of cattle in the United
States and Canada may be classified as beef, dairy
and dual-purpose.

(1) Beef cattle are those which are chiefly valuable for
producing beef.

(2) Dairy cattle are those which are chiefly valuable for
producing milk.

(3) Dual-purpose cattle are those which are capable in a
fair degree of producing both meat and milk.

V. Adaptation in the beef breeds.

(1) They should usually be kept on the ranges and on
large arable farms where it is not practicable to milk them.

(2) They suckle their calves up to the weaning period
and then go dry.

VI. Adaptation in the dairy breeds.

(1) They should be kept by dairymen who are chiefly
concerned in dairy production.

(2) The calves not wanted for breeding should be sent
to the block at a comparatively early age, as

(3) The dairy form becomes more pronounced with
advancing maturity, and the relative meat value correspond-
ingly declines.

VII. Adaptation in the dual-purpose breeds.

(l)_ They_ should be kept on the arable farm where the
farmer is seeking a return in both meat and dairy products, and

(2) They should invariably be milked and the progeny
reared by hand.

VIII. The following enumeration of the
breeds in America which belong- to these respective
classes is submitted as being approximately correct :

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE. Cj

(i) Beef breeds: Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus
Poll, Galloway, Sussex and West Highland.

(2) Dairy breeds : Holstein, Dutch Belted, Ayrshire,
Guernsey. Jersey. French Canadian and Kerry.

(3) Dual-purpose breeds: Shorthorn, Polled Durham,
Brown Swiss, Red Poll and Devon.

IX. Observations.

(1) It has been the aim to place all the breeds enumerated
under VIII in the order of relative size, beginning with the
largest, but the average of size in some of the breeds is not
far different.

(2) The classification of Shorthorns as beef and also as
dual purpose is based on the large use that has been made
of them as beef and dual-purpose cattle.

(3) The Polled Durhams are very similar, but more
attention probably has been given to the development of their
milking qualities.

(4) Milking properties are somewhat more pronounced
in the Red Poll breeds than beefing properties, while these
would seem to be about equal in the Devons.

(5) Classes for dual-purpose cattle were first created at
the World's Fair, held in Chicago, 1803.

(6) Dual-purpose cattle are numerously found among
grades of various blood elements, but more especially among
those distinctively of Shorthorn lineage.

LECTURE NO. 4.

INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM COMMON TO THE
BEEF BREEDS.

I. All the beef breeds have certain features of
form which they possess more or less in common.

(1) These may be considered essential to good beef
production.

(2) The differences between them relate more to size and
to breed peculiarities than to essential features of form.

II. The more essential indications, important
perhaps in the order named, are:

(1) A compact form, that is, one wide and deep
throughout and but moderately long in the coupling.

(2) A good back, that is, one wide from neck to tail, well
fleshed and straight.

(3) A good front quarter, that is, one wide, deep and full.

(4) A good hind quarter, that is, one long, wide and deep.

(5) Good handling qualities, as indicated in soft and
elastic flesh and pliant skin.

III. Indications of correct form given in
detail.

(1) Size — The size should be medium to large for the
breed and the bone medium.

(2) General Outline — The body should resemble a par-
allelogram in shape and should be equally and smoothly
developed throughout.

(3) Head — The head should be medium in size, inclining
to short rather than to long, clean cut, broad between the
eyes, only moderately dished, and level across the top, save in
the polled breeds.

(a) Nose, moderately fine, neither dished nor Roman and
of medium length.

(b) Muzzle, broad, full, distinct and dewy.

(d) Eyes, large, full, clear and calm.

(e) Horns, absent or varying according to breed, not
coarse and set on a level with the withers, back and tailhead.

BEEF BREEDS. II

(/) Ears, medium in size, broad rather than long, not over
sensitive nor yet sluggish, and well covered with hair, but
varying somewhat in the different breeds.

(4) Neck — Medium to short, longer in the female and
also finer.

(a) It should not be coarse at the junction with the head,
and

(b) It should gradually deepen and widen toward the
neck vein so as to blend insensibly into the shoulder.

(5) Back — Wide from the base of the neck to the tail-
head, well covered with flesh, especially on the loin, straight
and level.

(6) Forequartcrs — Wide, deep and full and about equally
developed with the hindquarters.

(a) Withers, wide and level.

(b) Shoulders, well developed, laid well back toward the
ribs and forward toward the neck vein, sloping but gradually
and neither prominent nor bare.

(d) Breast, broad, deep and full.

(e) Brisket, broad and well rounded.

(/) Arm, broad, full and tapering nicely toward the knee.

(7) Barrel or Coupling — Only moderately long, but wide
and deep, and more roomy in the female.

(a) Ribs, well sprung, that is, rounding out nicely from
the spinal column, long, close spaced, not readily apparent
to the eye. and coming well forward and backward.

(&) Crops, well filled throughout.

(d) Hind flank, deep, full and thick.

(e) Underline, straight, or nearly so.

(f) Girth, good around the heart and about equally good
at the hind flank.

(8) Hindquarters — Long from hook point to tail head,
deep from hook point to hind flank and hock, and thick from
side to side.

(a) Hips, full in every part.

(b) Thigh, broad and full and tapering gradually toward
the hock. )

(d) Twist, full and commencing far down.

(e) Tail, broad at the tailhead. but fine rather than coarse
and hanging at right angles with the line of the back.

(9) Legs — Medium to short, straight, fine below the
knee, standing firmly under the body, and yet a fair distance
apart.

(10) Skin — Of medium thickness, but varying with the
breed, mellow and elastic, and well covered with hair mossy
to the touch.

12 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(il) General Appearance —There should be a nicely
balanced development and an easy and active carriage, but
not sprightly or sluggish.

(a) There should be an absence of all undue prominences,
as at the shoulder points, the hook points and the pin
bones, also

(b) An absence of patchiness when in high flesh, as at the
shoulders, hook points and rumps.

LECTURE NO. 5.

INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM AND FUNCTION
COMMON TO THE DAIRY BREEDS.

I. All the dairy breeds have certain features
of form and function which they possess more or
less in common.

(1) These may be considered essential to good perform-
ance in the dairy.

(2) The differences between them relate more to size and
breed peculiarities than to essential features of form and
function.

II. The more important indications, impor-
tant perhaps in the order given, are :

(1) Much length and depth in the barrel or coupling,
indicating a large consumption and utilization of food.

(2) Refinement of form, as evidenced more particularly
in the head, neck, withers, thighs and limbs.

(3) Good development of udder and milk veins.

(4) Constitution, as indicated by a capacious chest, much
width through the heart, a broad loin, a full, clear eye, and an
active carriage. (See Note VIII below.)

(5) Downward and yet outward sprung and open spaced
ribs, covered with a soft, pliable and elastic skin.

III. Indications of correct form and function
given in detail.

(1) Size — The size should be medium to large for the
breed.

(2) General Outline — The triple wedge shaped formation
has long been considered essential, although it is not very
explicit. It implies

(a) Increasing width from the withers downward.

(b) Increasing width toward the rear parts.

(3) Head — The head should be medium to fine, clean
cut and relatively longer, lighter and more dished than in
the beef breeds.

14 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(a) Forehead, broad and dishing.

(b) Nose, fine.

(d) Nostrils, large and open.

(e) Cheeks, clean and spare.

(f) Eyes, prominent and lively.

(g) Poll, medium to wide, according to breed.
(h) Horns, fine.

(i) Ears, medium, with ample secretions, thinner than in
the beef breeds and somewhat livelier.

(4) Neck — Inclining to long and light, almost slim.

(a) It should be fine at the junction of the head and
should widen and deepen only gradually.

(b) The junction with the body should be well defined,
almost abrupt in character.

(5) Back — Narrow at the withers, wide at the loin, and
at least moderately so at the pin bones, and straight or swayed
according to breed and individuality.

(a) A straight back is to be preferred, other things being
equal.

(b) The spinal column should be large, well defined and
open spaced.

(6) Forequarters — Lighter than the hindquarters, and
spare.

(a) Withers, narrow.

(b) Shoulders, not heavy, pronounced in their upward
'lope toward one another, and more or less abrupt in front.

(d) Breast, wide below, but not prominent.
V) Brisket, wedge-shaped.

,/) Arm, inclining to light.

(7) Barrel or Coupling — Long, deep, capacious, in a
bw«de, paunchy.

(z.) Ribs, broad, wide spaced, with a deep downward and
outward spring, and much space between the last rib and
hook point.

(b) Crops, steep, but not necessarily depressed.

(d) Hind flanks, thin but not sunken.

(e) Underline, more or less sagged.

(f) Girth, at least fairly good around the heart, and
increasingly so at the hind flank.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, but varying somewhat in the
breeds, wide at top of the hips and coming well down, but
without fullness.

(a) Hips, not heavy, but more heavy in some breeds.

(b) Thighs, inclining to light, thin and more or less
incurved.

DAIRY BREEDS. 15

(d) Pin bones, prominent and wide spaced.

(e) Twist, open, placed high, and roomy.

(f) Tail, not coarse, tapering, of good length, and hanging
at right angles to the back.

(9) Escutcheon — Well defined and well developed from
the perineum to the udder and extending well outward on
the thighs.

(a) Breadth below the perineum is said to denote pro-
longed milking qualities.

(b) Width at the thighs is said to indicate deep milking
qualities.

(10) Udder — Long, broad and deep, extending well for-
ward and well up behind, and evenly quartered.

(a) It should be well let down, but not pendulous, and
the skin should hang in loose folds behind when the udder
is empty.

(b) In quality, it should be fine and elastic, glandular,
not fleshy.

(d) The veins on the same well defined.

(e) The teats of medium size and squarely placed or
pointing slightly outward.

(11) Milk Veins — Large, tortuous, preferably branched
and entering the abdominal wall well forward and through
large orifices, usually called milk wells.

(a) More commonly there are but two milk wells, but
more are much prized.

(b) The veins increase in size with' advancing age in the
animal.

(12) Legs — Medium in length, fine in bone and straight,
at least fairly wide apart and yet well under the body.

(13) Skin — Medium to fine, finer than in the beef breeds,
easily movable, and covered plentifully with fine, soft hair.

(14) General Appearance — The carriage should be
active, the prominences at the angles and also the ribs dis-
tinctly apparent, and there should be evidences of a tendency
to spareness in form when in milk.

IV. The males as distinguished from the
females.

(1) They should be stronger in bone and more masculine
throughout, especially in the head and neck, and not so rangy
in body or limb.

(2) The first requisite is constitution as indicated by a
capacious chest, much width through the heart and an active
carriage.

l6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(3) Prominent among the evidences of milk transmitting
power are

(a) Easily traceable milk veins in the underline.

(b) Embryo teats, large and placed well forward and wide
apart.

V. Nerve-power, or temperament, the out-
come of form, is supposed to influence favorably
milk elaboration and the following are prominent
among its indications :

(1) A broad and dished forehead with a lively eye and
active ear.

(2) Good width at the junction of the spine and skull,
and large development of the spinal column.

(3) A forceful disposition the outcome of energy, not of
bad temper, and an active carriage.

VI. Prominent indications of abundant milk
production :

(i) A roomy, capacious, open-ribbed barrel.

(2) Good development of udder and milk veins.

(3) General refinement and spareness of form, and

(4) Marked indications of nerve-power, as given in
Note V.

VII. Prominent indications of quality in milk.

(1) Good handling qualities, as evidenced in a nice,
pliant skin.

(2) Skin, creamy to a rich yellow in color, more especially
inside the ears, at the flanks and around and over the udder.

VIII. Leading indications of good constitu-
tion and vitality given in detail.

(1) Absence of extreme refinement in head, neck and
limbs.

(2) A full, clear and restful eye.

(3) Much width of chest cavity and much of roominess
in the same.

(4) Large development of the spinal column.

(5) Much width at the loin, with distinctness in the pelvic
arch and roominess in the pelvic cavity.

(6) Activity in the secretions of the skin, and

(7) Active and easy movement.

o
U

a.
>>

LECTURE NO. 6.

INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM AND FUNCTION IN
DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE.

I. Dual-purpose cattle of pure and likewise
of mixed breeding have certain features of form
which they possess more or less in common.

(i) These may be considered essential to good perform-
ance in the production of milk and meat.

(2) The differences between them are such as relate
chiefly to size, to breed peculiarities in pure breds, and to
mixed blood elements in grades.

II. The more important indications, impor-
tant, perhaps, in the order named, are :

(1) Medium to large size for the breed or grade.

(2) Good length and depth in the coupling, especially in
the females.

(3) Good development of udder and milk veins.

(4) Good constitution as indicated by good width through
the heart.

(5) Head and neck inclining to long and fine, and

(6) Ribs of medium spring, open spaced and covered
with a good handling skin.

III. Lineage — The best specimens are found
in the pure dual-purpose breeds, or in high grades
of these, but

(1) Mixed blood elements are not seriously objectionable
in foundation animals of correct type, and

(2) In breeding, well chosen pure bred dual-purpose sires
should be used.

IV. Indications of correct form and function
given in detail :

(i) Size — The dual-purpose cow is large in form and
capacious in body, not massive like the high type beef animal,
neither coarse nor unduly refined, and possessed of what may
be termed a happy equilibrium in development.

2C THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) General Outline — The form should be parallelogram-
mic rather than wedge-shaped, and nearly evenly developed in
front and rear.

(3) Head — Only moderately large and inclining to long,
clean cut and free from throatiness.

(a) Forehead, wide.

(b) Nose, inclining to long and fine.

(d) Nostril, large and open.

(e) Cheeks, lean.

(f) Eyes, large, prominent and neither restless nor sleepy.

(g) Poll, varying with the breed or grade.
(h) Horns, inclining to fine when present.

(i) Ears, of medium size, thickness and action, but vary-
ing with the breed or grade.

(4) Neck — Inclining to long and fine, but not slim.

(a) Not coarse at the junction with the head.

(b) Of medium increasing width and depth toward the
shoulder, and joining the latter neither abruptly nor so
smoothly as in the beef breeds.

(5) Back — Moderately wide at the withers, wide at the
loin and pin bones, and straight.

(6) Forcquartcrs — Nearly equal in development with the
hindquarters.

(a) Withers, moderately wide.

(b) Shoulders, large, but not prominent, and possessed of
medium upward and forward slope.

(d) Breast, wide, moderately deep and full.

(e) Brisket, wide and but moderately full.

(f) Forearm, broad and but moderately full.

(7) Barrel or Coupling — Long, deep, roomy, capacious.

(a) Ribs, at least fairly well sprung and deep, well spaced,
easily discernible when the animal is giving milk, and pos-
sessed of good snace between the last rib and hook point.

(b) Crops, filled up level, or nearly so, with the shoulder.

(d) Hind flanks, low, moderately full and of medium
thickness.

(e) Girth, good at the heart and at least good at the hind
flank.

(f) Underline, straight or slightly rounded downward.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep and but slightly
dropping away from the sacrum and crupper.

(a) Hips, straight on the sides.

(b) Thighs, broad and in a line externally with the hips,
and possessed of but little or no incurvature behind.

(d ) Pin bones, wide, but not prominent.

(e) Twist, open and placed moderately low.

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 21

(f) Tail, inclining to fine and long, smoothly set on and
hanging at right angles vvith the body.

(9) Udder — Capacious, evenly quartered, coming well
forward and backward and not too high or too low.

(a) When empty it should be pliant, not fleshy, and with
much loose skin hanging in folds at the rear.

(b) The teats should be of good size and pointing slightly
outward.

(10) Milk J 'ciiis — Large, long, tortuous, all the better if
branched, and they should enter the body through large orifices
or milk wells.

(11) Legs — Medium in length and bone, straight and
widely placed.

(12) Skin — Medium, inclining to fine, easily movable,
particularly on the ribs, and plentifully covered with soft hair
devoid of coarseness or harshness.

(13) General Appearance — The large, refined and fairly
smooth form of the dual-purpose animal carries along with it
evidences of producing capacity.

(a) In movement it is neither sprightly nor sluggish,
but easy.

(b) When in milk it is not high fleshed, but puts on flesh
quickly when dry.

V. The more important points of contrast
between the males and females :

(1) The former are heavier and stronger and shorter in
head, horn, neck and limbs.

(2) They have relatively more of breast development and
are relatively a little shorter in the coupling.

VI. Dual-purpose cattle contrasted with beef
cattle.

(1) In general outline the former are less massive, not so
even in their proportions and not so smooth.

(2) In size they are about the same, but do not weigh
so well.

(3) They are a little longer in the head, neck, limbs and
barrel.

(4) They are not so wide at the withers, are a little less
full in the breast, shoulders, hips and twist, and are not quite
so rounded or close spaced in the ribs, and

(5) The development of udder and milk veins is much
more marked.

VII. Dual-purpose cattle contrasted with dairy
cattle.

22 THE STUDY OF EREEDS.

(i) In general outline the former are usually much larger
and heavier, the fore and hindquarters are more evenly bal-
anced, the angular points are not so prominent and the form
is not so spare.

(2) The withers are wider, the spinal column less promi-
nent and the hack straighten

(3) The breast is more strongly developed, the spring of
rib rounder, the hips and thighs heavier and the bone some-
what larger.

(4) In general development of head, neck, body, udder
and milk veins, the difference is not greatly marked.

THE BEEF BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 7.

SHORTHORN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. This breed of cattle is so named from the
shortness of the horns which characterize it.

(1) It is also known as the Durham, from the county in
which it originated.

(2) These terms are now regarded as synonymous and
interchangeable.

II. The precise origin of the Shorthorn, like
that of nearly all the other British breeds of cattle,
is involved in much obscurity.

(1) The Romans, Saxons, Danes and Normans, who
conquered England, in turn brought cattle with them that were
successively crossed on the native breeds, and this in part
accounts for the variety of these.

(2) The lack of interchange in live stock for centuries
after the Norman conquest favored the development of dis-
tinctive types, through the modifying influences of climate,
soil, shelter and treatment.

(3) Thus it was, that in the rich pasture lands of the
counties of Durham and Yorkshire, and especially in the
valley of the River Tees, a comparatively large type of cattle
existed several centuries ago, the ancestors of our modern
Shorthorns.

(4) For a long time there were two independent strains
of ancestry, vis: The Teeswater and the Holderness ; but these
have long since been blended through the almost indiscriminate
crossing of their descendants.

III. Those Teeswater and Holderness pro-
genitors of the modern Shorthorn possessed high
and broad carcasses, good milking qualities and an
aptitude to fatten ; but their flesh was coarse and
accompanied by a large amount of offal.

3
CO

SHORTHORNS. 2$

IV. It is alleged and as stoutly denied that
improvements were effected on the Teeswater and
Holderness cattle by the use of Dutch bulls and on
the improved Shorthorn by the introduction of a
Galloway cross.

(i) It is pretty certain, however, that a Dutch cross was
introduced about the year 1640, and also at a subsequent period
or periods.

(2) The Colling Bros, introduced a Galloway cross known
as "the Alloy" about the end of the eighteenth century.

V. Several good herds of Shorthorns existed
in England, in the northern counties, as early as the
middle of the eighteenth century.

(1) Notable among these were the herds of the Earl of
Northumberland, Sir Wm. St. Quinton, Millbank, Croft,
Stevenson, Maynard and Wetherell.

(2) The average size of the cattle in those days was
larger than it is now, but they were not equal to the cattle of
to-day in quality, symmetry and early maturing properties.

VI. The following include the more noted of
the early. improvers of Shorthorns: —

(1) The Colling Bros, of Ketton, who commenced their
work of improvement about 1780, or somewhat earlier.

(a) They selected their foundation stocks wherever they
could get good animals.

(b) They aimed at reducing the frame and improving the
general symmetry and fleshing properties of their favorites.

(d) The purchases made at the dispersion sale of the
Colling Bros., in 1810, did much to improve the Shorthorn
herds in England.

(2) Thomas Bates, a faithful disciple of the Colling Bros.,
who commenced breeding Shorthorns at Kirklevington late in
the eighteenth century.

(a) The Princess, Duchess and Oxford families, were
among the most famous of the tribes which he founded.

(b) Mr. Bates died in 1849, and his herd was dispersed
in 1850.

(3) Richard Booth, who founded the famous herd at
Studley about 1790, a work well sustained at a later period by
his sons, Thomas and John, at Warlaby and Killerby,
respectively.

26 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(a) The special aim of R. Booth was to lengthen the hind
quarter, to fill up the fore flank, to secure greater depth of
flesh and a strength of constitution that would stand forcing
well.

(b) The Booth bulls have been found great improvers of
herds into which they have been introduced.

(4) Amos Cruikshank of Sittyton, Aberdeenshire, Scot-
land, who may be regarded as the originator of Scotch
Shorthorns.

(a) The many tribes of this famous herd were built upon
a mixed Bates and Booth foundation.

(b) It was founded in 1837 and dispersed in 1889.

VII. The Bates, Booth and Cruikshank cattle
contrasted.

(1) The Bates Shorthorns were distinguished by their
size, good milking qualities, cleanness of head, neck and limbs,
and elegant style.

(2) The Booth Shorthorns were equally large, possessed
greater heart girth and length of hind quarter, and more depth
and mellowness of flesh, but in instances not a few they were
plain in the head, strong in the horn and deficient in style.

(3) The Cruikshank cattle, or Scotch Shorthorns, were
less in size than either the Bates or Booth cattle, but they
were more compact and blocky in build, took on flesh more
readily, and were superior when placed on the block.

(4) Scotch Shorthorns have been great prize winners
during recent years.

1—

LECTURE NO. 8.

SHORTHORNS THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN OTHER

COUNTRIES.

I. First importations to America.

(i) Between 1783 and 1795 Messrs. Goff and Miller of
Virginia imported Shorthorn cattle of both sexes into Balti-
more, Md.

(2) Some of their descendants were taken to Kentucky,
where they effected much improvement upon the native stocks
of that State.

(3) But little is known of the exact genealogy of these
cattle, although it has been a fruitful subject of discussion.

IT. Importations to other States.

(1) The first direct importation of Shorthorns into New
York State was made by Samuel M. Hopkins of Moscow
in 1815.

(2) The first direct importation was made into Kentucky
in 1817, by Col. L. Sanders of Grass Hill.

(3) The first direct importation was made into Massa-
chusetts in 1817 by Steven Williams of Northboro.

III. Other importations to the United States.

(1) From 1817 onward, importations of Shorthorns from
England have been made almost every year until the present
time.

(2) Notable among those in point of time were the
importations made by the Ohio Company for Importing Eng-
lish Cattle, of Chillicothe, O., in 1834 to 1836.

(3) Kentucky, New York and Ohio early became n^ted
centers of the breed.

TV. Prominent Shorthorn hreeders.

(1) They are so many that their names even cannot be
given here, much less can the grand, good work they did
be noticed.

(2) Lewis F. Allen of New York and William Warfield
of Kentucky stand foremost among their advocates.

SHORTHORNS. 20,

V. The New York Mills sale.

(i) The most notable sale of Shorthorns ever held was
that of Messrs. Campbell and Walcott of New York Mills,
N. Y., in 1873.

(2) Thfc 108 animals sold of all ages aggregated $382,000.

(3) One Duchess cow was sold for $40,600, the highest
price ever bid for a cattle beast.

VI. Importations into Canada.

(1) The first importation of Shorthorns was made into
Canada by the New Brunswick Board of Agriculture in 1825,
or the year following.

(2) The first importation was made into Ontario by
Robert Arnold of St. Catharines in 1832.

(3) The first direct importation of English Shorthorns
from Britain into Ontario was made by Roland Wingfield of
Guelph in 1833.

(4) Since that time Canada has become famous as an
importing center and also as a breeding center of Shorthorns.

(5) Prominent among the Canadian breeders and im-
porters stand out the names of Simon Beattie, Hon. M. H.
Cochrane and James I Davidson.

VII. The Hillhurst herd.

(1) This herd was established by the Hon. M. H. Coch-
rane in 1865.

(2) In 1877, thirty-two animals were exported from it
to England and sold by public auction at Millbeckstock,
Bowness, Windermere, at an average of about $2,500 each.

(3) The tenth Duchess of Airdrie and fifteen of her
progeny, bred at Hillhurst and sold at different times, aggre-
gated more than $175,000.

VIII. Dissemination in countries other than
the United States and Canada.

(1) Shorthorns have been exported to nearly every
country colonized by Anglo-Saxons and also to many lands
where other languages prevail.

(2) Outside of the United States, Great Britain and
Canada, they are most numerously found in Buenos Ayres,
Australia and New Zealand.

IX. The English herd book.

(1) The first volume of the English Shorthorn Herd
Book was published in 1822, by George Coates of Carlton,
Pontefract, Yorkshire, England.

(2) Its proprietorship was transferred to Henry Stafford
in 1846, after five volumes had been published.

30 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

X. The American herd books.

(i) The first volume of the American Shorthorn Herd
Book was published by Lewis F. Allen of Black Rock, Buffalo,
N. Y., in 1846.

(2) The first volume of the American Shorthorn Record
was published by A. J. Alexander of Woodburn, Ky., in 1869.

(3) The first volume of the Ohio Southern Shorthorn
Record was published by the Shorthorn breeders of Ohio
in 1878.

(4) The American Shorthorn Association purchased the
interest in all these American records in 1882, and since that
date Shorthorn pedigrees have been published in the American
Shorthorn Herd Book.

XL Canadian herd books.

(1) The first volume of the Canadian Shorthorn Herd
Book was published in 1867, of the British-American Short-
horn Herd Book in 1881, of the Dominion Shorthorn Herd
Book in 1887.

(2) The last named record has absorbed the records
previously published.

XII. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Shorthorns are now found in almost every state of
the Union and in every province of Canada.

(2) Ontario stands first in the number of its recorded
Shorthorns.

(3) In the United States they are probably most numer-
ous in Illinois and Iowa in the order named, but they are also
quite numerous in nearly all the Central States, especially
Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky.

XIII. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Forty-five volumes of the American Shorthorn Herd
Book have been issued and fifteen volumes of the Dominion
Shorthorn Herd Book.

(2) In the American Shorthorn Herd Book, 367,950
animals have been recorded, of which 134,566 are males and
233,384 females.

(3) In the Canadian Herd Books, 62,071 animals have
been recorded, making a total in these two countries of 430,021.

LECTURE NO. 9.

SHORTHORNS — THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) Shorthorns have unquestionably been the most
popular breed of cattle in the worlH during the whole of the
present century.

(2) Of this we have abundant evidence in the fact that
they are cosmopolitan to an extent far in advance of any
other breed.

(3) As enduring popularity is always the result of merit,
we find in the favor shown to Shorthorns a proof of their
great utility.

II. Adaptability.

(i) They possess much power of adaptation to the vary-
ing conditions of life, as changes of soil and food products
and climatic conditions, but they flourish best in temperate
zones.

(2) They are best adapted, however, to arable countries,
level or gently undulating, rich in agricultural production, and
where much meat and milk are desired on the same farm.

(3) In point of hardihood they are at least medium.

III. Relative size.

(1) In size and weight they have something of a lead
over all breeds as yet introduced into this country.

(2) This is owing to their greater scale, combined with
good all-round development.

IV. Early maturing- qualities.

(1) In early maturing properties they stand second to no
breed, and are superior to many.

(2) With suitable food and good care they may be made
Quite ripe for the block at the age of two and a half years.

(3) Under average conditions they attain a maximum of
growth at about four years.

32 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Grazing qualities.

(i) These are only average, since the heavy frames
possessed by Shorthorns render them less active a» foragers,
hence

(2) When being grazed, the pastures should furnish them
with plentiful supplies.

VI. Feeding qualities.

\i) These are of the first order.

(2) They make a good use of the food given them, arc
contented under confinement, will feed well for a long period
stand forcing well and lay on flesh evenly and deeply.

VII. Quality of meat.

(i) Shorthorns furnish meat tender, juicy and nutri-
tious, and

(2) They kill well, as the proportion of bone and offal is
relatively small, but

(3) The fat and lean are not quite so well intermixed as
with some breeds, the grain of the flesh is not so fine nor is
the meat so highly flavored.

VIII. Milking qualities.

(1) In the last century and during much of the present,
Shorthorns generally were possessed of good milking qualities.

(2) Several families still retain these, more especially in
England, where, as a breed, they still rank high for dairy
uses, but

(3) These qualities have been much impaired not only in
Britain, but more especially in America, through the lines of
breeding and management adopted.

(4) However, during recent years much more attention
is being given to the restoration of good milking qualities.

(5) The milk is excellent for calf rearing, and may be
used with advantage in making butter and cheese.

IX. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) No breed has been equally useful for purposes of
crossing, either upon grade cattle or upon pure breds of
other breeds.

(2) They have wrought a wonderful improvement upon
the common cattle of Ireland, North and South America.
Australia. New Zealand and some other countries.

(3) Nearly all the cattle exported to Britain from these
countries are Shorthorn grades.

SHORTHORNS. 33

(4) They impart to other breeds, and especially to grades,
size, form, quality, rapid growth, early maturity, marked
fattening properties, and in many instances good milk produc-
tion, hence

(5) When properly bred they are particularly adapted to
the production of grades of the dual-purpose type.

X. Weak points.

(1) In some instances they are possessed of an impaired
constitution, resulting from in-and-in breeding and the highly
artificial treatment to which they have been subjected, and

(2) In other instances they inherit a tendency to sterility
more especially where they have been forced in their feeding

LECTURE NO. 10.

SHORTHORNS THEIR PRINCIPAL POINTS.

In the absence of an authorized scale of points,
the following is submitted : —

I. Size — The size should be relatively large,
but medium for the breed.

(i) The fore and hind quarters should be equally well
developed.

(2) Compactness of form is more important in the male,
but it is essential in the female as well.

II. Head — Small in proportion to the size of
the animal, clean cut, handsome and well set on,
longer and narrower in the female, but stronger in
the male.

(1) Forehead, broad between the eyes.

(2) Face, slightly dished in the female, and tapering
gracefully below the eyes to the nostril.

(3) Nose, medium in size and straight.

(4) Muzzle, medium to broad, full and moist and flesh
colored.

(5) Nostrils, large and fairly expansive.

(6) Cheeks, not heavily fleshed, the lower jaw in the
female thin.

(7) Eyes, large, full, bright, intelligent, calm.

(8) Ears, medium in size and thickness, well covered with
soft hair, somewhat erect and possessed of an average amount
of play.

(9) Poll, fairly broad and level.

(10) Horns, short but longer and finer in the female, flat
rather than round at the base, spreading and curving grace-
fully forward, with a slightly downward <>r upward tendency,
and of a creamy white or yellowish color.

III. Neck — Medium in length, strong and
arched in the male, but finer in the female, and grad-

SHORTHORNS. 35

ually widening and deepening and slightly rounding
as it approaches the shoulder.

(i) It should spring straight from the back, should set
well into the shoulder and brisket and should carry the
head gracefully.

(2) The throat should be clean cut and without dewlap.

IV. Body — Long, broad, deep, only mod-
erately long in the coupling and rectangular, almost
a parallelogram, and evenly covered with firm flesh.

(1) Back, straight, wide and level from withers to tail-
head, broad and well filled in the loin, and well fleshed
throughout.

(2) Withers, broad.

(3) Shoulders, well developed and lying well within
the body, blending nicely with the neck in front and crops
behind and well covered.

(4) Forearm, strong and broad where it joins the body
and tapering gracefully to the knee.

(5) Breast, full, wide and deep, and the chest capacious.

(6) Brisket, broad and well rounded.

(7) Crops, full.

(8) Ribs, springing well and level from the backbone,
coming well down, and so filling the space behind the shoul-
der and in front of the hooks, that the animal will appear
straight and level from the shoulder to the buttock.

(9) Heart girth and flank girth, good, and about equal.

(10) Hind quarters, long and full from the hooks to the
pin bones, deep throughout and broad in every part.

(11) Hips, broad and on a level with the back and loin.

(12) Hind flank, full, deep and thick.

(13) Thigh, broad, full and well fleshed within and
without.

(14) Rumps, broad but not prominent.

(15) Buttock, broad and square.

(16) Twist, deep and full, and placed low.

(17) Tail, rather fine, somewhat broad at the top, but
level, set perpendicularly on a level with the back and not
too much covered with hair.

A'. Udder — Broad and full, extending well
forward along the belly and well up behind and
evenly quartered.

(1) Teats of good size and squarely placed, well apart,
and having a slight oblique pointing outward.

(2) Milk veins, large, tortuous and swelling, and with
fairly large orifices leading into the body.

36 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VI. Legs — Short, and well placed under the
animal, fine and clean below the knee, and fine, clean
and flat below the hock.

(1) Hocks, somewhat straight and short, and turning
neither outward nor inward.

(2) Foot, flat, and in shape an oblong semicircle.

VII. Skin — Of medium thickness, finer in
the female, mellow and elastic to the touch, of a
cream or orange color, and well covered with an
abundance of fine, soft hair.

VIII. Color — The standard colors are red,
white and roan.

(1) Red is most in favor, white is now considered objec-
tionable, and red and white spots alternating are not in favor.

(2) All shades of roan are admissible, but red roan is
preferred.

(3) The skin around the eye and bald of the nose should
be a rich cream color.

IX. General Appearance — Shorthorns should
have large, rectangular and yet compact develop-
ment of body, smoothness of outline, symmetry of
form and gracefulness of carriage.

LECTURE NO. n.

HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. But little is known regarding the origin
and history of Hereford cattle prior to the last half
of the eighteenth century.

(i) John Speed in a book published in 1627, speaks well
of the cattle of Herefordshire.

(2) The next reference is made by Marshall in 1788.

(3) His description of a Hereford ox would answer well
for one of the present day.

II. A careful analysis of the somewhat con-
flicting statements of the principal writers on Here-
fords pretty certainly establishes the following: —

(1) That Hereford cattle are descended from one or
more of the aboriginal breeds of Great Britain, and that in
this respect they share a common ancestry with the Devon
and Sussex breeds.

(2) That the original color as in the case of the Devon
and Sussex was probably a whole red.

(3) That at an early period the white cattle of Wales
were crossed upon the native stocks, thus enlarging their
frames and imparting a tendency to white markings.

(4) That the white markings thus originated were further
enstamped by a cross of white-faced Flemish cattle imported
by Lord Scudamore from Flanders prior to 1671, and by using
certain other white-faced bulls obtained in various parts of
England.

(5) That the white face, though generally recognized as
indicating purity of breeding for some time prior to the close
of the last century, was not universal, as some of the animals
had mottled faces and some were possessed of but little white
of any kind.

(6) That the greater size of the Herefords as compared
with the Devon and Sussex breeds is owing to the abundance
of the food products in Herefordshire, and to the effect of
crossing them by animals of large size.

-a

HEREFORD CATTLE. 39

(7) That the Hereford cattle were noted for their good
grazing and beef making properties in the eighteenth cen-
tury, and

(8) That the oxen were extensively used for purposes of
labor prior to the nineteenth century.

III. The most noted of the early improvers
of Hereford cattle were Benjamin Tompkins, father
and son, but the latter was the more noted of
the two.

(1) The elder Benjamin Tompkins, born at New House,
Kings Pyon, in 1714, died in 1789.

(2) The younger Benjamin Tompkins was born at the
Court House, Canon Pyon, in 1745, and died at Wellington
Court in 1S15.

(3) Many of the best herds afterward built up in England
rested upon foundation stocks purchased from the younger
Tompkins.

(4) Like Bakewell, he improved his cattle through the
most careful selection in mating and through in-and-in
breeding.

(5) At the dispersion sale of his stock in 1819, the breed-
ing animals sold for an average of more than $700 each.

IV. Prominent among the early improvers of
Herefords are the names of Galliers, Tully, Skyrme
and Haywood, and somewhat later the names of
John Price and John Hewer.

(1) At the four sales held by John Price it is said that
he realized not less than $100,000 for Herefords.

(2) Some of the animals bred by John Hewer were of
extraordinary size.

V. Progress of Herefords early in the
century.

(1) Prior to 1835 herds had been established in fifteen
English and Welsh counties.

(2) During the first half of the century Herefords won
more prizes at the Smithfield London Show than the animals
of any other breed.

VI. Some influences which hindered the dis-
semination of Herefords.

(1) Their milking powers were not equal to those of some
other breeds, notably the Shorthorn.

4<3 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) The unfortunate controversy carried on toward the
middle of the century between the breeders of the mottle-
faced and white-faced varieties respectively.

(3) They were not advertised in the same way or to the
same extent as the Shorthorns, and

(4) The want of organized effort on the part of the
breeders until a comparatively recent period greatly hindered
the dissemination of the breed.

VII. Distribution of Herefords.

(1) They have been reared to some extent in Scotland.
Ireland, Jamaica, Canada and Australia, and

(2) They have become numerous and popular in many of
the prairie sections of both North and South America.

VIII. Importations to the United States and
Canada.

(1) The first accredited importation was made into the
United States by the Kentucky statesman. Henry Clay, in 1817.

(2) Several sundry importations were made to various
states between 1817 and 1839, but during that interval Here-
fords do not seem to have made much progress.

(3) Between 1839 and 1843, William H. Sotham. who has
probably done more than any one person to advance the Here-
ford interest in the United States, made three successive
importations into the state of New York.

(4) In i860 and subsequently, F. \V. Stone of Guelph.
Ont, imported and bred many excellent animals, and from
these many of the herds of the United States have either been
built up or greatly enriched.

(5) Thomas Aston of Elyria, O., was the third of the
leading importers prior to 1880. since when the distribution of
Herefords has been phenomenal.

(6) Among the leading importers and breeders of the last
two decades the names of C. Culbertson, Newman, 111.,
T. L. Miller, Beecher, 111., and Thomas F. B. Sotham, Chilli-
cothe, Mo., stand out pre-eminent.

IX. Associations formed.

(1) The American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association
was organized in 1881.

(2) The Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association of Eng-
land was formed in 1884.

X. . Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Nearly every state in the Union and nearly every
province of Canada has its quota of Herefords, but

•oh

42 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) They are most numerous in the Central Mississippi
basin, and in the range states west of the Mississippi and
south of the Missouri.

(3) The most important breeding centers are Missouri,
Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois and Indiana.

XL Registration in the United States.

(1) The first volume of the American Hereford Record
was published in 1880 and of the English Hereford Herd Book
in 1884.

(2) Twenty volumes of the American Record have been
issued and 95,000 animals have been recorded therein, of
which about one-half are males.

LECTURE NO. 12.

HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER-
ISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) In the last century and during the early part of the
present one, Herefords were equally popular with Short-
horns, but

(2) Since that time Shorthorns have been more in favor
with the average farmer, unless in rich pastoral districts.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Herefords, like Shorthorns, readily adapt themselves
to the changed conditions of soil and climate, and their
marked docility is eminently favorable to such adaptation.

(2) They are well adapted to arable countries, level or
gently undulating, and capable of rich production in grain
and pastures.

(3) They have proved themselves eminently fitted for
range conditions, such as prevail in the western and south-
western states.

(4) Although they have proved hardy in northern lati-
tudes, they would seem better adapted relatively than the
Shorthorns to warm temperatures.

III. Relative size.

(1) In average size and weight, as a breed, they are
almost equal to the Shorthorns, while

(2) In many instances individual animals outweigh
Shorthorns.

IV. Early maturing qualities.

(1) In early maturing qualities they are fully equal to the
Shorthorns.

(2) Like the latter, with good feeding, they may be made
quite ripe for the block at two and one-half years.

V. Grazing- qualities.

(1) Their grazing properties are decidedly superior, since
they take on flesh rapidly on good pastures, and

(2) Their grades have shown much capacity for well
doing on the dry and not overabundant pastures of the open
range.

44 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VI. Feeding qualities.

(i) In feeding qualities they stand much on the same
plane as Shorthorns.

(2) They make a good use of the food given them, and
lay on flesh most heavily on the parts of the frame from which
the best meat is cut, as the back and loin, but

(3) Under heavy forcing they are somewhat inclined
to patchiness.

VII. Quality of meat.

(1) The quality of the meat is very good, and finds much
favor with butchers and consumers.

(2) It is juicy and tender, the fat and lean are nicely
blended, and the proportion of the lean to the fat is large, and

(3) The proportion of the dressed meat to the live weight
is relatively large.

VIII. Milking qualities.

(1) The milking properties of Herefords were at one
time fairly good, but they have been much impaired through
the system of breeding and management adopted.

(2) The quality of the milk is good, but it is oftentimes
deficient in quantity.

IX. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Herefords cross well with some breeds, as Short-
horns and Galloways, but not so well with others, as Devons
and West Highland cattle.

(2) In crossing with Shorthorns the best results have
been obtained when the male was Hereford.

(3) Herefords answer well for crossing upon grades and
common stocks when meat-making is the object sought.

(4) Hereford grades are probably more numerous on
southwestern ranges than those of any other breed.

X. Breeding qualities.

(1) The breeding qualities of Herefords are good.

(2) When submitted to high pressure feeding, they still
usually breed with regularity and oftentimes they breed to an
advanced age.

(3) They are said to be less subject to abortion and to
milk fever than some other breeds.

XL Weak points.

(1) The chief of these as to properties is scant milk
production.

HEREFORD CATTLE. 45

(2) As to form, unnecessary dewlap sometimes, and fre-
quently lightness of thigh.

XII. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) They are probably something ahead in grazing and
breeding qualities and in quality of meat.

(2) In size, adaptability, maturing and feeding Qualities
and utility in crossing, they are not greatly different.

(3) In all-round popularity and in milking properties
they are scarcely equal to Shorthorns.

LECTURE NO. 13.

HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR PRINCIPAL POINTS.

In the absence of an authorized scale of points
the following is submitted : —

I. Size — Relatively large, but medium for
the breed.

(1) The fore and hind quarters should he equally well
developed, but

(2) In many instances the hind quarter is relatively light.

(3) Compactness of form is desired in both sexes, but is
more sought for in the male.

II. Head — The head should be small in pro-
portion to the substance of the body, clean cut and
well set on, not coming out too low from the neck.
In the bull it should be masculine, but finer in the
female and not too long in either sex.

(1) Forehead, broad between and above the eyes.

(2) Face, slightly dished in the female and gently tapering
below the eyes.

(3) Nose, medium in size and straight, not too fine.

(4) Muzzle, broad, dewy and cream colored.

(5) Nostrils, large and open.

(6) Cheeks, not heavily fleshed nor coarse.

(7) Eyes, large, full, calm, mild, and surrounded by a
cream-colored circle.

(8) Ears, medium in size and thickness, well fringed,
fairly erect and active.

(9) Poll, broad and level.

(10) Horns, springing out straightly from the poll, more
than medium in length, flat at the base and of a yellow or
white waxy appearance.

(a) In the male the curve is in the form of a semi-circle.

(b) In the female it is in the form of a graceful wave,
with a slightly spreading upward tendency.

III. Neck — Medium in length, strong and
arched in the male, but finer in the female and grad-

HEREFORD CATTLE. 47

ually widening and deepening and slightly rounding
as it approaches the shoulder.

(i) It should spring straight from the back, should set
well into the shoulder and brisket, and should carry the head
gracefully.

(2) The throat should be clean cut and without dewlap,
but frequently there is more or less of dewlap.

IV. Body — Long, broad, deep, not too long
in the barrel, rectangular, almost a parallelogram
and evenly covered with firm flesh.

(1) Back, straight, wide and level from withers to tail-
head, broad and well filled in the loin, and well fleshed
throughout.

(2) Withers, broad.

(3) Shoulders fully developed and lying well within the
body, blending nicely with the neck in front and crops behind,
and well covered.

(4) Forearm, strong and broad where it joins the body
and tapering gracefully to the knee.

(5) Breast, full, wide and deep.

(6) Brisket, broad and plump, and often lower than in
the Shorthorn.

(7) Crops, full.

(8) Ribs, springing well and level from the backbone,
increasingly so toward the back rib, coming well down, and
extending well forward and backward, as in the Shorthorn.

(9) Heart girth and flank girth, good and about even.

(10) Hind quarters, long and broad and deep, as in the
Shorthorn.

(11) Hips, broad and full and on a level with the back
and loin.

(12) Hind flank, full, thick and deep.

(13) Thigh, broad, full and well fleshed within and with-
out, but in many instances it is light.

(14) Rump, broad, but not prominent, and on a line
with the back.

(15) Buttock, broad and square.

(16) Twist, deep and full and placed low.

(17) Tail, rather fine, somewhat broad at the top, set on
a level with the back and falling in a plumb line to the hocks.

V. Udder — Broad, full and long and evenly

quartered, but oftentimes it is not possessed of much

capacity.

(1) Teats of good size and well placed, as with the
Shorthorn.

48 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) Milk veins, same as in the Shorthorn, but frequently
they are lacking in large development.

VI. Legs — Short and well placed under the
body, fine and clean below the knee, and fine, clean
and flat below the hock.

(1) Hocks fairly straight and short, and turning neither
outward nor inward.

(2) Feet, flat and in shape like a semi-circle.

YII. Skin — Of medium thickness, but some-
what thicker than in the Shorthorn, mellow and
elastic to the touch, and well covered with an abun-
dance of fine, soft hair, in many instances more or
less curled.

VIII. Color — In color, the face, throat,
chest, legs, lower part of the body, crest and tip of
tail are a beautiful white, and all other parts are red.

(1) The red should be neither very dark nor light.

(2) A small red spot above the eye and a round red spot
on the throat have many admirers.

IX. General Appearance — Herefords are
characterized by large, rectangular and yet compact
development of body, smoothness of outline, mild-
ness of mien, and easy carriage.

X. Compared with Shorthorns — They have
longer and more spreading horns, more dewlap,
lower briskets, rather thicker hides, lighter thighs,
more curly coats, and the differences in color
mentioned.

LECTURE NO. 14.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN' <4ND

HISTORY.

I. Fossiliferons remains that have been dis-
covered in Britain render it highly probable that the
aboriginal cattle from which existing races have
been derived were all horned originally, yet

(1) Several varieties of hornless cattle have existed in
Britain from time immemorial, some of which have disap-
peared, hence

(2) The only existing polled breeds at present are the
Polled Aberdeen, the Galloway and the Red Polls.

II. The precise causes that have led to the
loss of horns have never been exactly understood.

(1) It may have arisen from sudden organic changes,
spontaneous, accidental or proper, and was then perpetuated
by selection in breeding, as,

(2) It is more than probable that these variations occurred
within the period of domestication.

III. Of the four principal breeds of Scotch
cattle, the Ayrshires only have an admixture of for-
eign blood.

(1) The other three, vis., the Aberdeen- Angus, frequently
called Polled Aberdeen and Angus, the Galloway and the
West Highland are all supposed to be descended from the
aboriginal wild horned cattle of Caledonia.

(2) The minor differences which they present are doubt-
less due to climatic and other influences.

IV. It is highly probable that the Aberdeen-
Angus cattle are indigenous to the northeastern
counties of Scotland, with Forfar and Aberdeen as
their chief centers, as

d) There is much evidence to show that late in the last
century and early in the present, polled cattle were numerous
in these counties, and

4 49

.£3
<

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 5 1

(2) In the ancient horned domestic races of Scotland,
there seems to have been a decided tendency to variation in
the loss of horns.

V. The Aberdeen-Angus of to-day is no
doubt the result of the amalgamation of two sorts
of polled cattle inhabiting the districts of Scot-
land, where, even now, the breed abounds most
numerously.

(i) The former of these were puny and thin in flesh,
pre-eminently the crofters' cow.

(2) The latter were a larger variety, with better all-round
development, but could not stand roughing it so well as the
former.

VI. Hugh Watson of Keillor, Meigle, For-
farshire, was the most noted of the early improvers
of Aberdeen Polls.

(1) Both his father and grandfather owned good herds
of the same kind of cattle, the latter as early as 1735.

(2) He established the Keillor herd in 1808, and prose-
cuted the work of breeding with much vigor and success until
1865, when it was dispersed.

(3) He bred from those animals only which came nearest
to his ideal, and did not seem to care whether they were
closely related or not.

(4) He was singularly successful in raising calves, fre-
quently suckling five on one cow.

(5) Nearly 500 prizes were awarded him in leading show-
rings of England, Scotland and France.

VII. After Hugh Watson, the most noted
improver of Aberdeen Polls was William Mc-
Combie of Tilly four, who was born in 1805 and died
in 1880.

(1) His herd was founded in 1830 and dispersed in 1880.

(2) His success in the showyard has few parallels in the
history of farm stock.

(3) In 1878 he won highest honors in Paris, France,
competing against all breeds.

VIII. Early in the century Lord Panmure
tried to improve the Aberdeen Polls by means of a
Galloway cross, but the effort resulted in failure.

52 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IX. Toward the middle of the century Short-
horn bulls were extensively crossed on Aberdeen-
Angus cows, the result being a very superior animal
for the block.

(i) To so great an extent did this practice prevail at one
time that fears were entertained for the preservation of the
purity of the hreed.

(2) The after crosses, however, did not prove so satisfac-
tory, and the practice was abandoned.

X. Extension to other countries.

(1) Aberdeen-Angus cattle reached Ireland prior to 1843,
and England somewhat later, and several good herds have
been established in both these countries.

(2) They first reached the United States in 1873, where
already there are probably more herds of this breed than in
Scotland.

(3) They were first introduced into Canada in 1876, and
several herds have been established in various parts of that
country.

(4) They are also kept in considerable numbers in
Canada, South America, New Zealand and several countries
in Europe.

XI. Organizations established.

(1) The Polled Cattle Society was established in 1879,
largely through the efforts of Sir George McPherson Grant.

(2) The American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Associa-
tion was organized in 1883.

XII. The first volume of the "Polled Herd
Book" was published in 1862.

(1) In the first four volumes Galloway cattle are regis-
tered along with the Aberdeen Polls.

(2) The first volume of the American Aberdeen Angus
Herd Book was published in 1886.

XIII. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Aberdeen-Angus cattle are now being reared in
twenty-seven states and provinces.

(2) They are bred and owned by 728 persons.

(3) The more important centers for the breed are Iowa
Illinois, Missouri, Ohio and Indiana, and in the order named

•on

Li.

54 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(4) About one-third of all the pure Aberdeen-Angus
cattle in the United States are in Iowa and one-fourth in
Illinois.

XIV. Registration in the United States.

(1) Nine volumes of the Aberdeen- Angus Herd Book
have been issued.

(2) A total of 32,500 animals have been recorded, of
which 13.744 are males and 18,756 are females.

LECTURE NO. 15.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE — THEIR LEADING CHAR-
ACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) The Polled Aberdeens were but little known outside
of Scotland prior to the middle of the present century.

(2) Now they occupy a place in the public mind as beef
producers that is probably not second to that given to
Herefords.

(3) The rapid diffusion of the breed since its introduction
into the United States augurs well for its future.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Aberdeen- Angus cattle are best adapted to temperate
climates when shelter can be given them in winter.

(2) Although reared in considerable numbers on the open
ranges of the west, they are probably better adapted to what
may be termed semi-range conditions.

(3) They have highest adaptation for arable land, level
or undulating, and rich in all kinds of food production, and
where it is desired to produce meat of a high class.

(4) The absence of horns is favorable to feeding while
running loose in sheds and yards, and also to transporting
long distances by rail.

(5) In hardihood they are about medium.

III. Relative size.

(i) They follow closely upon the Shorthorns and Here-
fords, although they do not possess quite the same average
size, but

(2) They weigh remarkably well in proportion to their
size.

(3) With good feeding, cows at maturity will weigh from
1 100 to 1500 pounds, and bulls 2000 to 2400 pounds.

IV. Early maturing qualities.

(1) Formerly they were slow in maturing, but in this
respect they have been greatly improved.

56 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) With good feeding they will mature for the block at

the age of, say, thirty months.

V. Grazing qualities.

(1) In grazing qualities they are about average.

(2) Like the large bodied Shorthorns and Hereford1;
they do not graze well on broken and rugged lands where the
pastures are scant.

VI. Feeding qualities.

(1) Their feeding qualities are of the first order, as they
stand confinement well and make an excellent use of the food
given them.

(2) They are remarkable for their retention of symmetry
of form while being fattened, as they rarely become patchy
or disproportioned.

(3) During recent years, pure and high grade Aberdeen-
Polls have won more prizes at the leading fat stock shows for
the number of animals shown than have been won by any
other breed.

VII. Quality of meat.

(1) In quality of meat they are probably ahead of the
Shorthorns and Herefords, and are equal or nearly equal with
the Galloway and West Highland breeds.

(2) As a rule the flesh is well mixed and contains a large
proportion of compact, finely grained meat, and

(3) No other breed produces a higher percentage of dead
meat in proportion to the live weight.

VIII. Milking qualities.

(1) Formerly they were possessed of good milking
qualities, more especially that branch of the parent tree known
as the crofters' cow.

(2) These qualities have been impaired, however, through
the system of breeding and management adopted, save in some
individuals and in a few families.

(3) The quality of the milk is first-class.

IX. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Polled Aberdeens cross particularly well with Short-
horn grades.

(2) They are also excellent for crossing upon common
stocks in arable sections where quick feeding, absence of horns
and a high quality of meat are desired in the progeny.

(3) A large percentage of the progeny are hornless and
black or gray in color.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 57

X. Breeding qualities.

(1) Their breeding qualities were formerly of a high
order, as witnessed in "Auld Granny," owned by Hugh Wat-
son, but

(2) To some extent they have been impaired through the
artificial treatment to which they have been subjected, so that
now they cannot be placed higher than good average.

XL "Weak points.

(1) As to properties, they do not appear to have any
weaknesses which stand out markedly prominent.

(2) As to form, they are in some instances a little lacking
in scale.

XII. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) They are probably something ahead in quality of
meat, and in suitability for shipping by rail.

(2) In adaptability, early maturity, grazing and feeding
properties, utility in crossing and in breeding properties, they
are about equal.

(3) In general popularity, size, and milking qualities they
are as yet a little behind.

LECTURE NO. 16.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE — THEIR STANDARD
POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association in
1890:

for cows.

POINTS

(1) Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on
underline behind the navel, and there only to a
moderate extent 2

(2) Head — Forehead moderately broad, and slightly
indented ; tapering toward the nose ; muzzle fine ;
nostrils wide and open ; distance from eyes to nos-
trils of moderate length ; eyes full, bright and ex-
pressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears
large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished
with hair; poll, well defined and without any ap-
pearance of horns or scars; jaws, clean . . 10

(3) Throat — Clean, without any development of loose
flesh underneath ... . . • 3

(4) Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet
the shoulders, with full neck vein ... 3

(5) Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on
blades and top ; with vertebra cr backbone slightly
above the scapula or shoulder blades, which
should be moderately broad . . . .6

(6) Chest — Wide and deep; round and full just back

of elbows ........ 10

(7) Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from
between the legs, and proportionately covered
with flesh and fat ...... 4

(8) Ribs — Well sprung from backbone, arched and
deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins . 8

(9) Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks;
loins strong; hook bones moderate in width, not
prominent, and well covered; rumps, long, full,
level and rounded neatlv into hindquarters . 10

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE, 59

(io) Hindquarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and
muscular, and in proportion with hindquarters;
twist filled out well in its "seam" so as to form an
even, wide plain between thighs . ... 8

(11) Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a
line with the back, and hanging at right angles

to it 3

(12) Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line
with the body and well up behind ; teats squarely
placed, well apart and of good size . . 8

(13) Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible; flank
deep and full 4

(14) Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed; hind
legs slightly inclined forward below the hocks;
forearm, muscular ; bones, fine and clean . . 3

(15) Flesh — Even and without patchiness . . 3

(16) Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch,
abundantly covered with thick, soft hair. Much
of the thriftiness. feeding properties and value of
the animal depend upon this quality, which is of
great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judg-
ment. A good "touch" will compensate for some
deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for
a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from
the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible
feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it
should move easily, as though resting on a soft,
cellular substance, which, however, becomes firmer
as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is ob-
jectionable, especially in a cold climate . . .10

(17) General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and
feminine. The walk square, the step quick, and
the head up 5

Perfection 100

FOR BULLS.

POINTS

(i) Color — Same as for cows, but add, a white cod is

most undesirable 3

(2) Head — Same as for cows, but substitute forehead
broad, face slightly prominent for "forehead mod-
erately broad and slightly indented," and eyes
mild, full and expressive, for "eyes, full, bright
and expressive" 10

(3) Throat — Same as for cows 3

(4) Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with mod-
erate crest (which increases with age) spreading
out to meet the shoulders, with full neck reins . 3

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(5) Shoulders — Same as for cows .

(6) Chest — Same as for cows

(7) Brisket — Same as for cows

(8) Ribs — Same as for cows

(9) Back — Same as for cows .

(10) Hindquarters — Same as for cows

(11) Tail — Same as for cows .

(12) Underline — Same as for cows

(13) Legs — Same as for cows .

(14) Flesh — Same as for cows

(15) Skin — Same as for cows .

( 16) General Appearance — Same as for cow
stitute masculine for feminine

s, but sub-

6
10

4
8

10
8
3
4
4
4

Perfection

100

The following additional points are sub-

II.

niitted :

(1) Head, not large, clean cut, bandsome and well set on.
and finer in the female.

(2) Muzzle, black in color.

(3) Cheeks, not heavy, but probably deeper than in some
breeds.

(4) Body, fairly long, broad, deep, cylindrical, well
rounded at the angles and evenly covered with smooth flesh.

(5) Breast, full, wide and deep and brisket broad.

(6) Forearm, broad and plump and tapering gracefully to
the knee.

(7) Crops, full and level with the shoulder.

(8) Hind flanks, full, deep and thick.

(9) Buttock, moderately broad and slightly rounded at
the sides.

(10) Milk veins, distinctly traced.

(11) Hoofs, semi-circular.

(12) Skin, stronger in the male than the female.

(13) The hair in the best animals has two growths, or
lengths, the under one being short, thick and downy.

III. Color — The color most in favor is black
without any variation.

(1) A shade of brown is not rejected, nor is some white
about the udder, but white above the underline or on the legs
will exclude from registry.

(2) Red or brindled is also inadmissible.

(3) Formerly they embraced a great variety of colors, as
brindle, red, brown, silver colored yellow, and dark red and
black stripes alternating.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 6 1

IV. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance they are low set and sturdy, fairly long in body
and very smooth in outline.

V. Compared with Shorthorns.

(i) The Aberdeen-Angus are longer in body in proportion
to the hight, smoother and more cylindrical, less prominent
at the angles and even shorter in the limbs.

(2) They are something finer in the muzzle and longer in
the nose, a trifle longer in the neck and somewhat thicker in
the hide.

(3) There are also the differences in horn and color pre-
viously mentioned.

LECTURE NO. 17.

GALLOWAY CATTLE — THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORV

I. Galloway cattle are so named from the
province of Galloway, which now comprises the
stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wig-
town.

(1) The principal pedigreed herds in Britain are found
in Kirkcudbright, Dumfriesshire and Cumberland, where they
have been bred pure further back than any authentic records
carry us.

(2) Several writers of the sixteenth century speak in
high terms of the excellence of the flesh of the cattle of the
Galloway district.

II. The Galloways are certainly one of the
purest, as well as one of the oldest, of the improved
breeds.

(1) Some authorities hold to the opinion that they are
descended from a wild aboriginal polled breed still repre-
sented at Chatellerault in Lanarkshire, Scotland.

(2) There has been no infusion of outside blood whatever
within the period of their recorded history, as all efforts to
improve the breed from an outside source have been un-
successful.

(3) This is not inconsistent with the fact that horned
cattle of other breeds have been bred simultaneously in the
same districts.

(4) An unmistakable proof of the antiquity and purity
of the breed is found in the entire absence of scurs in pure
Galloways, and in the great power which they have to remove
the horns when crossed upon other breeds.

III. The treatment to which they have been
subjected, and the cold, damp climate in which they
were originally reared, have contributed much to
their proverbial ruggedness.

G4 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(i) They have there heen frequently reared 1500 feet
above the sea level, where grain will not ripen.

(2) The long wavy coat which protects them is probably
owing to the dampness of the climate.

IV. During much of the last century and also
the beginning of the present one, it was customary
to drive Galloways in large numbers to the south-
eastern counties of England to be finished for the
London market.

(1) For many years, from 20,000 to 30.000 head were
thus driven annually from the home of the Galloways.

(2) This trade ceased after the introduction of turnip
husbandry into that part of Scotland.

V. Introduction into America.

(1) The first recorded Galloways were imported into
Canada by Graham Bros, of Vaughan. Ont., in 1853, but

(2) Their dissemination in that country was owing
chiefly, to the untiring efforts of Thomas McCrae of Guelph.
Ont., who began breeding them in 1861, and importing them
from Scotland a few years subsequently.

(3) They were imported into Michigan about 1870, and
somewhat later to Wisconsin and Missouri.

(4) They have also been introduced to some extent into
other Anglo-Saxon countries.

VI. During the last century there were many
Galloways of mixed colors, a point that is well
brought out in crossing them on other breeds.

(1) Some were belted, some had white faces and a white
mark along the back, others were brindled, drab or dun, red,
and red and white.

(2) When crossed with an old established breed, one-half
the calves will probably show a variety of colors.

VIT. Galloway breeders" Associations.

O) The Galloway Cattle Society in Britain was estab-
lished in 1877.

(2) The American Galloway Breeders' Association was
established in 1882.

VIII. "Registration in Britain.

(i) The first volume of the Galloway Herd Book, as
distinguished from that of the Aberdeen-Angus was published
in 1878.

66 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) Previous to that time they had been registered in
the same record as the Aberdeen-Angus breed.

(3) The Rev. John Gillespie, Mousewald Manse, Dum-
fries, has been the editor of the Galloway Herd Book since
the adoption of separate registration.

IX. Registration in North America.

(1) Registration was commenced in Ontario in 1872, and
up to 1874 was entirely confined to Canada.

(2). The first volume of the American Galloway Herd
Book was published by the Agriculture and Arts Association
of Ontario in 1883.

(3) In 1883, the interest of the last named association
was purchased by the American Galloway Breeders' Associa-
tion, and since that time the American registration of Gallo-
ways has been conducted in the United States.

X. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) The more important centers of distribution in the
United States are Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas and
Minnesota and in the order named.

(2) A considerable number are found in the various
provinces of Canada, and they are probably most numerous in
Ontario and Nova Scotia.

XI. Registration in the United States.

(1) Nine volumes of the American Galloway Herd Book
have been issued.

(2) A total of 14.401 animals have been recorded, of
which 6,262 are males and 8,229 females, and 1,000 pedigrees
await record.

LECTURE NO. 18.

GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER-
ISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(i) Galloway cattle are probably not so popular as the
Shorthorn, Hereford and Polled Aberdeen breeds, yet

(2) Among the leading beef breeds they are entitled to
at least the fourth place.

(3) In the United States, and also to a less extent in
Canada, they are gaining ground where cattle must needs
rustle in inclement weather.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They are incomparably the hardiest of the British
races, except the West Highland breed.

(2) Their long hair and thick mossy undercoat enables
them to endure well the severities of weather arising from
wet and cold, hence

(3) They are very well adapted to rugged regions and
to the purposes of the range, both in the western states and
the Canadian Northwest.

(4) They do better on spare diet than nearly all of the
ether beef breeds, as they have been much reared on rocky and
thin land.

(5) This vigor of constitution enables them to stand well
long journeys by road, rail or ship transit.

III. Relative size.

O) In size they are considerably less than the Shorthorns
and Herefords. and something less than the Aberdeen Polls,
and possibly the Sussex, but

(2) They weigh remarkably well in proportion to the
apparent size.

IV. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They do not mature quite so quickly as some of the
beef breeds, owing to the way in which they have been
reared, but

(2) When fed a forcing ration they are capable of matur-
ing at an early age.

68 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Grazing qualities.

(i) The grazing qualities of Galloways are of a high
order.

(2) They are capable of "roughing it" on rugged pastures,
and of making fair gains on these, and

(3) When put on rich pastures they finish quickly and
in fine form.

VI. Feeding qualities.

(1) Galloways feed well, not only in the pure form, but
when crossed upon certain other breeds, as the Shorthorn and
West Highland.

(2) The largest specimens are not usually equal in feed-
ing qualities to the short legged animals with small, fine bone.

(3) They take on flesh smoothly, being almost entirely
free from patchiness.

VII. Quality of meat.

(1) Galloway beef has been noted for its fine quality in
the London markets for nearly two centuries, where, during
that time, it has commanded the highest market price.

(2) The fat is put on more internally than externally,
and is finely intermixed with lean, the proportion of the latter
being unusually large.

(3) The grain of the flesh is extremely delicate and it is
rich in flavor.

VIII. Milking qualities.

(1) Galloways cannot lay claim to any superiority as a
milking breed, since they have been bred mainly for the
block, but

(2) Some individuals milk well and the milk of all is rich.

IX. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) For prepotency Galloways are almost unrivaled.

(2) When a bull of this race is crossed upon any of the
various horned breeds, a large percentage of the produce will
be black, and from 95 to 100 per cent without horns.

(3) A first cross from cows of various breeds has per-
plexed good judges to distinguish them from pure breds.

X. Breeding qualities.

O) The breeding qualities of Galloways are excellent,
owing largely, doubtless, to freedom from confinement during
much of the year.

(2) For a similar reason they breed to a good old age.

GALLOWAY CATTLE. 69

XI. Utility in the hides.

(1) The hides of Galloways are likely to be much used
for robes and outer garments, owing to the length and beauty
of the outer coat of hair.

(2) This feature is also likely to exercise an influence on
the character of the sires chosen for breeding.

XII. Weak points.

(1) Their undeveloped milking qualities render them
less well adapted to mixed husbandry, and

(2) Their lack of size renders them less suitable for rich
arable sections.

XIII. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) They are ahead of Shorthorns in hardihood, in
adaptability to exposed situations, in grazing properties, in
the high quality of the meat, in prepotency and in breeding
qualities and in the value of the hides, but

(2) Thej' are not equal to them in popularity, in general
ad? ptability, in size, in feeding qualities and in milk pro-
duction.

LECTURE NO. 19.

GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was drawn
up by the Council of the Galloway Cattle Society of
Great Britain in 1883:

(1) Color — Black, with a brownish tinge.

(2) Head — Short and wide, with broad forehead and wide
nostrils; without the slightest symptoms of horns or scurs.

(3) Eyes — Large and prominent.

(4) Ears — Moderate in length and broad, pointing for-
ward and upward, fringe of long hairs.

(5) Neck — Moderate in length, clean and filling well into
the shoulders ; the top in a line with the back in the female,
and in a male naturally rising with age.

(6) Body — Deep, rounded and symmetrical.

(7) Shoulders — Fine and straight, moderately wide above;
coarse shoulder points and sharp or high shoulders are
objectionable.

(8) Breast — Full and deep.

(9) Back and Rump — Straight.

(10) Ribs — Deep and well sprung.

(11) Loin and Sirloin — Well filled.

(12) Hook Bones — Not prominent.

(13) Hindquarters — Long, moderately wide and well filled.

(14) Flank — Deep and full.

(15) Thighs — Broad, straight and well let down to hock;
rounded buttocks are very objecticnable.

(16) Legs — Short and clean, with fine bone.

(17) Tail — Well set on and moderately thick.

(18) Skin — Mellow and moderately thick.

(19) Hair — Soft and wavy, with mossy undercoat; wiry or
curly hair is very objectionable.

IT. Compared with the scale of points given
by Aiton in 181 1, the following are the chief points
of difference :

(2)

The muzzle is now broader.

More prominence is now given to the ear.

(3) The hams are squarer.

(4) The tail is finer, and

(5) The hide some thinner.

GALLOWAY CATTLE. Jl

ILL The following- list of undesirable points
in Galloways was drawn up by James Biggar, Dal-
beattie, Scotland :

(i) Long, narrow head with high crown.

(2) Narrow tapering muzzle.

(3) Long, drooping ears.

(4) Small, deep-set eyes.

(5) Small, light neck.

(6) Light, scraggy breast.

(7) High, narrow shoulders.

(8) Flatness behind shoulders.

(9) Light fore or back ribs.

(10) Square and prominent hook bones.

(11) High or drooping rumps.

(12) Weak or slack loins.

(13) Rounded buttocks.

(14) Fleshy double thighs.

(15) Big, coarse bones.

(16) Thick, stiff skin.

(17) Hard, wiry or too curly hair.

(18) Black, hard hair without soft undercoat.

IV. General appearance of Galloways.

(1) They are low set, sturdy, robust, lively and spirited.

(2) The muscles are strong, especially those concerned
in traveling.

(3) The coat is long, beautifully waved and handsome.

V. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Galloways are less in size, more low set, and not
quite so squarely built.

(2) They are shorter in the head and polled, broader in
the ear, more prominent in the arm and thigh, not quite so
well filled in the crops, less prominent at the hooks and
stronger at the tailhead, and

(3) They are thicker in the hide, longer and more wavy
in the coat and are black in color.

VI. Compared with Aberdeen-Angus.

(1) Galloways are something less in size and not quite
so long in body.

(2) They are shorter in the head and less prominent and
pointed at the poll.

(3) They are a little more prominent at the angles of the
body, not quite so cylindrical in shape, more prominent at the
arm and thigh, a little stronger at ;he tailhead and not quite
so well filled in the crops, and

(4) They are a little thicker in the hide and longer and
more wavy in the coat.

LECTURE NO. 20.

SUSSEX CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. Some obscurity hangs over the origin oi
this breed, but there are good reasons for believing
that they are closely associated in ancestry with
the Devons.

(1) Their breeding in England is largely confined to the
counties of Sussex, Kent, Surrey and Hampshire, and

(2) It is only recently that they have been exported to
other countries.

II. It is only within a comparatively limited
period that the improvement of the breed has
received marked attention.

(1) Formerly the animals of both sexes were used for
plowing and other farm work, but now they are bred mainly
for beef.

(2) Of late years they have scored well at the Smithfield
Show at London, and also to some extent at the Fat Stock
Show in Chicago.

(3) The calves are generally reared on the dams, usually
getting only a part of the milk at first, and afterwards th"
wh ")le of it.

(4) The Sussex Herd Book was established in England
in i860.

III. Sussex cattle in other countries.

(1) They were imported to the United States by Overton
Lea of Nashville. Tenn.. in 1884.

(2) In 1891 a small importation was made into Canada
by the Ontario Experiment Station at Guelph. but some speci-
mens of the breed had been brought into the country at an
earlier period, although they were eventually taken to the
United States.

74 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Distribution in the United States.

(i) It can scarcely be said that Sussex cattle have made
marked progress since their introduction into the United
States.

(2) A few herds have been established, chiefly in the
Mississippi basin, but accessible information regarding them
is very meager.

(3) They are now found in the states of Tennessee,
Maine, Illinois, Indiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Colorado
and in Canada.

V. Registration in the United States.

(1) No Herd Record for Sussex cattle has yet been pub-
lished in the United States, although

(2) Material for the same is accumulating.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity and adaptability.

(1) Sussex cattle are popular only in limited areas
owing in a considerable degree to the little effort made by
breeders to place them before the outside public.

(2) Like the Shorthorns they are best adapted to locali-
ties rich in production and temperate in character.

II. Relative size.

(1) They are a heavy breed, fully equal to the Galloways
in weight, but are rather larger than the Galloways in frame.

(2) They are possessed of several of the same properties
as the Devons, to whom they bear a somewhat close resem-
blance, but they are considerably larger.

III. Early maturing- and grazing qualities.

(1) In maturing they are a little behind some breeds, but
in this respect they are rapidly improving.

(2) As grazers they are nearly, if not quite, equal to the
Herefords.

IV. Feeding qualities and quality of the meat.

(i) They feed well, but in some instances are said to be
a little over-nervous in temperament.

(2) The quality of the meat is very good, though some
individuals are a little overstrong in bone.

SUSSEX CATTLE. 75

V. Milking qualities.

(i) In milking qualities they are measurably deficient,
hence they are not much used in the dairy.

(2) They are usually suckled by their own calves.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) They have not been greatly used for this purpose in
the United States, hence

(2) But little on these points can be said with definiteness.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are good, since

(2) They have not been reared quite so artificially as
some breeds.

VIII. Weak points.

(1) They have scarcely been tested enough in this country
to know which these are, but

(2) They will include milking qualities that rank not
high, and in many instances a little slowness in maturing.

IX. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) They are not nearly equal to Shorthorns in popu-
larity and in milking qualities, and

(2) They are not quite equal to them in all-round
adaptability, in size, in early maturing and feeding qualities
and in value in crossing and grading, but

(3) They are probably something ahead of them in the
marbling of the meat and in breeding qualities.

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

In the absence of an authorized scale of points
the following is submitted :

I. Size — Medium for the breed, inclining
to large.

II. Head — Medium, though in some instances
it inclines to large.

(1) Forehead, wide.

(2) Nose, medium in size and inclining a little to long.

(3) Muzzle, fairly broad and moist, and nostrils about
average.

(4) Eyes, large, full, clear and of medium calmness.

y6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(5) Horns, somewhat long but not coarse, fairly spread-
ing, with a graceful forward curve in the male and forward
and upward curve with some spread in the female.

III. Neck — Medium in length and cleanly
made, but some animals of the breed have a little
dewlap.

(1) It should widen and deepen as in the Shorthorn, but

(2) It is sometimes not quite so well filled in the neck
vein.

IV. Body — Of the parallelogrammic type.

(1) Back, wide and straight throughout, with a flat loin,
nearly as wide at the fore as at the hind end, and each side
lying on a level with the chine.

(2) Withers, moderately wide.

(3) Shoulders, large and smooth.

(4) Breast, wide and projecting well forward, as is also
the brisket.

(5) Crops, full and heart girth good.

(6) Ribs, well sprung, giving a rounded appearance to the
body, and narrow between the last rib and hip bone.

(7) Hooks, broad, with a wide space between and lying
nearly as high as the chine.

(8) Hips, large and straight without, both at the side
and rear.

_ (9) Thighs, flat on the outside and without incurvature
behind.

(10) Rumps, long and flat and wide at the setting on of
the tail.

(11) Buttock, wide and straight.

(12) Twist, deep and set low.

(13) Tail, perpendicularly hung.

V. Legs — Medium in length and neither fine
nor coarse in bone.

VI. Skin — Only moderately thick and mel-
low and covered with soft hair.

VII. Color — Usually a solid red, both light
and dark shades being common.

(1) These shades sometimes commingle to form a beauti-
ful dapple bay.

(2) A little white is permissible about the udder and a
few white hairs, nearly always single, except on the foretop
and flank, are regarded most favorably.

SUSSEX CATTLE. JJ

VIII. General Appearances-Sussex cattle are
smooth and symmetrical and neither massively built
nor of the pony order.

IX. Compared with Shorthorns.

(i) The Sussex breed are not so large, something less
in width and a little longer and stronger in limb.

(2) They have heads slightly stronger and longer, horn?
longer and more upturned, are scarcely so well filled in the
neck vein and breast, and are not so wide nor massive though
equally smooth.

(3) In color, they are red only.

LECTURE NO. 21.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS-
TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The West Highland cattle, sometimes called
Kyloes, are no doubt descended from the aboriginal
wild cattle of the country.

II. Although Argyleshire is their central
home, they occupy the whole of the west and middle
Highlands, and the western islands, being found in
the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides.

(i) One of the oldest herds is that of Poltalloch, founded
in 1795.

(2) In many places to the southward they have displaced
the deer formerly kept in the parks of noblemen.

III. Much attention has been given of late to
the improvement of the breed, and with a success
that is encouraging.

(1) The cows suckling calves are housed for a short time
in winter, and some of the young cattle have sheds provided,
but the principal portion winter in the open air.

(2) A Herd Book has recently been established for the
breed, in Great Britain, largely through the influence of Lord
Dunmore.

IV. West Highland cattle in other countries.

(1) Some have been imported to the United States, more
especially the far West, and some to the Dominion of
Canada, but

(2) As yet tbey have not obtained an extensive foothold
outside of Great Britain.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 79

V. They have a beautiful appearance when in
finest bloom, which is during the last three months
of the year, owing

(1) To the sturdy character of the frame.

(2) To the wild piercing glance of the eye, and

(3) To the long shaggy coat which grows so abundantly,
especially about the head and neck.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) West Highland cattle ha^e as yet but little popularity
outside of Great Britain, since

(2) They have been but little exported to other countries.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Their incomparable hardihood and their fine grazing
qualities adapt them to mountainous conditions, cold and
bleak, where many other breeds could not subsist.

(2) There should be a place for them on the mountain
pastures of both the eastern and western states.

III. Relative size.

(1) They are considerably the smallest of the distinctive
beef breeds, but

(2) They weigh well in proportion to their size, owing to
their sturdiness of build.

IV. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They are not good, owing to the conditions to which
they are subjected, but

(2) Under improved conditions of environment these
would also improve.

V. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are of a high order, as they are cortented with
the coarsest fare, and ultimately get fat where more tender
breeds could scarcely exist.

(2) They are well capable of enduring both damp and
cold, and

(3) Their staying powers are almost without limit, hence
they can travel far in gathering food.

(4) In winter they frequently eat heather and fur.'*, and
when taken south they fatten on pastures from which tbc best
portions have been eaten.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 8l

(S) They are generally finished on low land, and for this
purpose they are in high favor in Scotland and England.

VI. Feeding qualities.

(i) These are only medium, as they mature so slowly, and
(2) Owing to their natural wildness, they take some time
to become accustomed to confinement.

VII. Quality of meat.

(1) The meat is well laid on, is of the finest quality, and
commands the highest price in the English markets.^

(2) The proportion of the dressed meat to the live weight
is also large.

VIII. Milking qualities.

(1) These are not good, since they are subjected to con-
ditions unfavorable to milk production, but

(2) The quality of the milk is excellent.

IX. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) For either use there would seem to be no place for
West Highland cattle, since

(2) Decreased hardihood in the progeny would make
them less well adapted to mountain pastures, and want of size
would make them less valuable than other breeds on lowland
pastures, but

(3) When crossed upon by the Galloways, the progeny
are excellent where the food conditions can be improved.

X. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are of the best, since

(2) Their environment is favorable to such breeding.

XI. Weak points.

(1) For cold, bleak conditions they seem to be completely
furnished, but

(2) Want of size, scant milk production and shyness of
disposition will hinder them from supplanting the large and
more completely domesticated breeds.

XII. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) They are considerably behind Shorthorns in popu-
larity, general adaptability, size, maturing, feeding and milk-
ing qualities, and for crossing and grading, but

(2) They are considerably ahead of them in hardihood,
grazing and breeding qualities and in the marbling of the meat.

82 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

In the absence of an authorized scale of points,
the following is submitted :

I. Size — Medium, but it will naturally adjust
itself to the attendant conditions of environment.

II. Head — The head is short and well pro-
portioned, and has a profusion of long, shaggy and
curly hair coming down below the eyes.

(i) Forehead, broad and jawbones to correspond.

(2) Eyes, prominent and possessed of a quick piercing
glance.

(3) Nose, slightly turned up at the point.

(4) Horns, long, wide apart, curved and pointed and
tipped with black.

(a) They should come out level with the head, and

(b) They should then incline forward and upward with
a peculiar back set curve and wide sweep.

III. Neck — The neck should be medium in
length and strong.

(1) It should be without dewlap, but oftentimes is not.

(2) On the crest of the bulls there is a mane of coarser
hair.

IV. Body — The body is strong, deep, thick,
muscular and compact.

(1) Back, straight, wide and well rounded from the
shoulders backward.

(2) Shoulders, thick and immensely filled out downwards,
from the point to the lower extremity of the forearm.

(3) Chest, wide and deep with much breadth between
the forelegs.

(4) Ribs, well developed and fairly arched.

(5) Hind quarters, large development, square between
the hip bones and the tail, and also at the buttock.

(6) Thighs, possessed of immense development.

(7) Tail, thick and strong, with a full bunch of hair
hanging down toward the ground.

V. Legs — The legs are short, extremely mus-
cular, are "well feathered," bone thick, broad and
straight and hoofs strong.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 83

VI. Skin — Rather thick, but mellow to the
touch.

(1) The hair should be abundant, long, glossy, and pos-
sessed of a graceful wave.

(2) A curl in the hair is a decided fault.

VII. Color — The color varies, some animals
being black, others red, dun, yellow and brindled or
red and black.

(1) As a rule, the color is black, but fashion now inclines
to yellow or light dun and brindle.

(2) A well marked brindle is said to be the favorite color
for bulls.

VIII. General Appearance — In general ap-
pearance the West Highlander is sturdy and strong,
and when seen on mountain or in timber pastures
and in good condition he is weird, stately, grand.

IX. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) They are much smaller, but sturdier, and more
low set.

(2) The head is shorter, the horns much larger, and the
eye livelier.

(3) The bones are stronger, and the arm and thigh much
more fully developed, and

(4) They have a more picturesque appearance, owing
largely to the long hair which covers them, more especially
about the head and neck.

THE DAIRY BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 22.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND

HISTORY.

I. But little is known with certainty regarding
the ultimate origin of this breed, but

(1) Judging from the few flashlight statements coming
from a remote past they would seem to have been bred pure
in much of the country eastward from the North sea for fully
2000 years.

(2) History makes it clear that since the Christian era,
if not, indeed, before that time, cattle keeping has been the
chief occcupation of the rural population.

(3) There is some evidence to show that as early as the
ninth century, Holland was famed for its dairy products.

(4) The historian, Motley, referring to this country,
speaks of oxen 2000 pounds in weight, and of the immense
production and exportation of butter and cheese, even in the
seventeenth century.

II. Holland has several breeds or types of cat-
tle, of which the Friesian, or Friesland, are the most
numerous.

(1) The Friesian and North Holland cattle, resembling
each other in all essentials and the progenitors of nearly all
the Holstein-Friesian cattle in the United States, are by many
supposed to have come originally from the duchy of Holstein.

(2) The sub-breeds, Oldenburgers, West Friesian, East
Friesian, Gronnigen and Beemster are all supposed to have
been derived from one parent stem.

(3) The differences are owing in part to differences in
management, but more probably to differences in soil pro-
duction.

o
U

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 87

III. Offshoots from Holland cattle.

(1) Among these are the Flanders breed of Belgium and
France, the Oldenburg and Brittenburg breeds of Germany,
and the Holmogorian breed of Russia.

(2) Cattle are also numerous in other parts of Europe
which evidently possess the blood of the cattle of Holland in
a greater or less degree.

IV. Importations into Britain.

(1) In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries more or
less of the blood of Dutch cattle was carried into England
and Scotland and exercised some influence on the milking
qualities of the old Teeswater and Ayrshire breeds.

(2) In England this influence extended northward from
the Humber and over a considerable region.

V. These cattle have for centuries past been
noted for their extraordinary dairy properties.

(1) The effort to further improve them would seem to
have been constant and unceasing.

(2) The unusual succulence and productiveness of the
pastures, which grow largely on reclaimed dyke lands, have
facilitated such improvement.

VI. Care and management in Holland.

(1) They are carefully housed in clean, well lighted and
comfortable stables in winter and are milked in the pastures
from about May 1st to November 1st.

(2) When on pasture they are blanketed during inclement
weather.

(3) Only a few of the :hoicest bulls are kept for breeding
and about 20 per cent of the choicest females.

(4) The calves not reared are usually sold for veal and
the cows for beef, after having produced five or six calves.

VII. Importations into the United States.

(1) The first cattle imported from Holland are supposed
to have reached the Mohawk valley about 1621, and other
sundry importations are thought to have been made subse-
quently by Dutch settlers.

(2) The first importation of which we have any definite
knowledge was made to Cazenovia by the Holland Land
Company in 1795.

(3) The first herd, the blood of which has been kept pure,
was imported by W. W. Chenery of Belmont, Mass., in 1861.

(4) Importations did not become general or frequent
until about 25 years ago.

88 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VIII. Registration of Holstein-Friesian cattle.

(i) Nine volumes of the Holstein Herd Book were pub-
lished by the Holstein Breeders' Association of America, the
first of which appeared in 1872 and the last in 1885.

(2) Four volumes of the Dutch Friesian Herd Book were
published by the Dutch Friesian Herd Book Association of
America, the first of which appeared in 1880 and the last
in 1885.

(3) These two associations were united in 1885 under the
name of the "Holstein-Friesian Association of America."

(4) Public herd records are also now kept in Ontario,
Holland, Belgium and Germany.

IX. Advanced registry.

(1) The Holstem-Fri^ian Association of America was
the pioneer association in establishing a system of advanced
registry based on structural form and actual performance.

(2) It was established in 1885 and largely through the
efforts of Mr. S. Hoxie of Yorkville, N. Y., who was made
the first superintendent.

(3) No animals are admitted under the age of two years.

(4) No bull will be admitted which ha1: not evidenced
superior quality in his progeny and that will not scale eighty
points in the rigid standard set for advanced registry.

(5) A cow must have borne a calf and made certain milk
and butter records required of cows of her form or year.

X. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Holstein-Friesian cattle are kept in every state in
the Union.

(2) They are most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania.
Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa. Massachusetts and Michigan,
and probably in the order named.

XI. Registration in the United States.

fi) Since the consolidation of the associations named
under Note VIII, sixteen volumes of the Holstein-Friesian
Herd Book have been issued.

(2) Four volumes of the advanced registry were pub-
lished separately, beginning with 1887, but the records com-
mencing with Vol. XII of the Holstein Herd Book are now
bound up with and appear in the several volumes of the same.

(3) There have been recorded in the records of the con-
solidated association, including Vol. XVI, 93.464 animals, of
which 31.533 are males and 61.931 are females.

(4) The American branch association of the North Hol-
land Herd Book has also recorded 396 males and 1125 females.

LECTURE NO. 23.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAX CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHAR-
ACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) The Holsteins deservedly rank very high among dairy
cattle in America.

(2) Although they entered the field considerably later,
they are only second to the Jerseys in point of numbers.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The large, capacious frame of the Holstein calls for
environment where the land is level rather than broken, and
rich in forage and grain production.

(2) When these conditions are present the}- may be kept
with much advantage in providing milk for cities, for cheese
factories and creameries and also for private dairies, in which
the skimmilk can be turned to excellent account.

III. Relative size.

(1) The Holsteins are unquestionably the largest of the
distinctive dairy breeds found in America.

(2) The frame is fully as large as that of the Brown
Swiss and is not much behind that of the Shorthorn.

(3) The average live weight of cows may be put at 1200
pounds, while they vary from 1000 to 1500 pounds.

IV. Milking qualities.

(1) In the production of milk, auantity alone considered,
the Holsteins are without a rival, but

(2) The milk does not average so high in butter fat as
that of some breeds, although to this there are some excep-
tions.

(3) The milk is good for cheese or butter making, and
tither fresh or skimmed it is excellent for promoting quick
development in young animals, since it is rich in constituents
that go to form bone, muscle and fibrous tissue.

90 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Early maturing qualities.

(r) Because of their large size they do not mature quite
so quickly as some of the smaller breeds, but

(2) The heifers usually become milk producers at from
twenty-four to thirty months.

VI. Grazing- qualities.

(1) These are good, but not of the highest.

(2) The large frame forbids grazing them on lands much
broken, or where they would have to travel far in gathering
food.

(3) Soiling foods can be used with peculiar advantage in
supplementing their summer pastures.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) They are of quiet disposition, grow rapidly, make
large relative gains and attain good size when grown for meat
production, but

(2) As they go on toward maturity they frequently lose
in smoothness, although

(3) Up to the age of about eighteen months they should
be capable of producing much meat relatively and of excellent
quality.

(4) It is probably true that much of the discrimination
shown against matured Holstein beef in this country, but not
all of it, is grounded in prejudice.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(:) Holsteins may be crossed upon common animals with
much advantage when the object is to produce large dairy
cows of free milk producing powers.

(2) When the object is to produce dual-purpose cattle
they are not so well adapted to this end as some other
breeds, but

(3) Where large quantities of skimmilk are wanted for
pork production, or where what is termed "baby beef" is
reared, the Holstein cross may be eminently in order.

(4) Their marked prepotency is well brought out in the
distinctive color markings which they impart.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) As breeders Holsteins stand high among the dairy
breeds, since

(2) In-breeding has been carefully avoided, more espe-
cially in the parent stocks, hence in a great measure their
freedom from disease, but

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 91

(3) Under feeding too forced and conditions too artifi-
cial, these good breeding properties will wane.

X. Weak points.

' (1) The milk of this excellent milk producing breed does
not average really high in butter fat.

(2) The average handling qualities are not so good as in
some breeds, which would point to a relatively large con-
sumption of food, and

(3) The quality of the matured meat does not rank among
the very best.

LECTURE NO. 24.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE — THEIR STANDARD
POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was drawn
up by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America
in 1885 :

FOR BULLS.

POINTS

(1) Head — Showing full vigor, elegant in contour . 2

(2) Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing . 2

(3) Face — Contour graceful, especially under the
eye, medium in length, broad muzzle . . .2

(4) Ear — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft
hair I

(5) Eyes — Moderately large, full and bright . . 2

(6) Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, short,
oval, inclining forward ..... 2

(7) Neck — Neatly joined to head and shoulders,
nearly free from dewlap, of good length, proud

in bearing 5

(8) Shoulders — Of medium hight, well rounded
and even over tops 4

(9) Chest — Low, deep and full 8

(10) Crops — Full and level with shoulders . . 4

(11) Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open . 3

(12) Barrel — Well rounded, with large abdomen . . 6

(13) Loins and Hips — Broad, full, long and level . 5

(14) Rump — High, long, broad and level . . 5

(15) Thurl — High, with great width . . . 4

(16) Quarters — Long, straight behind, wide and full

at sides 5

C 17) Flanks — Deep and full . . . . 2

(18) Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm,
in position firm, wide apart, feet of medium
size, round, solid, and deep 6

(19) Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at set-
ting, tapering finely to a full switch ... 2

(20) Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow,
skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and

of a rich brown or yellow color . . . .10
Q2

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE.

(21) Mammary Feins— Long, large, branched, with
extensions entering large orifices ... 10

(22) Rudimentary Teats— Not less than four large
well spread .2

(23) Escutcheon— Large and fine development . * 8

Perfection

100

FOR COWS.

POINTS

(1) Head— Decidedly feminine in appearance, com-
paratively long from eyes to base of horns, fine

in contour 2

(2) Forehead— Broad between the eyes, dishing . ' 2

(3) Face — Contour fine, especially under the eyes,
showing facial veins, length medium, broad
muzzle 2

(4) Ears — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft'
hair x

(5) Eyes— Moderately full, large and mild . . 2

(6) Horns—Set moderately narrow at base, fine, '
oval, well bent, inclining forward . . 2

(7) Neck— Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly
joined to head and shoulders, top line slightly
curving, of good length, moderately thin, ele-
gant in bearing .

(8) Shoulders— Fine and even over tops, lower than'
hips, and moderately thick, deep and broad •?

(9) Chest— Low. deep and broad ... 6
(10) Crop s— Full and level with shoulders .' .' 2
(n) Chine— Straight, broadly developed and open . 3

(12) Barrel— Well rounded, with large abdomen . 5

(13) Loins and Hips— -Broad, full, long and level' . 5

(14) Rump— High, long, broad and level, with
roomy pelvis ,

(15) Thurl— High, with great width . . . ' . 4

(16) Quarters— Long, straight behind, roomy in the
twist, wide and full at sides .... 4

(17) Flanks— Fairly deep and full . ... 2

(18) Legs— Short, clean, tapering with strong arm,
in position firm, wide apart; feet of medium
size, round, solid and deep .... 5

(19) Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at set-
ting, tapering finely to a full switch . . . 2

(20) Hair and Handling— Fine, soft and mellow,
skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and

of a rich brown or yellow color ... 10

94 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(21) Mammary Veins — Large, long, crooked,
branched with extensions entering large orifices 10

(22) Udder — Capacious, flexible, well developed
both in front and rear, teats well formed, wide
apart, and of convenient size .... 12

(23) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . . 8

Perfection . 100

II. General appearance.

(1) The large parallelogrammic rather than the wedge
shaped frame of the Holstein conveys the idea of much ca-
pacity, and

(2) The long and slender head, neck and limbs, with the
distinctiveness of the black and white markings, convey the
idea of generations of careful breeding.

III. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Holsteins are usually as large, but not so massive
in frame.

(2) They are something longer and less wide in head and
neck and longer in limb.

(3) They are not so full in the neck vein, brisket and
flank, and are lighter in arm and thigh, but

(4) They have the same squareness of development at
the rear, except that they slant away a little more from the
sacrum, and

(5) They have a more accentuated development of milk
veins.

LECTURE NO. 25.

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS-
TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

I. The Dutch Belted cattle originated in Hol-
land prior to the seventeenth century.

(1) They are the outcome of scientific breeding and selec-
tion carried on through long generations.

(2) From the outset they have been chiefly if not entirely
controlled by the nobility of Holland.

II. Origin of the name.

(1) They are so named from the white belt or band which
encircles the barrel of every animal of the breed.

(2) The original Dutch name is ''Lakenfield cattle," from
"Laken, a sheer to be wound around the body of the animal."

III. Distribution in other countries.

(1) They are not found in many countries outside of
Holland, owing

(2) To the decimation of the herds by contending armies
and to the disinclination of the owners to part with them.

IV. Importation into the United States.

O) The first importation definitely traced was made by
D. H. Haight. Goshen. Orange county, New York, about
1838, but

(2) It is thought that early settlers had brought some
specimens to that county at an earlier date.

(3) Importations have been infrequent, owing to the diffi-
culty in securing the animals.

(4) A large proportion of the best specimens now in the
United States trace to the herds of D. H. Haight, mentioned
in Note O), J. A. Holbert, Goshen, New York, and J. H.
Knight, Monroe, New York.

V. Organizations.

(1) It is only during recent decades that Dutch Belted
cattle have been registered in Europe or America.

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 97

(2) The Dutch Belted Cattle Association was organized
in New York city in 1886.

VI. Distribution in North America.

(1) Dutch Belted cattle are now kept in twenty-six states
of the Union, in Mexico and in Canada.

(2) They are most numerously kept in New York, Mas-
sachusetts. Pennsylvania and Ohio, and in the order given.

VII. Registration in the United States.

(1) Five volumes of the Dutch Belted Herd Book have
been issued.

(2) There have been recorded 1250 animals, of which 367
are males and 883 females.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) Dutch Belted cattle have not as yet come greatly into
favor with the many in Europe or America.

(2) This is probably more the result of circumstances
connected with their origin and distribution than of any want
of inherent excellence.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Dutch Belted cattle have much the same adaptation
as Holsteins.

(2) They do best in tillable areas where grazing is plenti-
ful and where fodders can be grown in ample supply, as, for
instance, in the Mississippi basin.

(3) While not delicate, they are not perhaps so well
adapted to withstand rigors of climate as some dairy breeds,
hence their movement in this country has been southward
rather than northward.

III. Relative size.

(1) They are somewhat less in size than the average Hol-
stein and are a little ahead of the Ayrshire and Guernsey.

(2) The average weight of the cows has been put at 1000
to 1200 pounds and of the bulls at about 1800 pounds, or a
little more than that.

IV. Milking- qualities.

(1) These are excellent, but their utmost capacity in milk
production does not appear to have been heretofore tested, as
in the case of the Holsteins.

(2) The average in milk production, however, would
probably be very similar, as also the character of the milk and
the uses to which it is adapted (see Page 89).

98 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Early maturing qualities,

(i) They are average in this respect.

(2) Like the Holsteins they come into milk at from
twenty-four to thirty months, but continue to develop for at
least two years subsequently.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are much the same as with the Holsteins, that
is to say, they need good grazing lands rich in production and
that do not involve climbing on the part of the animals grazing
them.

(2) Their grazing properties do not appear to have been
much tested in northerly iatitudes and in exposed situations.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) As in the case of the Holstein they feed well up to
the age of one to two years and they grow quickly.

(2) Up to the age mentioned, the killing qualities are
good, but not so good relatively, subsequently, owing to more
accentuated development in the dairy form.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Their marked prepotency is shown in the reproduc-
tion of the band or belt around the body when they arc crossed
upon common animals.

(2) Such crosses should prove beneficial where the chief
object sought is improvement in dairy qualities.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are average, but not probably of the highest
type, although

(2) When properly managed they are sufficiently repro-
ductive.

X. Weak points.

(1) By inheritance they stand on the borderland of undue
refinement, hence

(2) They have probably not the same all-round vigor of
some breeds.

XL Compared with Holsteins.

0) They are not as yet so generally popular as the Hol-
steins, nor are they quite equal to them in size or vigor.

(2) In all the other essential characteristics the two breeds
are very similar.

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 99

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was adopted
by the Dutch Belted Cattle xA.ssociation of America :

foe cows.

POINTl

(1) Body — Color, black, with a clearly defined con-

tinuous white belt. The belt to be of medium
width, beginning behind the shoulder and ex-
tending nearly to the hips 8

(2) Head — Comparatively long and somewhat dish-
ing ; broad between the eyes ; poll prominent ;
muzzle fine : dark tongue ..... 6

(3) Eyes — Black, full and mild ; horns long com-

pared with their diameter 4

(4) Neck — Fine and moderately thin and should

harmonize in symmetry with the head and
shoulders 6

(5) Shoulders — Fine at the top, becoming deep and

broad as they extend backward and downward,
with a low chest ....... 4

(6) Barrel — Large and deep, with well developed

abdomen, ribs well rounded and free from fat 10

(7) Hips — Broad, and chine level with full loin . . 10

(8) Rump — High, long and broad .... 6

(9) Hindquarters — Long and deep, rear line in-

curving; tail, long, slim, tapering to a full
switch 8

(10) Legs — Short,- clean, standing well apart . . 3

(11) Udder — Large, well developed front and rear;
teats of convenient size and wide apart ; mam-
mary veins large, long and crooked, entering
large orifices 20

(12) Escutcheon — 2

(13) Hair — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thick-
ness and of a rich dark or yellow color . . 3

(14) Quiet disposition, and free from fat . . 4

(15) General condition and apparent constitution , 6

Perfection 100

FOR BULLS.

II. For males the scale should be the same as
fc r females, except that

IOO THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(i) No (il) should be omitted and the hull credited 10
points for size and wide spread, and placing of rudimentary
teats, and

(2) Five points additional should be allowed for develop-
ment of shoulder and five for perfection of belt.

III. General appearance.

(1) Dutch Belted cattle are a handsome breed because of
their symmetry of form, their clean cut head, neck and limbs
and the striking character of their color markings.

IV. Compared with Holsteins.

(1) The all-round development is something less with
Dutch Belted cattle.

(2) They are a little finer at the muzzle and a trifle more
prominent at the poll, the horns are wider spread and more
uniformly tipped upward at the points, they are something
more incurved at the rear and the tendencies to refinement of
form are stronger than with the Holsteins.

(3) There are also the differences in color markings.

LECTURE NO. 26.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The origin of the Ayrshire breed of cattle
is involved in much obscurity, but it is generally sup-
posed that they are made up largely of the blood of
the Holderness, Dutch, Alderney, Kerry and West
Highland breeds, engrafted upon the native stocks
of the country during the eighteenth century.

(1) No particular individuals stand out prominently as
improvers of the breed.

(2) Their chief excellences are supposed to have arisen
from the peculiar circumstances of climate and soil and from
the situation of several of the western counties of Scotland.

(3) Much attention was drawn to the breed toward the
close of the last century by exhibitions gotten up for the pur-
pose of improving it, and

(4) During the first half of the present century, the devel-
opment of the wedge shape and hindquarters was much
improved and the udder was brought to its present beautifully
symmetrical proportions.

II. Ayrshires are so named from the county
of Ayr, where the breed originated, and which is still
its principal center.

(1) They were at one time frequently spoken of as Dun-
lop cattle from a family of that name wno had given consid-
erable attention to breeding them in the eighteenth century.

(2) They now form the only class of dairy stock in the
counties of Ayr, Wigtown, Bute, Argyle, Dumfries, Kirkcud-
bright and Perth.

(3) They also exist numerously in other counties of
Scotland and in England.

III. Their mixed ancestry is indicated in the
following resemblances :

(i) The wide and deep hindquarter points to Shorthorn
blood in the ancestry.

(2) The fine skin to Alderney blood.
IOI

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. IO3

(3) The general outline and high milking qualities are
akin to those of the Holsteins.

(4) Their ability to give milk from sparse pastures points
to Kerry relationship, and

(5) Their natural shyness of disposition with certain horn
and hair resemblances indicate West Highland kinship.

(6) This view of their mixed origin is strengthened by
the numerous instances of atavic transmission found in' some
herds.

IV. Distribution in other countries.

(1) They have obtained a fair footing in Finland, pure or
crossed on native stocks, and are numerous in Sweden and
Norway.

(2) In New Zealand they stand next to the Devons in
point of numbers.

(3) They have also been introduced into various other
countries, including Japan, and in all of these they are dis-
tinguished for their dairy qualities.

V. Importations to the United States and
Canada.

(1) Ayrshires were brought into Canada by Scotch settlers
early in the century, and during the past two or three decades
importations into that country from Scotland have been
frequent.

(2) The first importation into the United States is thought
to have been that made by Henry W. Hills of Windsor, Ct,
in 1822.

(3) Recent importations into the United States have been
less frequent than into Canada, hence the closer resemblance
now observable between Scotch and Canadian Ayrshires.

VI. Ayrshire Breeders' Associations.

(1) The American Ayrshire Breeders' Association was
established on its present basis in 1875, although the breeders
had done organized work since 1859 in conjunction with "The
Association of Breeders of Thoroughbred Neat Stock."

(2) The Ayrshire Importers' and Breeders' Association
of Canada was established in 1870, and merged into the
Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Association in 1898.

(3) The Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Association was
established in 1889.

VII. Distribution in the United States and

Canada.

(1) Ayrshires are more numerous in Ontario and Quebec,
in the order named, than in any of the states of the Union.

104 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) In the United States they are most numerous in New
York, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire in the
order named.

(3) They are kept in considerable numbers in the eastern
states and to some extent in the states of the south which
border on the Atlantic.

(4) But few Ayrshires are found west of the Mississippi
river.

VIII. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Twelve volumes of the American Ayrshire Record
have been issued of the new series, or sixteen volumes in all.

(2) In the Canadian Records 22,152 animals have been
recorded.

(3) In the American Ayrshire Records 22,061 animals
have been recorded, of which 6798 are males and 15,263
females.

o
U

LECTURE NO. 27.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER-
ISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) Ayrshires are not popular over so wide an area as
Holsteins, but they stand third among dairy breeds in point
of numbers in the United States.

(2) They have been introduced into northerly rather than
southerly latitudes and probably because of their hardihood.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Ayrshires are decidedly the hardiest of the dairy
breeds imported into America, except the Kerry and the
French Canadian breeds.

(2) This natural vigor combined with their activity fits
them for areas where the seasons are somewhat rigorous and
where some traveling is necessary in gathering food from
the pastures.

(3) They are pre-eminently the cow for the dairy farmer
where lands are broken and not particularly fertile, and yet
they do equally well relatively under better conditions.

III. Relative size.

(1) The average weight of matured Ayrshire cows is put
at 1000 pounds in the standard, but the tendency now is to
breed them of a somewhat greater weight.

(2) They are therefore considerably behind Holsteins in
weight, though a trifle ahead of Guernseys.

IV. Milking qualities.

(i) Ayrshires have not produced yields so phenomenal
as the Holsteins, Guernseys, or Jerseys, but in average milk-
production they are not excelled if indeed equaled by any
other breed.

(2) The milk is excellent for butter or cheese, hence these
cows are equally useful for the cheese factory and the
creamery.

(3) Like the milk of the Holstein it is admirably adapted
to calf-rearing in the new or the skimmed form

I06

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. IO7

(4) It is also claimed that because of even quality and
well balanced constituents it is growing in favor as a food for
children in cities and towns.

V. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are not more than average, but

(2) The heifers, as with those of the Holstein, come into
milk at the age of from twenty-four to thirty months, and

(3) Since Ayrshires have been less inbred and less arti-
ficially reared than some dairy breeds they are productive to
a greater age.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) Ayrshires will give more milk than Holsteins, Guern-
seys, or Jerseys when they have to travel over considerable
areas when gleaning food.

(2) Although well adapted to rich pasture lands, their
active disposition and somewhat light development of form fit
them admirably for grazing on abruptly undulating and hilly
or broken lands.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) These are much the same as with the Holsteins. with
the difference that the Ayrshires are much less in size than
the former.

(2) When not in milk, like the Holsteins, they take on
flesh better than the Guernsey, or Jersey.

(3) The plump form and good hindquarters of the Ayr-
shire calves fit them for good meat production up to the age of
nine to, say, eighteen months.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Ayrshires when crossed upon the grades of certain
other breeds and upon common cattle of good size produce a
fine dairy animal.

(2) Excellent results have been obtained by crossing Ayr-
shires upon Shorthorn and Holstein grades, but

(3) Such crosses should not be made when the conditions
of adaptation suited to the Ayrshires are not present.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) The breeding qualities of Ayrshires are excellent.

(2) This is largely the outcome of the absence of in-and-
in breeding, of undue pampering, and of the extent to which
they are grazed in the fields.

108 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

X. Weak points.

(i) Though generally quiet and docile, they are sometimes
over-nervous and shy, and are possessed of that temperament
that resents ill treatment.

(2) The teats are frequently a little small for the highest
comfort to the milker.

XI. Compared with Holsteins.

(1) Ayrshires are not nearly equal to Holsteins in size,
and are also behind them in general popularity, in milk pro-
duction, quantity alone considered, and in marked docility, but

(2) They are ahead in ruggedness and all-round adapta-
bility, evenness of milk production and quality of milk and in
grazing and breeding qualities.

(3) In early maturity, in feeding qualities and in value in
crossing and grading they are probably not far different.

LECTURE NO. 28.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was adopted
by the American Ayrshire Breeders' Association
in 1889:

FOR COWS.

POINTS

(i) Head — Short; forehead wide; nose, fine be-
tween the muzzle and the eyes ; muzzle large ;
eyes, full and lively; horns wide set on, inclin-
ing upward ........ 10

(2) Neck — Moderately long, and straight from the
head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose
skin on the under side, fine at its junction with
the head, and enlarging symmetrically toward
the shoulders 5

(3) Forequarters — Shoulders, sloping ; withers, fine ;

chest, sufficiently broad and deep to insure con-
stitution ; brisket and whole forequarters light,
the cow gradually increasing in depth and
width backwards . . . . . . .5

(4) Back — Short and straight ; spine, well defined,
especially at the shoulders; short ribs, arched;

the body deep at the flanks .... 10

(5) Hindquarters — Long, broad and straight, hook

bones wide apart and not overlaid with fat ;
thighs, deep and broad ; tail long, slender and
set on a level with the back . ... 8

(6) Udder — Capacious and not fleshy, hind part
broad and firmly attached to the body, the sole
nearly level and extending well forward ; milk
veins about udder and abdomen well devel-
oped ; the teats from two to three inches in
length, equal in thickness — the thickness being
in proportion to the length — hanging perpen-
dicularly; their distance apart at the sides
should be equal to one-third of the length of
the vessel, and across to one-half the breadth 30

(7) Legs — Short in proportion to size, the bones

fine, the joints firm 3

I09

HO THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(8) Skin — Yellow, soft and elastic and covered with
soft, close, woolly hair 5

(9) Color — Red of any shade, brown or white or a

mixture of these, each color being distinctly
defined . . 3

(10) Average Live Weight — In full milk about 1000
pounds 8

(11) General Appearance — Including style and move-

ment 10

(12) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . 3

Perfection 100

FOR BULLS.

POINTS

(i) Head — The head of the bull may be shorter
than that of the cow, but the frontal bone
should be broad, the muzzle good size, throat
nearly free from hanging folds, eyes full ; the
horns should have an upward turn with suffi-
cient size at the base to indicate strength of
constitution ........ 10

(2) Neck — Of medium length, somewhat arched

and large in the muscles, which indicate power
and strength 10

(3) Forequarters — Shoulders close to the body,

without any hollow space behind ; chest broad,
brisket deep and well developed, but not too
large 7

(4) Back — Short and straight : spine, sufficiently de-

fined, but not in the same degree as in the cow ;
ribs, well sprung and body deep in the flanks . 10

(5) Hindquarters — Long, broad and straight; hip

bones wide apart ; pelvis, long, broad and
straight; tail, set on a level with the back;
thighs, deep and broad 10

(6) Scrotum — Large, with well developed teats in

front 7

(7) Legs — Short in proportion to size, joints firm;

hind legs well apart and not to cross in walking 5

(8) Skin — Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium
thickness 10

(9) Color — Red of any shade, brown or white or a

mixture of these — each color being distinctly

defined 3

(10) Average Live Weight — At maturity, about 1500

pounds 10

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. Ill

(il) General Appearance — Including style and move-
ment 15

(12) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . . 3

Perfection IOO

II. General Appearance — The Ayrshire is a
sprightly looking animal of what may be termed the
plain plebeian type, with straight top and rear lines
and possessed of much relative development in the
hindquarters.

III. Compared with Holsteins.

(1) In general outline of body the Ayrshire might almost
be called a miniature Holstein. if the color markings were
changed and the horns differently curved, but

(2) The head of the Ayrshire is probably a little stronger
relatively, the horns are much more erect, the eye is not so
restful, the play of the ear is more active, the skin is thinner
and the teats are considerably smaller.

(3) The Ayrshire is also more active in movement.

LECTURE NO. 29,

GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. Guernsey cattle are so named from the isl-
and of Guernsey, cne of the Channel island group off
the northwest c ast cf France.

(1) Like the Jersey, they are supposed to be descended
from the cattle of Brittany and Normandy, but more par-
ticularly from the latter.

(2) For many centuries they have been bred without
admixture of alien blood.

(3) Through long years the importation of cattle to
Guernsey from any quarter except for purposes of slaughter
has been strictly prohibited.

II. The climate of the island of Guernsey is
less genial than that of Jersey, hence something more
of hardihood in development has been sought.

(1) The extreme length of Guernsey is ten miles, and it
contains only i6,ojo acres of land and rock surface.

(2) The greying of cattle and dairy products is the chief
concern of the .armers.

(3) In 1896 the total number of cattle on the island was
5262, and yet many animals are exported every year.

III. Management of cattle in Guernsey.

(1) In the summer they are tethered in the fields, which
partially explains their great docility.

(2) In winter, hay is supplemented with roots and meal
and bran.

IV. Improvement of Guernseys.

(1) For more than a century the improvement of Guern-
seys has been carefully sought in their island home.

(2) The outcome of these efforts is increased size, earlier
maturitv and a more fully developed lacteal system.

8 113

114 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. The objects most sought by breeders.

(i) The animals are selected and bred with a view to
utility rather than beauty, and for maximum butter production
of a high quality, which explains

(2) The relatively plain appearance of Guernseys, the
rich orange color of the skin and the superlative golden color-
ing of the milk and butter.

VI. Exportation to other countries.

(1) Guernseys have long been exported, more or less, to
various countries, but chiefly to England and the United States.

(2) In several of the counties in the south .of England
they stand high in favor.

VII. Importations into the United States.

(1) Information on this head is as yet not plentiful.

(2) They have been numerously imported within the last
two or three decades.

VIII. Organization in the interests of the
breed.

(1) Associations have been formed in Guernsey, the
United States and other countries to protect the interests of
Guernseys.

(2) Two herd records have L^en established in Guernsey,
one on the principle of selection and the other admitting all
Guernseys on the island to registration.

(3) The American Guernsey Cattlr Club was organized
in 1897.

(4) It now offers prizes from time to time to the largest
producing cows to encourage the breeder.- to keep private
records and to reach out to higher production.

IX. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Guernseys are now being registered from some
twenty-eight states in the Union and from nearly all the
provinces of Canada.

(2) They exist most numerously in New England, New
York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wisconsin and least
numerously in the Southwestern states.

X. Registration in the United States.

(1) The Guernsey herd register, first published in 1878,
has been issued qua-terly since 1895 under the name of the
Guernsey Herd Register and Breeders' Journal.

(2) The total number of animals recorded is 18,053, of
which 6132 are bulls and 11,921 are cows.

LECTURE NO. 30.

GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER-
ISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) Although there is no little resemblance between the
characteristics of the Jerseys and Guernseys, the latter have
never become so generally popular in this country.

(2) This may probably have arisen, in part at least, from
their greater plainness in form, but more from the less effort
put forth to place them before the public, as

(3) While breeds are yet young in a country, men have
more to do with their popularity than even merit.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The Guernsey is better adapted to temperate and mild
climates than to those that are rigorous, but good herds have
done well in the climate of Quebec.

(2) Through ancestral inheritance rather than great size
they are not well adapted to endure fatigue in gathering food
on thin pastures and hilly lands.

(3) They are best adapted to the average arable farm
where milk is wanted for the creamery or the private dairy
and where attractive looking and high class butter is an impor-
tant consideration.

(4) A limited number of Guernseys in a large dairy of
average cows adds to the marketable quality of the butter
through the rich color imparted.

III. Relative size.

(1) The Guernseys are about equal to the Ayrshires in
size of frame, but they are probably a triile behind them in
average weight.

(2) Putting the average weight of the matured Ayrshire
cow at 1,050 pounds, the mature Guernsey would be about 1,000
pounds.

IV. Milking qualities.

(1) The Guernsey has deep and prolonged milking quali-
ties, the average production of whole herds being high, and
the relative cost of production is low.

Il6,

GUERNSEY CATTLE. 1 17

(2) The milk is fully equal to that of the Jersey in butter
fat, is even richer in color, and the average yield per cow is
probably greater.

(3) It is relatively better adapted to making butter than
cheese, though for cheese-making it is good also.

(4) The naturally rich color of the butter is unexcelled,
so that when Guernsey milk is mixed with that from common
cows and from certain dairy breeds, the color of the butter is
proportionately improved.

V. Early maturing qualities.

(1) The Guernseys are only average in maturity, being a
little behind the Jerseys probably in this respect.

(2) They usually come into milk something over the age
of twenty-four months.

VI. Grazing- qualities.

(1) For a breed of only moderate size, they are not by
inheritance adapted to other than productive grazing and also
easy of access.

(2) Like the Holstein and the Jersey they have special
adaptation to the combined system of grazing and soiling.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) Their offspring grow to a larger size than the Jersey,
and they are, on the whole, more in favor as meat producers,
but they should be made ready for the block at an age consid-
erably prior to maturity in order to obtain from them the
greatest profit.

(2) The cows discarded from the dairy have some capac-
ity for meat making.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Guernseys are especially valuable for crossing on
cows of mixed breeding to produce milkers of fair size and
hardihood and that will give a good fair quantity of high class
milk for butter making.

(2) Any favorable influence on the progeny as meat pro-
ducers should not be too highly prized, as certain other breeds
exercise a much higher influence in this respect.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are at least average, but

(2) As with all other breeds, they improve or decrease
according as they are subjected to wise or unwise manage-
ment in breeding, feeding or environment.

I iS THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

X. Weak points.

(i) These are not pronounced in any direction.
(2) They are not so rugged as some breeds, but they are
not delicate.

XL Compared with Holsteins.

(1) The Guernseys have a decided lead in average rich-
ness of milk, are probably something ahead in easy keeping
qualities and are better adapted for crossing where improve-
ment in the character of the milk and butter product are both
sought.

(2) The Holsteins lead as yet in the extent to which they
prevail, are fully 200 pounds ahead in size, give more milk and
are relatively better adapted for meat-making, either in the
pure or graded form.

(3) In other essential characteristics, as early maturity,
grazing and breeding qualities they are about equal.

LECTURE NO. 31.

GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the American Guernsey Cattle Club :

COUNTS

hair .
igh and

40—

(3)

(1) Quality of Milk.

(a) Skin, deep yellow in ear. on end of bone of

tail, at base of horn, on udder, teats and

body generally .

30 — (b) Skin loose, mellow, with fine, soft

(2) Quantity and Duration of Flow.

(a) Escutcheon, wide on thighs, h
broad, with thigh ovals

(b) Milk veins, long and prominent

(d) Udder, full and well up behind

(e) Udder, large but not fleshy

(f) Udder, teats squarely placed .

(g) Udder, teats of good size .
Size and Substance.

(a) Size, for the breed

(b) Not too light bone

(d) Hips and loins, wide .

(e) Rump, long and broad .

(f) Thighs and withers, thin .
(4) Symmetry.

(a) Back, level to setting on of tail

(b) Throat, clean with small dewlap

(d) Tail, long and thin

(e) Horns, curved and not coarse

(f) Head, rather long and fine, with
gentle expression

(g) General appearance

16—

14—

quiet and

20
10

too — Perfection

(5) For bulls, deduct 20 counts for udder.

(6) For heifers, deduct 20 counts for udder.

119

10
6
6
8
4
4
2

5
1

4
2
2
2

3
1

2
I
2

3
. 2

100

120 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

II. The above very neatly worded scale of
points would seem to be defective.

(i) In the excessive number of counts allotted to the
indications of milk production in the skin, udder, milk veins
and escutcheon.

(2) In the meager allotment of counts for other essentials,
especially in form, indicative of good milk production and also
stamina, as head, neck, body capacity and width through the
breast, and

(3) In want of comprehensiveness in detail.

III. Additional particulars not given in the
above scale :

(1) Head, inclining to long and not coarse, with mod-
erate dish.

(2) Muzzle, broad and white or buff in color and sur-
rounded by a fillet of light short hair.

(3) Eyes, large, clear and mild.

(4) Horns, inclining to small, circling well forward and
considerably upward, and yellow and waxy at the base.

(5) Ears, not large nor thick and thinly covered with hair.

(6) Neck, inclining to long, deep and thin.

(7) Forequarters, something less in development than
the hindquarters, moderate width at the withers and wide
through the heart.

(8) Breast, wide below, but not full.

(9) Barrel, capacious, increasingly so far downward and
backward.

( 10) Ribs, of but moderately rounded and deep spring and
well defined.

(11) Excessive downward slant away from the sacrum and
droop toward the tailhead are to be avoided, though both fre-
quently characterize good animals.

(12) Thighs, inclining to broad and thin and to incurva-
ture.

(13) Twist, open and placed high.

(14) Limbs, moderately fine.

(15) Skin, not thick, soft, pliable, unctuous.

(16) Hair, plentiful, soft and not long

(17) Prominence at the angles characterizes many excel-
lent animals, but should not be carried too far.

(18) When in full milk there is an appearance of spare-
ness of flesh.

(19) The indications of gentleness should be present in
both look and movement.

(20) The color and color markings vary considerably.

GUERNSEY CATTLE. 121

(a) The colors include red, light lemon, orange and yel-
low fawn, sometimes solid but more commonly with white
markings.

(b) The shading includes such hues as reddish yellow,
darker than brown, and fawn dun, but never gray, as in the
Jersey.

(c) The color markings are white and are distinct, and
they are found sometimes on the body, but oftener on the face,
flanks, legs and switch.

(d) Among the favorite colors are orange red, orange
fawn and lemon fawn, with white markings.

IV. Bulls contrasted with cows.

(i) They are stronger and more masculine in form and
limb.

(2) The head is shorter, wider and less dished, and the
horns are stronger, shorter and less curved upward.

(3) The neck is shorter, thicker and more arched.

(4) The forequarters have more relative development and
more width through the breast, the coupling is relatively not
so long and the angular points less distinctly defined.

(5) The skin should be thicker and particularly loose and
pliable before and around the scrotum and the embryo teats
widely placed.

(6) The carriage and action are more pronounced.

V. General Appearance — The Guernsey has
that plain attractiveness and evenness of balance in
dairy development which conveys the idea of capacity
for everyday work and her mild look speaks of a
quiet and contented disposition.

VI. Compared with Holsteins.

(1) The Guernseys are considerably less in size ana
weight than the Holsteins and they are also more prominent
at the angular points.

(2) They are not so long in the head, are less incurved at
the horn, less straight in the back and at the rear, shorter,
lighter and less square relatively in the hindquarter and thin-
ner and more incurved at the thigh.

(3) They are somewhat thinner, more unctuous and high
colored in the skin and there are the differences in color
markings.

T30

t%3

LECTURE NO. 32.

JERSEY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. This excellent breed of dairy cattle origi-
nated in the island of Jersey, which is a dependency
of Great Britain.

(1) The island is about eleven miles long and considerably
less than that in width and contains 39.680 acres, of which
about 25,000 acres are tillable.

(2) Dairy cattle and dairy products are the chief concern
of the farmers.

II. It is generally believed that Jerseys are
descended from the cattle of Brittany and Nor-
mandy on the adjacent coast.

(1) It has been claimed that they have been bred with
little or no admixture of alien blood for a period of 500 years.

(2) Since 1789 the importation of other cattle into the
island has been strictly prohibited except for purposes of
slaughter.

III. Improvement of the breed in Jersey.

O) For more than 100 years the breeders of Jerseys have
steadily sought the improvement of the breed, more especially
in prolonged milk giving and in milk rich in butter fat.

(2) To attain this end much care has been exercised in
breeding and selection during all those years, and

(3) Along with these qualities they have secured much of
beauty and utility in their cows.

IV. Management of cattle in Jersey.

(1) They are pastured all the year during the day by the
tethering system.

(2) From May to October they are out night and day,
except during the hottest portion of the day in midsummer.

(3) In winter they are housed at night and the grass pas-
tures are liberally supplemented with hay and roots.

123

124 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Importations to the United States and
Canada.

(i) In 1850, John A. Taintor imported several Jerseys for
a little club of gentlemen in Hartford, Ct.. but it is probable
that Jersey blood had reached the United States prior to that
date.

(2) In 1851, an importation was made by Thos. Motley of
Jamaica Plain, Mass.

(3) In 1868, S. S. Stephens of Montreal, Can., imported
nine animals.

(4) Many of the descendants of these animals have be-
come greatly distinguished as butter producers.

(5) From 1868 onward, importations became frequent,
not only from Jersey, but from England.

VI. Exportation to other countries.

(1) The great demand for Jersey cattle came first from
England.

(2) Because of their beauty they were much sought for
to graze in the parks of noblemen.

(3) For a time the craze for solid colors and for beefy
types wrought much injury to the dairy qualities of Jerseys
in England.

(4) They are now found in many countries in both hemis-
pheres, but the United States is pre-eminently their home.

VII. Competition at the World's Fair in
Chicago in 1893.

(1) Twenty-five pure bred animals, of the Jersey. Guern-
sey and Shorthorn breeds respectively, were pitted against each
other for fifteen days in the production of cheese and by-prod-
ucts, and for ninety days for the production of butter.

(2) In both instances the first awards went to the Jerseys
which produced the most milk, cheese and butter respectively,
of the highest quality and at the lowest cost, but

(3) In this magnificent showing the greater number of
the eligible Jerseys that could be selected from should not
be overlooked.

VIII. Organization to promote the interests
of Jerseys.

(1) Associations have been formed to promote the in-
terests of the breed in the United States and Canada, Jersey,
England and other countries.

(2) The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in
1868 with a membership of forty-three.

Fig. 20. Typical Jersey Cow
(«S)

126 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(3) About 1834^ the Royal Jersey Agricultural Society
drew up a scale of points as an aid to breeders and judges.

IX. Distribution of Jerseys in North America.

(1) Jerseys are kept in all parts of the United States and
in all the provinces of Canada.

(2) They are most numerously kept in the Middle and
Eastern states and are also kept in considerable numbers in
the West and South.

X. Registration of Jerseys in the United
States.

(1) There have been issued fifty volumes of the American
Jersey Cattle Club Register, the first of which appeared in 1871.

(2) The total registration is 199,500, of which 55,500 are
males and 144,000 females.

XL Butter tests.

(1) Provision has been made for conducting butter tests
with recorded animals and keeping a record of the same.

(2) The first volume of the book of butter tests, records
3955 such trials, carrving the record of the same up to August
1, 1898.

LECTURE NO. 33.

JERSEY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) The Jersey is unquestionably the most popular breed
of dairy cattle in America, if numbers are taken as the basis
of judgment.

(2) It is probably true that Jerseys, excluding Holsteins,
outnumber all the other dairy breeds combined.

(3) This great popularity is to some extent owing to the
longer period they have been in the country and to the great
enterprise shown in disseminating them, but it is chiefly owing
to their intrinsic merit in the dairy.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The Jersey is par excellence the cow for £te indi-
vidual who keeps but one, because of her gentleness and her
easy keeping and unexcelled cream-producing qualities.

(2) She has also marked adaptation for the dairy, where
butter primarily is sought.

(3) Jerseys can be kept -in cold climates, but are better
adapted to mildly temperate regions, and they will thrive fur-
ther south than some other dairy breeds.

(4) Although small in frame they should not be kept on
sparse or rugged pastures, as they have not the staying ppwers
of the Ayrshires, or Kerries.

III. Relative size.

(1) The Jersey is small and deer-like in form, the average
weight in the matured cow being under rather than over 900
pounds.

(2) She is the smallest of the dairy breeds in America,
save the French Canadian and the Kerry, and the system of
breeding and selection practiced for many years would seem
to have reduced rather than increased the size.

(3) In recent years a wise revolt against too small size
and over-refinement of frame has set in among breeders in the
Eastern states at least.

(4)' As a result the average Jersey of the Eastern states
is probably 50 to 100 pounds more than the figures given above
in Note (1).

127

J 28 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Milking qualities.

(i) The Jersey is noted rather for the richness of her
milk than for the quantity of the same, although she is notably
persistent in milk production.

(2) In the production of butter fat she is without a peer
and without a close rival, save in the Guernsey and French
Canadian breeds.

(3) The fresh milk undiluted has in some instances been
found too rich for successful calf- rearing.

(4) It is good for cheese-making also, but some other
breeds are ahead of the Jersey in that respect, because of the
greater quantities given.

V. Early maturing qualities.

(1) No other breed of dairy cattle matures more quickly.

(2) The heifers usually come into milk at the age of two
years, and in some instances at an earlier age.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) Jerseys should be given rich pastures, but they will
do fairly well on such as are of average production.

(2) It will be found more profitable with Jerseys than with
some other breeds to supplement scant pasture production with
soiling foods rather than to have them travel far in search
of food.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) In easy keeping qualities Jerseys rank high, but

(2) They stand low as meat producers, even among dairy
breeds, because of the extreme dairy form which characterizes
them.

(3) The claim that the steers will make as rapid growth
prior to maturity as those of the beef breeds is yet to be ques-
tioned, but

(4) Though they should, the discrimination in price
against such meat is severe, however

(5) Jersey calves fed substantially on skimmilk and cer-
tain meal and fodder adjuncts up to the age of sav six to
eight months, make good and profitable meat.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) The marked prepotency of the Jersey when crossed
upon common cattle, and even upon pure breds of the other
dairy breeds, almost invariably results in adding to the rich-
ness of the milk.

(2) When butter-making is the chief concern on the farm,
Jersey blood may oftentimes be used with great advantage.

JERSEY CATTLE. 1 29

(3) Where skimmilk is an important factor, or where it
is desired to grow good beef, such crosses should not be
introduced.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) The breeding qualities of Jerseys naturally have been
in some instances impaired by in-and-in breeding, and in others
by subjecting them to conditions too artificial, but

(2) It would not be correct to say that as a race they are
shy breeders.

X. Weak points.

(1) Chief among these are small size, lack of width
through the heart, and in some instances a tendency to delicacy
of constitution.

(2) Injudicious selection, in-and-in breeding, environ-
ment too artificial, and the search for extreme refinement and
spareness are largely responsible for these weaknesses.

XI. Compared with Holsteins.

(i) The Jerseys lead in all-round popularity, in richness
of the milk, in early maturity and probably in easy keeping
qualities.

(2) The Holsteins lead in all-round adaptation, in size,
in quantity of milk produced, including value of skimmilk, in
value for meat production and probably in average stamina.

(3) In grazing qualities, in value for crossing and grading
and in breeding qualities the difference between the two breeds
would not seem to be greatly marked.

XII. Compared with the Guernseys.

(1) The Jerseys are more refined in form and limb and
are as yet more in favor with the general public.

(2) The Guernseys are considerably larger and stronger
in frame, have larger teats, are even more characteristically
yellow in the skin and are something ahead in meat pro-
duction.

(3) In all other essential characteristics they are very
similar.

LECTURE NO. 34.

JERSEY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was adopted
by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1885 :

for cows.

POINTS COUNTS

(1) Head — Small and lean; face dished, broad be-
tween the eyes and narrow between the horns . 2

(2) Eyes — Full and placid ; horns, small, crumpled
and amber colored ....... I

(3) Neck — Thin, rather long, with clean throat, and
not heavy at the shoulders 8

(4) Back — Level to the setting on of tail 1

(5) Loins — Broad across 6

(6) Barrel — Long, hooped, broad and deep at the
flank 10

(7) Hips — Wide apart; rump long 10

(8) Legs— Short ....... 2

(9) Tail — Fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch I

(10) Hide — Mellow, inside of ears yellow ... 5

(11) Fore Udder — Full in form and not fleshy . . 13

(12) Hind Udder — Full in form and well up behind . 11

(13) Teats — Rather large, wide apart and squarely
placed 10

(14) Milk Ucins — Prominent 5

(15) Disposition — Quiet 5

(16) General Appearance and Apparent Constitution 10

Perfection 100

(17) In judging heifers, omit Nos. 11, 12 and 14.

FOR BULLS.

(18) The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls,
omitting Nos. 11, 12 and 14, and making due allowance
for masculinity; but when bulls are exhibited with
their progeny in a separate class, add 30 counts for
progeny.

IT. Additional particulars submitted, though
not given in the above scale:

130

JERSEY CATTLE. I3I

(i) The head should incline to long from the eye to the
muzzle.

(2) Muzzle, black in color and encircled with a band of a
light color.

(3) Eyes, intelligent, liquid and rimmed with black above
and below.

(4) Horns, tipped with black.

(5) Ears, inclining to small and well fringed with hair
and possessed of considerable erection and movement.

(6) Withers, fine and inclined to rise.

(7) Back, frequently swayed, more or less, the spinal
column prominent at the chine and open spaced, the pelvic
arch somewhat elevated, and the crupper prominent with a
downward slope toward the outer hips.

(8) The junction of the neck is somewhat abrupt.

(9) Breast, wide in lower front, but not full, and brisket
V-shaped.

(10) Chest, wide through the heart, but frequently it is not.

(11) Forearm, long but not full.

(12) Thighs, long, lean and incurved.

(13) Escutcheon, well developed.

(14) Udder, thinly haired and the veins covering it well
defined.

(15) Milk veins, long, tortuous, branched, and they
should enter the body through two or more large milk wells.

(16) Limbs, inclining to fine and placed well apart in front
and behind.

(17) Skin, inclining to thin and distinctively yellow at the
armpits and around the udder.

(18) Hair, abundant, sleek and fine.

(19) The appearance when in milk should be spare.

(20) The color may include gray fawn and white, yellow
fawn and white, silver gray dun, cream-colored fawn and light
silver and dark steel gray, solid colors with black points being
formerly much in favor.

III. Bulls contrasted with cows.

(1) The head of the former is stronger, wider relatively,
and shorter, and the horns are shorter, stronger and more
upturned.

(2) The neck is thicker and is arched.

(3) The relative development of ihe forequarters is
greater, more particularly at the withers, breast and through
the heart.

(4) The barrel is relatively shorter, the hide thicker and
the limbs stronger.

IV. General Appearance — In general outline
the Jersey has a beautiful, deer-like form, a large

1^2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

body supported by fine, clean limbs, a small head,
small and crumpled horns, large, lustrous and liquid
eyes, and, when in milk, a decided inclination to
spareness in frame.

V. Compared with Holsteins.

(i) The Jerseys are much smaller, more refined, shorter
in limb, more distinctively wedge-shaped, and as a rule not so
straight in outline.

(2) They are not so long in the head and neck, are higher
and narrower at the withers and pelvic arch and frequently
have more of a downward sway in the back and droop toward
the tailhead.

(3) They are less wide in the breast and chest, less wide
and straight in the hips, thinner and more incurved in the
thighs and smaller in the teats, and

(4) There are the differences in color.

VI. Compared with Ayrshires.

(1) The Ayrshires are not so refined in form and limb,
are more plain in appearance, particularly about the head and
neck, and are more than 100 pounds heavier in average weight.

(2) The head is a little stronger and not quite so much
dished, the poll is wider and the horns are a little stronger and
are upturned more or less, whereas in the Jei sey they are
crumpled.

(3) The back is straighter. the chest wider through the
heart, the coupling a little shorter relatively, the hindquarter
has more of relative development, being more straight above
at the sides and at the rear, the teats are a little smaller and
the legs are probably relatively shorter.

(4) They are more sprightly and active of movement, and

(5) There are the differences in color.

VII. Compared with Guernseys.

(1) The Guernseys are less clean cut and less handsome
than the Jerseys, some coarser in the bone and larger in
every way.

(2) They are something plainer in the head, less crumpled
in the horn, deeper in the neck, a little wider at the withers,
something wider through the heart, a little heavier in the hip.
even more prominent at the angular points, a little longer in
average length of limb and richer in the color of the skin.

(4) The formation of udder and average size of teat are
even more perfect than in the Jersey.

(5) In other respects they are very similar, save in the
color markings.

LECTURE NO. 35.

FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND

HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND
STANDARD POINTS.

I. The French Canadian cattle are doubtless
descended from the cattle of Brittany and Nor-
mandy.

(1) The early settlers of Quebec came largely from these
provinces of France, and doubtless brought with them the
stocks of cattle bred there.

(2) They were found in the new French colony as early
?s 1620.

II. Subsequently to 1620 the additional colo-
nists who from time to time arrived from north-
western France, added, by sundry importations, to
the cattle previously introduced.

(1) These early importations were the only source from
which French Canadian cattle derived their characteristics.

(2) No other cattle were introduced into the colony prior
to 1776.

III. It is more than probable that the ancestry
of French Canadian cattle is identical with that of
the Channel island breeds.

(1) So close is the resemblance that it would not be easy
to distinguish a French Canadian cow from a dark-colored
Jersey.

(2) Their essential characteristics other than those which
relate to form are very similar.

IV. Introduction of the English breeds.

(1) Subsequent to 1776, cattle of English origin were
introduced to a somewhat limited extent, but

133

FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE. 1 35

(2) Their introduction has been chiefly confined to the
neighborhood of cities and to the limited rural districts occu-
pied by Anglo-Saxon settlers.

(3) Their blood has been mingled only to a limited extent
with that of the French Canadian cattle, hence

(4) Many of the latter have been bred pure in Quebec
for more than 250 years.

V. The effects of environment.

(1) The long and cold winters of Quebec and the expo-
sure to which these cattle have been subjected have begotten
in them a hardihood that is simply unrivalled in dairy cattle.

(2) The coarse fare upon which they have been fed dur-
ing much of the year has made them content with such food
in the absence of meal, and

(3) The continuous handling to which they have been
subjected has made them exceedingly docile.

VI. Registration of foundation animals.

(1) The rules relating to the registration of foundation
animals were first established by the Quebec legislature.

(2) Before these foundation animals could be admitted
to registry, they must be correct in form and of undoubted
purity in descent.

(3) The foundation herd book was kept open until the
end of 1896, that is to say, for a period of ten years.

VII. Organization.

(1) The French Canadian Cattle Breeders' Association
was organized in 1895, chiefly through the efforts of Dr. J. A.
Couture, D. V. S., who was elected "perpetual secretary" of
the same.

(2) In September, 1895, the registration of French Cana-
dian cattle was placed under the care of the said association.

VIII. Distribution in Canada and the United
States.

(1) The French Canadian cattle are the prevailing breed
in nearly all the counties of Quebec.

(2) They are most numerously kept in the pedigreed form
in the counties of Berthier, Joliette, Drummond, Kamouraska
and LTslet.

(3) A number of herds are also found in the state of
New York.

IX. Registration in Quebec.

I36 THE STUDY OF BREEDS

(1) Up to the end of 1899 there were recorded in the
Foundation Herd Book, 922 bulls and 5,307 cows.

(2) The whole number of animals now on record is 6,966.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) The popularity of French Canadian cattle is almost
entirely confined to Quebec province and portions of states
and provinces bordering on the same, but

(2) Now that they are being systematically improved,
these robust little money makers will doubtless become favor-
ites in other states and provinces.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Because of their inherent ruggedness they are
adapted to climates where the winters are long and stern, as
in Quebec, the maritime provinces of Canada, the New Eng-
land states and the highlands of t'e northern Alleghenies.

(2) Because of their lightness of form they are eminently
adapted to rugged pastures where much traveling must be
done when grazing, and

(3) Because of their excellent milking and easy keeping
qualities, they are unexcelled for dairy uses on lands that
respond tardily to the efforts of the husbandman.

III. Relative size.

(1) French Canadian cattle are the smallest of the dairy
breeds in America unless it be the Kerry.

(2) The cows weigh on an average 700 pounds.

IV. Milking qualities.

(1) They do not give so large a flow of milk as some
breeds, but they milk with great persistence, and aggregate
large yields in proportion to their size.

(2) When well supplied with food they should give from
5,000 to 6.000 pounds of milk a year.

(3) The milk is said to test on an average from 4 to 5 1-2
per cent, and

(4) They have much power relatively to produce milk on
fodder supplemented by only a small addition of grain or even
in its absence.

V. Early maturing- qualities.

(1) These are not marked, but

(2) With more generous feeding they will improve.

(3) Even now heifers frequently come into milk at the
age of thirty months and sometimes earlier.

FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE. 1 37

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are of the very highest order.

(2) Thej- will gather food and give fair supplies of milk
where the large breeds and the small and less robust breeds
would completely fail.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) They give an excellent return in milk for food con-
sumed, but

(2) They do not excel for meat production, since the
dairy form is quite pronounced.

(3) The calves, however, may be turned into profitable
meat at an early age.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) The experience in crossing French Canadian cattle
upon other breeds or grades has not been extensive, but

(2) When improved milking qualities combined with
hardihood are desired, they may be crossed with advantage on
unimproved stock.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are of a very high order.

(2) The unpampered conditions to which they have been
subjected for generations and the exercise which they
must needs take in gathering food have proved eminently
favorable to reproduction.

X. Weak points.

(1) The chief of these are their small size for some con-
ditions, and a little slowness in maturing, but

(2) With improved conditions as to feed and environ-
ment they would doubtless soon improve in size and maturing
qualities.

XL Compared with Holsteins.

(1) The French Canadian cattle are much less well
known, very much less in size, mature more slowly and give
a less quantity of milk, but

(2) They are more rugged, are better grazers, easier
feeders and give richer milk.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the French Canadian Cattle Breeders' Associa-
tion :

(1) Head — Short: forehead wide; horns generally turned
inward and sometimes a little upward, white in color with

13b THE STUDY OF BREEDS-

black tips; muzzle surrounded with a gray or yellowish circle;
ears neither very small nor very long, the inside of which is
orange color and covered with thin, short hair.

(2) Neck— Thin.

(3) Back — Almost straight.

(4) Chest — Deep and almost in a line with the belly.

(5) Belly — Not bulky and forming a continuous line with
the ribs and hips.

(6) Loins — Very broad.

(7) Rump — Broad and long.

(8) Barrel — Round, broad and deep at the flank.

(9) Tail — Thin, long, reaching very often to the fetlock.

(10) Legs — Short, fine and straight.

(11) Skin — Thin and mellow and covered with an abun-
dance of hair.

(12) Color for Females — Solid black, black with a yellow
stripe on the back and around the muzzle, brown with black
points, brown brindle.

(13} Color for Males — Black, with or without the yellow
stripes in order to get the color uniformly black within as
short a time as possible.

II. The following additional points are sub-
mitted :

(1) Head, fine and well dished.

(2) Neck, joining the shoulders abruptly.

(3) Withers, inclining to fine.

(4) Spine, sharp and well defined.

(5) Shoulders, coming near in the upward slope.

(6) Chest, wide through the heart.

(7) Brisket, V-shaped.

(8) Barrel, capacious.

(9) Ribs, distinct and open spaced.

(10) Twist, open.

(11) Udder, large and well quartered.

(12) Milk veins, well defined and well forward and mon
or less branched.

III. General Appearance — French Canadian
cattle are small in size and limb, relatively capaciou?
in body, and inclining to spareness in form.

IV. Compared with Holsteins.

(1) French Canadian cattle are not much more than hall
as large, are shorter in limb, less square in quarter and mor«
spare in development.

(2) They are more abrupt at the angular points, and

(3) There are the differences in color.

LECTURE NO. 36.

KERRY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Kerry is the only purely native breed
of cattle in Ireland that is possessed of much merit.

(1) From time immemorial they have been bred pure, but
only in an aimless way until within a comparatively recent
period.

(2) In size, shape and color they bear a close resemblance
to the native cattle of Brittany.

II. Kerry cattie are so named from the county
of Kerry, and until a comparatively recent period
they were confined chiefly to the southwestern coun-
ties of Ireland.

(1) The unartificial conditions which surrounded them
/or centuries have made them the hardiest of the British dairy
breeds.

(2) They have frequently been called the "poor man's
cow" from the great service they have rendered to the cottager
in rural districts.

(3) The extent to which they have been kept for this pur-
pose measurably accounts for their characteristic docility.

III. Improvement of the breed.

(1) This was late in commencing, but has been rapid dur-
ing recent years.

(2) Both in England and Ireland noblemen have zealously
engaged in the work.

IV. Exportation of Kerries.

(1) Details with reference to this work are meager, but

(2) From their original home they have been introduced
into many of the counties of Ireland.

(3) They are also numerously kept in several of the
southwest counties of England, and

139

a.
>»

I-

too
ill

KERRY CATTLE. I4T

(4) They have been exported to the United States and
Canada, though as yet only in very limited numbers.

V. The Dexter cattle.

(1) The Dexter is a variety of cattle, the outcome of a
cross between the Kerry and Devon breeds, according to some
authorities, and of selection, according to others.

(2) Opinions differ as to the origin of the name.

(3) As distinguished from the Kerry they have a rounder
and plumper body, shorter and rather thicker legs, a heavier
and stronger head, and larger, straighter and coarser horns,
and are better for beef, though not so good for milk, but

(4) These distinctions are being quickly obliterated
through the indiscriminate blending of the two types.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) The popularity of Kerries can scarcely be said to have
been tested in the United States, owing to the very limited
numbers yet introduced.

(2) In Ireland they are the most popular breed of dairy
cattle, and in some parts of England they are meeting with no
little favor.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Kerry cattle have special adaptation to conditions
where the pastures are much broken and not abundant, thus
involving much traveling in seeking food.

(2) They should be admirably suited for the dairy in
semi-mountainous areas in the United States, where hardihood
and staying qualities are an important consideration.

III. Relative size.

(1) They are quite the smallest of the dairy breeds as yet
imported into this country.

(2) In many instances the hight does not exceed fort}
inches, and the average weight of matured cows is not more
than 600 to 700 pounds.

IV. Milking qualities.

(1) The ability of this little creature to give milk under
adverse climatic and pasture conditions is simply surprising.

(2) The quality of the milk is also rich, being not far
behind that from Guernseys or Jerseys in butter fat, and the
quantity is large for the size of the animal.

142 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Early maturity.

(1) These cattle are slower in maturing than any of the
dairy breeds yet introduced into the United States, owing

(2) To the unameliorated conditions under which they
were kept in former years.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are of the very highest order because of their
natural activity and hardihood.

(2) Kerries will prove profitable under conditions where
nearly all dairy breeds would fail.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) High feeding qualities are claimed for Kerries by
some British writers, but probably on insufficient grounds,
although

(2) Kerry cows will fatten quickly when dry.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Their highest value in crossing and grading in this
country would probably be found in mating Kerry sires with
common animals kept in semi-mountainous regions, with a
view to improving their milking qualities.

(2) On good grazing lands it would seem wise to main-
tain larger breeds.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are of the first order, owing

(2) To the unartificial nature of the conditions of their
environment.

X. Weak points.

(1) The chief of these are their small size and slowness
in maturing, but

(2) In both respects they are being improved.

XI. Compared with the Jerseys.

(1) They are not to be compared to the Jerseys in the
general estimate of the public, in general adaptation or in the
field that lies before them for crossing and grading, and they
are not equal to them in size or maturing qualities, though
nearly equal in the quantity of the milk produced, but

(2) They are far ahead of Jerseys in vigor of constitution,
in ability to "rough it" under adverse conditions, and they are
something ahead in easy keeping and in feeding qualities and
in the ability to breed with unfailing regularity.

KERRY CATTLE. 143

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

In the absence of an authorized scale of points
in the United States the following is submitted :

I. Size — This should be regulated to a con-
siderable degree by the nature of the environment.

II. General Outline — The body is essentially
dairy in form, though not of the most pronounced
type.

III. Head — Small, inclining to fine, tapering
and well balanced in the different parts.

(i) Forehead, wide.

(2) Nose, fine and inclining to long.

(3) Muzzle, fine.

(4) Nostrils, placed high and somewhat open.

(5) Cheeks, lean.

(6) Eyes, mild, full and lively.

(7) Horns, rather thick at base, but gently tapering, with
black tips, and coming gracefully forward and upward with
considerabl; erection.

(8) Ears, small and fine and rather lively in movement.

IV. Neck — Straight, fine, inclining to deep,
with medium abruptness at the neck vein.

V. Back — Straight from withers to tailhead.

(1) It is not wide at the withers, and is but moderately
prominent at the chine, and

(2) It slopes down considerably away from the sacrum.

VI. Forequarters — A little less in develop-
ment proportionately than the hindquarters.

(1) Shoulders, smooth and relatively deep, but not broad.

(2) Chest, wide.

(3) Breast, fairly deep and broad, but not full.

(4) Brisket, V-shaped.

(5) Forearm, inclining to full.

VII. Barrel — Capacious and deep, inclining
to round more than to flat.

(1) Ribs, of medium spring and distinct when the cows
are in milk.

(2) Crops, medium in fullness.

144 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(3) Fore flank, full.

(4) Hind flank, not thick.

(5) Heart girth, good for the size of the animal and nearly
equal with the flank girth.

(6) Underline, a little depressed.

VIII. Hindquarters — Deep and of medium
development.

(1) Hips, straight on the side.

(2) Thighs, inclining to light.

(3) Buttocks, a little incurved.

(4) Pin bones, of but medium distance apart.

(5) Twist, open and placed somewhat high.

(6) Tail, long and fine.

IX. Udder — Between oblong and rounded in
shape, capacious and evenly quartered, with teats of
good size and placed well apart.

X. Milk Veins — Large and long; very promi-
nent for so small an animal, branched.

XL Skin — Fine, soft, unctuous and of a fine
orange tint clearly visible at the muzzle, eyes and
ears.

XII. Legs — Short, not coarse, and clean.

XIII. Color — The color most in favor is a
rich black with, in some instances a ridge of white
along the back and a white streak under the belly,
but some are black, brown, black and white and
brown and white.

XIV. General Appearance — Tne Kerry is a
neat little creature, almost if not quite as handsome
as the Jersey, and she carries in her appearance that
too infrequent combination of docility and sprightli-
ness of movement.

XV. Compared with the Jersey.

(1) The Kerry is considerably smaller and is less promi-
nent at the angles.

(2) She has a finer muzzle, stronger and more upturned
horns, a straighter back and a slightly heavier frame for her
size, and

(3) There are the differences in color.

THE DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 37.

POLLED DURHAM CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS-
TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. Polled Durhams originated in the United
States, and more particularly in the state of Ohio.

(1) The development of this breed has all been accom-
plished within the last two or three decades, and

(2) It has been done by several breeders who for a time
worked independently of one another, though essentially on
the same lines.

(3) The efforts of Dr. W. W. Crane of Tippecanoe City,
O., to popularize the breed have been abundant and unceasing.

II. The Polled Durhams have come from two
different sources of ancestry.

(1) One branch has been established through the crossing
of pure Shorthorn males upon selected common muley cows.

(2) The other is pure Shorthorn but hornless.

III. The following details relate to the estab-
lishment of the Polled Durhams upon a muley
foundation :

(1) Good common muley cows were selected, of large
form and good milking qualities.

(2) These were crossed by pure Shorthorn bulls, red in
color.

(3) The female progeny only were reared for a time, and
of these only such as were hornless.

(4) When possessed of 75 per cent of Shorthorn blood,
and hornless, they were considered eligible for entry in the
record, but the standard has been raised at certain times, as
stated below.

IO 145

I46 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. The following details relate to the estab-
lishment of the Polled Durhams upon a pure Short-
horn foundation.

(1) Recorded Shorthorn bulls that had never possessed
horns were secured by different breeders, and these were bred
to pure Shorthorn cows.

(2) Only such of the progeny were kept to breed from
as were hornless.

V. The American Polled Durham Breeders'
Association was organized in Chicago in 1889.

(1) Eight persons took the initiative in the work, all of
whom had been engaged for some time previously in establish-
ing the breed.

(2) The membership at the end of 1893 numbered forty,
and included residents of several states.

VI. The following are the requirements for
registration in the American Herd Book of Polled
Durham cattle.

(1) Animals for registry must be at least one year old.

(2) They must be hornless.

(3) They must have the color and markings characteristic
of the Shorthorn.

(4) They must not have less than 87 1-2 per cent of Short-
horn blood after 1893, 93 3-4 per cent after 1896, and 96 7-8
per cent after 1899, and the requisites previously mentioned.

(5) The produce of animals already on record will be
recorded, provided they conform to the requirements men-
tioned in 1, 2 and 3, also

(6) The produce of any bull in the Polled Durham Herd
Book, with the same requirements, and

(7) The produce of any cow in the Polled Durham reg-
istry, when by a bull recorded in the American Shorthorn Herd
Book, and possessed of the same requirements.

VII. The leading Fair Associations were slow
to give recognition to Polled Durham cattle in their
prize lists, but

(1) At the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893, a full list
of premiums was offered for Polled Durhams.

(2) The grand sweepstakes prize at the same fair open
to all "general purpose" cattle, was won by the Polled
Durhams.

POLLED DURHAM CATTLE. 1 47

VIII. The future of Polled Durhams.

(1) There would seem to be a bright future before this
breed in the United States and also in certain other countries
possessed of the requisite adaptation, since

(2) The}' meet the growing demand for cattle with all the
essential characteristics of Shorthorns, and yet without horns.

(3) They are rich in the blood of several of the best
strains of English and Scotch Shorthorns, and many of them
have in addition the renovating influence of muley foundation
blood.

IX. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Polled Durhams have been recorded from about
twenty different states.

(2) The leading centers of distribution are Indiana, Illi-
nois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennes-
see, Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin, and probably in the order
named.

(3) The first exportation of Polled Durhams was made
to Argentina from the herd of J. H. Miller, Peru, Ind.; in 1894.

X. Registration of Polled Durhams.

(1) But one volume of the American Polled Durham
Herd Book has yet been issued, and it was published in 1894.

(2) There have been recorded 2100 animals, of which 850
are bulls and 1250 cows.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. The characteristics of the Polled Durhams
are essentially the same as those of the Shorthorns
given in Lecture No. 9.

(1) They have the same large parallelogrammic frames,
and

(2) Like the Shorthorns they are adapted to arable locali-
ties rich in food production.

II. They differ in the following essentials :

(1) More attention has been given to the development of
their milking qualities, and

(2) They are more free from the weaknesses of somft
highly inbred Shorthorn families, as, for instance, shyness in
breeding.

POLLED DURHAM CATTLE, I49

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

I. No standard scale of points his as yet been
drawn up for this breed, but

(1) These are essentially the same as in the Shorthorn,

(2) They are given in detail in the scale submitted for
Shorthorns in Lecture No. 10.

II. They differ in the following essentials:

(1) The Polled Durhams are hornless. ?,nd

(2) They do not carry the beef form <o quite the same
extent as Shorthorns, since more attention has been given to
the development of their milking qualities.

o
U

c
©

130

LECTURE NO. 38.

BROWX SWISS CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. Switzerland has two distinct breeds of cat-
tle, and several minor breeds, which are chiefly the
offshoots of these two parent stems.

(1) One of these, the Berner spotted, a large and heavy
breed, is found most numerously in the canton of Berne.

(2) The other, the Brown Schwytzer, originated in the
canton of Schwytz, and it is now kept numerously in many
of the cantons of Switzerland.

(3) Both breeds have been refined by many centuries of
careful treatment and intelligent breeding.

II. The uniformity which characterizes the
Brown Swiss cattle has been brought about by a
long period of careful breeding.

(1) The government gives encouragement to careful
breeding, and the cattle receive the best of care.

(2) Every animal of the breed exhibited at Paris, in 1878,
was awarded a prize, but

(3) It can scarcely be said that marked uniformity in type
characterizes the breed in the United States.

III. Distribution throughout Europe.

(1) The demand for Brown Swiss cattle in various Euro-
pean countries has been greater than the supply.

(2) They stand high in favor in nearly all countries of
Europe to which they have been exported, but the greatest
demand for them has come from Italy, Germany and Russia.

IV. Exportation to the United States.

0) The first importation of Brown Swiss cattle was
made into the United States in i86g by Henry M. Clark of
Belmont, Mass.

151

152 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) Since that date many importations have heen made,
and more especially since 1882.

V. Organizations.

(1) The interests of the breed are protected by organiza-
tion, both in Switzerland and the United States.

(2) The American Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association
was formed in 1880.

VI. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Some animals of the breed are found in almost every
state in the Union and there are a considerable number also
in Mexico.

(2) In the east they are probably most numerous in Con-
necticut; in the middle states, Illinois; and in the west,
Colorado.

VII. Registrations in the United States.

(1) Three volumes of the American Brown Swiss Record
have been issued, the first of which appeared in 1882.

(2) There have been registered 2914 animals, of which
1207 are males and 1707 females.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) Brown Swiss cattle are probably the most popular
cattle in Europe among continental breeds.

(2) They are also steadily coming into favor since their
introduction into the United States and Canada.

(3) This result is unquestionably based on merit, since no
effort has been made to boom them.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Brown Swiss cattle are best adapted to the arable
farm where beef and milk are both sought for.

(2) Their strong, vigorous frames enable them to gather
food with profit where some breeds not so heavy would prove
less profitable.

III. Relative size.

(1) In size they are medium to large.

(a) The weight of the standard cow in Switzerland has
been put at 1200 to 1300 pounds, but

(b) As the size is much affected by altitude, on the higher
elevations the average weights would be considerably less.

BROWN SWISS CATTLE. 1 53

IV. Milking qualities.

(1) Notwithstanding the strongly built frames of Brown
Swiss cattle and the size of their hams, their milk-giving
qualities average well.

(2) The milk is good for butter production, for con-
densing and for cheese-making, and it is excellent for calf-
rearing.

(3) Their docility and gentleness, largely the outcome of
kind treatment, still further commend them for the dairy.

V. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are but medium.

(2) The breeders have avoided rather than sought undue
precocity.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are of a high order, as they have been much
grazed in their original home, but

(2) The larger types require richer and more level pas-
tures than the smaller.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) The cows fatten readily when dry, and the steers
grow to a good size at an early age when properly fed.

(2) The calves especially make a rapid growth, but

(3) The strength of the bone detracts somewhat from
their feeding value.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Brown Swiss cattle are particularly valuable for
crossing upon common animals more or less debilitated by
injudicious breeding and over-artificial treatment, with a view
to infusing renovating power.

(2) The cross-bred steers grow with great vigor and at-
tain heavy weights at an early age. but they are not quite so
smooth as the progeny of some of the distinctive beef breeds.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are excellent.

(2) They are the outcome of inheritance, of sensible man-
agement and of well balanced milking qualities.

(3) They do not breed quite so young as some breeds, but
they continue to produce to a ripe old age.

X. Weak points

154

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(i) They would seem to have more of bone than is neces-
sary, and they are somewhat rough at the shoulder points and
sacrum.

(2) They are also less uniform in type than could be
desired.

XL Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Shorthorns are much better known in the United
States, are larger and smoother in frame, mature a little earlier
and produce a more valuable carcass of beef.

(2) The Brown Swiss are more uniformly good milkers,
are ahead in average ruggedness and have something of a lead
over the Shorthorns in grazing and breeding qualities.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was drawn up
by the Brown Swiss Cattle Association in America :

POINTS

(1) Head — Medium size and rather long . . .2

(2) Face — Dished, broad between the eyes and nar-

row between the horns ..... 2

(3) Ears — Of a deep orange color within . . .1

(4) Nose — Black, square, and with the mouth sur-

rounded by a light, meal colored band, tongue
black 2

(5) Eyes — Full and placid 1

(6) Horns — Rather short, flattish and regularly set

with black tips ....... 5

(7) Neck — Straight, rather long and not too heavy

at shoulders 4

(8) Chest — Broad and deep 4

(9) Back — Level to the setting on of tail and broad

across the loin 6

(10) Barrel-hooped — Broad and deep at flank . . 8

(11) Hips — Wide apart, rump long and broad . . 4

(12) Thighs — Wide, with heavy quarters . . 4

(13) Legs — Short and straight with good hoofs . . 4

(14) Tail — Slender, pliable, not too long, with good
switch ......... 4

(15) Hide — Thin and movable 3

(16) Color — Shades from dark brown to light brown

and at some seasons of the year gray ; slight
splashes of white near udder not objectionable;
light stripe along back ..... 6

(17) Hair Between Horns — Light, not reddish. (No points.)

(18) Fore Udder — Full in form and carried far for-

ward on the abdomen 10

BROWN SWISS CATTLE- 1 55

(19) Hind Udder — Not too deeply hung, full in form

and well up behind 10

(20) Teats — Rather large, set well apart and hanging
straight down . 5

(21) Milk Veins — Prominent 4

(22) Escutcheon — High and broad and full in thighs . 7

(23) Disposition — Quiet and good-natured . . 4

Perfection 100

(24) In judging bulls and heifers omit Nos. 18, 19
and 20, and for color they should be dark brown.

II. Additional particulars submitted though
not given in the above scale of points :

(1) Poll, in many instances broad and always fringed with
long and abundant hair.

(2) Horns, fair amount of outward and upward curve.

(3) Dewlap, usually present more or less.

(4) Breast, of medium fullness.

(5) Brisket, wide but inclining to the V shape.

(6) Withers, possessed of medium width.

(7) Back, usually prominent at the sacrum and tailhead
and slanting away somewhat from sacrum downward toward
outside of hips.

(8) Tailhead, often strong.

(9) Hide, thicker than in some breeds.

III. General Appearance — They are some-
what plainer in form, but evidence contentment,
strength and capacity and there is an attractiveness
about the uniformity of their markings.

IV. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Brown Swiss cattle are not quite so large nor mas-
sive, but they are stronger in bone and limb.

(2) They are somewhat longer in the head, larger and
stronger in the horn, more fringed at the poll, less rounded in
the breast and more V-shaped in the brisket.

(3) They are more prominent at the shoulder points,
sacrum and tailhead and have a thicker and richer colored
hide.

(4) There are also the differences in color markings.

LECTURE NO. 39.

RED POLLED CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Red Polled cattle are the outcome of
the amalgamation of two types which inhabited the
counties of Norfolk and Suffolk respectively.

(1) The former of these, which was the smaller, was
usually of a blood-red color, except the head, which was mot-
tled, and it was possessed of fair milking and beef-making
properties.

(2) The latter had more of the dairy form, and was origi-
nally a sort of mouse dun in color, but

(3) The colors in both were more or less broken far on
into the present century, although a whole red continually
grew into favor.

(4) Both types were polled and both have been freely
inter-crossed for more than a century.

(5) They have been recognized as one breed since the
year 1846.

II. Other breeds, as the Galloways, West
Highland cattle and Shorthorns, have to some extent
been used in crossing upon the Red Polls.

d) A dark nose, which occasionally appears, would seem
to indicate Galloway blood, but

(2) These crosses, introduced many years ago, have prob-
ably played an unimportant part in the improvement of the
breed.

ITT. Improvement has been chiefly brought
about by a most rigorous selection, breeding to a
certain standard, improved care and liberal feeding.

156

158 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(1) It began early in the century, but was not rapid until
the recognition of the Norfolk and Suffolk types as one and
the same breed, in 1846, and

(2) It has been more general than local in character.

IV. In Britain the breeding of Red Polls is
still largely confined to the counties of Norfolk and
Suffolk.

(1) This is partly owing to the decimation of the breed
by rinderpest several years ago.

(2) And partly to the comparatively recent period during
which they have been prominently before the general public.

V. Extension to other countries.

(1) Polled cattle from Suffolk were introduced into Vir-
ginia, and probably some other states, fully two centuries
ago, but

(2) The first regular importation of Red Polls into
the United States in their improved form was made by Gilbert
F. Tabor of Patterson, N. Y., in 1873.

(3) They have also been exported in considerable num-
bers to Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

VI. Organizations.

(1) Associations have been formed both in England and
America to promote the interests of the breed.

(2) The Red Polled Cattle Club of America was formed
in 1883.

VII. Herd books.

(1) Sixteen volumes of the English Red Polled Herd
Book have been published, the first of which appeared in 1874.

(2) Vol. 1 of the American Red Polled Herd Book, which
appeared in 1887, is a condensation of the first six volumes of
the English book and subsequent volumes are the same in
their registrations.

(3) These books contain all the recorded Red Polls in
the world, and

(4) In registering, a tribal letter is given to the cattle of
each herd or neighborhood, for convenience in tracing tribal
history.

VIII. Distribution of Red Polls in the United
States.

(1) They are now registered from nearly all the states
of the Union, and

RED POLLED CATTLE. 1 59

(2) They are most numerously kept in the states of Illi-
nois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Kansas and Texas, and prob-
ably in the order named.

IX. Registration in the United States.

(1) This is not easily ascertained because of the dual
nature of the registrations.

(2) There have been registered in England and America
21,172 animals, of which 6753 are bulls and 14,419 cows.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) If numbers in proportion to recent introduction are
taken as the gauge of popularity. Red Polls are probably the
most popular at present of the purely dual-purpose breeds in
the United States, and

(2) That popularity would seem to be increasing in an
accelerated ratio.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The medium-sized bodies and the inherited influences
arising from environment adapt the Red Polls in an eminent
degree to average arable conditions, and

(2) The same inheritance best adapts them to equable
climates, although they will doubtless thrive in more severe
climates as well as many other breeds.

III. Relative size.

(1) In size Red Polls stand about midway between the
Shorthorns and the Devons.

(2) The average weight of mature cows would be about
1200 to 1250 pounds.

IV. Milking qualities.

(1) The Red Polls are more uniform and persistent in
their milking qualities than many other breeds.

(2) The milk, like the breed itself, has a happy equilib-
rium in its qualities, but

(3) The teats are in some instances over-large.

V. Early maturing qualities.

(1) In early maturity they rank a little better than
medium.

(2) As a breed they have not been forced, when young, to
the injury of their breeding qualities.

l6o THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(i) These, too, are of the middle zone order.
(2) They are most at home where food is plentiful, but
can probably gather the same better than their heavier rivals.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) In no breed perhaps is the tendency so strong to pro-
duce abundantly when in milk and at the same time to fatten
rapidly when dry.

(2) The steers, though of good fair size, fatten smoothly
and cheaply, kill well and make an excellent quality of beef.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Red Polls are highly adapted for being crossed upon
common stocks to improve them, both in form and utility.

(2) The progeny have a close resemblance to the Red
Polls in form, appearance and qualities.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are at least medium.

(2) As with all other breeds they arc much affected in
this respect by artificial conditions.

X. Weak points.

(i) More uniformity would be desirable in breeding them,
and

(2) A little more of heart girth and uniformity in size
and setting of teats.

XI. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Red Polls are not nearly so well known or distributed
as Shorthorns, and they are considerably less in size.

(2) They are more even in milk production and are better
adapted to produce steers of the "pony" order.

(3) In other respects their characteristics are not far dif-
ferent.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the only authorized scale
of points for Red Polled cattle sanctioned by the
American Red Polled Cattle Club:

(1) Essentials.

(a) Color, red ; the tip of the tail and the udder may be
white ; the extension on the udder a few inches along the inside
of the flank, or a small white spot or mark on the under part

RED POLLED CATTLE. l6l

of the belly by the milk veins shall not be held to disqualify
the animal whose sire and dam form part of an established
herd of the breed, or answer all other essentials of this stand-
ard description.

(b) Form; there should be no horns, slugs or abortive
horns.

(2) Points of a Superior Animal.

(a) Color, a deep red, with udder of the same color, but
the tip of the tail may be white.

(b) Nose, not dark or cloudy.

II. The following notes are appended to the
above very incomplete description of so excellent a
breed :

(1) Size — Medium, inclining to large.

(2) General Outline — Parallelogrammic form.

(3) Head — Neat, clean, inclined to fine, polled and promi-
nent at the poll.

(a) Nose, somewhat fine and a little long.

(b) Muzzle, flesh-colored.

(d) Eyes, full, clear and well apart, with a little dish be-
tween them.

(e) Ears, a little long and thin and pointed upward and
outward.

(4) Neck — A little long and inclining to fine.

(a) Neat at junction with the head, guarding against
dewlap.

(b) Widening development at neck vein, but not massive.

(5) Back — Wide, particularly at the loin, and straight.

(a) Withers, medium to wide.

(b) Too much prominence at hook points to be guarded
against.

(6) Forequarters — Nearly evenly developed with the hind-
quarters, but not massive.

(a) Shoulders, fairly large, smooth, sloping gradually up-
ward and forward.

(b) Chest, wide, especially through the lower half.

(d) Brisket, between V-shaped and rounded, and wide.

(e) Forearm, of medium development.

(7) Body — Large, somewhat long, especially in the
females, and capacious.

< (a) Ribs, at least moderately outward and rounded in
spring and coming well down.

(b) Slackness at crops and fore flank to be guarded against.

l62 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(d) Deficient heart girth is to be guarded against

(e) Underline, nearly straight.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, deep and wide.

(a) Straight rather than full.

(b) Thighs of medium development.

(d) Pin bones, wide, but not prominent.
(c) Twist, medium.

(f) Escutcheon, wide and pronounced.

(g) Tail, long and fine rather than coarse.

(9) Udder — Capacious, not high nor pendulous and nicely
quartered.

(a) Not fleshy, but glandular.

(b) Unduly large teats to be guarded against.

(10) Milk Veins — Large, coming well forward, branched
and milk wells well defined.

(11) Skin — Medium in fineness, pliant, flexible and unc-
tuous and covered with soft hair.

(12) Legs — Medium in length, fine rather than coarse,
clean and placed wide apart.

III. General Outline — Red Polls are a neat,
trim and active breed of cattle, with clean cut outline
and much uniformity of color.

IV. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Red Polls are considerably smaller, somewhat less
angular, and less broad throughout.

(2) They are somewhat finer in head, neck and limb.

(3) They have more marked development of milk veins,
and

(4) The differences in horn development and in color.

LECTURE NO. 40.

DEVON CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Devons are one of the most ancient
and pure of the distinct breeds of cattle found in
Great Britain.

(1) They belong to the middle horned class, and are sup-
posed to be descended from the same aboriginal breed as the
Herefords and the Sussex.

(2) The most ancient records tend to show that they have
been bred without admixture from time immemorial, in parts
of Devonshire and Somerset.

II. They now occupy, with little exception,
the whole of the district from Dartmoor forest to
the Bristol channel, and from West Somerset to
Cornwall.

(1) Good herds of the breed were established early in the
century in the shires of Leicester, Gloucester and Shropshire,
and in some other parts of England.

(2) Individual herds have also been established at various
other points in England and in Ireland, but not to the extent
of becoming the prevailing breed, and

(3) Where they were supplanted for a time in the south
of England by other breeds, as Shorthorns and Herefords,
they are again regaining the ground lost.

III. Of all the British breeds they had the
greatest reputation as grazers a century ago, hence

(1) The precedence given them in the prize lists of the
Smithfield Cattle Club, and of the Bath and West of England
Society.

(2) At that time the North Devon was considered the
breed par excellence for small bones and high quality.

(3) They were also very popular as oxen, owing to their
activity, combined with their staying powers.

IV. It cannot be said that the name of any
one person stands out supremely conspicuous as the
great improver of Devons, as improvement was

163

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DEVON CATTLE. l6$

effected by a number of persons working simultane-
ously and more or less in concert.

(i) Prominent among the early improvers stand the names
of Francis Quartly of Champson, Molland ; John T. Davy of
Rose Ash; Walter Farthing of Stowey Court. Bridgewater;
and the Earl of Leicester of Holkham, Leicestershire.

(2) In several instances Devons have been bred in the
same families for at least 150 years.

V. The high prices paid for meat early in the
century, while the wars with France continued,
tempted many breeders to part with their best
animals.

(1) This led to a lowering of the average standard of
excellence in many herds, but

(2) The equilibrium has again been restored, largely
through the establishment of agricultural societies and the
demand for good breeding stock.

VI. Devon cattle were early distinguished as
North and South Devon respectively, the latter
variety being also known as South Hams and Som-
ersets.

(1) The North Devon was the smaller variety, their coat
was softer and more curly, and they were more distinguished
for their fleshing properties.

(2) The South Devons, supposed to contain a dash of
Guernsey blood, were of larger size and of coarser appear-
ance, and were more distinguished for milk production.

(3) These have been so intercrossed in many instances
as to obliterate the distinguishing marks of the two classes.

VII. Exportation to the United States.

(1) The first well authenticated importation of Devon
cattle was made into the United States by Robert Patterson of
Baltimore. Md.. in 1S17.

(2) They came from the herd of the Earl of Leicester,
Holkham, and a very large number of the Devons now in the
United States trace to this importation.

_ (3) From 1817 onward, importations have been frequent
until quite recently.

VIII. Exportation to other countries.

(1) Devons were imported somewhat freely into Ontario,
Can., shortly after the middle of the century, but they have
not prevailed to any considerable extent in that country.

l66 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) They have also heen introduced into Jamaica, Mexico,
the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and New Zealand.

IX. Herd books.

(1) The first volume of the English Devon Herd Book,
edited by J. Tanner Davy, was published in 1851.

(2) The first volume of the American Devon Herd Book
was published in 1863.

(3) The first volume of the American Devon Record was
published in 1881.

(4) Registrations are also kept in Ontario and Nova
Scotia.

X. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Devons are kept in every state in the Union, save
North Dakota, Washington, Wyoming, New Mexico and
Arizona, hence,

(2) They are more generally distributed than any breed
largely devoted to meat making except the Shorthorns.

(3) They are most numerous in the states of Ohio, Penn-
sylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Wisconsin,
Illinois and Texas, and probably in the order named.

XL Registration in the United States.

(1) Six volumes of the American Devon Record have
been issued.

(2) There have been recorded i8,S<j animals, of which
'5902 are bulls and 11,941 are cows.

LECTURE NO. 41.

DEVON CATTLE — THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Popularity.

(1) In all-round popularity the Devons occupy a place
not higher than medium. . . ,

(2) Their want of size is against them in rich pastoral
and arable sections, and

(3) Their qualities being only medium in the dairy, they
are not often preferred to the distinctive dairy breeds for dairy
uses, while

(4) It is probably true that less effort has been made to
popularize them than in the case of other breeds introduced
somewhat early.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The relatively small bodies of the Devons and their
active habits and good grazing qualities adapt them to locali-
ties where the land is broken, and the soil possessed of but
moderate fertility, and

(2) Their fair milking qualities fit them for situations
where the arable portions of the land are small in proportion
to the pastoral, and where at the same time the system of
husbandry is of the mixed order.

(3) They are also better adapted to warm latitudes than
the heavier-bodied breeds.

III. Relative size.

d) In size they are considerably less than the Shorthorn
and Hereford, less than the Polled Aberdeen, and something
less than the Sussex and Galloway, but

(2) The size is largely dependent upon the strain, the
pasture, the breeding and the care.

IV. Milking qualities.

fi) Devons are noted rather for the quality than the
quantity of their milk.

(2) Their symmetry of form, their proverbial docility,
t^eir well-shaped udders, their medium-sized teats, and their
good butter making properties all tend to make them favorites
in the dairy under the conditions of adaptation named above.

167

l68 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Early maturing qualities:

(i) In this respect they are fair, but probably not quite
the equal of some of the heavier breeds that have been more
forced in feeding, and yet

(2) Their neat, pony-like frames will mature quickly
with good keep.

VI. Grazing qualities.

(1) The grazing qualities of Devons are of the first order,
owing

(2) To their muscularity, their activity, and to the inheri-
tance of the grazing habit.

(3) They readily obtain a good livelihood on lands where
the heavy-bodied breeds would probably fail, and when food
is plentiful they fatten quickly.

VII. Feeding qualities.

(1) They feed quickly in the stall, and make good gains
in proportion to the food consumed, but

(2) They cannot stand forcing for so long a period as
some of the other breeds.

(3) They lay on flesh evenly and smoothly, hence they
are not given to patchiness.

(4) The quality of the meat is excellent, and in the mar-
kets of Great Britain it fetches prices nearly as high, and, in
some instances, quite as high as those paid for Galloway and
West Highland beef.

(5) The meat is nicely veined and marbled, and is well
flavored, juicy, and of prime quality.

(6) A large proportion of roast meat is furnished, and
the offal is small in proportion to the weight of the carcass.

VIII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Devons are highly prepotent, owing to their inherent
vigor and to the long period during which they have been bred
pure.

(2) They should answer well for crossing upon common
stocks where the aim is to improve their easy keeping qualities
without impairing their butter producing powers.

(3) Such crossing should be confined within the limits of
adaptability suitable to the successful rearing of pure Devons.

(4) The grades from Devons are well adapted to the
home market, as they may be fattened at any age.

IX. Breeding qualities.

(1) The natural conditions under which Devons are kept
are favorable to the development and maintenance of good

DEVON CATTLE. 1 69

breeding qualities, hence we find those possessed by them in
at least a fair degree.

(2) Many of the females breed to an advanced age, as,
like all the grazing breeds, they are noted for their longevity.

X. Weak points.

(1) Their lack of size, which renders them less suitable
for exportation for beef.

(2) Their lack of supreme dairy qualities, which circum-
scribes the field of their adaptability in dairying.

XI. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Devons are not nearly equal to Shorthorns in general
popularity and in size; they are also behind them in all-round
adaptability, and are not quite equal to them in maturing
qualities, in feeding qualities, and in the extent of the field
within which they are useful for crossing.

(2) In milking qualities they are not far different.

(3). In grazing qualities, in the quality of the meat, and
in breeding qualities they have a decided lead.

LECTURE NO. 42.

DEVON CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was adopted
by the American Devon Cattle Club in 1886:

for cows.

COUNTS

(i) Head — Moderately long, with a broad, indented
forehead, tapering considerably toward the nos-
trils ; the nose of a flesh color, nostrils high and
open, the jaws clean, the eye bright, lively and
prominent, and surrounded by a flesh-colored
ring ; throat clean, ears thin, the expression
gentle and intelligent ; horns matching, spread-
ing and gracefully turned up, of a waxy color,
tipped with a darker shade 8

(2) Neck — Upper line short, fine at head, widening

and deep at withers and strongly set to the
shoulder ........ 4

(3) Shoulders — Fine, flat and sloping, with strong

arms and firm joints 4

(4) Chest — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in
character 8

(5) Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, nicely

arched, deep, with flanks fully developed . . 8

(6) Back — Straight and level from the withers to

the setting on of the tail, loin broad and full,
hips and rump of medium width, and on a level
with the back 16

(7) Hindquarters — Deep, thick and square . . 8

(8) Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line
with the belly and well up behind; teats mod-
erately large and squarely placed 2b.

(9) Tail — Well set on at a right angle with the
back, tapering, with a switch of white or roan
hair, and reaching the hocks .... 2

(10) Legs — Straight, squarely placed when viewed
from behind, not to cross or sweep in walking,

hoof well formed 4

170

DEVON CATTLE. ljl

(n) Shin— Moderately thick and mellow, covered
with an abundant coat of rich hair of a red
color; no white spot admissible, except the
udder 8

(12) Size — Minimum weight at three years old, 1000

pounds _ • 2

(13) General Appearance— As indicated by stylish

and quick movement, form, constitution and
vigor, and the underline as nearly as possible
parallel with the line of the back .... 8

Perfection 100

FOR BULLS.

COUNTS

(1) Head — Masculine, full and broad, tapering to-

ward the nose, which should be flesh-colored :
nostrils high and open, muzzle broad, eyes full
and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored
ring, ears of medium size and thickness ; horns
medium size, growing at right angles from the
head, or slightly elevated, waxy at base, tipped
with a darker shade 10

(2) Cheek — Full and broad at root of tongue, throat
clean 2

(3) Neck — Of medium length and muscular, widen-

ing from the head to the shoulders, and
strongly set on 4

(4) Shoulders — Fine, flat, sloping and well fleshed,

arms strong with firm joints . . . . 6

(5) Chest — Same as in female .... 10

(6) Ribs — Same as in female 10

(7) Back — Same as in female 20

(8) Hindquarters — Same as in female . . .12

(9) Tail — Same as in female 2

(10) Legs — Short, then same as in female . . .4

(11) Skin — Moderately thick and mellow, covered

with an abundant coat of rich hair of a red
color : no white spot admissible unless around
the purse . 8

(12) Size — Minimum weight at three years old 1400

pounds ......... 4

(13) General Appearance — Same as in female . 8

Perfection 100

II. Additional particulars submitted though
not given in the above scale :

172 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(1) Horns, somewhat of the semi-spiral upward and out-
ward curvature in the female.

(2) Withers, of medium width.

(3) Breast, full and somewhat rounded.

(4) Brisket, between the V-shape and round.

(5) Forearm, full and neat.

(6) Crops, full.

(7) Hooks and pin bones, not prominent.

(8) Thighs, full and straight.

(9) Twist, full rather than open.

(10) Milk veins, well developed.

(11) Limbs, inclining to fine and clean.

(12) Shape, parallelogrammic.

III. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance the Devon is neat, smooth, tidy and graceful in
form and movement.

IV. Compared with Shorthorns.

(1) Devons are smaller in form and limb, less broad
throughout and less massive.

(2) They are finer in the muzzle, more spiral and elevated
in horn curve and longer in the horns and' something less
prominent at the angles.

(3) They are more active and sprightly in movement, and

(4) There are the differences in color.

V. Compared with Red Polls.

(1) They are a little smaller and somewhat more tidy in
form and limb, and

(2) They are more rounded in the breast, have a more
arched spring of rib and a rather more pronounced beef form.

PART I!

BREEDS OF SHEEP

LECTURE NO. i.

SHEEP THEIR INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA.

I. The sheep (Ovis) is a genus, or, according
to some authors, forms a group of genera of mam-
mals belonging to the family Bovidcc, and are Rum-
inants, of the Artiodactyle or pair-toed section of
the Ungulata or hoofed mammals.

(i) As many as 21 different wild species have been
enumerated.

(2) They are indigenous only to Asia. Europe, Africa
and the western mountain ranges of America.

II. They have been grouped under two sub-
genera, viz. the Ovis and the Musimon.

(1) Of the former, twelve species have been named, of
which ten are in Asia and two in North America.

(2) Of the latter, seven species have been mentioned, of
which one inhabits the mountains in certain islands of the
Mediterranean.

(3) In Asia these are generally spoken of as the Argali.
or wild sheep, in North America as the Rocky Mountain
sheep or Bighorn, and in Europe as the Musimon.

III. Wild sheep are essentially inhabitants of
mountainous districts.

(1) They never from choice frequent level deserts, open
plains, or dense forests or swamps, and

(2) These natural instincts should be recognized in their
domestication.

IV. It is uncertain whether the various species
of sheep now under domestication were derived from

173

174 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

any of the existing wild forms, or from the cross-
ing of some of these, or from some now extinct
species.

(i) It was a domestic animal in Asia and Europe before
the dawn of history, but was unknown as such in America
until after the Spanish conquest.

(2) It is now to be found wherever there is a settled
agriculture, but

(3) Is much better adapted to the temperate than to the
torrid zone, unless when reared on mountain ranges.

V. The variations of external character in
sheep include the following :

(1) The number of the horns, which, in many species,
are entirely wanting, while others have no fewer than eight.

(2) The arching of the nasal bones.

(3) The form and length of the ears.

(4) The length of the tail.

(5) The development of fat at each side of its root, and
within the tail.

(6) The color markings of the face and legs, and

(7) The color, length and quality of the wool.

VI. Sheep are apparently not indigenous to
the British islands, as

(1) No fossil remains have been found in the as yet
explored true Tertiary beds, hence

(2) It is probable they were brought from the east in
pre-historic times.

VII. The breeds of sheep now most in favor
in Great Britain show great diversity in size, form
and general characteristics, owing

(1) To a difference in origin.

(2) To a difference in climate and food, and

(3) To the nature of the breeding and variations in arti-
ficial treatment.

VIII. Although domesticated sheep as they
existed in Europe were not found in America at the
time of its discovery, yet

(1) In South America four forms of the genus Auchenia
were found, viz., the Guanaco and Vicuna, and the Llama
and Alpaca.

SHEEP. 175

(a) The former were known only in the wild, and th-j
latter in the domesticated state.

(b) These all furnished wool for clothing, and the Llama
was also used as a beast of burden, and

(2) In North America there existed the mountain sheep,
or Bighorn (Ovis Montana), and a sub-species, the Ovis Mon-
tana dalli.

(a) The former, commonly called the Rocky Mountain
sheep, is found on both slopes of the Rocky mountains, from
the head waters of the Saskatchewan on the north, down into
Mexico on the south.

(b) The latter, commonly called the Alaskan sheep, is
found on the slopes of the mountains from within the Arctic
circle southward, nearly as far as the head of Bristol bay.

IX. Domesticated sheep were first introduced
into North America by the Spaniards in 1493.

(1) From these are descended the immense native stocks
of Mexico, New Mexico and Texas and other parts of the
continent first settled by the Spaniards.

(2) It is now pretty certainly proven that these were not
Merinos, but were descended from the common sheep of
Spain.

(3) In 1736, they numbered more than 1,500,000 head in
the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon.

(4) They were taken to California in 1773, and in 1825
the Catholic church owned 1,003,970 head, and the ranchers
probably as many.

X. Sheep were introduced into South America
from the Spanish settlements in Panama and
Mexico.

(1) They were taken to Peru prior to 1550.

(2) From Peru they were taken to Chili about 1550, and
at a later period to Chuquisaca, and

(3) From Chuquisaca they were taken to Paraguay and
thence to the country of the La Plata.

XI. Sheep were introduced into the English
colonies of North America soon after the settlement
of each.

(1) They reached Jamestown, Va., in 1609.

(2) They were first brought to New York, then the New
Netherlands, in 1625, by the Dutch East India Company.

(3) They were first introduced into New Jersey from
Sweden in 1634, or shortly prior to that date.

I76 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(4) They were brought into Massachusetts between 1624
and 1629.

XII. In the English speaking colonies, the
sheep were essentially British in origin.

(1) They were much inferior to the stocks of the
present day.

(2) The extension of the industry was much retarded for
a time through losses from wolves, thefts by the Indians, and
European enactments forbidding the manufacture of wool.

XIII. Sheep were introduced into various
provinces of Canada at an early period in the settle-
ment of each.

(1) They have been bred in these for both wool and
mutton uses.

(2) Ontario is justly noted for the many varieties of sheep
found there and for their high average in quality.

LECTURE NO. 2.

SHEEP THEIR IMPROVEMENT AND CLASSIFICATION.

I. From the very earliest ages, sheep-rearing
has been one of the most important and profitable
industries engaging the attention of mankind, but

(1) Until the more recent centuries they were kept for
the wool and milk which they furnished, rather than for their
flesh, hence

(2) The improvement of taeir flesh -producing properties
received but little attention prior to the eighteenth century.

II. The improvement of the fleece engaged the
attention of mankind at a very early period.

(1) Woolen goods were manufactured in Asia at least 2000
years before the Christian era, and

(2) While Rome was yet a republic the fine wools of
Italy were improved to a degree unexcelled by us at the pres-
ent day.

III. The improvement of the fleece first seri-
ously engaged the attention of the people of the
United States.

(1) The object was to enable them to manufacture a fine
class of goods for home consumption, and

(2) The breed introduced to enable them to attain this
end was the Spanish Merino.

IV. The people of Great Britain and Canada
have rather sought improvement in the carcass.

(1) They have attained this end largely through selec-
tion, crossing and improved keep, and

(2) In realizing it they have in every instance effected
improvement in the wool.

V. Robert Bakewell of Dishley Hall, Leices-
tershire, was the first great improver of the modern
breeds of sheep.

12 177

1^8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(1) He began this work about 1760, and originated what
is now known as the New or Improved Leicester breed.

(2) The material chosen by him was taken from the
Phhley or old Leicester breed.

VI. The improvements he sought were more
perfect symmetry, aptitude to fatten, early maturity,
smaller bone and improved in quality, an increased
quantity of improved flesh and a diminution in the
quantity of offal.

(1) In accomplishing these objects he also incidentally
secured a larger quantity of more valuable wool.

(2) He effected improvement through the selection of
the most perfect specimens of the medium types, judiciously
crossed and intercrossed for a long term of years.

VII. The aim at the present time in the United
States is to improve the mutton qualities of the sheep
now in the country, and the means more commonly
resorted to in effecting this improvement include the
following :

(1) Crossing successively upon these, rams of one or
other of the improved mutton breeds.

(2) Selecting with much care breeding stocks from the
progeny, and

(3) Giving better food and providing better shelter.

VIII. Nearly all the improved breeds now in
the United States, except the Merino, were imported
from Great Britain, the country in which they
originated.

(1) They are sometimes classified as the heavy breeds,
the down breeds and the mountain breeds, but

(2) This classification is not sufficiently concise or
complete.

(3) A more common classification is based upon the
character of the wool.

IX. The principal breeds imported into North
America may be classified as fine wooled, medium
wooled and coarse wooled.

SHEEP. 179

(1) Of these the fine wooled breeds are the American
Merino, the Delaine Merino and the Rambouillet, fine probably
in the order named.

(2) The medium or middle wooled breeds are the South-
down, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk Down,
Hampshire Down and Oxford Down, fine probably in the
order named.

(3) The coarse wooled breeds are the Leicester, Lincoln
and Cotswold, fine probably in the order named.

X. Exception may be taken to the above classi-
fication, owing

(1) To the influences of climate and food in producing
variations in the same breed, and

(2) To the differences arising from variations in the
tastes of the breeders and a want of harmony in their aims,
hence

(3) It is not improbable that the above classification,
though accepted now, may have to be somewhat modified in
the future, and

(4) The same may be said of the average weights of car-
cass and fleece submitted when discussing the various breeds.

XL Other breeds.

(1) The Black-faced Highland and Wensleydale breeds
have been introduced into the United States, but only in lim-
ited numbers.

(2) The Black-faced Highland is a mountain breed from
the highlands of Scotland, small, active and hardy, horned
in the rams, spotted on the head and legs, covered with a long
fleece of coarse carpet wool, and produces mutton unexcelled
in quality.

(3) The Wensleydales are a large and heavy-bodied breed
from the north of England, with long and coarse wool which
hangs in spirals.

(4) As public records are not as yet kept of those inter-
esting breeds in the United States, they will not be further
noticed in this work.

LECTURE NO. 3.

SHEEP LEADING ESSENTIALS AS TO FORM

AND WOOL.

I. The mutton breeds all possess the same
leading essentials as to form. These include :

(1) Width, depth and length of body and compactness
of frame.

(2) The cylindrical shape which is the outcome of plump
shoulders and hips, and well sprung ribs, and

(3) A fleece of even length and quality, covering all parts
of the body.

II. The minor points of difference include :

(1) Variations in size of carcass and bone.

(2) Variations in the length of the leg and of the coup-
ling of the body.

(3) The color of the head and legs, and the amount of
covering on them.

(4) The form and carriage of the head.

(5) The length, shape and carriage of the ears, and

(6) The length and density of the fleece and the char-
acter of the staple.

III. Leading essentials of the rams of the
mutton breeds as to form.

(i) Sice — Medium to large for the breed, and the bone
medium to strong, but not coarse.

(2) Outline — The body should be smooth, compact and
strong, cylindrical in shape and square at the ends.

(3) Head — Medium to strong in size, short rather than
long, but varying with the breed, and carried proudly.

(a) Nose and muzzle tapering, but not too fine.

(b) Nostrils, wide and expanded.

(d) Rye, large, full, bright and daring.

(c) Ear, medium in size and thickness for the breed,
broad rather than long, erect rather than drooping, and pos-
sessed of lively play.

ISO

SHEEP. l8l

(4) Neck — Short rather than long, not coarse, and car-
rying the head well erect.

(a) It should not be coarse at the junction with the head,
and should be free from throatiness.

(b) It should be round rather than flat, and should
increase in width laterally and underneath as it recedes from
the head.

(c) It should fit into the withers evenly above, and into
the shoulders evenly and strongly at the sides and underneath,
the blending being imperceptible.

(5) Body — Long, wide, deep, round and equally well bal-
anced before and behind.

(a) Back, level, wide, well fleshed and slightly rounded
outward, with the spinal column hidden and even depressed
from the loin to the tailhead.

(b) Loin, broad and full.

(d) Breast, broad, deep, full, massive.

(e) Brisket, broad and well rounded.

(f) Shoulder, large, plump and smooth, wide above,
rounded out from above, forward and below to the center,
well filled before and behind, and well cpvered.

(g) Forearm, strong and well developed.
(h) Crops, well filled.

(i) Girth, good around the heart, and about equally good
at the hind flank.

(j) Coupling, short rather than long.

(k) Ribs, well sprung from backbone, nicely arched and
deep, not distant from one another and coming well forward
and backward.

(I) Hindquarters, long, broad and deep, rounded out from
above and behind toward the center of the hip, and broad at
the buttock.

(m) Twist, well filled and placed low.

(n) Hind flank, well filled outwardly, low and thick.

(0) Thigh, broad and well filled within and without.

(p) Tail, set on smoothly and on a line with the back.

(q) Skin, a rich pink in color, and possessed of good
handling qualities.

(6) Wool — The whole body should be well covered with
wool, characteristic of the breed.

(a) It should be of uniform length and texture, and

(b) Possessed of all the qualities essential in first-class
wool (see Note V. below).

(7) Legs — Short, straight and strong, wide apart and yet
well under the body and standing firmly on hoofs of good
shape and quality.

(8) Appearance — The appearance should be animated
and the carriage easy, proud and graceful.

l82 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. The ewes of the mutton breeds possess the
same leading essentials as to form as the rams, with
the following points of difference :

(i) They are not so large in frame, are finer in bone and
are more roomy in the barrel or coupling.

(2) The head is smaller and finer and is carried less
proudly.

(3) The neck is longer and finer, more especially where
it joins the head.

(4) The twist is not quite so well filled, and

(5) The wool is finer in the fiber, at least in some
instances.

V. The following include the more important
of the characteristics of a good fleece :

(1) Good length, strength and sufficient density of staple
for the breed.

(2) Even distribution over the body, both as to length of
staple and quality in the wool.

(3) A fine bright uniformly lustrous appearance.

(4) Absence of cloudiness.

(5) Freedom from kemp and cot and

(6) The absence of all such impurities as sand, buis and
chaff.

FINE WOOLED BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 4.

THE AMERICAN MERINO ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Merino sheep, now found in various
countries, came originally from Spain, but there is
much difference of opinion as to the exact origin
of the Spanish Merino.

(1) Even anterior to the Christian era, fine wooled sheep
abounded in Spain, the fleeces of which were much prized for
purposes of manufacture, and

(2) It has been claimed that these were improved by
sheep brought from Tarentum m the first century.

II. For several centuries past, the Merinos in
Spain have been divided into provincial varieties, and
these again into sub-varieties, or great permanent
flocks, usually termed Cabanas.

(1) These Cabanas were again known as Transhumantes,
or traveling flocks, and Estantes, or stationary flocks.

(2) Prominent among the sub-varieties were the Infan-
tadoes, Paulars, Escurials, Negrettis, Montarcos, Guadaloupes
and Aguirres.

III. Merinos have been extensively imported

into France, Germany, the United States, Australia

and other countries.

(1) They were imported into Saxony in 1765. where the
wool has been brought to an unprecedented condition of fine-
ness, but at the expense of size of carcass and constitution.

183

THE AMERICAN MERINO. 1 85

(2) They were imported into France in 1786, and there
they have been much improved, more especially in size and
in weight of fleece.

(3) They were imported into Australia about the begin-
ning of the century and now they are more numerous there
than in any other country.

IV. The first importation of the Spanish
Merino was made into England by George III in
1 79 1, but

(1) Though backed by numerous and influential patrons
of the breed, they have never come into general favor, owing

(2) To their deficiency in mutton qualities.

(3) For the same reason they have never become popular
in Canada.

V. Importations into the United States.

(1) The first traceable importation of Merinos into the
United States was made by Col. David Humphreys of Derby,
Conn., in 1802.

(2) Other importations followed quickly, and on the dis-
persion of many of the Spanish flocks during the wars with
the French, many thousands were imported, more especially
in 1810 and 1811,

VI. All the varieties and sub-varieties of
Merinos in the United States are of Spanish origin.

(1) They may be classified as American Merino, Delaine
Merino and Rambouillets or French Merino.

(2) The American Merinos are possessed of all the valu-
able essentials of the Spanish Merino and these have been
greatly improved upon.

(3) The Delaine families are offshoots of the American
Merinos and have a longer fleece and an improved mutton
form.

(4) The Rambouillets are the offshoots of Spanish
Merinos, much increased in size by long years of careful
breeding.

VII. Improvements made in the United
States.

(1) The Merino has been greatly improved in size, form,
mutton qualities and weight of fleece since it was first
imported into America.

(2) This improvement has been brought about through
selection, breeding and improved conditions of keep.

1 86 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(3) Prominent among the early improvers stand the names
of Stephen Atwood, Woodbury, Conn. ; Edwin Hammond,
Middlebury, Vt., and the Hon. C. Rich, Shoreham, Vt.

VIII. Organizations.

(1) Probably more than a dozen organizations have been
formed in the United States in the interests of American
Merinos.

(2) Several of these are local, since they restrict registra-
tion to a single state.

(3) The number of these organizations and the conflict
of interest which of necessity has grown out of them has in
some instances been harmful rather than helpful to the breed.

IX. Distribution of Merinos in the United
States.

(1) Merinos and their grades are now bred numerously
in almost every state and territory in the Union.

(2) About a quarter of a century ago they were thought
to comprise 95 per cent of all the sheep in the United States.

(3) During recent years the relative proportion of Merinos
has been greatly reduced by the increased attention given to
the production of sheep of the mutton breeds.

(4) While they are found almost everywhere they prevail
most in states where the conditions, food and climate are less
propitious, as, for instance, in the range states.

X. Registration in the United States.

(1) It is almost impossible to state accurately the number
of registered Merinos, because of the decadent condition of
some of the organizations.

(2) The increased demand during recent years for sheep
of the mutton types and for wool longer and less fine than the
Spanish Merinos furnish, has given them a less prominent
place relatively than they formerly occupied.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Merinos are among the lightest of the pedigreed
breeds in the United States, and

(2) The average weight of the rams in fairly good flesh
may be put at about 140 to 175 pounds and of the ewes at about
90 to 125 pounds, but the weights of Merinos vary much with
variations in environment.

THE AMERICAN MERINO. l8/

II. Adaptability.

(i) In general adaptability no breed on the continent has
shown itself equally flexible, and this will apply both to climate
and food products, but

(2) They are specially fitted to "rough it" under con-
ditions of privation as to food and shelter.

(3) They have a higher adaptation to the production of
wool than of mutton, but their mutton producing qualities are
being continually improved.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) Though improved in this respect, they are yet behind
the other pedigreed breeds in early maturity, but on the other
hand they are ahead of them in longevity.

(2) An average Merino does not become fully matured
until between three and four years old.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) As grazers they are entitled to a first place.

(2) They will eat almost any kind of herbage, however
dry. in the summer season.

(3) Their active habits peculiarly adapt them for grazing
on broken lands and wide ranges, where they must travel much
to secure their food.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) In feeding qualities Merinos are not equal to some of
the other breeds, as they cannot be made to gain so quickly
as a rule, but

(2) They feed better probably than any breed when con-
fined to a ration of dry hay and corn.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) Much of the meat of the pure Merino is lacking in
tenderness, juiciness and flavor, and it has much bone in pro-
portion to the meat, but

(2) The quality of the meat has greatly improved during
recent years.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) The Merino has been found peculiarly valuable for
crossing upon common grades, where more and finer wool
was wanted, but

(2) When crossed upon pure-breds, improvement in
wool production is often counteracted by impaired mutton
qualities.

l88 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(i) Merinos are not noted for their prolificacy, nor are
the dams really first-class milkers or mothers, but

(2) They breed profitably to a greater age than some
other breeds.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The pure Merino produces beycnd all comparison the
finest wool grown on this continent.

(2) It also produces the heaviest fleece in proportion to
the live weight of the animal.

(3) The average weight of the fleece from the matured
ram may be put at fifteen to twenty pounds and of the matured
ewe at twelve to fifteen pounds, according to type.

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

I. In the absence of an authorized scale of
points the following is submitted :

(1) Sice — Medium for the breed, with a decided leaning
to increase.

(2) General Outline — Parallelogrammic, but a nearer
approach to the cylindrical would be desirable.

(3) Head — Medium in size, but strong in the ram, broad
above the eyes, wedge-shaped and covered nearly all over with
wool which almost hides the eyes.

(a) Nose, short and wrinkly.

(b) Ears, small and of moderate erection, with a coat of
soft, mossy hair about half way to the roots, the remainder
covered with wool.

(4) Neck — Inclining to short and thick, almost throaty,
especially in the rams.

(a) Fiatness in the neck should be avoided.

(b) In both sexes it is frequently wrinkled, but especially
in the rams, and both have more or less of dewlap.

(5) Back — Wide, straight and level.

(a) High withers and a high pelvis are to be guarded
against, and

(b) A sharp spinal column is equally objectionable.

(6) Forcquarters — Of equal development with the hind-
quarters.

(a) Withers not narrow nor sharp, as they are in some
instances.

(b) Shoulders, plump and rounded out and blending
nicely with the neck.

THE AMERICAN MERINO. 189

(d) Breast, wide, deep and at least moderately full.

(e) Brisket, low, wide and rounded and extending well
in front.

(7) Barrel — Moderately long and roomy.

(a) Ribs, round and deep, though frequently lacking in
spring, which is of course objectionable.

(b) Crops, full and even.

(d) Heart girth, good.

(e) Underline, straight.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, deep, wide.

(a) Hips, large and full.

(b) Crupper, straight, not drooped, nor sloping outwardly.

(d) Buttock, wide, straight.

(e) Twist, well filled and low.

(9) Legs — Short, strong and straight.

(a) They should be placed wide apart and should stand
firmly.

(b) The wool, which covers them to the hoof, makes
them appear larger than they are.

(10) Skiu — Thin, mellow, elastic, loose and of a rich rose
or pink color.

(a) Excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is not so
much encouraged now, but

(b) Heavy neck folds on the rams are still in favor with
many.

(n) Fleece — The fleece should contain fine wool from two
to three inches long, evenly distributed and even in quality.

(a) It should present a dense, smooth, even surface or
exterior, opening only in the natural cracks which separate
the masses.

(b) It should stand at right angles to the skin.

(d) It should be wrinkled, curved or crimped, and should
be highly elastic.

(e) Regularity and beauty of curvature are considered
important.

(f) Hairs growing up through the wool in any part is
quite inadmissible.

II. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance the American Merino is a somewhat small and
deep-bodied sheep of only moderate width, encased
in a fleece of very fine, close, short and dense wool

I9O THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

and carrying more or less of wrinkles or folds in the
skin, especially about the neck and breast.

III. Weaknesses to be particularly guarded
against in selecting Merinos :

(1) Lack of width and flatness of rib.

(2) A V-shaped brisket and narrow chest.

(3) Legs standing closely together.

(4) Excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin.

LECTURE NO. 5.

DELAINE MERINOS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR-
ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

I. Delaine sheep are simply American Merinos
with a larger carcass, a better mutton form, fewer
wrinkles on the body and a longer fleece of wool.

(1) They are of several sub-varieties, all of which have
been evolved from the American Merino by selection and
careful breeding.

(2) They are a creation of the skill of breeders operating
more particularly in Ohio and Pennsylvania.

II. Origin of the name.

(1) The name originated from the class of goods known
as delaines, for the manufacture of which the wool of these
sheep has been found eminently adapted.

• (2) Delaines, i. e., untwilled dress goods, were originally
all wool, but are now manufactured with cotton warp and
woolen filling.

III. The principal varieties.

(1) No classification of Delaine Merino sheep can be
made at the present time that can be looked upon as complete
or final because of the transition that is yet apparently uncom-
pleted in some of the types, but

(2) It would probably be correct to say that the chief of
the types, or sub-types, always designated Delaine, are the
Standard, the National and the Improved Delaines respec-
tively, and

(3) The chief of the types, or sub-types, essentially
Delaine in their leading characteristics, but not always so
designated, are the Black Top Spanish Merino, the Improved
Black Top Merino and the Dickinson Merino, respectively.

(4) The distinctions between these two classes are such
as relate to size, character of the fleece, the absence or presence
of wrinkles and horns, and blood elements varying in what
may be termed purity in descent from more or less distin-
guished ancestry.

I92

DELAINE MERINOS. I93

(a) The distinctive Delaine Merinos have horns, in the
rams, and more or less of wrinkles or folds on the neck and
breast.

(b) The Black Top varieties have horns in the rams, but
no wrinkles, and are further characterized by an abundant
closure of fleece of a black color.

IV. In all these types the improvement sought
related chiefly to size, form, smoothness, wool pro-
duction and breeding qualities.

(1) The aim was to secure a considerably greater size
and weight than that possessed by the average American
Merino.

(2) The form was broadened and deepened, that is to
say, it was more conformed to the mutton producing types.

(3) The wrinkles and folds were entirely removed, or
left only on the neck and breast.

(4) The length of the wool was increased and the weight
of fleece preserved, or measurably so, without an excess of
yolk in it, and with but little diminution in fineness and
density.

(5) More regular breeding was secured with an increased
milk production.

V. How improvement was effected.

(1) Improvement was almost entirely brought about
through breeding, selection and feeding.

(2) In some instances line breeding was resorted to, but
not in all.

(3) The selection had a careful regard to all the ends
sought, but especial prominence was given to the wool, which
changes so much more slowly than the form.

VI. When improvement was effected.

(1) The improvement in the types designated Delaines
has been chiefly effected within the past half century, though

(2) Some of the foundation flocks in the less improved
form were started earlier.

VII. Organizations,

(1) The associations formed in the interest of the types
denominated Delaine are known as the Standard Delaine, the
National Delaine and the Improved Delaine.

(2) These have only been organized during recent years.

(3) Each has a scale of points, keeps records and issues
flock books.

194 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VIII. Distribution in the United States.

(i) Delaines are found most numerously in the states of
Pennsylvania. Ohio, Iowa, Michigan and New York, and
probably in the order named.

(2) They have also been introduced into quite a number
of the other states.

IX. Registration in the United States.

(1) The Standard Delaine and National Delaine associa-
tions have registered 24,700 animals, of which 9,500 are rams
and 15,200 ewes.

(2) The three associations named in Note VII have
probably registered considerably over 30,000 animals.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) They are larger and heavier than the American
Merino, but not so large or so heavy as the Rambouillets.

(2) The average weight of the matured rams in the vari-
ous types when in good flesh may be put at 140 to 190 pounds,
and of the matured ewes at 100 to 150 pounds.

IT. Adaptability.

(r) They are adapted virtually to the same kinds of pas-
tures as the American Merinos, though their larger frames
call for better grazing.

(2) They are relatively better adapted to arable conditions
than the American Merino, but are perhaps not quite equal to
the former in hardihood.

III. Early maturity.

(1) In early maturing dualities they are something of an
improvement on the American Merino, but are not quite equal
to some of the Down breeds.

(2) The lambs can, however, be made ready for market
within a few months of the date of birth, where this may be
desired.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are good in the Delaines, but they have not
quite the same rustling qualities as the American Merino.

(2) Tlie latter will thrive better on scant supplies of
herbage, but the former will give returns more satisfactory
where food is abundant.

DELAINE MERINOS. 195

V. Feeding qualities.

(i) The feeding qualities of Delaines are at least equal
to those of any of the Merino families, if not indeed
superior, but

(2) As yet it can scarcely be said that they feed to so fine
a finish as the Down breeds.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) The mutton has no superior among the Merino
families.

(2) The improved mutton form which they possess is
reflected in the excellent quality of the mutton which they
furnish and in the fair proportion of the dressed meat in the
carcass.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) They have special adaptation for being crossed upon
grade stocks where dense and fine wool is wanted and where
at least fair mutton qualities are to be maintained.

(2) At the present time the Delaine cross is very popular
on western ranges, where the average fleece has become too
light and open.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These, it is claimed, are superior to thos# in the
American Merino, since the breeders have carefully sought
improvement in this direction.

(2) The milking qualities have also shared in the
improvement thus secured.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The fleece in the matured ram well kept should
average in the various types about twelve to eighteen pounds
and in the matured ewe about nine to fifteen pounds.

(2) The wool is fine and scours well, since the yolk in it,
though plentiful, is not excessive.

(3) It should not be less than three inches in length, but
is usually considerably longer.

X. Compared with American Merinos.

(1) Delaine Merinos are considerably larger and heavier,
have higher adaptation for arable conditions, mature some-
«vhat_ more quickly, make better mutton, are superior in
crossing for mutton production, are somewhat ahead in
breeding qualities and have a longer and nearly equally heavy
fleece of wool, which loses less in scouring.

I96 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) American Merinos are possessed of somewhat supe-
rior ruggedness, have a wider adaptation for grazing, fare
better on indifferent food supplies summer and winter, are
superior for crossing where closeness of fine wool and highest
hardihood are to be maintained, and have on the whole a
shorter and finer fleece of wool and heavier in proportion to
the live weight of the animals.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points drawn
up by the Standard Delaine Spanish Merino Sheep
Breeders' Association :

POINTS.

(1) Pure Merino Blood, which must be established

by certificate —

(2) Constitution, indicated by a deep chest, long rib
well arched, giving heart and lung room, with
great digestive capacity ..... 20

(3) Fleece XX and Delaine Wool— This i -hides
the quantity and quality as shown by weight of
fleece, the length and strength of staple, crimp,
fineness and trueness of fiber . . . .10

(4) Density of fleece 3

(5) Evenness of surface 3

(6) Evenness of crimp 3

(7) Length of fiber 2

(8) Free Flowing Oil of the best quality and the
right quantity to protect the sheep and preserve
the fleece ........ 9

(9) Head, medium size. Ewes showing a feminine
appearance ; rams, a masculine with properly
turned horns 4

(10) Eyes, bright, prominent and well set apart, with
thick, soft eyelid 3

(11) Nose, short, broad with well expanded nostrils,
skin thick and covered with a thick, furry coat-
ing, joining the wool one inch below the eyes 4

(12) Ears, medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2

(13) Neck, short on top. deep and strongly attached
to shoulders, tapering to head ; rams with a fold
across the breast, and deep neck ... 4

{14) Fleece, covering over the entire body, head and

legs ; skin thick and spongy .... 4

(15) Legs, short, strong and well apart ... 2

(16) Feet, neatly shaped, thin hoof, well set under
the leg 4

(17) Quarters, deep and well rounded; back, broad,
straight and strongly coupled to quarters . 10

DELAINE MERINOS. 197

POINTS.

(18) Wright of Ezucs at maturity, ioo pounds and
above; rams, 150 and above ... 8

(19) General Appearance, good carriage, bold and
vigorous style, symmetrical form ... 5

Perfection IOO

II. Scaling prior to registration.

(1) Before being admitted to registry the sheep must be
scaled, by a competent person, on blanks furnished by the
secretary.

(2) They cannot be recorded unless they scale 60 per cent
in every particular and 70 per cent in the total of points, but

(3) The scale of points given above does not apply to all
sheep of this class, since a standard of excellence has been
drawn up by some of the other Delaine associations.

III. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance Delaines are compact and strong in build, nearly
free from wrinkles and folds, covered with an even
and abundant fleece of wool, dark in color on the
outside, and -possessed of a vigorous style and easy
carriage.

IV. Compared with American Merinos.

(1) Delaines are larger, more compact and symmetrical
in build, stronger in bone and possessed of better average
spring of rib.

(2) The limbs stand wider apart before and behind.

(3) They are more free from wrinkles, folds and dewlap.

(4) They have a longer fleece, equally well distributed
over the body, but not quite so fine nor so well glued together
on the surface, although

(5) These contrasts do not equally apply to all of the
improved varieties of the American Merino.

LECTURE NO. 6.

RAMBOUILLETS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. Rambouillets are the direct descendants of
the Spanish Merino, improved by more than a cen-
tury of careful breeding and selection.

(i) The improvement thus made was principally achieved
in France, hence the breed is frequently spoken of as the
French Merino, and

(2) This improvement relates chiefly to size, vigor, length
of wool and strength of texture in the same.

II. Where improvement was effected.

(1) Until recent years the improvement of Rambouillets
has been effected almost entirely at the government farms in
France, and chiefly at Rambouillet, which gave the name to
the breed.

(2) The Royal flock at Rambouillet was established in
1786 by Louis XVI of France.

(3) In that year 383 animals were selected from the best
flocks of Spanish Merinos in Spain and brought to Ram-
bouillet, and a second importation was made in 1801.

(4) The ultimate object sought was to prevent Spain
from securing a monopoly in the manufacture of fine wool.

III. How improvement was effected.

(1) The improvement of Rambouillets has been brought
about by long years of careful breeding within the fold at
Rambouillet, by the most rigid selection and by liberal feeding.

(2) Much experimenting was done with a view to further
the ends sought.

IV. The extent of the improvement made.

(1) The mutton form has been greatly improved, also the
quality of the meat, and the weight of the carcass has been

198

s
o

180

200 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

increased from 50 to 100 per cent over that of the old Spanish
Merino.

(2) Greater density has been secured in the fleece without
any deterioration in the quality of the wool, and its weight
has also been increased from 50 to 100 per cent.

(3) The stamina and breeding qualities have also been
greatly improved.

V. Distribution in other countries.

(1) Rambouillets have been exported to many countries
in Europe, to the United States, Australia, Argentina and
New Zealand, and

(2) They have been thus introduced into these countries
chiefly to effect improvement in the wool product of other
classes of sheep.

VI. Introduction into the United States.

(1) From 1840 to i860 several importations were made
into the United States from France and were distributed
chiefly in Vermont, New York and Michigan.

(2) In the decade following the civil war, Rambouillets
in their purity, in a great measure, disappeared because of the
little premium put upon mutton qualities.

(3) Within the last two decades there has been a great
revival in importing and breeding Rambouillets.

VII. Crosses made.

(1) Rambouillets have been extensively used in crossing
on the Spanish Merino flocks, pure and graded, to secure
increased size and vigor.

(2) These crosses have been most extensively made in
California, Utah and Kansas.

(3) They have increased the length of the staple and also
the weight of the scoured fleece.

VIII. Introduction on Western ranges.

(1) Rambouillets are now in high favor for crossing upon
mixed types on the ranges of the west.

(2) The cross increases the weight of the fleece without
impairing the mutton qualities of range stocks or their hardi-
hood.

IX. Organizations.

(1) Associations have been formed for the protection of
Rambouillets on the continent of Europe and in the United
States.

(2) The American Rambouillet Sheep Breeders' Associa-
tion was organized at Pontiac, Mich., in 1889.

RAMBOUILLETS. 201

(3) In the first volume of the Record published in 1891,
Bernardin's history of the origin of the breed is published in
condensed form.

X. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Rambouillets are already distributed more "or less
over nearly all the Northern and Middle states, from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and they are now found in several of
the Southern states.

(2) They would seem to be most numerously kept in
Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania.

XL Registration in the United States..

(1) There have been recorded in all about 9,000 animals,
of which approximately one-third are males.

(2) The number recorded would have been greater but
for the fact that many of the males sent co the western ranges
have not been recorded.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Rambouillets are much the largest of the fine wooled
breeds, and they are also heavier than some of the middle
wooled breeds.

(2) The average weight of the rams at maturity when in
good flesh is about 175 to 225 pounds, and of the ewes about
125 to 175 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Because of their great hardihood they have much
adaptation to range conditions where the vegetation is not
sparse nor lacking in nutrition.

(2) For a similar reason they are admirably adapted to
arable conditions where valley and broken land alternate and
where much meat and fine wool are wanted.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) As with the other fine wooled breeds these are not
more than medium, but

(2) On the other hand they are noted for longevity.

(3) In many instances deterioration has not been observed
in the wool clip until beyond the age of ten years.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are unexcelled by any breed with so large a
frame.

202 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) They have the true Merino instinct for a variety of
plants, including some which are not relished by the mutton
breeds.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) Rambouillets will winter on coarser food products
than some other breeds.

(2) They will also fatten in good form, but must have
liberal feeding.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) While the quality of the meat is good it is not fully
equal to that of the mutton breeds, owing

(2) To more of coarseness and ranginess of frame.

VI T. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Rambouillets are admirably adapted for crossing
upon range stock where the object is to secure a fairly large
carcass covered with a good heavy fleece of wool, so dense
that it will resist the influences of much exposure, but

(2) They should not be crossed on mutton breeds where
the highest quality of mutton is sought.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(r) Rambouillets breed regularly and are fairly good
nurses, but

(2) They are not distinguished for their prolificacy.

IX. Wool production.

(1) Rambouillets produce a long, dense and heavy fleece
of fine wool with a sufficiency, but not an excess, of yolk and
possessed of good strength of fiber.

(2) The average weight of the unwashed fleece in matured
rams may be put at about fourteen to eighteen pounds, and in
ewes at about ten to fourteen pounds.

X. Compared with American Merinos.

(1) Rambouillets are much larger, have better mutton
form and better feeding qualities and a longer staple of wool.

(2) The American Merinos have a wider adaptation in
grazing, since they would maintain themselves under some
conditions where the larger Rambouillets would fail.

(3) In other respects they are very similar in their char-
acteristics.

RAMBOUILLETS. 203

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

I. In the absence of an authorized scale of
points, the following is submitted :

(1) Sice — Medium for the breed, but considerably larger
than in any of the other Merino families.

(2) General Outline — Large, strong of limb, and at least
fairly even and smooth.

(3) Head — Medium in size, wide at the poll and some-
what fine at the muzzle.

(a) It is completely covered with dense wool, except for
a short distance from the muzzle upward.

(b) Eye, large and clear, though closely surrounded with
wool.

(d) Horns, in the male only, which, on leaving the poll,
make a backward, downward and forward semi-circular curve,
and then circle outward at the tips.

(4) Keck — Inclining to short and deep.

(a) It should blend evenly into the shoulders.

(b) Excessive dewlap and throatiness are to be guarded
against.

(5) Back — Broad, straight and of even width.

(a) Withers, wide and not sharp or elevated, as they
sometimes are.

(b) Loin, wide, strong.

(6) Forequarters — Fully equal to the hindquarters in
development.

(a) Shoulders, well rounded out, and not rough at the
points.

(b) Chest, wide and deep.

(d) Brisket, wide.

(e) Forearm, strong and well muscled.

(7) Barrel — Deep, inclining to long, but not really rangy.

(a) Ribs, deep and rounded rather than downward in
their spring.

(b) Crops, level and not sunken as they sometimes are.

(d) Girth at heart and hind flank, good and about even.

(e) Underline, straight.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep, square behind.

(a) Hips, large and rounded on the side rather than
sloping.

204 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(b) Crupper, creased, and possessed of moderate and
gradual downward slope.

(d) Twist, well down and full.

(9) Legs — Strong, straight and of but moderate length.

(a) They should be placed well under the body and wide
apart.

(b) Too much of length is to be guarded against.

fio,) Fleece — Long, fine, even in length and quality and
dense.

(a) The fiber should be strong, elastic, beautifully
crimped, not less than four inches long at one year, and should
stand at right angles to the body.

(b) When opened it should present a bright, lustrous, oily
appearance.

(d) It should cover every part except for a short distance
above the muzzle, the eyes and ears, and below the fetlock.

(e) Skin, pinkish or flesh-colored.

IT. General Appearance — The Rambouillet is
a tall, strong sheep, a little upstanding, only fairly
symmetrical in form and of easy action.

III. Compared with the American Merino.

(1) The Rambouillets are much taller, larger, heavier,
stronger limbed and are somewhat more rangy.

(2) They have a better mutton form and are also con-
siderably less wrinkled, and

(3) The wool is much longer, but is not quite so dense or
fine, and is much more free from excess of yolk.

IV. Compared with the Delaines.

(1) The Rambouillets are considerably taller, larger,
heavier and stronger limbed and are somewhat more rangy.

(2) They have a mutton form not quite so smooth or
refined.

(3) The wool of the two tyDes is very similar in many
respects, but the Rambouillet fleece is not so heavy in propor-
tion to the size of the sheep.

■'-•' -..", -^;-

^fc>>'^.

THE MEDIUM WOOLED
BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 7.

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR-
ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Southdowns are so named from a long
range of chalky hills upon which they originally
pastured.

(1) These hills extend through the southern part of the
counties of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire and Dorsetshire.

(2) They are some sixty miles long and five or six miles
broad and are contiguous to the sea and also to vale land
capable of furnishing plentiful supplies of food.

(3) They have a dry soil and are covered with a rich,
sweet, short, dense herbage.

II. On these hills the progenitors of the South-
downs have fed for many centuries.

(1) They are one of the smaller varieties of sheep
originally found in various parts of England, which were
characterized by dark faces and feet, and in some instances
by wool of the same character, and nearly all of which were
horned.

(2) Improvement in Southdowns was effected much
earlier than in any of the other dark-faced breeds.

III. External characters of the original South-
down.

(1) They were small in outline, long and thin in the neck,
narrow in the forequarters, high in the shoulder, sharp on the
back, low behind, flat in the rib and long though not coarse
in limb.

(2) The wool was short, fine and curling.

206

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 20?

(3) It is thought originally they were horned, but none
have existed within the historic period of the breed.

IV. The improvement of Southdowns began
about the period of the American Revolutionary war
in 1776.

(1) It received its chief impulse, however, from the high
prices paid for mutton during the Napoleonic wars.

(2) The two most noted improvers of the breed were
John Ellman of Glynde, near Lewis in Sussex, and later Jonas
Webb of Babraham, Cambridgeshire.

V. John Ellman began his work of improve-
ment about 1780, and died in 1832.

(1) While improving the form he guarded well the con-
stitutional qualities of the animal.

(2) He left this beautiful breed much the same in type as
it is to-day.

VI. Distribution of Southdowns in Britain.

(1) They have virtually superseded the ancient breeds of
Berkshire, Hampshire and Wiltshire, and for a time greatly
circumscribed the limits of the area occupied by horned
Dorsets.

(2) They occupy limited areas suited to their require-
ments in many of the counties of England and they have also
been introduced into Scotland to some extent, and

(3) They have been so fused into several breeds as to
almost obliterate their distinctions.

VII. Importations into the United States.

(1) They were imported into America from England
about the beginning of the century.

(2) Dr. Rose of Fayette, Seneca county, N. Y., possessed
a small flock as early as 1803.

(3) Importations have been made at intervals during the
century, but not in large numbers.

(4) The great demand during much of the century for
fine wool and the relatively small size of this excellent breed
have militated against its, rapid distribution.

VIII. Organizations.

(1) Associations to promote the interests of the breed
have been established, first, in the United States and later in
Great Britain.

(2) The American Southdown Breeders' Association was
organized in 1882.

208 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IX. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(i) Southdowns have been recorded from forty-three
different states and from six provinces of Canada.

(2) They are most numerously kept in the province of
Ontario and in the states of Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania,
Illinois, Wisconsin, Vermont and Kentucky, and in the order
named.

X. Registration in the United States.

(1) In all, 12,350 animals have been recorded.

(2) Of these, 3,650 are rams, 8,587 are ewes and 113 are
wethers.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Southdowns are the smallest of the medium-
wooled breeds that have been imported into America, but

(2) Owing to their compact form, they weigh remarkably
well in proportion to their size.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Southdowns are best adapted to undulating, rolling
or broken and hilly lands with a dry soil and a short, fine
herbage, but

(2) They can also be grown in good form in arable sec-
tions where the land is fairly productive.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) In early maturing qualities Southdowns stand in the
very first rank.

(2) When well fed, the lambs are in condition for market
at almost any age.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) Their small size and active habits pre-eminently adapt
them to grazing on hilly and broken land, and

(2) Their tidy, thick fleece of short wool enables them to
endure well, exposure to storms.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) These also have placed them in the front rank.

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 20Q

(2) Their tidy, neat forms constitute them easy keepers
and they are sufficiently docile to submit to the necessary
restraints of feeding.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) In this respect also they stand in the front rank.

(2) The mutton is tender, juicy, fine grained, of good
flavor and yields a large proportion of good meat, both to live
and dead weights.

VII. Value in crossing- and grading.

(1) They have been used more than any other breed in
the origination of various other pure dark-faced breeds.

(2) They may with much advantage be crossed upon
grades of the various long-wooled breeds, upon large-bodied
common ewes and upon grade Merinos, where a more com-
pact and easy keeping mutton sheep is wanted.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) The breeding qualities of Southdowns are good, but
not more than average.

(2) They are not distinguished for the number of couplets
which they produce.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The fleece is finer than that of any of the other British
breeds imported into America, and it has something more
of closure.

(2) It is dense, however, and would probably average five
to seven pounds unwashed.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the standard of excellence
adopted by the American Southdown Breeders'
Association :

POINTS.

(1) Head — Medium in size and hornless; fine, car-
ried well up, the forehead or face well covered
with wool, especially between the ears and on
the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished . . 5

(2) Lips and Under Jaw — Fine and thin . . 1

(3) Ears — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, cov-
ered with fine hair, and carried with a lively
back and forth movement 2

(4) Eyes — Full and bright 3

2IO

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(5
(6

(io

(ii

(12
(13
(14
(IS
06
07

08
(19

(20

POINTS.

Face — A uniform tint of brown or gray, or
mouse color ........ 3

Neck — Short, fine at the head, but nicely taper-
ing, and broad and straight on top at the

shoulders 4

Shoulders — Broad and full, smoothly joining

the neck with the back 5

Breast — Wide, deep and projecting well for-
ward, the forelegs standing wide apart . . 5
Back and Loin — Broad and straight from shoul-
ders to rump 7

Ribs — Well arched, extending far backward,
the last projecting more than the others . . 6
Rump — Broad, square and full, with tail well

set up 6

Hips — Wide, with little space between them

and last ribs 6

Thighs — Full and well let down in the twist,
the legs standing well apart .... 6

Limbs — Short and fine in bone and in color to
agree with face ....... 3

Forelegs — Well wooled and carrying mutton

to the knee, but free from meat below . . 2

Hind Legs — Well filled with mutton and wooled

to the hocks, neat and clean below . . .2

Belly — Straight and well covered with wool,

the flank extending so as to form a line parallel

with the back or top line ..... 5

Fleece — Compact, the whole body well covered
with moderately long and close wool, white in
color and carrying some yolk . . . .12

Form — Throughout smooth and symmetrical,
with no coarseness in any part .... 9

General Appearance — Spirited and attractive,
with a determined look and proud and firm step,
indicating constitutional vigor and thorough
breeding 8

Perfection .
II. Additional remarks.

ioo

(i) A good Southdown furnishes in its form the true
ideal type of the mutton sheep.

(2) It is admirably proportioned and of perfect sym-
metry, but

(3) Lack of size and lack of weight in the fleece to some
extent interfere with its more general distribution.

LECTURE XO. 8.

TUNIS SHEEP — THEIR ORIGIX AXD HISTORY, CHAR-
ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Tunis sheep, as the name would indi-
cate, came originally from Tunis, in Northern Africa.

(i) In their native home they are what may be termed
a mountain or semi-mountain breed.

(2) They feed upon the ranges southward to the desert
and eastward to Algeria.

II. Origin of the breed.

(1) Their earliest origin is lost in the obscurity of a
distant past.

(2) They fed upon those ranges before the commence-
ment of the Christian era.

III. When imported into the United States.

(1) The first and only importation was made, it has been
claimed, in 1799.

(2) In that year a few specimens were shipped to the
United States by or through Gen. William Eaton, who was
then United States consul at Tunis.

(3) Only one male and one female survived the voyage,
and these are the progenitors of all the Tunis sheep now
found in the United States.

IV. Progress in the United States.

(1) The original pair were placed on the farm of Judge
Richard Peters near Philadelphia.

(2) They and their grades multiplied until the neigh-
boring counties were well stocked with them.

V. Hindrances to rapid extension.

(1) The dominance of the fine wool interests operated
against the rapid extension of the breed southward, and

211

•of)

TUNIS SHEEP. 213

(2) The advent of the Down breeds hindered their exten-
sion northward.

VI. Introduction into the South.

(1) It is said they were introduced into Georgia early in
the century and some flocks were early established in Virginia
and the Carolinas.

(2) These were kept with satisfactory results until they
were almost annihilated by the Civil war.

VII. Re-establishment of the breed.

(1) Their continued existence was made known to the
general public by an exhibit made at the World's Fair, held at
Chicago in 1893.

(2) This exhibit attracted the attention of Charles Roun-
tree of Yountsville, Ind., who visited the Carolinas in 1894
and purchased a small flock for his Indiana farm.

(3) They were selected from what some have claimed
was the only surviving flock bred pure at that time in the
United States.

VIII. Organization.

(1) An association was organized in the interests of the
breed in 1896, with headquarters in Indiana.

(2) Records are also being kept.

IX. Distribution in the United States.

(1) The number of pure flocks in the United States is
probably less than a score.

(2) These are centered in Indiana and South Carolina,
but they are extending southward.

X. Registration in the United States.

(1) Only a few hundred individuals have yet been
recorded, but

(2) The number is rapidly increasing.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) In size, the Tunis sheep are not far different from
the Dorset, and in general outline they have some resemblance,
but the Dorsets are considerably heavier.

(2) The average weight of the matured rams in good
form may be put at about 180 pounds and of matured ewes
at about 135 pounds.

214 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

II. Adaptability.

(i) Because of their great hardihood the Tunis sheep are
adapted to conditions where breeds other than the Merino
would fail.

(2) They seem to have much ability to withstand the heat
of a warm climate, hence they will probably spread southward
rather than northward, where the field is much more occupied
with other breeds.

(3) Their habit of breeding at almost any season desired
emphasizes such adaptation.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are of the best, since the lambs can be rapidly
pushed along for the market.

(2) This property should prove especially valuable under
southern conditions, where winter lambs could be grazed much
of the time on pastures grown for the purpose.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are excellent, since they are active foragers and
like the Merino will consume a great variety of plants.

(2) They take kindly to the native grasses of the south,
including those that infest the corn and cotton fields.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) These are good, since they can be fed for market at
almost any age.

(2) Their value in fattening under the folding system
has not apparently been proved, but there would seem to be
no reasons why they should not do well under such a system.

(3) It is also claimed that the carcass dresses profitably
on the block.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) The quality of the meat is said to be of the very best.

(2) The fat is blended with the lean, rather than laid on
externally and internally, and the flavor of the meat has been
highly praised.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) When crossed upon the various Down breeds they put
their stamp upon the progeny, thus showing their great
prepotency.

(2) The cross upon the Merino, pure or graded, is said
to improve the mutton qualities, and that upon native stocks
in the south results in marked improvement in the entire
animal.

TUNIS SHEEP. 215

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) Like the Dorsets, Tunis sheep are prolific.

(2) They not only produce many couplets, but in some
instances they breed twice a year.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The wool would seem to be not very dissimilar to
that of the Dorset in quantity and quality.

(2) The average fleece may be put at about seven and
one half pounds unwashed.

X. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) The Tunis sheep are larger and more rangy than the
Southdowns. are ahead of the latter in adaptation to warm
climates, have better breeding qualities and produce a heavier
fleece.

(2) The Southdowns have a somewhat more perfect mut-
ton form, probably keep more easily and dress even better on
the block.

(3) In other essential characteristics they do not greatly
differ.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the American Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association :

POINTS.

(1) Blood — Imported from Tunis or a perfect line
of ancestors extending back to the flock owned
and bred by Judge Richard Peters of Penn-
sylvania 20

(2) Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look,

head erect, deep chest, ribs well arched, round
bodj' with good length, strong, straight back,
muscles fine and firm 15

(3) Fleece — Medium length, medium quality, me-
dium quantity, color tinctured with gray,
never pure white, evenness throughout . 10

(4) Covering — Body and neck well covered with
wool, legs bare or slightly covered, face free

of wool and covered with fine hair . . .10

(5) Fortn — Body straight, broad and well propor-
tioned, small bone ; breast, wide and prominent
in front : tail, the little end should be docked,
leaving the fleshy part fan shape or tapering,
three to six inches broad, four to six inches
long and well covered with wool . . . .12

2l6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

POINTS

(6) Head — Small and hornless, or nearly so, taper-
ing to end of nose: face and nose clean; in
color, brown and white ; ears broad, pendulous
and covered with fine hair, in color brown to
light fawn 10

(7) Neck — Medium in length, well placed on shoul-
ders, small and tapering 5

(8) Legs — Short; color, brown and white (slightly
wooled below the knee not objectionable) . 6

(9) Size — In fair condition ; when fully matured,
rams should weigh 150 pounds and upward,
ewes 120 pounds and upward .... 6

(10) General Appearance — Good carriage, head well
up, quick, elastic movements showing symme-
try of form and uniformity of character
throughout 6

Perfection 100

II. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Tunis sheep are larger, though perhaps not heavier,
and are more rangy and somewhat longer in the liihbs.

(2) The ears are longer and droop, and the tail is much
broader.

(3) The head and legs are not quite so well covered, the
wool is somewhat longer and coarser, and the fleece a little
heavier.

III. Peculiarities of the tail.

(1) At birth the tail has much loose skin extending from
the base for a considerable distance downward.

(2) Unless when cut close while the animal is young the
space thus furnished fills with a fatty substance to the width
of three to four inches.

(3) It will then weigh from three to six pounds, accord-
ing to the condition of the sheep.

(4) The Tunis breed is not to be confounded with various
other races of fat-tailed sheep found in the old world.

LECTURE NO. 9.

DORSET HORN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR-
ACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Dorsets are an ancient breed of sheep,
which, in large numbers, inhabited certain of the
midland and southeastern counties of England dur-
ing previous centuries.

(1) They had substantially the same characteristics, but
some minor differences existed, largely due to variations of
climate and food.

_ (2) In nearly all of those districts their identity has been
obliterated through crossing with other breeds.

II. The central home of the breed at present
is in Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where they have
been bred from time immemorial.

(1) The leading flocks in Dorset are found in the south
and west with Dorchester as a center, and in the isle of
Purbeck.

(2) In Somerset it is claimed that they are more numer-
ous than in Dorset and are somewhat larger in frame.

III. The original sheep of Dorset and Somer-
set compared.

(1) The sheep of Dorset were rather small and light of
carcass, black of nose and lip, wide of horn, light and low in
the shoulders, long but not coarse of limb, and ragged in coat,
but they were broad and somewhat deep of loin.

(2) The Somerset Dorsets were larger and more lank in
form, had pink noses, longer wool, and produced larger lambs.

IV. Breeding characteristics of the original
Dorsets.

217

DORSET HORN SHEEP. 2IO,

(i) There is evidence lo show that for at least 200 years
past it was customary with many to breed them so as to drop
lambs in the early autumn, and

(2) In many instances they have been bred twice a year,
like the sheep of some warm climates.

V. The improvement of the breed.

(1) But little was done for the improvement of the
breed until near the middle of the century.

(2) They did not receive much encouragement from the
agricultural societies, and were not recognized as a distinct
breed at the Royal Agricultural Society's show until 1862.

(3) The improvement of the breed was brought about by
careful selecting, judicious mating and improved food, and
without drawing upon alien blood.

VI. The improvers of Dorsets.

(1) No one name stands out pre-eminently as an improver
of Dorsets, but the first distinguished in this line was Richard
Seymour of Bradpole.

(2) During recent years many breeders have been zealous
in this work.

VII. Period of retrogression.

(1) During the first half of the century, Dorsets were
at first superseded by Merinos, and to a far greater extent by
Southdowns.

(2) They were also much crossed upon by Southdowns
and Leicesters, insomuch that

(3) At one time fears were entertained in some quarters
for the preservation of the breed, but they are rapidly regaining
lost ground.

VIII. Distribution in Britain.

(1) Outside of Dorset and Somerset, Dorsets are most
numerous in Devon and the Isle of Wight, but

(2) During recent years small flocks have been estab-
lished in other counties of England, and in Scotland and
Ireland.

(3) Prior to 1885 they were very largely confined to the
counties of Dorset and Somerset.

IX. Distribution in other countries.

(1) They were first imported into Canada in 1885 by E.
Stanford of Markham, Ont.

(2) They were first introduced into the United States
from Hamilton, Ont., by William Dalev of Lockport, N. Y.,
in 1887.

220 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(3) The first direct importation was made from Britain
by A. Thayer, Hoosick Falls, N. Y., and E. F. Bowditch of
Massachusetts, in 1887.

(4) They were introduced into France in 1890.

X. Organizations.

(1) Associations to promote the interests of the breed
have been established both in England and in the United
States.

(2) The American Dorset Horn Association was estab-
lished in 1891.

(3) The American Continental Dorset Club was estab-
lished in 1897.

XL Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Dorsets are now being recorded from 27 states and
from several of the provinces of Canada.

(2) In the United States they are found most numerously
in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts, Vermont
and Connecticut, and probably in the order named.

XII. Registration in the United States.

(1) The two American associations have registered 10,738
animals.

(2) Of these a small percentage only are duplicates.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) In size the Dorsets are larger than the Southdowns,
but do not weigh so well in proportion.

(2) The size has, however, been much improved during
recent years.

(3) The average weight of matured rams in fair flesh is
about 215 pounds and of matured ewes 165 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They have a semi-mountain character which well
adapts them to grassy slopes, plains and hills of moderate
elevation, and yet

(2) They can be reared in fine form on arable land, and
even on land not sufficiently drained.

(3) For the production of "winter lambs," that is,
unweaned lambs which can be marketed in the winter and
early spring, they are unrivalled.

DORSET HORN SHEEP. 221

III. Early maturing qualities.

(i) They stand in the front rank in early maturing
qualities.

(2) The lambs especially attain heavy weights at an
early age.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) Their grazing qualities are excellent, as they are
quick in movement and are possessed of good staying pow-
ers, and

' (2) They will eat coarser herbage than some of the other
breeds.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) Owing to their docility they stand the confinement
of folding and housing well.

(2) When sufficiently well fed the aged dams are ready
for the market almost as soon as the lambs which they suckle.

VI. .Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat is tender, good and well flavored where
the pasture is suitable, and it has a fair proportion of lean, but

(2) The proportion of dead meat to the live weight is not
quite equal to that obtained from the Southdown.

VII. Value in crossing and grading,

(1) Dorsets answer better for being crossed upon than
for crossing for mutton uses, as

(2) Horns in mutton sheep are not desirable, but

(3) In producing a class of cross bred or grade ewes
possessed of the propensity to breed early, they are of great
value.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are of the very first order.

(2) They may be mated in the spring, breed regularly,
and will in some instances breed twice a year.

(3) It is claimed that they produce from 130 to 180 per
cent of lambs, and the dams are good nurses and great milkers.

IX. Wool production.

(1) It has been estimated that the mature sheep will shear
on an average from six to eight pounds unwashed wool and
the lambs from two and one-half to three pounds.

(2) In fineness it is next to that of the Tunis.

222 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

X. Compared with Southdowns.

(i) Dorsets lead considerably in size, are more prolific
and better milkers, are superior for crossing when early lambs
are sought, and grow a heavier fleece.

(2) The Southdowns have more of general adaptability,
mature even more quickly, and fatten and kill somewhat
better.

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

I. In the absence of an authorized scale of
points, the following is submitted :

(1) Size — Medium for the breed, but the size is of course
affected by environment.

(2) General Outline — Inclining to long and not too com-
pact or massive.

(3) Head — Large rather than small, tapering toward the
muzzle and longer than in some breeds, and covered with a
tuft of wool of medium length.

(a) Forehead, broad and covered with a tuft of wool of
medium length.

(b) Nose, frequently slightly Roman, more especially in
the males.

(d) Horns in both sexes, small and flat in the female,
hut considerably longer, stronger and more angular in the male
and curved spirally outward from the side of the head.

(e) Ears, fairly long and fine and inclining a little
outward.

(4) Neck — Not less than medium in length and general
development.

(a) Not strong at the junction with the lead, nor of
more than average development at the junction with the
shoulders.

(b) Depression on the top is to be guarded against.

(5) Back — Fairly wide, straight and level.

(a) Withers fairly wide and not elevated.

(b) Loin, broad and long.

(6) Forequartcrs — Of nearly equal development with the
hindquarters, but not quite so well filled out.

(a) Shoulders of fair size and moderately rounded out
above, with increasing fullness in center and lower portion.

(b) Chest, capacious.

(d) Brisket, rounded and of much width.

(e) Forearm, inclining to long and tapering.

(7) Body — Inclining to long in the barrel and capacious.

DORSET HORN SHEEP. 223

(a) Ribs of medium closeness and fairly round and deep
in their spring.

(b) Crops, undue depression is to be guarded against.

(d) Hindflank, low and moderately full.

(e) Deficient heart girth is to be guarded against.

(f) Underline, nearly straight.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep and full.

(a) Hips, large, of at least medium fullness and depth,
and long.

(b) Crupper, creased above the spinal column.

(d) Buttock, wide and square.

(e) Twist, full and placed medium low.

(9) Legs — Medium in length, size and strength, and
straight.

(a) They should stand firmly and well apart.

(b) In color they are white.

(10) Fleece — Evenly distributed over the body, coming but
a short distance forward on the cheek and down to the knee
and hock.

(a) The wool inclines to fine, is about three and one-half
inches long when grown, and not more than medium in density.

(b) It is beautifully white and has a fair amount of yolk.

II. General appearance.

(1) The Dorset is a somewhat long-bodied sheep of fair
symmetry and style, and

(2) It is active, easy and graceful in its movements.

III. Compared with the Southdown.

(1) The Dorset is considerably larger and more rangy in
form and limb.

(2) It is longer in the head, neck and body, not so plump
relatively in the breast, shoulder and crops, nor quite so round
in the spring of rib.

(3) The wool covers less of the head and legs, is longer,
a little coarser and considerably less dense.

(4) The head and legs are white, while those of the
Southdown are some shade of brown.

LECTURE NO. 10.

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Shropshire is a sheep composite in

character, the improvement of which has been chiefly

effected during the present century.

(i) The original breed from which they are descended
were chiefly known as "Morfe Common" sheep, from an
extensive tract in Shropshire on which they fed, but

(2) Some are the descendants of sheep that fed on Can-
nock Chase in Staffordshire and on Whittington Heath, and

(3) The blood of all these strains now mingles in the
improved Shropshire.

II. How improvement has been effected.

(1) Improvement has been effected very largely through
crossing and selection, and also through better care and food.

(2) The blood of the Southdown, Cotswold and Leicester
breeds has all been freely used in their improvement, but not
in a regular or settled order, although

(3) Since the middle of the century but little outside
blood has been used, and for many years none at all.

III. The breed while yet unimproved.

(1) Originally the Shropshires were horned, had black
or brown or spotted faces, and were an active and hardy race.

(2) They produced about two and one-half pounds of
wool per fleece, and about forty pounds of mutton to the
carcass.

IV. The improvers of Shropshires.

(1) Improvement was effected by a number of breeders
working simultaneously and not always in the same lines,
hence

(2) The lack of uniformity in types which characterized
the breed for many years after improvement had commenced.

15 225

226 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Recognition at exhibitions.

(i) Shropshircs first gained marked distinction at the
Royal Society's show at Gloucester in 1853 and again at Salis-
bury in 1857.

(2) They were first recognized in the prize lists of the
said show in 1859.

(3) In 1884* at the Royal show at Shrewsbury, 875 Shrop-
shires were on exhibition, or more than twice as many as were
brought forward of all the other breeds combined.

VI. Distribution of Shropshires in Britain.

(1) While the central home of the breed is Shropshire,
they are now bred numerously in more than half the counties
of England.

(2) They are also bred in considerable numbers in several
counties in Scotland and Ireland.

VII. Distribution in other countries.

(1) Although not imported into the United States until
1855, they are now more numerous than any of the other
breeds, and are also more generally distributed over the Union.

(2) Excellent flocks have also been established in Canada,
more especially in Ontario, where also they are more numerous
than any of the other pure breeds.

(3) And they are foun^ in considerable numbers in vari-
ous countries in Europe anc the continent of South America.

VIII. Organizations.

(1) Shropshires are protected by breeders' associations
both in England and America, and registration is carefully
maintained in both countries.

(2) The American Shropshire Registry Association was
organized in 1884, and at least two other associations some-
what local in character have since been organized.

(3) The first volume of the American Shropshire Sheep
Record was published in 1889.

IX. Distribution of Shropshires in the United
States and Canada.

(1) They are now being recorded from 50 states and
provinces.

(2) The leading centers of distribution are probably
Ontario, New York, Michigan, Indiana and Wisconsin, but

(3) They are relatively quite numerous in all the central
states.

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 22J

X. Registration in the United States.

(i) The American Shropshire Association has recorded
128,623 animals.

(2) About 40 per cent of these are males.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) In size Shropshires are considerably larger than the
Southdowns and they are of heavier build than the Dorsets,
but are not so large as the other Down breeds.

(2) In weight they are not a little ahead of the South-
downs, and they are probably heavier also than the Dorsets.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Their wide diffusion and increasing popularity are
sure indications of their general adaptability.

(2) They are best adapted, however, to surfaces not vio-
lently undulating, and to sections where a fair proportion of
the land is arable.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They mature quite as early probably as any other
breed except the Southdown.

(2) This property in the Shropshire is peculiarly valuable,
owing to the extent to which they are used in crossing.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) The grazing qualities of the Shropshire are good, but
it requires better pastures than the Southdown and Merino.

(2) Its docility also adapts it well to folding.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) Shropshires feed very well under suitable conditions.

(2) The closeness of the fleece enables them to be fattened
where the shelter is very moderate, and they give an excellent
return for the food fed.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) The quality of the meat is excellent, about equal to
that of the Southdown, while the quantity furnished is con-
siderably more, and

(2) Like the Southdown they dress well in proportion to
the live weight.

228 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(i) For crossing upon Merino grades and common stocks
generally, the Shropshires have shown themselves as possessed
of especial value.

(2) They also cross excellently upon the grades of the
long wool varieties, and for that purpose they are now bthiL'
used more extensively in the United States than any othei
var iety.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) The claim has been made that Shropshires are the
most prolific of all the breeds, but this claim is certainly
extravagant.

(2) It would be correct, however, to say that in this
respect they are at least average.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The average fleece from a good flock should clip nine
to ten pounds unwashed in the ewes and twelve to fifteen
pounds in the rams.

(2) The wool should be of medium length, between the
Southdown and Hampshire Down in fineness, and it should be
even and close.

X. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) The Shropshires are considerably larger, require
better grazing lands, produce larger progeny when crossed on
other stocks and a heavier fleece of wool. '

(2) The Southdowns are something ahead in maturity
and it may be in easy keeping qualities, and

(3) In other essential characteristics they are not far
different.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the standard scale of
points of excellence adopted by the American Shrop-
shire Association :

POINTS

vl) Constitution — Constitution and quality indi-
cated by the form (if body; deep and large in
breast and through the heart ;back wide, straight
and well covered with lean meat or muscle; wide
and full in the thigh, deep in flank; skin thick
but soft and of a pink color; prominent, bril-
liant eyes and healthy countenance „ . .25

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 22Q

POINTS.

Objections — Deficiency of brisket, light
around the heart, fish back, pointed shoulders,
tucked in flank, pale or too dark skin objec-
tionable.

(2) Sice — In fair condition when fully matured,
rams should weigh not less than 225 pounds
and ewes not less than 175 pounds . . 10

Objections — Rams in full flesh 175 pounds or
under, ewes in full flesh 150 pounds or under.

(3) General Appearance — General appearance and
character ; good carriage ; head well up ; elastic
movement, showing great symmetry of form
and uniformity of character throughout . . 10

Objections — Head drooping, low in neck,
sluggish movement.

(4) Body — Well proportioned : medium bones ;
great scale and length ; well finished hindquar-
ers; thick back and loins; twist deep and full,
standing with legs well placed outside ; breast
wide and extending well forward . . -15

Objections — Too fine bones, short body, defi-
cient in twist, legs close together, light in
brisket.

(5) Head — Head short and broad; wide between
the ears and between the eyes ; short from top
of head to tip of nose ; ears short, of medium
size : eyes expressive ; head should be well cov-
ered with wool to a point even with the eyes,
without any appearance of horns; color of face
dark brown 10

Objections — Horns disqualify: white face dis-
qualifies ; head with prominent bones ; bare on
top of head.

(6) Neck — Medium length, good bone and muscu-
lar development ; and especially with the rams,
heavier toward the shoulders, set high up and
rising from that point to back of head . . 5

(7) Legs and Feet — Broad, short, straight; well set
apart : well shaped : color dark brown and well
wooled to the knees . . . . . .10

(8) Fleece — Body. head, belly and legs to knees
well covered with fleece of even length and
quality ; scrotum of rams well covered with
wool 10

(9) Quality of Wool — Medium such as is known in
our markets as "medium delaine" and '"half
combing wool," strong, fine, lustrous fiber, with-
out tendency to mat or felt together, and at one

23O THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

POINTS,
year's growth not less than three and one-half
inches in length 5

Perfection 100

II. Additional points.

(1) The nose of the rams should be broad and wrinkled.

(2) The ears of both sexes of an even dark color, and
neither erect nor drooping.

(3) A soft black color of face and legs is preferred to
dark brown, and

(4) Black and gray wool anywhere and coarse wool on
the hips are objectionable.

III. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Shropshires are larger and longer in body and carry
a heavier fleece.

(2) The head has a more complete covering of wool and
the wool everywhere is longer, but not so fine, and

(3) The color of the face and legs is consideiably darker.

LECTURE NO. u.

CHEVIOT SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. A narrow strip of country along the River
Tweed and amid the Cheviot hills formed the origi-
nal home of this breed of sheep.

(i) Amid the hills and valleys of this semi-mountain
range they have pastured for long centuries.

(2) Neither history nor tradition has given the slightest
clue as to the origin of the Cheviots which may be accepted
as satisfactory.

II. Their former characters.

fi) Originally they were small, light boned and light in
the breast and forequarter.

(2) The wool was finer than at present, but it was also
much shorter.

(3) They were then, as now, a singularly hardy breed.

III. How improvement was effected.

(1) Improvement in breeding flocks has been secured
entirely by selection, improved keep in winter and intelligent
management.

(2) The blood of both the long and medium wooled
breeds has frequently been introduced, but to no purpose,
except with the drafts held for disposal, as a lessened hardi-
hood is the invariable result.

IV. Exposure in their native home.

(1) During the whole of the year Cheviots are exposed
without any shelter save that which their native glens afford.

(2) They are fed some hay in time of deep snow, and
the ewes get turnips at the lambing season.

(3) The terrible winter storms which occur at intervals
sometimes occasion severe losses.

231

"of)

CHEVIOT SHEEP. 233

V. Disposal of Cheviots.

(1) They are seldom finished on the lands on which they
are reared, but

(2) Are sold at various ages to be finished on lowland
pastures.

VI. Distribution in Britain.

(1) They are now found as far south as Cornwall, and
have been extended to the extreme north of Scotland, but only
on elevations found suitable for them.

(2) On many of the hills they have entirely superseded
the Black-faced Highland breed.

VII. Distribution in other countries.

(1) They were first imported into Delaware county, N. Y.,
in 1838, by Robert Young, but

(2) Their diffusion was very slow and gradual until sub-
sequently to 1880.

(3) A number of flocks have also been established in the
Dominion of Canada.

VIII. Organization.

(1) The American Cheviot Sheep Breeders' Association
was organized at Hartwick, N. Y., in 1891.

(2) The National Cheviot Sheep Society was organized
at Indianapolis. Ind., in 1894.

(3) Records are being kept by both associations.

IX. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Flocks of more or less size exist in nearly all the
states east of the Mississippi river and north of the Ohio and
Potomac.

(2) They are most numerous in the states of New York
and Indiana and in the order named.

(3) Strange to say, they do not appear to have been intro-
duced into the range country.

X. Registration in the United States.

(1) There have been recorded in all by the two American
associations 5.743 animals.

(2) Of these about one-fourth are males and the remain-
der females.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) In size they are about equal to the Dorsets, which
to some extent they resemble in shape, but they carry a longer
fleece.

234 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) The average weight of the rams in good flesh is ahout
200 to 220 pounds and of the ewes 150 to 160 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They are well adapted to hilly lands, where hardihood
is an important essential, but they can also be successfully
reared on undulating surfaces.

(2) They should do well on the lower ranges of the Allc-
ghenies and the Rocky mountains, more especially the former.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are not so good as in some breeds, owing to
the manner of rearing which the conditions necessitate, but

(2) In this respect they have been improved during recent
years.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are superlatively good, but

(2) Cheviots do better on short, fine herbage than on
coarse grasses and heath.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) Being a semi-mountain breed they would not submit
so well to close confinement as some other breeds, hence

(2) They are more commonly finished on pastures and
by folding.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) The mutton is very good, but

(2) It is not quite equal to the Southdown in delicacy,
nor to the mountain breeds in flavor.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) There is probably not very wide room for using this
breed for crossing in rich, arable sections, but

(2) On exposed ranges and in bleak situations they could
doubtless oftentimes be used with much advantage.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) Cheviots breed with much regularity, but

(2) They are not particularly noted as producers of
couplets.

IX. Wool production.

f 1) The average fleece should weigh eight to ten pounds.

CHEVIOT SHEEP. 235

(2) The wool is coarser now than formerly, and is not
always even in quality.

X. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Cheviots are larger and more rangy and even more
hardy, are adapted to even a wider range of conditions, are
better for crossing where hardihood is sought and carry a
heavier fleece of wool.

(2) The Southdowns mature earlier, feed more quickly.
dress somewhat better on the block, and are superior for cross-
ing where improvement in mutton qualities is sought.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points drawn
up by the American Cheviot Sheep Breeders' Asso-
ciation :

POINTS.

(1) Blood — Pure bred from one or more importa-
tions from Scotland . . . . . .10

(2) Constitution and Quality — Indicated by the
form of body ; deep and large in breast and
through the heart ; back, wide and straight and
well covered with lean meat ; wide and full in
the thigh; deep in flank; skin soft and pink in
color ; prominent eyes, healthful countenance . 25

(3) Sice — In fair condition, when fully matured,
rams should weigh not less than 175 pounds;
ewes 135 pounds when bred in America. Im-
ported stock : Rams 125 to 150 pounds, ewes 100

to 125 pounds 10

(4) General Appearance — Good carriage; head well
up; elastic movement; showing symmetry of
form and uniformity of character throughout . 10

(5) Body — Well proportioned; small bone; great
scale and length ; well finished hindquarters ;
thick back and loins ; standing with legs placed
well outside ; breast wide and prominent in
front ; tail wide and well covered with wool . 10

(6) Head — Long and broad and wide between the
eyes : ears of medium length and erect : face
white, but small black spots on head and ears
are not objectionable; straight or Roman nose;
end of nose dark, but never smut nose on top
with black or brown : no tuft of wool on head 10

(7) Neck — Medium in length ; thick and well
placed on the shoulders 5

236 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(8) Legs and Feet — Short legs, well set apart ; color
white ; no wool on legs ; fore legs round, hind
legs flat and straight ; hoofs black and well
shaped

(9) Covering — Body and belly well covered with
fleece of medium length and good quality .

(10) Quality of Wool — Medium; such as is known
in the market as half combing wool

Perfection

II. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Cheviots are larger in size and considerably longer
in body.

(2) They are longer and stronger in limb and are less
compact in the coupling.

(3) They are longer in the head and ears, are more bare
of wool on head and legs, and these are white in color.

(4) The wool is longer, but less fine in character, and not
so evenly distributed.

LECTURE NO. 12.

SUFFOLK DOWN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. Suffolk sheep are a composite breed, whose
central home is in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk,
Cambridge and Essex in England.

(1) They are essentially the outcome of the crossing ol
Southdown rams upon ewes of the old Norfolk breed.

(2) These crosses continued to a greater or lesser extent
until the middle of the present century.

II. The old Norfolks may be described as
follows :

(1) Their bodies and limbs were long and robust.

(2) They carried their heads erect, and both sexes had
horns. .

(3) The fleece was fine, soft and silky, and weighed about
two and one-half pounds.

(4) The color of the face and feet was a jet black.

(5) They were hardy and prolific, but shy, and their
active habits admirably adapted them for grazing on scant
pastures.

III. The improvers of Suffolks.

(1) The work of improvement was carried on simulta-
neously by a number of breeders in the counties of Suffolk,
Norfolk, Cambridge and Essex.

(2) George Dobito of Ludgate. Suffolk, was the most
zealous and distinguished of the early improvers.

(3) Some of the existing flocks date back to the earlier
years of the century.

IV. Suffolks on exhibition.

(1) They were first called "Suffolks" in 1859 when classes
were created for them at the show held by the Suffolk Agri-
cultural Association.

?37

c
o

.©

a.
H

SUFFOLK DOWN SHEEP. 239

(2) In 1883, 1S84 and 1S85, they were awarded first honors
in competition with all other short wooled breeds at the shows
held during those respective years, by the Royal Agricultural
Society.

(3) For many years past they have also made a creditable
exhibit at the Smithficld Club and other fat stock shows.

A'. Distribution of Suffolks in other countries.

(1) Suffolks have been exported, but only during recent
years,, to several countries in Europe, to South America, Can-
ada and the United States.

(2) The first importation of Suffolks to Canada was made
by B. W. Sewell, Frederickton, N. B., in 1888.

(3) The first importation was made to the United States
by M. B. Streeter, Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1888.

VI. Suffolk sheep societies.

(1) The Suffolk Sheep Society of England was estab-
lished in 1886.

(2) The American Suffolk Flock Registry Association
was established in 1S92, with headquarters at Des Moines, la.

(3) Registration is being given careful attention by both
associations.

VII. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) The chief center of distribution in the United States
is Iowa, and in Canada, Ontario, but

(2) There are now flocks of Suffolks in several of the
states.

VIII. Registration in the United States.

(1) Owing to the recent introduction of Suffolks into the
United States the number entered for record is not yet
numerous.

(2) The initial volume of the American Suffolk Flock
Book has not yet appeared.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Suffolks are larger than the Southdowns, Dor-
sets and Shropshires, and nearly as large as the Hampshires
and Oxfords, but

(2) They are not quite so heavy as the two last named
breeds.

24O THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The Suffolks are well adapted to farms with some
good arable land, and a considerable range of pastures, not
over luxuriant.

(2) Their active habits and hardihood make them good
rustlers.

(3) The average weight of rams in good thrift is about
230 pounds and of ewes 185 pounds.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) The strong infusion of Southdown blood has given
the Suffolks good maturing qualities, and

(2) The good nursing qualities of the dams favor the
same in a marked degree in the lambs.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) The Suffolks are capital grazers, but they want undu-
lating rather than violently hilly land.

(2) They should graze well on ranges not mountainous
in character.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) They feed fairly well.

(2) Their inclination to ranginess in form is somewhat
against highest feeding qualities.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) In 1797, Arthur Young describes the mutton as hav-
ing no superior in texture, grain or flavor.

(2) These fine qualities are retained, and there have been
added to them juiciness and a greatly increased proportion of
meat with fat and lean intermixed.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) They have proved themselves very valuable for cross-
ing upon the Merino grades of South America, and they
should be specially valuable for this purpose on ranges of
moderate elevation.

(2) They cross particularly well on grades of the blocky
type.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are exceptionally good, hence in this respect
they are not far behind the Dorsets, and

(2) The dams make exceptionally good nurses.

SUFFOLK DOWN SHEEP. 24I

IX. Wool production.

(1) In wool production, they shear a little more than the
Southdowns, and the wool is about as fine as that of the Shrop-
shires or nearly so.

(2) The average fleece may be put at about seven to nine
pounds unwashed.

X. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Suffolk's are much larger, are adapted to more inten-
sive conditions and relatively better pastures, are better
average milkers and produce a heavier fleece.

(2) Southdowns mature somewhat earlier, fatten more
quickly and dress better on the block.

(3) In other essential characteristics they are much alike.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following scale of points was drawn
up for Suffolks by the American Flock Registry
Association in 1892:

POINTS.

(1) General Appearance — Pleasing outline; good

carriage and symmetry of development . . 7

{2) General Form — Large in size; inclined to long
in body ; medium strength of bone ; somewhat
cylindrical in shape, and straight above, below
and in the rear 15

(3) Head — Medium in size, inclining to long, and
covered with fine, short, glossy black hair to the
junction with the neck; a small quantity of

clean, white wool on the forehead is not
objected to; muzzle moderately fine, especially
in ewes ; eyes bright and full ; ears of medium
length and fineness 10

(4) Neck — Moderately long and well set, and blend-
ing well with the body, with some crest in
the rams . 5

(5) Forequartcrs — Well developed: breast, wide,
deep and full ; brisket broad ; chest, capacious,
with good heart girth : shoulders, broad, oblique
and well filled in the neck-vein and crops ;
withers, broad ; arm, well developed . . .15

(6) Barrel — Roomy ; back, straight, broad and well
fleshed throughout its entire length ; ribs, well
sprung and moderately deep; fore and hind
flanks full and deep IS

242 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

POINTa

(7) Hindquarters — Long, deep and full; tail, broad
and well set up ; buttock, broad ; twist, full ;
thigh, broad and full 15

(8) Feet and Legs — Straight, of medium length
with flat bone ; bare of wool below the knee and
hock ; glossy black in color and set well apart . 8

(9) Fleece — Moderately short, with close, fine lus-
trous fiber and without tendency to mat or felt
together, or to shade off into dark or gray wool
or hair, especially about the neck and tail. The
fleece should cover the whole body except the
head and the legs below the knee and hock ; and
the skin underneath it should be fair, soft and

of a pink color 10

Perfection IOO

II. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) The Suffolks are considerably larger and heavier, and
are longer in body and limb.

(2) The head is longer and much more bare of wool ; the
ear is larger and the face and legs are much blacker, and

(3) The wool is a little longer, but not quite so dense.

LECTURE NO. 13.

HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

/. The Hampshire Down is the outcome of a
cross of the improved Southdown upon the old Wilt-
shire horned sheep and the old Berkshire Knot.

(1) The old Wiltshires were the largest of the fine wooled,
breeds of England, but they were lank and ungainly in body;
they were white or mottled in the face and legs, and both
sex;es had horns.

(2) The old Berkshires were strong, active and vigorous;
one type only had horns, and both types generally had dark
faces and feet.

(3) Both the Wiltshire and Berkshire breeds had long
and strong limbs, both had -ioman noses, and both were very
hardy, but were hard feeders and slow in maturing.

II. How improvement was effected.

(1) In very many instances Southdown rams were used
upon the native ewes, but sometimes the native rams were
used upon Southdown ewes.

(2) A careful system of selection followed, and after a
time crossbred rams of the progeny were chosen.

(3) In this way a breed was formed which retained the
size and hardihood of the old native breed, and the good feed-
ing qualities of the Southdown.

III. When improvement was effected.

(i) It commenced about the beginning of the century, or
even prior to that date, but

(2) The perfecting of the breed belongs rather to the last
than to the first half of th. century.

IV. There was lack of uniformity for a time

in the Improved Hampshire Downs, owing

(1) To the varied nature of the methods of improvement
adopted, and

243

HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP. 245

(2) To the variations in soils in different sections where
they were reared, yet notwithstanding,

(3) The Improved Hampshires have been brought to a
high state of uniformity.

V. The improvers of Hampshire Downs.

(1) Early in the century many farmers engaged in the
work without concerted action, and hence without uniformity
in plan, but

(2) About 1834 or 1835. William Humphrey of Oak Ash,
Newbury, commenced a work which resulted in great improve-
ment to the breed, and later

(3) Improvement was carried still further by Mr. Law-
rence of Bulbridge, and Mr. Morrison of Fonthill.

VI. Distribution of Hampshire Downs.

(1) Although this breed originated in the counties of
Hampshire, Wiltshire and Berkshire, they are now found to
some extent in Dorset, Sussex, Surrey and other counties of
England.

(2) Prior to the Civil war they were introduced in con-
siderable numbers into the southern states, but the flocks were
practically annihilated during that contest.

(3) The first importation to the northern states was made
by Thomas Messenger of Great Neck, L. I., N. Y., in 1855, but
importations were infrequent until within the last two or three
decades.

VII. Organizations.

(1) Associations in the interests of the breed have been
formed both in Great Britain and the United States.

(2) The Hampshire Down Breeders' Association of
America was organized in 1889.

(3) The first volume of the Hampshire Down Flock
Record was issued in 1890.

VIII. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Hampshires are now distributed in nineteen states of
the Union and small flocks exist in Ontario and Quebec.

(2) They are most numerous in the states of New York,
Michigan, Pennsylvania and Ohio and in the order named.

(3) Distribution has not yet been extended to the south-
ern and southwestern states.

IX. Registration in the United States.

(1) In all 7,450 animals have been recorded.

(2) Of these 2,088 are males and 5.362 females.

246 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) In size the Hampshire Downs are second only to the
Oxfords among the middle wool breeds, and they are a close
second to them in average weight.

(2) The average weight of rams at maturity and in good
flesh may be put at 250 pounds and of ewes 200 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Hampshires are admirably adapted to locations near
large cities, where both arable and pasture lands are inter-
spersed, as they furnish large lambs for the early markets,
either pure or when crossed.

(2) In other words, they are best adapted to an intensive
system of farming.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are excellent.

(2) They produce lambs of heavier weight at an earlier
age, it is claimed, than any other breed.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are good when the pastures are not too
broken, as

(2) The staying powers of the old original breeds have
in a measure been retained.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) Here also they excel, as has been amply testified by
their winnings at leading fat stock shows.

(2) Hampshires may be fattened at an early age and they
stand forcing well.

(3) Lambs have frequently been made to gain a pound
per day from birth until marketed.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(x) The meat' is juicy and tender, and ordinarily has the
fat and lean well intermixed, but

(2) The proportion of the bone is larger than in some
breeds.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

( x) Hampshires are specially valuable in crossing where
early and quick maturing and large-sized lambs are wanted,

HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP. 247

and more especially where the ewes are of the compact and
■>mall order.

(2) Lambs from crossbred ewes may be made to attain
much size at an early age.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are excellent, as good milking and good breed-
ing qualities go together.

(2) They inherit their good breeding qualities from the
old original breeds.

IX. Wool production.

(1) They shear somewhat heavier fleeces than the South-
downs, averaging probably from seven to ten pounds per fleece,
unwashed.

(2) The wool is of medium length, but a little coarser
perhaps than Shropshire wool.

X. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Hampshires are much larger, are more prolific and
better milkers and produce a heavier fleece.

(2) Southdowns have wider adaptation, especially in their
grazing qualities, and dress somewhat better on the block.

(3) In other respects they are nearly equal.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the standard of excellence
drawn up by the American Hampshire Down Breed-
ers' Association in 1890:

(1) Head and Legs —

(a) Head, moderately large but not coarse; well covered
with wool on forehead and cheeks.

(b) Nostrils, wide.

(d) Eyes, prominent and lustrous.

(e) Ears, moderately long and thin, and dark brown or
black in color.

(f) Legs, well under outside of body, straight, with good
size of bone : black.

(2) Neck, Shoulders and Chest —

(a) Neck, a regul. r taper from shoulders to head, without
any hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body.

(b) Shoulders, sloping, full, and not higher than the line
of back and neck.

248 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(a) Back, straight, with full spring of rib.

(b) Loin, wide and straight, without depression in front
of hips.

(c) Quarters, long from hips to rump, without sloping,
and deep in thigh. Broad in hips and rump with full hams.
Inside of thighs full.

II. Scale of points.

POINTS.

(1) Head — Size and shape, 5; eyes and ears, 3;
color, 5; legs and feet, 2 15

(2) Neck, Shoulders and Breast — Neck, 5 ; shoul-
ders, 10; chest and breast, 15 30

(3) Body — Back and loin, 15; ribs, 5 20

(4) Quarters — Length, 10; width, 10; twist, 5 . 25

(5) Wool — Forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well cov-
ered, 3 ; quality, 5 10

Perfection 100

III. Compared with Southdowns.

(1) Hampshires are much larger and longer and are
more rangy.

(2) Are stronger in the head, ears and limbs.

(3) Are darker in the face and legs, and

(4) Are a little longer and considerably more open in
fleece.

LECTURE NO. 14.

OXFORD DOWNS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CH LRAC-

TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Oxford Downs originated in a cross of
Cotswold rams upon Hampshire Down ewes, and to
a limited extent probably on Southdown ewes.

(1) Their cleanly cut profile, the thinner nose, the longer
forelock, the longer and thinner ear, and the compact form of
the body are derived from the Cotswold parent, and

(2) The dark face and legs, the comparatively close fleece
and the good quality of the mutton are largely due to the
Down parentage.

II. When improvement was effected.

(1) These crosses cannot be traced beyond the year
1833, and

(2) It is thought that no outside blood has been intro-
duced since 1854.

III. How improvement was effected.

(1) Sometimes the crosses were from one parent breed
and sometimes from the other, but more commonly Cotswold
males were used.

(2) Those who made them at first were seeking the
improvement of mutton and wool qualities rather than the
establishment of a new breed.

(3) After a time the improvement secured was more than
maintained, through judicious selection and mating.

IV. The leading- improvers of the breed.

(1) Foremost among these is Samuel Druce of Eynsham,
Oxon, Oxfordshire, who commenced the work of crossing in
1833 or 1834.

249

—
c
o

ISO

OXFORD DOWNS. 2$l

(2) At a later period the names of William Gillett of
South Leigh, J. Gillett of Brize Norton and J. Hitchman of
Little Milton are prominent among the many who helped to
improve the breed.

Y. Recognition at exhibitions.

(1) They were first recognized as a distinct breed by the
Royal Agricultural Society in 1862.

(2) For many years they were exhibited as crossbreds.
and were first called Oxford Downs in 1857.

VI. Distribution of Oxford Downs.

(1) The original central home of Oxford Downs was the
county of Oxford, but now they are somewhat numerously
found in several of the neighboring counties.

(2) They are found in nearly every state and kingdom
in Europe, in South Africa, Australia, South America, Canada
and the United States.

VII. Importations to the United States and
Canada.

(1) Oxford Downs were first imported to the United
States in 1853 by R. S. Fay of Lynn, Mass., and William C.
Rives of Virginia.

(2) Since 1880 considerable importing has been done both
by the United States and Canada.

VIII. Organizations.

(1) Registration has received attention both in England
and America.

(2) The American Oxford Down Sheep Record Associa-
tion was organized in 1884.

IX. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Oxford Downs are distributed over thirty-one states
of the Union and over nearly all the orovinces of Canada.

(2) Ontario, Indiana, Illinois, New York and Wisconsin
are the great centers of distribution, and probably in the order
named.

X. Registration in the United States.

(1) More than 18,800 Oxford Downs have been recorded,
of which nearly 8.000 are rams and the remainder ewes.

(2) The number of individuals recording is 619, of whom
142 are in Ontario.

252 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Oxford Downs are the largest and heaviest of
the Down breeds, and they are also probably heavier than the
Leicesters in average weight.

(2) When in good flesh Oxford Down rams should weigh
about 250 to 275 pounds at maturity and the ewes about 200
to 225 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Oxford Downs are best adapted to arable sections
where the lands produce good pastures, but they will do fairly
well on coarse herbage.

(2) They are better adapted to intensive conditions than
to those opposite in character.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are at least average.

(2) The lambs attain heavy weights when one year old.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) Like the Cotswold, they graze well for so heavy a
breed, but

(2) They should not be kept on rugged or broken pas-
tures.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) They will make good gains for a long period, owing
to their great scale, but

(2) To suit the markets of to-day, they should be fattened
when young.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat, like that of all the Down breeds, ranks
high.

(2) It is abundant in quantity, of medium fineness of
grain and well intermixed.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Wherever lambs are wanted of large size, good mut-
ton qualities and good producers of heavy fleeces of medium
wool, the Oxford Downs will make a good cross.

(2) Where pastures are good they have been found to
cross well upon Merinos, but not under conditions the
opposite.

OXFORD DOWNS. 253

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are very good.

(2) They breed regularly, have fair prolificacy and are
good milkers and nurses.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The wool is coarser than in any of the other Down
breeds, but it is also considerably heavier to the fleece.

(2) In well kept flocks, the average fleece should weigh
from ten to twelve pounds, unwashed.

X. Compared with the Southdowns.

(1) Oxford Downs are much larger and heavier, are
better adapted to intensive conditions and also for crossing
when increase in size and weight of wool are wanted.

(2) Southdowns mature more quickly, have a wider range
of general adaptation and are better suited for crossing and
grading when refinement in form and quality is desired.

(3) In other essentials they are about equal.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the American Oxford Down Record Association :

BREED TYPE OF ANIMALS.

POINTS.

(1) Form of a good general appearance, made by a
well balanced conformation, free from coarse-
ness in any part, and showing good style both

at rest and in motion . . . . . .15

(2) Head of moderate length and width between
the ears and between the eyes, and well covered
with wool over poll and down to the eyes. Color
of face, an even dark gray or brown, either with

or without gray spot on tip of nose ... 6

(3) When fully matured and in good condition,
rams should weigh 250 to 350 pounds, ewes
180 to 275 pounds 5

(4) Ears medium size, not too thick and of an even
brown or dark gray color .... 2

(5) Legs short, strong in bone, flat and of even
dark gray or brown color, placed squarely under
the body and well apart 2

254 TilE STUDY OF BREEDS.

CONSTITUTION.

(6) Large around the heart and wide ana full in

the chest 10

(7) The movement ■ -st be bold and vigorous . . ',

(8) Eyes, bold, prominent and bright . * . . 4

(9) Skin, bright pink in color 3

(10) Neck strong and muscular in rams and well set

on in both, sexes 3

MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY.

(11) Wide and straight on top of shoulders, back,
loin and rump, from base of neck to tail . .15

(12) Full shoulders and thighs, well meated both
inside and outside 5

(13) Flanks well filled and strong so as to make the
lower lines of the body as straight as possible,
and side lines straight or rather full . . .4

(14) The whole carcass evenly covered with good,
well marbled meat 6

(15) Fleece of moderate length, close and of even
quality, covering the whole carcass well, and
free from black patches upon the body, neck
or head 15

Perfection

II. The following additional points are sub-
mitted :

(1) The color of the face and legs is usually a little darker
than brown.

(2) The rear portion of the cheeks is covered with wool.

(3) The ears have but moderate erection and play.

(4) The legs are usually darker than brown and the fore
legs are round rather than flat.

(5) The movement is at least moderately vigorous.

(6) Eyes, at least moderately bold.

(7) Neck, inclining to round, of medium length, not large
at the junction with the bead and increasing gradually in width
and depth until it blends nicely with the shoulder and breast.

(8) Shoulders and thighs, bread.

(9) Carcass, evenly covered with meat.

III. General Appearance — The Oxford Down
is a large, substantial and stately looking sheep,

OXFORD DOWNS. 255

neither rangy nor yet of the most compact or low set
type and covered with a heavy fleece of medium
wool which stands at right angles to the body.

IV. Compared with Southdowns.

(i) They are much larger, heavier and stronger in bone.

(2) They have a longer head, considerably longer ears
and much longer foretop of wool.

(3) The face and legs are more of a dark brown in
color, and

(4) The fleece is very much longer, heavier and coarser.

V. Compared with Shropshires-

(1) They are considerably stronger in body, and not so
long for the width.

(2) They are longer in head and ear and have less but
longer wool on head.

(3) The face and legs are not so dark, and

(4) The fleece is very much heavier and coarser.

a.
>>

ill

LONG WOOLED BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 15.

LEICESTER SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Leicester breed of sheep is so named
from the county in England in which it originated.

(1) It was formerly frequently spoken of as the New
Dishley breed, from the home of Robert Bakewell, its origi-
nator, who lived at Dishley Hall, near Loughboro, in Leices-
tershire, but

(2) It was more commonly known as the New Leicester.

II. The formation of the breed.

(1) The Improved Leicester was built upon a foundation
«f the old long wooled sheep of the neighborhood, commonly
spoken of as the Old Dishley breed.

(2) They were large, coarse, long and thin in the carcass,
had flat sides, large bones and thick, rough legs; their wool
was long and coarse and they were withal slow feeders.

III. When imDrovement was effected.

(1) Bakewell commenced the work of improvement in
1755. or about that date, and continued it until his death.

(2) He left an animal so perfectly developed that there
was left little chance for further improvement unless in the
line of wool production.

IV. How improvement was effected.

(1) Bakewell invariably chose animals for breeding which
possessed in the highest degree the qualities which he sought.

(2) He rendered these permanent by continued selection
and in-and-in breeding.

17 257

258 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Leading qualities sought by Bakewell.

(1) Greater symmetry of form.

(2) Improved qualities of food assimilation and fattening.

(3) An earlier maturity.

(4) A reduction in the proportion of bone and ofrai, and

(5) Greater development in the parts most valuable on
the block.

VI. Weaknesses resulting from Bakewell 's
methods.

(1) Too great a delicacy of constitution.

(2) A less degree of prolificacy.

(3) Impaired milking qualities, and

(4) An insufficient wool product.

VII. System of ram letting.

(1) This system seems to have been fiist introduced by
Bakewell.

(2) At first he could only realize 17s. and 6d. per ram
for the season, but ere long he readily secured 100 guineas
for the best animals.

(3) In 1789 he was paid 6,200 guineas for the hire of
his rams.

VIII. Distribution of the breed.

(1) Within fifty years from the establishment of the New
Leicester breed it had superseded nearly all the long wooled
breeds in England, or had been so mingled with them as to
obliterate their former distinctions.

(2) Years ago the}' were more widely distributed ir.
other countries than any of the British breeds.

(3) They were introduced into Virginia and New Jersey
prior to the War of Independence, and later into other states,
particularly New York, where for a time they became the pre-
vailing breed, but they have not obtained an extensive foothold
in the west.

(4) They were first imported into Canada about 1800 by
Rev. Mr. Toofy of Quebec, and in all the Dominion they have
been used in grading to a greater extent than all the other
breeds combined.

IX. The two types of Leicesters, viz., the Bake-
well and the Border.

(1) The latter are of the same general style as the Bake-
well Leicester, but they are larger, though not quite so
compact.

LEICESTER SHEEP. 259

(2) They are also more prominent in the nose, have
whiter faces and legs, but are more inclined to bareness on
the belly.

X. Organizations.

(1) It is simply unexplainable that a breed which has per-
formed so prominent a part in the formation of other breeds
should have been so many years without organized protection
in Great Britain.

(2) The American Leicester Breeders' Association was
formed in 1888.

XI. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Pure bred Leicesters are now recorded from twenty-
one states and provinces of Canada.

(2) In the United States they are most numerously kept
in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Oregon; Nebraska, Iowa and Illi-
nois, and in the order named.

.(3) In Canada they are most numerously kept in Ontario,
New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island and British
Columbia, and in the order named.

(4) It is thought that Ontario possesses more Leicesters
than all the states combined.

XII. Registration in the United States.

(1) Two volumes of the flock book have been issued
and 3,486 animals are recorded, of which 958 arc males and
2,528 females.

(2) Owing to their early introduction into this country
the number of grades is relatively far greater in proportion to
the pure breds than with the other breeds.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

O) Leicesters are not so heavy as the Cotswolds or Lin-
colns, but they weigh more than any of the middle wooled
breeds unless the Hampshire Down and Oxford Down.

(2) The average weight of a mature Leicester ram in
good flesh may be put at 225 to 250 pounds and of a ewe at
175 to 200 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They are specially adapted to arable sections, and

260 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) To climates which produce an abundance of succulent
vegetation.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) No breed excels them in early maturing qualities or in
aptitude to fatten at an early age, hence

(2) They are easy keepers, and the lambs can be marketed
when young.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) These are only fair, as they are not particularly well
adapted to "roughing it," but

(2) They are eminently adapted to folding and feeding on
specially prepared pastures, as turnips and rape.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) These are of the very best.

(2) No other breed is more docile, feeds more quickly, or
gives a better return for the food fed.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat is juicy and plentiful and the offal is
light, but

(2) The proportion of fat is large, and it is laid on too
much externally.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) No breed will render better service in crossing where
early maturity and good fleshing and easy keeping qualities arc
sought, and

(2) High grade Leicesters are equally well adapted for
being crossed upon by the Down breeds.

(3) Such crosses usually lessen the size somewhat, but
they improve the quality of tie meat.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) Like the highly improved Southdowns they are not
specially noted for prolificacy and high milking qualities, but

(2) When properly managed there will be no trouble
from the sources named.

IX. Wool production.

(1) The fleece should average from nine to eleven pounds
of unwashed wool.

(2) The wool is lustrous, and is perhaps the finest pro-
duced by the long woolcd breeds.

LEICESTER SHEEP. 26l

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

I. In the absence of an authorized scale of
points, the following is submitted.

(1) Sice — Medium, with a leaning to increase rather than
decrease.

(2) General Outline — Symmetrical, parallelogrammic and
everywhere well proportioned.

(3) Head — Small for the size of the body, but much
stronger in the rams, somewhat long and fine, tapering toward
the muzzle, and Roman-nosed, especially in the Border
varieties.

(a) It is snowy white when young, but becomes some-
what darker with age, and the same is true of the legs.

(b) It is usually entirely free from wool, but sometimes
there is very short wool, covering a part of the forehead, which
is broad, as is also the poll.

(d) Ears. thin, moderately long, and without droop.

(4) Neck — Short rather than long, round rather than flat,
straight above, fine at the junction with the head, broad anri
deep at the base and carrying the head with but moderate
erection.

(5) Back — Wide and straight from base of neck to tail-
head and well covered in every part when in good flesh.

(a) Withers, broad, close and level.

(b) Loin, wide, strong and full.

(6) Forequartcrs — Fully equal in development to the
hindquarters.

(a) Shoulders, splendidly rounded out from the withers
and blending nicely with a full neck-vein and crops.

(b) Chest, very wide and deep.

(d) Brisket, wide, rounded and well forward.

(e) Forearm, broad, full and neatly tapering.

(7) Barrel — Only moderately long in the barrel and nicely
rounded out.

(a) Ribs, close, coming well forward and backward and
of round and deep spring.

(b) Fore and hind flanks equally low and full.

(d) Underline, straight.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, wide and deep, but sometimes
there is over much narrowing toward the buttock.

(a) Hips, large, level on top with line of back and on side
with barrel.

(b) Crupper, creased above the spinal column.

262 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(d) Buttock, square and straight.
(c) Twist, full, broad and low.

(9) Legs — Of moderate length and fine rather than coarse
in bone, white in color, bare of wool on the lower half of the
length and standing straight and wide apart.

(10) Fleece — The wool is of good length, glossy and of
good fiber, and should cover the whole carcass save the head
and legs.

(a) It hangs in fine spirals at the outer surface rather
than in masses, and

(b) The skin under it inclines to thin, soft, elastic and
is of a pinkish tinge.

II. General Appearance — The Leicester is
symmetrically, evenly and plumply developed, has a
massive and yet refined frame, a restful but not slug-
gish carriage, and is, wJien in good form, a beautiful
animal.

LECTURE NO. 16.

LINCOLN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. This breed has long inhabited the lowlands
of Lincolnshire and to some extent other counties on
the east coast of England.

(i) Their value was not recognized to any great extent
beyond their native county and those adjoining it prior to 1850.

(2) Now they are found over the whole of Lincoln and
Rutland, and over parts of several of the neighboring counties.

II. A century ago they were large, ungainly
animals with an immense fleece of ragged, oily wool.

(1) They had thick, large necks with flabby dewlap, were
forward in the shoulder, had flat ribs and deep bellies, and
were inclined to lay on fat at the rumps and internally.

(2) They were covered with wool even longer than at
present.

III. How improvement was effected.

(1) The old Lincolns were chiefly improved through the
free use of Leicester blood and improved modes of breeding
and feeding.

(2) The Leicester cross greatly improved the symmetry
and the feeding qualities of the Lincolns.

IV. Recognition at the shows.

(1) The Lincolns were first recognized as a pure breed
by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1862.

(2) Before that time they could only be shown in the
general long wooled classes.

V. Distribution in other countries.

(1) Lincolns have found their way into Australia, New
Zealand. South Africa, South America, Canada and the United
States, but

263

RS- 39. Typical Lincoln Ewe

(264)

LINCOLN SHEEP. 265

(2) They have not been so numerously introduced into
Canada and the United States as many of the other breeds.

(3) They were first imported into the United States by
Leonard D. Gift of Carmel, N. Y., in 1836.

VI. Organizations.

(1) The breeders of Lincolns have been somewhat slow
in organizing.

(2) The National American Lincoln Sheep Breeders'
Association was organized in 1891.

VII. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Lincoln sheep are distributed throughout many of the
northern and middle states and in several of the provinces of
Canada.

(2) They are most numerous in Michigan, Wisconsin,
Illinois, Colorado and Ohio, and probably in the order named.

VIII. Registration in the United States.

(1) There have been recorded 6,215 animals by the
National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association.

(2) Of these about 2,500 are rams and the remainder ewes.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Lincolns are considered the largest and heaviest of
the domesticated breeds, and their weight is even greater rela-
tively than their size.

(2) The average weight of matured rams in good flesh
may be put at 275 to 300 pounds and of ewes at 225 to 250
pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Lincolns are best adapted to arable sections where
production is abundant and where the pastures are level rather
than hilly.

(2) When kept in the pure form they are best adapted to
an intensive cultivation, but when crossed upon Merinos the
progeny do well on the ranges.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) Lincolns mature very quickly for their great size, but

(2) On the condition that food supplies are plentiful all
the time.

266 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Grazing- qualities.

(i) Lincolns are adapted only to such grazing lands as
are productive and level, or gently undulating, hence
(2) They answer admirably where folding is desired.

V. Feeding qualities.

(1) Lincolns rank very high in feeding qualities.

(2) Their docility, improved breeding and vigorous diges-
tion enable them to make good returns for the food fed.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(1) Lincolns dress well and furnish a large proportion of
good meat, but

(2) The amount of fat is large, and the grain and flavor
are not equal to those in some of the middle wool breeds.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Lincolns may be profitably used in crossing where
increased size and greater weight of fleece are wanted, but

(2) When so used the food supplies should be adapted to
the improvements made.

(3) A cross of f e Lincoln upon the grade Merino has
long been a favorite with many ranchmen in the United States,
and more particularly in Australia.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are fair when the animals are kept in condition
not too high, but

(2) They are not more distinguished for prolificacy than
the other long wooled breeds.

IX. Wool production.

(1) In wool production, Lincolns are seldom excelled as
to the weight of the fleece, which should not be less on an aver-
age in good flocks than twelve to fourteen pounds, unwashed.

(2) In fineness of quality it is nearly the same as the
Leicester, some authorities claiming that it is the finer of
the two.

X. Compared with Leicesters.

(1) The Lincolns are considerably larger and heavier
than the Leicesters and carry a considerably heavier fleece.

(2) The Leicesters have been crossed upon other breeds
for their improvement to a much greater extent than the
Lincolns.

LINCOLN SHEEP. j( ,-

(3) In other essential characteristics *nev resemble each
other somewhat closely.

STANDARD POINTS,

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Associa-
tion :

POINTS.

(1) Constitution— Body deep, back wide and
straight ; wide and full in the thigh, bright large
eyes; skin soft and of a pink color . 25

(2) Size— Matured rams not less than 2^0 pounds
when in good condition, matured ewes not less
than 200 pounds .... I0

(3) Appearance— Good carriage and symmetry of
form . "... 10

(4) Body—Well proportioned, good bone and
length : broad hindquarters : legs standing well
apart, breast wide and deep ... je

(5) Head— Should be covered with wool to the '
ears; tuft on forehead; eves expressive: ears
fair length, dotted or mottled in color . . 10

(6) Neck— Medium length; good muscle, well set
on body

(7) Legs— Broad and set well apart: good shape;'
color white, but some black spots do not dis-
qualify; wooled to the knees .... 10

(8) Fleece— Of even length and quality over body;
not less than eight inches long for one
year's growth I0

(9) Quality of Wool— Rather fine: long wool;'
strong, lustrous fiber; no tendency to cot . '.5

Perfection IOO

II. As the above scale of points is somewhat
lacking in detail, the following additional particulars
are submitted :

(1) She— Medium for the breed, but varying to suit the
conditions of environment.

(2) General Outline— Strong, broad, massive.

_ (3) Head— ~Medium but rather stronger than in the
Leicester, and of a somewhat darker tinge.

268 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(a) The nose is scarcely so fine as in the Leicester.

(b) A tuft of rather short wool is found on the upper
part of the broad forehead.

(d) Ears, broader relatively than in the Leicester, fairly
long and dotted.

(4) Neck — Medium in length, but inclining to short.

(a) Not large at the head, straight above and so enlarged
as to blend perfectly at the shoulders.

(b) Throatiness is to be avoided even in the rams.

(5) Back — Straight, broad and wide to the tailhead.

(a) The withers and loin have much width, and

(b) The back should carry much flesh.

(6) Forequarters — Of plump development, fully equal to
that in the hindquarters.

(a) Shoulders, large, fully and smoothly rounded out and
well covered with flesh.

(b) Chest, wide and cylindrical.

(d) Brisket, broad, rounded and well forward.

(7) Barrel — Medium in length, cylindrical.

(a) Ribs, close, well sprung from the spinal column and
coming well forward and backward.

(b) Crops, full and even with shoulder.

(d) Heart girth and flank girth, excellent and about equal.

(e) Underline, straight.

(8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep, plump.

(a) Hips, large and most full in the center.

(b) Crupper, creased.

(d) Buttock, broad and square.

(e) Twist, placed low and possessed of full development.

(9) Legs — Inclining to short, wide apart, strong and
straight, bare below knee and hock, and of a dull, white color,
but frequently spotted.

(10) Fleece — Very long, bright, strong in fiber and well
distributed over the body.

(a) It hangs in fairly large and wavy spirals, but some-
times it is flaked, and

(b) The skin beneath it should be of a pinkish color.

III. General Appearance — The well furnished
Lincoln in full fleece has a square-like and massive
form, the long wool coming well down toward the
ground.

LINCOLN SHEEP. 269

IV. Compared with Leicesters.

(1) Lincolns are larger, stronger in bone and more
massive.

(2) The head is stronger, has a tuft of short wool on the
forehead, is of a darker shade of white and has somewhat
broader ears.

(3) The wool is much longer, is more evenly distributed
on every part, particularly the underline, is retained in good
form to a greater age and usually hangs in larger and more
wavy spirals.

o
"o

ii.

LECTURE NO. 17.

COTSWOLD SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Cotswolds are a breed of sheep which
originated amid the low calcareous hills in the
eastern part of Gloucestershire, England.

(1) They were also found to some extent in Hereford
and Worcester.

(2) These hills, known as the Cotswold, produced a short,
nutritious herbage.

II. Cotswolds were so named

(1) From the sheds called cots or cottos, in which they
were housed in time of storms, and

(2) The naked hilly ground termed weald or wold upon
which they pastured.

III. The wool produced by these sheep was
famous centuries ago, hence

(1) Some regard the Cotswolds as of great antiquity, but

(2) As the wool in those times was fine, others regard the
Cotswolds as more modern in origin, and descended from sheep
brought from lower lands.

IV. The Cotswolds before improvement.

(1) They were large, tall and rangy, and were light in
the forequarters and flanks, but

(2) They produced a long and heavy fleece of coarse wool,
a.id were withal a very rugged and hardy breed.

V. How improvement was effected.

(1) Improvement was at first secured by the introduction
of the Leicester cross, which soon extended to all the flocks
of the breed.

(2) This cross diminished the size and coarseness of the

271

27 2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

old Cotswold, but it lessened the wool product, and imparted
greater delicacy of constitution.

VI. When improvement was effected.

(i) Crossing Cotswolds with Leicesters was introduced
about 1780 and continued until about 1820.

(2) Since 1820, selection and good management aa\'c
effected still further improvement.

VII. Distribution of Cotswolds.

(1) During recent years they have been exported into
France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United
States and other countries.

(2) They have been chiefly used in these lands with a
view to increase the size and wool product of other breeds.

VIII. Introduction into the United States.

(1) About 1832 the first Cotswold ram imported into
the United States was brought into New York state.

(2) Subsequent importations were infrequent until within
the last quarter of a century.

(3) Some good flocks have also been established in
Canada.

IX. Organizations.

(1) The interests of the breed are now protected by
organizations both in Great Britain and the United States.

(2) The American Cotswold Association was organized
in 1878.

X. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Cotswolds are registered from every state in the
Union save Arizona, Louisiana, Texas and Florida, and from
every province in Canada.

(2) Wisconsin is probably the leading center for Cots-
wolds in the United States and Ontario for Canada.

XL Registration in the United States.

(1) Eight volumes of the American Cotswold Record
have been issued.

(2) In all, 19,500 animals have been recorded.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Cotswolds are the largest of the domesticated breeds
of sheep except Lincolns.

(2) They have quite as much scale as the former, but

COTSWOLD SHEEP. 2/3

stand rather higher from the ground, and are a little less in
the flanks.

(3) The average weight of the mature Cotswold ram in
fair flesh is about 250 to 275 pounds and of the ewe 200 to
225 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) When pure, Cotswolds require good pastures, but can
climb moderate elevations.

(2) When crossed with some hardy breed, as the Merinos,
the progeny can feed on more rugged land and less fruitful
pastures.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) In early maturity they are now almost if not quite
equal to the Leicesters.

(2) The lambs make heavy weights at an early age.

IV. Grazing qualities.

(1) Relatively they are good grazers for a heaw breed,
but

(2) No heavy breed can graze so well upon lands more
rugged than mildly hilly.

A'. Feeding qualities.

(1) Cotswolds feed well either when folded or in sheds,
and

(2) When ill fed they are mere ungainly than some other
breeds.

VI. Quality of the meat.

(r) Cotswolds dress well on the block, but
(2) Much of the fat is laid on externally, and the meat
is only moderately fine in the grain.

VII. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Cotswolds cross well upon fine wooled breeds, as
Merino grades, when much medium wool with improved mut-
ton qualities are desired.

(2) They also make an excellent outcross for restoring
size and wool production in certain grades where these have
been unduly diminished.

VIII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are much the same as in the other long wool
breeds, but

(2) In milking qualities the Cotswolds may have some
advantage, and they produce strong lambs.

274 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IX. Wool production.

(i) The fleece is almost as heavy as that of the Lincoln,
and it is coarser.

(2) In good, well kept flocks it should weigh on an
average from eleven to fourteen pounds, unwashed.

X. Compared with Leicesters.

(1) Cotswolds are larger and have shown a somewhat
higher adaptation for outcrossing for renovating purposes.

(2) Leicesters are better adapted for crossing to effect
improvement in the form and meat producing qualities of
rough stocks.

(3) In other essentials they are very similar.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following standard of excellence was
drawn up by the American Cotswold Association :

FOR RAMS.

P0IN7 \

(i) Head — Not too fine, moderately small and broad
between the eyes and nostrils, but without a
short, thick appearance, and in young animals
well covered on crown with long, lustrous wool 2

(2) Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray,

or white dappled with brown . . . . 4

(3) Nostrils — Wide and expanded, nose dark. . 1

(4) Eyes — Prominent but mild looking ... 2

(5) Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin, and cov-
ered with short hair 4

(6) Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, taper-
ing gradually all the way to where the neck and
head join. The neck should be short, thick
and strong, indicating constitutional vigor and
free from coarse and loose skin ... 6

(7) Slioulders — Broad and full, and at the same
time join so gradually to the collar forward
and chine backward as not to leave the least
hollow in either place 8

(8) Forelegs — The mutton on the arm or fore thigh
should come quite to the knee; leg, upright with
heavy bone, being clear from superfluous skin,
with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed with
gray 4

COTSWOLD SHEEP. 275

POINTS.

(9) Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the

legs wide apart; girth or chest, full and deep . 10

(10) Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow
behind the shoulder ...... 5

(11) Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from
which the ribs must spring with a fine circular
arch 12

(12) Belly — Straight on underline .... 3

(13) Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite
down to the hock ....... 8

(14) Hock — Should stand neither in nor out . . 2

(15) Twist or Junction Inside Thighs — Deep, wide
and full, which, with a broad breast, will keep
the legs open and upright . . . . .5

(16) Fleece — The whole body should be covered with
long, lustrous wool 18

Perfection 100

FOR EWES.

II. The scale of points is the same as for rams,
with the differences mentioned below :

(1) Head — Moderately fine instead of "not too fine, mod-
erately small." as in the rams.

(2) Neck — The neck should be fine and graceful instead
of "short, thick and strong, indicating constitutional vigor,"'
as in the rams.

(3) For neck, including collar, foreflank and belly, five,
four and five points are allowed respectively, whereas for the
rams "six, five and three" points are allowed.

III. General Appearance — The Cotswold is a
stately looking animal, of rectangular outline when
the fleece is well grown, massive in build and pos-
sessed of a fairly proud carriage.

IV. Compared with Leicesters.

(1) Cotswolds are considerably larger, something stronger
in the leg. and are more "upstanding."

(2) They are scarcely so wide in the chest, and are a
trifle lighter in the hind flank.

(3) Their wool is longer, hangs in larger and more wavy
spirals ; they have a long and beautiful forelock, and they are
a less pure white in the face and legs.

PART III

BREEDS OF SWINE

LECTURE NO. i.

SWINE ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED RACES.

I. Swine (Sus scrofa) have been known to
exist in a wild state on the continents of Europe,
Asia and Africa ever since the dawn of history.

(i) With certain variations they are also found wild on
the continent of America and the islands of the Pacific, but

(2) They were not found in a wild condition on the con-
tinent of Australia.

II. Some zoologists have divided the various
species of swine into three genera, viz :

(1) True swine, including the wild hog of Europe. Asia
and Africa : the babirussa of certain East Indian islands ; the
Papuan hog of New Guinea, and the wood swine of South
Africa.

(2) The wart bearing hogs of Africa, and
(3; The peccaries of America.

III. The various species of swine with certain
minor variations possess the following points of
resemblance in a greater or less degree :

(1) The head is prolonged, somewhat cone-shaped, and
ends in a movable cartilaginous disc.

(2) The neck is short, strong and muscular, and the limbs
are short and strong.

(3) The skin is thick and covered more or less with hair
and bristles.

(4) They are fond of plants and more especially of the
roots of these.

276

SWINE. 277

(5) They eat flesh, but do not seek to capture living ani-
mals for food.

(6) They naturally resort to watery places in which to
\\ allow.

(7) They produce a number of individuals at one birth.

(8) Their senses of smell and hearing are peculiarly
acute, and

(9)' The peculiarities of voice are very similar.

IV. The various species of the true wild hog
(Sus aper) have the following characteristics in
common :

(1) They are swift of foot and fierce in disposition.

(2) The males are possessed of enormous tusks.

(3I They are more easily tamed if captured when young.

(4) When matured they are solitary in their habits.

(5) They are nocturnal in their habits of feeding.

(6) The young are longitudinally striped for a time, and

(7) The sows suckle their young for many weeks and
defend them for a long period after they are weaned.

V. It is now pretty generally conceded that
the domestic varieties are descended from the wild
species, as

(i~) The general anatomy is the same and the form and
general outline bear a somewhat close resemblance.

(2) The period of gestation is the same in both ; they can
be successfully bred together and there is a general resem-
blance in the habits.

VI. Under domestication the following are
some of the changes that take place :

(1) The ears become less movable, the tusks and muscles
of the neck diminish in size, the back and sides lengthen, the
flank and hindquarters deepen, the body becomes less capa-
cious, the limbs grow shorter, the bristles are partially or
wholly removed, and the animal becomes much less active.

(2) The stomach and intestines enlarge, they desire more
food and the tendency to obesity increases.

( t,) The male loses the solitary habit, the female breed?
more frequently and has larger litters, and they seek their food
in the day.

VII. The domesticated species have been
known to revert to the wild state, as is witnessed by

2/8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

herds in South America, New Zealand and other

countries, but

(i) Such reversion is always slow.

(2) They do not revert to the solitary habit again, nor
have they the same fierceness of disposition as the wild species.

VIII. Swine have been subjected to domesti-
cation from a very early period, and even among
semi-barbarous peoples.

(1) Their flesh was held in high esteem by many of the
nations of antiquity, but

(2) The Jews, ancient Egyptians and Hindoos were not
allowed to eat it, nor are the followers of Mahomet.

IX. Two of the original breeds of swine :-n
Great Britain are still represented in what is known
as the Old English hog, and a breed found in the
Highlands and islands of Scotland.

(1) The distinctions of the former, represented at one
time by several sub-varieties, have been almost obliterated
through crossing.

(a) They were mostly white in color, had large and lank
bodies, a long snout, large pendant ears, long legs and coarse
hair with some bristles.

(b) They were hard feeders and slow maturers, but grew
to an enormous size.

(2) The latter were small, with rather erect ears and
coarse bristles along the spine, were dusky brown in color and
could subsist on the poorest fare.

X. The improved races of swine ir England
are probably nearly all descended from the Old Eng-
lish hog and certain foreign crosses.

(1) They have been so much crossed and intercrossed
that it is difficult to classify them aright.

(2) While some of them are of world-wide reputation,
others are only known within limited areas.

XI. The principal breeds of pigs in Britain at
the present time are the Yorkshire with certain sub-
varieties, as the Berkshire, the Tamworth, the Suf-
folk and the Essex.

SWINE. 279

(1) The more local breeds include the Dorset, Lincoln-
shire, Cheshire, Norfolk and Westmoreland.

(2) The three varieties of the Yorkshire are the Improved
or Large White, the Middle White and the Small White breed.

(3) The Suffolks are bred both black and white, the
former being frequently called the Black Suffolk.

XII. The originals of the swine in the United
States were brought from various countries in
Europe by the early settlers, but more especially
from Britain.

(1) Since that time all the British breeds possessed of
more than local notoriety have been introduced, and

(2) To a very limited extent only has improved blood
been drawn from any other source.

XIII. The purely American varieties are the
Chester White, the Poland-China, the Duroc- Jersey
or Jersey Red, the Cheshire and the Victoria.

XIV. Swine may be almost regarded as cos-
mopolitan, as they can be reared in almost any coun-
try outside of the Arctic circles.

(1) Being gross feeders they utilize a large amount of
food that would otherwise go to waste.

(2) They are more prolific than any of the other domes-
ticated quadrupeds except the rabbit, and

(3) They are of inestimable use to the human family >n
the food which they furnish.

LECTURE NO. 2.

SWINE THEIR IMPROVEMENT AND CLASSIFICATION.

I. The swine of Great Britain have been
improved chiefly through crosses made with certain
foreign and native breeds, better food and improved
care.

II. The chief of the foreign breeds used in the
improvement of the swine of Great Britain are the
Chinese and the Neapolitan.

(1) The former have been used chiefly in the improve-
ment of the white breeds, and the latter in the improvement
of the black.

(2) These crosses were frequently resorted to early in
the century, but they have been almost entirely discontinued
during the last fifty years.

III. The Chinese breed described.

(i) They were a rather small race, with a somewhat long
body and swaying back, and belly coming near the ground.

(2) They had a short head, short snout, heavy jowls,
small ears standing well out from the head, short neck and
short legs, and were fine in bone.

(3) In color they were white or black, or a mixture of
both, white predominating.

(4) They had a remarkable tendency to fatten rapidly,
but were not prolific as breeders.

IV. The Neapolitan breed described.

(1) They were a small breed with a long, cylindrical
body, standing on rather short and fine limbs.

(2) They had a small head, dishing face, bony and flat
forehead, very slender and rather long snout, very full jowls,
small thin ears standing well forward ; broad, short neck,
heavy above; flat back, slightly elevated hindquarters and well
developed hams and shoulders.

(3) They had a soft and fine skin and but little hair, which
was of a slate or bluish plum color.

280

SWINE. 2»I

(4) Their flesh had a fair proportion of lean and was
tender and well flavored.

(5) They also fattened easily and matured quickly, but
were somewhat shy breeders.

V. Effects of the Chinese and Neapolitan
crosses.

(1) Both crosses tended to reduce the size of the bone, to
shorten the limbs and ears, to refine the hair, and to improve
the maturing and fattening qualities, but

(2) These advantages were gained at the cost of decreased
size, a lessened hardihood and impaired breeding qualities.

VI. Swine in the United States have been
improved through crosses chiefly derived from Brit-
ain, the skillful blending of varieties and improved
management.

// (1) This improvement may be said to have begun in 1832,

' v. hen Berkshires were first imported.

(2) Quite as much probably is owing to the skillful blend-
ing of materials at hand as to the introduction of foreign blood.

VII. The classification of the pure breeds of
swine is confessedly difficult at the present time, as

(1) The evolution of some of the breeds is still going on,
so that complete fixity of type in some instances has not yet
been reached.

(2) These changes are chiefly caused by a change in the
demands of the market, consequent upon a change in the

• popular taste, but to some extent they are being made to meet
the tastes of breeders.

VIII. If the breeds of swine were classified on
the basis of color, they would be virtually divided
into three classes, viz : the white, the black and the
sandy colored breeds.

(1) The white bteeds are the Chester White, the York-
shire in all its varieties, the Cheshire, the Victoria and the
Suffolk.

(2) The black breeds are the Poland-China, the Berkshire
and the Essex.

(3) The sandy breeds are the Tamworth and the Duroc-
Jersey.

282 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IX. Sometimes classification is based upon
the bacon-producing qualities of the swine, that is,
upon their ability to produce a large amount of side
meat of superior quality.

(1) The distinctive bacon breeds at present in the United
States are the Large Improved Yorkshire and the Tamworth.

(2) Next in adaptation for bacon production are the
Chester White, the Berkshire, the Cheshire, the Duroc-Jersey,
the Victoria and the Poland-China breeds, and probably in the
order named, and

(3) Lowest in adaptation for the same are the Small
Yorkshire, the Essex and the Suffolk breeds.

X. Classification is ordinarily based upon size,
and exhibitions hitherto have only recognized but
two classes, viz : the small and large breeds, but

(1) Such a classification is not sufficiently flexible, as

(2) It brings breeds into competition sometimes which
vary too much in size and leading characteristics.

XI. The pure breeds of swine in America may
with more propriety be classed as the large, the
medium and the small breeds.

(1) The large breeds are the Chester White, the Improved
Yorkshire and the Tamworth.

(2) The medium breeds are the Berkshire, the Poland-
China, the Victoria, the Duroc-Jersey and the Cheshire.

(3) The small breeds are the Suffolk, the Essex and the
Small Yorkshire.

XII. The aim has been in the above classifica-
tion to name the breeds in the order of their size,
commencing with the largest, but no classification
can be submitted at present that is sure to meet with
universal acceptance, owing

(1) To the lack of data available for making comparisons
as to average weights.

(2) To the variations of type in some of the breeds in
different localities and in the same locality, and

(3) To the transformation in some of the breeds that
is stil! going on.

LECTURE NO. 3.

SWINE LEADING ESSENTIALS AS TO FORM.

I. Essentials of form common to all the breeds
of swine.

(1) The parallelogrammic shape, with length and depth as
the most striking characteristics.

(2) Good length and depth of body for the breed and
sufficient width and compactness.

(3) Levelness, evenness and smoothness of outline, and

(4) A body well supported by rather short straight limbs.

II. The points of difference not so important
relatively include the following :

(1) Variations in size of carcass and of bone.

(2) Variations in the- size and shape of the head.

(3) Variations in the length and thickness of the neck.

(4) Variations in the length, shape and carriage of
the ear.

(5) Variations in the relative length, depth and width of
the coupling.

(6) Variations in the size, length and strength of bone
in the leg, and

(7) Variations in the color, length, quantity and quality
of the hair.

III. The more important indications of cor-
rect form in swine, and important probably in the
order given, are the following : —

(1) Constitution as indicated by chest capacity, strength
of limbs and spine and an active, easy carriage.

(2) Sufficient general development for the breed, including
length, depth and width.

(3) Smoothness and symmetry of outline.

(4) Good feeding qualities as indicated by the absence of
coarseness in the head, limbs and hair.

283

284 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(5) Capacity in the barrel as indicated by sufficient length,
depth and evenness of width for the breed.

IV. Leading essentials of the boar as to form,
given in detail.

(1) Size — Medium to large for the breed and the bone
medium to strong.

(2) Outline — The body should be parallelogrammic in
shape and compact rather than rangy, and the whole outline
should have the appearance of strength and vigor.

(3) Head — Medium to strong in size, short rather than
long, masculine and yet not coarse.

{a) Snout, short rather than long, and terminating in a
large rather than a small disk.

(b) Forehead, wide.

(d) Dish, varying with the breed.

(e) Poll, broad.

(f) Jowl, medium, but varying much in breeds.

(g) Ear, medium, but varying much with the breed in
size, shape and erection.

(4) Neck — Short rather than long, moderately wide and
deep at the junction with the head, and increasingly so toward
the junction with the shoulders.

(a) The shape may be spoken of as flattish oval, with a
base somewhat enlarged.

(b) The rise from the poll to the withers is regular and
slightly arching.

(d) The blending with the body is very complete, inas-
much as the lower rear base of the neck fills the whole of the
space known as the breast in cattle and sheep.

(5) Body — Long and deep and fairly broad, but varying
considerably in all these respects in the various breeds, and
equally well developed in the fore and hindquarters.

(a) Back, level from base of neck to near the tailhead.
but perceptibly arched in the long-bodied breeds, evenly an<l
frn'rly broad, and with but little outward and downward slope,
until the somewhat sudden descent of the side is reached.

(b) Underline, straight from brisket to hind flank.

(d) Brisket, broad.

(e) Chest, well developed, as indicated by width and depth
of shoulders, width of brisket and heart girth.

SWINE. 285

(f) Arm and thigh, medium to short, broad, rather flat
and much tapered to the knee and hock.

(g) Side, inclining to long, but varying much with the
breed; deep and straight and even from the shoulder to the
ham. and as thick below as above.

(h) Ribs, springing well from the backbone, then descend-
ing with a rather quick curve, and extending well down.

(i) Fore and hind flanks, low and well filled.

(j) Heart girth and flank girth, good and about eqaal.

(k) Hindquarters, long, deep and fairly wide.

(I) Ham, large, full, well down on the thigh, only slightly
rounding toward the center and abruptly rounded toward the
buttock.

(in) Tail, not coarse, and curled rather than straight.

(n) Buttock, full and slightly rounding from the tail to
the twist.

(0) Twist, low, broad and full.

(6) Legs — Short, rather than long, with short pasterns,
strong, but not coarse, straight, standing wide apart and car-
rying with ease the weight of the body.

(7) Skin — Smooth, without scales, and covered with a
plentiful coat of rather strong, but not coarse hair, and without
bristles.

(8) General Appearance — The appearance should indicate
vigor, easy action and docility.

V. The sow should possess the same leading
essentials as to form as the boar, with the following
points of difference :

(1) She is not so large in frame, is finer in general outline
and in bone, and is more roomy in the coupling.

(2) The head is smaller and considerably more refined.

(3) The neck is less massive in its development.

(4) The hair is not so coarse nor so strong, more espe-
cially on the neck, and

(5) She should have not less than twelve teats placed
well apart.

VI. The style of pig bred during the recent
decades.

(1) Breeders gave the preference to animals with small
and short heads, short and thick necks, broad and compact
bodies and fine limbs.

(2) While such preferences secured easy keeping and
great fattening qualities, they produced more or less of deli-
cacy of constitution, impaired the breeding powers and gave
meat excessively fat and with but a small proportion of bacon.

286 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

VII. Modifications in form that are likely to
be more sought for by breeders.

(i) The demand for leaner meat with more bacon is
bringing into favor pigs with medium heads and necks, longer
bodies and somewhat stronger limbs.

(2) Such animals are usually more rugged if not so quick
in maturing, are better breeders, produce more bacon and ?.
larger proportion of lean meat, and

(3) They also mature sufficiently early to be marketed at
f'om six to eight months old, when they should weigh from
150 to 200 pounds, or even more if well fed.

(4) These modifications may be secured through crossing
the short-bodied grade type? by sives of the bacon breeds, or
by continued selection wkbit" th^ br*od in any of the medium
types.

THE LARGE BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 4.

CHESTER WHITES ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Chester Whites originated in Chester
county, Pennsylvania, from which they derive their
name.

(1) They are probably the oldest of the breeds purely
American in origin.

(2) The establishment and improvement of the breed has
occupied a large portion of the century.

II. Materials used in forming the breed.

(1) The foundation stocks appear to have been large
hogs, white in color, found in that part of Pennsylvania.

(2) These were probably descended from the Old English
White breed, the ancestors of the various Yorkshire breeds.

III. The work of improvement.

(1) The first impulse to the improvement of the white
hogs of Chester county appears to have originated in the impor-
tation of a pair of white pigs from Bedford, England, by Capt.
James Jeffries of Westchester, Pa.

(2) Improvement since that time has been more or less
continuous, and has been greatly advanced by selection and
more recently by breeding to a standard.

IV. The improvers of Chester Whites.

(l) A number of farmers appear to have engaged in this
287

CHESTER WHITES. 289

work simultaneously, and chiefly at first with a view to secur-
ing a more suitable animal for the market.

(2) But prominent among the improvers of the breed
stand the names of Thomas Wood of Chester county, Pa., and
S. H. Todd of Wakeman, O.

V. Influences that have retarded distribution.

(1) When the demand for Chester Whites became greater
than the supply, dishonest men sold large numbers as pure
which had little in common with Chester Whites save the
color, and

(2) In the West they have been found to some extent
liable to mange.

VI. Modifications in the breed.

(1) Formerly Chester Whites were coarse in the head,
bone and hair, had a large pendant ear, a long and coarse tail,
and lacked smoothness of form.

(2) These coarse features have been eliminated in a
marked degree, and they have been transformed into a smooth
and symmetrical breed.

VII. Organization.

(1) At least five record associations have been organized
in the interests of Chester White swine in the United States.

(2) These are the American Chester White Record Asso-
ciation, the National, the International, the Standard and the
Ohio Improved.

VIII. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Chester White swine are fairly well distributed over
the eastern, northern, central and northwestern states and
man}' are bred in Canada.

(2) They are numerously kept in the states of Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and in the province of
Ontario.

IX. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) The Standard and American Associations have
recorded 37,576 animals, of which 16,672 are males and 20,904
females.

(2) In Ontario, 2,766 animals have been recorded.
IQ

29O THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Chester Whites are among the largest, if they are not
indeed the largest of the American or British breeds.

(2) The size, however, has lessened since the coarseness
which characterized many of the earlier specimens was
eliminated.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Chester Whites have been found best suited to those
portions of the United States where the climate is not too
warm in summer.

(2) They also answer well for markets which call for
large development at a comparatively early age.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They possess these in a fair degree, but not to the
same extent as some of the small breeds, as

(2) The large frame requires longer to perfect its growth.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) The fairly strong limbs of the Chester Whites adapt
them well to summer grazing.

(2) They will feed to attain heavy weights, but do not
finish so soon as some of the lighter breeds.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat is good, but contains more bone than some
breeds, and

(2) The flesh is also less firm, owing probably to the rela-
tively larger amount of fat.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Chester Whites are valuable for crossing upon grades
small and over refined.

(2) Such a cross will impart vigor, hardihood, increased
prolificacy and greatly increased size.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are satisfactory, but

(2) They are probably scarcely equal to those of the other
large breeds.

CHESTER WHITES.

29T

STANDARD POINTS.

I. Tbe following- is the scale of points as
adopted by the Chester White Record Association in
1885. and revised by the same in 1888 :

POINTS

(I)

(2)

(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)

(11)
(12)

(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)

Head — Small, broad, slightly dished

Eye — Large and bright

Ear — Thin, fine, drooping

Jozvl — Neat and full .

Neck — Short, full, well arched

Brisket — Full and deep .

Shoulder — Broad and deep .

Girth Around Heart .

Back — Straight and broad .

Sides — Deep and full

Ribs — Well sprung

Belly — Wide and straight

Girth Around Flank .

Ham — Broad, full and deep .

Limbs — Strong, straight and neat

Tail — Tapering, and not coarse

Coat — Fine and thick .

Color — White ....

Action — Prompt, easy and graceful

Symmetry

Perfection

• 5
2

. 2
3

• 3
3

. 6
10

. 7

. 6

• 4
10

. 10

7
2

• 3
I

. 5
4

100

II. The following is the detailed description
drawn up by the Chester White Record Association :

(1) Head — Short; broad between the eyes, and nicely
tapering from eyes to point of nose ; face slightly dished ;
cheeks full. Objections — Head, coarse, long and narrow; face
straight or too much dished ; snout coarse or thick.

(2) Eye — Large, bright and free from overgrowing fat.
Objections — Small, dim or hidden under protruding fat.

(3) Ear — Drooping, thin, pointing outward and forward;
well proportioned to size of body. Objections — Too large and
coarse; thick, lopping; lying too near the face; stiff, erect or
too small.

(4) Jozvl — Full, firm and neat : carrying fullness well back
to neck and brisket. Objections — Flabby, light, thin in cheek;
tucking up under the neck.

(5) Neck — Full, deep, short and well arched. Objec-
tions— Long, flat, lacking in fullness or depth.

2^ THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(6) Brisket — Full, strong, well let down, extending well
forward, and on line of the belly. Objections — Narrow or
tucked up.

(7) Shoulder — Broad, deep, thickness in proportion to the
side and ham. full and even on top. Objections — Thick beyond
the line of side and ham, lacking in depth or width ; blade
prominent or extending above the line of the back.

(8) Girth Around the Heart — Full back of shoulders ; ribs
extending well down ; wide and full back of forelegs. Objec-
tions— Heart girth less than flank girth, or length of body from
top of the head to the root of the tail.

(9) Back — Broad, straight, or slightly arched, carrying
width well back to the hams, and of medium length. Objec-
tions— Narrow, sinking back of shoulders ; narrow across the
loin ; swayed, too long ; sunfish shaped.

(10) Sides — Full, deep, carrying thickness well down and
back. Objections — Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the
flank.

(11) Ribs — Well sprung, carrying fullness well back and
deep. Objections — Too flat, curve of rib too short, tucking
in at bottom ; sagging about loin.

(12) Loin — Broad, strong and full. Objections — Narrow;
poorly ribbed up ; weak.

(13) Belly — Wide and straight; width approximating that
of the back. Objections — Sagging, narrow ; skin coarse, harsh
aiH thick.

(14) Girth Around Flank — Flank well let down and full;
loin broad, strong and full measurement of flank girth equal
to heart girth. Objections — Flank thin, tucked in, or cut up
too high ; loin narrow or weak.

(15) Ham — Broad, full, deep, of medium length; coming
down well over the hock. Objections — Narrow, short; run-
ning too far up the back ; steep at the rump.

(16) Limbs — Medium length: short, rather than long; set
well apart, and well under; muscles full above knee and hock;
bone firm, and not coarse; pasterns short, and strong; foot
short. Objections — Long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles light;
pasterns long, slim, or flat ; hoofs long or sprawling.

(17) Tail — Small, tapering, smooth: well set on. Objec-
tions— Coarse, large, too prominent at the root.

(18) Coat — Fine and thick. Objections — Coarse: hair too
leng; wiry, harsh.

(19) Color — White: blue spots on skin and black specks
shall not argue impurity of blood.

(20) Action — Fasy, prompt, fine and graceful. Objections —
Dull, sluggish, clumsy.

CHESTER WHITES. 293

(21) Symmetry — Uniform build, and all points in animal
in proportion. Objections — Wanting in some points, and too
much developed in others.

Serious Objections — Small growth; upright ears; small,
cramped chest and crease back of shoulders so as to be readily
seen. Deformed and badly crooked legs; feet broken down
so that the animal walks on pastern joints and dewclaws.

III. General Appearance — The Chester White
is a large, long bodied and yet strongly built animal,
with good limbs and sufficient action.

-c

LECTURE NO. 5.

THE IMPROVED LARGE YORKSHIRES ORIGIN AND

HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND
STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. In England there are three breeds of York-
shire pigs at the present time.

(1) These are known respectively in that country as the
Improved Large Yorkshires or the Large Whites ; the Middle
Yorkshires or the Middle Whites ; and the Small Yorkshires
or the Small Whites.

(2) Only the first and last mentioned have been intro-
duced into North America, at least in any considerable
numbers.

II. Many are of the opinion that these breeds
have come originally from the Old English hog, a
large white animal or class of animals, inhabiting
Yorkshire and other counties of England from a
remote period.

(1) The Improved Large Yorkshire of to-day is the imme-
diate descendant of the larger and coarser Yorkshire of former
years.

(2) The Small Yorkshire owes its refinement in a meas-
ure to Chinese crosses, and

(3) The Middle Yorkshire is the outcome of a cross
between the Large and Small Yorkshire breeds.

III. Description of the Old Yorkshire.

(1) It was long in head, in body and legs, was narrow,
had very large ears, and was coarse of bone.

(2) It had a strong coat of white hair, with a few pale
blue spots on the skin, but the hair on these was also white, and

(3) It was very hardy and prolific, but was slow in
maturing.

295

296 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Improvement of the Large Yorkshires.

(O The improvement of the Large Yorkshires com-
menced, it is thought, fully a century ago, but

(2) They lacked somewhat in refinement and early matur-
ing qualities until within a comparatively recent period.

V. How improvement was effected,

(1) The White Leicester, introduced early in the century
and crossed upon the Old Yorkshires, effected some improve-
ment, and

(2) The blood of the Small Yorkshires has also had an
influence in carrying the improvement still further.

VI. The improvers of the Large Yorkshires.

(1) The improvers of this breed do not seem to have
worked in unison nor by system, hence there is yet a consid-
erable lack of uniformity in the breed.

(2) A number of breeders were engaged in the work at
the same time, some of them of the artisan class.

VII. Yorkshire blood widely diffused.

(1) Nearly all the white breeds of pigs in England and
America are probably possessed of the elements of Yorkshire
blood and also of the allied breed, the Cumberland.

(2) Some of these are virtually Yorkshire under another
name.

VIII. Distribution in Britain.

(i) The chief centers for the breed in Britain are the
counties of Yorkshire, Lincoln, Lancastershire and Leices-
ter, but

(2) During recent years they have been introduced into
many of the counties of Great Britain.

IX. Distribution in other countries.

(1) The Improved Large Yorkshires have been imported
in large numbers into Canada, where during recent years
bacon is being extensively grown for the British market.

(2) They have also been introduced into the United
States, Argentina, New Zealand, Australia and several of the
countries of Europe.

(3) The first importation to the Linked States was made
by Wilcox & Liggett of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minn., in
1893, although

(4) Large Yorkshires have been imported to America for
more than a century, but not in the improved form.

YORKSHIRES. 297

X. Organizations.

(i) The Improved Large Yorkshires are protected by
registration in the United States and Canada.

(2) The American Yorkshire Association was organized
in 1893.

XL Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) They have already been introduced into several states
and they are kept in all or nearly all the provinces of Canada.

(2) They are most numerous in Ontario, Minnesota and
Iowa, and in the order named.

XII. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) In the Ontario record, 7.611 animals have been
recorded.

(2) In the American record, 1,011 animals have been
recorded, of which 426 are boars and 585 sows.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Large Improved Yorkshires are probably the
longest of the breeds, but they are not so broad as the Chester
Whites, and probably do not grow to such heavy weights, but

(2) They weigh remarkably well for their apparent size.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Since they are especially adapted to the production
of bacon they can be kept with much advantage where bacon is
to be grown for the home or the foreign market.

(2) They have special adaptation to the states of the corn
belt, owing, first, to the excellent limbs which they possess;
second, to their ability to rustle, and, third, to the renovating
influence which they exert when crossed upon types of weak-
ened stamina.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They do not mature so quickly as the small typps with
fine limb, but

(2) They may be made ready for market without difficulty
at the ages of six to nine months.

298 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) They graze and forage admirably, as they are active
and yet of gentle disposition, and

(2) They feed equally well, but must be plentifully sup-
plied with food.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The quality of the meat from the Large Improved
Yorkshires is unexcelled, as

(2) Their long sides produce much bacon and they have
much lean in proportion to the fat.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Wherever compact fine-boned pigs exist, the cross of
the Large Improved Yorkshire will be found an excellent
one, as

(2) It will at once increase the size, impart greater vigor,
improve the quality of the meat, more especially the bacon, and
will increase prolificacy.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are of the first order.

(2) They breed regularly, produce large litters and are
excellent nurses.

VIII. Compared with Chester Whites.

(1) The Improved Yorkshire is perhaps a little less in
weight, is even more active than the Chester White in foraging,
is ahead of it as a first-class producer of bacon, and is also
probably ahead in breeding qualities.

(2) In early maturity and in quick feeding qualities the
Chester Whites may have some advantage.

(3) In value for crossing and grading they are probably
not far different.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the American Yorkshire club in 1899 :

POINTS.

(1) General Outline — Long and deep in proportion
to width, but not massive ; slightly arched in the

back, symmetrical and smooth, with body firmly
supported by well placed legs of medium length 5

(2) Outline of Head — Moderate in length and size,
with lower jaw well sprung, and considerable

YORKSHIRES. 299

POINTS.

dish toward snout, increasing with advancing

maturity 4

(0) Forehead and Poll— Wide . . . . . I

(4) Eye — Medium size, clear and bright . . .1

(5) Jowl — Medium, not carried too far back toward
neck, and not flabby ...... I

(6) Snout — Turning upward with a short curve,
increasing with age ...... I

(7) Ear — Medium in size, standing well out from
head, of medium erection and inclining slightly

forward I

(8) Neck — Of medium length, fair width and depth,
rising gradually from poll to withers, muscular
but not gross, evenly connecting head with
body 3

(9) Outline of Body — Long, deep, and of medium
breadth, equally wide at shoulder, side and
hams; top line slightly arched, underline straight 7

(10) Back — Moderately broad, even in width from
end to end : strong in loin, short ribs of good
length 10

(11) Shoulder — Large, but not massive; not open
above ......... 6

(12) Arm and Thigh — Broad and of medium length
and development ....... 2

(13) Brisket — Wide and on a level with underline . 3

(14) Side— Long, deep, straight and even from shoul-
der to hip ........ 8

(15) Ribs — Well arched and deep .... 5

(16) Heart and Flank Girth — Good and about equal 8

(17) Hindquarters — Long to correspond with shoul-
der and side, deep, with moderate and gradual
droop to tail ....... 5

(18) Ham — Large, well let down on thigh and twist
and rear outline somewhat rounded . . . ic

(19) Tzcist — Well down and meaty .... I

(20) Tail — Medium, not much inclined to curl . . 1

(21) Legs — Medium in length, strong, not coarse,
and standing straight and firm ... 5

(22) Hair — Abundant, long, of medium fineness,
without any bristles 4

(23) Skin — Smooth and white, without scales, but
dark spots in skin do not disqualify ... 2

(24") Colors-White on every part I

(25) Movement — Active, but not restless ... 5

Perfection 100

300 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

II. Compared with Chester Whites.

(i) Large Improved Yorkshires are relatively longer than
the Chester Whites, but are not so broad or massive.

(2) They have somewhat stronger heads, with more dish,
more spring in the lower jaw, and jowls somewhat more pro-
nounced.

(3) They have rather longer sides and not quite so much
girth in proportion to the length, and

(4) They are slightly larger in limb and rather more active
in movement.

LECTURE NO. 6.

TAMWORTHS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTERIS-
TICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Tamworth pigs derive their name from
Tamworth, in South Staffordshire, where they have
been numerously bred for a very long term of years.

(i) They are not a composite breed, and are thought by
many to be one of the oldest and purest breeds in Britain.

(2) As long ago as the beginning of the century they were
noted for the large proportion of the lean meat which they
produced. *

II. The Tamworths before improvement.

(1) They were long of limb, long in the snout and flat
in the rib.

(2) They were active, hardy, good rustlers and very pro-
lific, but

(3) They were slow feeders and late in maturing.

III. The improvement of Tamworths.

(1) This has been almost entirely effected through selec-
tion and judicious breeding and management.

(2) It is now pretty generally conceded that the blood of
other breeds has not been used to any appreciable extent in the
improvement of Tamworths.

IV. When improvement was effected.

(1) They appear to have been improved to a considerable
extent before the middle of the century, as they were given
first honors at the Royal Agricultural Society's show, when
competing with large breeds, as early as 1847, but

(2) Subsequent to this period they sank into obscurity,
and were only known in some local districts.

(3) Within the last fifteen years, or, say, since 1880, much
attention has been given to their improvement, owing to the
demand for leaner bacon.

3OI

o
£

til

TAMWORTHS. 303

V. The improvers of Tamworths.

(1) As with several other breeds, no individuals have
attained great distinction in improving them.

(2) Many breeders have engaged in this work from the
standpoint of economy.

VI. Distribution of Tamworths.

(1) They have been bred more or less for many years in
certain local centers of the Midland counties, and

(2) Now they are being brought into other counties,
where, to some extent, they are displacing the more refined
and delicate breeds.

(3) Classes have been made for them at all the leading
shows in England, including the Smithfield.

VII. Distribution in other countries.

(1) Until quite recently they were almost unknown in
foreign countries.

(2) They were first imported into the United States in
1882 by Thomas Bennett of Rossville, 111.

(3) They have been imported into Ontario, Canada, in
large numbers since 1888.

VIII. Organization.

(1) Tamworth swine are protected by registration in
Great Britain, the United States and Canada.

(2) The American Tamworth Swine Record Association
was organized in 1897.

IX. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Tamworth swine are now being recorded from seven-
teen states in the Union and from nearly all the provinces of
Canada.

(2) They are most numerous at present in the states of
Michigan, Illinois and Iowa.

X. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) In the United States there have been recorded about
600 animals.

(2) In the Canadian record, 2,972 Tamworths have been
recorded.

304 THE STUDY OF 15REEDS.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Tamworths are at least a close second to the Large
Improved Yorkshires in size, while some claim that they are
even a larger breed, and

(2) Their natural vigor and hardihood are in keeping
with their size.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Since Tamworths are without a superior in the pro-
duction of bacon they may be advantageously reared by all who
desire to produce a superior bacon product, and

(2) Since they possess much vigor and stamina they may
be kept with much appropriateness in the corn growing states
either pure or when crossed upon other breeds or grades not of
the bacon type.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) Formerly they required both age and time to fatten,
but in both these respects they have improved much during
recent years, yet

(2) They are not equal to the small refined breeds it*
early maturing qualities.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities-

(1) Since Tamworths are grand rustlers, they answer
admirably where pastures are to perform an important part in
pork production.

(2) They will also stand well under forced feeding and
they are not hard keepers, as many imagine.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) They arc said to excel all the English breeds in the
proportion of the lean to the fat, but

(2) They have more bone relatively than some of the
small breeds.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) When crossed upon small, compact and over refined
grade sows, they impart size, all-round development, vigor and
prolificacy, and

(2) The offspring produce more and better meat and
probably without increase in the cost of production.

TAMWORTHS. 305

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) Tamworths are unexcelled for prolificacy and

(2) The young pigs possess the hardihood characteristic
of the breed.

VIII. Compared with Chester Whites.

(1) Tamworths are probably ahead in what may be
termed flexibility in adaptation, are more active grazers, are
somewhat ahead in stamina, produce a superior quality of
bacon and have even greater power to produce renovation in
delicate types when crossed upon them.

(2) The Chester Whites are probably heavier at matu-
rity, are ready for slaughter at a period somewhat earlier, and
fatten more quickly when fed for pork rather than for bacon,

PRINCIPAL POINTS.

I. In the absence of a suitable scale of points,
the following is submitted :

(1) General Outline — The frame is long and deep rather
than broad, and is well sustained by strong limbs.

(2) Head — Long, but light rather than heavy, possessed
of very moderate dish, and having an appearance of leanness.

(a) Forehead and poll, of medium width.

(b) Eye, medium, clear.

(d) Jowl, light rather than heavy.

(e) Ear, medium in size, pointing forward and fairly
erect.

(3) Neck — Rather long than short, and deep than wide,
and rising gradually from the poll to the withers.

(4) Body — Long in the coupling and deep, slightly but
regularly arched above and straight below.

(a) Back, moderately wide, with a gradual rounding
descent until the side is reached.

(b) Brisket, wide and on a level with the underline.

(d) Shoulder, broad, moderately full, not rough, and
about equal in thickness to ham.

(e) Side, long, quite deep, and retaining its thickness
down to the belly.

(f) Ribs, well arched and deep.

(g) Fore and hind flanks, full, and heart girth and flank
girth, good and about equal.

30b THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(/;) Hindquarter, long, deep, fairly full, and rounded at
the buttock.

(i) Ham, large and gradually rounded off rather than
square.

(j) Tail, medium strong, but not very long, and curled.

(k) Twist, low, and moderately full.

(5) Legs — Medium in length, moderately wide apart,
straight, strong and firmly placed under the body.

(6) Skin — Smooth and covered plentifully with hair.

(a) Hair, not coarse and without any bristles.

(b) The color is a red or bright chestnut, often termed
sandy, and it usually darkens with age.

II. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance the Tamworth is long, smooth and at least fair-
ly deep ; the snout is too long to meet the popular
ideal of beauty in the same ; the ham has a little more
of depth than the shoulder; the legs are strong and
straight and the carriage is easy and active.

III. Compared with Chester Whites.

(1) Tamworths are not so massive, not so wide, deeper
in proportion to the width and something more arched in the
back.

(2) Their heads are lighter, snouts considerably longer,
jowls something lighter, and ears smaller and more erect.

(3) Their limbs are somewhat stronger, and there arc
the differences in color mentioned.

IV. Compared with Improved Yorkshires.

(1) The Tamworths have the same general form and
length and strength of limb, and the same easy and active car-
riage, but

(2) They are lighter in the head, longer and straighter
in the snout, have less of down spring in the under jaw, less of
size in the jowl, and more of rounding outward and downward
away from the line of the back, and

(3) There are the differences in color mentioned.

THE MEDIUM BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 7.

THL /JERKSHIRES ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

/. Berkshires are one of the oldest of the

improved breeds of swine.

(1) They are so named from the county of Berkshire,
England, in which they have been numerously bred, but

(2) The principal improvement of the breed was rather
made in Leicestershire and Staffordshire.

II. The original Berkshires.

(1) The original Berkshire was a large animal of similar
ancestry, probably, with the Tamworth.

(2) It was somewhat coarse in body, but not so coarse
as the Old White hog of the northern counties, and had large
pendent ears.

(3) The color was tawny, white or reddish brown, spot-
ted with black.

y\ III. When improvement was effected.

(1) The Berkshires were brought to a considerable
degree of perfection in the last century.

(2) From 1820 to 1830 very marked improvement was
effected by Lord Barrington and others.

(3) They were first given a separate class at the Royal
Agricultural Society's show in 1862.

IV. How improvement was effected.

(1) The precise steps taken at the first to improve the
Berkshires are not very well known, but

(2) It is now pretty generally conceded that Chinese,

307

BERKSHIRES. 309

Siamese *t«c? Neapolitan crosses were used, more especially the
first memiiomd.

{/ V. The early improvers of Berkshires.

(1) The very earliest of the improvers of the breed are
unknown.

(2) Prominent among the early improvers stand the
names of Richard Astley, of Oldstonehall, and Lord Bar-
rington.

(3) Among the more noted of the later improvers the
names of W. Hewer, Sevenhampton, Rev. H. Bailey, Swindon,
and Russell Swanwick, Cirencester, may be mentioned.

VI. Two classes of Berkshires.

(1) In one of these the color is white, of which the Coles-
hill and Windsor breeds are examples.

(2) In the other, now more commonly known as the
Berkshire, the color is black, with some white markings.

VII. Distribution in Britain.

(1) Berkshires are most numerously bred in the south-
western and midland counties of England, but they are kept in
other counties in considerable numbers.

(2) They have effected great improvement on several of
the native races of Ireland, and have also found their way into
Scotland.

VIJI. Distribution in other countries.

d) They have been exported to foreign countries more
extensively than any other British breed, more especially to
the United States and Canada.

(2) They were probably imported into America in 1823,
but the date usually given is 1832.

IX. Organizations.

(1) The American Berkshire Association was organized
in 1875, and the National Berkshire Record Association in 1893.

(2) The recording of Berkshires in Canada commenced
in 1876.

X. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Berkshires are kept in all, or nearly all, the states of
the Union and in all the provinces of Canada.

(2) They are numerously kept in the province of Ontario

3IO THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

and in the states of Illinois, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Wis*
consin, Iowa and Missouri,

XI. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(i) The American Berkshire Associations have recorded
61,327 animals, and

(2) The Canadian Swine Breeders' Association has
recorded 13,135-

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) As now bred, the Berkshires "are probably larger than
the Poland-Chinas, but it is well-nigh impossible to determine
this question at present.

(2) The breeders are giving more attention to lengthening
the form and even the limbs during recent years, but

(3) There is no little difference in size in the various types
of the breed.

II. Adaptability.

(1) In what may be termed general adaptation, the Berk-
shires probably stand at the head of the list of the improved
breeds, all the conditions considered.

(2) They may be reared in good form in almost any place
adapted to swine rearing, and for pork or bacon as desired.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are excellent.

(2) They will fatten at almost any age that may be desired.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) Berkshires are excellent grazers, as they are possessed
of limbs with a good quality of bone.

(2) As feeders, their strong digestive and assimilative
powers enable them to give a maximum return in flesh for the
food consumed.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) They produce excellent pork or bacon, as the fat and
lean are fairly well intermixed, and

(2) They also dress well in proportion to the live weight

BERKSHIRES. 311

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) None of the British breeds has been found more
useful than the Berkshires for crossing, and none has beep
used so much for this purpose.

(2) They have proved of great value in refining the
coarser breeds.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are at least medium, but of course they vary
with the varying conditions to which they have been subjected.

(2) When not reared under enervating conditions they
produce medium large litters and rear them well.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the standard of excellence
adopted by the American Berkshire association :

POINTS.

(1) Color — Black, but skin and hair occasionally
showing tinge of bronze or copper color, with
white on feet, face, tip of tail and occasional
splash on the arm ....... 4

(2) Face and Snout — The latter short, broad and
meaty, the former fine, well dished and broad
between the eyes ...... 9

(3) Eye — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray 2

(4) Ear — Sometimes almost erect, but generally
inclined forward, medium size .... 4

(5) Jon'I — Full and heavy, running back well on neck 4

(6) Neck — Short and broad on top .... 4

(7) Hair — Fine and soft, inclined to thickness in
male 3

(8) Skin — Smooth and pliable 4

(9) Slwuldcr — Smooth and even on top and in line
with side, thick through chest .... 7

(10) Back — Broad, long and straight or slightly
arched, ribs well sprung . . . . .10

(11) Side — Deep and well let down, straight side and
bottom line . 6

(12) Flank — Well back and low down on leg, making
nearly a straight line with lower part of side . 5

(13) Loin — Full and wide 8

(14) Ham — Deep and thick, extending well up on
back, and holding thickness well down to hock . 10

312 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

POINTS.

(15) Tail — Well set up on line with back, not too
fine, short or tapering 2

(16) Legs and Feet — Short, straight and strong, set
wide apart, with hoofs nearly erect and capable

of holding good weight 8

(17) Size and Symmetry — Size, all that is possible
without loss of quality or symmetry, with good
length 7

(18) Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thor-
ough breeding and constitutional vigor . . 3

Perfection 100

II. The following additional points are sub-
mitted, including some suggested modifications to
meet the changing requisites in form :

(1) Disk of snout, broad.

(2) Neck, medium to short, oval and blending evenly
with the shoulder.

(3) Brisket, wide.

(4) Back, of medium length.

(5) Side, medium in length and of nearly even thickness
above and below.

(6) Heart girth and flank girth, good and equal.

(7) Legs, medium to short.

III. In general appearance Berkshires are of
good size, are fairly compact in form, regular and
even in outline and easy in movement.

LECTURE NO. 8.

POLAND-CHINAS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Poland-China breed of swine origi-
nated chiefly in the counties of Warren and Butler,
in the Miami valley in the state of Ohio.

(i) For many years various names were applied to ani-
mals of this breed, as : Magie, Butler County, Warren County,
Miami Valley, Poland, Poland and China, Great Western,
Shaker, Union Village, Dick's Creek, Gregory's Creek, and
others.

(2) It was decided at the National Swine Breeders' con-
vention held at Indianapolis in 1872 that the breed should be
known as the Poland-China, and this designation is now pretty
generally accepted.

II. Formation of the Poland-China breed.

(1) The foundation animals were the common stocks of
the country, essentially of very mixed breeding.

(2) These were more or less crossed with the Russia, the
Byfield and the Big Chinas, all of which existed in Warren
county prior to 1820.

(3) The Berkshire cross, introduced in 1835 and subse-
quently, gave the black color, improved symmetry and increased
activity, and imparted additional strength to the limbs.

(4) The Irish Grazier cross, introduced in 1839, gave
improved grazing qualities and increased hardihood.

(5) No out-crosses have been used since 1845.

III. The improvers of Poland-Chinas.

(1) No one person stands out pre-eminently as the
founder of the breed, though several have sought that dis-
tinction.

(2) The Shakers of Union Village, Warren county, O.,
are to be credited with much of the improvement made in the
early years of the century.

3T3

o
to

c
J2

o
a.

POLAND-CHINAS. 3 15

IV. Organizations.

(i) A number of organizations have been formed in the
interests of the breed, all, or nearly all, of which have adopted
the same standard of points.

(2) Prominent among these are the following, viz: The
Ohio Poland-China Record Company, organized 1878, at Day-
ton, O. ; the American Poland-China Record Company, organ-
ized 1878, at Cedar Rapids, la. ; the Central Poland-China
Association, organized 1880, at Indianapolis; the Northwest-
ern Poland-China Swine Association, organized in Washington,
Kan., in 1881, and the Standard Poland-China Record Associa-
tion, organized 1887, at Maryville, Mo.

V. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Poland-Chinas are probably found in every state in
the Union.

(2) In the central, western and northwestern states they
are more numerously kept than any other breed.

(3) They have also been introduced into several of the
provinces of Canada, though not in large numbers.

VI. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) The associations mentioned above under Note IV
have recorded approximately 350,000 animals, of which about
30 pei cent are males.

(2) In Canada, 2,714 animals have been recorded.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Formerly the Poland-Chinas were larger and les«i
refined than at the present time.

(2) Though reduced in absolute size and improved in
form, they are still among the largest of the medium breeds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They have proved well adapted to corn growing coun-
tries, hence their great popularity in the west, but

(2) They are adapted to any conditions that furnish
plentiful supplies of food to produce quick growth.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They possess these in a high degree, so that

316 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) The inclination with Poland-Chinas now is to mature
so quickly as to interfere with sufficiently large growth.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) When grazing they want good pastures.

(2) They are free feeders and easy keepers.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) Poland-Chinas kill well, and the meat is fine in grain
and tender, but

(2) The proportion of the fat is large and of bacon only
medium.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Poland-Chinas cross admirably on common stocks
deficient in compactness, early maturity and good feeding
qualities, but

(2) They would not be suited for crossing on the more
refined breeds.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are only fair.

(2) The too free and prolonged use of a corn diet has had
the effect in too many instances of impairing the breeding
powers, unduly weakening the bone and injuring the stamina.

VIII. Compared with Berkshires.

(1) In producing meat with but a small percentage of
offal, the Poland-Chinas may have some advantage.

(2) In stamina, rustling qualities and prolificacy, the
Berkshires have probably some advantage.

(3) In other leading essentials the two breeds resemble
each other closely.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
for Poland-Chinas by the National association of
expert judges of swine:

POINTS.

(1) Head and Face 4

(2) Eyes 2

(3) Ears 2

(4) Neck 2

(5) Jowl 2

(6) Shoulders 6

POLAND-CHINAS. 31/

POINTS.

(7) Chest 12

(8) Back and Loin 14

(9) Sides and Ribs 10

(10) Belly and Flank 4

(11) Ham and Rump 10

(12) Feet and Legs 10

(13) Tail 1

(14) Coat 3

(15) Color 4

(16) Size . . 5

(17) Action and Style 3

(18) Condition 2

(19) Disposition 2

(20) Symmetry of Points 2

Perfection 100

II. The following is the detailed description
drawn up by the National association of expert
judges of swine :

(1) Head and Face — Head short and wide; cheeks full,
jaws broad; forehead high and wide; face short, smooth, wide
between the eyes, tapering from eyes to point of nose and
slightly dished, surface even and regular. Objections — Head
long, narrow, coarse ; forehead low and narrow or contracted,
lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long, straight and
narrow between the eyes : nose coarse, thick or crooked, ridgy
or dished as much as a Berkshire.

(2) Eyes — Large, prominent, bright, lively, clear and free
from wrinkled or fat surroundings. Objections — Small, dull,
bloodshot, deep set or obscure ; vision impaired by wrinkles,
fat or other cause.

(3) Ears — Small, thin, soft, silky, attached to the head by
a short and small knuck, tips pointing forward and slightly
outward, and the forward half drooping gracefully, fully under
control of animal, both of same size, position and shape.
Objections — Large, straight, stiff, coarse, thick, round, long or
large knuck, drooping close to face, swinging and flabby, dif-
ference in form, size or position.

(4) Neck — Wide, deep, short and nicely arched at top,
from poll of head to shoulder. Objections — Long, narrow,
thin, flat on top. not extending down to breastbone, tucked up.

(5) Joii'l — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying
fullness back near to point of shoulders and below line of lower
jaw. so that lower line will be as low as breastbone when head
is carried up level. Objections — Light, flabby, thin, wedge-

3i8

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

shaped, deeply wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw,
and not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket.

(6) Shoulder — Broad, deep and full, not extending above
line of back and being as wide on top as on back, carrying size
down to line of belly and having good lateral width. Objec-
tions— Narrow and not same depth as body, narrow at top or
bottom or extending above line of back, less than body in
breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width,
shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy
shields on hogs under eighteen months of age.

(7) Chest — Large, wide, deep, roomy, indicating plenty
of room for vital organs, making a large girth just back of
shoulders, the breastbone extending forward so as to show
slightly in front of legs and extending in a straight line back
to end of breastbone, showing a width of not less than six
inches between forelegs in a large, full grown hog. Objec-
tions— Flat, pinched, narrow at top or at either end of breast-
bone ; breastbone crooked or not extending slightly in front of
forelegs.

(8) Back and Loin — Broad, straight, or slightly arched,
carrying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even,
smooth, free from lumps, crease or projections, not too long,
but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs, should not be
higher at hip than at shoulder, and should fill out at junction
with side so that a straight-edge placed along top of side will
touch all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham ;
should be shorter than lower belly line. Objections — Narrow,
creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, drooping below
a straight line, humped or wrinkled, too long or sunfish shaped,
loin high, narrow, depressed or humped up, surface lumpy,
creased, ridgy or uneven, width at side not as much as shoulder
and ham.

(9) Sides and Ribs — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep,
carrying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder,
ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections —
Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as at top,
drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched and
tucked up and in as it approaches the ham, lumpy or uneven
surface, ribs flat or too short.

(10) Belly and Flank — Wide, straight and full, and drop-
ping as low as flank at bottom of chest, back of fore leg making
a straight line from fore legs to hind legs ; flank full and out
even with surrounding portions of body, the belly at that point
dropping down on a line with lower line of chest: the loose
skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even with bottom
or side. Objections — Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby.
Flank thin, tucked up or drawn in.

(11) Hams and Rump — Hams broad, full, long and wide.

POLAND-CHINAS. 319

They should be as wide at point of the hip as at the swell of
the ham. Buttocks large and full, should project beyond and
come down upon and fill full between the hocks. The lower
front part of the ham should be full and stifle well covered
with flesh, and a gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump
should have a rounding slope from the loin to root of tail ;
same width as back and filling out full on each side of and
above the tail. Objections — Ham narrow, short, thin, not
projecting beyond, and coming down to hock: cut up too high
in crotch or twist ; lacking in fullness at top or bottom ; lacking
in width from stifle straight back, lower fore part thin and flat,
straight from root of tail to hock, buttocks light, thin or flabby.
Rump flat, narrow and peaked at root of tail ; too steep.

(12) Legs and Feet — Legs medium length, straight, set well
apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and
wide above knee and hock, below hock and knee round and
tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh
without breaking down, bone firm and of fine texture, pasterns
short and nearly upright. Feet firm, short, tough and free
from defects. Objections — Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked,
muscles small above hock and knee, bone large, coarse, as large
at foot as above knee, pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak,
the hocks turned in or out of straight line, legs too close
together, hoofs long, slim and weak, toes spreading or crooked
or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down.

(13) Tail — Well set on, smooth, tapering and carried in
q curl. Objections — Coarse, long, crooked or hanging straight
flown like a rope.

(14) Coat — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and
covering body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over the
body. Objections — Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or
curly, swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not
evenly distributed over all the body except belly. Clipped
coats should be cut 1.5 points.

(15) Color — Black with white in face or lower jaw, white
on feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on
body not objectionable. Objections — Solid black, more than
one-fourth white, sandy hairs or spots, a grizzled or speckled
appearance.

(16) Size— -Large for age and condition; boars two years
old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500
pounds. Sows, same age and condition, not less than 450
pounds. Boars eighteen months old, in good condition, not
less than 400 pounds : sows 350 pounds. Boars twelve months
old, pot less than 300 pounds ; sows 300 pounds. Boars and
sows, six months, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in
proportion. Objections — Overgrowth, coarse, gangling, or
hard to fatten at any age.

320 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(17) Action and Style — Action vigorous, easy, quick and
graceful. Style attractive, high carriage, and in males testicles
should be of same size, carriage, readily seen and yet not too
large. Objections — Slow, dull, clumsy, awkward, difficulty in
getting up when down, low carriage, wabbling walk. In males,
testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large
or only one showing.

(18) Condition — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or
sores, soft and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on
and free from lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close
to body, good feeding qualities. Objections — Unhealthy, skin
scaly, wrinkly, scabby or harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh, too
much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from
body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or total.

(19) Disposition — Quite gentle and easily handled. Objec-
tions— Cross, restless, vicious or wild.

III. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance the Poland-China is compact, symmetrical,
regular in outline, smooth and almost massive in
build.

IV. Compared with Berkshires.

(1) The two breeds resemble each other not a little in
general outline, but the Berkshires are a little longer in limb
and not quite so massive in form.

(2) The Poland-Chinas have heads a little finer and less
dished, snouts rather finer, ears larger and more drooping and
more of evenness in the relative size of shoulder and h?ms.

(3) They are also less regular in their distinguishing
color markings.

LECTURE NO. 9.

THE VICTORIAS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTER-
ISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

/. The name Victoria has been given to two
breeds or types of swine, essentially distinct in their
origin.

(1) The first of these originated in the state of New York
and the second in Indiana.

(2) The latter only appears to be protected by an associa-
tion and by registration.

(3) Both are of medium size, although the latter is the
larger of the two, and both are white in color.

II. Origin of the Victorias of New York.

(1) They originated with Col. Frank D. Curtis, Kirby
Homestead, Charlton, Saratoga county, N. Y., about the
year 1850.

(2) They were formed by crossing successively the native
breeds of the county possessed of the Grazier strain with the
Byfield, the Yorkshire and the Suffolk.

(3) They appear to bear considerable resemblance to the
Suffolks, but have finer heads and with not so much of dish.

III. Origin of the Victorias of Indiana.

(1) The breed of white hogs in the United States, now
more generally recognized as Victorias, originated with George
Davis, Dyer, Lake county, Ind., about 1870.

(2) They are the outcome of the amalgamation of four
distinct breeds, viz : The Poland-Chinas, the Chester Whites,
the Berkshires and the Suffolks.

IV. Recognition in the show rings.

(1) They first appeared in the show rings in 1878, when
several specimens were exhibited at the county fairs of Indiana
and Illinois, and also at the Chicago Fat Stock show.
21 321

t/1

-oft

VICTORIAS. 323

(2) They were first acknowledged as a distinct breed by
the Illinois state board of agriculture in 1882, and since that
time they have received recognition from several other state
organizations.

(3) They have been quite successful as prize winners,
notably at several of the Fat Stock shows held in Chicago.

V. Organizations.

(1) The Victoria Swine Breeders' Association was organ-
ized in Indiana in 1886.

(2) The first volume of the Victoria Swine Record was
published in 1887.

VI. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Victoria swine have already been recorded in a con-
siderable number of the states of the Union.

(2) They are most numerous in Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin,
Michigan and Illinois, and probably in the order named.

VII. Registration in the United States.

(1) About 1,600 animals have been recorded or entered foi
record.

(2) Of these about 40 per cent are boars and 60 per cent
sows.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Victorias probably come next to the Poland-
Chinas in size, but they vary much in this respect in the hands
of different breeders, hence

(2) In many instances they do not outweigh the Duroc-
Jerseys.

II. Adaptability.

O) It is claimed for them that they are well adapted to
the field and also to the pen, but

(2) Further trial is necessary to the unreserved acceptance
of the claims made in their behalf.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) It has been said of them that they will mature and
fatten at any age, but

(2) In reference to this also, judgment should be held
in suspense.

324 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) Their grazing qualities are at least average, and

(2) Their good feeding qualities find demonstration in
their winnings at the American Fat Stock shows.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The quality of the meat is said to be very good,
supported

(2) By the fact that they have won high honors in the
dead classes at the Fat Stock shows in Chicago.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) For crossing and grading uses they should not as yet
be of the first order, owing

(2) To the short period which has elapsed since the breed
was formed.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) It is claimed that they make good mothers, and

(2) In time we shall know this also with certainty.

VIII. Compared with Berkshires.

(1) The Victorias are not quite so large nor so uniform,
nor are they so prepotent.

(2) In other essential characteristics the contrast between
them is not striking.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the Victoria Swine Breeders' Association :

POINTS.

(1) Color — White, with occasional dark spots
the skin .2

(2) Head — Small, broad, and face dished medium . 3

(3) Ears — Fine, pointing outward .... 2

(4) Jowl — Medium size and neat .... I

(5) Neck — Short, full and well arched . . .3

(6) Shoulders — Broad and deep .... 7

(7) Girth Around Heart 6

(8) Back — Straight, broad and level ... 12

(9) Sides — Deep and full 6

(10) Ribs — Well sprung 7

(11) Loin — Broad and strong 12

VICTORIAS. 325

(12) Flank— Well let down 2

(13) Ham — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat . 12

(14) Tail — Medium, fine and curled ... 2

(15) Legs — Fine and straight ... .3

(16) Feet— Small 3

(17) Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles . . 3

(18) Action — Easy and graceful .... 4

(19) Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to
each other 10

Perfection 100

II. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance the Victorias are strong and growthy and in the
typical specimens are of smooth and equable outline.

III. Compared with Berkshires.

(1) The Victorias are not quite so large nor have they so
much of uniformity in size or symmetry, and

(2) They are white in color, while the Berkshires are
black.

(3) The Victorias bear no little resemblance to the Suf-
folks, but they are larger.

LECTURE NO. ib.

THE DUROC-JERSEYS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR-
ACTERISTICS AND- STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The American Duroc- Jerseys are appar-
ently the outcome of the union of two classes of
swine, known respectively as the Durocs and Jersey
Reds.

(i) The Durocs, of medium size and bone, have been
bred for many years in Saratoga county, New York.

(2) The Jersey Reds, large in size and coarse in bone,
hair and flesh, have been bred in New Jersey for the past 50
years.

II. The origin and early development of this
breed is not apparently well known.

(1) Writers have variously represented them as origi-
nating in the Tamworth, the Red Berkshire, and the African
or Guinea hog.

(2) It would seem probable that they are possessed largely
of the blood of the old race from tohich the Improved Berk-
shires have been evolved.

III. The improvers of the breed.

(1) As' with nearly all the American breeds of swine, the
improvers of the Duroc-Jerseys have been farmers in certain
neighborhoods, who sought to improve the pork-producing
qualities of the animals which they fed.

(2) The history of the amalgamation of the two original
branches of the breed does not appear to have been very
clearly written as yet

IV. Organization.

(1) Two leading associations, viz, the American Duroc-
Jersey Swine Breeders' Association and the National Duroc-
Jersey Record Association, have been organized in the
interests of the breed in the United States.

32/

328 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) The former of these was organized in 1889 and the
latter in 1890.

V. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Duroc-Jerseys are now being recorded in more than
half the states of the Union and in several of the provinces
of Canada.

(2) They are bred most numerously in the states of
Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Nebraska and Michigan.

VI. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) The two associations named under Note IV have
recorded 35,085 animals, of which 10,587 are males and 24,498
are females.

(2) In the Canadian Record, 790 animals have been
recorded.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) The Duroc-Jerseys are now considerably reduced in
size, but they vary not a little in this respect in different
localities.

(2) Though not quite equal to the Berkshires or the
Poland-Chinas in size, they bear no little resemblance to these
breeds in form, though they differ so radically from them
in color.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They have proved themselves well adapted to sections
where good rustling qualities are important, and

(2) In regions where the ability to stand the pressure of
heavy corn feeding is of much consequence.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These have been greatly improved during recent
years, but

(2) They are not yet quite equal perhaps to those of some
of the medium breeds.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) Their grazing qualities are good, as they are an active
and hardy breed.

DUR0OJERSEYS. 329

(2) While they do not fatten so quickly as some breeds,
they can well endure a forcing ration.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat has more lean than some of the other
breeds of the same class, but

(2) The relative amount of bone and offal may also be
something more.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) They answer well for crossing upon breeds more
refined and more delicate of constitution, but

(2) To cross them upon large, vigorous and somewhat
coarse pigs would probably be a mistake.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These stand high relatively among the American
breeds, and

(2) The young pigs are possessed of a fair degree of
hardihood.

VIII. Compared with Berkshires.

(1) The Duroc-Jerseys are a little less in size and are
not yet quite so well adapted for bacon production.

(2) In other essential characteristics the two breeds are
not far different.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the revised scale of points
adopted by the American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breed-
ers' Association :

POINTS.

(1) Head and Face 4

(2) Eyes 2

(3) Ears 2

(4) Neck 2

(5) Jowl 2

(6) Shoulders 6

(7) Chest 12

(8) Back and Loin 15

(9) Sides and Ribs 8

(10) Belly and Flank 6

(11) Hams and Rump 10

(12) Legs and Feet 16

330 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

POINTS.

(13) Tail I

(14) Coat 2

(15) Color 2

(16) Size 5

(17) Action and Style 4

(18) Condition 4

(19) Disposition 3

Perfection 100

II. Detailed description drawn up by the
American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Associa-
tion:

(1) Head and Face — Head small in proportion to size of
body; wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half-way
between Poland-China and Berkshire), and tapering well
down to nose ; surface smooth and even. Objections — Large
and coarse ; narrow between eyes, face straight, crooked nose,
or too much dished.

(2) Eyes — Lively, bright and prominent. Objections —
Dull, weak or obscure.

(3) Ears — Medium ; moderately thin ; pointing forward
and downward, and slightly outward, and also attached
to head neatly. Objections — Very large; round or nearly
so ; too thick ; swinging and flabby ; not of same size, or
different positions, and not under control of animal.

(4) Neck — Short; thick and very deep; slightly arching.
Objections — Long, shallow and thin.

(5) Jowl — Broad; full and neat; carrying fullness back
to point of shoulder and on line with breastbone. Objections —
Too large, loose and flabby, or too small, thin and wedging.

(6) Shoulders — Moderately broad, very deep and full,
and not extending above line of back ; boars under one year
old heavily shielded.

(7) Chest — Large; very deep; filling full behind shoul-
ders, and breastbone extending well forward, so as to be
readily seen. Objections — Flat, shallow, or not extending well
down between the forelegs.

(8) Back and Loin— Medium in breadth; straight or
slightly arching; carrying even width from shoulder to ham;
surface even and smooth. Objections — Narrow, creased
behind shoulders, swayed or humped up.

(9) Sides and Ribs— Side* very deep; medium length:
level between shoulders and hams, and carrying out full down
to line of belly; ribs long; strong, and sprung in proportion

DUROC- JERSEYS. 331

to width of shoulders and hams. Objections— Flabby, creased
and not carrying proper width from top to bottom.

(10) Belly and Flank— Straight and full, and carrying well
out to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides.
Objections— Narrow; tucked up; sagging or flabby; flank-
tucked up or drawn in.

(n) Hams and Rump — Broad, full and well down to hock;
buttocks full and come nearly down to and fill full between
hocks ; rump should have a rounding slope from loin to root
of tail. Objections— Hams narrow: short, thin, not project-
ing well down to hock; cut up too high in crotch; rump nar-
row, flat or peaked at root of tail, or too steep.

(12) Legs and Feet — Medium in size and length; strong;
nicely tapering; wide apart and well set under the body;
pasterns short and strong; feet short, firm and tough. Objec-
tions— Legs extremely long or short ; shins, coarse ; crooked ;
as large below knee and hock as above: set close together;
hocks turned in or out of straight line; hoofs, long, slim and
weak : toes, spreading or crooked.

(13) Tail — Medium large at base and nicely tapering, and
rather bushy at point. Objections — Extremely heavy; too
long and ropy.

(14) Coat — Moderately thick and fine: straight; smooth
and covering the body well. Objections — Many bristles ; hair
coarse, harsh and rough, wavy or curly; swirls, or not evenly
laid over the body.

(15) Color — Cherry red without other admixtures. Objec-
tions— Very dark red. or shady brown ; very light or pale red ;
black spots over the body : black flecks on belly and legs noc
desirable, but admissible.

(16) Sice — Large for age and condition; boars two years
old and over should weigh 600 pounds ; sows, same age and
condition, 500 pounds: boars eighteen months, 475 pounds;
sows, 400 pounds ; boars twelve months, 350 pounds ; sows,
300 pounds ; boars and sows six months of age. 150 pounds.
These figures are for animals in fair show condition. Objec-
tions— Rough and coarse, and lacking in feeding qualities.

(17) Action and Style — Action, vigorous and animated:
style, free and easy. Objections — Dull and stupid: awkward
and wabbling: testicles not easily seen, not of same size or
carriage : too large or only one showing.

(18) Condition — Healthy: skin free from any scurf, scales,
sores and mange, and flesh evenly laid on over entire body and
free from lumps. Objections — LTnhealthy; scurfy: scales,
sores or mange : too fat for breeding purposes ; hair harsh and
standing up : poor feeders, etc.

ficj) Disposition — Very quiet and gentle: easily handled
or driven. Objections — Wild, vicious or stubborn.

332 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

III. General Appearance — The Duroc- Jerseys,
with their rather light, straight heads, drooping ears
and smooth and neat frames, bear no little resem-
blance to Poland-Chinas in form, but they are some-
what larger and stronger in limb.

IV. Compared with Berkshires.

(i) The Duroc-Jerseys are not so large nor quite as long
in body, though equally wide for the size.

(2) They are lighter in the head than the Berkshires.
have less dish and less development of jowl, longer and more
pendent ears and not so much relative length of side, and

(3) They are sandy in color, while the Berkshires are
black.

LECTURE NO. n.

THE CHESHIRE ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTER-
ISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The Cheshire breed of swine originated in
Jefferson county, N. Y., and since the middle of the
century.

(i) The origin of the name Cheshire is not fully known,
since

(2) The old English breed of this name is virtually extinct,
having been crossed upon by smaller and earlier maturing
breeds.

II. Formation of the breed.

(1) Cheshires are the outcome of crosses between the
Large Improved Yorkshire and the Suffolk breeds upon the
native white hogs of the neighborhood.

(2) The extent to which the blood of the imported breeds
was used is not fully known, but it is very probable that no
out-crosses have been made since 1873.

III. The improvers of Cheshires.

(1) A. P. Clark of Belleville and S. P. Huff stater of
Watertown, N. Y., were the most distinguished of the early
originators of the breed, but

(2) To E. W. Davis belongs the honor of rescuing Che-
shires from the temporary obscurity into which they fell,
consequent upon the financial crisis of 1873.

IV. When improvement was effected.

(1) Cheshires were first exhibited at the New York state
fair in 1859 by A. P. Clark, and during the year immediately
following they grew rapidly in favor.

(2) In 1870 they won the Pork Packers' prize of $500 for
the best pen of pigs exhibited at the St. Louis (Mo.) fair.

(3) E. W. Davis began his work of improvement in 1873.

333

o
to

3
U

•on

CHESHIRES. 335

V. Organization.

(i) The Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association was
organized in 1884.

(2) The first volume of the Cheshire Herd Book was
published in 1889.

VI. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Cheshires are now kept in nineteen states and also
in Canada.

(2) They are bred most numerously in the eastern states,
but some of the central states are also possessed of a consider-
able number.

(3) New York state has probably more breeders than all
the other states combined.

VII. Registration in the United States.

(1) There have been recorded 2,767 animals, male and
female.

(2) Only a few specimens of the breed have been intro-
duced into Canada.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) Though by no means a small animal, the Cheshires
are probably the smallest of the middle breeds.

(2) It is claimed that they can be made to dress from 500
to 600 pounds when fully grown.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Cheshires are well adapted to what may be termed
average conditions.

(2) They seem to possess at least medium qualities in
almost every respect.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) They possess these in a marked degree.

(2) Numerous instances are on record wherein they have
been made to dress 400 pounds when nine months old.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) Their grazing qualities are at least fair, and

(2) Their marked docility and early maturing qualities
make them very satisfactory feeders.

336 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The flesh of Cheshires is fine in the grain, and hence
solid and firm in texture, and

(2) It is also well intermixed, more especially when fed
upon such pork-making products as are most freely produced
in New England.

(3) As bacon producers they rank high among the medium
breeds.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Cheshires are best adapted to crossing upon roughly
made and slow maturing pigs.

(2) When so crossed they refine the bone and promote
early maturity and easy keeping qualities.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) These are only medium, but

(2) As with all breeds, much depends upon the way in
which they are kept.

VIII. Compared with Berkshires.

(1) The Cheshires are considerably less in weight and are
even more refined in frame and bone.

(2) The Berkshires would seem to have a wider field in
which they may be successfully used for crossing.

(3) In other respects they considerably resemble one
another.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association :

POINTS.

(1) Head — Short to medium in length, short in pro-
portion to length of body 8

(2) Face — Somewhat dished and wide between the
eyes ......... 8

(3) Jowl — Medium in fullness 3

(4) Ears — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals
slightly pointing forward ..... 5

(5) Neck — Short and broad . . . . .3

(6) Shoulders — Broad, full and deep ... 6

(7) Girth Around Heart 8

(8) Back — Long, broad and straight nearly to root

of tail 10

CHESHIRES. 337

POINTS.

(9) Side — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom

line 7

(10) Flank — Well back and low down, making flank
girth nearly equal to heart girth . . . 3

(11) Hams — Broad and nearly straight with back
and running well down toward hock . . .10

(12) Legs — Small and slim, set well apart, support-
ing body well on toes 10

(13) Tail — Small, slim and tapering . . • • 3

(14) Hair — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity 3

(15) Color — White, any colored hair to disqualify . 2

(16) Skin — Fine and pliable, small blue spots objec-
tionable but allowable 3

(17) Symmetry — Animal well proportioned, hand-
some and stylish 8

Perfection

II. General Appearance — In general appear-
ance the Cheshire is neat, refined, smooth, well pro-
portioned and active in movement.

III. Compared with Berkshires.

O) The Cheshire? are not so large, not so heavy of build,
nor quite so strong of limb.

(2) They are something lighter in the head, even more
erect in the ears and not so deep in body, and

(3) There are the differences in color.

IV. Compared with Poland-Chinas.

(1) Cheshires are less massive relatively, have more
length of side, less of upward arch from the poll to the withers
and from the tailhead to the loin, and are less rounded at
the buttock.

(2) They have much smaller and more erect ears, and
finer limbs and bone.

(3) They are more active and stylish in appearance, and
are white in color.

3
1/3

©>

THE SMALL BREEDS

LECTURE NO. 12.

THE IMPROVED SUFFOLKS THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS-
TORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

I. No little obscurity hangs over the origin of
the Improved Suffolk, but it is probable that it is the
outcome of crossing one or more of the small white
breeds upon the old Suffolk breed.

(1) The old Suffolk swine were white with rather long
legs, long heads, flat sides and much coarse hair.

(2) The Improved Suffolks as bred in England were also
white, but had short heads and long cylindrical bodies, short
legs and fine, long and thin hair.

IT. The Improved Suffolks, though possessed
of no little popularity at one time in England, are
not now numerous in that country.

(1) Since the middle of the century they have been grad-
ually allowed to drop out of the prize lists of the leading
English shows.

(2) They have probably been largely absorbed by other
small white breeds, notably the Small Yorkshire.

III. The only breed now generally recognized
as Suffolk in England would seem to be a small black
breed, kept most numerously in the county of
Suffolk.

(1) They resemble the small white breeds in form and
essential qualities, but

(2) It is claimed they are somewhat larger, more rugged
and more prolific.

339

340 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

IV. Importations into the United States.

(i) Some obscurity would seem to' rest upon the date of
the first importations made into America.

(2) As early as 1855. Suffolks were imported into the
state of Illinois by the Hon. John Wentworth.

(3) Occasional importations have been made since that
time, but it cannot be said that Suffolks are coming so gen-
erally into favor as some of the large breeds are.

V. Organization.

(1) There is no organization in England to protect the
interests of the breed.

(2) The American Suffolk Association keeps records for
the breed.

VI. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Suffolks are now found in several states of the Union,
but not in very large numbers.

(2) They are probably best established in the states of
Michigan, Illinois, New York, Ohio and Indiana.

VII. Registration in the United States and
Canada.

(1) Something more than 1.100 animals have been
recorded in the United States, of which about 30 per cent are
males.

(2) The registrations in Canada number 737.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

O) The Suffolks are considerably larger and longer than
the Small Yorkshires, and they weigh well, hut

(2) At maturity they do not reach so great a size as any
of the medium breeds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) Suffolks are best adapted to intensive conditions
where grazing lands are scarce and dear and where soiling
food is much used in addition to pasture.

(2) They also have special adaptation for producing a
nice quality of pork that can be quickly grown and made ready
for market at any age.

IMPROVED SUFFOLKS. 34!

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are of the first order, since

(2) When properly fed they keep in good condition and
round out so quickly that they may be profitably marketed
under the age of six months.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) It cannot be said that the grazing qualities of Suffolks
are of the very best, owing to the shortness of their limbs and
to tendencies to obesity.

(2) They are very easy keepers and give a quick and high
return for the food given up to the limit of the most profitable
marketable age, which is under rather than over six months.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat is tender, fine grained, juicy and excellent
when marketed while the pigs are young, but later the propor-
tion of the fat becomes excessive.

(2) It is probably most in favor with the customers of
retailers who want what may be termed light weight pork.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) Suffolks have not been greatly used for this purpose
in the United States or Canada.

(2) When so used it should be to impart refinement and
earlier maturity to animals lacking in these qualities.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) They usually produce smaller litters than the large
breeds and the offspring is not always equal to that of the
former in vigor, but

(2) Breeding qualities are probably influenced more by
environment than by inheritance.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the American Suffolk Swine Breeders' Associa-
tion:

(1) Head — Small, very short; jowl fine; ears short, small,
thin, upright, soft and silky.

(2) Neck — Very short and thick, the head appearing
almost as if set on front of the shoulders, no arching crest.

(3) Chest — Wide and deep, elbows standing out.

342 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(4) Brisket — Wide but not deep.

(5) Shoulders — Thick, rather upright, rounding outward
from top to elbow.

(6) Crops—Wide and full.

(7) Sides and Flanks — Long ribs and well arched out
from back, good length between shoulders and hams ; flank
well filled out and coming well down at ham.

(8) Back — Broad, level and straight from crest to tail, no
falling off or down at tail.

(9) Hams — Wide and full, well rounded out, twist very
wide and full all the way down.

(10) Legs — Small and very short, standing wide apart; in
sows just keeping the belly from the ground; bone fine; feet
small ; hoofs rather spreading.

(11) Tail — Small, long and tapering.

(12) Skin — Thin, of a pinkish shade, free from color.

(13) Hair — Fine and silky, not too thick; color of hair,
pale yellowish white; perfectly free from any spots or other
color.

(14) Size — Small to medium.

II. General Appearance — The Suffolk is a
short-legged pig with a body moderately long, some-
what cylindrical, very wide and deep and a head very
much dished.

LECTURE NO. 13.

IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE ORIGIN AND HISTORY,

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

I. The Improved Essex swine are the outcome
of crossing the Neapolitan upon the old Essex breed.

d) The old Essex breed, native to the county of Essex,
were black and white in color, large and coarse in build, long
in the leg and snout, flat-sided and roach-backed, unquiet in
disposition and were great consumers of food.

(2) The Neapolitans were first imported from Italy by
Lord Western in 1830.

(3) For a number of years the progeny were designated
Essex-Neapolitan.

II. Effects of the Neapolitan cross.

(1) It changed the color to black, reduced the bone and
offal generally, shortened the leg and snout, improved the
general form and increased the aptitude to fatten, but

(2) The Essex-Neapolitans became less vigorous and less
prolific because of the closeness of the breeding, and they were
reduced in size.

III. How further improvement was effected.

(1) Impaired qualities were restored by crossing the
Essex-Neapolitans upon selected sows essentially of Essex
blood.

(2) This work began about 1840 and was chiefly effected
by Fisher Hobbs, one of Lord Western's tenants.

IV. Distribution of the Improved Essex.

(1) The Improved Essex have not been distributed so
widely as many other breeds.

(2) In Britain they are most numerously found in the
counties of Essex and Suffolk.

(3) They have also been exported, but not in large num-
bers, to several Anglo-Saxon speaking countries.

343

IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE. 345

V. Introduction into the United States.

(1) The information on this question is meager, but

(2) There are good reasons for believing that they were
introduced into New England about, or previous to, the middle
of the century.

VI. Organization.

(1) It is only during recent years that the Improved Essex
swine have attracted much attention in this country.

(2) The American Essex Association was organized in
1887.

VII. Distribution in the United States and
Canada.

(1) The Improved Essex are now being recorded from
thirteen states and from the province of Ontario.

(2) They are most numerous in the states of Michigan,
Nebraska, Texas, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana and Georgia, and
probably in the order named.

VIII. Registration in the United States.

(1) There have been recorded in all 4,189 animals.

(2) Of these, 1,619 are boars and 2,570 are sows.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

(1) In size the Essex are something larger than the Smail
Yorkshires, and probably something smaller than the Suffolks.

(2) At maturity they may be made to weigh 600 pounds.

II. Adaptability.

(1) They are best adapted to small holdings contiguous
to markets with a special retail trade.

(2) They meet well the purposes of the market gardener.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(1) These are markedly pronounced.

(2) In this respect the Essex are fully equal to the other
small breeds.

IV. Grazing and feeding qualities.

(1) Because of their contented disposition they may be
grazed or fed soiling food, as may be desired.

346

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

(2) They are easy feeders, and when well fed may be
marketed at almost any age.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) As with the small Yorkshires, the meat is usually
tender, juicy and well flavored, hence

(2) The meat is specially adapted to family use and to a
select trade.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) As with the other small breeds the Essex are best
adapted to crossing on larger and coarser types.

(2) Such crossing refines the system, hastens maturity
and promotes easy feeding qualities.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) Though not so prolific as the long-bodied breeds, the
Essex cannot be called shy breeders.

(2) These qualities are largely influenced by environment.

VIII. Compared with Suffolks.

(1) In their essential characteristics, the Essex breed does
not differ greatly from the Suffolk.

(2) To so great an extent is this true that distinctions are
not easily drawn between them.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the scale of points adopted
by the American Essex Association :

POINTS.

Color — Black 2

Head — Small, broad and face dished . . 3
Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age . 2

Jowl — Full and neat 1

Neck — Short, full and slightly arched . . 3
Shoulders — Broad and deep .... 7

Girth Around Heart 6

Ba\ck — Straight, broad and level ... 12

Sides — Deep and full 6

Ribs — Well sprung 7

Loin — Broad and strong 12

Flank — Well let down 2

Ham — Broad, full and deep . . . .12
Tail — Medium, fine and curled ... 2

(10

(11

(12

(13

(14

IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE. 347

POINTS.

(15) Legs — Fine, straight and tapering . . .3

(16) Feet — Small . . . . . . . 3

(17) Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles . . 3

(18) Action — Easy and graceful .... 4

(19) Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to
each other 10

Perfection 100

II. Below is given the description of scale of
points adopted by the American Essex Association :

(1) Head and Face —

(a) Head, short, coming well forward at poll.

(b) Face, short and well dished, broad between the eyes,
tapering from eyes to point of nose, surface smooth and
regular.

(2) Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age, thin,
soft and smooth.

(3) Jowl — Full and neat, carrying fullness back to shoul-
ders, solid, not flabby.

(4) Neck — Short, full and slightly arched.

(5) Shoulders — Broad, deep and full, not extending above
the line of back and being as wide on top as back, carrying
size down to line of belly.

(6) Chest — Large, deep, so as not to cramp vital organs,
full in girth around the heart.

(7) Back — Straight, broad and level, carrying same width
from shoulders to hams.

(8) Sides — Deep and full, smooth and firm, carrying out
full to line of belly.

(9) Ribs — Well sprung in proportion to hams and shoul-
ders.

(10) Loin — Broad and strong.

(11) Flank — Well let down to lower line of sides.

(12) Hams — Broad, full and deep.

(13) Tail — Medium, fine and curled.

(14) Legs — Fine, straight and tapering.

(15) Feet — Small, with hoofs erect.

(16) Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles, smooth, cov-
ering the body well, not clipped.

(17) Color — Black.

(18) Action — Easy, graceful and attractive.

(19) Disposition — Quiet, gentle and easily handled.

(20) Symmetry — The proper adjustment of the several
parts to each other.

348 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

III. The following additional points are sub-
mitted :

(1) Neck, deep.

(2) Brisket, wide and on a level with the underline.

(3) Ribs, deep.

(4) Legs, short.

IV. General Appearance — The Essex are
small, neat and smooth in form, nicely turned at the
shoulders and hips, symmetrical and handsome.

V. Compared with the Suffolks.

(1) The Essex are a little smaller and shorter, and rather
more active on foot.

(2) The dish in the head is somewhat less pronounced and
the legs are a trifle longer, and

(3) The Essex are all black, while the Suffolks are all
white.

LECTURE NO. 14.

SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE ORIGIN AND HISTORY

CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY.

I. The history of Small Yorkshire swine can-
not be traced with certainty beyond the year 18 18.

(1) Chas. Mason and Robt. Colling, both of Durham, kept
pigs of this breed at that date.

(2) They were then designated Chinese, from which it is
inferred that they were possessed of much of the blood of
that breed.

II. Early in the century there were several
breeds or strains of small white pigs in England, as
the Small Yorkshires, the Cumberland, the Solway
and the White Leicester.

(1) The blood of these was apparently commingled in the
evolution of the breed as it exists at present.

(2) The Solway and Cumberland strains gave added size
and vigor.

III. Other small white varieties.

(1) Several other varieties or sub-varieties with only a
local reputation have appeared from time to time, as the Mid-
dlesex, Coleshill and Windsor, but

(2) These are now generally looked upon as variations of
the Small White Yorkshire.

IV. Distribution of small Yorkshires.

(1) They have been bred in several counties of England
and have also been exported, though in limited numbers, to
various foreign countries.

349

c/)

Q-

SMALL YORKSHIRES. 35 I

(2) They have been a favorite breed with certain noblemen
in England, owing probably to the great symmetry of form
which characterizes them.

V. Introduction into the United States.

(1) Information on this point is not plentiful, but

(2) Within the last two decades considerable attention has
been given to breeding them in the eastern states.

VI. Organization.

(1) Two associations are recording Small Yorkshires in
the United States.

(2) One of these, the American Small Yorkshire Club,
has headquarters in New York city.

(3) The other, the American Yorkshire Club, has head-
quarters in St. Paul, Minn., and it records also Large Improved
Yorkshires.

VII. Distribution in the United States.

(1) Small Yorkshires are now bred in more than half
the states of the Union.

(2) They are probably most numerous in the states of
New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Minnesota.

VIII. Registration in the United States.

(1) In the American Yorkshire record there have been
recorded 762 Small Yorkshires, of which 346 are boars and
416 sows.

(2) The other association, the American Small Yorkshire
Club, has probably recorded a larger number.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS.

I. Relative size.

CO The Small Yorkshires are probably the least in size
of all the pedigreed breeds of swine in America, but

(2) Owing to their compactness of form, they weigh well
in proportion to their apparent size.

II. Adaptability.

(1) The Small Yorkshires have highest adaptation for
intensive conditions where rapid growth and early maturity
are important considerations, and where there are markets
which call for pork of light weight.

(2) They will quickly convert into money value the waste
vegetable refuse of the truck farmer and the market gardener.

352 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

III. Early maturing qualities.

(i) No breed matures more quickly or at an earlier age.

(2) They can be marketed at almost any age desired, but
more profitably at an early age. because of the slower relative
development that follows the first months of growth.

IV. Grazing- and feeding qualities.

(1) Because of their short limbs and compact forms they
are not so well able to rustle on pastures as some breeds.

(2) No breed feeds more easily or grows more rapidly
until the usual marketing time, which should be under rather
than over six months.

(3) No breed gives a higher percentage of dressed meat.

V. Quality of the meat.

(1) The meat is fine in texture and delicate in flavor when
properly fed, and the proportion of bone is small.

(2) It is well adapted to what may be termed high-class
retail trade, more or less local in character.

VI. Value in crossing and grading.

(1) The cross of the Small Yorkshires may be used with
decided advantage in refining coarse types and in improving
their easy feeding qualities.

(2) Their value in this respect has been well demonstrated
in the use made of Small Yorkshire blood in the evolution of
the Improved Large Yorkshires.

VII. Breeding qualities.

(1) They do not produce litters so large as some of the
large breeds nor are they, as a rule, such abundant milkers, but

(2) With judicious management they will breed regularly
and with a fair measure of prolificacy.

VIII. Compared with the Suffolks.

(1) The resemblance between the two breeds is close in
all leading essentials, but

(2) The Small Yorkshires are not so large and are even
more refined.

STANDARD POINTS.

I. The following is the standard scale of points
adopted by the American Small Yorkshire Club :

SMALL YORKSHIRES.

353

(i) Head—

POINTS.

Smaller the better .... 2

Nose, shorter the better . . 5
Dish, greater the better . . .3
Width between ears, greater the bet-
ter ...... 3

Ears, small, thin, erect, more so the
better ; may be pricked forward,
not lopped 2

(2) Trunk—

(3) Hams —

Top line, straighter the better, from
shoulder to tail ....

Belly line, the more level the better

Girth in excess of length, more the
better, if not more than 10 per cent

Depth, greater tbe better .

Width, greater and evener the better,
from shoulder to ham

Loin, broader the better .

Flank, deeper and fuller the better

Length, longer the better
Breadth, broader the better .
Thickness, greater the better .

(4) Shoulders — Length, longer the better

Breadth, broader the better
Thickness

5
5

5
3
2

10
10

2
3

—30

—25

(5) Legs—

(6) Skin —

— 10

Shorter the better
Straighter the better

Smooth,
better

flexible, fine, more so the

(7) Hair—

(Must not be too thin, nor ridgy and
coarse, nor show discolored spots
from old sores, not pale and ashy,
but healthy in color and free from
eruption.)

Evener, finer and thicker tte better

—5

(8) General Appearance —

Symmetry and evidence o* '/fgorous
health

—5

— S

Perfection
23

100

354 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

II. General Appearance — The Small Yorkshire
is very compact in form and fine and short in head
and limb, and usually carries with it much smooth-
ness, fullness and symmetry of form.
III. Compared with Suffolks.

(i) Small Yorkshires are smaller, shorter in the barrel
and have even smaller and finer limbs.

'2) In other essentials of form the two breeds are very
similar.

APPENDIX A

DEFINITION OF TERMS MORE COMMONLY APPLIED TO
ANIMAL FORM,

\. Head — The whole of that part in front of the forwaH
neck line.

2. Face — The whole front of the head from the muzzie
to the poll.

3. Poll — The top of the head from side to side.

4. Forehead — The whole of that part of the face between
the eyes and the poll.

5. Eyes — The organs of vision.

6. Dish — Depression in the face between the eyes and
also between the poll and the muzzle.

7. Nose — The part of the face between the eyes and the
muzzle.

8. Muzzle — The lowest part of the head always devoid of
hair.

9. Nostrils — The outer openings of the air passages con-
cerned in respiration.

10. Cheek — The whole outer surface of the side of the head
below the eye and forward to the mouth.

11. Horns — Bony protuberances coming out from the sides
of the poll and variously curved.

12. Ears — The organs of hearing.

13. Neck — That part between the forward and rear neck
lines, or between the head and body.

14. Forward Neck Line — That line which marks the junc-
tion of the head and neck.

15. Rear Neck Line — That line which marks the junction
of the neck and body.

16. Throat — That part where the upward curve meets the
lower neck line.

17. Body — All that part of the animal backward from the
rear neck line except the legs and tail.

18. Back — The whole of the. top of the body from base ot
the neck to the tailhead.

19. Withers — The part of the back above the shoulders and
between the top of the rear neck line and the chine.

20. Chine — The part of the back between the withers and
the loin.

21. Loin — The part of the back over the short ribs and
between the chine and pelvic arch.

355

358 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

22. Hooks — The rounded prominences at the outer edges
of the rear part of the loin.

23. Pelvic Arch — The portion of the back, usually more or
less elevated, which is placed between the loin and the crupper
and above the junction of the pelvis with the spinal column.

24. Crupper — The part of the back above the hips and
between the pelvic arch and tailhead.

25. Tailhead — Where the tail joins the body.

26. Shoulders — The parts of the forequarters behind the
rear neck line, in front of the crops, below the withers and
above the arm.

27. Chest — The part which encloses the cavity between the
shoulders and behind the breast.

28. Breast — The part of the body in front of the chest.

29. Brisket — The part below the breast and extending back-
ward between the forelegs.

30. Arm — That part of the leg below the shoulder and
above the knee.

31. Knee — The forward part of the middle joint in the
front leg.

32. Cannon^ — The part of the front leg between the knee
and the ankle joint.

33. Hoof — The horny substance which encloses the foot.

34. Barrel — The part of the body which lies backward
from the shoulder and arm, forward from the hip and thigh,
and between the topline of the back and the underline.

35. Underline — The lower line of the body, extending back-
ward from the forward point of the brisket.

36. Crop — The part of the barrel, usually a little depressed,
that lies immediately behind the shoulder and extends from
the back downwards toward the center of the body.

2,7. Foreftank — That part of the barrel usually more or less
depressed, that lies immediately behind the arm.

38. Ribs — The bony rods arching outward and downward
from the spinal column and thus tending to encircle the barrel.

39. Hindflank — That part of the barrel, usually more or
less depressed, which extends for a short distance forward
from the thigh and upward from the underline.

40. Hip — That part of the hindquarter that lies backward
from the barrel, above the thigh, forward from the buttock
and below the crupper and pelvic arch.

41. Thigh — The part of the hindquarter that lies below
the hip and above the hock.

42. Hock — The prominent rear part of the middle joint of
the hind leg.

43. Buttocks — The rear part of the body below the tailhead.

44. Pin-bones — The rounded prominences at the rear part
of the pelvis and on either side of the rectum.

45. Rumps — The part which includes the pinbones and the
tailhead.

APPENDIX A. 359

46. Twist— That part which extends for a short distance
downward and outward from the junction of the inner thighs.

47. Escutcheon — That part of the cow between the peri-
neum and the udder on which the hair is fine and lies outward
trom the center rather than downward.

48. Udder — The glandular vessel between and in front of
the thighs in which the milk is secreted.

49. Teats — The fleshy covered ducts through which the milk-
is drawn from the udder.

50. Milk Veins — Those ducts, usually more or less tortuous
and branched, which extend forward from the udder along
and underneath the barrel.

51. Milk Wells— 'The openings through which the mdk
veins enter the abdominal wall.

DEFINITION OF TERMS LESS FREQUENTLY APPLIED TO
ANIMAL FORM.

1. Frontal Bone — Another name for forehead, but more
restricted in the space indicated.

2. Orbit — The cavity occupied by the eye.

3. Rim of the Orbit — The bony prominence encircling the
orbit.

4. Jaw — The lower part of the side of the head which
extends backward from the muzzle to the throat.

5. Topline — The line that extends along the upper por-
tion of the body and more or less parallel with the underline.

6. Topline of the Neck — The upper line of the same which
extends from the poll to the withers.

7. Crest — Elevation in the topline of the neck.

8. Ewe-neck — Depression in the topline of the neck.

9. Dcivlap — Loose, pendulous skin usually found forward
from the breast and underneath the neck and throat.

10. Collar — Another name for rear neck line.

11. Neck Vein — Another name for collar.

12. Forequarter or Frontquarter — The whole of the body
forward from the center of the barrel to the forward neck line,
but sometimes that part of it only which lies between the for-
ward girth and breast.

13. Hindquarter — The whole of the body backward from
the center of the barrel, but sometimes that- part of it only
backward from the rear girth.

14. Coupling — Another name for barrel.

15. Forward Girth, or Heart Girth — The measurement
around the body immediately behind the shoulder.

16. Rear Girth, or Flank Girth — The measurement around
the- body immediately in front of the hip.

360 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

17. Umbilicus — That point in the central and lower part
of the abdomen where the umbilical cord of the foetus is
attached.

18. Barrel Depression — The triangular depression that lies
below the loin, behind the long ribs and in front of the hip.

19. Shoulder Blade — The triangular bone of the shoulder,
more or less fiat on the surface, which extends downward and
forward and covers the forward portion of the side of the
chest.

20. Top Shoulder Point — The upper point of the shoulder
blade.

21. Front Shoulder Point — The rounded point located at
the front and lower part of the shoulder blade, where the
latter joins the arm bone.

22. Elbow Point— That rounded prominence at the. upper
and back portion of the forearm.

23. Foreleg — The whole of the forward limb below the
top of the arm.

24. Hindleg — The whole of the rear limb below the upper
extremity of the thigh bone.

25. Stifle — That joint immediately back of the hind flank.

26. Thurl — The hip joint located toward the rear and upper
portion of the hip.

27. Sacrum — Nearly synonymous with the pelvic arch.

28. Incurving Thigh — Forward curve of the rear part of
the thigh.

29. Fore Udder — The two forward quarters of the udder.

30. Hind Udder — The two rearward quarters of the udder.

31. False Teats — Miniature teats in the mate placed more
or less distant from one another and immediately in front of
the purse.

DEFINITION OF TERMS RELATING TO ANIMAL FORM

WHICH ARE LIABLE TO BE MISUNDERSTOOD

BECAUSE OF THEIR INDEFINITENESS.

1. A Clean Cut Head — A head that is light rather than
heavy, fine rather than coarse, nicely curved out below the
eyes and in a less degree above them, and free from super-
fluous flesh in every part.

2. A Head Well Set On— One that is carried with that
degree of erection that is pleasing to the eye and that joins
nicely at the junction with the neck'.

3. A Neck Well Set On — One that is of proper elevation
for the sex and breed, and that joins nicely at the head and
blends nicely at the shoulders.

4. Parallclogrammic Form — That form in which the body
from the rear neck line backward resembles a parallelogram.

APPENDIX A. 361

5. Cylindrical Form — That form in which the body from
the rear neck line backward resembles a cylinder.

6. Bare Shoulders — Shoulder blades with but little cover-
ing of flesh underneath the skin.

7. Bare Loins — Loins with but little covering of flesh
over them.

8. Drooping Rumps — A downward inclination of the top-
line from the pelvic arch to the tailhead.

9. Pumpkin Buttocks — Buttocks that are protuberant, that
is to say, rounded out backward toward the center.

10. A Glandular Udder — An udder so numerously supplied
with glands as to be capable of much distension when full and
that is pliable and elastic when empty.

11. A Fleshy Udder — An udder possessed of so much fleshy
tissue as to be incapable of large distension when full and
that is unduly large and unyielding when empty.

12. A Good Skin — A skin of proper color and suitable
thickness for the breed, that is easily lifted up from the under-
lying tissues or moved laterally over them, and that is cov-
ered with a good coat of hair.

13. A Good Coat — Hair sufficiently abundant to protect the
skin, and soft and mossy to the touch.

14. Secretions of the Skin — Those oily substances which
come to the outer surface of the skin in cattle, more particu-
larly within the ears and at the escutcheon.

15. A Good Fleece — One that is of even and suitable length,
texture, strength, density, crimp and elasticity for the breed,
that is suitably supplied with yolk, and that covers the frame
sufficiently.

16. Yolk — Oily secretions deposited on the skin of sheep
and distributed over the wool fibers of the fleece.

17. Bristles — Strong, stiff and more or less erect hairs
sometimes found on the topline of the neck and withers of
swine.

18. Good Handling Qualities — These include an easily
yielding and elastic condition of the flesh of the body under
gentle pressure of the fingers, a ready vibration of the skin
over the ribs under gentle lateral movement of the hand, a
ready filling of the hand when the skin over the ribs is grasped
by the same, and a nice, soft, mossy condition of the coat.

19. A Good Handling Back — A back in which the skin and
flesh convey a nice sensation of softness and springiness when
gently pressed with the tips of the fingers.

20. General Outline — General outline relates to the more
essential features of form considered together.

21. Symmetry — Symmetry relates to the harmony as to
form that exists between the different members of the body.

22. General Appearance — That impression as to general
outline and symmetry conveyed to the mind when an animal
is viewed at rest and in motion.

2,62

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

23. Carriage — Carriage relates to the movement of the dif-
ferent members of the body and to the position of the same
when in motion.

24. A Graceful Carriage — The carriage is graceful when
the members of the body are kept in correct position when in
motion and when the movement of the same is easy and
natural.

25. A Bold Carriage — The carriage is bold when the step
is firm and active, when the head is carried well erect, and
when the eye is likewise possessed of a bold and determined
look.

_ Note — In the definitions thus submitted the aim has been
to interpret them in the light of common usage rather than
to harmonize and locate the various parts that relate to exter-
nal form in exact consonance with the names given to those
parts by the anatomist.

APPENDIX B

CATTLE

FACTS REGARDING THE ANIMALS ILLUSTRATED.

Frontispiece — This picture represents a herd of pure bred
Shorthorns owned by Samuel B. Gorwill, near London,
Ontario, Can.

Dual-Purpose Coze — No. 2965, Mayflower A. 12. Bred
by George F. Taber, Paterson, N. J., owned by V. T. Hills,
Delaware, O. Winner of first prize at the Ohio state dairy
test in 1891. Milk record for one year. 11,508 pounds, which
at 4.59 per cent, the average of her official test in butter fat,
would produce 5S4 pounds of butter. Milk yield from August,
1890, to December 30, 1893, three years and five months.
37,967 1-4 pounds, which averaged in butter fat 4.35 per cent.
Mayflower A. 12 is a pedgreed Red Poll.

Shorthorn Bull — Nominee 131262. Bred by E. Gaunt &
Sons, St. Helens, Ontario, Can. Owned by H. F. Brown,
Minneapolis, Minn. Winner of grand sweepstakes prize over
all breeds at the Trans-Mississippi exposition held at Omaha
in 1898.

Shorthorn Coze — Victoria 55th (Vol. 24, p. 18.814). Bred
by J. W. Aldrich, Tiskilwa, 111., in 1882, subsequently owned by
William Cummings & Son, later by C. M. Sanger & Son and
still later by George Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis. Win-
ner of first prize at several leading state fairs.

Hereford Bull — Corrector 48976. Bred and owned by T.
F. B. Sotham, Chillicothe, Mo. His record as a prize winner
in the leading showrings of the United States and as a sire
of prize-winning animals is probably unequaled by that of any
other bull now living. Corrector is the sire of the two famous
show and stock bulls. Sir Bredwell 63685 and Thickset 68785.
At Kansas City, in 1899, Sir Bredwell sold for $5000, the
highest price ever reached by a Hereford sold at auction.

Hereford Cozv — Benita 48542. Bred and owned by T. F.
B. Sotham. Chillicothe. Mo. Winner of first prize at several
of the leading state fairs from 1894 to 1898.

Aberdeen-Anzns Bull — Tim Tarns 13896 (7610). Bred bv
O. C. Wallis of Bradley Hall. England, selected by the late
William Watson and imported by W. T. Harvey, then of Tur-

363

364 THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

lington, Neb. Owned subsequently by J. Evans, Jr., & Son,
Emerson, la.

Aberdeen- Angus Cow — Vine 2d of Skene 3947 (3229).
Bred by George Hamilton, Skene House, Aberdeenshire, Scot-
land. Imported and owned by Hon. M. H. Cochrane, Hill-
hurst, P. Q. Vine 2d was a prize winner at the Highland
Agricultural Society's show held at Sterling, Scotland, in 1881.
and the same year won first prize at the provincial fair held
at Montreal, P. Q.

Gallozvay Bull — Crusader (2858). Bred by Thomas Big-
gar & Sons, Chapelton, Dalbeattie, Scotland. Winner of
champion cup as best Galloway bull at the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society's centenary show in 1894.

Gallozvay Cozv — Corlina 10734. Bred by S. P. Clark,
Dover, 111., and owned by T. J. Davis & Son, Triumph, 111.
Winner of third prize as best cow of any age or breed at the
Trans-Mississippi exposition, held at Omaha. Neb., 1898.

Group of Sussex Cattle — The bull Royal Surrey (720) was
bred by Joseph Godman, Godalming, Surrey, England, and
imported by Overton Lea, Nashville, Tenn. The cows, May-
wood (3532) and Maywood 1st (3790) were bred by Mr. Lea.
All were noted prize winners at leading state fairs at sundry
times between 1885 and 1889.

West Highland Heifer — Lady Flora. Owned by the Rt.
Hon.. the Earl of Southesk, Scotland. — From "Live Stock of
Great Britain."

Holstein Bull— Chief of Maple Hill 4th. No. 17224, H. F.
H. B. Bred by M. E. Moore, Cameron, Mo. Owned by W.
B. Barney & Co., Hampton, la. Winner of many first prizes
at the leading state fairs in the west from 1889 to 1898. In
1898 he was placed first in his class at the Trans-Mississippi
exposition, held at Omaha, Neb.

Holstein Cozv — Jepma 2d, No. 733, H. H. B. Bred by
M. D. Koldijk, Wirdum, Friesland. Imported by Thomas B.
Wales, 1879. Winner of first prize in 1882 and 1883 at several
of the leading state fairs in the west. Jepma 2d is of the
milk and beef form.

Dutch Belted Cow — Huldah No. 141. Bred by the late
William Arnout of Orange county, New York. Owned sub-
sequently by H. B. Richards, Easton, Pa. Huldah made for
several years a milk record of about 12,000 pounds a year, and
was also a first prize winner at several state fairs.

Ayrshire Bull — Sir Thomas Bruce 4161. Bred by Thomas
Guy, Oshawa, Ontario, Can. Subsequently owned by Coldren
& Lee, Iowa City, and later by F. M. Watson, Roseville, 111.
Winner of first prize at the Minnesota state fair, 1888.

Ayrshire Cozv — Duchess of Smithfield 4256. Bred by
Henry E. Smith. Enfield, R. I. Owned by H. R. C. Watson,
Brandon, Vt. Winner in 1885 of the Ayrshire Breeders' Asso-
ciation's prize for the largest amount of milk given in seven

APPENDIX B. 365

consecutive days. She gave 463 3-4 pounds of milk which pro-
duced 19 lbs. 6 oz. of butter.

Guernsey Bull — Lord Stranford 2187, A. G. C. C.
Selected on "the island of Guernsey for the herd of Hon. Levi
P. Morton, by whom he was imported in 1889. Subsequently
owned by Dr. G. Howard Davison, Millbrook, N. Y., and later
by James B. Duke, Somerville, N. J. Winner of sweepstakes
at the World's Fair, Chicago, in 1893.

Guernsey Cow — Rutila's Daughter 6670, A. G. C. C. Bred
by Francis Shaw, Wayland, Mass., in 1891. Owned by H.
McK. Twombley, Madison, N. J. Winner of sweepstakes at
the New York state fair, 1897 ; seven days' butter record,
21 lbs. 4 oz.

Jersey Bull — Czar Coomassie 41036, A. J. C. C. Bred by
G. L. & A. C. Davis, Port Jefferson, N. Y. Owned by John
E. Robbins, Lonetree herd. Greensburg, Ind. Winner of first
prize at the New York state fair in 1897, also of first prize and
sweepstakes at the Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri state
fairs the same year.

Jersey Coze — Teasel 75358, A. J. C. C. Bred and owned
by H. C. Taylor, the proprietor of the Brown Bessie herd,
Orfordville, Wis. Teasel is the only living daughter of Brown
Bessie 74997, champion butter cow at the World's Fair, 1893.
In June. 1896, Teasel gave 294 lbs. 4 oz. of milk in a seven
days' test, which made 20 lbs. 4 oz. butter.

French Canadian Cow — La Countesse St. Norbert (918).
Bred by Arsene Denis. St. Norbert. P. Q. Owned by Chas.
E. Colburn, Portlandville, N. Y. Winner of first prize at
several of the New York state fairs.

Kerry Cow — Flora. Owned by Martin J. Sutton, Read-
ing, Eng. Winner of first prize at the London dairy show in
1885 and again in 1887. — From "Farm Live Stock of Great
Britain."

Polled Durham Cow — Lorena 73. A. P. D. H. B. Bred
by W. W. Crane. Tippecanoe City, O. Subsequently owned
by J. H. Miller, Peru, Ind. Winner of first prize at the state
fairs of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. Lorena was of the beef
type and was a cow of great scale. Her weight at maturity
was over 2,000 pounds.

Brown Swiss Cozv — Brienz No. 168. Bred in Switzerland.
Owned by A. Bourquin, Nokomis, 111. At the Fat Stock show
held in Chicago, November. 1891, Brienz in a three days' test,
gave 245 pounds of milk which contained 9.32 pounds of but-
ter fat.

Red Poll Cow— Willow Belle 471 (3218), bred by G. F.
Taber, Patterson, N. Y. Owned by S. A. Converse, Cresco,
la. — From Vol. 1, American Red Poll Herd Book.

Devon Cozv — Wisconsin Belle No. 2831. Bred and owned
by George Baker & Sons, Hustisford, Wis. — From Vol II,
Devon Herd Record.

366

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

SHEEP

American Merino Ewe — A pure Atwood Spanish Merino.
— From Report on Sheep Industry in the United States, 1892,
p. 614.

Delaine Merino Ewe — No. 408. Ear tab, No. 210.
Owned by James McClelland. Canonsburg, Pa. Winner of
the silver cup offered at the West Virginia and the western
Pennsylvania state fairs in 1887 for the best Delaine Merino
ewe of any age.

Rambouillct Ewe — Gilbert No. 31. Record No. 8456. Bred
by Victor Gilbert, Wideville, near Crespines, France.
Imported by George Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis., in 180/5.
Subsequently owned by C. H. Ballinger, Lexington, Neb.
Winner of first and champion prizes at the Minnesota state
fair, 1899, and also at several other state fairs.

Southdown Ewe — Jackson ewe "22B" 10248. Bred and
owned by John Jackson & Sons, Abingdon, Ont. Winner
of first prize in her class and sweepstakes as the best sheep
in the show at the Ontario Fat Stock exhibition held at Brant-
ford, 1898.

Tunis Ram — Gladstone No. 7. Bred and owned by
Charles Rountree, Crawfordsville, Ind. Winner of first prize
and sweepstakes once at the Wisconsin state fair, twice at
the Missouri state fair and three times at the Indiana state fair.

Dorset Ewe — McCulmut's 90, 715 C. D. C. Bred by H.
M. McCulmut, Bishopswood, Ross, Eng. Imported by George
Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis. Owned by R. Stuyvesant,
Tranquillity Farms, Allamuchy. N. J. Winner of grand
sweepstakes for best ewe of any breed at the Trans-Mississippi
exposition, Omaha, 1898.

Shropshire Ewe — Nancy 5719. Bred and owned by John
Campbell, Woodville, Ontario, Can. Winner when a shearling
of first prize at the Toronto Industrial exhibition in 1886, also
of other first prizes at important fairs.

Cheviot Ewe — Wild Rose 193. Bred and owned by How-
ard H. Keim, Ladoga, Ind.

Suffolk Down Ewe — Bred by the Marquis of Bristol, Tud-
denham Hall Farm, Mildenhall. Suffolk. Eng. Imported by
the agricultural college, Guelph, Ontario, Can., in 1891.

Hampshire Down Ewe — Ear tag No. R. M. 4208. Win-
ner in first prize pen at the Royal Agricultural Society's show
in England in 1809. Imported by George Harding & Son.
Waukesha, Wis. Winner of first prize at the Minnesota and
other state fairs in 1899.

Oxford Dozvn Ewe — Daisy. Bred and owned by Smith
Evans, Gourock, Ontario, Can. Daisv was one of a trio of

APPENDIX B. 367

Oxford Downs that won the silver medal at the Ontario pro-
vincial show held at London in 1899.

Leicester Ram — Royal Chester 742. Bred by Lord Pol-
worth. Mertoun, Scot. Imported and owned by John Kelly,
Shakespeare, Ontario, Can. Winner of sweepstakes as ram
of any age at the World's Fair at Chicago, 111., in 1893, and
also of many other noted prizes.

Lincoln Ewe — Lady. Bred by Mr. Dudding. England.
Imported and owned by Gibson & Walker, Denfield, Ontario,
Can. A prize winner at the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893. —
Breeders' Gazette of Nov. 15, 1893.

Cotswold Ram — Game's 34, 16087. Bred by R. & W.
Game, Aldsworth. Gloucestershire, Eng. Imported by George
Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis., in 1898. Winner of sweep-
stakes as best Cotswold ram at six leading state fairs that
same year.

SWINE

Chester White Sow — Hodgson's Choice, No. 9804. Bred
and owned by L. C. Hodgson, Luverne, Minn. Winner of first
prize at the Minnesota state fair in 1899. Also in herd which
won first prize at the same fair.

Large Improved Yorkshire Sow — Donna 3d of Clover
Crest, No. 572. Bred by A. G. Wilcox, Hugo, Minn. Owned
by the Minnesota university experiment farm.

Tamzvorth Sozi' — Katie Bell 345. Bred by John Bell.
Amber, Ontario, Can. Owned by the Iowa agricultural exper-
iment station. Winner of sweepstakes prize at the Trans-
Mississippi exposition at Omaha, Neb., 1898.

Berkshire Sozv — Cherry Blossom IX 26274. Bred and
owned by A. J. Lovejoy & Son, Roscoe, 111. Winner of first
prize and sweepstakes at the Illinois, Minnesota and Kansas
state fairs and also of other important prizes.

Poland-China Sow — Rose Glen 30666. S. P. C. Record.
Bred by J. A. Shellenberger, Bedison, Mo. Owned subse-
quently by W. T. Garrett. Maryville, Mo.

Victoria Sozv — Beauty. Owned by George Stark, St.
Louis, Mo.

Duroc-Jcrsey Sozv — Our Choice No. 15774. Bred and
owned by C. H. Searle. Edgar, Neb. Winner of first prize
at the Minnesota state fair, 1899. She was also in the herd
that won three first prizes at the Trans-Mississippi exposition
held at Omaha. Neb.. 1898.

Cheshire Sozv — Daisy 2d No. 143. Bred and owned by
E. W. Davis, Oneida. N. Y. Winner of first prize at the New
York state fair and also at other important fairs.

368

THE STUDY OF BREEDS.

Suffolk Sow — White Rose No. 688. Bred and owned by
A. C. Green & Son. Winchester, Ind. Winner of first prize
and sweepstakes at the Indiana state fair in 1898-99, and of
first prize at several other state fairs during both years.

Essex Sow — Royal Best No. 2508. Bred and owned by
A. C. Green & Son, Winchester, Ind. Winner of first prize
and sweepstakes at the Indiana state fair in 1899 and of first
prize at several other state fairs.

Small Yorkshire Sow — Chenango's Choice 2041. Bred,
and owned by F. B. Stewart, Espyville, Pa. Winner of first
prize and sweepstakes at the New York and Pennsylvania
state fairs in 1896, also first in class and was in the winning
herd at the fair held at Madison Square Garden, New York
city, the same year.

INDEX

.:;.-..-,

.359

:.y,o

PAGE

A.berdeen-Angus cattle 49-61

origin and history 49

leading characteristics 55

standard points 58

American Merinos 183-190

origin and history 183

leading characteristics 186

principal points 188

Appendix A 355-362

definition of terms more com-
monly applied to animal

form

definition of terms less fre-
quently applied to animal

form

definition of terms relating
to animal form which are
liable to be misunderstood
because of their indefinite-
Appendix B— Facts regarding
the animals illustrated.. 363-368

cattle 363

sheep 366

swine 367

Ayrshire cattle 101-111

origin and history 101

leading characteristics 106

standard points 109

Beef breeds of cattle 23-83

Berkshire swine 307-312

origin and history 307

leading characteristics 310

standard points 311

Brown Swiss cattle 151-155

origin and history 151

leading characteristics 152

standard points 154

Cattle 1-172

beef breeds 23-83

classification .7-9

dairy breeds 85-144

dual-purpose breeds 145-172

indications of correct form
common to the beef

breeds 10-12

indications of correct form
and function common to

the dairy breeds II

indications of correct form
and function in the dual-

PAGE

purpose breeds 19-22

origin of the British breeds.. .4-6
origin of the domesticated
Vaces . 1-3

Cheshire swine 333-337

origin and history 333

leading characteristics 335

standard points 336

Chester White swine 287-293

origin and history 287

leading characteristics 290

standard points 291

Cheviot sheep 231-236

origin and history 231

leading characteristics 233

standard points 235

Cotswold sheep 271-275

origin and history 271

leading characteristics 272

standard points 274

Dairy breeds 85-144

Delaine Merino sheep 192-197

origin and history 192

leading characteristics 194

standard points 196

Devon cattle 163-172

origin and history 163

leading characteristics 167

standard points 170

Dorset horn sheep 217-223

origin and history 217

leading characteristics 220

principal points 222

Dual-purpose breeds 145-172

Duroc- Jersey swine 327-332

origin and history 327

leading characteristics 32S

standard points 329

Dutch Belted cattle 95-100

origin and history 95

leading characteristics 97

standard points 99

Essex swine, improved 343-348

origin and history 343

leading characteristics 345

standard points 346

French Canadian cattle 133-13S

origin and history 133

leading characteristics 136

standard points 137

;69

37°

INDEX.

PAGE

Galloway cattle 63-71

origin and history 60

leading characteristics 61

standard points .70

Guernsey cattle 113-121

origin and history 113

leading characteristics 116

standard points 119

Hampshire Down sheep 243-24S

origin and history 243

leading characteristics 246

standard points 247

Hereford cattle 37-48

origin and history 37

leading characteristics 43

principal points 46

Holstein-Friesian cattle 85-94

origin and history 85

leading characteristics S9

standard points 92

Improved Essex swine 343-348

origin and history 343

leading characteristics 345

standard points 34

Improved Large Yorkshire

swine 295-300

origin and history 295

leading characteristics 29'

standard points 298

Improved Suffolk swine 339-342

origin and history 339

leading characteristics 340

principal points 341

Jersey cattle 123-132

origin and history 123

leading characteristics 127

standard points 130

Kerry cattle 139-144

origin and history 139

leading characteristics 141

principal points 143

Leicester sheep 257-262

origin and history 257

leading characteristics 259

principal points 261

Lincoln sheep 263-269

origin and history 263

leading characteristics 265

standard points 267

Merino, American 183-190

origin and history 183

leading characteristics 1S6

principal points 188

Merino Delaine 192-197

origin and history 192

leading characteristics 194

standard points 196

Oxford Down sheep 249-255

origin and history 249

leading characteristics 252

standard points 253

PAGE

Poland-China swine 313-320

origin and history 313

leading characteristics 315

standard points 316

Polled Durham cattle 145-149

origin and history 145

leading characteristics 147

principal points 149

Pambouillet sheep 198-204

origin and history 194

leading characteristics 201

principal points 203

Red Poll cattle 156-162

origin and history 156

leading characteristics 159

standard points 160

Sheep 173-275

fine wooled breeds 183-204

improvement and classifica-
tion 177-179

introduction into Amer-
ica 173-176

leading essentials as to form

and wool 180-182

long wooled breeds 257-275

medium wooled breeds 206-255

Shorthorn cattle 23-36

origin and history 23

distribution in other coun-
tries 28

leading characteristics 31

principal points 34

Shropshire sheep 225-230

origin and history 225

leading characteristics 227

standard points 228

Small Yorkshire swine 349-354

origin and history 349

leading characteristics 351

standard points 352

Southdown sheep 206-210

origin and history 206

leading characteristics 208

standard points 209

Suffolk Down sheep 237-242

origin and history 237

leading characteristics 239

sta ndard points 241

Suffolk swine, improved 339-342

origin and history 339

Leading characteristics 340

standard points 341

Sussex cattle 72-77

origin and historj 72

leading characteristics 74

principal points 75

Swine 276-354

improvement and classifica-
tion 280-282

leading essentials as to

form • • % ^83-2S6

medium breeds 307-3i?»

INDEX.

371

PAGE

origin of the domesticated

races 276-279

the larger breeds 287-306

small breeds 339-354

Tamworth swine 301-306

origin and history 301

leading characteristics 304

principal points 305

Tunis sheep 211-216

origin and history 211

leading characteristics 213

standard points 215

Victoria swine 321-325

srigin and history 321

PAGE

leading characteristics 323

standard points 324

West Highland cattle 78-83

origin and history 78

leading characteristics 79

principal points 82

Yorkshire swine, improved

large 295-300

origin and history 295

leading characteristics 297

standard points 298

Yorkshire swine, small 349-354

origin and history 349

leading characteristics 351

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Compiled by G. B. Fiske. A treatise on poultry buildings
of all grades, styles and classes, and their proper location,
coops, additions and special construction ; all practical in de-
sign, and reasonable in cost. Over 100 illustrations. 125 pages.
5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50

Poultry Appliances and Handicraft

Compiled by G. B. Fiske. Illustrated description of a
great variety and styles of the best homemade nests, roosts,
windows, ventilators, incubators and brooders, feeding and
watering appliances, etc., etc. Over 100 illustrations. Over
125 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50

Turkeys and How to Grow Them

Edited by Herbert Myrick. A treatise on the natural
history and origin of the name of turkeys ; the various breeds,
the best methods to insure success in the business of turkey
growing. With essays from practical turkey growers in
different parts of the United States and Canada Copiously

illustrated. 154 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth $1.00

(18)

Alfalfa

By F. D. Cobukn. Its growth, uses, and feeding value.
The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without
reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four, and sometimes
five cuttings annually for five, ten, or perhaps ioo years; and
that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious
forage plants known, makes reliable information upon its pro-
duction and uses of unusual interest. Such information is
given in this volume for every part of America, by the highest
authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50

Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing
and Market Value

By Maurice G. Kains, with a short account of its history
and botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with
either seeds or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation
planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation,
manures, enemies, selection for market and for improvement,
preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected.
This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus-
trated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow
this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and
profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without inter-
fering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and en-
larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50

Landscape Gardening

By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture, university of
Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing
outdoor art ; with sundry suggestions for their application
in the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph is
short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the
discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty
of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made
entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated.
152 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50

Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences

By E. P. Powell. A treatise on the planting, growth
and management of hedge plants for country and suburban
homes. It gives accurate directions concerning hedges; how
to plant and how to treat them; and especially concerning
windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole art of making
a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and balconies,
for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140

pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $o.iO

(8)

Farm Grasses of the United States of America

By William Jasper Spillman. A practical treatise on
the grass crop, seeding and management of meadows and
pastures, description of the best varieties, the seed and its
impurities, grasses for special conditions, lawns and lawn
grasses, etc., etc. In preparing this volume the author's object
has been to present, in connected form, the main facts con-
cerning the grasses grown on American farms. Every phase
of the subject is viewed from the farmer's standpoint. Illus-
trated. 248 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

The Book of Corn

By Herbert Myrick, assisted by A. D. Shambia, E. A.
Burnett, Albert W. Fulton, B. W. Snow, and other most
capable specialists. A complete treatise on the culture, mar-
keting and uses of maize in America and elsewhere for
farmers, dealers and others. Illustrated. 372 pages. 5x7
inches. Cloth $1.50

The Hop — Its Culture and Care, Marketing and
Manufacture

By Herbert Myrick. A practical handbook on the most
approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing and selling
hops, and on the use and manufacture of hops. The result ofi
years of research and observation, it is a volume destined to
be an authority on this crop for many years to come. It takes
up every detail from preparing the soil and laying out the
yard, to curing and selling the crop. Every line represents the
ripest judgment and experience of experts. Size, 5x8;
pages, 300; illustrations, nearly 150; bound in cloth and gold;
price, postpaid. $150

Tobacco Leaf

By J. B. Killebrew and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture and
Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook
on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing,
packing and selling tobacco, with an account of the opera-
tions in every department of tobacco manufacture. The
contents of this book are based on actual experiments in field,
curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the
only work of the kind in existence, and is destined to be the
standard practical and scientific authority on the whole sub-
ject of tobacco for many years. 506 pages and 150 original
engravings. 5x7 inches. Cloth $2.00

(9)

Successful Fruit Culture

By Samuel T. Maynard. A practical guide to the culti'
vation and propagation of Fruits, written from the standpoint
of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his
business profitable by growing the best fruit possible and at
the least cost. It is up-to-date in every particular, and covers
tbe entire practice of fruit culture, harvesting, storing, mar-
keting, forcing, best varieties, etc., etc. It deals with principles
first and with tbe practice afterwards, as the foundation, prin-
ciples of plant growth and nourishment must always remain
the same, while practice will vary according to the fruit
grower's immediate conditions and environments. Illustrated.
265 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Plums and Plum Culture

By F. A. Wauch. A complete manual for fruit growers,
nurserymen, farmers and gardeners, on all known varieties
of plums and their successful. management. This book marks
an epoch in the horticultural literature of America. It is a
complete monograph of the plums cultivated in and indigenous
to North America. It will be found indispensable to the
scientist seeking the most recent and authoritative informa-
tion concerning this group, to the nurseryman who wishes to
handle his varieties accurately and intelligently, and to the
cultivator who would like to grow plums successfully. Illus-
trated. 391 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50

Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing

By F. A. Wauch. A practical guide to the picking, stor-
ing, shipping and marketing of fruit. The principal subjects
covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and pack-
ing, the fruit storage, evaporation, canning, statistics of the
fruit trade, fruit package laws, commission dealers and deal-
ing, cold storage, etc., etc. No progressive fruit grower can
afford to be without this most valuable book. Illustrated.
232 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Systematic Pomology

By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture and landscape
gardening in the Massachusetts agricultural college, formerly
of the university of Vermont. This is the first book in the
English language which has ever made the attempt at a com-
plete and comprehensive treatment of systematic pomology.
It presents clearly and in detail the whole method by which
fruits are studied. The book is suitably illustrated. 288
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth - $1.00

(11)

The Nut Culturist

By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation,
planting and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs
adapted to the climate of the United States, with the scien-
tific and common names of the fruits known in commerce as
edible or otherwise useful nuts. Intended to aid the farmer
to increase his income without adding to his expenses or
labor. Cloth, i2mo. . • $1.50

Cranberry Culture

By Joseph J. White. Contents : Natural history, history
of cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground, plant-
ing the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies
and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss.
Illustrated. 132 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.00

Ornamental Gardening for Americans

By Elias A. Long, landscape architect. A treatise on
beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain
and practical work with numerous illustrations and instruc-
tions so plain that they may be readily followed. Illustrated.
390 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $150

Grape Culturist

By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works
on the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for
all departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc. 282
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1-50

Gardening for Young and Old

By Joseph Harris. A work intended to interest farmers'
boys in farm gardening, which means a better and more profit-
able form of agriculture. The teachings are given in the
familiar manner so well known in the author's "Walks and
Talks on the Farm." Illustrated. 191 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth $1.00

Money in the Garden

By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical
style instructions on three distinct, although closely connected,
branches of gardening — the kitchen garden, market garden
and field culture, from successful practical experience for a
term of years. Illustrated. 268 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00

(IS)

Farmer's Cyclopedia
of Agriculture

A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Prac-
tice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the
Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals

'By EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph. D.
and CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M. S.

Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States
Department of Agriculture

This is a new, practical, and complete
presentation of the whole subject of ag-
riculture in its broadest sense. It is de-
signed for the use of agriculturists who
desire up-to-date, reliable information
on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but
more particularly for the actual farmer. The
volume contains

Detailed directions for the culture of every
important field, orchard, and garden crop

grown in America, together with descriptions of
their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and
remedies for their control. It contains an ac-
count of modern methods in feeding and handling
all farm s*:ock, including poultry. The diseases
which affect different farm animals and poultry
are described, and the most recent remedies sug-
gested for controlling them.

Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful
information is authoritative, practical and easily
found, and no effort has been spared to include
all desirable details. There are between 6,000
and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and
it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500
superb half-tone and other original illustrations,
making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agricul-
ture ever attempted.

Handsomely bound in cloth, £3.50; half morocco
(,-Cery sumptuous). £4-. 50, postpaid

nDAUPr limn PflMDAUV 315-321 Fourth Avenue, New York.N.
UKANbt JUUU bUM r AH I, People's Gas Buildina, Chicago, III

(19)

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