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U. S. DRPA-RTMRNT OF AGRICUI/rURl

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY— BULLETIN NO. 71.

II, W , \\] \A.\\ (IIIKI I.I 1^,1 KtAI

STUDY OF CIDER MAKING

FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND,

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iMMP^NTS. AM) CO.MPAIMSOXS ON AMEIUCAX WORK

^VILLrAM R. AT^AS^OOD,

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WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OP CHEMISTRY— BULLETIN NO. 71.
H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau.

A STUDY OF CIDER MAKmG

FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND,

WITH

COMMENTS AND COMPARISONS ON AMERICAN WORK.

^VILLIAM B. AL\\^OOT>,

Special Agent of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and Mycologist
of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1903.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Chemistry,
^YasUngtol^ I). C, July 15, 1902.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for your examination
and approval, the manuscript of a bulletin prepared by Mr. William
B. Alwood, special agent of the Department of Agriculture, on cider
making in France, Germany, and England.

I recommend that this manuscript be published as Bulletin No. 71
of the Bureau of Chemistry.

Respectfull}^, H. W. Wiley,

Chief.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture,

LEITER OF SUBMITTAL

Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,

Blaclsburg, Va., June 23, 1902.
Sir: In pursuance of a commission from the Secretaiy of Agricul-
ture, dated September 13, 1900, appointing me a special agent in the
Division of Chemistry, and of your official instructions of the same
date, J. beg to submit the accompanying report, comprising a partial
study of the cider industry in Europe, which has been prepared for
the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

The present paper comprises only a part of the work authorized by
the commission issued to me, and carried on under conjoint direction.
The aim has been to present a practical and popular treatment of the
subject, so far as the time at my disposal permitted me to carry the
inquiry. Necessaril}^ this report must be fragmentary and incom-
plete, as one person could not possibly cover the entire ground in a
single season.

From the complex nature of the work undertaken, it has seemed
best to present two repoils — the present one dealing with the economic
and practical data collected, and a second report dealing with the more
technical studv of methods of fermentation and related matters, such
as a study of the organisms commonly found in apple juice, and the
importance of the isolation, culture, and emplo3'ment of pure yeasts
in the manufacture of ciders and other fermented beverages made
from fruit juices. A discussion of the organisms causing mal-fermen-
tations will also be attempted.

Very respectfully submitted.

Wm. B. Alwood,

Special Agent.
Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chief., Bureau of Chemistry.,

U. S. Dejpa7'traent of Agriculture.
4

PREFACE.

The manufacture of cider is an important adjunct to fruit growing
in the United States. A well-made cider is a beverage which is appre-
ciated by all and one which is within the reach of every possessor of
an orchard. Cider is also a beverage which may be manufactured
without the supervision of the excise officials. It is thus an industry
which can be widely extended and whose development will make the
growing of fruits more jDrofitable.

It is evident that the principles which underlie the conduct of the
fermentation of apple juice in order to secure a product of a definite
chemical composition also apply to the juices of other fruits, such as
pears and peaches, and thus a bulletin of this description affects, in
general, the fruit interests of the country wherever the juices of fruits
are employed for potable purposes.

Up to the present time the manufacture of cider in the United States
has been conducted largely by empirical methods. Little has been done
toward the study of the chemical composition of the fruits, the fresh
juices, the fermenting musts, or the finished products. What is true
of wines is also true of ciders and other fermented fruit juices, viz,
that their excellence and healthfulness are dependent entirely upon
their chemical composition. The changes which take place in fruit
juices during fermentation are essentially chemical, and are produced
by ferments, which in these instances may be regarded as chemical
reagents.

In order that the manufacture of cider may be conducted in a more
systematic and scientific manner in this country, it was deemed desir-
able to study the best processes employed in foreign countries, espe-
cially in England, France, and Germany, which are the principal cider-
producing countries of the world. To this end, Mr. William B. Alwood
was employed by the Secretary of Agriculture as a special agent to
act under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, and
was detailed to study the actual processes of manufacture in the coun-
tries named, as well as to conduct extensive experiments here. Mr.
Alwood, in addition to collecting valuable information of a practical
nature, has also brought together the scattered chemical data found
in difficultly accessible reports and papers, so as to make them available
for use.

It is evident that a careful study of the data thus collected will be
of great service to our own manufacturers in showing them the methods
which experience and scientific studies in foreign countries have deter-
mined to be the best for the production of a wholesome and palatable
article.

This bulletin serves as an introduction to a more detailed stud}^ of
the best methods of fermentation, cellar treatment, and preservation
of cider products, together with a more detailed chemical study of the
fruits, the musts, and the finished beverages.

H. W. Wiley,

Chief of Bureau.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 1]

Beginning of this investigation 11

Quantity of apples produced in the United States 12

Disposition of this fruit 13

Acknowledgments 14

Classification of ciders 15

In France 15

In Germany 16

In England 18

Principal cider-producing countries of Europe 19

Relative importance of the cider industry in different countries 19

The chief cider-producing districts 20

The French cider districts 21

The German cider districts 24

The English cider districts 26

Cider apples 27

Important characteristics of cider apples ' 28

Comparison of cider apples 30

French standards 30

German standards 35

English standards 39

American standards 42

Harvesting, transportation, and storage of cider fruit 46

Cider-making establishments 50

Primitive methods and appliances 51

Modern methods and appliances 56

Factory systems 59

French factories 59

German factories 67

English factories 71

Production of the must 74

Ripeness of the fruit 74

Mixing varieties of apples 75

Washing the fruit 76

Grinding or crushing the fruit 76

Maceration of pulp 77

Expressing the must 78

Soaking the pomace 78

Fermentation of cider 78

Room, vessels, and appliances used 79

Temperature of fermentation room 79

Vessels used in fermentation 80

Filling the vessels 81

Controlling the exit and entrance of gases 82

Ventilating bungs and spigots for casks / 84

Fermentation of cider — Continued. Page.

The character of the must '. 86

Use of densimeters 86

What is a standard must? 87

Fortifying the must 91

Sterihzing the must by heat 91

The use of special yeasts 92

Observation and control of fermentation ., 94

Definition and description of fermentation 94

First or tumultuous fermentation 95

Kacking off 98

Avoidance of contact with air 98

Second fermentation 99

Second racking off 100

Lager fermentation 102

German method of fermentation 102

Preserving cider in storage 103

Filtering or clarifying the cider 104

The chemical composition of cider 108

Works of reference 113

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.
Plate I. Fig. 1. — Main building, Royal Pomological School, Geisenheim,
Germany. Fig. 2. — Giant tree of Pyrus {Sorbus) domestica,

Taunus, German j'^ 14

II. Fig. 1. — Cider apple trees by the roadside, Normandy, France.

Fig. 2. — Glimpse into an old pear orchard, Normandy. 20

III. Types of cider apple trees in Normandy, France 22

IV. Homes of peasant cider makers in Normandy, France 24

V. Fig. 1. — Train loaded with cider apples in sacks, France. Fig. 2. —

Ox cart used for hauling apples in Germany 48

VI. Fig. 1. ^Itinerant cider makers at work in streets; straw used in
building up cheese, Rennes, France. Fig. 2. — Similar outfit

mounted for travel, waiting for a job, Trouville, France 58

VII. Fig. 1. — Butleigh Court, Somersetshire, England, seat of English
cider experiment station. Fig. 2. — The cider orchard at But-
leigh Court 74

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. — Bin made of hurdles for outdoor storage of apples, used in England. 50

2. — The "touraauge" apple crusher, Normandy, France 51

3. — Primitive apple grater in use in Germany 54

4. — Primitive single-lever cider press in use in Germany 55

5.— Primitive double-lever cider press in use in Germany 55

6. — The ' ' greif ' ' apple crusher of Germany 56

7. — Slotted bottom of hopper used in ' ' greif ' ' machine 57

8. — " Greif ' ' apple crusher — sectional view of hopper 58

9. — Crushing cylinders of the "greif" machine 59

10. — Fermentation and storage room, Noel system, France 60

11. — Vertical section of factory of the "Union Agricole," St. Ouen-de-

Thouberville, near Rouen, France 63

12. — Ground plan of factory of the " Union Agricole " 64

13. — Vertical cross section of small German cider factory with arched

cellars , 70

14. — Vertical cross section of two-story German cider cellar 71

15. — No&l device for ventilating fermentation casks 82

16. — German earthenware ventilating funnel — vertical section 83

17. — Glycerin ventilating funnel 84

18. — Bent ventilating tube 85

19.— Noel ventilating bung 85

20. — Device for maintaining covering layer of carbon dioxid. as cider is

withdrawn 103

21. — Device for charging casks with carbon dioxid in storage cellar 104

22. —Device for burning sulphur match in casks 104

23. — Linen sack gravity filter 105

24. — Cellulose power filter used in Germany 106

25. — Asbestos sack filter — " Filtre Maignen " 107

26. — Asbestos gravity filter 108

A STUDY OF CIDER MAKING IN FRANCE, GERMANY,

AND ENGLAND.

INTRODUCTION.

In the United States cider has been in the past too generally
regarded as a product of ver}^ little importance from a commercial
standpoint, and it has been too often so made that most persons of cul-
tured taste have looked upon it with little approval when offered as a
beverage. Yet from the etymology of the word it is certain that the
name is very ancient, and that cider was the wine or strong drink,
"shekar," of the Phoenicians, and was well known by the Ar^^an race
which populated northern Europe before the dawn of history. A
study of the words used to denote the apple and the beverage made
from it shows that the fruit and the wine were known before the races
of northern Europe separated into Slavonians, Germans, and Celts,
and that the ancient Britons introduced the fruit into the British Isles
before the Roman conquest.^ The word cidei' as used b}^ English-
speaking people is the same as the Latin cicera^ Spanish sidra, Italian
sidro, and French cidre.

The German language, on the other hand, seems never to have con-
tained the word cider as a pure German word, but the beverage made
from the fruit of the apple is classed as a wine {ajpfel wein).

BEGINNING OF THIS INVESTIGATION.

The subject of working up the low-grade apples left as an unmer-
chantable residuum of the apple crops grown in the United States has
for some j^ears attracted the attention of the writer, and experimental
work on this subject has been done in the horticultural department
of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station for the past eight
years. Several preliminary reports of this work have been published*
from time to time, intended to encourage local efforts to utilize the
large quantities of unmerchantable fruit produced every j^ear when
there is a fruit crop.

These preliminary efforts served to awaken a strong interest in the
possibilities of making a pure sound cider froin our apples, which

«Sir George Birdwood quoted by Cooke in " Cider and Perry," p. 3.
b Bulletins 48, 57, and 71, Va. Agr. Expt. Station.

might serve as a light American wine so cheap and wholesome as to be
usable by everybody, and as a secondary product from such fermented
cider a fine apple vinegar to displace the enormous quantities of chem-
ical vinegars which find sale in those States where their manufacture
and sale are not restricted by statute.

The importance of utilizing our low-grade apples can only be appre-
ciated after realizing the probable quantity of this fruit produced in
the United States.

QUANTITY OF APPLES PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES.

It is impossible to present an accurate estimate of the apple crop of
the United States. The Census Bureau has not in the past gathered
statistics concerning this crop which can be said to cover this subject
with any degree of completeness; nor has the Department of Agri-
culture been able up to the present time to furnish the data desired.
The difficulties grow out of the nature of the crop itself. The apple
is a fruit grown almost over the entire cultivated area of the country,
but in many instances only in a haphazard manner and as a crop of
secondary importance; hence any attempt to deal with it accurately
from a statistical standpoint must of necessity fail because of the
immense labor involved and the lack of definite information among
the farmers themselves as to the amount of their crops.

The growth, however, of commercial orcharding, along with the
practice of packing and handling the merchantable crop in barrels
and boxes, has made it possible to gather with some degree of accu-
racy statistics of the merchantable apples which enter into commerce.
These statistics have been collected by the Orange Judd Publishing
Company with perhaps more care than by any other concern in the
country, and from their tables'* the following data are taken:

The greatest crop ever recorded in this country appears to have been
that of 1896, and comprised 69,070,000 barrels. It also appears that
the average merchantable crop of the country is in round numbers
50,000,000 barrels, or about 140,000,000 bushels, annually.

If this quantity enters into commerce through avenues sufficiently
definite to give it a place in the statistics of trade, how shall one esti-
mate the millions of bushels which are unmerchantable, or which enter
commerce untraced and unrecorded ?

It is, then, very evident that we have no means of estimating with
reasonable accuracy the grand total of our apple crop; but well-informed
persons will, I think, agree to the statement that, on the whole, not
more than about 60 per cent of the fruit actually grown in this country
finds its way into channels of commerce in such a manner as to appear
in general statistics. If this be a fair supposition, then nearly
100,000,000 bushels of this fruit are either consumed without having

« American AgricuTturist, October 27, 1900, p. 398.

passed through the channels of commerce mentioned above or go to
waste on the farms where grown.

DISPOSITION OF THIS FRUIT.

First of all, a large part is consumed where grown or in local markets.
Large quantities are consumed in the manufacture of evaporated fruit
and of cider, both for drinking purposes and for conversion into
vinegar. In certain districts large quantities of low-grade fruit are
used for canning and making marmalades, butters, jellies, etc. A
great quantity of this unmerchantable fruit, especiall}^ in the South,
goes into the preparation of sun-dried fruit. In some years 200 tons
of this sun-dried fruit are shipped from the little station of Chris-
tiansburg, Va., 8 miles from the experiment station at Blacksburg.

Perhaps the data'* in regard to merchantable fruit produced have
been collected with as great accurac}'^ in Virginia as in any other State.
These data show that our crop of 1897 reached about 281,889 barrels.
These figures are not quite high enough for that year, as the total
merchantable crop was about 300,000 barrels. Supposing this to have
been 60 per cent of the total crop, about 1,400,000 bushels of apples
were produced in Virginia that year. Of this quantity about 600,000
bushels were locall}^ consumed or went to waste, Formerl}^ the esti-
mates were much larger, being based on the Eleventh Census,* but we
now know that the census figures of 1890, so far as the}^ relate to apple
production in Virginia, are inadequate.

Excepting the sun-dried, evaporated, and canned fruit, the apple
products just enumerated are generally adulterated in the United
States, either b}/ the use of other than vegetable substances or by the
mixture of different fruit and vegetable substances, and the use of
various preservatives and substances which, if not preservative, serve
to mask defects in quality and cheapen methods of manufacture. This
adulteration has become so notorious as to greatly injure a legitimate
trade which should be a most proper and natural outlet for this large
portion of our apple crop which falls below merchantable grade.

The important practical bearing of these secondary industries upon
fruit growing in our country has led the writer for a number of years
past to devote some attention to their study, with a view to determin-
ing the principles which lie at the basis of the practical manufacture
of these products on the farms or in small cooperative factories placed
in the midst of the districts which furnish the raw material.

To this work the authorities of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment
Station have given all the support possible with the funds available,
and the work has progressed sufficiently to enable us to give practical
instruction of a reliable character to our students, especially along the
lines of canning and making butters and marmalades. But on some

"Bulletin 101, Va. Expt. Sta. & Bulletin 48, Va. Expt. Sta.

lines we had up to the spring of 1900 made little or no progress, most
conspicuous among which were the practical methods of fermenting
ciders and vinegars, and the biology of the alcoholic and acetic ferments.
All questions relating to products from fruits received consideration
in my work abroad, but particular attention was given to a practi-
cal examination of the methods of manufacturing cider in France,
Germany, and England, and a study of the biology of alcoholic and
acetic fermentation of fruit juices, either for the manufacture of
beverages or vinegar. This paper deals with the cider investigation
in its practical bearings, and other questions of interest are reserved
for a subsequent report.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

In the investigations made abroad I was almost without exception
received in the most cordial manner by both public officers and private
individuals whom I had occasion to call upon for assistance; and
while 1 can not mention by name all persons who gave assistance, I
wish to extend special thanks to the following:

The diplomatic and consular officers of our Government at London,
Paris, Frankfort, and Berlin extended every courtesy, aiding me by
introductions and by furnishing special information, all of which
assisted very much in the accomplishment of the work in hand.

In England I was received in a most courteous manner and, barring
some slight exceptions, was shown over the factories and given such
information as was desired. Among those who thus assisted I wish to
mention especially the following:

Major Craigie, of the board of agriculture; Mr. F. H. Hall, of the agricultural col-
lege at Wye; Hon. C. W. Radcliff Cooke, of Hellens, near Dyniock, Herefordshire;
Mr. Charles D. Wise, of Winchcombe, Gloucestershire; Mr. F. J. Lloyd, London,
consulting chemist of the Bath and West Society; R. Neville Grenville, esq., But-
leigh Court, Somersetshire; Mr. Frederick George Farwell, Bath; Mr. A. E. Beach,
Winchcombe, Gloucestershire; Mr. T. W. Beach, Ealing Road, Brentford, London;
Mr. H. P. Bulmer, Ryelands, Herefordshire; Mr. Henry Weston, Much Markle,
Herefordshire; Mr. John Watkins, Withington, Herefordshire.

In France I was very courteously received by Mr. Leon Vassilliere,
director of agriculture in the ministry of agriculture, and by him
introduced to others. Prof. A. Kayser, of the National School of
Agriculture, Paris, extended everj'^ courtesy in his laboratory % and
permitted me to note the methods of his work and study the litera-
ture of his department. Mr. A. Truelle, of Trouville, Calvados,
assisted me in securing information and special literature. Mr. A.
Power, director of the Grand Cidrerie at Saint Ouen-de-Thouberville,
permitted me to study the methods of the factory, and gave much
assistance. Mr. E. Herissant, director of the Practical Agricultural
School of Three Crosses, at Rennes, Brittany, in like manner explained

Bu) 71. Bureau of Cherriistry. U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate I.

FiQ. 1.— Main Building, Royal Pomological School,
Geisenheim, Germany.

Fig. 2.— Giant Tree of Pyrus (Sorbus) domestica, Taunus,
Germany.

the methods of his work, both in studying varieties of cider apples
and making cider, and secured special literature for me. Mr. Isidore
Guibout, and his son, Mr. Joseph Guibout, peasant farmers of Danestal,
Calvados, gave me every opportunity to study the conditions and
technique of cider making on the peasant proprietors' places. Mr.
J. M. Buisson, secretary of one of the horticultural syndicates of
France, extended many courtesies, and introduced me to many men
from whom information could be obtained.

In Germany I am first of all indebted to Director R. Goethe, of the
Royal Pomological School, at Geisenheim (PL I, fig. 1), for courtesies
extended at that institution. I am also especially indebted to Prof.
Dr. Julius Wortmann, director of the laboratory of plant physiology
at Geisenheim, for his assistance in regard to every part of my
inquiry and for instruction while working in his laboratory. From
Prof. Dr. Richard Meissner, then assistant to Professor Wortmann,
I received much personal assistance and kindly counsel. Prof, Dr.
Paul Lindner, of Berlin, also extended courtesies at the Imperial
High School for Fermentation Work, for which I am deeply indebted.

Of the manufacturers in Germany I wish to especially remember
the Brothers Freyeisen, of Frankfort, for permitting an examination
of their work and factories in detail. Acknowledgments are also due
to Mr. Fritz Batz, Neuenhain, Taunus, and Mr. C. H. Schmidt, of
Schierstein, Rhinegau, for extending like courtesies at their factories.

CLASSIFICATION OF CIDERS.

Wines have long since become well recognized by specific names
which, within limits, denote certain characteristics, more or less con-
stant; but with the fermented juice of the apple in the past all has
been cider, whether good, bad, or indifferent; and even yet only those
who are well informed on the question are aware that there are ciders
and ciders.

To the fact that ciders have not in the past been developed on
special lines and classified, we owe much of the misunderstanding in
regard to the possibility of making a good beverage from apple juice;
but to the fact that so much vilely adulterated or chemically concocted
stuff is put on the market as a drink, we owe, in much greater degree,
the general misunderstanding in regard to this product in our country.

IN FRANCE.

The French attempt to classify ciders as "pure juice," " marchand,"
and "boisson." To say that this classification is well observed is wide
of the truth. The first named is intended to be pure cider of a special
quality, made from the finest fruit. It should contain 6 or Y per cent

of alcohol, and may be made as still cider — i. e., fermented '"dry"
(sec); as "mousseux," cider bottled before all the sugar is exhausted,
and so handled as to develop and retain a certain quantity of gas; or
as cider " champagnise," which has received more special treatment
than ordinary "mousseux" and often is, in fact, dosed with sugar to
fortify it.

The cider "marchand," or simply cider, should contain from 4 to 5
per cent alcohol, and is made from fruits of medium quality; or, as
more often happens, if rich enough, it is diluted by mixture of the
second pressing with pure juice. This is the cider of commerce as it
ordinarily leaves the manufacturer, but after it pays the octroi or
tax and enters into consumption in the city, it may be, and often is,
diluted and becomes quite a different article from that which leaves
the manufacturer.

The "boisson," as applied to a cider, means the juice of second or
even third pressing of the pomace. It is fermented comparatively
"dry," contains about 2 to 3 per cent of alcohol, and is the ordinary
cider of the common people, especialh^ laborers in both country and
city, in the cider districts. It is often furnished in large quantities to
the farm laborers, and if so handled as to retain considerable gas, or
artiticially charged, it is an agreeable light drink. "Boisson" is also
very often called "petit cidre" (small cider).

A poor cider is made from the unpared chopped American dried
apples and from the dried cores and parings we sell to France, by
treating this stock as follows: About 10 kilos (22 pounds) of the dried
stock are macerated in a vat containing one hectoliter (about 26 gal-
lons) of water with addition of some raisins or sugar to suit the taste
of the manipulator, and this is then permitted to ferment slightly in
mass to extract the desired substances, and the liquid is expressed and
treated as in case of low-grade cider. The beverage made in this man-
ner is restricted by law to 3 per cent alcohol content and is a cheap
drink, used mostly at low-class restaurants and for laborers. This low-
grade apple stock sent to France is also used to macerate with hard
cider to restore in part its qualit}^ by inducing new fermentation; but
not the slightest evidence was found to substantiate the supposition
heretofore frequently advanced, that this poor apple stock, or that
even good sun-dried apple stock is used to make French wines or to
adulterate them.

IN GERMANY.

Cider is classified in Germany into common cider, or "apfel wein,"
"export apfel wein," and "champagner apfel wein." One also con-
stantlj" meets with such names as "Speierling apfel wein," "Boers-
dorfer apfel wein," and others. These grades of cider do not
correspond closely with the classes or grades of French or English

ciders. These names are, in fact, more to be relied upon as having a
definite meaning so far as the strength and purity of the article is
concerned.

The common cider of Germany is made just as they make ordinary
light wines, and their cider is, in fact as well as in name, a wine. It
will show from 3.75 to 4.50 or nearly 5 per cent of alcohol, varying
with the character of the fruit, and the ordinary cider is a dry, light
wine of very insipid taste to the American palate when not charged
with carbon dioxid. These ciders are kept in casks and drawn as
wanted.

The "export apfel wein" is made practicall}'^ in the same manner
from selected fruit, but is either bottled when there is still sugar
enough to saturate it with gas or is saturated artificiallJ^ It may
show 4.5 to 5 or 5.5 per cent of alcohol and is a still light wine.

The "champagner apfel wein" or "schaum apfel wein" is much
like champagne from grape wines. At a proper stage the cider is
clarified, sugared, and bottled, and carried through the processes
described hereafter.

The "Boersdorfer apfel wein" is simply a name given to indicate a
product supposedly made from the Boersdorfer apple, but it was not
evident that this brand had any special qualities not found in a good
export grade.

The "Speierling apfel wein," however, is a cider niade by using a
small proportion of the juice from the wild fruit known to botanists as
Pyriis {Sorhus) domestica. This tree was found growing to giant pro-
portions on the Taunus mountains about Soden. The fruit when fully
ripe and touched bj^ frost becomes very mellow and has an agreeable
flavor, but before ripening it is characterized by a pungent, acrid
juice so rich in tannin as to remind one of the unripe American per-
simmon in its effect on the mucous membrane of the mouth. The
juice of this wild fruit is added to apple juice in small quantity, not
over 5 per cent, and by reason of the tannin contained is thought to
produce a finer cider, which is more easily clarified, and to furnish in
the finished product a superior flavor and bouquet. (PI. I, fig. 2.)

It can not be said that the German ciders appeal to the American
palate, with the exception of their champagne ciders and the very
finest of the other grades; but that they are well-made standard goods
is most certainly true.

In German}^ great quantities of fresh, partly fermented cider are
offered at the restaurants in the fall season. This they call " rauscher "
or "siiss apfel wein" (smoking or sweet cider). The brothers Freyei-
sen stated that they sold ordinarily about 5,000 hectoliters of such
cider each year in Frankfort during the making season. This would
be about 132,000 gallons.

17247— No. 71—03 2

IN ENGLAND.

In England a strong effort is being made to bring about a better
understanding of the importance of grading ciders in accordance with
some standard. But it could not be learned that any generally accepted
classification had been adopted, further than that the Bath and West
Society, which holds the only fair at which anj^ considerable exhibit
of ciders is made in England, recognizes two classes, i. e., those show-
ing 4 per cent of alcohol or more, and those which show less than 4
per cent of alcohol. The latter are called small cider bj' their chemist,
but this word is not accepted in the English trade. From analyses
made by the United States Department of Agriculture of samples
selected at Bath, at the annual show in May, 1900, it appears that the
classification that year was not based on accurate chemical data, or else
the samples were confused in handling.

There were goods of both classes, bottled and in casks, and it appeared
that the classification was rather artificial, being often determined, not
by the quantit}" of alcohol a certain quality of juice will produce, but
by the stage at which fermentation had been arrested. The analyses
of ciders from the Bath and West exhibit of 1900 show conclusively
that fermentation had not been normally carried out, but that it had
been arrested by artificial means.

In fact the cider of commerce in England, except in some few cases,
has no recognized standard. There seems to be a very unwise effort
to cater to a demand for a sweet liquor showing only 3 to 4 per cent
of alcohol. If made from a good quality of fruit and unadulterated,
such cider must still contain considerable unfermented sugar, which
renders it very unstable and diflScult to handle in shipment, except as
sterilized bottled goods, unless treated sufficiently with preservatives
to check fermentation. There is another alternative equall}^ bad,
namely, to ferment the juice dry, dilute with water, and dose with
saccharin to produce the sweet taste desired. It was said that this
was practiced, but no proof of it was seen.

In England, however, excellent grades of bottled ciders were found,
both still and gaseous. Some of these were made from special varie-
ties of apples, as Foxwhelp, a very old English cider apple, or Kings-
ton Black, but more often they were made from the mixed fruit of
the district. Eight examples of these ciders are shown under sample
numbers 32 to 39 (see p. 111). These were reall}^ fine ciders, some dry,
some bottled with a small percentage of unfermented sugar, and others
sugared in the process of champagnizing.

A sparkling cider is not necessarily a sugared article, but, if pure,
is best produced by bottling before fermentation is complete. It is
then a normal French ''mousseux." This grade can, however, be
produced by charging with gas artificially when bottled. A cham-

pagne cider is not, properly speaking, a pure cider, but is fortified by
addition of sugar.

It appears that even in the best cider districts of England there are
no really accepted names for ciders which can be depended upon by
purchasers. The name of the maker is practically the only mark
worthy of consideration. This state of affairs, however, is in fair way
to remedy itself, as the industr}^ is rapidly developing on special lines,
and certain class designations, such as still ciders, sparkling ciders,
champagne ciders (both dr}'^ and sweet), of approximate alcoholic
strength, will soon come to be recognized in the trade. The Buhners,
at Hereford, seem already to have reached a high degree of perfection
in the preparation of their goods, and Mr. Charles Dacres Wise, at
the estate of Lord Sudley, in Gloucestershire, was putting up a ver}'^
excellent grade of both still and sparkling ciders and perr}'^, the latter
being made from the fruit of the pear. Nothing so interesting in the
wa}' of a country plant was found as that of Hon. C. W. Radcliffe
Cook, at Hellens, near Dymock, Herefordshire. This country gentle-
man, an ex-member of Parliament, was personally devoting himself to
the manufacture of cider in a small way, with the most primitive
machinery, and yet producing a good sound article. It was, however,
at Butleigh Court, the country seat of R. Neville Greenville, esq.,
that the best experimental work on cider manufacture found in Eng-
land was seen. These establishments will be mentioned more fully
under a subsequent head.

PRINCIPAL CIDER-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE.

When this inquiry in Europe was begun, the writer was somewhat
imbued with the notion, so prevalent in the United States, that cider
making could only be regarded as a secondary affair, a method of util-
izing inferior fruit in the manufacture of a product of some local
value, but not as an industry of general importance. However im-
portant the saving of the low-grade or unmerchantable fruit might be
to our growers, it had not seemed as though cider making could be
ranked as a great industry. Interest in the matter had been mainly
aroused by what seemed to be a scientific question of some moment,
with fairly promising economic possibilities.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE CIDER INDUSTRY IN DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES.

In England evidences were found of an industry fairly well founded,
and in France and German}^ there exists a great industiy already well
developed and employing millions of capital in the aggregate, with
large areas of country devoted to growing cider fruits as an industrj\

France, by reason of the extent of its manufacture, is easily the
leading cider country of the world, followed by Germany, England,

Switzerland, United States, Canada, Austria, Grand Duch}^ of Luxem-
burg, and Spain, in order of importance."

The acreage of orchards in France can not be stated with any cer-
tainty, but from estimates^ of the total apple trees in Brittan}^
made by Frere Martial, of the Christian Brothers, of the Institute
of Ploermel, it appears that in this province alone there are about
24,500,000 trees, and as this province makes about one-third the cider
of France, a like ratio would carry the total number of trees up to
about 75,000,000 for the entire cider country.

After sevei'al tours of the cider countr}^ of France the writer is pre-
pared to believe that this grand total is not too high. In the Calvados
country, at some places, the face of the countr}- is a forest of fruit trees,
and frequently the highways are also planted on both sides (Plate II).

The product of cider varies naturally with the quantity of fruit
available from year to year, but the mean annual production of France
for twenty years (1879-1898) was 297,946,030* gallons, and the maxi-
mum product during this time reached 695,388,430 gallons in 1893.
From the French Government reports it appears that 1,021,090
persons were entered as manufacturers of cider in 1898. The 3'^ear
1900 saw one of the greatest harvests ever known in France, and
without doubt the fruit product surpassed all previous figures.
Consul-General Hertslet, of the British consular service,^ reporting in
May, 1901, says that the production of cider in the 68 departments of
France, in which apples are grown for this purpose, amounted to
647,000^000 gallons, in round numbers, from the apple harvest of 1900;
but this estimate is doubtless not based on the final reports.

The above figures as to production, except the last statement, are
taken from those published b}'^ the French ministry of agriculture,
and are in no sense complete as to grand total. They represent the
quantity which finds its way into commerce, so as to be reported to
the Government, but take no account of the enormous quantity locally
consumed. Each family m the great cider provinces of Picardy, Nor-
mandy, and Brittany, as a usual thing, makes its own cider or pro-
vides for the same in such a manner that it does not enter into the
figures reported to the Government. It is probable that the official
figures include very nearly the total of pure ciders, but the " boisson,"
or low-grade ciders, are practically not represented in these statements.

THE CHIEF CIDER-PRODUCING DISTRICTS.

There are many statements current in the difierent countries of
Europe as to the peculiar importance of certain districts as regards

« Truelle, address before International Congress on the Cider Industry, Paris, 1900.
<* International Congress on the Cider Industry, Paris, 1900, pp. 72 and 87.
<^ British Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous Series, No. 552, May
6, 1901.

Bu!. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate il.

■'u '^

J'/

■{'

^ V

-.1

Fig. 1.— Cider-apple Trees by the Roadside, Normandy, France.

Fig. 2.— Glimpse into an Old Pear Orchard, Normandy, France.

the excellence of their ciders. These statements at once recall state-
ments of like nature in regard to the quality of grape wines of certain
districts. In the case of wines it can not be questioned that experi-
ence has abundantly demonstrated the correctness of these claims.
Soil and climate certainly pla}^ a very important role in the production
of all fine wines. Do they play an equally important role in the pro-
duction of ciders? The chemical data on varieties grown in different
countries must in part answer this question.

It was not found that any investigator had really undertaken a
serious inquiry into this matter, and the manufacture of cider can by
no means be said to have reached a stage of perfection which warrants
definite conclusions of like value to those which govern wine making.
It is very evident, however, that in certain districts where grapes will
not grow to such perfection as to admit of their culture as a wine
fruit, apples have for ages taken their place. European peoples are
without exception consumers of wines in considerable quantity, some
nations much more so than others. Hence, wherever the grape wine
can not be successfully produced, there has been a more or less per-
sistent efi'ort to supply the demand for wine by using a fruit which
will thrive under local conditions.

The French Cider Districts.

In France the grape will not thrive in open culture to any extent in
the northwestern and northern provinces. Hence the provinces of
Brittany, Normand}^, and Picardy, lying in this part of France, are the
chief seat of the cider industry. These lie along the Atlantic Ocean,
the English Channel, and the borders of Belgium.

Normandy is in fact the principal cider country of France, and it is
here that one finds the industry best developed in all its details. Also
in this province has been developed a large number of seedling varie-
ties of apples with the sole idea of cider making, and, though the face
of the country is often a forest of apple trees, one never finds dessert
or culinary varieties growing in these open plantations. The idea of
commercial apple growing, as developed in America, is wholly unknown
to these people. If a proprietor desires table fruit it is grown in his
garden on walls or trellises, or on the walls of his residence or out-
buildings, always in the form of cordons, espaliers, etc. , never in open
field culture. In fact, the orchard culture proper is for cider making,
just as farther south in France the country is in places occupied with
vinej^ards for wine making.

The varieties are seedlings from the apples grown here for centuries.
It is only during the last forty years that a study has been made of
these various seedling varieties, and certain ones have been selected
for propagation because of vigor, productiveness, and qualities desired
in the processes of cider making. One finds certain varieties every-

where mentioned as the leading 'sorts, and these are largely propa-
gated in nurseries.

The orchards everywhere have the appearance so characteristic of
seedlings of Pyrus w^«Zw.s' (Plate III), and do not take on the character-
istic appearance of American cultivated orchards. The trees are often
scrubby, rough, and thorny, and so overgrown with moss and mis-
tletoe that they seem to fit in well with the surroundings. The climate
is oceanic, moist, and often dull from cloudiness, but never subject to
great extremes of temperature. Much of the strictly orchard area
in Calvados is found on a moderately elevated plateau, characterized
by low, undulating ranges of hills, with decidedly moist valleys.

In this connection some extracts are quoted from a work by M. de
Beaumont on Normandy, in which he speaks especially of Calvados,
the department in which, perhaps, better cider is made than in any
other of France:

CALVADOS.

General aspect. — Calvados lies with an exposure to the north and extends to the
hills of the Department of Orne on the south, and comprises many valleys and
extensive plateaus. These valleys, which are watered by six streams flowing from
south to north, are separated from each other by chains of slightly elevated hills
which decrease in height to the shore, where they are suddenly transformed into
high cliffs of 30 to 120 meters (100 to 400 feet). Thriving, fertile, rich in prairies,
this district offers many aspects of a charming country.

The hills, the geological composition of which is very far from uniform, and which
do not present the same characters in any two places, form three very distinct natural
regions — the cretaceous, the calcareous, and the granitic.

The first comprises the eastern part of the department. Chalky formations dom-
inate in the country known as *'le Paj's d'Auge," situated l^etween the frontiers of
Eure and the valley of the Dives. The arrondissements of Pont 1' p]veque and Lisieux,
almost entirely included in these limits, present vast chalky plateaus cut by deep
valleys, showing a clayey or argillaceous deposit overlying the rock.

The second region where the limestone (great oolite, inferior oolite, marls, and
sandstone) predominates, includes the arrondissement of Caen and a ])ortion of those
of Falaise and Bayeux.

All that portion of the Department of Calvados which comprises the division of
Yire, the southern part of Bayeux, the western part of Falaise, and the southern part
of Caen, under the name of Bocage, has a peculiar aspect. Its granites, gray and
reddish in color, its schists, its ai-id plateaus scarred with great blocks of rocks, its
houses constructed of materials of somljer color, all present a rather melancholy
aspect.

Climate. — Calvados, which is situated on the border of the sea and has no consid-
erable elevations, enjoys a much milder climate than its geographical situation would
warrant. It is part of the belt where the Seine or Parisian climate predominates,
thus named because it is peculiar to the basin of the Seine, and particularly to Paris.
In its general characteristics this climate is mild, but at the same time humid and
variable.

In spite of its low elevation and the frequent rains (one hundred and thirty-five
days in a year) maintaining a chilly humid atmosphere, the climate of Calvados is
very healthy, this department occupying the first rank in the relative longevity in
France. The western part of the canton of Tsigny and the country situated at the
mouth of the Sougnes and the Dives are less favored than the rest of the department.

Bui, 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate III.

Types of Cider-apple Trees in Normandy, France.

'r'<

The spring here is cold and rainy, the fine season lasts for only a month and a half
from June into August.

The annual mean temperature of Caen is a little higher than that of Paris, which
is 10.6" C. The winter on an average is less cold than at Paris and the summer is
not so warm. The predominating winds come from the west, north, and south.
Violent storms often desolate the fields at the time of the equinoxes. It rains oftener
on the border than in the interior of the department. The rainfall is 74 cm. (29
inches) annually, being not quite equal to the average in France, which is 77 cm.
(30 inches). «

A student of the geology of Normandy, M. de Caumont, has pub-
lished a remarkable statement in regard to the influence of the soil
upon the quality of these ciders in which he says:

The quality of the ciders produced upon different soils shows very great differences,
as those who use these ciders have been able to determine by comparing the prod-
ucts of several cantons. These ciders, like wines, are more or less strong, and one
is able to preserve them a greater or less time, according to the soil upon which they
were produced.

If my observations have not deceived me, the presence of fragments of quartz and
silicious (flint) rocks in the earth, is very favorable to the production of a good cider,
that which above all has the most agreeable taste. Therefore, the best cider prod-
ucts in the arrondissements of Bayeux and of Caen are produced upon the mottled
sandstone soils, earths covered very often with a great quantity of alluvium, with
nodules of quartz and flint, or upon the hard limestones and lower oolite soils of a
limestone and clayey character, which are covered up themselves with fragments of
quartz and flint, as near Cartigny and the environs of Tsigny, and several communes
of the cantons of Crevise, Littry, etc.

In the arrondissements of Lisieux and Pont I'Eveque the best productions are taken
from the chalk formations covered with an argillaceous formation carrying flint
nodules in quantity. * * *

These numerous observations lead us algo to think that the apples harvested from
a soil where lime is in excess, as upon the great oolite plains of Caen and of Falaise,
are less sugary than these others which grow upon an argillaceous soil. The cider
produced from fruits grown upon our limestone plains becomes acid at an earlier
stage, and it is very inferior in quality to that made at Bessin and the regions of the
chalk substrata like Lisieux and Pont I'Eveque. I have made these observations
not only in Calvados, but in the commune of Orne, where the regions vary equally
as much in their geologic characters as in Calvados. «

At Danestal, in Calvados, some days were spent during November
observing the work of the small landed proprietors or peasants (Plate
IV), and as this country is typical of the very best cider-producing
area of France, the soil was carefully examined and its agricultural
value ascertained.

The soil on warm southern and southeastern slopes was very rich in
the first reaches above the streams, but grew thinner very markedly
toward the summits of the low hills. The best soil was a rich brown
loam, showing abundant nodules of flint, and at a depth of 12 inches
or more a grayish sand became predominant. Along the upper slopes
a gray soft sandstone showed occasionally and seemed to dip down
into the hills as though erosion had carried away what was once the

« Translation from manuscript notes furnished by M. Truelle.

higher levels. The abundance of flint nodules was everywhere a char-
acteristic of the best lands.

The best exposures were generally planted in fruit trees and covered
with heavy sod, most of the orchards being used as pastures. There
was very little land under cultivation in crops.

The cold slopes were mosth^ thin lands and often seepy, and where
set in orchards were decidedly inferior to southern slopes. The uplands
varied in value from 500 to 1,200 francs per hectare ($40 to $100 per
acre), and the richest valley lands were held at 4,000 to 5,000 francs
per hectare ($300 to $400 per acre). These values lead one to wonder
how anyone could carry on such apparently careless culture and con-
tinue to hold lands of such value.

The GermXn Cider Districts.

In Germany as in France most of my time was given to specific
investigations at those places which offered the greatest opportunity
for practical and scientific work, viz, at centers where the bulk of the
cider is made; hence, the Wiirtemberg cider districts of Germany
were not inspected, but the related districts of Switzerland and a part
of southern and central Bavaria were observed. In these nothing
worthy of special mention was found. Everywhere, however, the
wonderful opportunities for development which would be seized upon
by a more versatile people were conspicuous.

At Frankfort-on-the-Main is found the center of the German cider
industry. Here two firms alone were making over 1,300,000 gallons
of cider annually; and from Frankfort to Wiesbaden, along the slopes
of the Taunus Mountains, one finds a continuous apple country with
numerous small establishments for the manufacture of cider. The
industry here overlaps into the wine countr}^, or Rhinegau proper,
and extends even down to Schierstein, almost in sight of the world-
famous Johannisburg wine district. But nowhere in Germany was
found any area so peculiarly and distinctively a cider-producing coun-
try as in Calvados, France.

In German}^ the tendency seems to be away from the small peasant
proprietor, and toward a factory system founded upon the very best
and latest investigations of modern science, while in France this is not
nearly so much the case. Possibly this fact, coupled with the well-
known orderl}'^ and methodical habits of the German, may account for
the fact previously stated in this report, that in Germany standai*ds of
quality are better recognized than in any other European country. As
already noted, the German considers his product a wine, calls it so, and
makes it by certain definite methods.

The only apple-growing districts of Germany which were examined
were (1) the Taunus country in Prussia, stretching from Frankfort to
Wiesbaden, and (2) the Rhinegau, which extends from below Wiesba-
den to where the Rhine breaks throusfh the Niederwald below Riide-

Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate IV.

Homes of Peasant Cider Makers in Normandy, France.

sheim. The Rhinegau is not, properly speaking, an apple-growing
district, as here the grape overtops everything in importance, but I
found the cider industry well represented as far down the Rhine as
Schierstein.

The Taunus region is said by well-posted German students to be
the best apple district in Germany. This district is not large, and
comprises the western and southwestern slopes of the Taunus Moun-
tains. The orchards occur occasionally even down on the more level
drift soils of the floor of the Rhine Valley; but usually the flat lands
along the Rhine are occupied by cultivated farm crops, or where spurs
of the foothills jut down into the Rhine plain the}^ are oftener occupied
by vineyards than by orchards.

The Taunus Mountains are not high, being about 1,300 or 1,400 feet
at Cronberg, and nowhere in this district do they rise above 2,000
feet. They slope gradually to the foothills and alluvial lands of the
lower levels, presenting gentle grassy slopes and rolling uplands,
generally easy to till and presenting no difiiculties whatever for
orcharding. The Rhine plain has here an elevation averaging about
300 feet above sea level.

The higher levels of the Taunus show some outcrops of shales, over-
lying igneous rocks of great variety, as gneiss, mica, and feldspathic
schists. The slopes occupied by the great orchards show a clayey
soil, with much gravel intermingled, and, while not very rich, good
care has kept it well supplied with humus and in good condition.
The trees are of great size and vigor, and so far as observed, the
fruit growers do not have to contend with the numerous insect and
fungous troubles met in this country. The exposure is ideal for fruit
growing in a country so far north; and, in general characteristics,
this would be considered a typically tine orchard section.

The Taunus country has climatic and soil conditions strikingly dif-
ferent from those found in the French orchard country. This German
district has a continental climate more like that found in America
than that of France, and the whole environment is essentially like that
of many American orchard regions. The character of the apples
grown and their chemical composition are much closer to American
types than to French. Many varieties are grown for culinary and
dessert uses, and the low-grade fruit, along with some distinctly cider
apples, is employed for cider-making purposes.

In some places the orchards cover the hillsides, all types, ages, and
qualities intermingled without much system. And here was seen for
the first time the giant trees of Pyrus {Sorbus) domestica^ whose fruits
are used to mix with ordinary apples to produce the highest grades of
cider. The lowland orchards did not have the vigorous appearance
of those on higher levels, and often those in flat fields were heavily
cropped under the trees, while the uplands were usually in grass.

That the qualit}" of the German fruit is quite inferior for cider
making to that of the best French fruit seems to be evident from
chemical data given in this report. It does not appear, however, that
the studies of the fruit and the ciders made therefrom in certain
districts have been carried out with as much care, from the labora-
tor}^ point of view, in Germany as in France, though German factory
work seemed quite superior, as remarked above. There are certainly
some verj^ important points awaiting investigation in regard to the
effect of soil and climate upon the composition of apples and the result-
ant qualities of ciders made therefrom. A comparative study of this
sort on the German and French fruit would be interesting and yield
data of much practical importance.

The English Cider Districts.

The wonderful variety of geological formations occurring in such a
small country as England confuses the stranger and renders observa-
tions somewhat difficult. However, after traveling twice over the
chief fruit sections of the country, the writer was able to discrim-
inate somewhat as to the character of the orchard lands.

The best development of orcharding observed was in Hereford-
shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire. The second best was in
Somersetshire, though Devonshire which has a rather better reputation
than Somersetshire, was not visited. The general statement current
in England is that the orchard counties are Herefordshire, Devon-
shire, and Somersetshire, in the order named, but certainl}^ portions
of Worcestershire and Gloucestershire should not be omitted from
this category. .

In the excellent monograph of Dr. Henrv Graves Bull, of Hereford-
shire, on the Vintage Fruits," he points out that in the first two
counties named the good orchard lands are situated on like geological
formations, viz, the old red sandstone. In Herefordshire the great vigor
and f ruitf ulness of the old orchards, on the fine rolling red lands, were
specially noticeable, and the ciders made, especiall}' at Hereford and
at Hellens, near Dymock, were as fine as one often finds. Equal praise
can, however, be given to the fine cider and perr}' made on the estate
of Lord Sudley, near Winchecombe, Gloucestershire. But as soon as
one mounts the Cotswolds he is aware that he is off the fruit lands.

The apple growing seen in Somersetshire did not impress one favora-
bly, and the soil did not seem to produce anything like the fine trees
observed in the more northern counties mentioned. It was rare, indeed,
that the orchard plantings seemed to be placed with care, and the
impression made was that as an industry there was no modern devel-
opment perceptible. As to orchard growing in England, the best tech-

«A popular treatise based on Dr. Bull's great monograph, The Herefordshire
Pomona.

nical work seen was that of the Toddington Orchard Company at Lord
Sudley's place in Gloucestershire.

Though there is much small fruit grown in Kent, one of the famous
fruit counties of England, very few orchards of any note were found,
and cider making is almost unknown. There are, however, in the
county good, strong, retentive loam soils, which carry abundance of
flint nodules and overlie chalk formations; as in the cider districts of
France.

In England, as in German}^, very little attention has been given to
the development of cider fruits as such, though in the former there
are numerous good varieties to start from. The bulk of the product
is made from the refuse of those varieties which are grown for table
and culinary uses. Yet distinctly cider apples are constantly met with,
and a few cider varieties have recently been imported from Normandy
and are gaining in favor.

No definite statistics are available as to the production of cider in
England, but Hon. C. W. Radcliffe Cooke, in a recent article in' the
Nineteenth Century, draws the conclusion that the total annual prod-
uct is not less than 100,000,000 gallons, having a maximum value of
£3,000,000 sterling, (nearly $15,000,000).«

CIDER APPLES.

It is doubtless correct to say that there are few distinctly cider
fruits grown in the United States at the present time. Formerly
this class of apples received more attention. Scions of European
cider apples have been distributed of late years by the IJ. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, but there are as yet no orchards of apples or
pears grown distinctly for the manufacture of cider and perry known
to the writer. In this regard the United States is at present in
pretty much the same category as German}. England is somewhat
better off, as one finds there a few distinctly cider apples and perry
pears in cultivation. France has, however, made long strides in this
direction, as already noted.

It is of prime importance to consider here what constitutes a cider
fruit, and compare the products of several foreign countries with that
of our own in this regard.

There can be no question that the making of cider by the landed
proprietors and peasants of France for many centuries from the seed-
lings of Normand}^, Brittany, and Picardy ma}' be credited with fix-
ing the attention of the more critical students and cultivators of recent
years upon the best characteristics of the French cider fruits. In
these ancient seedling orchards and their descendants have been deter-
mined empirically the qualities which distinguish cider fruits (pommes
a cidre) from table fruits (pommes a couteau) in France.

« Nineteenth Century, August, 1901, p. 276.

The work of the past thirty years in France has been directed to the
task of sifting from these hundreds of seedlings (pommes sauvage)
those which best embody the desirable chemical constituents and which
also show the other desirable characteristics of hardiness, vigor, pro-
ductiveness, proper season of blooming and maturit}^ of fruit, adapt-
ability to certain soils, keeping qualities, etc.

Among those who have led in the critical study of cider fruits of
France might be named Messrs. Hauchecorne, de Boutteville, Truelle,
Lechartier, Herissant, Power, Andouard, Hubert, Beaurepaire, Sequin,
and many others. A greater amount of work by far has been devoted
to a study of the chemical composition of varieties, their description,
classification, etc. , than to strictly experimental researches upon cider-
making problems proper. It seems that little is now to be desired, so
far as relates to analyses, classification of varieties, etc., but that much,
is wanting in the French work relating to real studies of soil and cli-
matic influences and the practical problems of handling and working
up the crop. Much has, it is true, been written on these problems,
but there is a dearth of facts in such literature as is obtainable.

The French cultivators have now a great number of what appear to
be the best cider fruits in the world ready at their hands, and they
owe a great debt of gratitude to the unselfish work of the gentlemen
named above for their often unremunerated critical studies, made at
the expense of much time and labor. In this regard M. Truelle, a
pharmacist, of Trouville, Calvados, is perhaps the most shining
example.

There have been no such elaborate studies made of German cider
fruits, nor of the low grades of commercial fruits so largely used in
cider making in that country, although chemical data on the German
fruits is not wanting. Professor Kulisch has made at the Royal
School of Geisenheim somewhat extensive chemical examinations of
varieties of apples.

In England until quite recently no critical study of cider fruits was
known, but now, under the auspices of the Bath and West Society,
supplemented by a royal grant in aid, Mr. F. J. Lloyd, of London, is
making chemical studies which have already advanced to a stage
where they furnish very useful data for comparison.

' IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CIDER APPLES.

The French students of this subject and also the French manufac-
turers of cider rank the value of varieties in accordance with their
content of (1) sugar, (2) tannin, (3) mucilage, and (4) acid. They also
insist upon the fruits being of fine flavor and fragrant. To a stranger
the most striking characteristic of manj^ of the French varieties is
their delicate, bitter-sweet flavor, and the powerful and peculiar odor
which they exhale when lying in bulk ripening.

The writer can not refrain from observing that apparently the
French attach entirely too slight importance to the acid content of
cider fruits. French apple must sometimes turns black as ink in the
presence of air because of rapid oxidation of the tannin; yet it is easily
shown that a higher acid content will prevent this. From some state-
ments made it would appear that they consider 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of
acid sufficient.

The Germans rank the chemical constituents in importance as fol-
lows: (1) sugar, (2) acids, and (3) tannin. They pay practically no
attention to determining mucilaginous substances. Their apples are
so different in character (as will be seen in later discussion) that these
constituent elements may not be strongly developed in them. They
also claim that nitrogenous and mineral compounds are important as
nourishment for the j^east organisms. The acid content is considered
important in Germany, and at Geisenheim the percentage of acid
demanded is 0.6 to 0.8 per cent. While they insist upon the import-
ance of tannin, they do not rate it so highly as the French.

No English student of the subject appears to have discussed these
points from an original standpoint. However, Thomas Andrew
Knight was the first to call attention to the value of the densimeter as
an instrument to test the quality of must.

In the United States we have no technical literature of any moment
covering this subject. It appears that Americans have proceeded on
the idea that the sugars are the onl}^ substance of prime importance in
an apple must. Tannin appears to be regarded as objectionable. Acid
is apparently regarded as an element which it is necessary to eliminate
as far as possible. The character of our fruits may have had something
to do with this, but it is rare that our fruits show too much acid, and
it is more to be noted that they seldom or never show enough of the
very important element, tannin.

Sugar content of the fruit. — During the process of fermentation
cane sugar and possibly some of the pectose bodies are converted into
fermentable sugars, and practicall}^ the total sugar content of the apple
is thus rendered subject to the breaking down process called fermen-
tation. Pasteur's statement of the products resulting from the fer-
mentation of fruit sugars per 100 parts is as follows:

Per cent.

.Carbon dioxid gas ( CO.^ ) 46. 67

Alcohol 48. 46

Glycerin 3. 23

Succinic acid 61

Matter consumed by ferment organisms 1. 03

While this' statement is now disputed in some particulars, it is used
here to indicate the probable results which may be expected from
complete fermentation of the sugar content of any fruit juice. It is,
then, from the sugars that all the alcohol is derived, and also the car

bon dioxid gas, the first being that which gives the strength to the
beverage, the second that which renders it sparkling and piquant if
retained in the liquor. The glycerin helps to give body and flavor
to the liquor. It is derived partly from the alcohol and doubtless in
part from the organic acids present in the must.

Tannin,, or tannic acid, in the fruit. — This is the substances© readily
recognized in unripe persimmons or in the bark tissues of oak trees.
In fruits it tends to give a bitter taste and to pucker the mucous mem-
branes of mouth and throat. It is undoubtedly the relatively large
amount of this constituent which gives to the bitter-sweet apples of
France their peculiar character. This element is of great importance
in the composition of any fruit for wine and cider making purposes,
because of its action in coagulating albuminous elements in the must,
thereby assisting to clarify the liquor, its wholesomeness to the system,
and its efl'ect in conserving a certain portion of the sugar from too
rapid fermentation, thus adding ver}' materially to the soundness and
keeping qualities of the beverage. The writer is inclined to agree with
the French that this element is more important than the acid. Three
to five parts per 1,000 of tannin (0.3 to 0.5 per cent) is a sufiicient
quantity. American fruits fall far below this standard.

Acids In the fruit. — These exist in the apple and pear chiefly as
malic acid, but possibly also as tartaric to a small extent. Their
importance in a cider fruit is very considerable. If acid is not present
in sulEcient quantity, the oxidation of the tannin will be so i"apid as to
turn the must black, or blackening may even occur in the finished cider.
Also the refreshing quality of a cider as a summer beverage is largely
due to its acid content. American apples usually contain suflScient
acid.

Mucilage in fruit. — The practice of determining this substance as
mucilage in apple must seems only to be followed by the French chem-
ists. Whether their determinations are comparable with the deter-
minations of pectin by other chemists can not be here stated. These
substances, give body to the cider and are important constituents of
good cider fruits.

COMPARISON OF CIDER APPLES.

FRteNCH STANDARDS.

It is a matter of unquestionable importance to compare the fruits of
the three prominent European cider-producing countries with one
another and with our home fruits as to chemical composition. The
French students of the subject have attempted to set standards by
which varieties should be selected. The following is quoted from M.
Hauchecorne (''Le Cidre" p. 9), in which he gives what he has deter-
mined to be an average composition based upon analyses of many
French varieties:

Specific gravity 1. 067 to 1. 080

Water per cent. . 80

Sugar (fermentable) do 17. 3

Tannic acid ^ do 5

Mucilage or pectose do 1.2

Free acids (organic) calculated as sulphuric do 107

Earthy matters, etc do 893

Total do 100. 000

The same author continues (p. 119):

Cider apples designed for making a beverage of superior quality, from the point of
view of its hygienic quality and of its conservation in a commercial condition, should
be prepared from fruits which yield a must of 1.075 density in order to obtain a
sufficient percentage of alcohol.

One should search persistently for varieties which show at least 5 parts of tannin
per 1,000 and 12 to 15 parts of mucilage, this latter being desirable because of its
value to give smoothness and body to the beverage. The acidity should not be less
than 1.071 parts per 1,000 in order to insure a good fermentation, and the fruits
should be fragrant.

At the International Congress on Cider Fruits held at Paris October
11-13, 1900, M. de Messenge de Beaurepaire, in a paper entitled
"Principles which should serve as a basis for determination of the best
varieties of cider fruits," enunciated the following- general principles:

Varieties should be divided into four categories, according to the nature of the
beverage desired, as follows:

1. Varieties of apples or pears destined to make a delicate quality of cider or perry.

2. Varieties destined for the manufacture of champagne cider or perry.

3. Varieties destined to make a full-bodied, strong alcoholic cider or perry.

4. Varieties for distillation of brandy.

To whatever use one intends to put the fruit, all good varieties should satisfy the
four following conditions:

(1) Good flavor of pulp and juice.

(2) A sufficient quantity of juice, falling not below 55 per cent of weight of fruit.

(3) Good color of juice, above all with the apple, but not so important for the
pear, as the juice of the latter is often quite pale.

(4) Juice easy to extract from the pulp.

He proceeds to particularize as to the chemical qualities of each
categor}^ of fruits as follows:

1. Cider apples and perry pears, for a fine and delicate beverage, should show a
medium density, i. e., ranging from 1.057 to 1.064, and not exceeding 1.069; sugar
content, medium, 12.5 to 14.5; tannin (maximum), 0.3 per cent; flavor, sweet,
slightly bitter. The distinctive qualities should be a clearly deflned, delicate aroma
and a sugary flavor.

2. Varieties designed for champagne should be as above except that there should
be absolutely no bitter taste.

3. Varieties destined to make a strong alcoholic beverage should show density,
1.065 and above; sugar, 14.3 per cent and above; tannin (minimum), 0.2 per cent
and above, the more the better; flavor, unimportant, except that it must not be
acid; strong and penetrating aroma; the controlling qualities being richness in
sugar and tannin.

4. Varieties destined for making distilled liquor should show a minimum density
of 1.070 and 15.5 per cent of sugar, the richer the better. The other characters noted
do not play an important role in this category. «

If the density and sugar content given in the first category are only
medium for French fruits, in what category can one place German and
man}' American and English cider fruits ? The French have adopted
a high standard in quality of fruit, and the chemical analj'ses reported
by the numerous investigators bear them out in this position. Do
these qualities result from peculiarities of soil, or have these centurj^-
old seedling races of French apples acquired certain characteristics
which can now be perpetuated in other lands by ordinar}' propagation?
Can their seedlings, when grown in other countries, become the founda-
tion stock of seedling races of apples which will show such wonderful
richness in saccharine matter and tannin as their parent stocks?

After thirty years of study along what these French investigators
seem to consider preliminary lines, but which has yielded already the
best technical literature in the world on the subject, the Association
Fran^aise Pomologique appointed a commission, composed of its best
scholars and cultivators, to undertake a critical study of all the data,
and also to conduct an original investigation of all promising French
cider fruits with a view to correcting the nomenclature and establish-
ing a .standard list with authentic information as to quality and char-
acter of fruit and character of plant, so that cultivators shall have a
definite guide to aid them in making plantings. The fruit of each
variet}^ selected for the standard list is reproduced in color for the
bulletin of the association and modeled for the permanent collection.
After four 3'ears of study this commission has made considerable prog-
ress. On its organization at Mans in 1898, the commission adopted
the following outline of points on which the varieties of fruits should
be judged:

(1) Vigor of plant.

(2) Natural resistance of same to fungous and insect attack.

(3) Fertility (productiveness).

(4) Quality, based upon the richness of the fruits in useful substances, but, above
all, upon its known practical value as a cider fruit. ^

Out of the immense number of French cider fruits the commission
decided that only 40 or 50 varieties of apples should be admitted to the
permanent list, and 8 or 10 of pears, and that each subsequent yesLV
not over 5 or 6 varieties might be added to the list, and that these
must be voted upon for three successive years before they could be
considered as finally accepted. Up to the present the records only
show 36 varieties of apples definitely admitted, and of these but 12
have yet been voted for reproduction by colored plates and models.

« Condensed free translation from Proceedings of International Congress, Paris,
1900, pp. 48-50.
6 Bui. de I'Ass. Fr. Pom., 16: 35.

These 12 varieties represent perhaps the best known and most care-
fully studied French cider apples. The chemical data which appear
in the accompanying table have been collected from the bulletin of the
Association Franyaise Pomologique.

For most of these varieties a very considerable number of analyses
are reported. Of these analyses the maximum and minimum deter-
mination for each substance are given, and then the mean of all the
determinations of each substance. While there are some very striking
differences between the determinations given in a number of instances,
yet it is perhaps fair to say that the mean results ought to be reliable
for. the average composition of these varieties. Certainly no such
elaborate data are at hand for the compilation of average composition
of cider fruits of any other country.

To one familiar only with our best Amefican varieties it is quite
startling to note specihc gravity determinations reading as high as
1.133 and total sugar 24.31, as shown by Saint-Laurent, and 1.134
specific gravity, sugar 26.35, as shown by Bramtot. Rousse fails but
little below these. The above figures are, it is true, the maximum
given, but the means for sugar of these varieties — 16.51, 19.05, and
17.19 grams per 100 cc of must — are so far above the averages of
American or German fruits that the comparison is equally striking.

The mean acid content is very low, falling far below the German
theoretical mean desired. In tannin these varieties exceed by far
those of other countries, but yet rarely show a quantity sensibly above
the theoretical minimum of 0. 2 per cent demanded by the French stand-
ard, and only in one case, Bramtot, reaching a mean which approxi-
mates the theoretical maximum quantity desired under the French
standard.

The varieties in the following table are arranged in accordance with
the French seasons for cider apples:

Table I. — Maonmum,- minimum, and mean composition of 12 French cider apples,
specially selected as standard sorts by the Association Franqaise Pomologique.

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.

Specific
grav-
ity.

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Variety.

Total
sugar.

Acid.

Tan-
nin.

Muci-
lage.

Season of maturity.

Blanc-Mollet

Reine des Hatives . .

Saint- Laurent

Bramtdt

13
10
21
58

[Maximum.
■{Minimum .
[Mean

(Maximum.
■{Minimum.
(.Mean

[Maximum.
■{Minimum .
iMean

1.0740
1.0650
1.0637

1. 0820
1. 0510
1.0619

1. 1330
1.0610
1. 0800

1. 1340
1.0600
1. 0880

16.71
9.30
13.48

19.00

9.30

13.06

24.31
12.63
16.51

26.36
9.41
19.05

.970
.071
.240

.830
.044
.288

.730
.090
.276

.960
.085
.219

.564
.066
.297

.415
.140
.254

.699
.096
.244

1.055
.133
.529

2.10
.20
.62

1.00
.25
.61

1.97
.04
.74

1.09
.01
.35

{•First season — Sept. 20
J to Oct. 15.

i Do.

>Second season— Oct
J 15 to Nov. 10.

17247— No. 71—03-

Table I. — Maximum, minimum, and mean composition of i2 French cider apples,
specially selected as standard sorts by the Association Franqaise Pomologique — Cont'd.

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.

Specific
grav-
ity.

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Variety.

Total
sugar.

Acid.

Tan-
nin.

Muci-
lage.

Season of maturity.

[Maximum.
•J Minimum .
iMean

1.0690
1.0630
1.0660

14.92
12.90
14. 19

.370
.310
.330

.300
.245
.266

1.65

.62

1.04

>Second season — Oct. 15

1 to Nov. 10.

Doux-Normandie . . .

(Maximum.
^Minimum .
[Mean

1. 1010
1.0.530
1.0739

18.32
11.27
14.80

.385
.080
.186

.210
.061
.119

1.12
.17
.51

VThird season— Nov. 10
1 to Dec. 1.

[Maximum.
^Minimum .
1 Mean

1.1050
1.0580
1.0808

24.00
10.81
17.19

.810
.105

.282

.395

-.045

.200

1.45

"".'ei"

I Do.

Ambrette .

[Maximum.
^Minimum .
[Mean

1.0860
1.0610
1.0695

19.00
12.34
15.48

.520
.079
.177

.302
.079
.165

.68
.10
.31

>Fourth season— De-

J cember and January.

Argile

[Maximum.
^Minimum .
[Mean

1.1)880
1.0600
1. 0725

19.45
12.61
15.76

.480
.064
.177

.524
.051
.176

1.71
.02

.85

i Do.

Bedan

[Maximum,
minimum .
[Mean

1.0936
1.0470
1.0685

21.94
10.68
14.89

.397
.015
.140

.825
.008
.196

1.71
.02
.62

i Do.

Doux-Geslin

[Maximum.
^Minimum .
[Mean

1.1070
1.0530
1.0791

21.60
10.80
16.60

.740
.079
.233

.866
.091
.407

1.60
.12
.46

[ Do.

Marabot

[Maximum.
^Minimum .
[Mean

1.0870
1.0570
1.0670

17.85
10.81
14.77

.368
.082
.205

.630
.092
.287

1.28
.20
.67

i Do.

Average of
means

1.0725

15.98

.229

.262

.59

a Taken from Power, Vol. II, " Best cider fruits."

In addition to the list of 12 varieties shown in this table there are
24 other varieties of apples already admitted to the standard list by
the commission of the Association Fran^aise Pomologique, and 7 cider
pears are provisionalh' admitted. Strange as it may seem, 2 of the
varieties of apples admitted to the list (Frequin-Lacaille and Muscadet
de la Sarthe) could not be identified in the present state of the nomen-
clature so as to give the chemical composition of the must. Of the
pears admitted provisional!}^ the analysis of but 4 could be ascertained
with certainty from the literature examined.

The chemical composition of varieties given in the subjoined Table
II is largely taken from Volume II of Mr. G. Power's exhaustive
treatise on the "Best cider fruits."" In every case where more than
one analysis is noted the average is given from Mr. Power's work.
Where but one analysis is noted, the figures are in every case except
one quoted from Messrs. Sequin and Pailheret, of the National School
of Agriculture at Rennes. One analysis — that of the variety Havar-
dais— is quoted from the work done by Mr. Pic at the Practical School
of Agriculture of the Three Crosses near Rennes. These two schools
just outside of Rennes are now doing an immense amount of work
on the investigation of cider fruits. When possible, the average of
analyses covering a period of years is quoted.

Table II. — Composition of French elder fruits admitted to the provisional list of the Asso-
ciation Frangaise Pomologique.

Fruit and variety.

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

Specific
gravity.

Reducing
sugar,
total.

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Acid, as
sulph-
uric.

Tannin.

Muci-
lage.

Am^re (petite)

Binet Blanc ou Dor6

Binet Rouge

Binet Violet

CMrubine

Doux-Amer-Gris

Doux-Courcier

Doux (petit)

FrSquin-Audievre

Fr^quin-Lajoye

Fr6quin-Lacaillea

Gilet-Rouge

Grise-Dieppois

Havardais

Hommet

Jambe-de-Lievre

Joly-Rouge

M6daille-d'0r

Michelin

Moulin-&-Vent

Muscadet (petit)

Muscadet- ou- Antoinette a .

Precoce-David

Tardive de la Sarthe

Averages.

Bill6a

Carisiblanc ..
Oheuneviere .

Crapaud

Croixmare«..

Navet«

Souris

1.0860
1.0750
1.0740
1. 0770
1. 0680
1. 0850
1. 0873
1. 0572
1.0700
1.0600

19.09
17.13
15.30
14.00
14.60
18.64
18.30
11.69
15.10
12.80

0.114
.220
.236
.303
.227
.270
.123
.132
.230
.183

1.0610
1.0940
1.0508
1.0847
1.0650
1. 0670
1.0900
1.0710
1. 0730
1.0710

12.29
20.24
11.76
15.74
13.42
14.34
18.60
35.92
16. 57
15.16

.395
.118
.079
.164
.264
.185
.216
.183
.293
.228

1. 0720
1.0710

16.28
15.21

.137
.141

1.0732

15.55

.192

0.116
.188
.271
.276
.244
.419
.378
.110
.302
.376

.140
.868
.111
.089
.193
.212
1.107
.432
.350
.210

.259
.213

.289

0.450
.596
.827

1.756
.621
.347

1.392
.364
.678
.317

.668
1.130
.604
1 364
.690
.799
.524
.653
.758
.392

.804
.964

.735

Averages.

1.0540
1. 0742
1.0677

12.48
13.91
11.00

.303
.205
.338

1.0660

16.00

.251

1. 0627

13.09

.274

.256
.034
.027

.665

.246

.283
.936
.246

Trace.

.366

a Analyses not found.

GERMAX STANDARDS.

The Germans do not appear to have attempted a study of varieties
of apples and pears for cider purposes in anything like the compre-
hensive manner of the French students. It seems that the German
cultivators have worked on other lines than those of the French. To
an American it appears that ordinary orcharding in Germany is about
as far advanced as it was in the United States twenty or thirty years
ago, before the wonderful development of commercial orcharding in
this country. There are many good varieties of grafted fruit, and
these are cultivated at times in considerable areas, but neither orchard-
ing for table fruits nor for cider fruits is well developed in Germany,
except where the dessert fruits are grown in what we would call gar-
den culture on walls, trellises, etc.

The German cider fruits, so far as they can be differentiated from
dessert fruits, are occasional seedlings of no peculiar character or
special value. There are certainly no varieties to compare with the
special varieties recorded in the French literature and shown at the

French pomological congresses. In fact, the Germans use their chance
seedlings and the refuse of their table fruits for cider about as we do
in America. But the grieat manufacturing establishments draw sup-
plies by rail from Russia, Austria, and Switzerland in large quantities,
and much of this fruit may be of a more special grade for cider than
that seen growing in the Taunus and Rhinegau regions of Germany.
These establishments also draw supplies from western France when-
ever crop failures in nearer regions render this necessar3\

The chemical data on German varieties are also meager, or at least
so scattered that nothing approaching full data could be collected dur-
ing the time of the visit. Later correspondence with very reliable
book dealers has failed to develop this information as fulh^ as could
be desired.

There are 53 different sorts or varieties of German-grown apples
mentioned by Dr. Cluss" in his recent work on cider making in Ger-
many. Of these 29 were analj^zed by Professor Kulisch at the Royal
School of Pomology at Geisenheim. Out of 17 varieties analyzed by
Professor Behreud at Hohenheim, Wiirtemberg, 13 seem to be sorts
not included among those examined at Geisenheim. These doubtless
fairly represent Wiirtemberg cider fruits. Dr. Kramer's anal^'ses of
cider fruits at Steiermark, quoted by Dr. Cluss, give 11 out of 15
varieties reported upon, which are not included in either of the above-
cited lists. Thus we have 53 varieties represented in the following
tables, which, from the German literature consulted, seem fairly to^
represent the range of German apples in the best cider districts.

Director Goethe, of the Lehranstalt fiir Obst-und Weinbau at Gei-
senheim, says the Schafnase and Rhine Bohnapfel in Nassau, the
White and Red Treierischer wine apples in the Rhine provinces, and
the Luiken and little Langsteil in Wiirtemberg are the best six Ger-
man cider apples.

Table III. — Analyses of German cider-apple must made at Geisenheim, lS89-9p, by

Professor Kulisch. ^

Specific
gravity.

Grams

per 100 cc

of musl /

Name of variety.

Grape

and fruit

sugars.

Cane
sugar.

Total re-
ducing
sugar.

TotaW
solids.

Acid, as

sul-
phuric, c

Kostlicher

1.0451
1.0470
1.04%
1.0532
1.0533
1.0549
1.0591
1.0605
1.0642
1.0681
1.0869
1.0495
1.0560
1.0538
1.0540
1.0492

8.72
7.80
6.82
7.19
8.47
8.69
7.12
8.36
8.35
9.94
13.12
8.80
8.96
8.26
7.85
9.03

1.28
2. 12
3.71
3.29
2.31
3.72
5.46
4.52
4.64
3.51
4.49
0.75
2.32
2.89
2.65
1.75

10.07
10.04
10.73
10.66
10.90
12.61
12.87
13.12
13. 23
13.64
17.85
9.59
11.40
11.30
10.64
10.87

11.70
12.20
12.86
13.80
13.82
14.24
15.33
15.69
16.65
17.69
22.61
12.82
14.53
13.96
14.02
12.75

0.15S

Edelroter

.241

.270

Bohnapfel

.716

Gasdonker Reinette •

.541

Winter-Rambour

.087

Schiebel-Taubenapfel

.592

Siisser Hoolart

.138

.526

.665

.687

.692

Kaiser Alexander

.482

Burchardts Reinette

.351

.424

Schmidt-Reinette

.409

« "Die Ai)felweinbereitung," Dr. Adolf Cluss, 1901.
b Apfelweinbereitung. Dr. Cluss, pp. 24-25.
« Calculated at Blacksburg, Va.

Table III. — Analyses of German cider-apple must made at Geisenheim, 1889-90, by
Professor Kulisch — Continued.

Name of variety.

Gelber Bellefleur

Fette Goldreinette

Langer Gr. Gulderling.

Goldzeugapfel

Muskat Reinette

Ananas Reinette

Griiner Fiirstenapfel. . .
Winter Gold Parmane .

JJunkapfel

Leiehter Matapfel

Champagner Reinette .

.Canada Reinette

Baumanns Reinette . . .

Specific
gravity.

1. 0510
1. 0458
1. 0535
1.0600
1.0639
1. 0724
1. 0519
1.0654
1.0615
1. 0516
1. 0510
1. 0667
1. 0507

Averages.

1.0569

Grams per 100 cc of must

Grape

and fruit

sugars.

7.38
7.77
8.62

10. 32
7.08

11. 02
8.65
9.20
9.79
9.27
7.87
9.94
8.44

Cane
sugar.

2.12
2.47
3.19
2.88
6.17
3.91
1.74
6.33
1.95
2.03
2.85
4.96
2.44

8.72

3.15

Total re-
ducing
sugar.

9.61
10.37
11.98
13.35
13.58
15.14
10.48
14.81
11.84
11.40
10.87
15.16
11.01

12.04

13.24
12.66
13.87
15.58
16. .58
18.82
13.46
16.89
15.97
13.37
13.24
17. 32
13.16

Acid, as

sul-
phuric.

.504
.255
.611
.482
.453
.372
.767
.402
.789
.402
.643
.655
.329

14.78

.460

Table IV. — Analyses of German cider-apple must, 1890, by Professor Behrend, Hohen-

heim, Wurtemherg.<i

Name of variety.

Specific
gravity.

Rheinische Schafnase

Goldparmane

Rheinisches Bohnapfel . .
Gelber engl. Gulderling .

Jane Hure

Berner Grauchenapfel . . .

Pomeranzenapfel

Rother Eiserapfel

Englische Spitalreinette .

Kleiner Fleiner

Carpentinapfel

Kugelapfel

Glanzreinette

Trierischer Weinapfel . . .
Koniglicher Kurtzstiel . .

Kleiner Langstiel

Casseler Reinette

1.054
1.056
1. 057
1.043
1.066
1.050
1.059
1.059
1.072
1.059
1.068
1.054
1.063
1.059
1. 082
1.056
1.055

Average.

1.059

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Grape
and fruit
sugars.

7.64
8.07
9.93
6.62

12.31
6.79
6.22
7.06
9.37
8.81
7.99
8.40
9.63
8.66

13.04
8.97

10.73

Cane
sugar.

3.73
4.82
3.49
2.63
2.52
3.44
6.51
4.37
4.89
2.48
5.52
3.31
4.10
4.54
6.60
2.95
1.36

Total
sugars.

11.37
12.89
13.42
9.25
14.83
10.23
12.73
11.43
14.26
12.29
13.51
11.71
13.73
13.20
18.64
11.92
12.09

13.38

a Obstweinbereitung, Antonio dal. Piaz, p. 88.
Table Y. — Analyses of German cider-apple must, 1892, by Dr. Kramer, Sieiermark.c^

Name of varietv.

Muskatellerapfel

Holzapfel, Spitz

Holzapfel, rothgestrieft

Hanapfel

Steierischer Maschauzker

Champagner Reinette

Canada Reinette

Weiser-Winter Taffetapfel

Englische Winter Gold Parmane

Rother Streifling

Heiderapfel

Damason Reinette

Edelborsdorfer

Gelber Weinapfel

Average ;

Specific
gravity.

1.047
1.052
1.053
1.054
1.067
1.050
1.043
1.050
1.044
1.055
1.051
1.049
1.068
1. 055
1.061

1.053

Grams per 100 cc
of must.

Total
sugars.

10.00
10.50
10.70
11.00
13.60
10.10

9.40
10.10

8.85
11.10
10.20
11.10
13.80
11.10
12.60

10.94

Acid.

.64

a Obstweinbereitung, Antonio dal. Piaz, p. 89.

Pyrus{Sorbu8) domestica. — Strange to say, no modern German writer
on cider making appears to notice this very important fruit, so largely
used to tone German ciders. It is known popularly as the Speierling,
Speierlingbaum, Speierling crab, etc., and is a native forest tree of
central Europe, but was not observed in France.

Whether it has been always intentionally planted in the orchards of
the Taunus or is partly wild is doubtful, for it is not usually seeiji in
the regular rows, but in odd nooks here and there. On the borders of
mountain ravines it is a most beautiful and luxuriant tree 20 to 40 feet
high and loaded in the fall with small pyriform fruits about half the
size of Seckel pears. These become yellowish in color and fall to the
ground late in autumn, where, after some daj^s, one can pick them up
and eat them with considerable relish; but if plucked from the tree or
eaten before the}^ become mellow, the result on the mucous mem-
branes is about the same as that of biting a green persimmon.

This fruit is gathered in quantity just at maturity and before ripen-
ing begins, and it is then used to fortify the best grades of ciders.
Either the fruits are crushed with the apples in certain proportions or
are ground separately and the must added to apple must in definite
proportions. The latter is believed to be the better mode of blending,
and it is the one pursued in the large establishments of Freyeisen
Brothers at Frankfort. They had great casks of this must in reserve
in a very cool cellar more than 50 feet below the sfirface of the earth,
which they were using to blend with the finest apple juice to make
the high-grade " Speierling apfel wein." As nearly as could be deter-
mined about 1 part in 20 of this must from Sorbus fruits was added to
the apple juice.

It seems astonishing, considering the great importance of this fruit,
that no recent writer should have treated it in the German literature
and that not a single analysis of the fruit or juice could be found.
About a century ago J. L. Crist wrote quite comprehensively of its
use in making wine and in blending with apple juice, but gave no
chemical data. It is supposedly used at present to tone up German
ciders in tannin, thus adding piquancy and flavor to the product. The
sugar content of the fruit could not be ascertained. Director Goethe,
of Geisenheim, kindly furnished an article written by G. W. Eiche-
nauer, of Cronberg, Taunus, in which he discusses this fruit from a
gardener's standpoint, but does not give critical data on its composition.
He states that cider made by properly blending it with ordmarj' stock
is worth twice as much as it would have been otherwise and will keep
much longer. If it is the tannin principle alone which makes this
fruit so valuable, certainly it is time' we in the United States looked
more to the selection of varieties rich in this substance or resorted to
wild fruits, such as the native persimmon, Dyospyrus virginiana^ to
obtain it.

ENGLISH STANDARDS.

Any attempt to study the cider apples of England, or table varieties
for that matter, is greatly complicated by the endless maze of names
of similar orthography which have been given to apples, both cider
and table varieties, and by the fact that there is no recognized
authority on the nomenclature of orchard fruits in the entire country.
Every local community appears to delight in applying names of its own
choosing to the fruits grown, and there seems to be no general dis-
position to reduce the nomenclature to a system under some competent
authority, as for instance, a national committee on pomological nomen-
clature. Of recent writers on pomolog}^ in its broader sense, there
are very few, but the older works, as those of Knight, Marshall,
Evelyn, and others are classics of their time.

The best modern treatment of the subject of pomology, in a some-
what limited sense, which was secured is The Apple and Pear as Vin-
tage Fruits, by Robert Hogg, LL. D., and Henry Graves Bull, M. D.,
a charmingl}^ prepared general dissertation upon the subject of cider
and perr}'^ making, with critical notes and cuts showing many varieties
of cider fruits. In the way of recent literature, the Bath and West
Society deserves great praise for the efforts it is making to develop a
reliable literature on modern cider making. In fact, it is putting forth
an effort to arouse the popular interest so necessary to the future
progress in pomology as an art, and more specifically as it relates to
cider making as an important industry.

However, in this literature it does not appear that a successful
attempt has been made to establish a standard toward which the grow-
ers of cider fruits should direct their attention. The nearest approach
to a standard as to quality of cider fruits which was found in the
works mentioned is in the report of the committee of the Woolhope
Club, which visited the congress of the pomological societies of France,
at Rouen, in October, 1884. When this committee determined to
select a set of French varieties of apples for introduction into Here
fordshire they laid down the following rules: '^^

(1) The fruit must possess the very best quality of juice.

(2) The trees must be hardy, vigorous, and fertile.

(3) They must bloom at varying intervals.

(4) The fruit must attain maturity in late autumn or winter.

(5) The varieties must have obtained the highest reputation in the Norman
orchards.

The fact that these gentlemen from Herefordshire recognized the
importance of securing some of the best Norman varieties of cider
apples for introduction into England indicates that some of the best
English growers are alive to the importance of producing fruit of
high quality for the upbuilding of the cider industry. But such apples
are already very common in England. The oldest English writers tell

a Hogg and Bull, Vintage Fruits, p. 88.

us of fruits yielding must of 1.091 specific gravitj% which, if correct,
is hardly surpassed in our day in any countr3\

There is a large group of varieties of apples cultivated in England
chiefly for cider, the names of which are made up of some English
word' prefixed to the word Norman or Jersey- , as Cherry Norman,
Broad-leaf Norman, Chisel Jersey, Red Jersey, etc. These apples all
possess the peculiar bitter-sweet taste which characterizes so distinctly
many of the most famous French cider apples. An interesting ques-
tion arises in this connection as to whether these apples are ancient
importations from Normandy and the Channel Islands. In the work on
Vintage Fruits, quoted above, the opinion is given that they are not.
This is based on comparisons made in 1884 at the congress of Rouen;
which really prove nothing further than that they are not recent
importations. It appears, after extensive comparisons, that this
peculiar race of apples so common in Normandy has had a common
origin, either in England or in France, indications all pointing to the
latter country. Interchanges between England and the mainland have
been such for man}' centuries that the parent stocks of the present
race of bitter-sweet apples in England ma}' very easily have been
derived from French sources. Then there is the other argument,
that all the historicall}' old English cider apples, like Foxwhelp and
Red Streak, which go back some two centuries in the literature, give
no hint, either in chemical composition or quality, of common origin
with the bitter-sweet varieties of France.

From what was seen of these fruits in England it appears that if
seedlings had been freely grown from them and well selected, as in
France, England would to-day have as good a race of cider apples as
France has.

But are the bitter-sweets so essential? This question is not settled.
In Germany scarcely a trace of thiy peculiar quality was found in the
cider fruits, yet they make most excellent cider in Germany. Also
m Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, England, most excellent ciders
were sampled, in whose making no particular attention was paid to the
usmg of bitter-sweet fruit. The question is an important one, and,
with a view of giving it ample study, the writer has procured and is
growing a collection of French and English cider apples representing
the bitter-sweet and other old t3^pes.

It has been necessary to examine a considerable mass of data in the
attempt to select a representative list of English cider fruits. Mr. F.
J. Lloyd has examined and reported upon such a large number of
varieties in his work for the Bath and West Societ}^ that it is possible
to use but a small fraction of his data. Hence an attempt has been
made to select a set of \'Virieties which shall represent the old renowned
cider fruits and the more recent sorts which are coming prominently
into notice. Among the varieties selected, the Blenheim Orange,
which is an old popular variety grown for general purposes, and used

as a cider fruit also, has been selected for special presentation. Fox-
whelp is the oldest, historically, of famous English cider apples, and
Kingston Black is a very prominent recent variet3^ The others rep-
resent the English-grown bitter-sweet apples, and a number of them
are given because of their present prominence. However, no variety
known to be of recent French introduction is used in the table, though
several of these recent introductions are now beginning to figure in
the English cider factories.

The chemical data are taken wholly from Mr. F. J. Llo3"d's analyses,
published in the reports of the Bath and West Society. The writer
has compiled from his data analyses covering as many years as could
be obtained for each of those varieties selected to represent English
cider fruit.

Table VI. — Analyses of English cider an

iples by

Mr. F.

/. Lloyd.

Year.

Specific
gravity.

\/ Grams per 100 cc.

Variety.

Total
solids.

Total
sugars.

Fruit
sugars.

Cane
sugar.

Acid, as

sul-
phuric.a

Tannin.

Blenheim Orange

1897
1898

1.0683
1.0674

16.64
15.66

14.35
14.04

10.00
10.64

4.14
3.24

0.577
.424

0 140

.078

Average

1.0678

16.15

14.19

,10.32

3.69

.500

109

1897
1898

Broadleaf

1.0578
1. 0612

14. 22
14.62

12.50
13.25

10.64

.172
.234

.300
.302

Average

1. 0595

14.42

12.87

.203

301

1898

1897
1898
1899

Cherrv Norman. ...

1.0636

15.82

13.26

11.11

2.05 .277

310

Chisel Jeri^ey

1.0542
1.0682
1.0611

13. .50
17.06
15.68

12.90
15.96
14.84

11.11

14.08
11. 90

1.71
1.79
2.80

.226
.226
.234

264

.370
.174

Average

1.0612

15.41

14.57

12.36

2.10

.228

269

1895

1897
1898
1899

Foxwhelp

1.0565

13.84

12.98

(»)

(b) . 146

230

Kingston Blaclt

1.0606
1. 0691
1.0667

14.86
16.90
16.64

14.06
15.37
14.84

10.64
10.84
11.90

3. 24 . 351
4. 31 . 416
2. 80 . 446

126

.182
.110

Average

1.0654

16.13

14.75

11.12

3. 45 . 404

139

1897
1898
1899

New Cadbury

1.0539
1. 0642
1.0601

12.68
15.68
14.00

10.82
14.81
12.66

9.06

12. .50

8.76

1.68

.702

174

2.20
3.74

.226
.174

.232
.122

Average 1 .

1. 0594

14.12

12.76

10.77

2.54

.367

176

1897
1898
1899

Red Jersey

1. 0596
1.0611
1.0667

14.50
14.98
16.76

14.03
13.94
13.46

10.87
12.04
12.18

3.01
1.85
1.22

.219
.226
.204

124

.314
.230

Average

1.0625

15.41

13.81

11.70

2.03

.216

.223

1896
1897
1898

White Jersey

1. 0581
1. 0519
1.0642

14.68
12.68
15. 74

13.25
12.26
14.00

8.65
11.62

3.43

2.26

.160
.190
.307

.150

.210
.114

Average ^ .

1.0580

14.36

13.17

10.13

2.84

.219

158

1897
1898
1899

Butleigh No. 14

1. 0790
1. 0933
1.0925

20.24
23. 22
24.34

18.58
20.51
23. 32

13.18

18.18
18.88

4.94
2.22
4.22

.153
.292
.351

300

.380
.206

Average

1.0883

22.59

20.73

16.75

3.79

.265

.296

General average

1.0642

15. 82

14.30

11.65

2.77

.282

.221

a Calculated at Blacksburg, Va.

6 Only total sugars given.

AMERICAN STANDARDS.

Early in the nineteenth centuiy much interest was manifested in the
United States in the culture of cider apples, and in the manufacture
of this beverage at a few points. Perhaps Newark, N. J. , was one of
the most noted centers of this infant industry. In New England, how-
ever, the cider fruits were cultivated, and the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Societ}'^ showed considerable interest in encouraging these efforts.
From scraps of information and brief references, it also appears that
Virginia planters were interested, and rated good cider highly.

William Coxe was one of the first to write on this subject, so far as
the early literature available shows. His treatise on Fruit Trees is
dated 1817, and in it he speaks of the high quality of Hewes Virginia
Crab and the Harrison apple for cider making. The latter is of New
Jersey origin, and helped to make the quality of New Jersej^ ciders
recognized in the earh' days of our histor3\ Coxe also mentions the
Newtown Pippin and Winesap, both well recognized to-day as yielding
cider of high quality, but lacking in the element of tannin. The
HagloeCrab, an old English cider crab, is constantly mentioned in
the early literature, and the Vandevere is also spoken of as a cider
fruit.

In the change of habits which came over our people about the mid-
dle of the past century, cider gradually lost its place as a beverage,
used alike by the well-to-do and the laboring classes, and the art of
making it seemed to fall into desuetude. The country people and a
number of large commercial establishments have continued to make a
beverage from apple must, but, in the main, it is very inferior in
quality. Even the varieties of fruit best suited for making this bev-
erage have almost been lost to our pomolog}-, and later writers rarely
mention them. Yet it can scarcely be contended that our people use
less fermented beverages or less ardent spirits than formerly.

The early American writers of consequence are Coxe and Thatcher,
and these gentlemen did little more than copy the best English and
French writers of their time, weaving in some local experience. Of
real technical studj^ there was none. The writings of Thomas Andrew
Knight, and articles in Willich's Domestick Encyclopedia, furnished
the basis of these early dissertations. Many of the principles laid
down by these old writers contain the germ of the best practice of the
present day. Strangely enough, the new encyclopedia of horticulture
(Bailey's) does not contain the word cider as a subject.

It has already been stated that we have not at present in the United
States a distinct industry in the growing of cider fruits. Yet it is
true that some of our crab apples, and some varieties of apples also,
have been cultivated to a limited extent for cider and are considered
valuable for this purpose, but it is seldom that they are grown to any
large extent.

So far as the writer has learned there is no technical literature deal-
ing especially with the chemistrj^ of American apples, either for cider
production or the manufacture of other products. Hence, at present
it is not possible even to suggest a standard composition for American
fruits used in making cider. Even partial analyses of the old fruits
mentioned above could not be found, save of Hewes crab. Such anal-
3^ses as have been made, up to a very recent date, are fragmentary and
incomplete, and little attempt has been made to collect them. In 1886
Mr. Edgar Kichards, then an assistant chemist of the United States
Department of Agriculture, made analyses of the whole fruits of 16
varieties of apples, and the results of his analyses are given below, so
far as they concern this inquiry. These results can not be incorpo-
rated in the tables of average composition of must from American
apples because the fruit and not the expressed juice was analyzed:

Table VII. — Analyses of whole fruits of apples by Edgar Richards, Division of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Varietv.

Fall pippin

Smokehouse

Maiden Blush

Northern Spy

Ben Davis •. ...

King

Smith Cider

Ram bo

Blush pippin

Paradise Sweet . . .
English Redstreak

Winesap

Nonesuch

Golden pippin

Lobster White

Virginia crab

Averages.'. . .

Total
solids.

Per cent.
12.81
12.26
12.00
13.43
14.14
14.11
13.49
15.40
13.17
14.68
13.43
16. 55
14.58
12.95
10.60
13.66

13.57

Total
sugar.

Per cent.
10.14
10.72

9.79
10.41
10.63

8.55

8.99
11.75

8.66
10.61
11.04
11.90
12.02
10.03

9.84
12.90

10.49

Reducing
sugar

Per cent.
7.40

10.30
8.80

10.25
8.00
7.55
8.32
9.67
8.43
7.52
8.63
9.40

10.80
7.69
6.89

10.24

8.74

Sucrose.

Per cent.

2.60

.40

.94

.15

2.50

.95

.64

1.98

.22

2.94

2.29

2.38

1.16

2.23

2.81

2.53

1.67

Acid as

sul-
phuric.

Per cent.
0.577
.468
.767
.395
.395
.314
.453
.292
.863

138

.395
.490

.607
.285
.409

.457

Ash.

Per cent.
0.354
.262
.245
.291
.283
.231
.275
.295
.353
.236
.325
.279
.228
.249
.2.=)5
.240

.274

Recently, however, the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion has taken up this line of work, and during 1899 Mr. C. A. Browne,
jr. , made a fairly complete study of 25 varieties of apples grown mostly
upon the agricultural college farm. Center Count}^, Pa.

His work was first published as Bulletin No. 58, Pennsylvania
department of agriculture, December, 1899. From this source are
quoted the data derived from Mr. Browne's analyses as to the average
composition of the whole fruit of these 25 varieties of apples:

Inorganic matter: Per cent.

Water 83. 57

Ash 27

Organic matter:

Total solids 16. 43

Invert sugar (grape and fruit sugar) 7. 92

Cane sugar (sucrose) 3. 99

Total reducing sugar (after inversion ) 12. 12

Acid, as malic (free) 61

The points in the above which interest cider makers are the total
sugars, which, when the cane sugar is converted into reducing sugar,
show an average of 12.12 per cent of fermentable sugar. This is
undoubtedly a high average for American apples. The free acid, 0.61
grams per 100 grams of fruit, is also high, nearly reaching that of the
German apples and being 0.2 to 0.4 grams above that of the French.
The tannin was not determined. On page 29 of the same bulletin Mr.
Browne gives the anal^'^ses of the fresh must as expressed from the
fruit of 10 varieties of apples, including a number of the best-known
summer and winter sorts. This table is quoted in part below.

Table VIII. — Analyses of must of American apples by C. A. Broivne, jr., Pennsylvania
Agricultural Experiment Station, 1899.

Variety.

Red Astrachan

Early Harvest

Yellow Transparent
Early Strawberry .
Sweet Bough.
Baldwin
Ben Davis.
Belleflower
Talpahocken
Unknown variety.

Grams in 100 ec of must.

Total

reduc- Invert

ing sugar.

sugar.

10.69
11.67
10.24
9.90
10.85
15.39
11.16
13.61
12.95
12.95

Averages 1. 05523 13. 36 i 11. 94

6.87
7.49
8.03
6.47
7.61
7.97
7.11
9.06
9.68
10.52

7.78

Acid as
Cane sul-
sugar. phu-
ric.b

3.63
3.97
2.10
4.21
3.08
7.05
3.85
4.32
3.11
2.31

.833
.658
.628
.570
.073
.487
.336
.424
.190
.321

3.76

.453

0.37
.28
.27
.24

!26
.28
.28
.24
.26

.27

a Corrected by author's request — factor, — 0.0014.

'» Calculated at Blacksburg, Va.

The average sugar content in 100 cc of apple must for the 10 vari-
eties given, as shown ^y Browne's table, is 11.94 grams reducing
sugars, which for practical purposes may be read per cent. This is a
low sugar content even compared with German averages. The average
acid, 0.62 grams in 100 cc of must, is high. From must of this aver-
age composition one might expect to produce a cider of 5 per cent
alcohol, with still a little sugar left unfermented. With such must
undiluted, there is no reason to say that a cider of proper strength
can not be produced.

In the department of horticulture of the Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station the writer has for the past fourteen years been
bringing together a large collection of pome fruit trees, more espe-
cially of apples. This collection now contains 375 varieties of apples,
including crabs, collected from various portions of America and
Europe. Man}^ of these are now coming into full bearing, and Prof.
R. J. Davidson, chemist of the station, has begun an exhaustive
investigation of the chemical composition of the fruits. This inves-
tigation is not undertaken solely with a view to studying cider making,
but for the general purpose of accumulating scientific data for our
studies of these fruits in all lines as commercial fruits and as raw

material for the manufacture of various products. The following
tabular statement furnished by Professor Davidson is useful here for
the further consideration of American standards and for comparison
of foreign and American v^arieties :

Table IX. — Analyses of apple must by M. J. Davidson, Virginia Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Blackshurg, J.901.

English crab

Hyslop

Kentucky Cider crab

Maiden Blush

Montreal Beauty

Averages

0.060

APPLES.

Albemarle pippin

Arkansas (Black Twig)

Baltzby

Ben Davis

Bonum

Emperor Alexander. . .

Eureka

Gano

Lawver

Ley

Mann

Nero

Northern Spy

Peck Pleasant

Ridge pippin

Rome Beauty

Sharp

Smith Cider

Stark

Tolman Sweet

Walbridge

Willow Twig

Yates

York Imperial

Averages

1.062

11.48

9.40

6.14

3.10

0.30

1.051

12.05

10.86

7.00

3.67

0.30

1.046

10.76

8.76

6.23

3.35

0.47

1.046

10.69

6.74

5.06

1.60

0.32

1.060

14.23

11 37

7.72

3.47

0.27

1.060

13.78

10. 52

9.24

1.22

0.46

1.057

13.19

10.00

7.10

2.76

0.61

1.046

10.16

8.61

5.53

2.93

0.30

1.049

11.96

9.91

8.05

1.76

0.34

1.052

11.76

7.08

5.43

1.-57

0.37

1.061

14.08

10.35

7.43

2.77

0.42

1.046

10.61

8.58

6.77

1.72

0.26

1.053

11.73

8.82

5.36

3.29

0.50

1.054

12.60

10.23

6.32

4.66

0.35

1.051

11.73

8.66

4.69

3.77

0.32

1.048

11.37

8.70

6.24

2.17

0.27

1.051

11.96

10.00

8.09

1.81

0.50

1.062

13. 31

9.93

8.63

1.24

0.48

1.058

15.05

13.31

9.26

3.86

0.42

1.055

12.42

9.76

5.98

3.69

0.15

1.051

11.57

9.18

7.94

1.18

0.44

1.053

12.11

9.12

6.87

2.14

0.63

1.052

12.33

10.00

6.79

3.05

0.34

1.050

11.91

10. 12

7.08

2.89

0.22

1.053

12.19

9.58

6.78

2.65

0.35

0.022
0. 021
0.015
0.022
0.002
X).030
0.030
0.026
0.032
0.017
0.016
0.030
0.026
0.016
0.030
0.030
0.018
0.026
0.013
0.024
0.022
0.028
0.018
0.018

0.022

These analyses are the results of but one season's work, and hence
do not warrant extended discussion or comparisons with the analyses of
fruits from other sections of this country or from foreign countries.
It is distinctly noticeable that the crabs show a better analysis as cider
fruits than the apples. In this latter list, however, there are no dis-
tinctly cider varieties. While there are a large number of these special
sorts in our plantations, none have yet fruited. A number of analyses
of fruits from the station orchard were made at the Bureau of
Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, and these are
here inserted, forming Table X. The averages of specific gravity
readings at the two places are remarkably close, but in other points
there are differences to be accounted for, partially at least, by the
fact that the varieties examined in the two laboratories were only in
part the same.

Table X,—

of apple must by J. S. Burd, Bureau of Chemistry, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1901.

Variety.

3rams per 100 cc

of must

Per

cent of

ash.

Specific
gravity.

Total
solids.

Total
sugar.

Redu-
cing
sugar.

Cane
sugar.

Acid, as

sul-
phuric.

1.0514

13.64

11.72

5.40

6.01

0.45

0.25

1.0585

14.93

11.36

9.46

1.81

0.38

0.26

1.0534

14.72

11.35

6.25

4.84

0.31

0.25

1.0594

15.27

11.12

7.22

3.71

0.54

0.87

1.0561

14.35

11.61

7.16

4.23

0.68

0.37

1.0424

10.97

8.12

5.72

2.28

0.29

0.24

1.0704

18.81

14.05

7.33

6.39

0.54

0.30

1.0504

13.18

9.52

6.76

2.63

0.19

0.87

1.0506

13.42

10.10

7.93

2.07

0.36

0.25

1.0489

12.08

9.77

5.57

3.99

0.44

0.31

1.0510

13.18

10.09

7.15

2.80

0.47

0.33

1.0462

12.00

9.09

7.63

1.39

0.29

0.24

1.0519

13.77

9.77

6.10

3.50

0.51

0.32

r.0529

14.05

10.18

6.18

3.80

0.35

0.24

1.0574

12.87

10.84

5.15

5.41

0.46

0.26

1.0589

13.08

10.73

7.77

2.82

0.48

0.37

1.0527

14.60

'10.29

6.33

3.77

0.16

0.28

1.0445

11.74

8.41

7.14

1.21

0.18

0.24

1.0527

12.75

10.86

6.91

3.76

0.28

1.0521

12. 37

10.21

7.55

2.53

0.44

0.24

1.0519

12.55

10.34

6.89

3.28

0.33

0.26

1.0535

13.39

10.45

6.84

3.48

0.37

0.33

Baldwin

Bonum

Bullock's pippin

Emperor Alexander

Eureka

Gano

Grimes Golden

Jonathan

Lankford

Missouri pippin

Naiisemond Beauty

Nero

Northern Spy

Peck Pleasant

Roxbury Russett

Smith Cider

Tolman Sweet

Via

White Winter Pearmain

World's Wonder

Yates

Averages

HARVESTING, TRANSPORTATION, AND STORAGE OF CIDER FRTJIT.

If quality in cider , fruit is such a prime consideration, then any-
thing which acts either to enhance or to deteriorate the same must
receive attention. There is much discussion of this point going on in
foreign journals, and the standard literature of this subject contains
many notes thereon. The discussion hinges about certain principal
questions, as: (1) What is the proper season to gather the fruit? (2)
Shall it be hand picked or shaken "i (3) Shall it be kept in piles out of
doors oil the ground? or (4) shall it be kept on raised temporarj^ struc-
tures, so as to protect the fruit entireh' from contact with the earth?
or (5) should it be removed at as early a date as possible into storage
buildings ?

Because of the fact that general culture of orchards for dessert
fruit has not reached that stage of development in Europe which it
has in the United States, they seem not to have worked out a s^^stem
of harvesting fruit at all comparable to ours, nor does it appear that
the harvesting and handling of cider fruits require such a system.
Yet there are some important considerations to be observed.

The early fruit which is turned into cider is generally treated with
very little consideration. It is allowed to fall to the ground from the
effect of natural ripening, and is either worked up from time to time
or allowed to lie until such a time as it is convenient to whip off that
which still hangs on the trees, and all is then worked together. This
gives an uneven condition of fruit, and produces a poor product, which
is fermented i-apidly and used for a cheap trade. Such fruit appears

to be handled in most countries just as we ordinarily handle our entire
crop of cider apples in this country. The fruit lies in heaps on the
earth, quite regardless of unclean conditi6ns, and is then ground with-
out regard to uniformity of ripeness or blending for quality.

The following discussion relates to observations made on the main
cider crop. The practice of different countries varies much on some
points and will be noticed separately so far as there is ground for so
doing.

Considerable importance is attached to observing the maturity of the
fruit. The French especialh^ argue that both the sugar content and
the quality of the product are affected thereby. The first will doubt-
less be readily admitted by all, and the second in part, but further
investigation is needed before all that is claimed can be admitted.
While the fruit should certainly be mature — that is, it should have
reached the perfection of its growth — it should not be allowed to ripen
and fall from the tree, as this will lead to very irregular ripening and
yield at no time a satisfactory^ amount of evenly ripened fruit in proper
condition for grinding.

The French lay great stress upon gathering and ripening in bulk, as
they claim in this manner to secure the most perfect development of
the delicate aroma which is such a marked characteristic of the best
Normandy varieties. Their method is generally to dislodge the fruit
by shaking and by the use of poles at about the stage of maturity which
in America we recognize as right for gathering and barreling. In
many places this fruit is left in huge piles under the trees until late
in the season, though this is not considered the best practice. The
better method, which seems to be quite well observed by larger
growers, and especially by those concerns which manufacture large
quantities of cider, is to bring the fruit quite promptly into the
lofts over the cider mills. This was the only house-storage method
observed in France.

It is well to explain here that the small cider apples grown in France
bear shaking and beating off' far better than would the large apples in
our country, and further, the orchards are almost invariably set in
heavy sod, which is an advantage in this method of harvesting.
Their apples are often very firm at maturity, and some of them have
a tough texture which resists rough handling well. It was surprising
to see how little inclined the fruit is to decay from the effect of bruises
and other slight injuries.

The storage lofts in France were ordinarily fitted with bins or par-
titions for the separation of apples of various qualities, so that they
could be properly blended in grinding. Here were seen great struc-
tures 100 feet long or more and 30 or 40 feet wide piled with apples
to a depth of 4 to 6 feet, and such a loft in late November filled with
this ripening fruit is pervaded by an aroma sometimes quite oppres-

sive and not easily characterized. 'Whien the room is not too close the
odor is decidedly pleasant. Some makers are very careful to store the
fruit only a foot or two deep, but this is the exception.

The invariable custom, so far as observed, was to run the fruit by
gravity from the loft storerooms into the grinders, whence the pomace
falls into vats before going to the presses. The fruit is ground from
these upper-floor storerooms as it ripens some varieties not coming to
their best until Januar}^ or February. In the peculiar climate of Nor-
mandy and Brittany there seems to be very little danger of the weather
becoming sufficiently severe to harm the fruit materialh'.

The growers of this fruit are very largely the small peasant pro-
prietors and small tenants, with here and there a large estate. The
small growers are referred to. in French literature as "recoltants."
Often these peasant proprietors make up their own fruit and that of
neighbors; hence the cider houses of these small makers are very
common in some parts. But there is a tendency to commercialize, and
more and more the fruit goes to the large manufacturer. To these it
is hauled in carts (PI. V, fig. 2) loose or in sacks, the latter being the
most popular method. These sacks are hoisted to the upper floor of
the factories and distributed to the proper storerooms. There is also
in France another class of cider makers, who buj^ the partly fermented
juice from the small growers and blend and work it up to suit the
trade they wish to supply. These are known as "commercants."
They often make an excellent article, but they are also charged with a
vast amount of trickery in the production of sophisticated goods.

There is, in the great crop years, an extensive railway commerce in
cider apples, both to local points and to the near or distant states. The
shipments are made loose in what we call box cars, and also loose or
in sacks on flat cars (PI. V, fig. 1). The method of shipping in sacks
seems to be preferred in France and might well be copied in this
country. The Germans appear to prefer handling the fruit loose.
No railway commerce in cider apples was seen in England. In 1900
such an immense crop was harvested in Normandy that the local rail-
ways were literally blocked with fruit, as is sometimes the case on
American roads when great quantities of coal are carried.

At the local factories visited in France great stress seems to be laid
upon gathering the late fruit when perfectly dry and storing at once
in the bins, where more or less of it lies until January and February.
There appears to be very little tendency to decay. The cider maker
judges the ripeness of the fruit, or its fitness for grinding, by pressing
with the thumb until the juice exudes or by breaking the fruit in half
and crushing one portion in his hand with a wringing motion. Great
stress is laid upon grinding at the best period of ripeness in order to
secure all the juice possible by expressing. Cleanliness is the rule
in the handling of fruit in France, yet some dirty bad work was seen^

Bl.1. 71 , Bureau of Chemistry, U, S. Dept. Agr.

F'LATE V.

FiQ. 1.— Train Loaded with Cider Apples in Sacks, France.

Fig. 2.— Ox Cart used for Hauling Apples in Germany.

the fruit being dumped into filthy receptacles, and ground and pressed
in a very unsanitary condition.

In Germany there is, in the first place, much less specialization in
the growing and handling of cider fruits, and there appears to be much
less manufacturing of cider by small landed proprietors. There were,
however, small makers everywhere, but the}^ ordinarily purchased
their fruit as miscellaneous stock from various sources, and paid no
attention to storing and maturing the same by a definite system, but
ground it up as needed.

The large factories, as far as observed, also handled the fruit less
carefully than in France. It was purchased in wagonloads and car-
loads and dumped into great bins on the ground, covered or uncovered.
While, on the whole, it was handled in a cleanly manner, no attention
seemed to be paid to keeping it dry, or to the fine points of ripening
the fruit. At one large factory 100,000 kilos (100 tons) of fruit
arrived daily, mostly by carloads, and was dumped into a great open
bin, where the fruit lay in the open from a few inches to several feet
deep until wanted for grinding.

As cider apples are an incidental and not a special crop in Germany,
it will be understood that harvesting is largely a matter of convenience
rather than system. The refuse of dessert fruit, together with the
inferior varieties and purely cider fruits, are collected as suits the
growers' convenience, and disposed of at the factories or manufactured
at home if the grower is also a cider maker. Cider making in Ger-
many shows a strong tendenc}^ toward the factory sj^stem, and the
makers have the technique of fermentation well worked out, but that
they handle a fruit inferior to that of the French and with much less
care is certainly" true.

In England the manufacture of cider is ver}' largely in the hands of
the farmers, though the factory idea is developing. One sees chiefly
the same old customs of harvesting and handling the fruit that have
prevailed for centuries. There is in general no attempt at storage.
The low-grade fruit (refuse from what the English call " pot fruit,"
i. e., dessert and cooking grades) is gathered in miscellaneous piles in
the orchard, and either ground from these piles or drawn away and
sold to the factories. At the best mills the fruit is graded somew^hat,
so as to properly blend the same at grinding, but even at these the
fruit may be seen lying in heaps on the sod in the orchard or near-by
lots until late in November. This practice gives to this fruit a very
decided earthy flavor and odor, and in some cases it is largeh'^ dam-
aged by decay. At Butleigh Court the fruit is stored in a loft over
the press-room, and is kept in clean, dry condition.

A method advocated by some in England is to make temporary bins
in the field by using hurdles for sides and bottom, the bottom piece
being elevated somewhat from the ground and all lashed together as
17247— No. 71—03 4

shown in the illustration (fig. 1). This . temporary rack is matted on
the bottom and sides with straw and the fruit is then poured in. Such
an arrangement permits of holding the fruit quite clean, and it can be
covered with straw to protect from early freezes.

Fig. 1.— Bin made of hurdles for outdoor storage of apples, used in England.

The English customs of handling fruit are in the main about the same
as those in the United States. There is little or no shipping of cider
fruit, such as there is in Fi-ance. It may be proper to say here that
the French system of sacking this fruit in the orchard for transporta-
tion, either by wagon or rail, seems to be well worthy of adoption
by us.

CIDER-MAKING ESTABLISHMENTS.

The present manufacture of cider in Europe embraces establish-
ments ranging all the way from the most primitive farm affairs to the
most elaborate modern factory. Primitive methods of manufacture
play a very important part in the grand total of product, and the users
of primitive apparatus in many cases make an article equal to the best
product of modern factories.

Notwithstanding the tendency everywhere manifest toward the
modern factory system, it seems that the cider industry is so peculiarlj'^
adapted to the farm that it should be the effort of orchardists, or at
least of small communities, to conduct this work at home, and by
making superior cider, vinegar, etc., from unmerchantable fruits,
secure to themselves the very satisfactory profits which accrue to such
a business rightly conducted.

In starting a cider-making establishment there are several points of
importance which should be more or less observed. These are:
(1) Supply of fruit; (2) supply of pure water easily carried into the
factory under some pressure; (3) the lay of the ground in regard to
drainage, and the building of cellars or basement rooms; (4) conven-
ience for disposal of product, proximity to railroad station, etc.

These conditions are of equal importance to the small maker and to
the large factory.

PRIMITIVE METHODS AND APPLIANCES.

Persons employing very old methods of manufacture were observed
in each of the three countries visited, but particularly in France,
where there is in common use the old "tour a auge" mills; in fact, a

Fig. 2.— The "tour a auge" apple crusher, Normandy, France.

modification of them is in use in some of the large factories driven by
steam power. This machine is also in use in England, but to a very
limited extent. In Germany, ancient hand devices were in use, but
the "tour" was not seen. This very ancient device for crushing fruits
before expressing the must is shown in the accompanying illustration
(fig. 2). It is constructed of stone or of wood or by putting on a
heavy layer of cement over an iron form. Necessarily the trough
must be made of some material that will not be acted upon by the
fruit juices. The plan of construction and the operation are very
simple. The entire apparatus is ordinarily about 16 feet in diameter.
The outer and inner walls (fig. 2, «, a') are about 30 inches high, and
inclose a circular trough (J), in which the grinding or crushing is
done. This trough usually narrows toward the bottom, being about
20 inches wide at the top and 14 inches at the bottom. The inner

wall is almost pei*pendicular; but the outer slopes decidedly toward
the center of the trough, which varies in depth, but 14- inches is the
usual depth. Within the inner circle, or cistern (c), rises a vertical
column to a support above, and to this is attached the radial arms
which carr}" the crushers {d). This inner space or cistern is some-
times used as a receptacle for the fruit before grinding. The fruit
falls by means of a chute from the storage loft into this cistern as
desired, and from it is put into the grinding trough with a wooden
shovel.

The rollers or crushers are usuall}' made of a firm heav}' wood with
a somewhat corrugated surface. Rollers are also made of granite, but
this makes them ver}^ heavy, and they are said to crush the seeds of
the fruit, which is not desired. . These huge wheels are about 3 feet in
diameter, and about 6 inches to 9 inches on the faces. They are set so
that thej^ do not trail, thus covering all the bottom surface of the
trough. A small device, not shown, follows after the crushers and
scrapes the pomace and uncrushed fruit down into the bottom of the
trough.

"Tours" were seen with onl}' one large broad-faced crusher, and
with various other modifications, but the one figured seems to be of
the typical form. Where used in steam mills, they are rigged with
the crushers exactly opposite each other, on fixed radial bars, and the
perpendicular shaft is turned by a pinion wheel. In this manner they
are driven at rather high speed, and are used principally to remix
pomace with water for the second and third pressings.

The "tour," as shown in the illustration, is typical of those used by
the small peasant proprietors in France. It is worked by a horse which
patiently plods around its limited circle, becoming so used to the work
as to require no attention. In fact, he soon learns to forage on the
fruit b}^ twisting his neck so as to gather the pomace from the front
crusher as it revolves. Hence he is not removed for feeding until the
daj^'s work is done.

The fruit is thrown into the trough 2 to 3 inches deep and the horse
is put in motion, and during the grinding, the attendant is busy witji
other duties, as fitting up the "cheese," bearing awa}' the cider, etc.
The fruit will be reduced to pulp in twenty or thirty minutes, vary-
ing with its texture. The attendant then turns on a scraper, attached
at the rear of the rollers, which shoves the pomace into a heap at the
side adjacent to the press. From here it is lifted with a wooden shovel
to the press platform. The cheese is laid up very much as with us —
viz, wrapped in special cloths — each section or lozenge i to 5 inches
deep. Instead of cloth, straw is often used to divide the mass of the
cheese into layers.

To put up a cheese with straw divisions, a bed of straight straw is
spread on the press platform, and a mass of pomace is evenly distrib-

uted over it to the depth of -i or 5 inches. This is then covered with
a second layer of straw, and the operation is repeated. The straw is
laid on ver}^ carefully, radiating outward, the butts projecting- a bit
over the edge of the cheese. The workmen are very adept in laying
up the cheese in this fashion, and produce a remarkably true even
block of pomace. When completed, the edges are cut down straight,
and the pomace and bits of straw are spread on top of the cheese, and
then all is ready for the application of pressure. The interposed beds
of straw serve excellently to drain the cheese when under pressure.
Indeed, this method has strong features to commend it.

After removing the pomace the trough is resupplied with fruit, and
the operation is repeated. Thus one hand attends to the crushing, lays
up the cheese, presses out the must, and bears it awa}^, in this way
working up about 2^ tons of fruit daily. The fruit is ground in
batches, as just described, and the results of four or live lots go to
make up one cheese. When this is completed, the horse is removed,
and the press is started on the cheese.

There are many styles of presses used, but one of very ancient type
is worthy of rather extended description. The particular one here
described bore dates which indicated that it had been in use for two
hundred years, and this stj-le was formerly the only power press used.

The essentials of this structure are two immense beams of oak.
These beams are 14 inches square and 20 feet long. One constitutes
the base and rests on a firm foundation to which it is securely attached.
On this a short distance from one end is made fast the platform which
supports the cheese. The other beam is freely movable. At the end
just to the rear of the cheese platform the free beam moves up and
down between two strong uprights, which are mortised through at
intervals to permit of heavy cross bars being inserted to support the
beam at any desired height. The other end is unattached, save that a
large wood screw passes through it and enters a huge block on top of
it, which block is threaded and acts as a nut. This wooden screw is
attached to the lower beam, but works freely in a socket.

While the cheese is building, the upper beam is elevated, front and
rear, out of the way. When read}^ to appl}^ pressure, the end nearest
the cheese is let down on the heavy blocking which covers the latter,
and iB then securely '"blocked" by means of cross bars so it can not
rise. Then the other end is lowered until the beam rests fairly on the
blocking over the cheese. Its very weight causes the must to flow
freely at once, but power is now gradually applied by running down the
wooden nut until it rests on the beam, then turning the great wooden
screw slowly, b}^ means of levers inserted in large augur holes through
the same, until this beam comes into a horizontal position. The pres-
sure is applied very slowly, the attendant bearing off the must, as
it flows, to the casks in the adjacent fermentation room. When the
flow of must becomes much reduced, the screw is loosened, the front

end of the pressure beam is raised,- and this causes the rear end to fall
lower, so that it can be again blocked down, after which the pressure
is reapplied. This operation is repeated until the cheese is pressed
sufficientl3% when it is allowed to drain for some time, f requenth' over
night, after which the pomace is removed, remashed in the "tour,"
and repressed. When reworking this pomace, an amount of water is
added equal to about one-fifth of the juice which has been expressed
from it. In practice, the amount of must secured by the second
pressing is about equal to the water added. This reworking of the
pomace completes the usual routine, and a cheese of fresh fruit is now

Fig. 8.— Primitive apple grater in use in Germany.

ground, and laid up as before. B}^ this S5^stem, about 400 gallons of
first and second pressings are obtained dailj^ with the labor of practi-
cally but one man and one horse. "With this lever press the use of a
rack or frame of any kind to hold the pomace is impracticable.
Evidently these latter appliances have come into use along with the
direct screw press.

A few illustrations (figs. 3, 4, and 5) showing primitive methods in
use in Germany are reproduced from Johannes Bottner's recent book
on cider making, but there is so little in these to commend that they
will not be discussed. They are sufiicientl}- self-explanator3\

It may not be known to many Americans that John Bartram, the
pioneer American botanical collector, made and used a "tour a auge"
cider mill on the banks of the Schuylkill in the early days of Pennsyl-

FiG. 4.— Primitive single-lever cider press in use in Germany.

vania. The circular trough, hewn in the great rock on the bank of the
river, yet remains; also the rock-hewn cistern — mute witnesses to his
ingenuit3\ From these portions one can in imagination easily recon-

FiG. 5.— Primitive double-lever cider press in use in Germany.

struct the rest of the mill. This system was very evidently in use in
the early days in New Jersey and elsewhere among the colonial
farmers for crushing their fruit, but no description or detailed account
of its use in America has been found.

MODERN METHODS AND APPLIANCES.

There is a wide range of procedure in grinding and pressing cider
fruit between the distincth" primitive appliances and methods and
those of the modern factory system. Machines of small and medium
capacity are numerous abroad, and range from the smallest handmills
of the meanest construction, with wooden rollers for crushing the
fruit, to the finest hand and power machines of the best scientitic
construction.

As a general thing the mills which emplo}' a hopper into which the
fruit is thrown, whence it is fed (by gravit}') onto a rotar}^ gi-ating or

crushing device, marks
the initial departure of
modern machines from
primitive ones. Of such
machines there is a great
variet}' in use in Europe,
but there is very little to
commend in them with one
exception, to which atten-
tion will be called here-
after. Man}' of these mills
were either American
machines or modifications
of well-known American
types, which do not need
to be described here. But
there is one type of rotary
grinding or crushing ma-
chine found very com-
monly in Germany, but
nuich less frequently in
France and England,
which appears to deserve
description and illustra-
tion. The origin of this mill is uncertain, but it is thought to be Ger-
man. It can readily be used for either hand or power work. This
mill is called in German the "greif '" (grip) fruit mill, and it is probably
the best type foruse in ordinary work. It is shown as used for hand
work in figure 0. In principle this mill goes back to that of the ancient
"tour a auge," viz, that of crushing the fruit instead of rasping or
grating it, but it appears to accomplish this with greater perfection.
The capacity, of course, depends on the size of the mill.

In general, experienced persons admit the desirabilit}' of preventing,
as far as possible, the contact of the pomace and must with metals such
as iron. With the mills known as graters, which are now practically

Fig. 6. — The "greif " apple crusher of Germany.

the only important kind of mills on the American market, this end is
not secured, for the pulp is all brought into contact with metal sur-
faces. With the "greif" machine this is not the case to the same
extent. A further disadvantage of the grater mill, of perhaps more
importance from a practical standpoint, is that the best grater mills
will not continue to prepare the pomace in the best manner unless the
grater knives are frequently reground. This requires time and skill,
and is a distinct drawback to their use in the ordinary country factory.
The " greif " mill, on the other hand, can be adjusted for fine or coarse
pomace, as may be desired, in a minute, and it has the still more impor-
tant advantage of reducing the fruit to pomace by bruising or crushing
the tissues.

The ' ' greif " mill in general
aspect appears not unlike many
American hand or small power
mills, but in the essentials it is
entirely different. The fruit
when thrown into the hopper,
falls upon a slotted bottom
(fig. 7). This may be made of
hard wood or of metal. There
is also a board slotted to corre-
spond to the bottom at the back
side of the hopper, which de-
flects the fruit forward, so that
it only comes onto the slotted
bottom at the front side of the
hopper. The crank or driving-
wheel is attached to a shaft (c?),
which rests just over the slot-
ted bottom of the hopper, and to this shaft are attached slightly
curved arms (e), 6 to 8 inches long, which, as the shaft revolves, catch
the fruit and crush it through the slots in the bottom of the hopper.
One of these arms can be seen in the section of the hopper shown in
figure 8. Thus the fruit is more or less broken before it comes in
contact with the crushers.

The two stone rollers which crush the fruit are shown in perspective
and cross section in figure 9, and in situation at a^ figure 8. They
are made of granite or of millstone grit, and mounted on shafts. The
surfaces are cut with a slight spiral corrugation. By use of a regulat-
ing screw (fig. 8, /"), one of these rollers can be made to approach the
other, so as to regulate the crushing of the fruit as ma}^ be desired.
The French and German operators wish to pulp the fruit as finely as
possible without crushing or grinding the seeds.

■ '■

(S)

^ e

:!!

■11!!!':' ^ III

1,1

■

e 1

'!
'ii

Fig. 7. — Slotted bottom of hopper used in "greif"
machine.

The feeding arms (fig. 7, e) are placed spiral!}" around the shaft (d),
so that only one is delivering fruit at the same moment, but this posi-
tion insures a constant feed, and the size of the slots is such that no
whole fruit can be delivered to the crushers. By means of the cog
gearing driven from the shaft to which is attached the crank or drive
wheel, the crushers are made to revolve inward at the. desired rate of
speed. The spiral corrugations are so cut that they cross each other
at an angle which adds very material!}" to the crushing or pulping
effect of this mill.

So far as was observed, this apparatus seems well adapted either to
hand or power work, and gives good results. Its most important

Fig. 8. — "Greif " apple crusher, sectional view of hopper.

advantages are, (1) the pomace is not brought so much in contact
with metal surfaces, as is the case with grating mills; (2) it can be
regulated to grind fine or coarse very quickly and with certaint}', and
(3) the operator is entirely freed from the task of removing and grind-
ing knives.

It should be noted that the fruit must be caref ull}- freed from stones,
sticks, and the like, or a breakdown of the working parts is sure to
occur. The grater mills, with spring adjusted concaves, are not
nearly so liable to such mishaps.

This German mill appears to be coming into favor in England. The
ordinary mills of other styles presented no points of special importance.

Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S Dept. Agr.

Plate VI.

FiQ.1.— Itinerant Cider Makers at Work in Streets. Straw
Used in Building up Cheese, Rennes, France.

Fig. 2.— Similar Outfit Mounted for Travel, Waiting for a
Job, Trouville, France.

American mills and presses are to be seen in use in different parts of
the country. The presses used ordinarily with medium-sized modern
machines are of the screw types, either with a descending screw or a
screw firmly set in the base of the press and with falling head blocks.

In France most of the small mills are of the grater type, with adjust-
able concaves for pressing the fruit firmly against the grinding cylin-
der. These machines are scarcely worthy of special illustration, but
the very common custom of making cider in the streets of the small
towns and cities of the French cider districts is so unique as to deserve
some notice.

It is a ver}^ common sight in
Rennes, Trouville, Nantes, and
other west coast towns to see
small outfits placed in the street
(Plate VI) or on the sidewalk
grinding and pressing small
quantities of fruit for the
householders or the small
shopkeepers. The mills pre-
sent ordinarily no features
that are unusual and are quite
uniformly graters operated by
hand. Sometimes the frame is
mounted on wheels or wooden
rollers so that it can be trun-
dled from place to place. The
presses likewise are at times
mounted on wheels, as shown
in the illustration. Practi-
cally all presses used for
street work are of the central
screw type, the power being
applied by means of a huge

nut which is turned down bj^ means of levers. The cheese is either
laid up in a crib frame or with straw divisions, as previously explained.

FACTORY SYSTEMS.

In the three leading cider-producing countries of Europe are to be
found well- developed factory systems differing considerably from
one another. Hence it is necessary to take up several types which
present certain characteristics and treat each separately.

FRENCH FACTORIES.

Although there is much to commend in the cider fruits, the facto-
ries, and ciders of the French, yet there was much one could not com-

FiG. 9 —Crushing cylinders of the "greif " machine.

mend in their systems of manufacture. It is proposed to notice,
first of all, one of these factories run on what seemed to be question-
able methods. There is a very modern school of French cider makers,
whose claims and pretentions deserve more than passing notice,
especially since it is proposed to introduce their system into the United
States.

The svstem referred to is known in France as the Noel system, and
involves pretended secret processes which it is claimed perform
wonders in the handling of cider fruit, the storage and keeping of
ciders, etc. The writer had several conferences with the promoters of
this scheme in Paris, and w^as offered full instruction in the methods
for a period of sevent}^ or eighty daj^s for 30,000 francs, on condition
that the methods should never be divulged 1 During these conferences

Fig. 10. — Fermentation and storage room, Noel system, France.

and later in visiting some of the factories it was ascertained that the
so-called system consisted of nothing peculiarly valuable. The pro-
cedure was much the same as in other factories. The fruit was ground
and pressed, then the pomace was exhausted by diffusion with warm
water, a method often used in France, and the resulting musts were
united and sugared to a condition which would make a fair cider. A
great pretense w^as made of securing valuable principles lost to others
by exhausting the marc in warm water. B}^ sugaring up the weak
must secured by exhausting the pomace with water, about double the
quantity of cider is made that can be usually obtained by using pure
juice. This is truly an old secretl However, the plan of one factory
which was twice visited is quite unique, and for that reason is pre-
sented somewhat fully. The building is a fine new brick structure
in a suburb of Versailles. The surroundings are much like those of a

home. The family lives in the front of the structure, and here the
office is also located. Extending back from the front is a rectangular
structure two stories high and about 40 feet wide by 150 feet long.
The lower story of this rear structure -comprises one large room with
very heavy brick walls without windows. This room is entered from
the front by large doors, and has a rear door of smaller size. Along
the sides of this room, against the walls, are ranged great tanks about
60 in number with total capacity reaching possibly 200,000 gallons.

The illustration (fig. 10) shows a perspective view down the center
of the room. Each tank is furnished with a faucet near the bottom,
and a glass tube communicating with the interior rises the full height
of the tank, showing at a glance the height of the liquor within. The
top is tightly closed, but a manhole for entering the tank and taps for
introducing the must are provided. The center of this room is occu-
pied by casks, pumps, and paraphernalia for racking and handling the
cider. Also great cart loads of fruit in sacks are brought from the
railway station, driven to the center of this floor, and elevated to
the upper story by a power lift, worked by a gasoline engine in the
second story.

The second story is used to store fruit, and here is also located the
grinder, the gasoline engine which furnishes all the power for the
plant, and the tubs or tanks for exhausting the pomace. The fruit
for grinding is thrown into a tank of water in which rests the lower
end of an elevator screw which lifts it to the grinding cylinders. From
the grinder the pomace falls into the press, where it is made up into
cheeses after the American fashion and pressed immediately. The
object of throwing the fruit into the tank of water is to wash it, which
is fairly well accomplished by the motion of the elevator screw.

The exhaustion of the pomace after pressing is accomplished by
diffusion with warm water, as already stated. The operations of
blending and sugaring were not shown, nor were the details of the
system of fermenting and racking explained other than in vague
terms. However, the must is both fermented and stored on the first
floor and is run off into casks for market as desired.

The product, as sampled in several stages of manufacture, was very
inferior, and had little resemblance to that of standard Normandy
ciders. This factory is making about 200,000 gallons of cider annually.
The construction of the factory, arrangement of machinery, tanks,
etc. , is quite unique, and apparently advantageous.

A characteristic of the French "cidreries" was the almost total
absence of cellars. Thus, in the factory just described the storage is
wholly above ground. This is the rule in France, while just the
opposite is true of Germany.

La Gidrerie de V Union Agricole. — The best type of factory examined
in the French cider country is that of an agricultural union at St.

Ouen-de-Thouberville, a short distance from Rouen. This establish-
ment, built and operated upon a cooperative plan, is a model in its
mechanical appointments, and the technique of its operations seemed
to leave little to be desired. The general manager is Monsieur Gus-
tave Power, the noted authority on pomology, whose books have been
officially adopted by the minister of agriculture for use in the schools
of France. The writer was most courteously received by this cultured
gentleman, and given every facility to examine and study the details
and methods of the establishment, which is, perhaps, representative of
the best type in France.

The ground plan of the main factory is shown in figure 12. In total
dimensions, the building is approximately 300 feet long by 100 feet
wide. A study of the vertical, longitudinal section (fig. 11) will help
to give a clear idea of the plan and workings of this factor}-. It will
be seen that to the rear of the main operating room of the ground floor
one can step up a few feet into the main fermenting room, or down a
few feet into a half -cellar used for the finishing processes of fermen-
tation and for storage. The surface of the ground slopes from the
front to the rear of the building, so that this lower room ends at ground
level. This gives an important advantage in the ease with which the
finished product can be loaded on trucks for transport.

The operation of this factor}^ will be better understood by following
the usual course of the fruit and must as they pass through the sev-
eral processes to the finished product. The carts laden with apples in
sacks enter the shed in front of the factory, and by a hoist, operated
from the main shaft within, the fruit is lifted to the second floor,
where it is weighed and put in bins according to varieties and quality.
These bins cover nearh^ all of the second floor, and are only 18 inches
deep, strict rules as to methods of storage being observed. With the
fruit thus distributed, it is possible to observe critically its condition
and to grind as it comes to proper maturity; also the careful distribu-
tion in accordance with the quality makes it easy to blend the fruit so
as to produce desired grades of must.

When ready to grind, the fruit is measured to the machine in proper
proportions. The grinder stands at the floor level of this storeroom.
Formerly the fruit was washed, but now this is only resorted to in
case of necessity. The fruit is, however, run over a slatted "way" or
chute in its progress to the cj^linders and much trash is screened out,
an attendant watching that foreign substances likely to damage the
grinders do not pass. From the grinders the pulp drops into a
chute, which delivers it at the pleasure of the operator into one or
another of the several pomace vats. The custom is to fill one after
another of the vats, the pulp being allowed to remain for some hours
before pressing. This maceration of the pulp in its own juice is
thought to aid in extracting the sugar content and to give better color
to the must through certain chemical changes caused by the action of

the air on the crushed tissues. The pulp is not, however, and never
should be, allowed to ferment before pressing.

The pulp vats at this factory were made of porcelain tiles carefully set
in cement. A drain pipe was arranged to carry the must, which always

flows from f reshl}' crushed fruit, into a cistern at the left of these vats.
From here it was pumped into the large casks in the fermentation
room. The large vat (tig. 12, h) is provided for the maceration of
pomace after it has been through the press.

When the pulp is thought to be in condition for the press a small
car is run alongside and the pulp is laid up in cheeses on a form, using
coarsely woven press cloths just as is done in the best American fac-
tories. When this car is loaded it is run onto the press (Z>', tigs. 11
and 12), and the hydraulic pump is put in motion, the car and its load^
of pulp being lifted by the upward thrust of a hydraulic piston after
the manner so common in this country. In this factory the hydraulic
presses were rated at 200,000 pounds direct pressure.

While this load of pulp is under pressure another car is loaded
ready to take its place. On being released from the press the car is
run alongside the large vat and the pressed pomace is discharged into
it, carefully cut up with a shovel and wet with weak must or water,
the amount of liquor added being about equal to the pure juice
expressed. This round of operations is repeated until the day's grind-
ing is exhausted, and the pomace from the first pressing then rests in
the large vat macerating in water or weak must until thought readj^
for pressing a second time. The must from the fresh pulp in the vats
and cistern is united in the great casks of the fermentation room as
pure juice. This is destined for the highest grade cider.

After eight to ten or twelve hours maceration the pomace is again
subjected to pressure on a different press (7>, fig. 11) from that used
for pure juice, and the must is received in another cistern near hj
and pumped into another set of casks. This must is used to make a
second grade of cider, the "boisson" of the laborers. But this does
not complete the operation. Again the pomace luidergoes maceration
with water or weak must, being then pressed a third time. The must
from this pressing is very weak, its specific gravity being 1.010 to
1.016. This must is used to macerate the pomace after the first press-
ing, thus adding v^er}' materially to the quality of the must derived
from the second pressing.

The pomace is no longer of an}'' value for cider purposes. It may,
therefore, be discharged b}" running the car outside the factor}^, or it
may be ground anew and washed to separate the seeds, which return
no small income, as they are in great demand by nurserymen for
growing stocks. These seeds are known in commerce in this country
as French "crab seed," but ih.Qj are realh^ seeds of the cultivated
apple and not of crabs.

A second method of extracting the juice from the apple pulp is also

employed in this factor}", viz, diffusion. The diffusion batter3"(6^, fig.

12) is located at the extreme left of the main operating room. It

consists of 6 tanks, about 3i to 4 feet high, mounted on a turntable.

17247— No. 71—03 5

Immediatel}'^ at one side and just above the level of the tanks is a res-
ervoir for water. This ma}'^ be supplied warm or cold.

To put this apparatus in operation, 5 of the tanks are filled with cut
or pulped fruit. These are so connected that the fluid will circulate
from one tank to another by means of a tube connected at the bottom
of the first and delivering the flow near the top of the second, and so
on around the circle. By the time the fluid flows out from the bottom
of the fifth tub it is well charged with the soluble matters contained
in the fruit, i. e., sugars, acid, tannin, mucilage, etc. But it can
never be made to equal in richness the product of the first pressing
from the same fruit.

As soon as the fruit in the first tank is exhausted by this washing
with water, the stream is turned into the second, and the sixth tank, now
freshly filled with pulp, is put in service as the final member of the
battery. Then the first tank is emptied and refilled with fresh fruit
to take the last place in the series, when the third tank becomes the
first cell in the battery. Thus the opei*ation proceeds indefinitely.
It should be said that the richness of the must delivered at the exit
from the fifth cell always determines when a fresh tub or cell must be
"cut in," as the flow through the last tub of fresh fruit strengthens
the must very much. The strength or richness is taken by specific
gravity very readily.

The manufacture of cider by the diffusion method is carried on in
France to a considerable extent, but its present importance does not
appear to warrant extended discussion here. It may be worthy of
study, but all the indications seem to point to its failure to produce a
genuine high-grade cider.

In the factory at St. Ouen-de-Thouberville two hand presses were
provided as a reserve to be used in case of accident to. the hydmulic
presses.

The main operations prior to fermentation have now been outlined.
The must of the several grades has been delivered by pumps to the
large casks in the fermentation room (figs. 11 and 12). Through each
section of this part of the building runs a main brass pipe connecting
with the pumps. The flow is readily turned into the desired section
by valve cut-offs, and in each section the must is delivered to the
receptacles by rubber tubes which can be attached to the " main" at
convenient points. Each cask as filled is marked with the date and
such other data as are necessary to guide the operator in the details of
the fermentation. At the same time proper entries are made in the
factory journal for future reference.

The technique of fermentation is not discussed here, as it will be
treated further on in this report. It should be added, however, that
Mr. Power was using casks usually of 600 liters capacity or larger,
open vats made of slate, and great tanks by way of experiment during
the first fermentation; but his preference was for the casks.

From the upper room, where the first fermentation occurs, the cider
runs by gravity at first racking to the room below, which is a sort of
half cellar. Here it usually rests until it is finished cider. The rail-
ways shown on the ground plan are in this lower room and serve to
carry the finished cider in casks of proper size for transportation to a
platform at the lower side of the factory, from which they are rolled
onto the great carts without lifting, an advantage of considerable
importance.

The space shown in the illustration, however, is not sufficient for
the product of this factory, and five cisterns adjoining the lower store-
room augment the storage capacity by 60,000 gallons. These are
made of slate laid in cement, and the cider stored in them keeps per-
fectly. When it is necessary to bring them into use, the cider flows
by gravity to them from the lower storeroom. The}^ are carefully
closed as filled, and only opened as it becomes necessary to pump the
cider out for commerce. This factory has a total annual capacity of
about 350,000 gallons. The laboratory is of very great importance,
and here Mr. Power makes analyses of fruits and of the product at
various stages of manufacture so that all may be well governed.

GERMAN FACTORIES.

Among German cider makers of the Taunus and Rhinegau districts
to propose fermenting the must in other than good cellars would be
heretical. The cellar is here the first essential. Everywhere the
small proprietor and the great manufacturer work on essentially the
same principles. These cellars are most excellently built of good
masonry, the walls being finished in hard mortar and the floors in
cement, as though they were intended to endure for ages. Drainage,
ventilation, hoists, and the like are carefully looked after.

Dr. Cluss, in his recent work on cider making, bemoans the careless-
ness and lack of method observed in some parts of Germany, but in
the districts visited by the writer the people have the details well in
hand. Only a few types of factories which illustrate those seen can be
taken up in this report.

The mills most generally in use in Germany for grinding or crushing
the fruit are either single-cylinder rasping or grating mills or two-
cylinder crushers ("greif " mills.) The simple grater mill serves its
purpose very well, but the consensus of opinion seems to be decidedly
in favor of the stone cylinder crusher (figs. 6-9). This mill, in dif-
fferent sizes, was found in use, some being driven bj^^ small steam or
gasoline engines. In fact small factories with good appliances and
good cellars are quite common in the territory visited.

The German cider maker may have a building devoted entirely to
that purpose, as the large makers invariably do, or, as in the case of
farmers and other small makers, he may use only a portion of a build-
ing, the balance being used for other purposes. The grinding and

pressing rooms ma}" be additions built onto another structure, the cellar
extending under the whole. In no case was fruit seen stored in upper
rooms or lofts, but usually on the floor of the operating room or in bins
adjacent. The small makers seem to make little or no provision for
storage, and the grinding and pressing, so far as observed, were con-
ducted on the ground floor. In the small plants this requires only
a moderate amount of floor space, the power plant and grinder being
near each other and the presses adjacent. The pulp was almost invari-
ably allowed to stand for some hours before pressing. The Germans
usually have large tubs, holding, say, 10 hectoliters (264 gallons) of
fruit pulp, and into these the crushed fruit is at once placed as soon as
it falls from the mill. Even the largest factor}^ visited, having an
annual output of over 500,000 gallons of cider, pursues this rather cum-
bersome method. In large factories this requires a great amount of
floor space and seems to necessitate an enormous waste of labor, but it
is thought satisfactory by the proprietors. Small plants usually grind
only enough fruit to make one or two cheeses at a time, and hence
proceed at a rate which, in this country, would be considered wasteful
of time.

The manner of laying up the cheese is in the main the same as in
our best appointed mills in which cribs are still used to hold the pulp
during pressing. The cheese cloth has not made headway in Germany.
The cribs, usualh" circular, are very well made.

After maceration for a period varying from twelve to twenty-four
hours, the pulp is brought to the press and submitted to as heavy
pressure as possible by hand power, the drop screw press being largely"
used, but also those with the screw on a central stem. The pressure is
applied for a considerable period until the cheese is carefully drained;
then the pomace is thrown up and tinelj" broken, and either macerated
with water, as in France, or allowed to rest for a period when it is
pressed a second time in a stronger press. The Germans do not use
much water in macerating pomace for repressing; in fact, a very
small amount was used where the operations were observed. The
best German factories inspected did not use water at all, but these
were equipped with hydraulic as well as hand presses, and the press-
ing was completed at a pressure of 250 atmospheres on the hj^draulic
presses.

The differences between French and German fruit in sugar content
have some bearing on the use of water in macerating. At no time
was must observed flowing from the press in German mills which
was above 50° Ochsle (1.050 specific gravity), and if, after watering
slightly, a second pressing of 40° to 45° Ochsle (1.040-1.045 specific
gravity) could be obtained, the two runs were united and fermented
together. This was the practice in small factories.

The largest German factory visited, that of the Freyeisen Brothers,'
Frankfort, is possibly the largest in the world. Its annual output is

about 25,000 hectoliters (660,000 gallons). Unfortunately plans of
this building were not to be had, and it was too extensive for the
writer to attempt making drawings. The working equipment consists
of one grinder, a large number of mash tubs in which the pulp is
macerated, 22 presses (6 of these hydraulic), teams, tools, etc. A force
of 160 laborers is emplo3^ed. In this factory, and also in most of the
smaller 'German factories visited, the fruit is washed before grinding,
usually in the manner already described, namely, by dumping it into
a great vat of water and elevating it from this to the grinder by a
screw rotating in a half cylinder.

The workmen carry the apples from the bins in wooden vessels resem-
bling tubs, holding about a bushel, and dump them into the washing vat.
The pulp is taken in like vessels as it falls from the grinder and carried
by the workmen to the macerating vats. From these, after maceration
for about twenty-four hours, it is again filled into the tubs and carried
to the presses. The pressure is applied slowly, and the pulp is allowed
to drain a long time. Then the pomace is cut up fine, put into another
press, and re-pressed without addition of water. The third and last
pressing is accomplished at 250 atmospheres. No further use is made
of the pomace. The must averages about 1.050 specific gravity.

To an American the work of this factory seems to be conducted qn
an exceedingly laborious plan. The impression obtained was that this
old firm, which had been in business about a century, had at various
times grafted on new ideas and appliances, without at any time really
reconstructing and modernizing the plant. In like manner, the cel-
lars appeared to have been added to until they honeycombed the earth,
and extended vault below vault to a depth of 17i meters (56 feet) below
the surface of the factory yard. This bewildering maze of cellar
vaults, full of great casks, each holding 2,000 liters (528 gallons) or
more, over 900 in all, served to store the product; but a great quan-
tity of cider is sold while still in first fermentation for use in the res-
taurants of Frankfort as sweet or smoking cider.

The methods of handling the must are now to be considered. The
pressing of the pomace, as explained above, generally occurs on the
ground floor immediately over the cellar. To this first cellar the fresh
must is conducted through rubber pipes, either by gravity or by
pumping, and is put directly into the great casks in the fermentation
room.

It is the German custom not to fill the casks so full that there will be
any discharge of froth or top lees through the bunghole, 6 or 8 inches
of clear space being left in the top of each cask. As soon as a cask
in the fermentation room is filled, it is fitted with the ventilating
funnel (fig. 16). Nearly all good cider factories are provided with
cellars at least two stories in depth, so that the room for final fermen-
tation and storage is immediately below the first cellar.

The construction and arrangement of typical German cellars are
shown in figures 13 and 14. The most ordinarj' place visited had one
good cellar, and places of the next higher grade uniformly had two-
story cellars. The great factories have still deeper cellars, as that of
the Freyeisen Brothers already mentioned.

The chief advantage of the cellar is the ease with which temperature
can be controlled. For instance, in the upper cellar, b}^ introducing
air through ventilating flues (fig. 13 h), it is possible to mise or lower
the temperature in accordance with the condition of the atmosphere,
and once the proper temperature is reached its maintenance is fairly

Fig. 13.— Vertical cross section of small German cider factory with arched cellars.

easy. However, in the cold season, if the temperature falls too low,
resort is had to a heating apparatus. The temperature which the Ger-
mans seem to prefer for the fermentation room (B, figs. 13 and 14)
is 15° to 18° C. (59° to 65° F.), the lower figure being preferred if
active fermentation starts promptly at this temperature. In the lower
cellar ( (7, fig. 14) or finishing room a temperature of 8° to 10° C. (45° to
50° F.) is preferred. Still lower temperatures are obtained in late
fall and winter.

The comparative ease with which the cider can be piped from one
cellar room to another under this German system is very apparent.

The liquor must, in the course of its progress to a finished product,
pass from a warmer to a colder temperature, and this is here accom-
plished by gravitation. The hoist (fig 14, e) at last lifts the finished
product from the lowest room to the ground floor. Naturalh' the
great casks are never disturbed except for purposes of repair or reno-
vation. The finished product is either bottled direct in the storage
room or transferred to smaller casks for transportation. Manholes
are provided in the floors of each room to permit the passage of the
pipes, etc. , used in handling the product.

Fig. 14.— Vertical cross section of two-story German cider cellar.

ENGLISH FACTORIES.

There is little that is distinctive about English cider factories. This
does not imply that there are not good factories in England; on the
contrary, some of the finest products observed anywhere were those
of English factories. But there is no definitely recognized standard
in regard to either apparatus or buildings and cellars for either small
or large factories in England. The best factories seen were copied
from those of the French champagne makers of Epernay; but as to
mechanical devices or details of arrangement, they show little that is
new or of peculiar importance. The cellar plays but a small part with

the average English cider maker. ' Some important details, however,
in the handling of must and in fermentation processes were observed.

The English factories grind largely with graters and rasping cylin-
ders, though the German "greif " machine (figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9) is com-
ing into use. As before mentioned, the "tour a auge" was seen in
use in England.

The English rarely press the pomace but once, and almost no
maceration of the pomace with water was observed. The quantity of
juice extracted from the fruit varies, according to the statements made,
from 60 to 90 per cent of the weight of fruit, but the latter figure is
so high as to inspire grave doubt as to its correctness. The presses
used are mostly old-st3^1e hand and power screw presses. Not a
hydraulic press was seen in use in the island. The system of handling
the fruit at the large factories seems particularly objectionable. It
was in most cases lying in great heaps in the yards or lots adjacent
to the mill, and in many cases a considerable percentage of it was far
gone with decay.

On a tenant farmer's place in Herefordshire was seen one of the
largest plants visited in England, and a few words of description
will give an idea of its management. The fruit lies in immense piles
in the orchard on a rise of ground which extends up to the factory
sheds. When needed, the fruit is shoveled into a long inclined chute
that carries it to the grinders below, which are of the stone-crusher
type. The pulp falls into a great vat, whence it is shoveled onto the
presses. Two sprocket-geared power presses are used, and the cheeses
are laid up in cloths as with us. In this factory the pomace is soaked
and re-pressed.

The must is pumped b}^ power apparatus to an adjacent shed, where
it is received in great slate vats and wooden tanks, and in these it is
carried through the first fermentation. From there the cider is pumped
to a more permanent building for ripening and storage. The storage
tanks range in capacity from 100 to 4,500 gallons each. Fermenta-
tion is controlled by filtering and racking, as is usual in England, and
a pasteurizer also is in use, but no opportunity offered to observe the
effects of its use.

When desired for market the cider is blended in large vats to suit the
demands of the trade and then pumped through the Invicta filter into
casks for shipment. Thousands of gallons of supposedly finished cider
were to be seen stored in 50-gallon casks in the open, merely covered
over with boughs and straw, and it was said to keep well under this
treatment.

The power used in operating this plant is a traction engine of about
15 horsepower, such as is in general use on English farms for thrash-
ing and doing various kinds of heavy work. The whole plant was
very badly placed as to detail of structures and conditions for ban-

dling the product properly. Practical duplicates of this factory were
observed elsewhere, and very fair cider was made on a large scale, but
no reall}^ fine products from such plants were observed.

The best large factory visited was at Hereford City, but here admit-
tance to the operating rooms and cellars was refused, though an
extended interview on the methods was given. These operators are
patterning wholly after the French champagne makers. They have
extensive cellars in which their product is finished at a temperature
of 47° to 50° F. They explained their system of blending the must
before fermentation, which, by the wa\\ is one of the most important
operations in determining the grade of product produced.

On the estate of Lord Sudley, in Worcestershire, some very inter-
esting and decidedly successful amateur work in cider making was
observed. Here the manager of the estate, Mr. Charles D. Wise, has
for several years been studying and experimenting on the manufacture
of fine bottled cider and perry, and he has succeeded remarkably well
in some particulars. He has installed a small plant in a great circular
brick structure, formerly used as a riding school. Here he grinds the
fruit on a grater machine, using a portable farm engine. The pulp is
pressed by a hand-power screw press, and the must is carried through
the first fermentation in great tubs or vats. As soon as the lees are
well separated, the cider is racked off and then filtered by gravity
through wood pulp. This is accomplished by the use of a great tub
elevated about 10 feet above the floor. In it is fitted a false perfo-
rated bottom, a few inches above the real bottom, and between these is
placed the filtering medium. The tub is filled with cider, and the
clarified product is received below and placed in large casks about the
course of the riding school to mature.

The cider is permitted to remain in these casks from one year to
eighteen months before bottling. Apparently very little technique is
employed, but some of the product is excellent. How much failed to
turn out well was not ascertained.

The experiments on cider making in England, conducted conjointly
by the Board of Agriculture and the Bath and West Agricultural
Society, are carried on at Butleigh Court, the country seat of R. Neville
Grenville, esq., in Somersetshire, near Glastonbury (PI. VII). Mr.
Grenville is personally interested in this work, and has devoted con-
siderable time and money to it, and Mr. F. J. Lloyd, of London, a
consulting chemist, has supervised for the authorities the more techni-
cal aspects of the work. The reports on this work can be found in
full in the annual volumes of the Bath and West of England Society.

The cider house at this place is equipped in part on French models.
The fruit is stored in a loft, and is ground on a machine at the level of
the upper floor, whence the pulp falls to the press below. The grinder
is of the German pattern with stone rollers. The pulp is pressed on a

hand-power screw press at about 40 tons pressure. The cheese is laid
up in cloths and well pressed, but only once, the pomace being then
used to feed the cattle on the place.

The must is pumped back into the upper s'torj' and placed in open
tanks (here called ''keeves") of about 60 to T5 gallons capacit3^ In
these the must is carefully watched, and the top lees are skimmed off
until the cider reaches a state of limpidity which warrants racking off.
At this stage the liquor is drawn off* in pipes to the lower room and
either placed directly in casks for maturing or run through the Invicta
filter, according to circumstances; that is, if the cider can be drawn
clear, it is best run directly into casks, but, if "'troubled," it is filtered
and then run into casks. The storage casks i*ange in size from 100 to
250 gallons.

In this small factor}^ all the critical data which should govern the
technique were observed, as, for instance, the chemical composition
of the fruit and the specific gravity of must at grinding and at each
stage of fermentation. A most elaborate cellar record is kept of the
casks in the storage rooms and regarding the results of bottling at
various times. It is too soon to speak positively of the lessons to be
learned from these examinations and observations, but it is certainly
b}" such observations and studies that the knowledge of the subject is
to be advanced.

The product sampled at Butleigh Court was of fine qualitv but, as
elsewhere, there were "misses'* in some cases. Accommodations for
accurate cellar work are needed.

PRODUCTION OF THE MUST.

The appliances used in reducing the apples to pulp and expressing
the juice therefrom have already" been described. Yet several impor-
tant points in relation to the production of the must remain to be
discussed.

RIPENESS OF THE FRUIT.

The ripeness of the fruit, or its condition in relation to those obscure
processes which go on after maturity in the pome fruits and bring
them into their most favorable condition as to quantity of sugar and
quality of juice, is a ver}- important consideration in this connection.
It was especiall}^ noted in the French factories that they did not grind
the fruit until it was in perfect condition as to ripeness, but com-
parativel}' little attention was paid to this matter in the German and
English factories visited.

The important fact that the sugars in fruits increase to a maximum
point, which is doubtless reached at or near the stage of perfect ripe-
ness, ought not to be lost sight of either in cider or vinegar work.
There are, however, very few valuable data concerning the composition

Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1.— Butleigh Court, Somersetshire, Englanp, Seat of
English Cider Experiment Station.

Fig. 2.— The Cider-apple Orchard at Butleigh Court.

of apples during the process of ripening. This is an important field
for critical study which ought to give results of decided economic value.

MIXING VARIETIES OF APPLES.

Under the comparison of the composition of fruits, the great vari-
ability of different kinds of apples has been shown. But there are
other characteristics of apples which can not be expressed in terms of
chemical data, such as their taste and aroma, and these factors have to
do with making a good cider in only a lesser degree than sugars, acids,
and tannin. The blending of fruits at grinding appears to be an almost
universal practice in France. Every maker appears to exercise his own
judgment about the proportions of the several varieties to be used,
sampling the fruits by taste and smell. There are, for instance, many
French varieties which have a ver}" high content of tannin. These are
not used separately in cider making, but are mixed with sweet and
acid fruits to secure a proper average composition. The question of
blending or not resolves itself finally to this: Can we hope to secure
by selection a perfectly proportioned fruit as to its chemical compo-
sition and other qualities, or not? This desideratum is certainly far
from being realized at present.

In German}^ very little special attention is paid to the subject of
blending except in the use of Sorhus domestica, as already noted. In
this they have a fruit of the greatest importance, a fact which did not
appear to be fully realized. The ordinaiy German varieties of apples
present few characteristics to lead one to a study of blending.

In England the best makers talk about blending, but handle their
really good varieties in such a bad manner, in man}^ cases, as to leave
little chance of realizing the best results. At one of the best English
factories visited the manager explained that he ground the varieties
separately, expressed the must, tested it as rapidly as possible, and
blended as it was run into the fermentation casks. This is certainly
the most scientific method of blending.

Some French writers recommend for the best standard ciders to use
one-third sweet fruit to two-thirds bitter fruit, and for household use
two-thirds sweet and one-third bitter fruit; but such attempts at exact
proportions are worthless. The whole question must be determined
on the spot for the particular fruits in hand. However important
this question may be in relation to standard products, no really impor-
tant data regarding it were obtained.

Unfortunately in the United States we have so few distinctively
cider fruits in cultivation and so few technical data in regard to our
common varieties that advice on this point must await further investi-
gation. Meanwhile, good judgment applied along the lines here indi-
cated will be a better guide than figures as to proportions of this or
that variet3^

WASHING THE FRUIT.

In many places in Germany and some places in France washing the
fruit before grinding was found to be largely practiced. Where the
fruit is actuall}^ soiled this operation is greatl}' to be commended, but
it was practiced in manj^ places regardless of this point. To run all
fruit through a washing vat simply as a part of a system seems to be
unwarranted on several grounds: (1) It is useless in case of fruits that
have been harvested in a proper condition; (2) if elevated directly
from the washing vat to the grinder the fruit carries with it consider-
able water, which reduces the specific gravity or richness of the must,
and (3) there is every probability that washing reduces considerably
the yeasts present on the fruits. This under some conditions is of
critical importance, and needs to be considered in relation to the practice
of sowing the must with active yeast cultures.

There are heard in discussion and found in the literature of the subject
statements about drying the fruits after washing, but this does not
seem to be practiced, nor was a mill seen constructed with any idea of
permitting the fruits to dry before crushing. If the water is not fre-
quently changed in the tank it will soil rather than clean the apples.
Fruit carrying impurities should never be stored or ground with clean
fruit even after it has been washed, as to do so is simply to furnish to
the must the organisms of mal-fermentation and other substances, which
will most likely prove harmful. The international cider congress held
at Paris in October, 1900, expressed by vote the opinion that washing
fruits before grinding ought only to be practiced where cleanliness
made it necessary.

GRINDING OR CRUSHING THE FRUIT.

The end in view in reducing the fruit to pulp is to make it possible
to extract the juice by pressure. Some fruits can be more or less pier-
fectly pressed without grinding, but this is not possible with the apple.
The cells of the apple hold their juices quite tenaciously, and must
be definitely ruptured. Hence the method which will most perfectly
rupture the constituent cells is probably the best to employ. As pre-
viously stated, perhaps the German "greif " mill accomplishes this
purpose better than those of any other type. This view was advanced
by German and English cider makers, and indorsed to some extent by
the French.

It was everywhere stated b}^ the best makers that the seeds must
neither be cut nor crushed to any extent, because their oily and nitrog-
enous constituents directly injure the ciders by contributing flavoring
matter of an unpleasant nature and nitrogenous substance in which the
organisms causing putrescence find a desirable medium for develop-
ment. This opinion was universally accepted in all the factories vis-
ited, although this view is contrarj'^ to that of the early English and

American writers. The chemical analyses of seeds of pome fruits
indicate that the opinion is based on good grounds. The delicate
fruit aroma ^delds the bouquet desired in the cider. The oily principle
in the seeds tends to destroy this, and certainly nitrogenous matter
is not desirable to any extent in must which is to be fermented into
a beverage. There is ordinarily plenty of nitrogenous matter in apple
must to support yeast growth. However, slightly contradictory as it
may seem, the French makers aim to crush the seeds for the prepara-
tion of •'boisson.'' claiming that, as the pomace is largely deprived of
its aromatic constituents when the pure juice is extracted, the oil in
the seeds adds to the quality of this low-grade cider.

The fineness of grinding affects to some extent the facilit}'^ with
which the juice can be expressed. If the pulp is too mushy, it presses
badly, especially when the cheese is made up in cloths. In this matter
there is a proper mean, which no one se6ms to be able to define in an
entirely satisfactory manner. It is often expressed in this form, that
not over 2 per cent of the seeds should be cut or crushed in reducing
the fruit to pulp for first pressing.

For preparing must b3^ the dift'usion process, mentioned elsewhere
in this report, the fruit is not ground or crushed as for pressing, but
it is cut or shavad into thin slices, as it is found that with these
extraction by difiusion goes on more perfectly than with pulped fruit.

MACERATION OF PULP.

The Germans are strong advocates of maceration, i. e., allowing the
fruit to stand in its own juice, because by this process they believe the
sugar is more perfectly extracted. The}^ claim that the juice acts upon
the unbroken cells and assists in liberating their liquid contents. This
would certainly be true if fermentation were fairly begun before
pressing. The writer's experience is against permitting the pulp to
ferment before pressing, but these questions need to be approached
from the standpoint of scientifically conducted experiments before
much can be said that is definite.

MM. Seguin and Pailheret, at the National Agricultural College,
Rennes, France, have made a number of experiments in a small way
upon this question and they have found in every instance that macera-
tion increases the totals of sugar, acids, mucilage, and ash in the must,
but decreases the tannin, and leaves, finalh% an almost colorless must.
This latter point is contrary to the German opinion. The French do
not generall}' practice maceration of the pulp before pressing. In the
writer's opinion maceration for more than eight or ten hours is liable
to stock the whole mass of pulp with man}^ undesirable organisms and
render control of the fermentation far more difficult than it would
otherwise be unless the pulp is sown at once on grinding with pure
cultures of veast.

78 •

EXPRESSING THE MUST.

The older methods of laying up the pulp preparatory to pressing
possess no particular merits to call for further remarks than those
already made.

The modern, double-acting, ratchet screw presses, so much used by
the French, and the hydraulic press, or some better form of machine,
must be the presses of the future. Hand h3'draulic presses are in use
in France, and in all the medium-sized and large factories these mod-
ern machines must make headway against the obsolete and laborious
hand presses of the old st3'le.

When the fruit is carefully pulped in the most correct manner, and
subjected to from 80 to 100 tons direct pressure for a sufficient
length of time, the possibility of again manipulating this pomace so
as to derive sufficient must to warrant the effort is indeed slight.
This is especially true when the pulp is well laid in thin lozenges in
the coarsely woven seine-twine cloths used in the best American mills.
Hair cloths and various devices are used abroad, but none of these
compared well with our best American cheese cloths.

SOAKING THE POMACE.

One must distinguish clearly between the after maceration of the
pomace and the maceration of the pulp in its own juice. The later
operation is better named ''soaking." If there is any method by
which the pomace can ever be handled with a view to more perfectly
exhausting it than is accomplished by direct pressing, it would seem
that soaking in warm water is by far the most promising one.

If American fruits were as rich in saccharine properties as the
French appear to be, it is possible that a considerable quantity of the
juice of second pressing or of the must extracted by diffusion could
be mixed with the rich juice of first pressings and still produce a must
sufficiently rich for good cider or vinegar. The imperfect methods
of expressing the juice emploj^ed in many places abroad give to this
question more importance than it has with us; but the question of its
utility or nonutility in large factories is yet to be settled after more
technical investigation.

FERMENTATION OF CIDER.

In the minds of some, fermentation is a very simple operation. Mr.
A. Hauchecorne says in his elementary treatise on cider:'* " The art of
making good cider is very simple, and includes the following four
conditions: Ripe fruits, clean water, a barrel free from taints and
odors, and later racking off." On the other hand, Mr. G. Power ^ says:
"Of all the operations necessary in the manufacture of cider, the fer-

aLe Cidre, p. 7.

^Culture du Pommier et Fabrication du Cidre, 1: 102.

ri>

mentation is certainly the most difficult and the most important. This
is true of all beverages, but with cider one encounters difficulties of a
special nature." Dr. A. Cluss/* writing of North Germany, says:

We shall now speak of fermentation and the management of the cellar, those fac-
tors which have the greatest influence upon the resultant product, and * * * in
which the greatest faults have been committed. One can say without exaggeration
that the misfortunes in making cider, about which so many moan, are due not to
the poor raw material nor to faults in the pressing, but almost without exception to
ignorance of the foundation principles of fermentation, and especially to the bad
condition of the cellars and cellar utensils which universally prevails.

The above quotations illustrate the extremes of opinion on this sub-
ject. Everyone in the United States who has tried to make fine
sound cider will, I think, agree heartily with Power and indorse with-
out exception the views of Dr. Cluss.

ROOM, VESSELS, AND APPLIANCES USED.

The first object to be kept in view in the construction of a fermen-
tation room is the control of temperature conditions; the second, con-
venience of location to the general operating room and to the final
storage room; and the third, facilities for maintaining perfect cleanli-
ness and ventilation.

As types of factories meeting these requirements to a considerable
extent, the factory at St. Ouen-de-Thouberville, France, and the Ger-
man factories having single and double cellars may be cited.

On beginning the season's work the fermentation room should be
put in perfect order as to cleanliness,' the walls and floors being newly
whitewashed. The casks or vats should be put in the most perfect
order, cleansed carefully inside and out, and arranged with reference
to the convenience of filling, racking off, and other operations.

TEMPERATURE OF FERMENTATION ROOM.

On this point the Germans are much more careful than the French
or. English. The French structures are largely exposed to the influ-
ence of daily fluctuations in atmospheric conditions, and whenever
there is a considerable daily variation in the temperature it is quite
impossible to carry on an even, well-ordered fermentation.

The alcoholic ferments (commonly called yeasts), like all other plant
organisms, have an optimum temperature for growth, and it has been
determined that this temperature is about 18° to 24° C. (65° to 75° F.).
But it is also true that, at this temperature, the growth of the yeast
plants is apt to be very rapid, producing a rather too violent fermen-
tation which disturbs the orderly management of the must. At a
lower temperature fermentation can be carried on in a more orderly
way, if once well started, hence, 13° to 18° C. (55° to 65° F.) has been

« Apfelweinbereitung, p. 61 et seq.

found a more desirable temperatu-re for the main fermentation room.
At a temperature reduced much below the minimum gfiven the must
will not start a proper fermentation, and when it is introduced into the
casks — especially if they are large ones — at a lower temperature,
some difficulty will be experienced unless the must is artificiall}'
warmed. This can be accomplished by warming a portion and pour-
ing this into the casks, but this portion of the must should never be
heated to a temperature above 50^ or 60^ C. (120'^ to 140^ F.).

VESSELS USED IN FERMENTATION.

Many styles of casks or vats for the first fermentation are in use.
In England open vats were frequently seen. These were of wood and
slate, and held from 60 to several hundred gallons. The}" were placed
in the workrooms, or in rooms adjacent thereto, or out of doors under
a shed roof. Many English makers, however, cany on the first fer-
mentation in casks both small and large. Some use inferior 50 to 60
gallon casks lying in a shed, or in the open, but the best makers use
larger casks or vats holding 100 to 500 gallons, and even larger ones
for the tumultuous fermentation. Those who use the open vats quite
generally allude to this part of the process as "keeving"the cider,
plainly a corruption of the French word "cuvage."

French makers verj^ largely ferment first in immense casks holding
from 500 to 1,200 gallons, but they also occasionally Use great wooden
and slate vats open at the top.

In Germany only large casks are used, holding 500 to 2,000 liters
(132 to 528 gallons). In fact, the German system of fermentation
admits of nothing else but casks. These are uniformly closed to
guard against the entrance of germ-laden air. Much has been said
in the literature of the subject concerning the various kinds and sizes
of vessels used for fermenting the cider. The size of the vessels is of
the very greatest importance. Every maker whose work is worthj^
of commendation was observed to be using large vessels for ferment-
ing the must. About 500 liters (132 gallons) was the smallest size
recommended, and above this the}' ran to 6,000 liters (1,585 gallons).

There are several reasons which have more or less weight in empha-
sizing the necessitv of having large vessels. One of the first is that a
large quantity of must brought into a cask at proper temperature is
much less subject to atmospheric changes and, hence, a safe, even fer-
mentation can be carried on with greater certainty. There is also a
very persistently repeated statement that the fermentation of the must
in these large casks produces a marked eflfect upon quality. It can be
readil}' understood that the use of these very large vessels will pro-
duce a considerable quantit}^ of finished product of like character
which can not be so well accomplished in small vessels. There will
also be less dregs in proportion to the quantit}'^ of must if one employs

large vessels instead of small ones. The control of a large cask
requires no more attention, and often not so much as a small one.

FILLING THE VESSELS.

A convenient method of filling the vessels plays a very important
part in handling the must. In manj' places this is accomplished by
power pumps, which deliver the must to the receptacles placed in
adjacent rooms or in another building. When the press room is over
the fermentation room, filling is accomplished b}" gravity. Hose pipes
are largely used for this work, but brass or copper must be used for
all metal fittings. The less the must comes in contact with the air
after it leaves the press the less liable it is to be contaminated with
various undesirable organisms. The pumps and pipes used must be
kept scrupulously clean.

The height to which the cask is filled with must bears upon the
method of fermentation to be emploj^ed. In England the old practice
of running the barrels or casks full so that they would "work them-
selves clean " is still in use to some extent, as it is in this country, but
all progressive makers in England and elsewhei*e have abandoned this
practice. Whatever modern system one ma}^ follow, the vessel is
never filled so full that it will run over during the tumultuous fermen-
tation. In the use of open vats the English almost invariably fill within
several inches or a foot of the top and skim the lees which rise one or
more times, thus exposing the nmst to the air and also causing the lees
to be mixed more or less through the liquid. In England no attempt
was made, so far as observed by the writer, to control the exit of gas
or entrance of air further than to prevent the entrance of insects by
some sort of temporary covering.

The French ferment almost universalh'' in large casks or closed
upright tanks, and it is rare indeed one sees an open vat. But when
such vats are used, the}" permit the top lees to rest unbroken, forming
a "head," the so-called "chapeau," over the liquor. In casks they
usually leave a space of 8 inches to 1 foot below the bung unfilled.
This permits the head to form without any overflow of lees.

In Germany they invariably leave a space of from 8 to 12 inches below
the bung unfilled, but with an entirely different end in view from that
of the Frenchman. The latter makes much of the proper appearance
of the "chapeau," or top lees, and it is an article of his faith that this
cover shall not be broken or permitted to fall back into the liquor.
But the Germans, on the contrary, purposely preserve these lees from
overflow and desire them to fall back through the liquor and rest at
the bottom of the cask. They argue that this secures inclusive fer-
mentation, and utilizes all alcoholic material in the top lees which
would be lost by skimming or by drawing the liquor away from the
lees.

17247— No. 71—03 6

CONTROLLING THE EXIT AND ENTRANCE OF GASES.

When fermentation occurs in the open vats, or "keeves," natu-
rally one can not control the contact of air with the surface of the must.
But the French, by permitting the top lees to rest, in a large measure
guard the liquor from contact with the air. The reasons for thus
guarding the must do not appear to be recognized by English makers,
but are quite generally considered in France, and very strictly so in
Germany. If the must is fermented in closed vessels, it is a very
simple matter to guard the entrance from germ-laden air by the use
of simple devices such as are shown in the accompanxnng illustrations.

In figure 1 5 is shown a device which was found in use to some extent

Fig. 15. — Noel device for ventilating fermentation casks.

in France, the character of which will be quite readily understood from
the illustration. The metal base (a) screws into the cask and carries
two connected glass chambers {h and c). The metal cap (d) unscrews
to allow the entrance of liquid to the control chamber (c). When the
cask is filled to the proper height, the bunghole is securely closed, and
this device is either screwed into a small central opening in the bung
or into a hole in the cask near the bung. The liquid desired for puri-
fying the air — either 30 per cent alcohol or 10 per cent sulphuric acid —
is poured into the chamber (<?) until both glass chambers are about
half full; then the apparatus is ready foi- operation. Should the pres-
sure decrease in the cask by reason of falling temperature air can only
enter by passing through this apparatus in a course contrary to the

arrows, and hence will be washed clear of germs. On the increase of
pressure through fermentation activity the gas passes out at low pres-
sure by depressing the liquor in {h) until it gains exit, as indicated by
the arrows. This is the Noel air controller; but in the writer's work it
has proved entirely too complicated and too difficult to keep clean for
practical use. The principle of air control is undoubtedly correct,
but it is better accomplished by some of the following devices:

The German "fermentation funnel" (fig. 16) is a simple and far
better device for controlling the air. This is a pottery or porcelain
device having a central tapering stem (a) with a basin-like vessel (5)

Fig. 16.— German earthenware ventilating funnel— vertical section.

around its upper end.

of the outer rim, and is hollow

The central stem (c) rises nearly to the height
Over this hollow stem rests a remova-
ble cap (d), which extends to the bottom of the basin. The lower rim
of this cap where it rests under the liquid is notched for the passage
of gases, as indicated by the arrows. This device is inserted in the
bunghole of the cask, and by reason of the tapering stem can be made
to fit quite tightly; but it is always better to use some paraffin wax
around it. The control liquid is placed in the outer basin until it is
about one-third full; then the cap is put on and the device is ready for
operation. While this is an awkward looking device, it is the best

known to the writer for practical work. The large central opening
permits the operator to take the temperature of the must, or remove
samples for examination at pleasure without displacing the entire
apparatus, and it can be quickly and perfectly cleaned.

A third device (fig. 17), also of German origin, answers a good pur-
pose, especially in laboratorj^ work, but it is not recommended for
cellar work. This is called the glycerin control tube. It is made of
glass, and is operated by inserting the stem through a bung ('/). Gly-
cerin or one of the liquids mentioned above is introduced at the fun-
nel (h) until the bulb {d) is half
full. The principle is exactly
the same as with the previous
devices. Should the pressure
decrease in the vessel air can
enter through the liquid by
reason of the enlargements {d
and e). The enlargement (<?)
permits the escape of gas from
the vessel without driving out
the control liquid.

A very simple device is
shown in figure 18. This con-
sists simply of a bent tube in-
serted in a perforated bung,
the outer end being so placed
that it rests below the surface
of the liquid in a basin. This
device is very faulty because
if, for any reason, pressure
decreases in the cask the liquor
from the basin will be drawn
into the must. In practice the
best devices are found to be
of the greatest assistance in
indicating the activity of the
fermentation. To the practiced operator they become at once the
barometer which warns him of danger or assures him of the proper
progress of fermentation.

Fig. 17. — Glycerin ventilating funnel.

VENTILATING BUNGS AND SPIGOTS FOR CASKS.

In connection with the subject of fermentation funnels, the use of a
ventilating bung should be mentioned. After the first fermentation
has subsided and the liquor has been placed in casks for the second
fermentation, it is desirable to close the casks tightly — at least so as to
exclude as far as possible the entrance of air. Yet in so doing one

can not be certain but that a sufficiently strong fermentation may set
in to spring the staves or head of the cask. This misfortune is obvi-
ated by using some sort of a safety vent.

The best simple vent for this purpose that was seen is the Noel
vent bung (fig. 19). A central opening of sufficient size is cut about
half way through this bung and then is continued at a diameter about
one-half as great the rest of the way. On the shoulder thus formed
a valve {a) is placed and held by the spiral spring seen in the cross

Fig. 18. — Bent ventilating tube.

section. The spring is supported above by a metal plate screwed
over the opening in the top of the bung. The spring should be of
sufficient strength to hold 2 to 4 pounds of pressure, and the mech-
anism of the valve and its seat should be so perfect as to prevent
the ingress of air. If the bung is sterilized and driven tightly into
place, it will insure proper ventilation of the barrel or cask and pro-
tect the liquor very well from the entrance of extraneous organisms.

One of the most important considerations
about the fermentation casks is the means of
drawing off the liquor readily when this
becomes necessary. Many instances were
seen in England and Germany where the
fermentation was carried on in barrels and
casks which had but one opening, namely,
the large bunghole; hence, in racking off, it
was necessary to introduce a pipe at this opening, lower it to what
was considered a proper position, and then siphon off the liquid.
This method is extremely faulty, however, because of the disturbance
of the top lees and the difficulty of determining the depth to which
the tube should be lowered into the vessel so as not to take up the
dregs.

Every vessel used for fermenting the must should be furnished with
a spigot so situated that it will draw off the liquor as near to the dregs

Fig. 19.— Noel ventilating bung.

as can be safely accomplished without disturbing them.- If this spigot
can be furnished at the outer end with a hose connection of proper
size the liquor can be run directly to the cask designed for second fer-
mentation in those buildings where successive cellar stories are used.
In this case it is necessary to fit a glass bulb into the hose so as to
watch the condition of the liquor as it flows. If the must is transfer-
red to vessels on the same level a pump is generally used. The French
makers commonly place spigots in all vessels employed for fer-
mentation work. These enable them to note precisely the condition of
the must without disturbing the lees. The large casks should also be
uniformly fitted with manholes in order that the}' may be readily
cleaned after use.

THE CHARACTER OF THE MUST.

On bringing the must into the casks or vats for fermentation, it is
of prime importance that the operator should know its composition as
nearly as may be. To determine this accuratel}- is the work of a
chemist, but at no factory visited was there evidence of the employ-
ment of a chemist for this purpose. True, a number of the proprie-
tors are themselves analysts.

USE OF DENSIMETERS.

Everywhere in Europe the makers use, with more or less care, some
form of must spindle or densimeter for estimating the sugar content of
the juice. Those most commonly used are the ordinary specific gravity
spindle, the Oechsle spindle (which, in fact, is the same thing with the
first two figures on the left omitted), and the Beaume must spindle.
The last is not a convenient form of spindle, as may be seen from
Table XI. Its degrees do not permit of ready comparison with other
standards.

It is the custom to take the density of the fresh must on one of these
spindles and mark the result on the casks. Some makers keep a record
of the casks by number in a cellar book, and enter not only these data,
but notes on the fruit used, the character of the fermentation as it
progresses, and all subsequent readings of density- and manipulations
of the cider. Also the records of temperature of the must and cellar
are kept. Without some such system intelligent control of the work
is impossible.

The following table gives a comparison of the readings of the three
spindles mentioned, the proximate percentages of sugar at the different
densities, and the approximate percentage of alcohol which will result
from its fermentation at each reading of the densimeter:

Table XI. — Readings of different densimeters and approximate solids and sugar content,
with the indicated percentage of alcohol after fermentation is completed.

Specific
gravity.

Oechsle.

Beaum6.

Solids.

Sugar.

Alcohol.

Degrees.

Per cent.

1.040

5.7

10.0

8.00

4.0

1.041

5.8

10.3

8.21

4.105 \

1.042

5.9

10.5

8.42

4.21

1.043

6.1

10.7

8.63

4.315

1.044

6.2

11.0

8.84

4.42

1.045

6.3

11.2

9.05

4.525

1.046

6.5

11.5

9.27

4.635

1.047

6.6

11.7

9.49

4.745

1.048

6.7

11.9

9.71

4.855

1.049

6.9

12.2

9.93

4.965

1.050

7.0

12.4

10.15

5.075

1.051

7.1

12.6

10.38

5.19

1.052

7.3

12.9

10.61

5.305

1.053

7.4

13.1

10.84

5.42

1.0.54

7.5

13.3

11.07

5.535

1.055

7.7

13.6

11.30

5.65

1.056

7.8

13.8

11.54

5.77

1.057

7.9

14.0

11.78

5.89

1.058

8.1

14.3

12.02

6.01

1.059

8.2

14.5

12.26

6.13

1.060

8.3

14.7

12.50

6.25

1.061

8.5

15.0

12.75

6.375

1.062

8.55

15.2

13.00

6.50

1.063

8.7

15.4

13.25

6. 625

1.064

8.9

15.7

13.50

6.75

1. 065

9.0

15.9

13.75

6.875

1.066

9.1

16.1

14.01

7.005

1.067

9.2

16.3

14.27

7.135

1.068

9.4

16.6

14.53

7.265

1.069

9.5

16.8

14.79

7.395

1.070

9.6

17.0

15.05

7.525

1.071

9.8

17.3

15.32

7.66

1.072

9.9

17.5

15.59

7.795

1.073

10.0

17.7

15.%

7.98

1.074

10.1

17.9

16.23

8.115

1.075

10.3

18.2

16.50

8.25

WHAT IS A STANDARD MUST?

To this query the investigations made have given no answer, nor
does the literature materially aid one. There have been presented in
some of the preceding sections many analyses of apple nmst made in
different countries, and hundreds more could be quoted. These analy-
ses differ widely from the standards of the tables arranged by differ-
ent authors to show the saccharine content of a fruit juice in comparison
with specific gravity. Unfortunately, the methods and the instruments
used are far from uniform in the various laboratories where these
determinations have been made, and the chemists making them must
necessarily vary in skill and precision; hence a mere inspection and
comparison of these data do not lead to a true conclusion in regard to
the composition of apple must. But this is the best that can be done
at present, and the averages of the data previously presented are
assembled in Table XII to serve our purpose in discussing the prob-
able standard sugar content of a must:

Table XII. — Average composition, of apple must for different countries.

Countries

Number ; Number

French standard list

French provisional list

German (Kulisch)

German (Behrens)

German ( Kramer)

English (Lloyd)

American ( Browne)

American ( Davidson )

American (Department of Ag
riculture)

of varie-
ties.

of
analyses.

292
79
29
17
15
24
10
24

Specific
gravity.

Total
sugar.

Average
total
sugar.

1.0725
1.0732
1.0569
1.0590
1.0530
1.0652
1.0552
1.0530

1.0535

Per cent.
15.98
15.55
12.04
13.38
10.94
14.66
11.94
9.58

10.45

Per cent,
i 15.76

14.30

10.66

Acid, i Tannin.

Per cent. Per cent.

( 0.229 0.262

i 0.192 0.289

[ 0.460 :

i"'6.' 64 "!!!!!!!!!!

0.303 0.220

10.453
0.35 0.022
0.37 I

From a comparison of the analyses given it is evident that the juice
of the apple varies in average sugar content in relation to specific
gravity in the different countries and in different parts of the same
country. In fact a wide variation may be found in comparing differ-
ent varieties of apples from the same orchard. This is a matter not
yet properly investigated, but the existence of such variation must be
conceded. Hence no strictly standard table of sugar contents in rela-
tion to specific gravity is possible.

Careful inspection of the published tables on specific gravit}' and
relative sugar content, and a study of the actual anah'ses of apple
must available, lead one to believe that the theoretical sugar content
usually given is too high. In Table No. XI, there is given for com-
parison the approximate sugar content which, in the writer's opinion,
is likely to be found in normal apple must at the different densities
■ indicated. True, the sugar percentages adopted in this table are empir-
ical, but they are such probable averages within a small percentage of
error that they are used to construct a table (No. XIII) to be used as
a cellar guide in fermenting cider. This table appears to servo a very
definite purpose, first, as a guide in the technique of fermentation, and,
second, to assist in some measure in elucidating the further discussion.
Table No. XI aids the manipulator of the must to estimate with con-
siderable accuracy the sugar in the fresh must, and Table No. XIII
assists him in watching intelligently the progress of fermentation.
Thus, by the latter table, he is able to ascertain quickl}^ the approxi-
mate quantities of sugar and alcohol in a femienting must of known
original density.

Attention was called to the presentation of these data in this form
by the work of Mr. F. J. Lloyd, consulting chemist on cider experi-
ments of the Bath and West of England Society. The work done
under his direction on cellar records and technique was observed care-
fully, and the ideas presented in his table and remarks in the journal
of the above society for 1896 (pp. 139-164) are considered as very
important. The same may be said of his other papers. The writer was
;iot able, however, to adopt the figures of Mr. Lloyd's table for deter-
mining the percentages of sugar and alcohol in fermenting must of a

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known original specific gravity/ But by a study of the principle
involved in this table, and by comparison with standard tables on spe-
cific gravity and relative sugar content, and the actual analyses, Table
No. XIII has been constructed. By it an operator may determine
at any reading, between 1.040 and 1.070 on a standard hydrometer,
the probable sugar content present, and the approximate alcoholic
strength of the liquor. Thus he is enabled to know how the fermen-
tation is progressing. As a cellar guide this will be a verj^ important
help, and by reference to it the later discussion on the manipulation
of the must will be more intelligible.

As a basis for this table it was assumed that a must reading 1.040
specific gravit}', contains 8 per cent of sugar. Kramer says 9 per cent,
but this is surely too high for apples. Power says 8.9 per cent, which
is also too high, at least for American fruit. Kramer's table then allows
1 per cent increase in sugar for each 5 points (0.005) on the hydrom-
eter, but this if logically carried out requires that the nonsaccharine
solids increase proportionally more rapidly than the saccharine sub-
stances. Analytical data are against this theory; hence, it has been
estimated that the sugars increase 1.05 per cent for the first 5 points
above 1.040, and beyond that at an increasing ratio found b}' adding
an additional 0.05 per cent of sugar for each subsequent 5 points
(0.005) on the hydrometer.

But turning to the subject of relative decrease in sugar content
below 1.040 it becomes necessary to allow a loss of 1 per cent for each
0.005 on the hydrometer in order to exhaust the 8 per cent of sugar at
unity — 1.000 on the hydrometer. Yet, as there are solids other than
sugar present, it is altogether improbable that this will show the true
percentages if the liquid is considered to be water; but it realh^ con-
sists of a mixture of two liquids, water which constitutes much the
greater part, and alcohol which is lighter than water and which enters
into the mixture in a constantly increasing proportion as fermentation
progresses. Hence, for a nmst originall}^ showing 8 per cent of sugar,
it is probable that unity (1.000 on the hydrometer) will about bring it
to drjmess;" but by the same reasoning richer musts will not come to
entire dr^'ness at unity. This the table shows when carried out on the
principle that for each 1 per cent of sugar lost, 0.5 per cent of alcohol
is formed. This ratio of alcohol for fermentable sugars is onl3"
approximately correct.

In using this table as a cellar guide, one notes in the left hand col-
umn the hydrometer reading corresponding with the original density
recorded for the must, and then finds in the box heads the present
reading of the hydrometer; the figures for sugar and alcohol percent-
ages at the intersection of the lines from these two readings will
show approximately the present condition of the must as to alcohol
and sugar content.

« In the technical phrase of fermentation work " dryness " means total absence of
sugar.

FORTIFYING THE MUST.

In this connection a few observations on the Subject of fortifying
the must will be apposite. This practice was not observed either in
England or Germany. Doubtless it may be done in these countries,
especially in case -of perry (pear cider), but it did not seem to be a
part of the regular system of cider making. In France, on the con-
trary, sugaring up the weak must obtained from second pressing
seems to be an important part of the business, and is so regularly
practiced that the government makes a special rebate of the sugar tax
on sugar so used. The government agents, however, very carefully
see to it that all sugar withdrawn from bond for this purpose is
denaturalized by addition of must, so that it can not possibly be resold
in the markets. For 1898 (the figures for that year being the latest
obtained) the government officers reported 188,760 pounds of sugar
withdrawn for cider making, and 80,262,771 pounds withdrawn for
sugaring wines.

An apple must reading 1.010 on a standard hydrometer can, if prop-
erly handled, be made to prodcice a cider approximating 4 per cent
of alcohol, but it will be rare indeed that this result will actuall}^ be
reached in practice. Hence it appears that a must reading at that
figure is about the minimum in quality which can be properly employed
for cider without fortifying, and this grade should be used only to
prepare a cider for local consumption. This is not because a high
percentage of alcohol is so desirable, but because it is not desirable to
push the fermentation of a cider to the limit where there is no sac-
charine substance left for the yeast to subsist upon, that is, until the
liquor is absolutely "dry."

If the cider is properly handled, the je&si will not entirely cease to
be active for several years after bottling. This activity is of the
greatest value in preserving the bouquet of the cider and keeping it
sound. But if it is desired to produce a stronger cider from a low-
grade must, reading approximately 1.010, one can add about 3 ounces
of crystallized sugar per gallon for each 1 per cent of alcohol desired
in addition to the normal quantity resulting from fermenting the
natural must. This, howev.er, denaturalizes the cider, and should not
be resorted to in excess of 1 per cent increase of alcohol.

The French say the sugar should be inverted before using, but this
seems doubtful, as the yeast will accomplish this itself, and probably
the sugar will be consumed more slowly.

STERILIZING THE MUST BY HEAT.

This process is mentioned only to condemn it so far as cider making
is concerned. Not a single maker worthy of credence in the factories
visited abroad recommends or uses this method. It has been suggested
as a means of controlling the initial fermentation, because, after ster-

ilizing by heat, one can sow yeasts into the must as desired, and thus
bring about a fermentation at will, but the cooked taste contributed
to the must by heating is difficult if not impossible to overcome.
Heating or pasteurizing to check fermentation or insure keeping of
cider is also just as faulty, and is never necessary in a properly man-
aged cellar, unless one desires to preserve a partially fermented cider.
For this purpose pasteurization at 60 to 70^ C. is practicable with goods
which have sufficiently fermented in bottles to become sparkling.

THE USE OF SPECIAL, YEASTS.

Having brought the fresh must into the casks or vats for fermenta-
tion, the modern cider maker has to consider not only the temperature
of the must and of the room and the various other conditions already
discussed, but also another question of very great importance: Shall
the fermentation be left to the organisms normally present on the
fruit and those which may at the time of grinding and pressing enter
the must from contact with the air, the machinery, and the vessels?
Every cider maker knows that under proper temperature conditions
fermentation will quickly ensue after the juice has been placed in a
receptacle. But the operator untrained in the scientific phases of this
subject may not know how readily numerous undesirable organisms
gain access to the fruit juice. These objectionable organisms are sure
to be present upon the fruit, and especially so if unclean and unsound
fruit is used. Or they may be present in parts of the machinery,
especially if any parts have been left uncleaned after previous usage;
and, what is perhaps still more important, these organisms may be
present in great number in unclean barrels, casks, or other vessels.

The numerous organisms (microscopic plants), both useful and harm-
ful, which grow readily in fruit must can not be discussed here.
Suffice it to say that the quality of the resultant product depends upon
whether desirable or undesirable organisms gain the mastery in the must
during initial fermentation.

In order to insure the ascendency of the true yeasts in the early
stages, and thus gi,ve them the control of the entire process of fer-
mentation, there has recently been developed the practice of sowing
the must with pure cultures of yeasts. Very often now special races
of yeasts are used in order to secure certain desired qualities of
bouquet, etc. , in the finished product. This practice is based upon the
same principles as those which induce the good housewife to employ
a proper yeast culture to make bread for the table.

The discussion of this question in its various phases will not be
undertaken here, but it should be noted that the practice of using
pure and special cultures of yeast is becoming more and more common
in foreign countries. In Germany practically all the important fac-
tories visited employ these cultures, which are obtained in small flasks

from the Royal Pomological School at Geisenheim. The French
makers are not at all unanimous in regard to the importance of using
pure yeasts, and, from the observations made, it appears that very
few use them intelligently. This is probabl}' one of the important
reasons why French ciders lack that standard character so observable
in German ciders.

Below is given a free translation of the directions for using pure
yeast cultures sent out by Dr. Wortmann from Geisenheim to all pur- .
chasers of the same:

DIRECTIONS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OP PURE YEASTS IN THE FERMENTATION OF MUST.

The flask containing the pure yeast should not be opened until just before using.
Until then, in case it can not be used immediately, it should be kept standing in a
cool, dry place (preferably an ice chest) ; but it will not serve as a good starter if left
longer than two Aveeks, because the organisms decrease in vitality with time.

Some days before the beginning of the real vintage, prepare about 10 gallons of
freshly pressed must and boil it about five minutes (but not in a copper vessel),
then put this boiled must into a wooden vessel, preferably a keg, while it is yet hot,
and, after covering it with a clean linen cloth, let it cool off again to room temperature
(about 20° C. or 68° F. ). Just as soon as cool enough, the contents of the flask of
yeast should be poured into the must.

During transportation a fresh-growing culture will have developed a strong pres-
sure, and, therefore, in opening the flask the yeast may be partly lost through dis-
charge caused by the gas. To obviate this, first bore through the stopper with a
corkscrew, and let the flask stand some minutes until the carbon dioxid gas escapes,
when there will be no danger. Open the flask in such a way that it is held with the
mouth inclined over the vessel containing the cooled must. The flask should be
rinsed out once with must; the keg or vessel should then be well covered and kept
at room temperature, free from dust, until the must shows violent fermentation,
which will be in two or three days.

The use of this 10 gallons of pure yeast culture will now be according to the quan-
tity of must which is to be fermented. With ordinary must — that is, must reading
1. 050 to 1. 060 specific gravity — 1 gallon of the fermenting must is sufficient for from
250 to 300 gallons of fresh must, and will bring it into fermentation promptly. With
larger quantities of must, one should take a proportionally larger quantity of the fer-
menting culture first made.

For large establishments, a culture of 50 or 100 gallons can be first made by boil-
ing the necessary must, putting it while hot into a perfectly clean but unsulphured
barrel or cask. Sow as soon as cool with the yeast culture and handle just as
directed above.

This large culture of must fermenting with the pure yeast can serve as a supply
from which the necessary quantity for starting the vats can be taken as needed, but
fresh must should be boiled, cooled, and added to it as often as any of the culture is
removed for use.

In this manner one can draw from this supply according to his needs. So long as
the ferrnentation is kept very active and the bung or opening well guarded, the cul-
ture will remain pure enough for practical purposes.

As the pure yeast is only efficacious if it comes in contact with fresh must, so one
can, in case the pulp is allowed to ferment before pressing, by the prompt addition
of the yeast to the pulp as ground, control the fermentation in the same. But in
this case the addition of the pure yeast in the proportional quantities must be made
to the pulp as ground. This operation is especially necessary in the preparation of
red wine.

As by the addition of pure yeast fermentation starts up sooner, and also runs its
course more quickly, the temperature of the fermenting rooms must not be too high,
or else too violent a fermentation will be induced. It is sufficient to warm the fer-
menting rooms or cellars to about 55° to 60° F. Also it is best to leave plenty of
space in the casks for foam and vegetable matter thrown up by fermentation.

With pure yeast cider will be finished earlier and clear itself sooner than when
fermented without the addition of pure yeast; therefore, with this method cider
must be racked off earlier than in case of spontaneous fermentation.

OBSERVATION AND CONTROL OF FERMENTATION.

The theoretic discussion of the physical phenomena involved in this
process is not to be attempted here, and the brief discussion given is
only warranted in such a report as this for the sake of rendering com-
prehensible the operations and details described,

DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OP FERMENTATION.*

There was a time when this word was used to indicate the entire
range of chemical changes which might occur in organic substances.
To-day, with more exact knowledge on the subject, fermentation is
limited to those changes which are induced by the growth of micro-
scopic plants in organic substances. In the case of fruit juices, these
organisms are bacteria and the true fungi, principally the latter. The
fungous organisms considered belong to the group known as the
Saccharomyces, or yeast fungi, to other closely related nonmycelial
forms, and to the Mucorini and some few other true mycelial forms.

Fermentation as relates to the physical phenomena involved may be
defined as the breaking up of organic substance in solution as a result
of the chemical activities of certain substances secreted during the
growth of these microscopic plants; and alcoholic fermentation, as
the result of the breaking up of sugars into alcohol and cs,rbonic acid,
caused by the action of zymase, a ferment secreted during the growth
of the yeast plants. Incidentally, sugar may be broken up into alcohol
and carbon dioxid by a few other fungous forms. The yeasts, or Sac-
charomyces proper, are, however, the true alcoholic ferments. Other
forms need be only incidentally considered. The normal substratum,
or place of growth of the yeasts proper, is the sugar solutions con-
tained in the juices of fruits, or sugary compounds, in whatever parts
of various plants they may occur. As a result of the growth of these
yeast fungi, alcohol and carbon dioxid are formed. The first remains
in the liquid and the second largely escapes as a gas. Theoretically,
about 51.11 parts of alcohol will be formed and about 48.89 parts car-
bon dioxid. Or we may say in general terms that the alcohol formed
by properly controlled fermentation will practically equal one-half the
sugar destroyed. The yeasts are said to consume a small percentage
of the alcohol.

« Adapted from a paper presented by the writer before the American Pomological
Society, September, 1901.

The following is quoted from Dr. Cluss:^

Under fermentation in its widest sense we understand every change in a substance
that is brought about, either directly or indirectly, by the activity of low plant forms.
Under fermentation in a narrower sense, or alcoholic fermentation, we understand
every change in a substance by which certain kinds of sugar are decomposed through
the activity of germs, so that, as the principal products of this decomposition, alcohol
and carbonic-acid gas appear.

In alcohol fermentation, as in every form of fermentation, we must consider three
principal factors:

( 1 ) The fermentation material, or the substance which is to be decomposed.

(2) The fermentation products; that is, those bodies that arise from the decompo-
sition of the sugars.

(3) The controlling organisms of the fermentation; i. e., those plant forms which
cause the decomposition.

The fermentation material for alcoholic fermentation is provided by certain kinds
of sugar, but not all kinds of sugar are capable of being fermented. Among those
that can be fermented are grape sugar, fruit sugar, fnalt sugar, and cane sugar. But
while in the brew mash and in the wort of the breweries malt sugar predominates,
in fruit juice grape sugar and fruit sugar play the principal role as fermentation
material.

The principal products of alcoholic fermentation are ethyl alcohol (badly named
alcohol) and carbon dioxid (CO2); but there are also small quantities of sulphuric
acid, glycerin, and other by-products, among these being certain aromatic sub-
stances of great importance in wine fermentation. If the sugar were separated
evenly into alcohol and carbon dioxid, then out of 100 parts of grape sugar there
would arise 51.11 parts of the former and 48.89 parts of the latter. But only about
94 or 95 per cent of the sugar is consumed in the pure alcoholic fermentation, and
the remaining part serves for the building up of these minor products and for the
nourishment of the yeast germs. Thus it must be concluded, according to Pasteur,
that out of 100 parts of grape sugar arise 48.5 parts alcohol, 46.6 parts carbonic acid,
3.3 parts glycerin, and 0.6 part sulphuric acid, while about 1 per cent of the orig-
inal sugar is used for the building up of the yeast cells.

We have the yeasts in the widest sense of the word — that is, the different kinds of
fungi, as the sprouting fungi, mold fungi, and splitting fungi, which may form
alcohol; but above all the rest the sprouting fungi, as the yeast in a narrower sense
of the word, play the most important role.

While the stages of fermentation as they should normally occur in
the casks or vats will now be dealt with, it should be noted that there
is always a possibility that mal-organisms may at any time gain con-
trol of the must and produce results very different from those desired.
These accidents of the fermentation room are due to some of the fun-
gous plants and bacteria which are constantly associated with the true
alcoholic ferments under all ordinary conditions.

FIKST OR TUMULTUOUS FERMENTATION.

Given the proper temperature conditions, apple must at once takes
on a very active fermentation, which has been variously denominated
as "tumultuous," "stormy," etc. The activity is greater in weak,
acid juice than in rich must of good quality. Its progress is marked

''Free translation from Dr. A. Cluss, "Apfelweinbereitung," pp. 63-64, 1901.

by the very rapid increase of the yeast plants, as a result of which a
sort of boiling of the liquid is produced, much carbonic acid gas is
liberated, and the minute bubbles of this gas rise through the liquid
and escape with a hissing sound, often alluded to as the "singing of
the cider." This development of the yeast is likely to be altogether
too tumultuous if the temperature is high; hence the importance of
regulating the temperature. If the characteristic fermentation super-
venes within twent3'-four to forty -eight hours, it is a sign that proper
progress is being made. The liquid at once becomes turbid and much
disturbed, and small particles of vegetable matter rise to the surface,
accompanied by more or less viscid mucilaginous material, all of
which is really borne upward by the escaping gas. At first this sur-
face material is light and froth}^ but should assume more and more
the character of a well-defined crust or covering, the "'chapeau" so
often mentioned by the French. This, however, is not considered
important by some. The English makers seem to be pleased if the
head forms well in their "keev^es," because they can then skim it off
and be rid of so much of the lees, but if it does not form the}' make
no effort to secure its formation. On the other hand, the French
maker, if the head or "chapeau" does not form, at once concludes
that his must is sick, and takes steps to set it right. It may be that
unfavorable temperature is the sole trouble, or at other times there
really is a lack of proper yeast organisms in the must.

No one appears to explain this matter of the formation of top lees or
"head" on the basis of observed facts, nOr does it appear that any suffi-
ciently critical chemical study has been made of the subject. From
all the observations made this seems to be a very important feature of
the first fermentation, and it should be thoroughl}" studied. Some of
the remedies proposed by the manufacturers for application in case
the head does not form properly, appear not to deserve serious con-
sideration, namely, the addition of small quantities of ashes boiled in
cider, or of clay. The only result of such substances would be to
neutralize the acids, which, as a rule, would prove quite injurious to
the growth of the j^easts. In fact, the writer has full}^ proven that
neutralizing the acids checks the normal fermentation very decidedly.
It is also proposed by some makers to add a portion of the head from a
properly fermenting cask; and this has some element of sound sense in
it, because one would thus sow the must with vigorous yeasts, but he
would also sow it with many other organisms, probably some unde-
sirable ones.

The German makers care little or nothing about the formation of
the head or top lees, for reasons alreadj^ explained, but they watch
caref ull}^ to see that the must comes into strong fermentation, and if
this does not occur at the proper time they sow strong yeast cultures
into the must, correct the temperature if necessary, and, as a yeast

stimulant, they sometimes use ammonium cnlorid. Whether this is
used to any extent in the factories was not ascertained, but it is used
in critical work. The quantity used may vary, but ought to range
between one-half and 1 gram per liter (2 to 4 grams to the gallon).

Under proper conditions the tumultuous fermentation subsides in
ten days to two weeks. The time required may be even longer, but it
should not exceed three weeks. The English makers in general seemed
not to have a very definite idea of the duration of this period. In fact,
their practice of skimming the head tends to defeat the completion of
this first stage, and constantly agitates the liquor and sets up sec-
ondary fermentation, so that the cider does not clear itself of lees,
and become limpid. The German cares not a fig about this, and permits
the head to fall back through the liquor to the bottom. He is thor-
oughly logical and practical in what he does, but he makes a different
product from English, French, or American cider. After a careful
study of all the points involved, the writer has adopted the French
views about observing the formation of the head and the subsequent
treatment of the cider.

The close of the first period of fermentation is marked by the prac-
tical cessation of the escape of gas; the cider ceases to "sing;" the
head, if fermentation has been normal, loses its frothy character,
becoming brownish, and it may crack in places; the larger lees, which
were not upborne by the gas, and the yeast cells subside and rest at
the bottom of the cask, and suddenly the cider becomes limpid and a
clear beautiful amber in color. The taste has improved and is some-
what piquant, but the liquor is yet sweet and very fruity in flavor.
The specific gravity will have fallen 20 or 30 points, the alcohol test
will show 2 to 2.5 per cent, and to many palates the cider is in fine
condition for drinking.

To determine the condition of fermenting cider accurately is the
work of experience, and as an aid in examining the juice the spigot
previously mentioned becomes important. From this a small amount
of the cider can be drawn in a glass vessel as the indications point to
quiescence, and by carefully observing its f reeness from lees, the color,
absence of effervescence, specific gravity, etc. , one may judge its condi-
tion accurately and determine when it is ready to rack off. This is the
moment to draw the cider from between the lees. A few days' delay,
or any disturbance of the cask, may throw down the head, and thus
the liquor at once becomes troubled and the after fermentation sets in.
If this happens, recourse must be had to the filter, or the German
method, described hereafter, must be followed.

If the first fermentation is well accomplished, one is now on the high
road to success, but the after operations are so critical that only an
expert may proper!}^ weigh them.

17247— No. 71—03 7

RACKING OFF.

The drawing of the limpid cider from between the top and bottom
lees is, to the Frenchman, the critical operation of cider making.
Its correct attainment has a value easily realized b}^ one who has gone
through the troubles incident to the use of filters. If the vessel used
for first fermentation is properly furnished with a spigot, the cider
may be drawn into wooden vessels and poured through a wooden fun-
nel into a properly prepared cask near b3^ This is very commonly
the practice among the small French farmers. Or it ma}^ be drawn
into a larger wooden vessel and pumped to the cask prepared for it in
the adjoining room or building for further fermentation. This is a
very common practice in factories in France and England.

In case the casks are unprovided with spigots, one must siphon the
liquor out or draw it off with a pump. Both of these methods are
objectionable, because one must in either case insert a hose at the bung
through the top lees, which operation more or less disturbs the cider,
and, if the cider runs directly into the cask provided for second fer-
mentation, it is impossible to observe the character of the liquor as
it passes, and therefore difficult to rack it off properly. The sole
object of racking off is to free the liquor from lees and the super-
abundance of yeast cells so that the secondary fermentation may pro-
gress quietly. If a portion of the lees and the deposited yeast is
carried over, the operation has resulted in little good and a second
more or less violent fermenation may supervene. In fact, this second
fermentation may be very dangerous if albuminous substances have
been carried over or if one allows the lees to enter the cask into which
the cider is drawn.

AVOIDANCE OF CONTACT WITH AIR.

An important precaution mentioned by several well-posted makers,
but which was scarcely observed at all, was that, in racking off, the
cider ought not to come in contact with the air any more than can pos-
sibly be avoided. The reason for this is that the liquor at this stage is
saturated with carbonic acid gas, which is the greatest safeguard against
the growth of mal -organisms; hence, if it can be drawn directly into
the receptacle provided for second fermentation without loss of the
gas or direct contact with the air, much has been gained in regard to
the safety of the further processes. This can be readil}'' accomplished
wherever the factory is constructed so that the fermentation room is
over the finishing or final storeroom. When one is ready to rack off,
a hose connection should be made with the spigot, or by siphon if casks
are not provided with spigots, and the hose should run directly into
the receptacle in the room below. If this is done it will be necessary
to introduce near the spigot or siphon a section of glass tube, so that
the operator may constantly observe the character of the liquor as it

passes, and at once cut off the flow if undesirable particles are passing.
In siphoning, a perfectly clean hose should be carried almost to the
bottom of the receptacle, so the cider shall not fall or be agitated in
any manner. It is an excellent plan to fill the clean vessel with car-
bon dioxid gas before racking into it, and then the cider will not
have an opportunity to absorb oxygen in the least.

Backing off by the method here described, viz, drawing the cider
from between the two lees, requires the most careful observation and
control. (It should be said here that we do not j-et know whether a
head will always form on must from our ordinary American apples.
The experiments made by the writer thus far are not conclusive,
and a chemical and biological study of the subject is yet to be made.)
Working by this method it is possible that one will find more refuse
or residuum remaining from each cask than he cares to lose, but this
possible loss does not compare with the loss occasioned by the labor
and difficulties encountered in the use of filters, though these may
appear to use the stock a little more closely.

If the fermentation casks are properl}^ fitted, the cider is drawn
down until the top lees and bottom lees practically meet. This is
determined by observing when the particles begin to pass from the
spigot or siphon. One can draw quite closely by putting the last few
gallons into a vessel for subsidence to take place before adding to the
clear liquor. The lees should be removed at once from the casks, and
instead of being thrown away they may all be put together in a vat to
undergo further fermentation with a view to the production of vin-
egar. This material should not, however, remain in or adjacent to
the rooms where the cider is processed. The large fermentation casks
should all be provided with manholes so situated that the lees can be
quickly removed, and the vessel cleansed when it is at once ready to
receive fresh must again.

If one does not follow the plan of separating the liquor from the
lees as above given, there are only two alternatives, viz, the German
method of inclusive fermentation or the use of the filter, largely
resorted to by English makers, and to some extent by French. The
latter is a very troublesome and laborious process.

SECOND FERMENTATION.

Having delivered the liquor in a fairly bright limpid condition into
the casks in the room designed for second fermentation, which is
usually also the storeroom for the finished product, a few precautions
should be observed:

1. The vessels should be filled full and carefully bunged to exclude
air and all manner of germs, so that the second or after fermentation
may still be wholly controlled by the j^east colonies carried over in the
liquor racked off. There will always be sufficient of these floating in

100

the liquor at this stage to control the fermentation if the liquor has
been properly guarded from contamination.

2. In bunging the vessels tightlj^, provision must still be made for
the escape of gas due to fermentation. There may for a few days be
a fairly active fermentation, especially if the liquor was much exposed
to the air, but this will soon subside under proper conditions. One
of the special funnels or air-control devices previously described may
be used, and will assist very much in warning the cellar man of what
is going on in the casks. A small apparatus such as the gljcerin
funnel (fig. 17) will answer very well for this period of slow fermenta-
tion, but the crocker^'^ funnel (fig. 16) renders sampling the cider
much easier.

3. The temperature of the room must be watched and controlled,
and from this rule there is no exception if a sound product of fine
quality is desired. Invariabl}^ the temperature should be lower dur-
ing the secondary fermentation than during the first period. A tem-
perature of 8° to 10° C. (40° to 50° F.), as shown b}^ the observations
made in France and Germany, appears to be the most desirable for
this period. It requires a good cellar indeed to reach the minimum
here mentioned, but 45° F. can be reached, and at this temperature
the yeasts work properly, and many disturbing organisms, as, for
example, the vinegar ferment Bacterium aceti^ are quite reduced to dor-
mancy. If the temperature can be gradually reduced to 40° F. as the
cider reaches maturity, its safety from mal-fermentation is thereby
well insured, because the organisms concerned in diseases of cider do
not thrive well at this low temperature.

SECOND BACKING OFF.

If the must has fermented in an orderly manner and been drawn off
as outlined above, no second racking is required until the fermenta-
tion is practicallj' completed. But if a troubled fermentation follows
the first racking off, then the cider must be very carefully watched
and the temperature kept from rising above the limits mentioned. It
will be well to use under these circumstances some means of "fining"
or clarifying the cider so as to produce entire subsidence of the parti-
cles held in suspension in order that a second racking off may occur
as soon as possible. The cider must be freed from the lees and as
far as possible from albuminous matters, or it can not progress
properlj'^ to the completion of its period of fermentation.

Much prejudice exists abroad against the use of animal substances,
as gelatin, white of Qgg, and the like, for fining cider. The French
use quite freely preparations of the bark of certain species of oak.
But as the active principle in these is the tannin, it would seem better
to use the commercial tannin itself. Our American fruit is so weak
in tannin that the addition of this substance will doubtless be found

101

advantageous, as it appears to steady the tendency to too rapid fer-
mentation and total destruction of the sugar; and, best of all, it helps
to coagulate the albuminous matters, and thus to precipitate them,
carrying down at the same time other matter held in suspension.

The dose of tannin should be about one-half a gram per gallon accord-
ing to French standards, but our fruit may require more for the best
results. This may very properly be added as soon as the must is run
into the vessels for the first fermentation, but it is mentioned here
especially as a remedy when a second troubled fermentation sets in.
Stir the amount of tannin needed for a cask into a small quantit}^ of
cider and then add to the cask, and agitate by inserting a clean strip
of wood and stirring the cider thoroughly. After treating a cask in
this manner watch it carefully and rack off just as soon as the cider
becomes limpid. The cider will, during this period of disturbance,
have fallen in specific gravity. This should be carefully noted, and
the liquor should be transferred as quickly and quietly as possibly into
a cask suitable for the still fermentation.

The second racking off, when it occurs in normal process of fermen-
tation, is usually accomplished from three to five months after the first,
and the liquor should then have cleared out bright and fine, with beau-
tiful color, and have begun to form the bouquet of finished cider.
The specific gravity will vary from 1.001 to 1.003, and the cider is now
ready to go into the casks designed for transportation or into bottles.
The English bottle at much higher specific gravity, but this would
undoubtedly be a wrong practice in our climate. The racking into
these final receptacles should be accomplished with the utmost care to
guard the liquor from contamination, and, if possible, the work should
be done in cool, bright weather with high barometer, because climatic
conditions affect the stillness of the liquor in the casks.

When ready the cider can be put in barrels or casks to suit the needs
of the trade, but these must be cleaned in the most careful manner; and,
in order to secure the cider from the effect of air, the outer surface of the
casks should be carefully scraped to expose the fresh grain of the wood
and then treated to a coat of hot tallow. This, if well applied, will
render them quite impervious to air, and thus practically seal up the
cider. The modern paraffin-coated barrels would answer well for this
purpose. The utmost care should be observed to use perfect bungs.
There must be no seepage, and cloths must not be used around the
bungs, for these will be constantly moist, and thus furnish a direct
conduit for vinegar germs to enter the cider. The bungs may be very
properly dipped in boiling tallow or paraffin before use.

If the cider is bottled, this should be accomplished with the utmost
care, taking plains to conserve the carbon dioxid in the cider, and not
to permit it to come in contact with the air. The corks used should
be the best champagne corks and may be dipped in 50 per cent alcohol
just as used. This will free them of germs. They should be inserted

102

with a regular corking machine. . The bottles should be left standing
upright for a few da3^s until the liquor is quiet, and may then be laid
on the side.

LAGER FERMENTATION.

Whether in casks or bottles, the cider is now left in the storage room
to ripen. This is called by the Germans "lager fermentation." The
temperature should be kept as near 40^ F. as possible, and the vessels
(casks or bottles) should remain undisturbed. The cider will soon be-
come sparkling, and in two to four months will be in condition for use.

If racked into these final receptacles at the density mentioned, the
air being carefully excluded, the result will be a cider which will, in
a measure, champagnize itself, and retain some sugar for a long time;
but if left in casks with the wood pores open, the cider will eventually
become quite "dry" (free from sugar), the gas will gradually be lost,
and the product will be a still, hard cider. This sort of cider is little
relished by most people, and unless preserved by some chemical reagent
or charged with carbonic-acid gas at intervals, it will be turned to
vinegar whenever temperature conditions favor the growth of the
vinegar ferment.

GERMAN METHOD OF FERMENTATIOX.

As already stated, the German makers pay no attention to the forma-
tion of head or top lees, and make no effort to draw the cider from
between the lees. Their cider is, therefore, different in character from
English, French, or American cider. Their method of treating the
must doubtless accounts, at least in part, for this difference.

The fresh must is run into the fermentation cask until it comes
within about 12 inches of the bung, and then, if yeasts are used, these
are sown at once, using about one part of the strong culture, hereto-
fore mentioned, to 100 parts of must. A ventilating funnel is now
fitted tightly into the bunghole, a 5 per cent solution of sulphuric acid
being used in it to prevent the entrance of organisms from the air.

Fermentation progresses under the methods above discussed, but
nothing is done to the liquor until it has fermented out nearly to dry-
ness and becomes still. The top lees are permitted to fall back through
the liquor and settle to the bottom along with the j'easts. When the
liquor is quite still, some makers follow the practice of filling the cask
to the bung with cider, so as to avoid having an air space, and then
closing the bunghole sufiScientl}^ tight to prevent access of air. Bung-
ing at this period is dangerous, unless a vent is provided for by means
of a ventilating bung.

There seems to be little uniformity of practice among the Germans
about racking off. Some racked as earl}" as December, and then again
about March, while others racked off' three or four months after put-
ting the must in casks, and then again the next autumn, if the liquor

103

was not bright at first racking. Many makers filtered at first racking
and put the cider down in casks to await bottling or preparation for
transport in other vessels.

The writer invariably found the ordinary finished German ciders
poor in color and flat in taste to the American palate. They partake
of the character of very light still wines, devoid of the piquanc}' and
astringent character ordinarily expected in ciders. This does not alter
the statement heretofore made that German makers produce a standard
article of rather more definite character than those produced in the
other countries visited, and they champagnize their ciders in a quite
perfect manner.

PRESERVING CIDER IN STORAGE.

In the German cellars great care is taken to sulphur and double sul-
phur the casks, especially as the cider is drawn from one to another in

Fig. 20.— Device for maintaining covering layer of carbon dioxid as cider is withdrawn.

a nearly ""dry" condition. They also resort largely to the employ-
ment of carbonic acid gas as a preservative. This is applied from
cylinders of carbon dioxid either to barrels to fill up the vacant space
as the cider is drawn (fig. 20), or to charge the cider in storage (fig. 21).
A cylinder of this kind may be attached to several casks at once so
that the overflow of gas from the first goes to the second, and so on.
As soon as the first cask is sufficiently charged, it is disconnected and
tightly bunged, and the operation is continued by adding other casks
to the circuit and dropping off those charged until the work is com-
pleted. The bungs used while charging with gas are double per-

104

forated, as shown, and glass tubes, TN^ith small rubber hose connections,
are used to convey the gas from the cylinder to the casks. The device

Fig. 21.— Devise for charging casks with carbon dioxid in storage cellar.

at the bottom is a -i-way rubber cross which admits of using four
short distributing pipes in the liquor. As this joint is
made with rubber connections, it is perfectly flexible and
can easily be inserted and removed from the casks.

The device shown in figure 22 is used to sulphur the
casks. This may be used when cleaning barrels to destroy
fungous organisms, but it is chiefly used abroad to sul-
phur the casks just before running the liquor into them,
both at first and second fermentation. Thorough sul-
phuring will largely destroy the vegetable organisms
which may be present in the casks. If they are not after-
wards rinsed carefully, too much sulphur may remain in
the casks so that the after fermentation will be hindered
and a taste of sulphur may even be contributed to the
cider. Perfecth^ clean water should be used for rinsing.
The sulphur match is placed in the cup, then lighted,
and is lowered burning into the cask until the tapering
bung closes the opening. It will burn until the oxj^gen
is exhausted, when it should be removed. B}^ this device
none of the sulphur is permitted to fall into the cask.

FILTERING OR CLARIFYING THE CIDER.

The best English and French makers agree in the
statement that filtering of ciders is a very laborious and
unsatisfactory process, resulting usually in loss of quality
to the product. The Germans, on the contrary, are more
favorable to the filter. Filtering cider appears to be a
process much more difficult, ordinarily, than filtering
wine made from grapes, and should be avoided if pos-
sible. The reason for this is the presence of mucilaginous substances
in the liquor. However, unless a cider can be racked quite free from

Fig. 22.— Device
for burning sul-
phur match in
casks.

105

the lees at the first racking, or at most a second racking, there is sure
to be difficulty in securing a bright product unless the filter or some
other method of clarifying is resorted to. The use of tannin to assist
in clarifying ciders has already been mentioned.

Filters of various types are in common use in the different countries
visited, some being very primitive, while others are the best up-to-
date appliances seen.

The hag filter. — Of primitive filters, the most simple was a device
in form much like the insect nets used by entomologists to catch but-
terflies (fig. 23). The cloth used was linen, of such a texture as to
thoroughly strain the finest particles out of the cider. It is sometimes
called forfar. These conical bags are about a foot in diameter at the

Fig. 23. — Linen sack gravity filter.

larger end and taper to a point, the length being about 18 to 36 inches.
They were used in considerable numbers, supported on a rack over a
vat, as indicated. The flow through these bags is slow, and the cider
is so much exposed to the air that if there is any tendency to mal-
fermentation this process must surely increase the trouble. The cloths
need frequent washing to clear them of lees, but should not be treated
with hot water. This device was in use in both small and large factories
in England, sometimes with fresh must, but usually when racking the
first time. It is not commended for use in America.

Tub filter. — The best simple device seen was a large tub or vat with
a finely perforated false bottom, supported several inches above the
true bottom, the space between being packed with wood pulp which

106

served to strain or filter the cider almost perfectly. This was observed
in an English factory where the must was fermented in open " keeves,"
the head being skimmed off until active fermentation had subsided,
and the product being then run through this filter and put into casks
for ripening. This apparatus does good work, but the cider is much
exposed to the air.

The cellulose pmver filter. — Some of the English makers have come
to use the German filter shown in figure 24. This is made b}' Otto
Fromme at Frankfort, and is the best device observed. It is, how-
ever, costly, and a force pump is required to drive the liquid
through the filter, or the liquid must be drawn from some height in
order to give the necessary pressure. This is also a wood pulp or
cellulose filter. The pulp is arranged between perforated disks, and
the machine permits of dismounting and washing the parts and the
pulp at will. In some English factories attempts were made to filter

Fig. 24. — Cellulose power filter used in Germany.

the fresh juice with this machine, but this generall}' resulted in fail-
ure, and besides was veiy wearing on the apparatus. Fresh apple
must is very difficult to filter because of the pectose or mucilaginous
substances it contains. The use of any of the above filters does not
appear to be practicable except when the must has been fairh' well
fermented, and has freed itself in this manner of a large part of the
parenchj^matous tissues and albuminous matters present therein.

Asbestos sack filter. — The French use a filter (fig. 25) which they
claim will repiove all insoluble matters from the fresh must, and leave
it clear and limpid as it goes into the cask. No demonstration of this
was seen, but this filter (Filtre Maignen) is much used in France,
and appears to be a good, cheap filter. It is made from asbestos.
A fairly closely woven asbestos sack, 10 or 12 inches in diameter and
of 2,\\\ desired length, is tied tightly at one end; then in the bottom of
this is placed an openwork disk, and a string is tied above the same so
as to nearly draw the sides of the sack together; above this is placed
a second disk; and so on until the filter sack is filled. The open end

107

of the sack is then tied tightly around a metal fitting which connects
with a rubber pipe, and to this pipe a pump is attached. The filter is
placed in the tub or vat as shown (fig. 25), and the suction of the pump
draws the must through the parts of the asbestos sack and disks,
largely freeing the same from floating particles of whatever nature.
In some styles of this device a second asbestos sack of coarser weave
is drawn over this accordion-like device, and serves to still further
assist in straining the liquor. Possibly when the cider is drawn into
an open tub at racking ofi", and this filter is carefully used, the liquor
can be filtered bright.

This st^de of filter is readily cleansed, it only being necessary to
untie the sack, remove the disks, and wash all the pieces carefully.
Salt water, used warm, is said to accomplish this much better than
fresh water. Filters of this pattern may be connected up in sets on

Fig. 25. — Asbestos sack filter — "Filtre maignen."

a main pipe, or on a central disk of metal, and the capacity may be
thus greatly increased. It should be added that all metal parts of
connections, pipes, pumps, etc., must be of brass, or other material
which will not be attacked by acids.

Gennan asbestos filter. — The Germans use chiefly but two filters,
viz, the one made by Fromme (shown at figure 24) and another small
affair (fig. 26). The latter is an asbestos filter, but works solely by
gravity , as indicated. A self -regulating (J) valve governs the inflow at
the top, hence it can be set to work on a cask and left to itself until
the receptacle into which the filtrate runs is filled. This device is of
small capacity, but does good work. The cylinder is packed with
asbestos which can be removed, washed, and re-used.

Both of these German filters are constructed with the idea of pro-
tecting the cider from the air, as it is in nowise exposed by their use
except when it is delivered into the cask. This is a point of much

108

importance, especially among the Germans, as their cider is fermented
nearly to dryness before filtering, and hence is less able to protect
itself by the regeneration of abundant carbonic acid gas. For this
reason the Germans advocate charging the casks with carbonic acid
gas before running the cider into them.

Fig. 26.— Asbestos gravity filter.

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CIDER.

It will doubtless be clear to every one who has manufactured ciders,
or followed the foregoing discussion, that it is not possible to fix upon
a certain chemical composition and say this represents what should be
considered a standard cider. Chemical analyses, however, reveal what
it is exceedingly important to know, viz, the sugar, alcohol, and acid
contents, with other data of possibl}'^ less importance. Without these
data one is completely in the dark as to whether the product has been
properly or improperly fermented, and no technical progress in the
study of methods is possible. Chemical analyses rightly" interpreted
will also aid the consumer in distinguishing pure from sophisticated
ciders.

109

The complete stud}^ of this subject is yet to be undertaken, but rep-
resentative samples of ciders were collected by the writer in the dif-
ent countries visited and forwarded to the Bureau of Chemistry,
United States Department of Agriculture, for analj^sis. To these
samples have been added a number of typical samples of American
ciders collected during the year 1901. The analyses of these ciders,
with explanatory remarks, are given in the tables which follow:

Table XIV. — Composition of ciders: Analyses of French samples by Bureau of Chemistry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1901.

Grams per 100 cc. / , ,

Name or brand.

o
■goJ

030

a g

•

Source and remarks.

-d

■M

0.
CO

Cidre mousseux . .

1.0040

6.30

5.00

0.3234

0. 1824

0.4483

3.2948

0.2942

M. Gibout-Roux, Da-
nestal, Calvados.
Dry sparklingcider, 1
year old; not typical
mousseux of France.

Cidre marchand. .

1.0111

3.72

2.95

.4303

.2868

1.8970

4.0650

.1950

Same source. An ordi-
nary cider in which
flrstandsecond press-
ings have been
united, 1 year old.

Boisson '.

1.0101

2.81

2.23

.4263

.2952

1.5888

3.4692

.1838

Same source. Second

and third pressings

mixed, 1 year old.

Cidre mousseux . .

1.0101

6.05

4.80

.4214

.2100

2.5100

4.9500

.2120

Paul Santier, Rouen.
A typical French
champagne cider, 1
year old.

Cidre marchand..

1.0004

6.45

5.12

.4214

.1910

.0900

2.5100

.2710

Same source. Stand-
ard pure juice, Nor-
mandy cider.

Cidre ordinaire . .

1.0061

5.00

3.97

.2725

.107011.4300

3.3800

.1C30

A. Power, St. Ouen-de-

Thouberville - E u r e.

Ordinary marchand

eider, 4 months old.

Cidre sup6rieur. . .
Averages . . .

.9998

5.90

4.68

.2882

.1240

.0990

2.0800

.1820

Same source. A fine
grade of marchand
cider, 4 months old.

1.0059

5.18

4.11

.3691

.19951.1519

3.3927

.2194

Table XV. — Cojiiposition of ciders: Analyses of German samples, Bureau of Cliemistry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1901.

Grams per 100 cc.

6
iz;
o

"5.

Name or brand.

o o

-o

12
'S

Source and remarks.

O
>

1^
IS

4
<

Common apfel
wein.

1.0023

5.93

4.71

0.2954

0.0864

0.1286

2.2140

0.2636

C. A. Smith, Schier-
stein. Dry cider, 1
year old.

Speierling apfel

1.0002

7.15

5.68

.2867

.0696

.1272

2.3186

.2539

Same source. Said to
be made from Speier-

wein.

ling and apple.
Frledrich Groll, Weis-

Common apfel

1.0032

4.94

3.92

.4018

.0552

.1234

2.4110

.2812

wein.

baden. Low grade
dry cider, 1 year old.

1.0027

5.83

4.63

.3553

.0108

.3062

2.7722

.2305

Heinrich Merten, Er-
benheim. Standard
drv cider, new made.

1.0003

5.97

4.74

.3224

.0564

.0211

2.2142

.2834

Fritz Batz, Neuenhain.

Standard drv cider,

1 year old.

Export apfel wein

.9997

6.30

5.00

.2254

.0360

.0435

2.2333

.2544

Same source. Export
special stock, 1 vear
old.

Schanme apfel
wein.

1.0221

10.67

8.47

.3773

.1068:7.9104

9.2274

.2106

Same source. Cham-
pagne cider, heavily

sugared, 1 vear old.

Export apfel wein

.9997

5.70

4.52

.2254

.0576

.0524

2.0201

.2286

Gebriider Freveisen,
Frankfort. Select
dry cider, 1 year old.

Speierling apfel
wein.

1.0004

5.85

4.64

.2631

.03%

.0187

1.9158

.2352

Same source. Dry ci-
der from Sorbus do-
mestica and apples,
1 vear old.

Borsdorfer apfel
wein.

1.0000

5.81

4.61

.2548

.0360

.1221

1.9438

.2346

Same source. From
German Borsdorfer
apple, 1 vear old.

Champagner ap-
fel wein.

Averages . . .

1.0178

8.03

6.37

.2573

.0420

5.6544

7.3464

.1842

Same source. A su-
gared champagne ci-
der, 1 year old.

1.0044

6.56

5.21

.2968

.0597

1.3189

3.3288

.2414

Table XVI. — Composition of ciders: Analyses of English samples by Bureau of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901.

/ ■

Per
cent
alco-

Grams per 100 cci / \ /

Source and remarks.

Sam-

Spe-
cific
grav-
ity.

Re-

[Nos. 22 to 31 from Bath

to.

Name or brand.

hol
vol-

Alco-
hol.

Total
acids.

Vola-
tile
acids.

duc-
ing
su-

Ex-
tract.

Ash.

andWest Show, 1900;
Nos. 65 to 61 from
Bath and West Show,

ume.

gar.

1901.J

Devonshire cider,

1.0222

4.16

3.30

0.2548

0.0672

4.7414

7.2136 0.2420

Rated by official chem-

first prize.

ist of Bath and West
Society above 4 per
cent alcohol.

Devonshire small
cider, second

i.o;:

3.14

2.50

.3822

.1356

5. 1895

7.6544

.3080

Rated below 4 per cent
alcohol.

Devonshire small
cider, first prize.

1.0312

2.76

2.19

.3283

.0588

6.5366

9.2004

.2500

Do.

Herefordshire
small cider, sec-
ond prize.

1.0304

1.72

1.37

.2377

.0840

6.1282

8. 5132

.2852

Do.

Herefordshire ci-
der, first prize.

1.0325

2.75

2.18

.2989

.0780

6.3584

9.3126

.2708

Rated above 4 percent
alcohol. Champion
prizecider. 1900, Bath
and West Show.

Somersetshire ci-
der, second
prize.

1.0266

3.85

3.06

.2107

.0504

5.2148

8. 1472

.3152

Rated above 4 per cent
alcohol.

Ill

Table XVI. — Composition of ciders: Analyses of English samples by Bureau of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agrictdture, 1901 — Continued.

Per
cent
alco-

Grams per 100 cc. y \ J^

Source and remarks.

Sam-

Spe-
cific
grav-
ity.

Re-

[Nos. 22 to 31 from Bath

ple Name or brand.

hol

Alco-
hol.

Total
acids.

Vola-

duc-

Ex-
tract.

and West Show, 1900;

No.

by
vol-

tile
acids.

ing
su-

Ash.

Nos. 65 to 61 from
Bath and West Show,

ume.

gar.

1901.]

Somersetshire ci-

1.0307

4.25

3.38

.3185

.1116

6.7760 9.9912

.3886

Do.

der, first prize.

29 Somersetshire

1.0371

2.86

2.27

.2597

.0768

7.4669

10.8164

.3116

Rated below 4 per cent

1 small cider, first

alcohol.

prize.

Somersetshire
small cider, sec-
ond prize.

1.0220

3.37

2.68

.2407

.0828

4.5548

6.9672

.3040

Do.

Somersetshire

1.0367

2.75

2.18

.3259

.0402

7.694610.5228

.2856

Do.

small cider, re-

serve.

Standard still ci-
der from cask.

.9997

6.83

6.47

.2818

.1020

.0325

2.1468

.2666

H. P. Bulmer & Co.,
Hereford. A very
good dry cider, 1
year old.

Cherry Pearmain
cider, sparkling.

1. 0251

5.87

4.66

.2391

.0756

3.3121

6.9816

.2450

Same source. In grade
is equal to best
French mousseux or
champagne cider; 1
year old.

Holmer Perry,
sparkling.

1. 0167

6.11

4.85

.2999

.1630

3.4064

6.4602

.2772

Same source. Very good
champagne Perry,
doubtless sugared," 1
year old.

F 0 X w help and
Kingston Black
cider.

1.0206

4.85

3.85

.2867

.0636

4.6392

6.9924

.2680

Same source. A special
brand of sweet cider,
1 year old.

Standard spark-
ling cider.

1.0152

4.93

3.91

.5366

.3228

1.3488

6.0354

3.666

Toddington Orchard
Co., Winchecombe,
Gloucestershire.
Nearly dry mousseux
or champagne cider,
very good, Syearsold.

Standard dry cider

1.0065

4.93

3.91

.3112

.0768

.9200

3.2632

.3146

Same source. Good
still, dry cider, 2 years
old.

Same source. Fine

Champagne Perry

1.0129

6.01

4.77

.3577

.1296

.8768

4.8166

.3928

grade of champagne
Perry, probably su-
gared, 2 years old.

Standard new
cider.

1.0185

4.19

3.33

.3627

.1218

3.2416

6. 0670

.3238

Same source. Newly
bottled cider, would
become sparkling.

Herefordshire
small cider, sec-

1.0292

3.15

2.50

.2.568

.0610

5.5000

9.0200

.2230

Bath and West Show,
1901. Rated below 4

ond prize.
Herefordshire

per cent alcohol.

1.0304

1.60

1.27

.3667

.0640

4.4200

8.6600 .3050

Do.

small cider, re-

serve.

Somersetshire ci-
der, first prize.

1.0380

4.55

3.62

.3862

.0530

7.1300

12.1200 .3260

Rated above 4 per cent
alcohol.

Somersetshire ci-
der, second
prize.

1.0244

3.80

3.02

.2823

.0950

3.6600

7.9800' .2580

Do.

Somersetshire ci-
der, reserve.

1.0304

4.15

3.30

.3371

.0480

4.4000

9.3800

.3390

Do.

Somersetshire
small cider, first
prize.

1.0398

2.55

2.02

.4701

.0520

5.7800

11.4900

.1980

Rated below 4 percent
alcohol.

Somersetshire
small cider, sec-
ond prize.

Average

1.0172

3.60

2.86

.2803

.0620

2.7700

6.1900

.2870

Do.

1.0249

4.11

3.14

.3161

.0910

4.4376

7.7920 .2940

112

Table XVII. — Composition of ciders: Analyses of American samples by Bureau of
Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901.

Per
cent
alco-

Grams per 100 cc. >'

Sam-

Spe-
cific
grav-
ity.

Re-

Name or brand.

hol
by
vol-

Alco-
hol.

Total Xne "
^"<i«- acids.

duc-
ing

su-

Ex-
tract.

Ash.

Source and remarks.

ume.

gar.

Sparkling draft

1.0053

5.87

4.66

.2979 .0890

1.1500 3.3900

.2830

Genesee Fruit Co.,

cider, extra dry.

Rochester. N. Y. A
fair, slightly gaseous
cider, 1 year old.

Sparkling draft...
cider.

1.0101

5.57

4.42

.3508 .1340

2.11004.6700

.2880

Same source. More
sparkling than
above: 1 year old.

Plain fermented

.9987

7.83

6.22

.3626

.0860

.00002.3600

.2920

Same source. Perfect-

cider.

ly dry, still cider, 1
year old.

Crab-apple cider..

1.0178

5.51

4.37

.2372

.0490

3.34006.7000

.2770

Same source. A spark-
ling cider of mous-
seux or champagne
grade, 1 year old.

63a

Paulding Pippin

1.0289

2.16

1.71: .4567

.0250

5.99008.2300

.2410

H. Paulding, jr., Hun-

cider, 1900.

tington. L. I.. N. Y.
A sweet mousseux
cider, 1 year old.

Same, 1899

1.0292

3.921 3.12!

.0220!5.1700 9.0300

.2830

Same source. Almost

identical in charac-

ter, but greater al-

coholic strength; 2

Average —

years old.

1.0150

5.14

4.08 .3410

.0590

2.9600 5.7300

.2770

Sautemesa

1.0040

5.54

4.43 .3600

.9800 2.6000

Made with pure yeast
culture by Professor

Alwood. "a fine dry

champagne cider.

Valine d'Augea...

1.0030

6.51

5.20

.4800

.20002.2400

Made with pure yeast,

as above. A very

•

drj' sparkling cider.

a Samples of cider made at Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station; analyses made by Professor
Davidson.

Discussion of these tables is hardly necessary further than to call
attention to salient facts relating to the specific gravity, alcohol, and
sugar content. The French and German ciders are remarkabl}' alike
in regard to specific gravit}^ and the indications are that these ciders
are fermented practically dry. The analyses show this to be the case.
There are two German samples — Nos. 7 and 1 2 — with comparatively
high specific gravity, and these show a considerable percentage of
sugar still unfermented, in fact a ver}' much larger percentage than is
necessar}^ to produce the desired result, namely, to champagnize the
cider. The French cider, No. 40, is a champagne cider with a much
smaller sugar content. It is a question of the taste of one's customers
whether such highl}^ sugared champagne ciders as these two German
samples should be made. In the writer's opinion the French sample
is better; and it has been definitely proved at Blacksburg that a fine
gaseous or champagne cider can be made without the addition of sugar.
The French samples are strikingly high in volatile acids, which would
indicate the presence of acetic acid. The cellar methods may account
for this.

The two analyses given at the bottom of the table of American sam-
ples are ciders made at the experiment station at Blacksburg, Va.
Both were prepared from samples of the same must, handled side by

113

side, until finished. Each was sown with a culture of pure yeast, the
one a yeast isolated from a French Sauterne wine, the other from a
Normandy cider of the Vallee d'Auge district. The first resulted in
a fine cider of beautiful color, gaseous, and with flavor like cham-
pagne, the other in a very fine, dry cider, sparkling and gaseous.
Sugaring ciders for champagnizing is a doubtful practice, and the
best-posted makers abroad insist that the true future of cider making
lies along the line of fully fermented dry ciders.

The analyses of English ciders show wide variations in their compo-
sition. The samples Nos. 22 to 31 and 55 to 61, inclusive, were taken
at the Bath and West Show, the first set in 1900 and the second in
1901. Both sets of samples reveal similar characteristics — high specific
gravity and in the main low alcohol and high sugar content. These
are simply incompletelj^ fermented ciders, either filtered as clear as
possible of yeasts and held in highly sulphured casks, or treated with
chemicals to check fermentation, Nos. 32 to 39 are samples taken at
factories, as revealed by the notes, and are among the ver^^ best ciders
collected, and show the possibilities of English cider fruits.

WORKS OF REFERENCE.

As mentioned previously in the discussion, the French literature on
cider making is very voluminous, but it can not be said that it is all
of great value. In fact there is an enormous literature on every
phase of the subject, expressing every shade of opinion, so that one is
at great loss what to commend. Consequentlv there is given in the
subjoined list only a few references, and these are to those sources
which were found to be most useful and reliable. The first work is
now out of print and can rarel}' be found. The others are mostly
easy to obtain.

Of the German literature it must be said that it is not abundant nor
ver}' rich in actual observations made on growing the fruit and making
the cider, nor in technical investigations of a chemical nature or other-
wise. The books presented in the list are mostly compilations b}^
persons more or less familiar with the actual practice of cider or wine
making.

The recent English literature is practically all found in the Journal
of the Bath and West of England Society and the other two works
named. There is an older English literature on the subject, which is
practicall)'^ inaccessible.

FRE>XH WORKS.

L. de Boutteville et A. Hauchecorne. Le Cidre. A treatise based upon the papers
and discussions delivered before the Cider Congresses held at Rouen 1864 to 1875.
This is perhaps one of the most important papers in the French literature, com-
prising the most elaborate notes upon varieties and their chemical composition.

A. Truelle. Guide pratique des meilleurs fruits de pressoir, employes dans le pays
d'Auge. L'enseignement de la pomiculture et de 1' Industrie cidriere en France

17247— No. 71—03 8

114

et a I'etranger. (Congres international pour I'etude des fruits de pressoir et de
I'industrie du cidre, Paris, 1900, pp. 127-326.) (In this treatise the author gives
the most elaborate bibliography extant of works in all languages on cider making
and related subjects.)

Dr. Dennis-Dumont. Propri^t^s m^dicales et hygi^niques du cidre. Caen. With-
out date. (In this Dr. Dumont presents a considerable array of facts concerning the
healthf ulness of cider as a common beverage. )

Bulletin de I'Association pomologique de I'ouest. (This is the publication of a
society organized in 1883 under above title, which continued up to 1897, during which
time it published annual volumes containing many papers of value.)

Bulletin de I'Association fran^aise pomologique pour I'^tude des fruits de pres-
soir et I'industrie du cidre. (This is the proceedings of a society organized in
1897, which continues to meet annually and publishes a journal containing papers
by the best investigators, practitioners, and writers on this subject. )

G. Power. Traite de la culture du pommier et de la fabrication du cidre. Tome 1.
Monographie des meilleures vari^t^s de pommes k cidre. Tome II. (These two vol-
umes constitute the best work on this subject in the French language, considered as a
text-book. )

G. Jacquemin. Les fermentations rationnelles. (In this large work M. Jacque-
min deals extensively with the employment of pure yeast in the manufacture of
wines and ciders, and summarizes much of the best literature on the subject. )

L. Seguin et F. Pailheret. Etudes sur le cidre. (This work gives an account of
the studies made by the authors on the manufacture of cider by diffusion, at the
national school of agriculture at Rennes, France, and as an appendix, the most com-
plete table of the analyses of cider fruits that the writer has yet seen. )

Bulletin du Ministere de 1' Agriculture. (This publication is issued in serial num-
bers from the ministry and contains many important articles, among others all of
Professor Kayser's work. )

Le Cidre. (A monthly review devoted to the industry of cider making.)

Le Cidre et le Poire. (A monthly review similar to the last named. )

GERMAN WORKS.

Dr. A. Graeger. Die Obstweinkunde, oder Bereitung aller Arten Wein aus Beeren
Stein und Kernobst, als auch aus den Bliiten, Bliittern und Wurzeln einiger
Pflanzen.

Johannes Bottner. Die Obstweinbereitung. Anleitung zum Keltern des Apfel-
weins und der andern Obst, etc. Sechste Auflage.

Prof. Dr. Behrend. Untersuchung von in Wiirttemberg produzirten Obstweinen.
(Mittheilungen aus Hohenheim.) Obstweine aus reinen Obst- Arten, ausgestellt
von dem Technologischen Institut der Koniglichen wiirttembergischen landwirth-
schaftlichen Akademie in Hohenheim, etc.

Prof. Dr. Julius Wortmann. Anwendung und Wirkung reiner Hefen in der
Weinbereitung. (Studies from the Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Geisenheim.)

Dr. Adolf Cluss. Die Apfelweinbereitung. (A general treatise on cider making,
written in a plain style. )

Antonio dal Piaz. Die Obstweinbereitung nebst Obst- und Beerenwein-Brennerei.
(A compilation. )

ENGLISH WORKS.

R. Hogg and H. Graves Bull. The Apple and Pear as Vintage Fruits. (The best
recent English work, which treats both of cider fruits and cider making.)

Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, established 1777, and Southern
Counties Association. Vol. IV, 1894, and subsequent numbers.

Cooke, C. W. Radcliffe. Lecture on Cider before the Society of Arts. A Book
about Cider and Perry. (A plain, practical treatise by a country gentleman who
makes good cider. )

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