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Successful Back- Yard
Poultry Keeping

An Authoritative Guide to Success in Poultry Keeping by Intensive
Methods--Practical Details of Management for Those Who
Are Keeping Fowls in Limited Space, Whether to Sup-
ply Eggs and Poultry for the Family Table
or As a Source of Income

Compiled by
HOMER W. JACKSON

Over 100 Illustrations

PRICE ONE DOLLAR

Published by
RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
QUINCY, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.

CONTENTS

as | 4 :
| Biers arta

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I
Advantages in Back-Yard’ Poultry Keeping and How to Start................

CHAPTER II

CHAPTER III

The Back-Yard Poultry Plant As a Source of Profit........./...............

CHAPTER IV
Helpful Reports from Money-Making Flocks.........
CHAPTER V

How to Insure Success—What Not to Do..................... Or eT I

CHAPTER VI

How to Hatch and Rear Chicks Successfully. ...... oe eee 00 See

CHAPTER VII
Some Practical Poultry Houses and How to Build Them.................

CHAPTER VIII

Feeding the Back-Yard Laying Flock..................... SO

CHAPTER IX

General Care and Management of the Laying Flock.......... Oe eed nye eae

CHAPTER X
Ege Production Without Outdoor Runs.................. se Petar orc ee
CHAPTER XI

Profitable. Markets for Surplus Poultry Products................:.5..14.......

CHAPTER XII

What the Back-Yard Poultry Keeper Wants to Know about Breeds..............

CHAPTER XIII

Mating and Management of Breeding Flock....................... 00. eee ueeee

CHAPTER XIV

Successful Methods of Breeding Exhibition Fowls...........................--.

CHAPTER XV

Culling Methods for the Back-Yard Poultry Keeper:........-..2,.8 2 5-- so!

CHAPTER XVI

How Artificial Light: Increases Winter Production: ......... 22. 24.2.)..20 280 uie0..

CHAPTER XVII

Protecting the Health of the Back-Yard Block... ... 20.0). 251. og ee

SEP 10 1920

..22

729

son

INTRODUCTION

ep |] ACK-YARD poultry keeping in the United
es a) States has come to be a truly great industry.
4 ©, It is to be regretted that there are no reliable
honG census reports in regard to the number of

fowls so kept, but the totals reported in local
surveys that have been made in different sections of the
country indicate that in the aggregate the number so
kept must be enormous. In the state of Minnesota, for
example, a few years ago, it was found that 40 per cent
of the persons living in small towns had back-yard flocks
and about 25 per cent of those in small cities. It is not
probable that this proportion of poultry keepers to the
entire town population is duplicated in all sections of the
country, but there are few communities where the pos-
sibilities of small flocks of fowls are not generally ap-
preciated and utilized.

Back-yard poultry keeping probably is affected less
by changing economic conditions than any other produc-
tive industry. In high-price times like the present, great
numbers of persons keep fowls as a means of reducing
the cost of living; in times of depression the back-yard
flock becomes a valued source of livelihood, or at least
plays an important part in the struggle to keep going on
reduced income. Those who are interested in pets or in
breeding standard fowls find poultry a _never-failing
source of pleasure. So whatever may be the relative
prosperity of the country, back-yard flocks may be said
to have a permanent place in the domestic economy. of
the town dweller who is in position to keep fowls at all.
It is truly fortunate in this connection that recent develop-
ments in poultry keeping have in many ways simplified
the details of daily care and have made success readily
attainable. The methods that lately have come into gen-
eral use make it practicable for anyone to keep fowls in
the most limited space, so that on almost any town or
zity lot there is opportunity for a poultry flock large
enough at any rate to supply the home table.

Fowls are the most adaptable of all our domestic an-
imals, and for that reason may be successfully kept under
a wide range of conditions. The farmer with unlimited
range, the poultry specialist with hundreds of fowls on
an acre of land, and the back-yard poultry keeper with
little or no yardroom at all, each finds that he can get
good results with fowls, either young or adult, provided
he adapts his methods to his particular conditions.

The farmer wisely utilizes the range to the fullest
practical extent. In the summer he depends upon it for
green feed; worms and insects take the place of meat;
gleanings from fields and feed lots, weed seeds, etc.,
form an important part of the ration, while little or no
land is devoted exclusively to fowls, and even houseroom
is reduced to the minimum. As a result of these advan-
tages, nowhere can fowls be raised or eggs produced with
as little labor or as low feed cost as on the farm.

The broad acres of the farm, however, are not the on-
ly place where fowls can be successfully and profitably

kept. It is true that just in proportion as range is re-
stricted and methods intensified the feed and labor cost
per fowl is increased. That, however, is not necessarily
a handicap nor a practical objection to intensive methods,
since experience has abundantly proved that while farmers
produce poultry and eggs at lowest cost they do not
necessarily make the largest net profit, either on their
fowls or on their labor. The commercial poultry keeper,
in spite of his greater investment and labor cost, usually
has a larger net profit per fowl and a greater labor in-
come than the farmer, because from a given number of
fowls he gets better average production, as a rule, and
also realizes better pricés for what he has to sell.

The back-yard poultry keeper, owing to his lack of
room, often goes to the practical limit in intensive meth-
ods, but he finds that by meeting certain conditions he
not only can get as good results in growth and production
as the commercial poultry keeper or the farmer, but
that he also has some important advantages that neither
of the others has, and that go a long way toward compen-
sating him for the additional labor involved in intensive
poultry keeping. As a matter of fact, this disadvantage
(extra labor cost) often is more theoretical than actual,
since the small-scale poultryman usually has some regu-
lar employment and simply utilizes spare time in caring
for his fowls—time which otherwise would have no earn-
ing value.

Back-yard poultry keepers are naturally divided into
the following classes: Those who keep fowls simply to
supply the family table with eggs and possibly with a
limited number of table fowls; those who keep larger fiocks
with a view to producing a surplus for sale, and those who
keep poultry primarily as a source of pleasure, including
most persons who breed standard fowls. All of these
lines of production are practical under average back-yard
conditions, and no industrious person who wants to engage
in either need have any hesitancy about doing so through
fear that his restricted quarters will prevent his success.

The economic status of back-yard poultry keeping is
definitely established and is not in question in the mind
of any well-informed person. That fowls may be kept
successfully in the smallest of back yards and that flocks so
kept will produce eggs at an average cost of half or less
than half the usual retail price are facts for which illus-
trative proof may be found in every village, town and
city in this country. There often are personal reasons
for not keeping fowls in town, and in some communities
there are local ordinances prohibiting it, but there are
few places indeed that are fit for human habitation where
there is any real practical ps about keeping fowls
successfully.

The low feed cost of eggs Seodiced by the back-yard
flock is by no means conditioned upon the utilization of
waste from the kitchen and the home garden, though these
are truly important factors in keeping down expense.
Even where the poultry keeper buys practically all feed,

as is usually the case where flocks of good size are kept,
he finds that the cost of producing eggs still need not
much. if any exceed one-half of the retail price. This is
because the farmer and the commercial egg producer who
are making a practical success of the poultry business
must get not only a sufficient price for their eggs to pay for
the feed consumed in producing them, but this price must
also cover labor cost, interest on investment, and a rea-
sonable profit to the producer. To these must be added,
as a rule, transportation charges and a varying number
of middlemen’s profits.

The back-yard poultry keeper however, does not take
labor cost into consideration, because the work of caring
for his fowls is done outside of regular hours when his
time otherwise would have no earning power. His in-
vestment also is negligible, and he pays no tribute to the
middleman. In counting the cash price of production,
therefore, he has nothing to consider except the feed bill,
and even at present high prices for grain this represents
but a part of the average retail price of eggs—as is
abundantly proved by records of practical back-yard poul-
try keepers presented in detail elsewhere in this book.

We wish to direct special emphasis to the fact that
back-yard poultry keeping is not necessarily limited to
the small flock that will supply the home table, but is a
practical industry for those who wish to add materially
to their regular incomes or who have the desire sometime
to have a poultry plant large enough to supply the en-
tire livelihood, thus making it possible to escape from the
drudgery of factory or office. Those who are interested
can secure direct evidence of this near almost any large
city where there will be found men and women who have
actually achieved this ambition and who have found the
change most satisfactory.

Poultry keeping on either a large or small scale is
not an extremely difficult undertaking in the sense that
it calls for much technical knowledge or long experience.
Instances without number could be cited in which persons
have undertaken the work with neither of the qualifica-
tions just mentioned but who have been highly successful
from the start. There are, of course, degrees of success,
and it is not to be expected that any person having no
previous experience or knowledge of poultry keeping will
secure as good results as those who have been keeping
fowls for years. However, the essentials of poultry
keeping are few in number and comparatively simple,
and those who have familiarized themselves with these
can take up the work with entire confidence—with prac-

tical certainty of good returns from the start, knowing
that as their experience increases their degree of success
also will increase.

The chief, if not the sole cause for such failures as
occur in poultry keeping can be traced directly either to
neglect in mastering the few truly important details of
the work or to a false sense of independence which leads
great numbers of persons every year to adopt methods
which every practical poultry keeper knows are unsafe.
There is little hope for those who will not be guided by the
experience of others, or who are not willing to meet the
few simple conditions that are universally acknowledged
to be essential. They may be able to “get by” for the
time being, but sooner or later disaster will overtake them.

“Successful Back-Yard Poultry Keeping” has the dou-
ble aim of serving not only as a practical guide to the
beginner who is starting with poultry on the smallest
scale, but also of showing how the back-yard flock can
gradually be developed to any size within the limits of
the space available. It is hoped that it will increase the
percentage of successful beginners by putting before them
the elementary principles of poultry keeping, doing this
in the simplest possible manner. But, having pointed out
the essentials of success and the simplest means of at-
taining it, this book aims also to give as complete infor-
mation along the various lines of intensive poultry ieep-
ing as is neccessary to enable the beginner te perfe:t his
methods, inerease his profits and insure his pevmanent
well-being.

“Successful Back-Yard Poultry Keeping” deals entire-
ly with chickens, intentionally ignoring all other classes
of poultry. While there is evidence that ducks, geese,
turkeys, ete., can be successfully kept-in back yards, the
advantages of doing so are limited and the practical dif-
ficulties great. Unquestionably, it is much better for the
beginner to limit his efforts to chickens, leaving other
kinds of poultry to the few who have some special reason
for being interested in them.

In the preparation of this book we have had the as-
sistance of numerous persons, including in particular
heads of poultry departments in a number of our state
agricultural experiment stations, who have furnished val-
uable data and have made it possible for us to get in
touch with many successful back-yard poultry keepers in
their respective states. To all of these we wish to acknow-
ledge here our obligation and to express our sincere thanks
and appreciation.

CHAPTER I

Advantages in Back-Yard Poultry Keeping and How to Start

Back-Yard Poultry Keepers Produce Eggs at a Cost of Half or Less Than Half the Average Retail Price and There Is
Room fora Small Flock on Practically Any Town Lot—Any Earnest Person Can Keep Fowls
Successfully and the Start Can Be Made at Small Expense

AM paying 60e a dozen now for eggs and can
see where I shall be paying a dollar before
long, if I get any. Besides, genuinely good
eggs are almost unobtainable in this market
at any price in the winter. Tell me how to
start with a back-yard flock.”

HUNGRY CITIZEN.

The foregoing letter recently received states in a
nutshell the argument for the small back-yard flock.
There are great numbers of persons in town and city who
are deprived of fresh eggs for six months in every year,
either because these are not obtainable or because they do
not feel that they can afford to pay the price. It is from
the ranks of these “hungry citizens” that back-yard poul-
try keepers are largely recruited, it being necessary on-
ly to call the attention of earnest persons to the compar-
ative ease and certainty with which they can supply the
table with eggs of superior quality and unquestionable
freshness, doing this at a fraction of the cost of market
eggs by utilizing the waste from the kitchen, also from
the home garden, and by employing spare time that oth-
erwise would have no productive value.

The saving in the cost of eggs used on the home
table that may be realized through the possession of a
small, well-managed back-yard flock hardly need be dis-
cussed here in detail. Those who wish to be fully reas-
sured on this point will find ample evidence on it in the
reports of successful back-yard poultry keepers presented
elsewhere in this book. However, it may safely be said

that even at present prices for grain there is scarcely any
condition under which the feed cost per dozen eggs need
exceed 25¢c per dozen where all feed is purchased, and
when kitchen scraps are utilized in feeding the hens it
may be much less.

For example, Professor H. R. Lewis’ estimate of re-
turns from a city flock of 15 Leghorn pullets in New
Jersey (see page 10) shows a feed cost of 16.7¢ per dozen.
Professor H. L. Kempster of University of Missouri found
that the feed cost with his own back-yard flock was 13.9¢
per dozen. Extension Bulletin 49, University of Nebraska,
gives the average feed cost of producing a dozen eggs in
a Nebraska back-yard flock from June, 1917 to June,
1918, at approximately 13.6e per dozen. In a recent pub-
lication of the California Experiment Station, Professor
Dougherty, head of the Poultry Department, estimates the
feed cost at 13c per dozen on the assumption that kitchen
waste will provide half the living for the fowls. The
housewife who rarely is able to get eggs under 35c per
dozen and whose average price for the year is well above
50c, even though she uses storage eggs all through the
high-price season, should find “food for thought’ in the
foregoing!

A practical reason for advocating a more general re-
sort to back-yard poultry keeping is the fact that the
general high level of prices at which eggs now sell oper-
ates automatically to bring about limited consumption,
and in the case of the average family this is a real mis-
fortune. Few persons realize how large a part eggs may

LOW-COST BACK-YARD POULTRY PLANT WITH OUTDOOR BROODERS FOR RAISING

CHICKS
Photo from United States Department of Agriculture. 7

8 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

play in economical housekeeping when they are available .

at reasonable cost. The per capita consumption of eggs
in this country cannot be stated with certainty but such
data as are available indicate that the general average

A POULTRY PLANT ON A HOTEL ROOF _

In this unique poultry plant, located on the roof of a hotel in

Boston, Mass., the owner secured an average production of 188 2-5

eggs in one year from 12 pullets. TFowls can be successfully kept

almost wherever there is room for them
is in the neighborhood of 15 dozens a year. Where eggs
are obtainable at low cost, also under exceptional con-
ditions, almost double this rate of consumption often is
realized. In many homes where eggs are not only used
freely on the table but also employed in cooking and in
the preparation of desserts, consumption may exceed an
egg a day for each member of the family.

The impertance of a freer use of eggs, particularly
in homes where there are growing children, should receive
greater emphasis. Eggs form one of the most palatable
sources of food and on account of their nutritiousness and
high digestibility are indispensable in cases of sickness
and in the diet of practically all who, while not sick, are
below their normal strength. Moreover, recent investiga-
tions have shown that they possess a special nutritive
value owing to their high percentage of the important,
though but vaguely understood class of nutrients called
“vitamines.” These are regarded as absolutely essential
to growth in young of any kind and to proper nutrition
in adults, and they are found in greater proportion in eggs
and milk than in any other classes of foodstuffs—either
animal or vegetable. Even at comparatively high cost,
therefore, a proper regard for the health of the family
should lead to a liberal use of eggs. Where high prices
would make this a serious burden, the advantage of hav-
ing a home flock as a constant source of supply should
be obvious.

In this connection it may be well to call attention to
the mistaken economy of many housewives in trying to
reduce expenses through the use of “egg substitutes.”
Doubtless, the leavening and thickening power of eggs
can be imitated by such substitutes, but not their food
value.
ability of their use is thus explained in a News Bulletin
issued recently by the University of Illinois:

“Analyses of samples of the various substitutes by
Charles H. La Wall, chemist of the Pennsylvania Depart-
ment of Agriculture, have proved that ‘they are wicked
frauds which add to the already high cost of living by
making people pay an excessive price for a little corn-
starch and casein under the impression that they are sav-
ing money.’ Tests of ten kinds of substitutes on the mar-
kets show that they contain a small per cent of casein, a

The nature of such substitutes and the undesir- .

large per cent of starch, and are colored with a permitted
coal-tar color. They do not represent egg contents, con-
taining starch which is foreign to eggs, and being devoid
of fat which eggs eontain. The coloration used is a per-
mitted coal-tar coloring, but it imparts a color indicating
the presence of an abundance of eggs, and articles baked
with it could not legally be sold for that reason.

“These substitutes are misbranded in several par-
ticulars. In one case the package states ‘containing the
nutriment of eggs,’ and ‘for all cooking and baking pur-
poses gives results equal to fresh eggs.’ There were only
three ounces of dry material present, which are supposed
to be equal to two dozen fresh eggs, an untrue claim, for
two dozen fresh eggs contain over one-half pound dry
nutritive substance.

“In another case the label claimed that each package
of the substitute would serve the purpose of four dozen
of eggs except in nutrition, and would save the cost of
over $1 worth of eggs; also that it gave that rich ‘eggy’
look and saved the stomach much work in digesting heavy
food. The fraud in this case lies in the fact that eggs
alone will sustain life, while on a diet of this article alone
an individual would quickly starve to death. The idea that
a small package of cornstarch with only minor additions
could take the place of four dozen eggs, equivalent to
more than one pound of dried eggs, is ridiculous. The
public is warned to beware of all so-called substitutes.”

Under favorable conditions what has been said in re-
gard to the practical economy to be effected by keeping
baeck-yard flocks applies to the production of table fowls
as well as eggs. Where space is limited it often is not
practical to attempt to raise fowls, or at the most only
enough to insure a supply of pullets with which to renew
the laying flock each year or every other year as the case
may be. Those who have the room however, will find
that they can produce table fowls to fairly good advantage.
and if they are willing to go to a little trouble in special
fattening, as described elsewhere in this book, can pro-
vide poultry meat of a quality practically unobtainab!e
in the ordinary market, often at no greater cost then
market poultry of ordinary grades.

Who Should Not Keep Fowls

In the face of the foregoing facts it should be plain
that the economic status of the back-yard flock cannot
be in question in the mind of any well-informed person.

THE MOST SUCCESSFUL POULTRY KEEPERS ARE THOSE
WHO LOVE PETS
That fowls may be kept successfully in about every back-
yard in this country and that such fowls will produce eggs
at an average cost of half or less than half the usual re-
tail price—these are ESTABLISHED FACTS. More-

ADVANTAGES IN BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING AND HOW TO START 9

over, those who take an interest in breeding superior-
quality birds or who enjoy pets will find a small flock of
fowls a source of keen enjoyment, quite regardless of the
profits that they may realize.

We do not say that every one who has a back yard
SHOULD keep fowls. There often are good reasons why
some will not find it convenient or practicable to do so.
Those whose other duties are such that they cannot or
will not give the fowls proper attention, those who are
not prepared to pay the price of success by looking after
the simple needs of the fowls regularly day after day,
THOSE WHO DO NOT LIKE PETS—all these, doubtless,
will be better off if they continue to buy their eggs and
poultry meat. Fowls are highly adaptable to conditions,
and many liberties may be taken with them, but they will
not stand the neglect that a great many persons are
guilty of. It is useless to attempt poultry keeping unless
there is a disposition to give the birds a fair chance.

With these qualifications in mind it may be said that
no one who wants to keep fowls need hesitate through
fear that he cannot properly meet the requirements of
success. It does not matter greatly where the prospective
poultryman lives, what his surroundings are, what his

in close quarters calls for a relatively greater amount of
labor and closer attention than would be required with
birds having more liberty. For this reason extremely
intensive methods of poultry keeping have never been re-
garded as truly practical where fowls have been kept in
large numbers and where the labor cost of caring for them
must be taken into consideration. With small flocks, how-
ever, where the time element may be disregarded, such
objections to intensive poultry keeping may be ignored.

A comparatively small house will meet the require-
ments of a flock large enough to supply the family table
and it is not really necessary to provide any yardroom
whatever. Most poultry keepers prefer to have at least
a small outdoor yard for the birds when possible, partic-
ularly if they are to be kept the year round, because
fowls with yards generally will give better results than
those that are kept constantly confined; also because of
the simpler methods and lower labor costs where fowls
have a reasonable amount of yardroom. Nevertheless,
there are thousands of flocks kept indoors throughout the
entire year, and with good success (see Chapter X).

In some cities local ordinances have been passed that
impose restrictions upon poultry keeping, and where there
is any question in regard to this it is well to be certain

WITH PROPER CARE STURDY, VIGOROUS CHICKS CAN BE RAISED IN THE BACK YARD

hours of work may be, or whether there is some one else
in the family able to lend a helping hand. There are prac-
tical ways by which the common methods of feeding and
general care can be adapted to individual conditions,
whatever they may be. Reasonable care the fowls must
have; but wide variations as to details are permissible. It
may be well to explain that maximum production in any
flock is secured only through painstaking attention to
comparatively slight details in feeding and general man-
agement; but fair returns, such as will satisfy the aver-
age poultry keeper and represent a good round profit on
the investment and the time employed may be secured
through most unexacting methods.

How Much Room Is Needed

Attention has already been called to the adaptability
of fowls to varying conditions, and experience has shown
that it is scarcely possible to confine them so closely that
they will not remain productive for an indefinite time if
properly cared for. Various “systems” of highly intensive
poultry keeping have come before the public from time
to time and while, as a rule, they have demanded careful
attention and a relatively great amount of labor, the
fact that fowls can be brought to a high degree of pro-
ductivity under such conditions has never been disputed.
It should be borne in mind that to keep fow!s successfully

what attitude the authorities are likely to take. However,
under the pressure of war-time conditions and the even
greater needs that have followed the close of the war,
many such restrictions have been annulled or suspended.
Few persons whose houses and yards are kept in a sani-
tary condition and who dispense with males—an entirely
unnecessary expense in any flock kept exclusively for
the production of table eggs—will meet with serious ob-
jection to their keeping a small flock.

Capital Required

The amount of capital required for the back-yard
flock depends upon many conditions, and no statement
can be given that will be applicable to all. Speaking
generally, a comfortable house can be built, even at pres-
ent prices of lumber, for $1.50 to $2.00 for each hen
accommodated, and if a little foresight is exercised in
the purchase of materials, utilizing second-hand lumber,
store boxes, etc., and doing the work oneself, the cost can
be greatly reduced. So far as the small back-yard flock is
concerned the question of capital really is not a factor;
anybody who WANTS to keep fowls can find a way to
finance the undertaking.

The investment required to provide completely for a
flock of 15 layers, approximate cost of keeping such a
flock for one year (figured on the basis of 1918 prices for

10 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

materials, stock and feed) and the return that may rea-
sonably be expected, has been estimated by Prof. H. R.
Lewis of the New Jersey Experiment Station, as follows:

FINANCIAL RETURNS TO BE ANTICIPATED FROM A FLOCK OF
15 PULLETS

¥stimated Cost of Building House and Stocking With a City Flock

Poultry house; -Sxl0ifect.2-- -- 52-22. 2-25. -2.2252 22 Sen 40:00
Fencing and posts___.--._____-_ t5 Be 2 ee 9.00
Equipment, including pails, hoe, hoppers, ete 4.60
Stoek, 15 maturing Leghorn pullets____..__ - 30.00
Tata eOshueses ae aoe eel eee es _.$ 83.60
Expenses

Teed purchased (in addition to garbage)___- -$ 30.00
Supplhes and incidentals-__.___- 8.00
Interest on investment = Sate 4.18
Depreciation, repairs and insurance. - 6.00
Total expenses._-_- ee * a eae ---$ 48.18

To buy new pullets each year to take the place of cld ones which

are killed and eaten by the family after they have stopped laying for
the summer----.....-------- Boe ate a :e ©... (30700
Total yearly- outlay.........---- = --8 78.18

Returns
180 dozen eggs at the rate of 12 dozen per bird, figured at 59
ments per doze
28 fowls e
tality in the flock), 112 pounds at 35 cents--

-$ 90,00

39.20

-3129.20

Total returns _- bs Bet = 5
Summary
Returns a5
Expenses. -

$129.20
78.18

Difference (commonly called labor income or profit)... -...----$ 51.02

Analyzed on the basis of the cost of one dozen eggs, if the profit or labor
income is credited to the cost of producing eggs, we find that under these
conditions the family will have secured their eggs at an average price during
the year of 22 cents per dozen, and the poultry meat ata price of 35 cents
per pound.
From ‘‘Hints to Poultrymen,” Vol. 6, No. 11, N. J. xp. Station.

Time and Attention Required

The amount of time consumed in caring for the flock
is quite largely under the control of the caretaker. Fowls
are quickly responsive to special attention, but where
necessary the details of the work, even the daily feeding,
can be adjusted to meet individual requirements without
much regard to what these may be. Many successful
back-yard poultry keepers do not see their fowls by day-
light for weeks at a time, with the exception of Sunday,
doing their feeding, watering, cleaning, etc., by lantern
light. Maximum production may not be secured under
such methods but fairly good results certainly should.

To meet special conditions, numerous practices have
been devised. However, for those who find it convenient
to do so it is doubtful whether there is a better way than

‘the following twelve months.

to follow the old familiar plan of feeding the birds regu-
larly two or three times a day, one of these feeds to be
a moist mash. -Only a few minutes a day are required
for this and there are few instances where there is not
some member of the family who can give the birds this
slight attention. Cleaning, spraying for lice, spading the
yard, etc., are duties that can be cared for largely at the
convenience of the “man of the house.”

Which Breed to Keep
This subject, always one in which the beginner takes
the keenest interest, is fully treated in Chapter XII.

How Many Hens to Keep

The back-yard flock that is kept simply as a source
of supply of eggs for the home table naturally will vary
in size with family requirements. Egg production de-
pends upon a number of considerations, and average re-
sults are bound to vary widely. “Bad luck’”’ or bad man-
agement (two names for pretty much the same thing)
may result in yields much below reasonable expectations,
and with skillful handling they may go much above. As
a basis for making plans, it is fair to expect that pullets
hatched at the proper time in the spring, so that they are
ready to begin laying shortly after the first of October,
should average to lay 120 eggs, or 10 dozens each, during
With good management
this average may readily be increased to 150 eggs or
better, particularly if the fowls are of good breeding.

It is more difficult to estimate the number of eggs
that will be used by the average family. Tastes differ
and, moreover, the consumption of eggs of the ordinary
grades commonly available is not much of a guide to the
number that will be required when best-quality eggs can
be secured at all times and at a cost so low that they
can be economically substituted for butcher’s meat. As
stated elsewhere in this chapter, per capita consumption
of eggs probably runs from 15 to 25 dozens per year, the
latter figure being reached only under special conditions.
However, those who produce their own supply may exceed
even the highest estimate. For example, the writer hap-
pens to have a partial record of egg consumption in his own
family for the months of February to May inclusive which

shows an average of one egg a day

2ACK-YARD POULTRY PLANT USED IN DEVELOPING A FAMOUS HEAVY-LAYING
STRAIN OF LEGHORNS

Two inexpensive poultry houses used by Professor Harry R. Lewis of N. J. Experiment Station in
1 Here he is carrying on highly valuable
experiments in breeding for egg production and has already developed a highly productive strain ot

the moderate-sized back yard of his home in New Brunswick.

Single Comb White Leghorns.

for each member of the family. As
this covered the period when eggs
were high in price and when there
was a constant temptation to skimp
a little so as to have more to sell, it
is probable that the average for the
year is above rather than below that
rate. If it is the intention to make
the most of the possibilities of the
flock, therefore, an estimate of 30 doz-
ens for each person does not seem
too high.

To provide this average there
must be at least three good hens for
each member of the family. As there
will be no difficulty in disposing of
any surplus that may accumulate, and
as there are certain seasons when pro-
duction is comparatively low, it would
be safer to allow an average of four
layers, which should supply all the
eggs that one person will require, ex-
cept during the period from Septem-

ADVANTAGES IN BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING AND HOW TO START 11

ber to November when production always is quite low and
for which provision must be made by storing some of the
surplus of the spring months.

When and How to Start

Probably more persons take up poultry keeping
m the fall than at any other time. This is because they
get quicker returns then, or at least expect them. In the
last few years however, many who would have started at
this time have found it difficult or impossible to do so ow-
ing to their inability to secure laying pullets, or even to get
good yearling hens, except possibly at extreme prices.
For this reason many now are starting in the spring and
find this much more convenient and

is necessary to make an important change in rations or
methods of care it should be done by easy stages so that
the fowls wiil have a chance to become accustomed t2
it gradually.

Hens as Winter Layers

On account of the general high prices demanded for
ready-to-lay pullets in the fall, many are buying one and
two-year-old hens. The beginner in many instances is
not able to secure anything else, unless he decides to buy
immature pullets. So far as winter production is con-
cerned, there is not much to choose between the latter and
one-year-old hens, as neither can be expected to become

economical, since they rarely have
any trouble in securing the desired
number of eggs for hatching or day-
old chicks—and at comparatively
slight cost.

Where there is sufficient room
for raising them, pullets can be
brought to maturity in the fall at half
or less than half what they would cost
if purchased at usual prices. More-
ever, this plan insures having a lib-
eral supply of delicious broilers or

fryers throughout the summer, uti-
lizing for this purpose the surplus
cockerels and the less promising pul-
lets. At the New Jersey Experiment
Station, in 1918, it was found that the
entire cost of raising a large flock of
pullets to maturity, where all feed was
purchased at high prices, averaged
70 cents for Leghorns and 80 cents
for Plymouth Rocks, Reds, ete., after
deducting the value of the cockerels
which were sold as they reached
broiler age.

When to start is not so much a

question of season as of decision. The
best time is when interest is aroused;
when the possibilities for profit and
pleasure in the small poultry flock are realized; when the
necessity for adding to the income becomes acute. Adapt
the method of beginning to conditions as they exist at the
time, BUT BY ALL MEANS BEGIN.

What to Buy in the Fall

As a rule, October is the best fall month in which
to start, as this gives opportunity to get the fowls well
acquainted with their new quarters and started laying be-
fore cold weather sets in. November is not too late, but
do not delay a single day longer than necessary after
October first. If obtainable, by all means get well-ma-
tured ready-to-lay pullets. It may do no harm to get
those that have already begun, if anyone foolish enough
to sell such birds can be found, but they will have to
be handled witi great care or the change will stop
their laying. The beginner should bear in: mind that
early-hatched pullets that lay well during October can
be thrown into molt by any mishandling that stops pro-
duction. To get the maximum egg yield from such pul-
lets during the fall, and to keep them laying regularly
through the winter, it is important that they be carefully
managed. Feed regularly on a well-selected ration, and
do not disturb them unnecessarily. If for any reason it

HOUSE OF A SUCCESSFUL SMALL FLOCK IN THE HEART OF A CITY
Photo from United States Department of Agriculture

profitably productive until the first of the year or after.
Hens of the larger breeds, however, are harder to handle
in close confinement than pullets, and for that reason the
beginner probably will get better results from immature
pullets, provided they are not too young.

With good care pullets should come into laying at
a given age without much regard to season. For example,
Plymouth Rocks may be expected to begin laying at
about seven to eight months of age if they are properly
fed, regardless of whether they reach this age on the
first of October or on the first of January. An exception
perhaps should be noted in the case of Leghorns, which
in cold climates are apt to be slow about coming into
laying when they reach maturity in midwinter. With
the larger breeds however, pullets that are known to be
four to four and one-half months old about the first of
October can reasonably be expected to begin laying by
the first of January or shortly thereafter.

In buying old hens the back-yard poultry keeper will
find it neccessary to proceed with a good deal more cau-
tion than was necessary a few years ago. The advan-
tages of culling are now so widely understood and the
practice has been so generally adopted that any person

12 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

buying hens in the fall needs to understand culling meth-
ods quite thoroughly to avoid getting stocked up with
culls from which he will secure but poor production, no
matter how well they are cared for and fed. Before going
into the market to buy old hens, carefully read the chap-
ter on culling (Chapter XV) so as to be able to select
hens that will be reasonably certain to give a profitable
egg yield. If first-class one-year-old hens are secured

difficulty in getting winter eggs, especially if he is able to
secure only old hens or late-hatched pullets. Almost any
hen or pullet will lay well in the spring, however, and
within the following four or five months should produce
in the neighborhood of fifty to seventy-five eggs each.
As they become broody and stop laying, they should be
killed for table use, and by the latter part of the summer
should all have been disposed of in this way, affording

many delicious Sunday dinners at

POULTRY PLANT OF A BACK-YARD BREEDER

Great numbers of standard fowls are successfully bred in small plants.
above is 28 by 32 feet, is divided into four pens and will accommodate 64 breeding birds without crowd-
Owner of this plant states that ‘success in raising poultry in srzall yards depends upon cleanliness

ing.

and healthy — stock.”

and then are given good feeding and care, they should
prove profitable layers after January 1 to 15. The eggs
from such hens will be much larger than those of young
pullets, but more attention must be given to their feed-
ing and exercise than would be required with the latter.

With the possible exception of Leghorns, few hens are
profitable layers after their second year, hence it is never
advisable to buy two-year-old hens. Unfortunately, the
beginner finds it practically impossible to distinguish
yearling hens and those that are older, and for the most
part must simply take his chances. A little can be deter-
mined by general appearance, but not much. If buying in
October, select those that have not begun to molt or are
only partially feathered out, as they are almost invariably
the best layers in the flock, bearing in mind, however, that
late molting sometimes is caused by weakness. Avoid
the early molters that will be completely feathered out
at this date, also those that are extremely poor or lame
from any cause, and all with scaly legs, spurs, or other
obvious defects. If the fowls are of the larger breeds,
watch for individuals having enlarged abdomens or such
as feel hard or “bag down” behind. In buying Leghorns it
is necessary to watch for extra-early pullets that have
already laid themselves out and are going through a
molt. Some poultry keepers make a practice of getting
out a lot of pullets to keep up their supply of eggs in
late summer and early fall, selling them off about the
time they begin to molt, since after that they are of
little value as layers until the winter is well over.

Starting in the Spring With Adult Fowls

If laying hens or pullets can be purchased in the
spring at fair prices, it will pay anyone who has room
for them to get a dozen or two just for the production
of spring and summer eggs. The beginner may have some

comparatively low cost, while the eggs
produced will represent a substantial
profit.

It will be necessary to use a lit-
tle care in the purchase of such fowls,
seeing to it that one does not stock up
with pullets that laid all winter long
and whose productiveness during the
spring may be quite low. If hens
are used, watch for culls. Since these
birds are not to be used as breeders
nor to be kept over to another year, it
will do no harm to feed a rather fore-
ing ration.

One Hundred Per Cent in Three
Months

To show what may be realized
from a flock of hens purchased in the
spring, the following February-April
record of a back-yard flock is given
by Professor Horace Atwood of the
West Virginia Experiment Station:

“On February 1, 1919, I purchased for $65 a back-
yard flock of sixty fowls consisting of six White Wyan-
dotte cockerels, five White Wyandotte pullets, four White
Leghorn cockerels and forty-five White Leghorn hens,
mostly two years old. The price paid was perhaps some-
what low as the boy who owned them was very anxious
to sell as he desired money with which to purchase a bi-
cycle. Yet, as he had owned the flock only about one
year and already had made them pay for themselves, he
had made a reasonable profit. :

“Within about one month all of the Wyandottes were
sold at a good price, through an advertisement inserted in
the ‘West Virginia Weekly Market Bulletin,’ a state pub-
lication which advertises West Virginia farm products free
of all direct expense to West Virginia citizens. A few of
the White Leghorn hens and cockerels were killed for the
table. They were hopper fed on a well-known brand of
dry mash, the scratch feed consisting of a mixture of corn
and oats. They were compelled to eat at least as much
mash as scratch feed. The Leghorn hens were just be-
ginning to lay after the winter’s rest and under the in-
fluence of liberal feeding and sanitary conditions their
production was satisfactory. The following schedule
shows the receipts and expenditures of February, March
and April:

The house illustrated

Statement of Returns From Small Flock for Three Mouths

Date ITEMS Dr. Cr.
Feb: I—To. 60fowlss-22) soo ho ee ee sD ROU)
Feh.. 1—To 600-Ibs. feed_-._-.-- -+------ eee PEAT fs) =
Feb. S—By 27 lbs. mash sold a neighbor - -- $ 1.08
Feb. 9—By 2 W. Leghorn cocks for table_-- -- a 3.00
Feb. 10—By 2 W. Wyandotte ckls. sold for breeders 6.00
Feb. 11—By 3 W. Wyandotte ckls. sold for breeders -- 11.00
Feb. 15—By 1 W. Wyandotte ckl. and_5 pullets-.-- 15.00
Mar. 1—By 65 doz. eggs in Feb. at 5C cents -_ -- -- f 32.50
Mar. 6—To 490ilbs. corn.-2 2 =-22=2---2 = Sen 6263
Mar. 6—To 142 lbs. oats. --- 3.84 ie
Apr. 1—By 70 doz. eggs in \ 33.60
Apr. 1—By 2 hens for table-.----- 2 1.50
Apr. 1—By feed sold a neighbor - -- a0 5.08
Apr: /19—To G60 ibs feeds aes Se eee ae 23.50 e
May 1-—-By 77 doz. eggs at 45 cents in April --~ - -- 34.05
Totalo cease oe poe eee eee oe oan ge $ 142.81

“The receipts for the three months from eggs and
fowls sold exceeded cost of fowls and feed by $9.09. Also
some feed was on hand May 1 but unfortunately no record

ADVANTAGES IN BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING AND HOW TO START 13

was made as to the amount. Of the sixty fowls purchased,
forty-three remained, fifteen having been sold or eaten
and two having died. Adding the market value of the
fowls on hand at the end of this period it will be seen that
the enterprise returned about one hundred per cent on the
investment in three months’ time.”

Starting With Day-Old Chicks

A good many persons make their start in poultry
keeping with day-old chicks or with one or more sittings of
eggs, and in many respects this is an excellent way to do.
The cost of the pullets at maturity is much less than the
price that would have to be paid for them at this time,
and, what is still more important, the owner may be cer-
tain that he will have a supply of first-class pullets,
matured and ready to begin laying by the first of Octo-
ber, or shortly thereafter. Whether it will be advisable
for any given person to attempt to raise his own flock of
pullets depends upon conditions, and particularly upon
the amount of ground that is available for the purpose.
It is not generally wise to try to do so if the chicks must
be confined to extremely small, bare yards, where they
suffer from lack of natural exercise and consequently
fail to make good growth. With a good-sized yard, how-
ever, or if the chicks can run at large the greater part
of the time, there is no reason why any one should not be
entirely successful in raising them.

Bear in mind, however, that the handicap of limited
yardroom, or none at all, can be overcome to a great ex-
tent by proper feeding and by providing ample exercise
for the chicks through the use of deep litter in their
pens. The chief reason why farm-raised fowls generally
are superior to those grown in close confinement is that
they have abundant exercise.

Buying Day-Old Chicks

Those who propose to start in this way should not fail
to make a reservation in advance of the time they will
want the chicks, and should be willing to pay a fair price,
buying directly from some one with an established repu-
tation, thus making sure of getting stock of truly good
breeding—the kind that always gives best results.

Another important matter to which the back-yard
poultry keeper needs to pay especial attention is the pro-
vision of suitable brooding equipment for raising his
chicks after he gets them. It is simply a waste of money
to buy them at all if this is not done. It is possible to
raise good chicks in fireless brooders, but only at a great

deal of expense in time and attention. It is always easier
and cheaper to use a first-class heated brooder, and in
nearly all instances chicks so brooded will be better and
stronger in every respect.

There are various styles of brooders adapted to the
requirements of back-yard use. Electric and lamp-heated
brooders for indoors or outdoors can be secured that af-
ford almost ideal brooding conditions; for large flocks
coal- or oil-burning colony hovers are almost invariably
preferred. Get the kind of brooder that best meets individ-
ual requirements and is adapted to the size of the flock
that is to be raised, but do not fail to get some kind.

Starting With Hatching Eggs

Many breeders of high-quality fowls do not sell baby
chicks, and in order to get a start in their particular
strains at moderate cost it is necessary to buy eggs and
provide means of hatching them. Practically all that has
been said with respect to starting with chicks applies
with equal force to starting with hatching eggs. Many
prefer to do this and, if reasonably skillful in the opera-
tion of incubators, good results will be secured.

How Many Chicks or Eggs to Buy

Starting with day-old chicks it is wise to get about
three times the number of pullets wanted. This will allow
for reasonable loss during the growing period, also will
admit of culling out the less desirable members of the
flock as their deficiencies become obvious. Even in the
best bred stock there will always be some individuals that
will be slow in maturing, or that will develop defects of
one kind or another that make them undesirable for the
laying pen. The poultry keeper who has accommodations
for a certain number of birds usually is inclined to keep
the full number even though, in order to do so, he must
retain many from which good production cannot reason-
ably be expected. It is much better, therefore, to raise
a small surplus so that the flock can be kept at the de-
sired size without retaining in it any that ought to be
discarded. If the start is made with eggs for hatching,
there should be at least four times as many eggs as the
number fixed for the proposed laying flock. Observing
these proportions, the beginner should have no difficulty
in determining just how many eggs or chicks to buy, also
what incubator or brooder capacity he should have in or-
der to take care of them.

WOMEN OFTEN ARE ESPECIALLY SUCCESSFUL AS POULTRY KEEPERS

CHAPTER

Reports From Successful Small-Flock Owners

Persons Who Have Been Successful in Poultry on a Small Scale Tell, in Their Own Words, How They Started, How
They Manage Their Fowls, and What Returns They Are Able to Realize From Them—Success
With Fowls Is Not Limited to Any Particular Section of the Country

VERYONE who is considering the advisability
of keeping a smal] flock of fowls naturally is
interested in learning what he may reasonably

to get at this is to find out what others are
doing, along with as complete details as possible of the
conditions under which they are working. For this rea-
son we present in this chapter a number of interesting
and instructive reports from persons who are keeping
fowls primarily to supply the home table. These reports
should be genuinely helpful to all beginners. They are
fairly indicative of what anyone else can do with similarly
well-managed flocks. It will be noted that widely sep-
arated sections of the country are represented in the re-
ports here presented, also in Chapter IV, these having
been selected in part to show that opportunities for back-
yard poultry keeping are not limited to any particular
section of the country but that it can be successfully
practiced independent of location or climatic conditions.

A Profitable Winter Laying Flock

Owner of One of the Leading Town Flocks in the Missouri
Farm Laying Contest Tells of Methods Adopted
and Results Secured—Over $4 Gross In-
come per Hen in Five Months

By MRS. FRANK LEE, Missouri

EDITORIAL NOTE: The Division of Agricultural
Extension Service in Missouri is conducting a “Farm
Laying Contest”? under the direction of T. S. Townsley,
in which contest are represented entire flocks belonging
to farmers and back-yard poultry keepers who are work-
ing under the direction of the Division and making month-
ly reports on production. The results secured are inter-
esting and of decided practical value. One of the most
successful of those engaged in this contest is Mrs. Frank
Lee, a back-yard poultry keeper who writes as follows in
reply to our request for details in regard to results secur-
ed and methods followed:

| N MARCH, 1919, I bought 50 White Wyandotte eggs

from a breeder of a widely advertised egg-laying strain.
April 10 I had 44 fluffy, stocky little chicks. I killed
two weak ones and one that was deformed, leaving 41
strong, healthy chicks. My equipment for chicken rais-
ing is very primitive. I have no brooder and a wood-
shed serves as a chicken house. So I got a box and cov-
ered it loosely with an old blanket, allowing it to bag in
center. I used jugs of hot water for heat, covering the
jugs with a cloth.

I was very careful that the chicks did not get chilled
and so gave them a good start. More chicks are lost by
allowing them to get damp or chilled than from any oth-
er cause. After 58 hours I gave water and buttermilk,
with rolled oats and corn bread. After a week IL fed
commercial chick feed. I watched them closely, attending

to every detail in feeding and care, and in October I had
14

26 fine-looking pullets and one handsome cockerel, the
others having been eaten.

The first pullet laid in October, and in November
several were laying. Then I culled the flock, eliminating
all but eighteen pullets and the cockerel. In November
I got 168 eggs, and in December 347 eggs. In January
the 18 pullets laid 354 eggs which was the Missouri
State record for town flocks. In February I got 310 eggs
and in March 358, a total of 1,537 eggs in five months,
or an average of 85 per hen. The total cost of feed, new
stock and equipment for the five months was $34.92 and
the gross sales of eggs amounted to $85.40; besides, at
the end of March I had 64 young chicks worth $16. So
the net income from my flock for the five months amount-
ed to $64.48, or $3.58 per hen.

I keep deep litter in the shed and the hens scratch
for the grain. The roosts and drop boards are cleaned
regularly and sprayed with coal oil and a good disin-
fectant. I feed wheat screenings and corn or chops, and

“a dry mash composed of wheat bran, ship stuff, corn

meal and commercial meat scrap, with plenty of clean
water. I had a small patch of rye for winter pasture
and now have a patch of rape, which I find is the best
summer pasture for chickens.

My chicken house (or shed) is partly open in the
south with an east door, with the north perfectly tight.
In winter, during the cool south winds, I closed the open-
ing on south and opened the east door, giving them the
benefit of the sunlight. Lots of trouble and work? Yes,
but it’s worth it—from the double standpoint of pleasure
and profit.

Back-Yard Flock Makes Good Record

Pullets From Bred-to-Lay Stock Averaged to Produce 196

Eggs Each in Twelve Months—Were Kept Confined

to House Constantly Throughout This Period

By PROF. H. L. KEMPSTER, University of Missouri
HIL ROBYN from Augusta, Missouri, is responsible
for the following story of a back-yard flock. It is
hoped that his experience will prompt others to follow his
example and do their bit toward producing more food.
In March, 1917, Mr. Robyn purchased 32 eggs from the
University. These eggs hatched March 28 and from
them he raised 12 pullets, one of which died and another
proved to be nonproductive and was killed. On August
11 a second bird died. On that date the average number
of eggs per hen was 175. Up to October 1 the remaining
9 laid 190 eggs, making the average number of eggs per
hen for the year 196. In writing concerning them Mr.
Robyn says: “For three weeks in July I was unable to
obtain mash and they dropped off about 60 eggs during
the time and picked right up to normal again in August

when they had the mash.” The following is his report.
Feed includes scratch feed, mash, oyster shell for
layers and for all chicks raised. Every grain was bought.

REPORTS FROM SUCCESSFUL SMALL-FLOCK OWNERS 15

The pullets were housed in a well-ventilated house measur-
ing 5 by 6 feet, from September 1, 1917, and kept abso-
lutely confined throughout the year, except a few hours
in the afternoons on the hottest days in August when they
were permitted to run in the yard.

Record of Ten S. C. W. Leghorn Pullets from Oct. 1, 1917, to
Rts tadet 1918

1,935 eggs valued at_-.---_--_---- De ase eae oa 2 0000
Cockerels sold and for table - -& hea eeeeee ae = - 9.04
21 pullets raised at $1.50 each__.-______- ejeppes

mOtal? ee ene secs se kceesese

_.$104
Feed for one year-----.------ =

35.22

Net profit --- $69.04

Record of Bred-To-Lay Flock*

A Net Profit of Over $10 Per Hen Is the Record of This
Small Back-Yard Flock

By MR. WM. F. GERHARDT, Pennsylvania

| HAVE 30 S. C. White Leghorn pullets of three-fourths

English blood, that were hatched May 19, 1918. The
first egg was laid November 5, 1918, and from that date
to October 31, 1919, they laid 4,924 eggs. These pullets
were confined from the day they were hatched until they
were disposed of, and I feel that under the circumstances
I have done quite well with them. There is nothing
about the returns realized, either in productions or in
sales, that any other earnest person cannot readily dupli-
eate. A net profit of nearly $300, however. goes a long
way toward meeting the increased living expenses of the
average family or affords a substantial addition to the
savings account.

I did not have 30 pullets all the time, but started with
that number, and they laid 2,254 eggs up to April 1, when
I disposed of four. The remaining 26 laid 1,203 eggs up
to July 1, when I reduced the flock to 15. These laid
967 eggs then to October 31. Following is a complete

*Reprinted from January, 1920, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

statement of receipts and expenses from November I,
1918, to October 31, 1919:

Statement of Receipts and Expenses
Nov. 1, 191S--Oct. 31, 1919

Amount invested and stock on hand. November 1, 1918:
Poultry: ROUSC..ece- 2. os aera as een Earns ile Zs -= 100.00
SBOl pulletsme eee 2 eee ce ee ee ee eee - 90.00
2 cOckerels =. ee. os ea ee ores een es A : 16.00
Totaly ances Sees re eres a eee = -$ 200.00
Total stock on hand, Oct. 31. 1919:
15 hens- e oe eeoes LR SfpossGisicaiss eo ecian. toc sens ooo. 130.00
45 pullets _- 222 eS Bese ee ee wee caine nce SLOOOU
4 cockerels 20.00
otal. -=5. atten ee ea es _.3 185.00
Expenses for feed, straw, ete... __- bene e $ 191.24
Interest on investment-.---._--- 12.00
Total -_-
Receipts:
Table eggs.--.-..-i----- 38.
Hatchingserps 22.2. a22 2222 2 :
Day-old chicks. -..------ 59.
NSEOCKo ae eae 3l.
Market poultr y- eae ee ee Se neses e 57 . 3¢
Increase in value of stock on hand- 2 ceweeeonesiee —= 85.00:
Total. 251 5 skee te cces ese 3 499.54
Total expenses---_--- -- $ 203.24
Net profit...----- -- = 296.30

Record of a Back-Yard Flock Under
Prewar Conditions

At the Lower Prices Secured for Eggs Some Years Ago
the Net Income per Fowl Was Much Less than
Would Be Realized Now with Similarly Good
Production, but Whether Prices Are 5

High or Low the Back-Yard ‘
Flock Is Profitable

By W. J. WHITE, West Virginia

T HE following schedule shows the cost of 24 White
Leghorn pullets and two cockerels on the first day
of October, 1910, together with the cost of feed, the num-
ber and value of eggs produced, and the net profit result-
ing from keeping the fowls for one year. Also there is
included a table showing the daily egg production of

BACK-YARD EQUIPPED FOR ADULT STOCK AND GROWING CHICKS
Coops and houses are elevated to prevent rats from harboring underneath them. The trays on the foreground are covered with wire netting and.

are used in sprouting oats for green feed.

Photo from United States Department of Agriculture.

16 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

these fowls for the year, from which it will be seen there
was not a day in the year without at least one egg. This
means a good deal to the back-yard poultry keeper who
is much more interested in having production spread out
over the year than in having it bunched in a few months
with a longer or shorter period in the fall and early win-
ter when no eggs at all are secured.

Poultry Account, October 1, 1910, to September, 30, 1911
Date Item No. E; Dr. Cr.
1910
Oct. 1—To 2 cockercls and 2. pullets—----- $15.00 >
Oct. 1—To 2 bushels wheat----- -- -- 2.50
Oct. 1—To 2 bushels corn_.- - 1.60
Oct. 1—To 2 bushels oats 1.00
Nov. 1—By 4 11-12 doz. e 59 ae
Nov. 9—To 2 bushels whe: Je sedea seen eecees 2.50
Nov. 0.2 ‘bushels; corm. 2.22 l-cees -os5eece 1.49
Nov. 2 bushels oats 90 eer
Nov. 85 Ibs. oat str Suses te.daeecs 48 uses
Nov. 100 Ibs. oyst 7 P -75 See
Dec. 7 5-12 doz _ 89 ae 3.34
Dec 2. ae
Dee 2 ee
Dec 2 5
1911
Jan. y 15 5-12 doz. eggs at 45 cents --- ..155 pe he 6.94
Jan. o 1 shels bees ae 1.70 at
Jan. 0 2 1.20 3
Jan. 2 been ae semua 90
Feb. p ozen eggs cents... =.=-291 ee
Feb. rmours Beef scrap, IBSi 2 ade oa 75 2:
Mar. doz. eggs at 22} cents. __..349 Pantie
Mar. bushels wheat -- 3.75
bushels corn _- 1.80
pushels oats os 135 2
35 7-12 doz. e --427
S 1-6 doz. eg 458 Se lee
Ibs. scratch feed - eee 1.65 S
Paha wheateesenme oe aceeee Bua:
2.16 2
1.35

. eggs at 223 cents-
doz. eggs at 22 cents
100 Ibs. scratch feed _. --

1 bushel wheat - . .—-

1 bushel cornz-- -----

1 bushel oats- -- Wawa mifee satan
23; doz. eggs at COnts: aaa. 65
8 1-6 doz. eggs at 26 cents_. --
weight of chicken 91 Ibs. at 14 cts- eras :
Receipts over expenditures... ._ : 26.68 epee

, 3 )—By

3,409 $82.51 $82.51

During the year the pullets averaged to lay 142 1-24 eggs each and the
flock consumed 2,367 Ibs. of grain and meat scrap, or an average of 90.6 lbs.
The cost of feed, straw and oyster shell was $40.83, or an average of $1.57
per bird. The eggs sold for $69.77 or at an average of 24.4 cents per dozen

An average selling price of 24.3c per dozen looks de-
cidedly small these days, but a net profit of over one
dollar on each hen was considered “not so bad” in 1910.

PLENTY OF SHADE FOR THE BACK-YARD FLOCK HERE

Rows of sweet corn along the side of the back lawn protect the fowls from summer heat.

to consider the comfort of the fowls.

The total number of eggs produced during the year was
3,409, the average per hen being 142.5.

DAILY RECORD OF EGGS FROM OCTOBER 1, 1910
TO SEPTEMBER 30, 1911 --24 HENS

**Not a Day in the Year without an Egg”’

> 2 2g g° 2° 2 ee 2. See
Qo 6 4 aS oe a ee Ee “fg
[ul (Se G10 = a1Sane) 17,0 10 Ono mann
2 1 6, G 120 46-43) “a¢.861s TO MeONES
2 °° 1 9° 3 °° 8 43) | i720 ie) 17) eto eo 9 4
4 29 @ 8. 7 WW 10 34 45 10) tae ueeieee7
5 .1 1 4 8 1 #216 16 #18 1 it 7a
6 1 2 8 9 IW i 34 37 15 e1Qmeomes
7. (9 62 <4. 99° 9) 12 FL Py on eS abt
8 1 8 9 12 15 16 12 14 fon aha!
9 38 10 Jb G5, 15 180 15.) umemIoeeeS
10 2 2 4 8 US: 16 12 13 9 10 9 4
ia A 00 eo salt) MeO 3 13° dee MOmeetOMs
1 i 4 4 6 i 4 a6 18) 9 aes wan 9 3
13 94, (89 6 8 4.) “soya ie. “16 9 It Sets:
4 92 df +7 10 © 9 <2 = 6) “io. 44 9 on 4
1 8 98 & Qe “13e" 73 “aa a 7 10 gua3
16 5 4-10. 9 10). 36) 17 steel 7 4
7 2 1" 6 9 35> 46 “Te 17 eo OE
i8 2 4 7 14 12% 12 13° 13° 99)) rege 3
i9 > 93 4 98. 43 15, 6 81s) sieeerS 8
59 3 *3- 7% 40 13 a5) 16) tay Sita 9 6 4
22 6 5 10 11 9 ° Gd 14 913). - oe awe
2 2 28 6 13 16 16 -19 18 10 11 9 4
23°33 a SS i ia) 1S. is ae ers
24 2 28 @.-9 8 12 is 18 10 19" 1135-2
2 2 6 -5 13 10 15 14 15 10 14 6 2
26.3 38 8 Il 13) “4 18 919 © tee toeeion
7 2 2 .6 10 °17 . 16. 14 °14 * 10, 100) 190 eer
2% 2:2 5 12 14 %12 2 #19. 11 10 Soa
2903 3) 160 2222 7, Pies 18 9 UU Sod
30 4 3 4 14 ..... 16 21 14 .12 1 vane
3 3 8 10 ee ee al! eee erie a A tSe ioe a 9. =

59° «89 «185 291 349 127 458 480 3537 341 285 598

EDITORIAL NOTE: The following report is given partly to contrast
conditions before the war with the present, ulso to show how, with careful man-
agement, the flock can be kept productive the year around. This is especially
desirable to the bac k-yard poultry keeper who often attaches fully as much
importance to having 9. constant supply of fresh eggs as to economy in cost.
The second table presented by Mr. White shows that there was not a single
day in the year when he did not secure at least one egg-—a truly remarkable
performance.

Made the Start Twelve Years Ago

This New Jersey Back-Yard Flock Pays All Expenses and
Returns a Substantial Cash Profit, in Addition
to Supplying the Home Table with All
Eggs Used at no Cost Whatever

By G. CHRIS HUBNER, New Jersey

| MADE my start in poultry keeping about twelve years

ago, when, in the late fall, my mother disposed of her
back-yard flock, and left me with eight or ten half-grown
chickens that the butcher would not
take—some chickens! After various
ups and downs I discontinued poultry
keeping for a time but made another
start in midsummer of 1917, when I
got in touch with a farmer, who, as
he thought, was unloading some laid-
out S. C. W. Leghorns. They looked
good to me and I bought 15 hens for
one dollar apiece. I got quite a few
eggs from them but made no records.
I held 13 of these hens, sold the other
two and bought a cockerel for one
dollar and he proved to be a very
good one.

From January, 1918, to December
of the same year, with 13 White Leg-
horns, I received 183 dozens of eggs;
sold 93 dozens for $61.30 and received
$19.55 for poultry sold during the
year, making a total of receipts of
$80.85. My expense for feed, etc.,
was $62.41, leaving me a cash profit
of $18.44 besides 90 dozens of eggs

Tt pays for the home table. In January,

REPORTS FROM SUCCESSFUL SMALL-FLOCK OWNERS 17

1919, I started with 21 hens and received 2,236 eggs to
December; sold 98% dozens for $67.80; received for poul-
try sold $122; making total receipts of $189.80. My ex-
pense for maintenance was $137.45, making a profit of
$52.35, and I had 88% dozens of eggs for the home.

I now have a henhouse 16 by 14
feet and expect to carry about 30
birds this coming winter. House has an
open front with curtains to let down
at night, droppings boards, with
plenty of ashes on them so the drop-
pings do not freeze fast, a good spray
pump at my right hand for pests,
roosts that lift out and are easily
sprayed, plenty of good cool, fresh
water in summer, and just a little bit
warmed in winter, with a homemade
heater. I have plenty of litter on the
floor, which I work up with a hay
fork when feeding, also a dust bath
in a sunny corner which they seem
to enjoy very much, charcoal, grit

ture in the fall before cold weather, so that they would
lay during that time, and by using in the ration an ani-
mal protein, which included either meat scrap or tankage.
The house on the Wiggins’ place is just an ordinary shed-
roof affair and one which anyone in town who has a back

and oyster shell before them at all
times, also a good laying mash.

This year I bought a 150-egg in-
cubator and have had two good
hatches. The first one was 99 chicks
out of 119 fertile eggs and no crip-
ples. April 8 I still had 92 good lively chicks. The sec-
ond hatch I ran for a friend, getting 104 chicks out of 115
fertile eges with one cripple. I have now an order for
25 pullets which I will sell and expect to make a nice
profit from them, which will help pay expenses for main-
taining the rest of the flock and the broilers are always
good to eat, and can sell all I have at all times.

Back-Yard Poultry Flock Nets Woman
$4.36 Per Hen

Back-Yard Poultry Keeping Pays the City Dweller Well,
if Proper Methods Are Used in Handling the Fleck
and a Good System of Management Is Followed

By C. W. CARRICK, Purdue University

L AST spring Mrs. E. G. Wiggins of Evansville set

290 eggs and hatched 223 chicks. She sold 110 of
the chicks and of the 103 remaining lost only one, a phe-
nomenal record which indicated excellent care in handling
the baby chicks. She kept the pullets raised for a laying
flock, the average number of which for the year was 47.
The total number of eggs laid was 7,272, or an average
of 155 per hen. Hatching eggs sold brought $63.20 and
those consumed at home or sold brought $263.98. Poultry
sold brought $36.55, which represented the surplus from
the flock, and baby chicks brought $18. The gain on the
inventory of the stock showed $56, making a total cash
return during the year of $453.88. Total expenses, in-
eluding cost of feed ($206.05), value of stock purchases,
interest on the investment of $285 at six per ¢ent and de-
preciation of stock were $248.90, leaving a net profit of
$204.98, or an average of $4.36 per hen.

Mrs. Wiggins was able to make this excellent record
by hatching her chicks (which were Single Comb Mottled
Anconas) in March, thus having pullets that would ma-

These houses are quite inexpensive, being built of rough boards covered with narrow strips.
muslin shutters are used and no glass, thus further reducing cost.
brooding and to the use of growing stock and will accommodate good-sized laying flock
are built on runners for easy moving. ee hn

PRACTICAL LOW-COST HOUSES FOR GROWING STOCK OR LAYERS

Double
Are wel! adapted to colony-hover
These houses

yard may have. The grain is fed in straw litter so that
the chickens get plenty of exercise scratching for it.

A Good Egg Yield Every Month in the Year*

Another Small Flock That Is Profitably Productive the
Year Around—Average Production 182 Eggs Per Hen

By C. W. BARTELLS, Illinois

I AM a back-yard poultry keeper, and aim to keep

about 20-hens and 20 pullets. Each summer or fall
I replace the two-year-old hens with pullets as I keep
them through only two laying seasons. During the first six
months of 1919 I had 42 hens and pullets. I then sold
18 hens and for the next three months had 24. The lat-
ter part of September I added 20, making 44 hens and
pullets for the last three months of the calendar year.
My flock-average during the year was 38. The total pro-
duction of the flock was 6,932 eggs or an average of 182
per hen and the feed cost of the eggs produced averaged
about 20 cents per dozen.

My birds are English-American White Leghorns of
a good laying strain, but not show birds. They laid quite
heavily during the period of high-priced eggs, my aver-
age price for the year being 50 cents per dozen. Living
in town, we of course have to keep the hens penned up
except an hour or so in the evening in the summer when
I let them out on the lawn. My house is a cheap affair,
open front facing south and tight on the other three sides.
They have plenty of fresh air but no drafts. I keep the
floor heavily covered with litter so that the birds have
to seratch for all they get. In the evening after they
have gone to roost, I scatter wheat or oats in the litter
so they can get busy just as soon as they come off the
perches in the morning. I keep a hopper of commercial
mash, and another of grit and oyster shell, before them

*Reprinted from March, 1920, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

18 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

at all times, and at night I feed them corn. Following is

my record for the year:

JaNUary so 22 aso ae wee oe eee er 2 .556 eggs

February 2. ==: <<< === NEE og ee at ghee eee _759 eggs

_.970 eggs

é _..966 eggs

2 _864 eggs

Se ee ee oe Pere - _.711 eggs

Sh ieee ee ee ee _.-. ..393 eggs

August-.__--- wat ca nuloa =a Selwate oan ne __...406 eggs

September .so22 22 a.c6 see esol eteseass = _ ..300 eggs

Octobers == Fes ee Se Ad Seer oS = : Bi 369 eggs

November _ ares See 480 eggs

December___-_- - -- -- 158 eggs
Total__--

22 ave 6932 eggs
Average per hen__----- 8

6,932, or 578 dozens at 50 cents per dozen
Feed, aside from table scraps, ete.,- - --

Profit- ae -$ 169.00
Per Hen_..___- 4.45

Naturally I am very, well pleased with the results,
and feel that when it comes to economical egg production
the White Leghorn beats them all.

Back-Yard Poultry Keeping Yields
Good Profits*

With Good-Quality Steck, Etc., Sales of Eggs for Hatch-
ing and Breeding Fowls Add Materially to the Profits
That Can Be Realized From a Small Flock

By IRVIN A. BRINKMAN, Pennsylvania
if HAVE been keeping chickens for the last six years,

most of the time Single Comb White Leghorns, but

for the last two years I have had Barred Rocks. I am

Receipts, Expenses and Net Gains
Receipts from July 1, 1917,
Young stock on hand:
14 Single Comb White Leghorn hens at $1.50 each -
11 Single Comb White Leghorn pallets 4 at $2.00 each -
6 Barred Rock pullets at $2.00 each - ae
1 Parred. Rock cockerel at $2.50 -____----- aes
5 White Leghorn cockerels at $2.50 each _.--- --

to: August: 17, 1918.22 52-2

17 cockerels, Barred Rock for cating at $1.25 eac h.
Grain on hand:
200 Ibs. Purina Mash at $4.50_-

400 Ibs. VYurina Mash at $4.

Total 2-- 25. oes
Feed and other expe nses from July iy "1917, to “Aug. airy, “1918

Net Gain

Now the 70 young chicks (total that I raised) cost
me $43.15 to raise to the age of four months, as the price
of feed is high and I use only the best grades. I sold
the pullets and cockerels, mentioned below, at four months

of age, as follows:

23 Barred Rock pullets at $1.50 each_..------ “ae See Sy Vo tn oO
2 Barred Rock cockerels at $1.25 (3 months old) Se Saas 2.50
5 Barred Rock cockcrels at $2.00 each_. ___.--- oo oe eee 10.00
30 chickens Total . -- satin eco es soon 1474300!
Cost of raising same ay eee 43.15
Net cash gain-_- = ~SeeJe2es : ae - Shore ee eS. 3.85

Besides I have left for my own use, as inventoried
above in statement with receipts:

6 Barred Rock pullets at $2.00 each___ --___- a 2nd See ee Or L200)
11S. C. White Leghorn pullets at $2.00 each_ 40, kee 22.00
1 Barred Rock cockerel at $2.50.....-.-.-___- a 5.ts een ete 2.50
5 8. C. White Leghorn cockerels at $2.50 euch: ._..2 ease meet 12.50
17 Barred Rock cockerels (for eating) at $1.25 each_____ - 32 21.25

$ 70.25
Plus: cash: pain_c<* 2-2-3 2seene ten eee ae SR reget weer 3.85
Total profit on stock raised above mentioned__-_._.------- -.---.3 74.10

enclosing a photo of my house, 8 by :
20 feet, fitted with removable fixtures, ;
and I wish to say that it is the most
convenient poultry house I ever saw.
I have it furnished with metal hop-
pers and two-gallon water cans that
are made in two parts so that they
can be taken apart and thoroughly
cleaned.

I also have a hundred-egg Prairie
State incubator and a hundred-chick
size Prairie State hover. All this
equipment, including house and yards,
incubator, hover, fixtures for interior
of house and fixtures for the young
chicks HAVE BEEN PAID FOR BY
THE CHICKENS.

Now for what I have done this
spring. My chickens were hatched

the first week of April] and the pul-
lets and cockerels mentioned in my
account herewith rendered were sold
at four months of age. These chicks
were all raised on a city lot. My Leghorn pullets, now four
and one-half months old, are developing rapidly and sev-
eral I feel sure will be laying at five months old, which
is not unusual with Leghorns.

In the general account of the year’s receipts are in-
cluded hatching eggs and some year-old Barred Rock hens
and one Barred Rock cock sold as breeders, as well as
eggs we sold for table use, for which I received as high
as 80c a dozen last winter.

These prices for stock, as given above, are conserva-
tive. The same grade of stock could not be purchased
from any large breeder at anywhere near the same prices.

profitable,

*Reprinted from October, 1918, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

POULTRY YARD OF

Illustration shows thefattractive little poultry plant of Irvin A. Brinkman.
also the source of real enjoyment.

A SUCCESSFUL BACK-LOTTER

g I It has proved to be truly
See interesting report herewith.

My egg records are given below:

1917 1918 Eggs
July -- Tenet SOs of nee Januarys =. see eee ae eeesO,
August_ ee ares eee February vaeeree - --426
September... eprexte March _- cone _550
Octobers22 > ee
November--. _. --
December -- - ---

‘August 17 da Lys | SUI 1214'S
330 5-6 days . 38,970 eggs

The hens are all still laying well. I have just given
the above records up to date.

I also would add that I have only lost one hen in
six years from sickness. The past season I lost only 10
chicks from 80 hatched and they were lost the first week,

due to extremely cold and wet weather.

CHAPTER III

The Back-Yard Poultry Plant as a Source of Profit

Success in Poultry Keeping for Profit Is Largely an Individual Matter—It Is Well Adapted to the Requirements of a
Side-Line Occupation—Can Be Started on a Small Scale, With Limited Capital, Increasing as
Experience Warrants—With Reasonable Industry Success Is Assured

HOSE who have sufficient room and time to
care for fowls in numbers greater than are
needed to meet the requirements of the home
table find that with proper management they
can make their flocks an important source of
Owing to restricted space the methods adopted

income.
necessarily are intensive, often highly so, and to this there
are certain well-known objections, such as greater labor
cost, danger of soil contamination, etc., but there also

are some compensating advantages. However, there is
not a great deal of difference between the methods prac-
ticed by the back-yard poultry keeper and those regularly
followed by many successful commercial egg farmers,
aside from the fact that the former often is seriously hand-
icapped in raising young stock. It is possible to raise
chicks in confinement with excellent results, but the diffi-
culties sometimes are serious and many find it desirable
to limit their efforts to egg production, purchasing a sup-
ply of pullets in the fall and killing or selling most or
all of these at the end of their first laying season.

As regards the advisability of going into any branch
of poultry keeping on either a small or a large scale, each
person must make his own decision. This book could be
filled with reports of those who have taken up the work
with entire success. On the other hand, many pages could
be filled with the lamentations of those who through illy
considered ventures, personal misfortunes, or plain unfit-
ness, have failed. With but few exceptions the profits
in poultry keeping, whether it is a small back-yard en-
terprise or on a scale so large as to demand all of one’s
time, rest solely with the individual. Those who have
access to good markets, who adopt correct methods, and
who industriously apply themselves to the work are prac-
tically assured of reasonable returns. Unfortunately
there are many who have little idea of what will be re-
quired of them in the way of effort, who do not understand
the importance of being well and accurately informed,
and who have greatly exaggerated expectations. Among
these disappointment and failure are common—but not
any more so than is the case in other lines of work at-
tempted under similarly unfavorable conditions.

Poultry keeping as a means of livelihood appeals to
many men and women who, for one reason or another,
want an outdoor occupation that does not place too severe
a tax upon physical strength. Others look favorably upon
it because it is supposed to require little capital. The
work is comparatively light, if well planned, and it is prob-
able that those who are physically weak are less handicap-
ped in this industry than in most others coming under the
head of manual labor. In the matter of capital, however,
the expectations of many are misleading. It is true that
poultry keeping can be started on an extremely limited
investment and in a term of years a substantial business
may be developed from such a small beginning. But in
one way or another a poultry plant accommodating sev-
eral hundred fowls calls for the investment of a good deal

of capital and it is unwise to start on a small scale with
the expectation of building up by the process of natural
growth, without some definite means of earning a liveli-
hood during the growing period. The attempt to
make the small poultry plant finance important improve-
ments and extensions and support the owner at the same
time is apt to result in privation or extremely slow growth,
or both.

Strictly speaking, all lines of poultry keeping are open
to the small-plant operator. He can successfully produce
anything that the poultry farmer or the general farmer
finds profitable. But all lines are not equally practical
under his conditions, and profits and personal satisfaction
in the work (the latter a truly important consideration)
will depend quite largely upon the wisdom of the choice
made. In deciding this point much will depend upon the
individual’s other employment. The local market also
should be carefully studied since the small-scale operator
does not, as a rule, ship his products but must rely upon
the neighbors to take all surplus. The nature of the soil
also must be considered, as some things are practical on
sandy, well-drained soil that it would be unwise to at-
tempt on clay soil.

The various lines of production open to the back-yard
poultry keeper may be listed as follows:

Eggs for table use.

Broilers.

Table fowls.

Day-old chicks and eggs for hatching.

Breeding and exhibition stock.

Eggs for Table Use

One of the safest and most easily mastered, as well
as most profitable branches of the industry, is the pro-
duction of eggs for table use. Starting on a small scale,
the flock can be developed rapidly, as expericnce and de-
mand justify. The majority of small-plant operators find
at their doors a fine retail market for their products, often
one that will pay a premium for eggs of superior quality
such as may be produced on any small plant with proper
methods and prompt marketing. The opportunity to sell
at retail prices, without expense for transportation, com
missions, ete., often more than overcomes the handicap
that the small-plant producer is under on account of his
somewhat higher feed and labor costs.

The small-plant operator need not feel any concern
about the possibility of realizing a good profit in market
egg production with well-managed flocks. He should,
however, clearly understand that his margin of profit per
dozen eggs depends quite largely upon the average pro-
duction of the fowls. A low average means little or no
profit in every instance. Stock of good breeding, early-
hatched pullets, correct feeding and proper methods of
eare, INSURE high average egg yields; and with reason-
ably good management, high averages mean good profits

to the poultry keeper, ALWAYS.
19

20 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Raising Broilers for Profit
There are a number of reasons why broiler raising
appeals to the poultry keeper who has to conduct his oper-
ations within limited space.- During the “broiler season”
prices are high and demand is good. Chicks that are sold
at 1 to 2 pounds weight require little yardroom, and quite
a large number can be produced within the limits of an

EARLY-HATCHED ener A SOURCE OF INCOME TO THE
{ALL-PLANT PRODUCER

Above illustration shows a flock of 80 Rhode Island Red chicks averaging
to weigh 14 lbs. at time photo was taken—May 17. Cockerels in such a flock
can be sold for broilers at top prices for the season, and the pullets should be
laying early in the fall

ordinary back yard. Broiler raising, however, is not one
of the simplest branches of the industry and should never
be undertaken on a large scale by the inexperienced. Un-
der average conditions the period during which they can
be profitably raised is short. In winter, the high price
of eggs, coupled with low fertility and the extra expense
of brooding, makes the cost of production extremely high.
Late in the season when low-cost farm-raised broilers
flood the market, prices drop to levels that afford no
profit whatever to the poultry specialist. For these
reasons the average person finds that profitable broiler
raising is practically limited to those that can be sold
from April to July, though under especially favorable
market conditions production can profitably be extend-
ed over a wider period of time.

Early in the season there is a fairly good market for
what are known as “squab broilers’—chicks that weigh
from 1 to 1% pounds live weight. As the season advances
the market requires larger size and, except under special
conditions, the bulk of the small-plant broiler product,
where the larger breeds are kept, will usually be sold as
regular broilers or when 1% to 2 pounds each, live weight.
Chicks can be brought to squab-broiler size in a compara-
tively short time and it is not unusual for experienced
poultry keepers to place their surplus cockerels on the
market at eight weeks of age, or even less. Three months
should be the limit of time required to produce 2-pound
broilers in the larger breeds. If the chicks are of Leg-
horn breeding it is much better to sell them by the time
they have reached this age, even though they may not be
full size. As a matter of fact, the average Leghorn breed-
er aims to sell his surplus cockerels as quickly as he can
find someone to take them off his hands, regardless of
their weight or age.

The high point in the broiler market usually is
reached in April or May. Earlier than that the demand
is comparatively limited, and after that date prices begin
to fall off. The broiler grower, therefore, will aim to

have just as many chicks as possible to market about this
time. If he has suitable equipment for brooding at this
season (a highly important “if’’), his first hatches may be
brought off by the first of February.

At the Western Washington Experiment Station an
experiment was recently carried out to learn the exact
cost of raising broilers, the results of which will interest
many. The following condensed report of the test is from
a monthly bulletin from that institution:

“In order to secure definite costs on the broiler ques-
tion 100 cockerels were selected from a room brooder flock
of 4-week-old chicks. These were not selected for size,
as would be normal handling for marketing, but where
taken as they came, the endeavor being to secure the same
chicks that we would otherwise kill. As a consequence,
these cockerels were not very uniform and some males
weighed much more than others. The 100 chicks weighed
at this period 39% pounds, or 6.32 ounces each.

“The consumption of the various feeds for each suc-
ceeding week until the birds were marketed is here given,
and it is also explained that the oats fed were germinated
to about 1-8 inch sprouts, so that the 3 1-2 pounds dry
oats charged in the first week’s ration were really about
8 pounds of sprouted oats. There was also a scarcity of
milk on the farm and the amount given was rather less
than they could consume. The tenth week milk was used
in a sloppy mash fed in the fattening crate. At the end
of the fifth week 2 cockerels died and three more died at
the end of the sixth week. Ninety-five birds were car-
ried through the feeding test, but only the 90 males were
marketed.”

STATEMENT OF COST OF FEED
Used in Producing Broilers at W. Washington Exp. Station

eek
10 aes fattening crat

Total -$16.55
90 birds, shipping w weight 107 Ibs., weight at market 96 Tbs., at 30 ¢_.$ 28. 30
Less express - okee pres

Total oo 2oo us oet cece fess Beas eoemes See ee eee
Cost of feed, 90 cockerels and 5 pullets

Balance- < ie eee Yes tes)

The average “price “paid for day- “old chicks this - year ‘was about 15 cents

each, and the average cost of raising till four weeks old, including feed, heat,

and brooder deaths as determined from reports of some twenty-five local

raisers, was 15 cents each. The actual cash cost to the poultryman of each

1-pound cockerel raised to market age, according to the above records, is as”
follows:

Cost of chick_- 2 22$ 5215
Raising to four weeks. Soa oe Se ee Best, soya)
Fourth week tovmarket age....--.~-- 22-20-22 -2 2 oe soe Se eae LTS
Market ‘weight, 1 pound—Cost_=2_--.- 2/12 =5 2 ee eee tee lo.

The foregoing figures show that it would be unwise
for the intensive poultry keeper to attempt raising broil-
ers during the low-price season unless especially favor-_
able arrangements can be made for marketing them.

Any of the popular breeds may be employed success-
fully in the production of broilers. Chickens with white
or buff feathers present a much more attractive appear-
ance than those having dark-colored pinfeathers and par-
ticularly where the broilers are to be dressed and a special
trade catered to, it pays to avoid dark-colored breeds.
Some markets have no prejudice against white-skinned
birds but the average consumer demands yellow-skinned
chickens, and it is poor policy to go contrary to a definite
preference along this line.

Production of Table Fowls

The production of table fowls, by which is meant
roasters, capons, etc., is one of the least desirable branches
of the industry for the specialist. The margin of profit
is comparatively low and the successful, economical rais-
ing of fowls to adult size calls for more range than the
average small-plant operator can provide. There is, in

THE BACK-YARD POULTRY PLANT AS A SOURCE OF PROFIT 21

some sections, a good market for fowls of special quality,
but few markets pay enough for table poultry to make it
profitable to undertake their production extensively, ex-
cept on farms where they can be raised at minimum cost.

As has already been stated, those who are operating
in close quarters usually will find it to their advantage
to dispose of their surplus young stock as broilers. Par-
ticularly where the pullets are to be raised to maturity,
these need all the room that can be given them. One
of the small-plant operator’s most serious mistakes is
in attempting to keep more fowls than he has sufficient
room for, and this is particularly objectionable where pul-
lets are raised to replace the laying flock. These, if
crowded in their houses or yards and subjected to the
annoyance of maturing cockerels, will make much slower
growth and will require several weeks more time in
which to reach laying maturity than when raised under
more favorable conditions.

Day-Old Chicks for Profit

The production of day-old chicks, using hatching eggs
from near-by breeders or fanciers, requires practically
no space aside from that occupied by the incubators, and
persons living in towns have found the industry highly
profitable. Since the chicks are sold right from the incu-
bator, little brooding equipment is needed except whatever
provision may be made for emergencies. The ordinary
house cellar will accommodate quite a number of lamp-
heated machines, or even a small mammoth, and thousands
of chicks can be produced there in a season. There is a
market for day-old chicks in every community and, as a
rule, sales are limited only by the number of good strong
chicks that the operator is able to bring out. Because
there is no outdoor work or heavy labor involved, hatching
day-old chicks is well suited to women.

What has been said in regard to limited space re-
quired is based on the assumption that the eggs used are
to be bought from near-by breeders or farmers having
standard-bred fowls. Farm flocks, if of good breeding,
are especially desirable as a source of supply. They
usually have open range and are rarely pushed for heavy
production, so that their eggs are

Island Reds and Leghorns are always in demand, and in
some localities Anconas, Orpingtons, Brahmas, Langshans,
ete., are also salable in good numbers. But before ven-
turing much with the latter breeds be sure there is a mar-
ket. It is not advisable to undertake chick hatching on
too large a scale at first. Start with a few lamp-heated
machines and GET GOOD ONES. When the beginner is
certain that he knows how to operate them successfully
and can bring off strong, vigorous chicks, he then can
safely increase his hatching capacity to any desired ex-
tent, and will find a ready market, as a rule.

Breeding Exhibition Stock

This subject is considered last, not because it is least
profitable, but because fewer persons are apt to succeed
in this line of the industry than in the production of market
poultry products. Thousands of back-yard breeders have
demonstrated that fowls of superior exhibition quality can
be produced within the most restricted quarters, but it
must be admitted that not all are adapted to this branch
of the industry. Every person who keeps fowls at all
should keep standard-bred stock of good quality, but only
those should attempt to breed exhibition stock who take
real interest in the work.

The chief practical difficulty in raising exhibition
stock lies in the fact that the birds, both young and adult,
need more room than the average small-plant operator
has available. It should be appreciated that the quality
of the stock produced depends quite largely upon the con-
ditions under which it is raised. Birds that have free
range and that are not crowded will grow into much finer
specimens than would be the case if they were raised
under ordinary small-plant conditions. There are, of
course, various ways in which the difficulties peculiar to
a lack of room can be met and overcome. Breeding pens
ean be successfully kept in even the most limited space
and small numbers of chicks of the best quality raised if
they receive proper attention. This is not likely to be
given, however, unless the owner finds genuine interest
and pleasure in the work.

highly fertile, and the chicks are

strong and will live and grow if giv-
en half a chance.

Where good stock is kept, the
sale of eggs for hatching may always
be made an important source of profit.
Given strong, vigorous, well-developed
birds for the breeding pens, the small-
plant operator can secure as good
fertility as any, and the chicks
hatched from his matings will be
strong and vigorous, IF DUE CARE
IS TAKEN TO OFFSET A LACK OF
ROOM BY PROVIDING COMPUL-
SORY EXERCISE.

In planning to produce either
eggs for hatching or day-old chicks
it is important clearly to understand
the preference of the local market as
to breeds. It is not advisable to at-
tempt to develop a trade in chicks

ae 7

or hatching eggs of fancy breeds or
those that are little known in the lo-
cality where sales are to be made.
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode

Houses have board floors, and earth in covered runs is renewed four times a year.
averaged to lay 166 eggs each. 2
Photo from United States Department of Agriculture.

INTENSIVE BACK-YARD PLANT WITH COVERED YARDS

Hens in one flock
About 70 hens are kept here—and are an important source of income,

CHAPTER

Helpful Reports From Money-Making Flocks

Complete Data Are Here Given in Regard to Receipts and Expenses in Commercial Egg Production Under Present
Conditions—Several Detailed Reports Are Presented, Describing the Success of Persons Operating
on Limited Acreage and Employing Intensive Methods, Such as Are
Applicable to Town-Lot Conditions Generally

}N THIS CHAPTER are presented a number
of interesting accounts of persons who have
made poultry keeping a more or less important
source of income under back-yard conditions
or with quite limited acreage. These should
prove helpful and encouraging to others who are inter-
ested in learning the possibilities of poultry keeping as
a source of additional income or who look forward to de-
veloping a small back-yard flock to the point where it
can be depended upon as the sole means of livelihood.
Many of these reports are based upon prewar conditions,
when net profits were lower than at present, but they
perhaps afford a fairer indication of the results that may
reasonably be expected from intelligent and industrious
effort. By way of showing what poultry keepers are
actually accomplishing at present we give herewith the
following data from “Hints to Poultrymen,” a monthly
publication of the Poultry Department of the New Jersey
Experiment Station. This department has access to the
complete 1918 records of a number of New Jersey com-
mercial egg farms keeping from 50 to 800 hens, and
through the compilation of these records it is possible to
present a fair average of their returns for that year.

“At the present time this table presents averages
which may be taken as standards to be referred to by
commercial egg farmers for comparison from time to time
with their own egg production, feed consumption and other
details. Some plants of course did better than the aver-
age while others did not do as well. These averages are
based on a number of plants in different parts of the state
and represent what one might expect from a one-man egg
farm. This table also presents a comparison of the year’s
report of the average farm with a report from the farm
that made the greatest total return, as well as the best
return per bird. On a careful study of this comparison
one will note several interesting facts. First and most
significant is the difference in the egg production per bird.
Although the proprietor of this farm received 4.6 cents
less per dozen than the average, and paid 34 cents per
hundred more for his feed, and although his birds con-
sumed more feed per bird by six pounds than did the av-
erage, his increased egg production was enough to more
than offset this. His feed cost per dozen eggs was ac-
tually 3.2 cents less than the feed cost per dozen eggs

on the average farm, and his net returns per bird were .

$2.01 more than the average.

“This detailed summary of costs will be of especial
interest to those who contemplate going into the produc-
tion of eggs in a commercial way and want to know what
it costs to feed hens and what revenue they return in the
way of market eggs at current prices. Never before to
our knowledge has so much accurate inside information on
production costs been made available.”

With reference to the following table it is fair to add
that the profits there shown probably are greater than

have ever before been realized in commercial egg pro-
22

duction. Whether similarly good results can be secured
indefinitely in the future no one can say with certainty,
but if the reports given in this chapter, showing results
secured before prices reached their present extraordinary ~
high levels, are taken into consideration along with the
New Jersey data, there would appear to be little excuse
for the beginner being misled as to what he may reason-
ably expect under fairly normal conditions.

RECORDS OF THE BEST FARM COMPARED WITH THOSE OF
AVERAGE FARM*

Best Average
Project Facuy Project Farm
Number of Birds..----- --- eee = 30 Se 970
Number Of lres.2 = ee eee 1720R6 115268
Per cent Production_-------- Bole Se aeicinn se 48 34.4

Feed per Dozen Eggs (Ibs.)--....._---.-------- 6 7.5

Feed Cost per Dozen Lggs - e 22.8¢ 26c
Total Cost per Dozen Eggs_---..-------------- ee 360
Price per Dozen eee 22s .3¢ 61.9¢

Returns on Eggs- Goere. Sore AES $ 5571.85
Mash Consumed (Ibs. = Bee ee 37384
Cost of Mash_-.--.---- a= $ 1303.84
Cost of Mash per ewt.-- sa ee ee ees 3.48
Scratch Consumed (lbs. yeas eb ee 34861
Cost? of Scratch. -.225- 222255 ce ee ere $1198.17
Cost of Scratch per ewt. - ---- 3 3 3.45
TotaliHeedis(bs:) Gas 2-482-2 2 eee 72245
Total; Cost of Peed =.= - 24 eee eee ee -$ $ 2502.01
Total Cost of Feed per cwt.-------------------3 3 3.4
Rettirn over Peed) =22-2-— = SS oe ee 3 2915.54
Table Poultry Sold - -- --$ 3 426.20
Hatching Eggs Sold -- ee fee ee 3 265.24
Baby Chicks Sold__---- Ce Oe ee ee $ 275.92
Stock Sold__......-- aegis Les -.§ 1224.11 $ 605.81
Return on Manure_--_____ _- won e ea c-=--- 402290 3 84.39
Miscellaneous Returns----------------.--------§ 192.15 $ 422.52
Extra Laborii2o222222-<2 --38 317.30 $ 247.00
Freight and Express --3 146.69 3 69.96
StockBought’._ 2222) 2222 22 sea ee = 2 0800) $ 35.34
Miscellaneous Expenses -- see en Pees --$ 376.91 $ 568.38
‘Total Returnso-. -4_-+ Raf RESP EE --$10112. $ 7651.93
Total Expenses---- -- $ 3422.69
Net Return (exclusive. of interest and ‘deprecia-
ation) --_-_- ~aoseas Se ee O09 2199 $ 4229.24
Per cent Mortality........-.-.-.-.-.---.------ 2.5 12.3
AVERAGES PER BIRD
Numberob Hepsseee = = ee ee ees eee 174 126
Return on Eggs------ 7.85 E3 6.08
Mash Consumed (Ibs.) 53.9 41.5
Cost ‘of ‘Mash.=---- res 2.05 $ 1.44
Scratch Consumed (lbs. aoe ues 33.3 37.3
Gost! of Seratch®== sesso 2 cases 1.26 3 1.25
Total’ ‘Fed! (Ibss),-2—---- = -..__ = 87.2 78.8
otal \Costof Weed==.--2--— .-5 3.31 3 2.69
Returns over Feed-_----- -- ------ 4.54 3 3.39
Miscellaneous Returns.--- ~~ -- -- 0.20 $ 0.97
xtra; Labor. Costss=- ss-- se =e 0.32 $ 0.28
Total Receipts---- ae 10.20 3 8.62
Total Expenses. 4.22 $ 3.90
Net Return (exclusive ‘of interest and depre-
elation) =< 242 oe ee eee n a wees eee 5.98 $ 4.68
BEST FARM BALANCE SHEET
Inventory as of November 1, 1918
Gand) o5iacres ss: eck one ooo a eee oe es St OOO ZOO,
Buildings _- aah as os su «ote Ses
Equipment.___-_- E
Implements and Machinery -
Incubators and Brooders--
Stock (1075 birds) --__ -
Inventory as of November a “1919, (Increased ‘Num-
ber of Birds, 286, improvements installed and ex-
tra feed)ie2 = 9a) 2 $ 8803.00
Total Operating Expenses | (exclusive “of interest and
depreciation) -_-__--- - See ee ee 4191.22
Interest on Investment at “44 per ‘cent_. seem 2 319.32
Depreciation at Soper cent2- 222) eee ee eee 399.15
Total Income (exclusive of invested income) Sears: 10112.31
$12992.69
Labor; Income: (1075. birds). 2222 2 ase 5922.62
$18915.31

$18915.31
ee epee ere 5.51

Labor Income per Bird---- ~~ -- --

*Reprinted from ‘Hints to Poultrymen,’’ Vol. 8, No. 4, N. J. Exp. Station.

HELPFUL REPORTS FROM MONEY-MAKING FLOCKS 23

AVERAGE PROJECT FARM BALANCE SHEET
Inventory as of November 1, 1918

Land, 32 Acres- -$ 3466.67
Buildings-- 5923.00
Equipme nt_ 675.00
Implements and “Machinery - 125.00
Incubators and Brooders-- 406.50
Stock (970 birds) - 2271.00

Inventory as of November 1, 1919 (Increased number
of birds, 80 improvements installed and extra
feed) - $13438 .97

Total Onctathic. Expenses (exclusive - of interest and
depreciation) --

Interest on Investment at 4 per ‘cent.....__--

Depreciation at 5 per cent. 643.35

Total Income (exclusive of invested income) 7373.74
oo $17422.75

Labor Income (970 biras) -._____ __- 3389.96

$20812 7
Labor Income per Bird_-.---- SO ee Sete $ 3 50

$20812.71

Making a Living From Poultry*

Three Hundred Head of Layers and Seven to Eight Hun-
dred Chicks per Year Yield a Comfortable Living
and Some Money to Bank for a Rainy Day

By A. F. HUNTER

HERE is no question more insistent than, ‘can

I make a living from poultry?” Now and then we
meet with a concrete illustration which so completely
answers the question that it is a pleasure to describe
what the poultry keeper is doing and how he is doing it.
Such a case is that of a Mr. Clark, living in a town
some twenty miles south of Boston, who makes a good
living from poultry on a little two-
acre “farm!”

Some captious critics might claim
that “the living’? was not all made
from poultry because the liberal sup-
ply of vegetables from a well-culti-
vated garden and quantities of fruit
from the trees and bushes on the
place are considerable aids to the ta-
ble supply for the family of three, but
a garden and fruit for home use are
always considered as parts of the
country-home good things. One of
the decided advantages of a home in
the country is that we can have those
things, and when we are talking
about making a living from poultry
we always have in mind the delicious
fresh vegetables and fruits from
the garden as part of the living. Mr. Clark, however,
makes more clean cash from his poultry work alone than
the majority of workingmen can command.

Mr. Clark. told us he worked for many years in a
machine shop in southern New Hampshire. Being nat-
urally “thrifty” he had saved a portion of his wages and
owned his home. Some poultry had been kept while living
in New Hampshire, but a better location was desired and
so, after looking about and studying locations, this little
farm was found and bought, and it seems about as desirable
a place for a small poultry plant. as we have ever visited.
The advantage of choosing a good location is well illus-
trated by the fact that Mr. Clark can sell his place today
for substantially more than he paid for it.

To have one’s place steadily increasing in value is a
decided advantage; it gives one a comfortable feeling
about the pocket. Mr. Clark is past middle age and will
not be inclined to quarrel over our speaking of him as

*Reprinted from April, 1915, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

Note the stones that are laid on top of the coors to prevent their blowing over.
interesting article for details regarding this money-making little poultry *

‘elderly,’ and his success at this age clearly points the
way for others to escape from the confinement and wor-
ries of life in a city.

Another advantage of Mr. Clark’s location is that he
does not have to keep a horse. The trolley line to town
passes his door and the country store and local post office
are directly across the street. His plot of ground is long
and narrow, being but little more than a hundred feet
along the street, but widening out somewhat at the rear;
away back the land gradually slopes down into the mead-
ow of a little stream which flows north. Mr. Clark said
that when the water was high in the spring of the
year the low land was under water, and at such times
he doubted if he had two acres, but when the water has
subsided again, he is inclined to believe there is some more
than the prescribed “two acres.” This low ground, how-
ever, makes splendid range for growing pullets in summer,
as such ground is always blessed with many worms and
insects for the chicks to capture.

Mr. Clark winters about 300 head of layers and grows
each season some 700 to 800 head of chicks. White Ply-
mouth Rocks and R. I. Reds are the varieties kept, as he
has found these two to be the best for both eggs and soft
roasters. Of soft roasters he sells about five hundred in
a season. One of the advantages of his location is that
everything can be sold alive, at the door, and at good prices.
With the close competition that’exists between soft roaster
buyers, the prices they pay for the product are all that

COLONY HOUSES FOR GROWING STOCK ON THE CLARK POULTRY PLANT

See accompanying
‘farm.’”

can be paid with safety. In late summer and fall, also,
there is a good demand for hatching eggs from which to
grow soft roasters, and for these 50c a dozen is paid at
the door. There is a very fair profit from eggs sold for
this purpose.

Mr. Clark’s poultry buildings are mostiy set along a
line extending from the rear of the dwelling house straight
back to the west. There is a brooder house 50 by 12 feet,
in which are five Cyphers’ brooders, accommodating 500
chicks. There is a coal stove near the middle of this
house for keeping out the extreme cold in winter. There
is a laying house 72 by 10 feet, divided into four pens 18
by 10 feet in size, and yards 85 by 18 feet with apple
trees for shade. This long house is extended by having
added to it several small houses which have been bought
of the shoe factory workers of that section. These shoe
men, as they are called, are frequently changing from one
locality to another, and there are quite a few opportu-
nities to buy these small henhouses from them.

24 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

As would be expected, the greater part of Mr. Clark’s
“farm” is given over to poultry yards and chick range,
the consequence being that outside of the garden and the
coarse grass meadow near the little brook, the ground is
entirely bare of green stuff, and it is necessary to obtain
a supply of green feed. To supply this Mr. Clark sows

FRED ROOM AND BROODER HOUSE ON POULTRY PLANT OF
MRS. HOBELL

On this sma!l poultry plant Mrs. Hobell has realized from $500 to $600
annually, thus adding materially to the family income.

a bit of ground four rods square with winter rye, and
when he begins to use this, another small patch is sown
to oats to follow the rye as a green food, and another
small patch is sown with fodder corn to follow the oats.
These green crops carry the birds through the spring,
summer and early fall, the green stuff being cut fine in
a cutter and fed as a regular ration. Cabbages are
grown in parts of the garden where early peas, etc., have
been harvested, and these are supplemented by turnips,
which, with kitchen waste, specked fruit, etc., carry the
layers through the winter.

The apple trees, well loaded with attractive looking
fruit, and the thrifty looking plum, peach and cherry
trees, indicated that the combination of poultry keeping
with fruit growing was quite satisfactory. The pri-
mary object of the fruit trees, how-
ever, is shade for the laying stock con-
fined to the houses and yards, and
shade is absolutely essential for the
comfort of the birds.

This little farm gives Mr. Clark
and his family a good living. We
did not ask him just how many dollars
he could get out of his products in
a twelve-month, but we do know, from
information given us by friends liv-
ing in the town and a poultry buyer
of the section, that the annual cash
income is substantially larger than
Mr. Clark ever took out of his pay
envelopes! There is ample evidence
in and about the home of a comfort-
able condition of the pocketbook, and
there is a safe balance in the bank in
case it should come on to rain one
of these days.

This two-acre poultry plant yields a comfortable living to the owner and his family.
can be duplicated almost anywhere in this country.

A Comfortable Living on Two Acres*

This Colorado Poultryman Has Been Keeping Poultry Suc-
cessfully for Fourteen Years—Fifteen Hundred
Chickens Raised Last Year With a Loss
of Less than Four Per Cent

By CHAS. H. BARTLETT, Colorado

EDITORIAL NOTE: Mr. Bartlett is a successful
poultryman of long experience and what he states in his
report can be relied on, both as to statement of fact and
advice given. For years he has made a good living
by the sale of eggs produced from 1,000 to 1,200 Leg-
horn layers. His entire output of market eggs is taken
by one hotel. He uses less than two acres of ground for
his fowls, including the land used for the house in which
are located his outdoor brooders. What Mr. Bartlett is
doing thousands of other persons can do, provided they
are as favorably located, use the same intelligence and give
close personal attention to the work in hand.

UR poultry plant occupies two acres of ground, about

eighteen blocks from the business district. We have
all the accommodations of the city and none of its disadvan-
tages. On this piece of ground we keep from 1,000 to
1,200 S. C. White Leghorns the year round. We decided
to turn our attention to egg production rather than show
birds, so chose the White Leghorns, as we consider them
the best year-around layers. We have a good local mar-
ket and sell all our market eggs at good prices.

We built our houses of drop siding and have them
lathed and plastered, with good matehed floors. They are
about 4 feet high at the rear, 8 feet in the center and
5% feet in the front. These proportions give plenty of
room, without having much waste space to heat. We do
not supply any artificial heat, as the hens do the heating.
The particular house just described is 100 feet long, and
is divided (by wire partition only) into eight pens, each
accommodating 65 hens. This house faces east and has
a scratch pen 8 feet wide built the entire length, with
windows and drop doors to use in summer. Each pen
has a yard measuring 12 by 70 feet. We keep our hens
confined in these yards, as they lay much better than when
allowed to range about. Our other coops are built after this
general plan, some facing south, however. We never
build coops facing north or west.

*Reprinted from ‘Reports of Suecessful Poultry Growers.”’

LAYING HOUSE ON MR. CLARK’S TWO-ACRE POULTRY FARM

His success

HELPFUL REPORTS FROM MCNEY-MAKING FLOCKS 25

We use one 360- and one 240-egg incubator and dur-
ing our 14 years of work in the chicken business we have
yet to take off the first poor hatch on account of the
machine. As an egg room and hatching room we have a
cement cellar built about 2 feet under ground and 4 to 6
feet above. This insures a uniform temperature and there
is no possible chance to have the eggs get jarred. This
eare has much to do with successful hatching, we believe.

TYPE OF LAYING HOUSE POPULAR IN NEW ENGLAND

House here ilhistrated is on Mrs. Hobell’s poultry plant—see article on

this page. Gable roof and shingled walls add considerably to cost but make
the house more comfortable, both winter and summer.

We never feed our small chicks under 48 hours of
age, and many times not before 60 hours. We take them
directly from the incubator to the brooders, which are al-
ready heated and have a covering of alfalfa leaves on the
nursery floor, well mixed with chick feed. This feed, with
plenty of good, clean water, is all they have until they are
five weeks old, when we gradually change to coarser grains.

We have hatched over 1,500 little chicks this past sum-
mer and have not lost one from bowel trouble. We lost per-
haps fifty of this number, most of which were drowned
in the water dishes. The pullets were laying at four and
a half months of age and the broilers matured at eight
weeks, bringing from 40e to 20c per pound live weight
in the local market. e

There is one more point we wish to emphasize and
that is this: Do not make the mistake of starting with
“common” hens (which are so common in every sense of
the word) because they are cheap. Decide on the breed
you desire to handle, of course keeping in view the end
you wish to attain, whether layers, show birds, market
stock, or whatever it is, then get the best possible birds
and stick to them.

How a Wife Helps Swell the Family Income
With Poultry*

Makes $500 to $600 Profit per Year From Flock of About
One Hundred and Fifty Layers—Sells Day-Old
Chicks, Eggs for Hatching, Half-Grown
Pullets and “Soft Roasters”

By A. F. HUNTER

AN interesting and inspiring example of how a wife

can add do the family income when she so wishes and
circumstances favor, is found in the experience of Mrs.
Hobell, who lives near the western border of the old town
of Hingham, Massachusetts. That Mrs. Hobell clears a
profit of from five to six hundred dollars a year from her
poultry work is no doubt partly due to a favorable location
*Reprinted from June ,1917, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

(she lives just on the edge of the well-known South Shore
soft roaster district south of Boston), but the bulk of the
credit for her good success is undoubtedly due to her ef-
ficient work.

There are decided advantages in a good location.
Prices for eggs from which future soft roasters are to be
hatched are good, so that the sale of eggs to soft roaster
growers helps the profits; and then, the steady demand
for day-old chicks through the late fall, winter and spring
months is another substantial help. But there must be
eggs to sell and the newly hatched chicks to sell, else there
is no profit; to have those eggs and chicks to sell means
right planning of the poultry work, and then the careful
carrying out of the plans. That is where the efficiency
and interest in the work counts big. Unlike some poultry-
women that we hear about, Mrs. Hobell does not carry
on this work because there is need to fend against the pro-
verbial wolf; the husband and father is a foreman in
charge of one of the rooms in a large shoe factory in East
Weymouth and there is a well-filled pay envelope brought
home every week.

About 150 White Plymouth Rocks usually are kept
but there was considerably less than that number at the
time of my visit, because of an invasion of rats into the
brooder house at the time she was getting out chicks for
her own raising. The houses for the layers (one of which
is shown herewith) are about 10 by 24 feet in size, with
double-pitch roofs; both roofs and walls are shingled,
which makes them snug and warm in winter. About 50
head of layers are kept in each of these houses and there
is liberal yard space adjoining each house.

One of the best feed-room buildings that I have ever
seen, with an ample incubator room in the basement and
an excellent workroom in the loft above, also is shown.
The brooder house is annexed to this and the attendant
steps directly into the brooder house from the feed room.
The grain delivery team can drive right up to the door
at the other end of the feed room, and all grain, ete., can
be readily handled into the bins and barrels where it is
stored until wanted. Various poultry conveniences are
provided for use in the feed room.

In the basement are five incubators, and here the
2,500 to 3,000 chicks which Mrs. Hobell sells as day-olds

HOUSES FOR GROWING STOCK ON MASSACHUSETTS
POULTRY PLANT

These houses are on the intensive poultry farm of Horace Randall and
are used chiefly for brooding chicks. Photo from which this illustration was
made was taken September 22. :

26 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

are hatched, and as these are sold at the uniform price of
$15 per hundred, there is quite a substantial income trom
this part of the business. Hatching begins in December
and continues through the winter and spring; practically

1 of the chicks Mrs. Hobell can spare are engaged be-
forehand. Some chicks she kéeps to grow into soft roast-
ers there on the place, and there is a good demand for
half-grown pullets in late summer; most probably the
chicks Mrs. Hobell grows into roasters are the cockerels
hatched with these half-grown pullets. Here we see sev-
eral outlets for products, and they all help to make
the goodly net profit from the business. Day-old chicks,
eggs for hatching, half-grown pullets, and soft roasters—
these are the four chief lines of trade.

The brooding equipment consisted of five portable
brooders, which they find excellent for their purpose. One
of the advantages of using portable brooders is that they
can be moved out of doors after the chicks then in the
house no longer need brooder heat, and a second charging
of spring-hatched chicks can be brooded outside. This is
not at all an expensive poultry plant, nor has large cap-
ital been invested in equipment, and yet it serves ex-
cellently well in producing a substantial income from the
small tract of land used. In addition to the couple of
acres occupied by the poultry, there is a fine vegetable
and fruit garden. The substantial sum which Mrs. Hobell
makes by her poultry work helps out decidedly with the
family income, and she says: “and I enjoy the work.”

A Man Seeking Health Builds Profitable

Poultry Business*

Former Shoe Factory Employee Has a Nearly Perfect
One-Man Poultry Plant—Makes $1,500 to $2,000 a
Year Net Profit—Fruit Trees Help Income
By A. F. HUNTER

R. HORACE RANDALL, East Weymouth, Massa-

chusetts, started to work in a shoe factory when
he was a boy thirteen years of age, and he worked in the
factory for thirty-three years. In that time he steadily
*Reprinted from March, 1917, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

advanced until he was the highest paid hand in the factory.
When he reached that top notch his ambition was over-
stimulated to keep up to the high standard of efficiency
which brought him the extra wages, the result of such ef-
fort to keep on top being a breakdown in health. The doctor
who pulled him through the severe sickness that followed
told him to quit the factory and get out of doors.

Mr. Randall was a bachelor at that time (he has since
married) and was boarding at the old home with a sister,
whose little garden patch was too small to give him out-
of-doors occupation, and as his thoughts were tending
towards soft-roaster growing to enable him to earn his
living, he bought an acre of ground just in the rear of the
home lot and began growing chickens for market. His
first year’s work showed a fair profit and it did much more
than that because it built up his shattered health. Hav-
ing become strongly attached to the poultry business, and
fully convinced that it was a first-class business to go in-
to, he began the systematic development of a regular
poultry plant, buying some additional land, though his
acreage still remains small.

This poultry plant is a most interesting study, be-
cause it is practically a one-man poultry plant. The build-
ings, all small, are of what is generally known as the
“colony” type and are scattered over the range. The
largest building on the place stands in a yard by itself,
off at one side, and is 12 by 25 feet in size, aecommodat-
ing 100 layers. The stock is chiefly kept in houses 8 by
10 feet in size, which stand in rows, each house in a pen
fifty feet square, and there are peach trees for shade all
about. The growing pullets are housed in “A-shaped”
colony houses, 10 by 10 feet in size. The pullets are
placed in these houses as chicks and brooded with colony
hovers—about 350 baby chicks being consigned to each.

Mr. Randall has a 3,000-egg mammoth incubator, and
hatches a good many chicks for his neighbors and custom-
ers. He sold about 7,000 day-old chicks last spring, get-
ting $15 per hundred. He raised about 1,200 chicks him-
self, growing the cockerels for soft roasters, and he told
me those cockerels were sold at an average price of $1.77
apiece. As it cost him 63 cents apiece to grow those
cockerels to soft roaster size (five to seven pounds weight

A POPULAR STYLE OF POULTRY HOUSE WELL ADAPTED TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF MARKET EGG PRODUCERS

Photo from which this illustration is made was taken in the Vineland,
here illustrated is 15 by 100 feet, and holds 500 White Leghorns.
section have wider hoods than the one here shown.

Note the Weed over the front to protect opening.

J. district, where intensive methods are most successfully practiced. House
Many of the new houses built in this

HELPFUL REPORTS FROM

apiece) there was manifestly a net profit of $1.14 on
each one. As these chicks were January and February
_ hatches and were sold at five to six months old there
would seem to be a substantial profit in growing soft
roasters. He winters about 400 head of layers, about 50 of
them being the best of the year-old hens, which are kept
for breeders.

There are about forty houses in all spread out over
Mr. Randall’s “farm,” well-built and attractive looking
houses, and the plant seemed to me one of the best laid
out and best equipped that it has ever been my good for-
tune to visit. In short, it seemed to me to be an ideal
one-man poultry plant. Mr. Randall, however, does not
do all the work himself; Mrs. Randall and the little daugh-
ter are helpers. He keeps a careful account of all his re-
ceipts and expenses, and can tell to a cent just how much
he has made during each year he has been in the business.
For example, he told me his profits for the year up to the
evening before (September 21) were a trifle over $1,400.
With the fowls yet to be sold and the egg income for the
rest of the year, it is easy to see that his net income
will be $1,500 to $2,000.

Poultry Keeping As a Source of Profit for Boys and Girls

Hundreds of earnest boys and girls not only in the
country but in town have found poultry keeping a source
of profit. Poultry keeping is especially attractive to boys
and girls because of their love for pets and the extremely
limited investment required, also because it can be made
profitable on any scale no matter how small, and because
the work can so readily be adapted to school or work
hours. As a result, thousands of earnest boys and girls,
both on the farm and in town, have turned to poultry as
a means of earning pocket money, of meeting living ex-
penses, of paying their way through school, ete.

The United States Government has taken a keen in-
terest in promoting such activities and has been of great
assistance to many beginners, not only by employing
traveling representatives who organize and instruct Girls’
and Boys’ Poultry Clubs, but also, when necessary, by pro-
viding financial assistance. As an illustration of what is
being done to encourage and develop this branch of the
work the following report of progress in a single county
in Florida is presented. What Miss Dorsett has done in
her county is being duplicated in a greater or lesser degree
in hundreds of other localities in all sections of the coun-
try, and without doubt such work is bound to have a
tremendous influence upon the industry as a whole.

Successful Poultry Clubs in Suwannee
County, Florida

Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs With a Membership of 387
Organized in One County—Every Member Has
Standard-bred Poultry and Every One
Working Last Year Has An
Account in the Bank

By MISS ALICE M. DORSETT,
County Home Demonstration Agent

| REL ONeIS the example set by some other agents

in promoting poultry keeping among boys and girls
I worked out a plan by which I could secure one sit-
ting of eggs from standard-bred stock for each club mem-
ber. There were breeders of several kinds of poultry in the

MONEY-MAKING FLOCKS 27

county and each of these, to my satisfaction, wanted a
bigger poultry industry and a more progressive county.
I asked them to let each club member have a sitting of
eggs on the “cooperative plan’’—that is, return two of

>» LEI LE

MEMBER OF A BOYS’. POULTRY CLUB PREPARING HIS FOWLS
FOR EXHIBITION

the best pullets raised to pay for the eggs. They were
glad to do this. The members chose the kind of chickens
they liked best, requiring a careful study of the bulletins
furnished them and “The Standard of Perfection” which
I always took to club meetings. Needless to say quite a
variety of breeds were represented in their selection, but
no ornamental types.

Three hundred and twenty-eight club members were
ready for eggs by December 1. Before this date I asked
each member to start one sitting of just plain eggs—the
mongrel kind they had—that they might have chickens to
sell to help supply the demand. With many miles of
hauling, accompanied by various accidents, misfortunes,
broken boxes and broken eggs, each girl and boy was
finally supplied by May 1. At each club meeting there
were reports on work accomplished. Some were encour-
aging, others were discouraging, such as: “A fox caught
twelve of my fifteen chicks last night,” and “I picked cot-
ton and went on a summer camp and raised nine roosters.”

November 12, Contest Day, came at last and along
with it came influenza. Only sixty exhibits came to the
fair, but these were most creditable ones. I did not have
to bring them in my Ford either, but all came nicely crated
and prepaid. I was glad when the Fair Association in-
sisted that the club members compete along with the Coun-
ty Poultry Show. Judge Marshall announced that the
best cockerel in the show was a White Leghorn belonging
to a club girl 12 years old. In most every case club
members won prizes over the breeders cooperating with
them. I do not think the breeders were at all displeased
at such keen competition. It was interesting to see the
care with which these birds had been prepared for exhibit.

I selected from these sixty exhibits the ten best pens
for State Fair exhibit, and with these won championship
over all counties in the state. Judge Nixon said we had
the best Wyandotte cockerel in the whole poultry show.
The South Florida Fair Association offered to pay trans-
portation on exhibits if we would cooperate, but to my
surprise, no club member exhibiting at the State Fair
wanted his birds taken from the breeding pens. I got
another ten pens together with which we again won the
championship. The prize money, amounting in all to

28 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

$200, was divided among the club members and used for
buying more hatching eggs.

Every club member now has at least twenty-five
standard-bred fowls, and in ten homes the entire flock
has been changed from mongrels to standard bred.
“One hundred hens to every farm” is the slogan for Su-
wannee County. No club member stops hatching for sea-
son, as chicks can be grown any month in the year in
Florida. One girl, starting with twelve eggs, which
hatched March 28, 1919, had 85 fine birds March 28, 1920,
and besides selling several sittings of eggs she could have
sold several hundred sittings to other club members had
she been able to supply the demand, which she plans to do
next year. We will have a poultry institute during the

CHILDREN OFTEN ARE ENTHUSIASTIC POULTRY RAISERS—
GIVE THEM A CHANCE

year which will last for five days, and each club member
will attend. At this date (May 17, 1920) there are 387
CLUB MEMBERS WITH STANDARD-BRED FOWLS
AND EVERY ONE WORKING LAST YEAR HAS A
SMALL BANK ACCOUNT.

Two Boys Net $546 With Poultry
and Pigeons

Two Enterprising Poultry Club Members in North Carolina
Net $296 With 60 Hens and $250 With 100 Pairs
of Pigeons in Back Yard—Also Win 27
First Prizes in Most Important
State Shows

By PAUL and ALEEN WAGNER

EDITORIAL NOTE: Through the courtesy of A. G.
Oliver, State Leader of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs in
North Carolina, we are able to present the following in-
teresting report of two North Carolina poultry club mem-
bers. Their profits and show winnings would be highly
gratifying to many an adult breeder.

ERE is what brother Paul and I did on our back
lot in 1919 with 60 hens divided equally into three
varieties—20 S. C. White Leghorns, 20 Barred Plymouth
Rocks, 20 S. C. Rhode Island Reds. We mated pens
of each and sold eggs for hatching to the amount of $125;
also sold market eggs and chickens for $468.74; total
$593.74. Feed and other expense for the year was $297.22,
leaving us a net profit of $296.52.
We won 27 first prizes in 1919 at the best shows in
the state in both the open and club classes. At the Hickory
Fair, Catawba County, N. C., we won special for best birds

in the show. State Fair, Raleigh, N. C., we won a major
part of the prizes in the club classes and Ist S. C. White

Leghorn cockerel in the open class and these in red-hot °

competition. At the Official State Poultry Show, Golds-
boro, N. C., we won most of the prizes offered in the club
classes on Barred Plymouth Rocks and S. C. White Leg-
horns.

We wish to tell you also about our pigeon and squab
business. We have about 100 pairs of Homing and White
King pigeons. We use one end of our poultry house, which
is 90 feet long, for one pen of pigeons, making a flying
pen outside for them to sun and be out in, and we are
using part of the barn loft for one pen. Pigeons are very
profitable also when handled properly. They are not so
much trouble as poultry. We ship squabs almost every
week. They are dressed and packed in ice. In 1919 we
sold 785 squabs, which was not a very good amount on
account of losing some young ones in January and Feb-
ruary. The amount received for these was $445.23; feed
cost $194.96; amount of profit, $250.27.

This gave us a profit of $546.79 which is pretty good,
we think, as we only have a back lot and not more than
three quarters of an acre on which is built a small barn
and our henhouses. We expect to have some of the best
birds we have yet raised this summer, and they will be
heard from in the shows this fall. Other children can
do as we did, if they have a good poultry house and some
purebred poultry.

Girls Make Poultry Records

The United States Department of Agriculture sup-
plies the following reports of success of Poultry Club
members in the South:

“Marie Bradfisch, who lives in St. Johns County, Flor-
ida, has found poultry raising profitable. In 1919 the
net returns from her birds were $739.75. This little Flor-
ida girl two years ago joined one of the poultry clubs
supervised by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture and the State Agricultural College. She made a good
profit the first year and won the state championship. She
started her second year poultry work with 105 fowls,
valued at $258.

“During 1919 she sold 1,030 eggs and set 14 dozens.
From the fowls raised she sold 49 for $89 and kept 209,
valued at $525. The total income from her flock for the
year was $1,330.75. When her expenses for feed and the
value of the original flock were deducted, her profits for
the year were $739.75. This excellent record won her the
prize of $50 which had been offered by two members of
the Board of Control of the State Institutions of Higher
Learning to the girl who did the best work in a poultry
club in Florida in 1919.

“In Mississippi one of the successful young poultry
club girls is Gregory Russell, who lives in Lawrence
County, Mississippi. This is her first year in poultry club
work. She bought all of the dry feed for her flock but
raised a tenth-acre of oats and rape for their green feed.
This 15-year-old girl’s net return this year from her poultry
work, which was supervised by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture and the State College, was $256.

“Vivian Smith of Yalabusha County, Mississippi, has
been in poultry club work for four years. This year her
net return from the work was $386.86. She started four
years ago with seven chickens and made a net return that
year of $70. The next year she doubled this amount and
the third year she cleared $240 from her poultry.”

CHAPTER V

How To Insure Success—What Not To Do

Herewith Are Listed the More Common Mistakes That Beginners Are Liable to Make—Those Who Master the
Details of a Definite Approved Method and Who Adhere Closely to It Until They Have Gained Some
Practical Experience Will Be in Little Danger of Falling Into Serious Errors

HOSE who have investigated the possibilities
of small-plant production, and who perhaps
have learned that many making the attempt
have met with disappointment, will want to
learn how they may, if possible, insure them-
As a matter of fact,

AD)
Eg
selves against a similar experience.

anyone CAN so insure himself if he is in earnest—if he
will take pains to be WELL INFORMED in the practical

details of the work. Generally speaking, the beginner
who learns a good practical method of poultry keeping
and adheres rigidly to it until his own experience offers
reasonably safe guidance, need not concern himself about
the numerous ways in which he can make mistakes. Un-
fortunately, the desire to experiment or to “express one’s
individuality” is extremely strong in many beginners and
it is to experiments without sufficient practical knowledge
back of them that so many serious mistakes are due—mis-
takes that are the chief cause of most of the failures and
disappointments that occur in connection with back-yard
poultry keeping. Some of the more common errors that
the beginner is liable to make are here briefly mentioned.

WHAT TO AVOID IN MAKING THE START
Don’t Start Blindly

Many who have decided to take up back-yard poultry
keeping fail to appreciate the importance of securing
necessary elementary information before making a start.
Poultry keeping is simple but it is not so simple that it
will not pay to get the advice of those who have had
practical experience. Speaking generally, more money is
wasted on “original’’ ideas in buildings and methods than
would have been required in starting right. Those who
have been in the business for years have very definite
reasons for the suggestions they make or the advice they
offer, and it is the part of wisdom to profit by their knowl-
edge rather than to show one’s independence by start-
ing where they started and paying the same costly tui-
tion in the school of experience.

Don’t Buy Fowls Blindly

The different breeds have each their peculiar qualities
and some of them are better suited to back-yard conditions
than others. Don’t buy stock blindly without knowing or
caring what breed is represented. Proper care in select-
ing fowls with reference to their breed and individual
characteristics may make a great difference in the income
received, also in the pleasure of caring for them.

Don’t Follow Untried Plans in Building

Probably more mistakes are made in building back-
yard poultry houses than in any other one thing. Many
beginners would rather adopt some idea that appears to
be unique than to follow the commonplace outlines of the
_kind of house that the experienced poultry keeper regular-
ly builds. Mistakes in design that will waste time and
labor, mistakes in construction that will add greatly to

the cost, mistakes in ventilation that will affect the health
of the birds—these may all be avoided by adopting an ap-
proved plan. Most of the poultry plants that have failed,
both small and large, have freak poultry houses on them.
It is true that some poultry plants that are successful al-
so have freak houses, but in these cases their owners
have succeeded in spite of their mistakes in building, not
on account of them.

* Don’t Build Makeshift Houses

The poultry keeper’s attitude towards his flock is de-
termined to a large extent by appearances. He gives
good-looking fowls better attention than scrubs. He takes
better care of a neat, attractive house than one that is
built without regard for appearance. That is one reason
why the poultry keeper with a plant that is neat and at-
tractive almost invariably gets better results than one
whose buildings are an eyesore. .If you cannot afford to
build attractively and with new lumber, make the best
of what you have, but remember that reasonable expense
incurred in making house and surroundings neat and
pleasing in appearance is money well spent.

Don’t Keep Inferior Stock

Even though you may have only a small flock and
are interested only in the production of eggs for table use
you will find that you can well afford to keep standard-
bred fowls—cannot, as a matter of fact, afford to keep
anything else. Such birds look better, lay better, weigh
more, and in every practical detail are more desirable
than birds of mixed or mongrel breeding. It is not
necessary to buy exhibition stock unless you want to breed
such, but at least get standard-bred fowls so that the
birds will be uniform not only in color and size but in
other characteristics as well. :

Don’t Keep Too Many Breeds

It is rarely advisable for the beginner to have more
than one breed, particularly where he has only a limited
amount of room. If the different breeds are allowed to’
run together they seldom do well, and to maintain two or
more separate pens in close quarters adds to the cost of
the buildings, increases greatly the amount of labor re-
quired in looking after the birds, and is of no practical
advantage. It generally is much better to select the breed
that will best meet your conditions and that you like best,
and then concentrate your attention entirely upon it.

Don’t Expect the Impossible

Wonderful results sometimes are secured even by the
inexperienced, but it should be borne in mind that these
extraordinary results are the exception and not the rule.
Be reasonable in your expectations and your demands on
the fowls, and be satisfied with fair returns upon your
investment of time and money. With increasing expe-
rience and skill you will be able to get better and better

30 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

results, but the greatest success comes to those only who
have qualified themselves by years of practical experience.

DON’TS IN GENERAL MANAGEMENT
Don’t Frighten and Abuse the Birds

Fowls respond quickly to good treatment and they
enjoy being treated as pets. Hens that are contented and
happy are always more productive than those that are
nervous and timid, constantly suspicious of their care-
taker and ready to fly to the farther end of the yard when-
ever he appears on the scene. A little time spent in get-
ting acquainted with the birds and in securing their con-
fidence will be repaid several times over in the better pro-
duction that will be realized from them. Incidentally, the
caretaker will learn a great many interesting facts in re-
gard to his fowls and their habits.

Don’t Be Impatient for Returns

A great many back-yard poultry keepers are un-
reasonably impatient with their new flocks. After hav-
ing secured the fowls and put them on regular rations
they expect almost instant production. This is unreason-
able. There are good physiological reasons why fowls
must have some time in which to become accustomed to
their surroundings and to get acquainted with their care-
taker before they can be expected to become productive.
Feed the birds well and give them the necessary time in
which to show what they can do.

Don’t Overlook Everyday Details

The poultry keeper who keeps his hens under obser-
vation from day to day, noting their conduct, observing
the condition of the droppings on the platform, etc., will
find that he will get much better results and have fewer
losses. Where no special notice is taken of the birds,
diseases sometimes become deep seated before the symp-
toms are noted. The proverb, “the eye of the master
fatteneth his cattle’ applies with equal force in the care
of fowls. Oftentimes extraordinary variations in returns
are reported by individual poultry keepers where the
only noticeable difference in management is the closer at-
tention given to everyday details.

Don’t Neglect Disinfection

With fowls in close quarters the danger from infec-
tious diseases is greatly increased, also the danger of
soil contamination. It is highly important under such
conditions to use disinfectants freely. Don’t wait for the
fowls to get sick before doing this but treat disinfection
as insurance and keep the premium paid up. In other
words, use disinfectants freely and often abovt the poultry
house, and yards too, if small. -

Don't Neglect Culling

No one who has a flock of layers can afford to neg-
lect culling. Whenever the egg yield drops below 50 per
cent you can count upon it that there are some hens
in the flock that are not laying and that are a source of
unnecessary expense. If you familiarize yourself with
culling methods you will have no difficulty in identifying
these birds.

Don’t Overlook the Advantages of Artificial Light

The use of artificial light for the laying flock is no
longer an experiment but a practical measure of proved
value in securing maximum egg production during the
high-price months. Even if you can do no more than hang

up a lantern in the house you will find that it will pay
you well to do this. Artificial light will not only bring
your pullets into laying earlier in the fall and enable you
to get profitable production even. from late-hatched pul-
lets, but if properly handled will give you a larger total
yield for the year.

Don’t Overstock

The back-yard poultry keeper is under constant temp-
tation to keep more fowls than he has room properly to
accommodate. This increases his feed bill and, as a rule,
results in lower production from the large flock than
would be secured from the smaller number that could be
properly accommodated. Fowls of the larger breeds
should have four or five square feet of floor space per
hen and Leghorns not less than three and one-half feet,
and it is simply a waste of feed to keep larger numbers
than can be given this amount of room.

Don’t Try to Expand Too Fast

After success with a small flock has encouraged you
to plan for larger things don’t make the mistake of ex-
panding more rapidly than your experience and your
finances will warrant. With small flocks, or in side-line
poultry keeping, it is a good plan to make the fowls pay
for all additions to the plant. If that rule is adopted the
beginner will find his plant growing no faster than he is
able to take care of it and to protect his investment.

Don’t Let Fowls Become a Neighborhood Nuisance

Make up your mind at the start that your fowls will
be kept on your own premises, not only part of the time
but all of the time. Lack of respect for the rights of
neighbors is directly responsible for many of the unrea-
sonable restrictive ordinances in regard to keeping fowls
in town. Keep no males in the laying flock, confine all
fowls to your own premises, keep the houses and yards
clean and sweet smelling and there will be few objections
from the neighbors. ;

Don’t Practice False Economies

There are various ways in which the beginner is apt
to practice false economies. Feeding defective rations be-
cause some needed element is high priced or hard to se-
cure, restricting the amount of feed the fowls get to re-
duce expenses, using too much sloppy kitchen waste be-
cause it does not cost anything, omitting all glass from
the laying house in cold climates, buying cheap building
materials that will answer the purpose for only a short
time, buying cheap stock where good fowls could be secured
at only comparatively slight advance in price—these and
many other means of “saving’’ are false economies that
will in the long run cost the poultry keeper a great deal
more than the adoption of a more liberal policy.

Don’t Be Irregular in Care of Fowls

Fowls quickly become accustomed to a definite schedule
of feeding and care and will do better when the schedule
is regularly adhered to. Irregular methods, such as feed-
ing three or four times one day and only once at another
time, letting the fowls out early in the morning or late
in the day as happens to be convenient, sudden or extreme
changes in the ration, all have an unfavorable effect upon
the production of the fowls, and also upon their health.
It is better to adopt a plan that can be adhered to with
reasonable uniformity day after day, even though it might
not appear to be as good as some other which, because
more exacting, is apt to be neglected.

HOW TO INSURE SUCCESS—WHAT NOT TO DO : 31

Don’t: Neglect Lice and Mites

The poultry keeper who makes liberal use of disin-
fectants or lice-killing preparations will have little trou-
ble with parasites, but a little neglect along this line in
warm weather may result in the house becoming infested
with mites. After they are established it is extremely
difficult to get rid of them. Don’t wait for the mites to
appear but paint or spray the perches, perch supports,
nest boxes, etc., once a month in warm weather, unless
you use one of the commercial preparations that retain
their effectiveness for months.

DON’TS IN FEEDING
Don’t Feed Unbalanced Rations

Just because you have only a few fowls is no reason
for thinking you need not give any especial attention to
feeding a balanced ration. This is an essential in the
proper nourishment of fowls no matter in what numbers
they may be kept. If you are not familiar with the sub-
ject use some standard brand of commercial poultry feed
—vby far the simplest way of providing a balanced ration.
Correct feeding means increased production and lower
cost. An unbalanced ration often costs more than a
higher priced one that is well balanced, simply because
more of the former is required properly to nourish the
fowls, and more of it is wasted.

Don’t Depend Too Largely Upon kitchen Waste

Waste from the kitchen is good feed but it is nearly
all soft and fowls that are fed exclusively upon it will
develop indigestion sooner or later. They should have
at least one full feed a day of hard grain. It is better
to throw away some of the kitchen waste, if necessary,
rather than to risk the health of the birds by feeding it
too freely.

Don’t Feed Too Much Moist Mash

A great many poultry keepers who have found that
the feeding of moist mash means better egg production
seem to think that if a little is good a good deal is better
and feed entirely too much of this part of the ration, re-
sulting in digestive disorders. One feed of moist mash
daily may safely be given but rarely more.

Don’t Overfeed or Underfeed

It is not a difficult matter to determine whether the
fowls are being properly fed, and there really is no ex-
cuse for anybody overfeeding or underfeeding. Overfeed-
ing is wasteful and makes the fowls overfat and imperils
their health. Underfeeding means certain decreased egg
production. Learn to know when your fowls are being
properly fed.

Don’t Neglect Exercise

Fowls are naturally highly active in their habits and
when in confinement on heavy rations will not do well
unless attention is given to providing compulsory exer-
cise. Use plenty of litter so that birds will have to
scratch for the grain part of the ration, give the soft feed
either at noon or in the evening, and when the fowls are
running out spade up a section of their yard to encourage
them to dig in the moist earth—in fact, do anything prac-
tical that will help to keep them on the move.

Don’t Feed Musty or Sour Feeds of Any Description

If the waste from the kitchen is sour it should be
_ burned or put in the garbage can. Sour feed will quickly
cause sickness among the birds. Musty grain is equally
injurious. Give the birds nothing but sweet, wholesome

feed and the problem of keeping them in good health will
be greatly simplified.

SPECIAL DON’TS FOR CHICK RAISERS
Don’t Buy Cheap Chicks

If you are starting with day-old chicks, don’t buy
low-priced stock. The cheap chicks that are sold by the
5e and 10e stures and elsewhere are mostly of inferior
breeding and it is not reasonable to expect good results
from them. Be willing to pay a fair price and buy from
responsible dealers who will give you the worth of your
money and will take an interest in your success.

Don't Let Young Stock Crowd in Coops and Brooders

Coops that were plenty large enough for the chicks
when first hatched will become overcrowded as the chicks
grow, and heavy losses are experienced each year by per-
sons who fail to take this into account and to provide
larger, more roomy, better ventilated quarters for the
growing stock. When the chicks pile up on the outside
of the brood coop, or when the brooder is clearly seen at
night to be overfull, relief must be provided in some way.
A few nights in overcrowded quarters may give the chicks
a backset from which they will never recover.

Don’t Neglect Shade
Chicks that do not have plenty of shade rarely make
good growth during hot weather. They like bushes and
tall-growing weeds, but if these are lacking, provide shade
by using strips of burlap or in any other way that is
practicable. This protection cannot be neglected without
serious consequences.

Don’t Let Chicks and Adult Stock Run Together

Young chicks that have to take their chances in the
general flock usually are mistreated and underfed and
never grow as well as they should. Either do not try to
raise chicks at all or provide separate quarters for them
so that they will have a chance to grow and thrive nor-
mally. The same thing applies where chicks of different
sizes are kept together. That also is unwise as it handi-
caps the smaller birds seriously. Often it is better not
to raise more than one brood, even though that may ap-
pear to be insufficient for your needs, rather than to raise
together two lots noticeably dissimilar in size.

Don’t Fail to Put Eggs Down in Spring
If you have a surplus of eggs after April 1 you can-
not afford to sell them until you have put down as many
as you will need in fall and early winter before the new
flock will come into laying. Eggs can be preserved at
little cost and should remain in good condition for months.

Don’t Fail to Keep a Record
It is easy to give snap judgment as to the profit, or
lack of it, realized from the back-yard flock, but no one
who has not kept a careful record really knows just what
returns it is making for its feed and care. Keep an exact
account of expense, of eggs laid, and fowls eaten or sold,
and don’t guess. 7.

The foregoing is a rather formidable list of “don’ts”
and some perhaps may feel rather discouraged in reading
them. The fact should be emphasized, however, that it
is not necessary for anyone to encounter the various
stumbling biocks that are here pointed out or make the
numerous mistakes mentioned. Learn the right way and
stick to it, and let someone else try the various things
that should NOT be done.

CHAPTER VI

How to Hatch and Rear Chicks Successfully

Helpful Suggestions That Should Insure to the Beginner Complete Success in Hatching and Rearing His Chicks,
Whether He Plans to Raise Only a Few or Several Hundred—Complete Daily Schedules Are Given for
Brooding and Feeding From the First Day to Maturity, Which Greatly Simplify the Work

ANY persons make their start in poultry keep-
ing during the spring months, doing so with a
|] single sitting of eggs or an incubatorful, or
| possibly with a good-sized brood of baby chicks.

In either case, their future interest in poultry
keeping is apt to be determined by their success during
the first few weeks. Almost everyone likes to raise
chicks when they all live and do well, but many promptly
get discouraged when their broods grow sickly and die off.
A good deal can be done to insure initial success by see-
ing to it that the
chicks are strong
and healthy to
start with. The
beginner cannot
be cautioned too
earnestly to buy
from a competent
and reliable poul-
try breeder in or-
der to be sure
that the chicks
or eggs for hatch-
ing will come
from strong, vig-
orous and proper-
ly handled breed-
ing stock. Or if
he is raising chicks from his own breeders no reasonable
measures should be neglected that will assist in keeping
the fowls in first-class breeding condition (see Chap-
ter XIV).

Whether or not it is practical for any given person
to raise chicks in his back yard depends chiefly upon the
interest he takes in the work and the amount of room he
has available. Without doubt, if the chicks can be given
proper feed and protection, it is true economy to raise a
flock each season. The cost of raising a good-sized brood
should be half or less than half of what their cost would
be if purchased in the open market when grown. It. al-
so is practically the only way in which many back-yard
poultry keepers are able to obtain a supply of early pullets
for fall and winter egg production.

NEST FOR SITTING HEN
Nests for sitting hens should be 12 to 15 in-
ches square and at least 12 inches high. In warm

weather more ventilation will be required than is
here provided when door is closed

Management of Sitting Hens

While, as has just been indicated, the natural method
of hatching chicks has definite limitations and has now
been largely abandoned even by many who raise only
small numbers, there still are some who, for one reason
or another, wish to hatch a few chicks in this way. Where
this method is to be followed there are several things
that can be done to insure good results and to avoid the
numerous difficulties usually associated with hen hatching.

Nests for sitting hens should be located in a separate
compartment so that the hens will be free from interfer-
ence from the rest of the flock. It is scarcely worth

while to attempt to incubate eggs with hens unless such
conditions can be provided. The sitting hen requires com-
paratively little room for exercise, and quite a large num-
ber can be accommodated in a small compartment. The
nests should be of fairly good size, and an orthodox meth-
od of preparing them is to put a good heavy sod or two
or three inches of loam in the bottom, with a liberal al-
lowance of not too coarse straw on top. The provision of
sod or earth probably is not at all essential to best hatches
under ordinary conditions, but at least it will do no harm.
Broody hens should be allowed to remain on the regu-
lar nests for a day or two, until certain that they are de-
termined to sit, when they may be removed to the regu-
lar hatching nests previously prepared. If they are moved
at night and quietly handled they usually will settle down
to their duties in the new nests without much trouble,
provided they cannot see or get back to their old quarters.
The hens should be confined to the new nests until the
next evening, when they should be allowed to come off for
feed and exercise. Take them off if they do not leave of
their own accord. This should be done a little before
dark and the hens will return to the nests as soon as they
have eaten. If not, they should be put back and again
confined until the morning of the second day after. Any
that do not voluntarily return to the nest when let off
this time are apt to be unreliable and had better be placed
in a broody coop and broken up and returned to the lay-
ing flock. Hens that refuse to occupy the new nests can
often be persuaded to do so by giving them sufficient at-
tention, but usually it pays better to let them go.

When the hens are placed on the nests they should
have two or three nest eggs. After they have settled
down to their duties these are removed and a sitting of
suitable size given them. Avoid the common tendency
to place too many eggs in the nest. Hens cannot keep a
large number of eggs warm in cold weather, and the

CONVENIENT COOP FOR HEN AND CHICKS

Coop should be 2 by 2} feet for ordinary use. Front is covered with
close-mesh galvanized wire cloth or netting. Photo from Md. Exp. Station.

HOW TO HATCH AND REAR CHICKS SUCCESSFULLY 33

whole hatch may be lost if the hens are given more eggs
than they can cover properly. Even a good-sized hen
should not have more than ten eggs at that season, and
it is doubtful whether it ever pays to give them more than
fifteen. Before setting the hen give her a thorough dust-
ing with some good lice-killing powder or insecticide:

Where hens are to be used for hatching there rarely
are any broody until the season is well advanced. Hence,
depending upon natural means of incubation results in
late hatches and, consequently, late-maturing pullets in
the fall. To have broilers early in the season when they
are highest in price and most desired, to get chicks out
early so as that they will be well grown before the hot
summer months come on, to get early pullets, to have the
chicks of uniform age, or to bring off successive hatches
so as to utilize space and equipment to best advantage—
if any of these is the object, incuba-
tors must be used. Practically all
incubator manufacturers make small-
sized machines especially designed
for the use of the back-yard poultry
keeper. They are not expensive to
purchase or to operate, it is an easy
matter to learn to use them, and with
proper care good hatches are assured.

Incubator Management

The principles of successful incu-
bator management are the same, in
a general way, regardless of the kind
of machine used, or where it is oper-
ated. However, different types of in-
cubators and different methods adopt-
ed by manufacturers in equipping
them with thermometers, moisture
devices, etc., make it necessary to
have special instructions from the
manufacturer of the particular ma-
chine used, and these should be the
operator’s final guide, as far as they
£0. The manufacturer certainly
knows better than anyone else what
methods are likely to give best results with his machine.
If the first hatch or two should not prove to be entirely
satisfactory when following these directions as closely as
possible, communicate directly with the manufacturer, de-
seribing conditions under which the incubator is being
operated and giving accurate information in regard to the
hatch and the respects in which it has proved disappoint-
ing. The manufacturer then should be able to give such
additional information as will be necessary in order to in-
sure success.

found convenient.

The operation of incubators of reliable make is by
no means a difficult matter. It is only where adjustment
is imperfect or when the operator persists in trying to
make the machine hatch under unreasonably adverse con-
ditions that he experiences serious trouble. Modern ma-
chines are so well constructed, so nearly automatic, and
afford so favorable conditions for embryonic development
that they require only slight care and attention on the
part of the operator, if they are properly located and
correctly adjusted at the start.

What Eggs to Use for Hatching

The length of time that eggs can be held depends
quite largely upon the season of the year and the vitality

COOP AND RUNS [OR SITTING HENS OR BROODS OF CHICKS

of the breeding stock. The safe rule is to set them as
soon as possible, and never to hold them over two weeks
if it can be avoided. Good hatches sometimes are secured
with eggs held for a longer time, but they are exception-
al, and the vitality of the chicks is liable to be seriously
affected, even though the hatch may be satisfactory so
far as percentage is concerned.

Few beginners give sufficient attention to sorting and
selecting the eggs that they place in the incubator. None
that show noticeable defects of any kind should be used
even though some of them might hatch. Double-yolked
eggs, abnormally large ones, those with peculiar shells,
ete., should be discarded, also those that are quite small.
Small eggs mean small chicks every time, and usually
there is a high percentage of loss among them. It is a

good deal better to operate the machine only partially

Where several sitting hens or broods of chicks ure to be provided for, this compartment coop will be
Partitions are movable frames covered with canvas or burlap. Coop is 5 feet long,
3 feet wide, 3 feet high in front and 2 feet in rear.

Photo from Oregon Exp. Station.

filled, if necessary, rather than to use eggs of which only
a small percentage can reasonably be expected to hatch,
and which at best will produce weakly chicks. However,
it should be borne in mind that directions for operation
usually are based on full trays, and when the machine is
only partially filled it may be necessary to reduce ven-
tilation accordingly and sometimes to maintain a slightly
higher temperature. Frequently, also, more attention
must be given to moisture.

Location of Incubator

For the average operator the best available location
is a well-ventilated cellar. Usually the temperature in
such a place is fairly uniform, and there is a higher and
more uniform degree of humidity, which simplifies the
moisture question. In cold weather cellars are warm, or
can be made so without much expense, and in warm weath-
er are much cooler than rooms entirely above ground.
Another reason which sometimes favors the cellar as a
location for the incubator is the fact that machines there
are less liable to be interfered with. Do not attempt to
operate more than two or three lamp-heated machines in
an ordinary cellar, however, unless special provision is
made for ventilation.

34 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Where the incubator must be run in an above-ground
room, every effort should be made to keep the tempera-
ture uniform, and thus avoid making unreasonable de-
mands upon the incubator regulator. If possible, select
a room facing north rather than in another direction. If
the sun’s rays can enter at any time during the day
(which invariably will cause a rapid rise in temperature)
the windows should be provided with blinds or wooden
shutters so that this cannot occur. It is a great deal
easier to make necessary changes in the lighting or heat-
ing of the room so as to maintain a fairly uniform temper-
ature than it is to secure an adjustment of the incubator
regulator that will take care of wide extremes. The air
in above-ground rooms, especially if heated by furnaces,
hot-water radiators, etc., is much drier than in cellars,
and this condition must be remedied by supplying mois-
ture in whatever way is most convenient.

Incubator Temperature

Theoretically there is only one correct temperature
at which to incubate eggs, but in practical incubator opera-
tion the style of the machine, kind of thermometer, season
of year, stage of hatch, etc., all have a bearing upon the
exact degree to be maintained. Let the manufacturer’s
directions in regard to temperature be the positive guide.
Use the style of thermometer that he recommends and
keep it in the particular location on the tray that he pre-
seribes. Outside instructions on this subject almost in-
variably confuse the beginner.

Moisture and Ventilation

These two factors in artificial incubation are the man-
ufacturer’s own problems, and his instructions should be
followed exactly. Different makes of incubators vary
widely in their methods of supplying heat and in the cir-
culation of air in the egg chamber, and practices that give
excellent hatches in one machine may prove most disap-
pointing when applied to one of another type. In study-
ing directions for adjusting ventilation or supplying mois-
ture, however, bear in mind that these are intended to
meet a general average as to location, and those whose
conditions vary widely from such will have to adapt
the instructions to their peculiar requirements. If they
find difficulty in doing this or if results are not up to ex-
pectations then the manufacturer should be consulted.

POPULAR TYPE OF LAMP-HEATED OUTDOOR BROODER

Turn Eggs Twice a Day

Eggs should be turned regularly twice a day from
the morning of the third day until the chicks begin to pip,
or until they can be heard in, the shell. There is no doubt
that eggs are turned much more frequently than this in
natural incubation and many incubator operators believe

HOMEMADE OUTDOOR BROODER WITH LAMP-HEATED HOVER

This photo was taken on a back-yard plant, and shows a good-sized home-
made brooder case equipped with a lamp-heated hover.

that it pays to turn four or more times daily. Directions
sometimes are given to discontinue turning on the eight-
eenth day. If the hatch is coming off in good time this
is correct, but if delayed, as is quite often the case, to dis-
continue turning on the eighteenth day may mean an ap-
preciable reduction in the number of chicks secured. It
is much better to continue turning until the chicks begin
to pip, regardless of when that may be.

Advantage of Testing Eggs

The operator’s only reliable means of keeping in
touch with the development of the embryo and learning
whether it is progressing normally or not is by repeatedly
testing the eggs throughout the hatch. The beginner es-
pecially should make a complete test at regular intervals
of five or six days, and should test a few eggs every now
and then between times, in order that he may be-
come thoroughly familiar with the appearance of the em-
bryo at all stages of growth. By testing he is able to
follow the development of the air cell, and can tell at a
glance whether the eggs are drying down at the proper
rate. He also learns to recognize normal embryonic de-
velopment and thus determines whether the correct tem-
perature is being supplied.

Why Eggs Should Be Cooled

The cooling of eggs during incubation is a debated
point and its particular influence on the embryo, if it has
any, is not fully understood. There are some indirect ad-
vantages, however, and most operators practice it to some
extent, especially in warm weather. The usually accepted
rule for cooling is to lower the temperature of the egg te
a neutral point—that is, where it will feel neither warm
nor cold to the touch. The time required to do this varies
widely with the outside, temperature. Where the incu-
bator is operated in a cold room it is doubtful whether
cooling is of any practical value unless it is found desir-
able to do it in order to check too rapid development of
the embryo. The average operator cools entirely too much
in cold weather, which is one of the most common causes
of delayed hatches.

What To Do When Hatching Begins

Under normal conditions the hatch will need no at-
tention and no assistance aside from seeing to it that the

HOW TO HATCH AND REAR CHICKS SUCCESSFULLY

temperature is kept as it should be. If the hatch is a
little slow in coming off, or if the chicks are being re-
moved from time to time during the hatch in order to
leave more room for the later arrivals, the temperature
on the egg tray will almost certainly drop when most of
the chicks are out. That is one of the chief reasons why
there are so many complaints of chicks sticking in the
shell. During the latter part of the hatch it is desirable
to give special attention to the temperature, changing
the regulator if necessary to keep it up to 103 degrees.

It sometimes is desirable to give the last chicks a lit-
tle assistance. While those that are not able to get out
of the shell without help usually are not worth helping,
this is not always the case. Where the chicks cannot get
out on account of the drying and consequent hardening of
the membrane, all that is necessary, frequently, is to
wring a flannel cloth out of hot water and spread it over
the eggs. This should be left in place until the membrane
is softened (10 to 20 minutes), when it should be removed.
Repeat this operation a little later if it seems necessary.
Any chick that is strong enough to live will be strong
enough to get out with this assistance.

Taking the Chicks Off

When the chick is first hatched it is an extremely deli-
cate organism, not entirely developed. Partly for this
reason, also because the thin coat of down with which it
is covered is only a partial protection at best, it is in no
way able to stand low temperatures or sudden changes.
The best possible treatment for newly hatched chicks,
therefore, is to leave them in the incubator for a day so
that they may be somewhat hardened and their develop-
ment completed. Chicks need much more air than they
required as embryos, and when the hatch is over about
all the air that the machine is capable of admitting should
be supplied. Under some conditions, where the hatch is

unusually good so that the first-hatched chicks are being
inconvenienced by close confinement, the oldest may be re-
moved from the machine and kept in a warm box or
basket. By the time the chicks are 24 hours old, however,
they should all be in a good, warm brooder, ready for a
drink of water or milk and by the end of the second
their first feed.

day,

Need for Brooding Equipment

Great numbers of chicks fall victims every year to
failure to provide for their comfort and warmth. This
failure may take the form of having no brooders at all;
or, when brooders are provided, there may be too few of
them for the number of chicks to be brooded, or they may
be of inferior design, flimsy, unsafe, and generally unre-
liable. In either case, the final result is about the same;
the percentage of loss is excessive and sometimes ruinous,
and even when the chicks manage to survive they often
are weakly and stunted, never develop properly, and are
incapable of giving satisfactory results either in the lay-
ing flock or the breeding pen.

The need for artificially heated brooders is all the
more imperative because of the general tendency toward
early hatching, which results in the chicks being brought
into the world at a time when winter is not entirely over,
and when severe cold and long spells of stormy weather
are still to be expected. The light coat of down with which
the baby chick is covered affords some protection, but by
no means enough to keep it warm at low temperatures.
Just a few minutes too long away from a source of heat
may cause serious trouble.

Epidemics of so-called “white diarrhea’ often are
directly due to improper brooding temperatures or to
overcrowding. Brooder pneumonia usually is traceable to
one or the other of the same causes, as also are lack of
thrift, stunted growth, slow development, failure to feath-

TWO “STANDARD” TYPE COLONY HOVERS INSTALLED IN LAYING HOUSE

This type of hover will brood several hundred chicks in one flock.
ature by controlling the draft.
Coal- and oil-burning colony hovers are well adapted to such use.

¢ k Stove is heated with coal and equipped with thermostat which regulates temper-
In many eases it is practical to brood the chicks in empty laying houses where the pullets are to remain when full grown

36 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

er out properly, and many losses during the first two
months that are not accompanied by any special symp-
toms except lack of vitality. It is scarcely possible to
overemphasize the fact that most of the ills to which
chicks are subject develop into serious epidemics only
through neglect or mistreatment which lowers the chick’s

CONVENIENT TYPE OF FIRELESS BROODER

Note the muslin-covered frame which acts as a hover, and the ventilation
holes in the top. Bottom of box is filled with litter so as to bring the chicks’
backs up against the hover. Photo from Maryland Exp. Station.

natural vitality and resistance to disease, and it is safe
to say that every chick raiser who fails to provide suit-
able brooding equipment or enough of it, loses each year
more than it would cost to do so.

Types of Brooder Available

Inadequate brooding facilities are only a little less
prolific cause of disease and loss than having no brooders
at all. Chicks crowding and trampling each other under
foot, brooding different ages under the same hover, neces-
sity for taking heat away from the chicks before they are
old enough—all these are common disadvantages accom-
panying a lack of brooder space, and everyone of them
takes heavy toll in the flock. The better types of brood-
ers now on the market are highly developed, well made,
durable and moderate in cost, and they are absolutely
indispensable on well-managed poultry plants. In heat-
ing capacity, in economical use of fuel, and in accuracy
of temperature regulation, they are marvels of efficiency.
The chick raiser is entitled to secant sympathy in his losses
if he deliberately neglects to avail himself of the help
that may be his at so reasonable cost.

Poultry keepers now have a wide variety of brooding
equipment available for their use, and merits of the dif-
ferent types of brooders should be carefully weighed in
deciding which to adopt. Select the kind that is best
adapted to the size of the flocks that are to be raised and
to the conditions under which they will be operated.

Raising Chicks in Fireless Brooders

The practical poultry keeper has comparatively little
interest in fireless brooders because their use involves
much extra labor, and chicks do not do so well in them as
in artificially heated brooders, unless carefully looked af-
ter. The small-scale poultry keeper, however, who has only
a small flock—20 to 50 chicks—who is afraid of heated

brooders, or who desires to brood chicks at minimum cost
for equipment, finds that he can use fireless brooders to
good advantage.

This type of brooder is designed to conserve the bodily
heat of the chicks. It consists generally of a low, round or
square box with an adjustable hover top which is placed so
that the chicks can get their backs up against it—see illus-
tration on this page. The hover top may consist of a piece
of burlap or cheese cloth, either of which, being of open
texture, will afford some ventilation. If necessary, this
hover may be covered with cotton batting or planer shav-
ings or any similar material that will conserve heat and
still will not be air-tight. The thickness of the covering
is adjusted to weather conditions. The dimensions of the
brooder must ‘be adapted to the size of the flock. A large
hover for a small flock means a waste of heat and dis-
comfort for the chicks; too small a hover will cause over-
crowding and, as a rule, the ventilation will be inadequate.
A suitable size for a flock of 20 chicks is 12 by 12 inches,
adding about 8 square inches for each additional chick.

The general management of chicks in fireless brooders
is about the same as in lamp-heated brooders except that
much more attention must be given to training them
to use the hover. There is nothing about the cold, dark
hover space of a fireless brooder to attract chicks, as in
the case of one artificially heated, and they must be care-
fully watched and trained until they have thoroughly
learned that they can get warm by getting their backs up
against the hover. Usually they need more or less atten-
tion throughout the entire brooding period, and it is chiefly
due to carelessness in this respect that so many persons
have poor results with brooders of this type.

Because of lack of artificial heat, the hover compart-
ment in the fireless brooder is more or less damp, and the
interior should be thoroughly aired and dried out once a
day. If the brooder can be placed in the sunlight that
is the best method, but if that is impossible then the hover
should be dried out before a stove daily, and fresh, dry
litter placed in the brooder as often as conditions require it.

Lamp-Heated Brooders

Lamp-heated brooders are made in different styles and
sizes, and are ideal for brooding small flocks. They are
low in first cost, are easily operated, fuel is readily ob-
tainable everywhere, and they are adaptable over a wide
range of conditions as to locations and climate. Persons
who do not have available houseroom can secure complete
lamp-heated brooders that can be operated outdoors, in-

GOOD LOCATION FOR OUTDOOR BROODER

In warm weather outdoor brooders should be placed where the chicks

will have plenty of shade. The row of sunflowers illustrated above furnishes
excellent shade for the chicks and the sceds are good poultry feed.

HOW TO HATCH AND REAR CHICKS SUCCESSFULLY of

dependent of any form of enclosure or protection. Such

a brooder is illustrated on page 34.

Colony Hovers

While colony hovers are of comparatively recent de-
velopment, their popularity is such that they have quite
largely displaced other kinds of brooding equipment where
many chicks are to be raised. These hovers represent great
economies in cost of equipment, fuel and time, and give
the best of results in everyday use. The larger sizes
are built to accommodate as many as 1,000 chicks, though
there are few who care to have more than 500 to 600 in
one flock under even the largest of hovers, and most pre-
fer not to exceed 300 to 400. Colony hovers are made to
burn either coal or oil and are equipped with thermostats
that automatically control the hover temperature by reg-
lating the draft or fuel supply, thus insuring the comfort
of the chicks at all times and avoiding waste of fuel.
They have sufficient heating capacity to keep a good-
sized room at a comfortable temperature besides maintain-
ing correct brooding heat under the hover.

DETAILS IN THE CARE AND FEEDING OF CHICKS

The beginner is much more apt to be successful if
he keeps his brooder in a comfortable house or apartment
until warm, settled weather has arrived, no matter what
type of brooder is used. For lamp-heated hovers small
colony houses are ideal, and if the lamp fumes are piped
outdoors comparatively little ventilation will be required,
thus conserving heat. Avoid small, low coops, however,
and makeshift structures. Chicks invariably will be bet-
ter cared for if they are in a house or room convenient
of access and comfortable for the at-
tendant. If an outdoor brooder is
used, locate it in a warm and shel-
tered spot, and by all means provide
a covered runway for the chicks.
There are apt to be periods of several
days at a time when the weather is
too stormy for chicks to be outdoors,
and even if confined to a good-sized
brooder at this time they will fall off
rapidly in condition.

&
oy,
k

Brooder Temperature

During the first day or two the
hover compartment should be kept at
100 to 102 degrees at the level of the
chicks’ backs. If the thermometer is
so mounted that the bulb is not in
that position, this will have to be tak-
en into consideration. After two or
three days the temperature may be
allowed to drop a little, but should
not go below 95 degrees during
the first week. It is customary
to recommend dropping the temper-
ature about five degrees each week,
and, as a rule, that will be found to be about right.
Different broods of chicks vary in their requirements in
this respect, however, while a somewhat higher tempera-
ture is always required in cold weather than in warm. So,
while the thermometer should always be kept in place and
should be consulted regularly, if the chicks clearly are not
warm enough at any given time the temperature should
be raised regardless of whether it is “aecording to the
rale’” or not.

Make Free Use of Litter

The litter used in the brooder and in the brooder house
has a great deal to do with the well-being of the chicks.
If it is too coarse the chicks cannot work it over readily
and do not get the feed that sifts down through to the
floor. If too sparingly used the chicks will not get suf-
ficient exercise in scratching for feed; and will soon de-
velop leg weakness and other troubles. Without doubt
the most satisfactory material for the purpose, if it can
be obtained at reasonable cost, is short-cut alfalfa. The
chicks will eat many of the fine particles of leaves, blos-
soms, etc., and will be the better for so doing. Several
inches of this material can be used to good advantage.
One popular method of feeding known as the “deep litter
method” is to bury enough chick feed in short-cut alfalfa
at one time to meet the chicks’ requirements for three
weeks or more. Six to eight inches of litter is used in
this case. In the South, cottonseed hulls usually are ob-
tainable at low cost and are excellent for the purpose.
If neither alfalfa nor cottonseed hulls are available, use
chopped straw, chaff or mow sweepings, but beware of any
such-material that is moldy or extremely dusty.

During the first two days the chick raiser will give
his attention chiefly to training his chicks to use the hover
so that they will know where to go when they are cold.
This is readily done by keeping them confined near the hov-
er and gradually increasing their liberty as they become
acquainted with their surroundings and learn how to
find their way back. It is desirable to give the chicks the
liberty of the brooder or the house pen just as soon as
possible, but do not enlarge their run so fast that they are

SCENE IN BROODER YARD ON SMALL MONEY-MAKING PLANT

The plant here illustrated was located on the outskirts of a village and, while only a limited acreage
was available, excellent results were secured-—not only in egg production but in raising the pullets needed
to renew the laying flock.

in danger of losing their way and huddling together for
warmth outside rather than going to the hover. Hud-
dling or crowding is one of the dangers that the poultry
keeper must avoid if he is to raise his chicks successfully.

Care of Brooder House

Cleanliness in the brooder house is always important
and especially so when the chicks are brooded in large
flocks. The floor should be well covered with litter, and

38 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

this must be changed often enough to keep it dry and free
from foul odors, or from becoming excessively dusty. The
litter should be fine and light so that the chicks will have

the floor. For chicks up to three weeks old there

is nothing better for the purpose than short-cut alfalfa.

OW-CGST ROOSTING COOP FOR SMALL FLOCKS OF GROWING

FOWLS ON RANGE

If this is unobtainable or too expensive, clover hay cut
quite short, wheat chaff or chopped straw may be used,
varying the depth according to the character of the mate-
rial and the age of the chicks. In the South, cottonseed
hulls have been found satisfactory for this purpose. Lack-
ing anything better, sawdust and planer shavings may be
used after the chicks are several weeks old, but neither is
desirable for newly hatched broods.

Many persons keep young colony-brooded chicks in
confinement for a rather long period, and in order to guard
against cannabalism, leg weakness, lack of thrift, etc., all
of which are conditions that are apt to develop among
chicks that are kept in close quarters, it is imperative to
give special attention to their exercise. After the first
few days all chick feed should be seattered over the litter
and, if necessary, should be buried in it in order to keep
the chicks busy a good part of the day.

Until the chicks are thoroughly
hover-wise they must be watched and
never allowed to get far from home.
If properly trained, however, by the
time they are two weeks old (one
week in mild weather) it should be
safe to let them have access to a
smal: outdoor run at least a part of
each day, and their yard or range
should be increased just as rapidly
thereafter as they can be trusted with
greater liberty.

How to Feed Young Chicks

The feeding of chicks is a com-
paratively simple. matter, thanks to
the excellent commercial feeds that
are now available for the poultry

better ready-mixed feeds than he can prepare at home, ana
they cost little, if any more.

The first day or two the chick needs nothing to eat.
When hatched, its abdomen still contains 40 to 50 per
cent of the volume of the original yolk and this will sup-
ply every requirement for two days, or more if necessary.
{f the chicks are received by parcel post or express, how-
ever, it is safe to assume that they are ready to be fed
on arrival. After allowing them a little time to get warm
and accustomed to their new quarters, give a light feed
as suggested for the third day in the Feeding and Brood-
ing Schedule presented herewith. It is a good plan to
give the chicks a drink of water first (which they often
need more than food), and then let them pick at some
sharp sand or chick grit for a while before feeding. Dur-
ing the first week it is wise also to sprinkle a little sand
or grit over each soft feed when given, to make sure that
the chicks get enough of this necessary part of the ration.

There is more or less diversity of opinion and practice
regarding the feeding of newly hatched chicks, due mainly
to differences in the conditions under which the chicks are
raised, the skill of the feeder, and the vitality and vigor
of the stock. It is quite possible for an expert to raise a
brood of chicks successfully, using almost anything that
can be fed with safety to adult fowls. Beginners, how-
ever, will find that it is to their advantage to use the best
rations they can secure. The experience of poultry keep-
ers generally is that chicks do best on soft feed for two
or three days, and thereafter need at least one-half of
their ration in that form, the balance consisting of a mix-
ture of cracked grains. It is possible to raise chicks on
grain without any soft feed, or on soft feed without any
grain, but better results are regularly secured where the
two are provided in suitable combination.

By way of stating the essentials of chick feeding and
hrooder management in the simplest manner and in the
form best adapted to daily reference, the accompanying
Feeding and Brooding Schedule has been prepared. This is
not the only way in which chicks can be raised, but it is a
practical, thoroughly tested one, and the beginner can rest
assured that if he will faithfully follow this schedule he
will have little trouble in successfully raising his chicks
if they are strong and vigorous to begin with.

keeper’s use. It is not necessary for
him to spend his time mixing feeds,*

baking johnnycake, etc., as he can get iy. shade.

VINES PROVIDE SHADE FOR BARE YARDS

If growing stock must be confined to bare yards, train vines over the fences, as here shown, to sup-
Young birds will not do well if they have no shelter from the hot summer sun.

good, but specially prepared chick-size grit usually is
most readily obtained. Feed it in hoppers and during the
first week sprinkle a little over each soft feed given.

Nursery Feed. This is a specially prepared feed to
be given during the first few days. It may consist of
bread crumbs and milk or hard-boiled eggs, johnnycake
or something similar, if homemade, but the commercial
nursery feeds are better as a rule, and much more con-
venient. Feed for several days, gradually adding a good
mash mixture and reducing the nursery feed, which may
be entirely discontinued after a week or ten days.

The Mash. This consists of finely ground meals, and
may be fed either moist or dry in hoppers. A good for-
mula for a home mixture is equal parts by weight of bran,
corn meal, and white middlings, with 5 to 15 per cent of
best meat scraps, the exact amount depending upon the
age of the chicks. One-half part of breakfast oats may
be added if obtainable at a fair price. The cheapest way
to feed moist mashes is to provide shallow trays or pans,
letting the chicks help themselves at will, removing the
surplus in five minutes after feeding. Convenient feed-
ing vessels also are obtainable, these being so constructed
as to prevent the chicks from getting into the feed with
their feet. Such feeders will undoubtedly save their cost
in a short time. The mash may be fed dry in hoppers
where moist mashes are not convenient, but better growth

HOW TO HATCH AND REAR CHICKS SUCCESSFULLY 39
COMPLETE FEEDING AND BROODING SCHEDULE FOR CHICKS FROM Ist TO 28th DAY
FEEDING BROODING
_| CHICK ; MISCELLANEOUS ae ~ BROODER Res oe
DAY FEED MASH FEEDS DRINK TEMP. | GENERAL MANAGEMENT
Ist. e 100° at, level|/Keep chicks confined close to hover. If they
of ehicks’|get out push them back under at frequent in-
= eee backs. ——___—i[ tervals.
2nd. Small pile of chick; Water or milk.|/100° Give a little more liberty, but watch them closely
grit on brooder floor,Give cool water, to prevent their getting chilled while outside
| near hover. but not cold. Use litter enough to keep the brooder floor well
Bd | a ; ~ covered ae
src Special nursery feed at Sprinkle grit lightly See that all the|/100° Let the chicks have room enough to get at the
intervals of 24 to S)over each moist feed.|chicks learn how feed without crowding, but push them back under
hours Moisten with Continue to do this;to drink today the hover at first sign of discomfort. Put them
milk if available until Sth day. eee = back at frequent intervals anyway.
4th. Same as above. Keep grit before them) Provid » iresh clean|} 98° Let the chicks run in and out of the hover at will
j in hoppers all the time.) water whenever the giving all the liberty they can be trusted with, but
| jsupply gets soiled continue to put them back under the hover at
| intervals.
Sth. |Two light|/Same as above but|Give a little ‘succulent | Seald water and] 98° Clean out soiled litter daily from the hover spac
feeds feed lightly at times|green feed, increasing| milk vessels daily. and replace with fresh material. Except under
when chick feed is|gradually. After a few | the hover, litter does not need to be removed
given Remove sur-|days let chicks have daily, but should be changed often enough to
plus promptly. all they want. | keep it dry and free from odor.
6th. |Two or three|}Two or three. regular Add 2% bone meal to|Never let — thel{ 98° Increase depth of litter in the brooder or on brooder-
feeds feeds, alternating with|the mash mixture, and) chicks get too {house floor as the chicks learn to scratch for the
chick feed. Add a little) continue feeding it dur-) thirsty Provide chick feed.
of some good mash|ing growing period, or|enough founts so
mixture to the nursery|until meat scrap can|that there need be |
lfeed safely be fed. no crowding.
7th. |Three feeds. Two feeds, increasing Granulated charroal in| Place drinking ves-|] 95° Chicks should have the run of entire house pen
proportion of mash_ hopper constantly here- sels on low plat- by this time, if it is not too large. Watch to see
mixture and decreasing after. form so chicks will that they do not crowd in corners or ‘‘sun spots.”
nursery feed. not scratch litter |
into them.
|
Sth |Sameas above. |Two feeds, increasing Add 5% sifted meat Gradually — re-|f[f weather is warm, let the chicks outdoors tor
to mash so that by the|scrap to mash or equiva- duce tempcera-'y while during the middle of the day, confining
lth ninth day nursery feed|lent ammount of fresh ture to 90° by|them close to the door at first. Increase _the
can be entirely omitted|or cooked meat, cut) the 14th day. |size of run as rapidly as they can be trusted. Keep
if desired. fine. plenty of litter on the brooder-house floor,
14th |Numober of|Two fecds daily. A!-|Increase proportion of Continue to usel[Reduce — tem-|No matter what the weather is, let the chicks
to feeds may be|ways use trays or small| meat scrap to 10% by protected _ wWater|/perature gradu-|run out every day, and encourage them to stay
21st. reduced to two|troughs for moist mash./end of this period. founts until chicks|/ally to 85° by out if they are disposed to loaf in the house. Spade
if chicks have| Never throw it on floor are well) grown. end of period. |up a section of the yard to induce them to scratch
good outdoor|of brooder or on the in the loose carth. Busy, active chicks will never
run. ground have leg weakness if outdoors :
21st |Same as above.|Two feeds daily. Ii|Increase meat scrap to|If the chicks are||/Reduce to 80°/By the end of this period the chicks should be
to Add whole|chicks are running out,|15% if chicks have no]on range, see that|}but remember] well developed, active, and able to take care of
28th.|w heat and/limited dry-mash feed-|milk or any other|the water vessels|}that_ chicks'themselves generally. From this time on give
coarse eracked|ing may begin. Leave|souree of animal food.|are placed in thel| MUST be kept'them all the liberty possible, but do not allow
grains. before the chicks all shade. comfortable. \them to run in the weeds, tall grass, ete., In wet
ithe time. iz Ai 2 7 weather. haa
Special Points in Feeding and development will be secured, as a rule, when the lat-
Grit. Chicks need grit before feed. Sharp sand is te? are regularly supplied.

Chick Feed. This is a mixture of cracked grains and
small seeds. After the first two or three days about one-

half of the ration should consist of chick feed. Use a
good standard brand even if it costs a little more. Buying

low-grade feed is the poorest kind of economy.

Milk. There is nothing better for young chicks than
milk, either sweet or sour, and by many it is believed that
an abundance of this affords a measure of protection
against diarrhea. Care should be taken to keep milk ves-
sels clean, scalding them out at least once a day.

Animal Feed. Chicks need meat in some form almost
from the start, though it should be fed very sparingly
during the first ten days, especially if the chicks have
milk to drink or if infertile eggs are mixed in the mash.
Fresh lean meat is best of course, but meat scrap may
safely be used, sifting out the parts too large for chicks
to swallow.

Green Feed. Succulent green feed is a natural part
of the chick ration, and should be supplied almost from
the start. Lettuce leaves, chopped onion tops, finely cut
cabbage, mangels, etc., are all good and after the first
week may be fed liberally. Sprouted oats also are excel-
lent, though during the first two or three weeks it is ad-
visable to feed only the sprouts, chopped fine.

Charcoal. This can be secured in chick size and
should be kept before them in hoppers from the start. It

40 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

is an excellent corrective and its use will help greatly
in preventing digestive disorders.

Care and Feeding of Growing Stock

While losses usually are few in number during the
“growing period” and the chicks do well if reasonably
favorable conditions are given, many poultry keepers en-

COLONY HOUSE WITH SAFETY DOOR
Door is elevated about 2 feet above the ground and provided with an

alighting shelf for the chicks. Door is left open day and night and chicks are
readily trained to go in and out, but four-footed enemies cannot disturb them,

counter serious difficulties as a result of plain careless-
ness. The chicks now are large enough so that they can
stand some abuse without noticeable ill effects, but the
poultry keeper can depend upon it that if he does not
properly feed them, is careless regarding their brooding
or housing, or the conditions under which they are kept,
his losses due to slow growth, stunted development, in-
ferior health, etc., will in the long run prove quite serious.

Brooder Temperature

In warm weather the chicks may not need artificial
heat after they are four weeks old but, early in the season
and in cold, wet weather well along into the summer,
chicks under eight weeks often are quite uncomfortable
without some heat. The average chick is not well feath
ered out until six weeks of age or older, and up to this
time artificial heat should be supplied or at least the
poultry keeper should be able to provide it, even though
during mild weather he may allow the lamp or the stove
to go out.

Cold Brooders Needed

After artificial heat is no longer supplied it is desir-
able to provide the chicks with some kind of cold brooder
under which they can collect at night. It may be of the
simplest type, its purpose being merely to confine the
body heat of the chicks and keep them warm and comfort-
able, and it should be so constructed as to prevent their
piling up. For a flock of 50 to 100 chicks a good cold
brooder can be made by using a box about 3 feet square,
with walls 8 to 10 inches high, and a cloth hover so ad-
justed in height that the chicks can get their backs up
against it. The floor under the hover should be well lit-
tered with fine-cut straw, chaff or planer shavings, with
the materia] banked up in the corners to prevent huddling
at these points.

For larger broods a frame of suitable size may be lo-
cated along one side of the colony or brooder house, this
frame to be covered with muslin or burlap, with curtains
of similar material around the open sides. If necessary,
one or two additional thicknesses of burlap, or a light

covering of planer shavings, may be placed on top to re-
tain heat. This affords a comfortable place for the chicks
on cold nights and should be used until they no longer
need it, which fact will be plainly indicated by their re-
fusing any longer to go under. Then perches should be
provided and the chicks taught to use them.

Desirable Changes in Ration

About the fourth week, as a rule, chicks no longer
are satisfied with ordinary chick feed, but demand larger
grains, and these usually are cheaper than chick feed
it is economy to introduce them into the ration as rapid-
ly as practicable. Many manufacturers of commercial
poultry feeds provide a special grain mixture for growing
stock, but if this is not available, the ordinary scratch
feed put up for adult fowls can safely be fed after the
chicks are six weeks old, gradually increasing the propor-
tion as the chicks show their preference for it.

If home mixtures are used, either in whole or in part,
cracked corn should be made the basis of the mixture,
adding wheat, barley, kafir corn, etc., as available, and as
price warrants. From the time the chicks are five or
six weeks old they can safely be fed all the sprouted oats
they will eat, or if these are not available, soaked or
boiled oats may form a liberal part of the ration. Do not
feed dry oats to chicks, however, except in limited quan-
tity. They can be depended upon not to eat an excess of
fibre if the oats are boiled, soaked or sprouted, but it is
dangerous to feed them dry until the birds are well on
their way to maturity.

The number of feeds that should be given will depend
quite largely upon whether or not the chicks have free
range. When kept in confinement, it usually will be
found most satisfactory to feed them morning, noon and
evening, giving two feeds of cracked grain and one of
moist mash. If the chicks are on open range there prob-
ably will be few of them about the coop or house at noon,
in which case two feeds a day may be sufficient.

Moist and Dry Mashes

Many persons find it more convenient to give the
moist mash in the morning when the chicks are turned
out, a full feed of mixed grains or cracked corn at night,
and soaked or sprouted oats at noon, if a noon feed is
given. In all cases a good palatable dry mash should be
supplied in hoppers, and if the chicks are on range it is
practicable to hopper-feed cracked corn also. Nothing at
all is gained by stinting the growing chicks. The more

FLOCK OF PLYMOUTH ROCK CHICKS AT FEED TROUGH

With the feed trough protected in the manner here indicated, chicks can-
not get into it, and the contents will be kept clean and much waste prevented.

HOW TO HATCH AND REAR CHICKS SUCCESSFULLY

COMPLETE FEEDING AND BROODING SCHEDULE FOR CHICKS FROM FIFTH WEEK TO MATURITY

WKS.

GRAIN FEEDING

MASH

|
MISCELLANEOUS
| FEEDS

DRINK

BROODING AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT

5th
to
8th.

Gradually change over from
chick feed to a coarser grain
mixture. If a good brand of
commercial growing feed is
not available, use the regular
seratch feed for adult fowls.
Feed twice a day, usually
noon and evening.

The chicks should be given
dry mash now. Until they

are accustomed to it watch |

them and if necessary
limit consumption for a
time. Continue to. give
one moist mash feed daily
for best growth and de-|
velopment.

Keep grit constantly be-
fore the chicks and unless
sure that it is not needed
supply granulated bone in
hoppers also. If the yards
or the range do not fur-
nish_ plenty of SUCCU-
LENT green feed, see that
a supply is provided.

Continue to supply water
in two-piece founts and
keep them where the chicks
will not be able to scratch
litter into them. If milk
is available keep it before
the chicks constantly in
CLEAN drinking vessels.

Continue to supply some heat in
cold and damp weather. Where
hovers or brooders are used with-
out heat, take advantage of every
sunny day to air the hover and
to dry out the space under it.
Brooders without artificial heat
are always more or less musty
and damp.

8th
to
12th.

If the chicks are in confine-
ment, continue to feed two
grain feeds a day. Chicks on
range after the weather be-
comes warm will usually be
scattered over the fields at
the noon hour, and will not
come for feed. In this case
one feed a day (in the evening)
may be sufficient.

Supply one feed of moist
mash daily. This and

Same as above.

the two grain feeds may |

be given as convenient.
Moist mash in the morn-
ing suits most persons|
best. Keep a dry mash
in the hoppers ‘all the
time hereafter.

The mash should carry 10
to 15 per cent of meat)
scrap unless certain that)
the range is supplying
an abundance of insects,
| worms, etc.

Protect the water_ ves-
sels from the sun. Chicks
do not like lukewarm
water and it does not do
them as much good as
wher reasonably cool.

|Empty the vessels every
night and fill them
fresh water again in the
|morning, and keep them
always In the shade.

with|

|
|
|

It seldom will be necessary to
supply heat now, though it usually
will be found desirable to con-
tinue the use of cold brooders
until toward the end of the period,
if the season is cold. Chicks
should learn to go or perches
when cold brooders. are aban-
doned. They will be safer, and
there will be less danger of their
crowding.

12th
to
20th.

The regular adult grain mix-
ture can be fed now, or a
home mixture of coarse cracked
|grain, whole wheat and bar-
|ley. Feed oats sprouted or
|soaked. Continue to give two

Whether the dry mash
which is to be fed con-
tinuously until the chicks
arrive at maturity should |
be supplemented with a

daily moist masb will de-

Supply adult-size grit, keep |

up the supply of succulent
green feed, and if
chicks seem to be getting
tired of the regular ration,
introduce new

the |

Usually larger water ves-
sels now will be required
Earthenware vessels of
|one-half to two gallons in
size are excellent for sum-

See that there is plenty of perch
room for all of the chicks, and if
some of them are a little slow
about taking to the perches, put
them up by hand at night until
they learn to go on. Do not al-

feeds a day to chicks in con-
finement and one for chicks| of
on open range. With range| condition
chickens, keep cracked corn|Without doubt, growth! feed.
in a hopper or box where they|can be hastened by one

can have access to it when-|feed of rich moist mash

ever they are hungry. daily.

the caretaker and the stimulate
of the

anything
pend upon the convenience that may be available, to
their
birds. and keep them

|mer use, as they are easily
kept clean and not readily |
upset. If kept where small
| chicks have access to them,

\they will have co be pro-
tected in some way to
prevent chicks from being
drowned.

low them, under any condition, to
bunch and huddle in corners. As
soon as the ecockerels begin to an-
noy the pullets, remove them.
Keep a close watch for lice, and
disinfect the coops and perches
at frequent intervals.

appetites
on full

20th
26th.

Feed liberally, but vary the li the
proportions of the grains ac-
cording to the breed and the
development of the chicks.
If Leghorns, and they appear
to be developing too rapidly,
inerease the proportions of
oats. If pullets, and these
are maturing too slowly, in-
erease the corn.

to Same as above.

of meat

birds
hatched and appear to be
coming into maturity too
early, decrease the amount
scrap.
ease of late-hatched birds
the amount of meat scrap |
in the mash ean be safely
increased to 25 per cent.

Increase
drinking
the growing
have plenty
drink.

are As the fowls approach adult size
see that their coops and houses
are not overcrowded. It is better
to sacrifice a few, if necessary,
rather than permanently to in-
jure all. Provide all ventilation
| possible. Growing stock must
not be shut up in close, stuffy
houses.

the number of)
vessels so that)
stock will]
of water to

early

In_ the

they eat the faster they grow, and the cheaper it is in the
long run to raise them to adult size, or to market age
if they are to be sold before they reach maturity.

Importance of Green Feed

Green stuff is one of the cheapest» feeds for chicks
when it is grown to good advantage, and there is nothing
that is so good for them. For that reason, even though
the birds may be on open range, it often is desirable to
make some special provision for succulence. Rape and
Swiss chard are popular for this purpose during the sum-
mer months, also cabbage, the latter being especially de-
sirable where the chicks are confined and must have
their green feed carried to them.

The average range supplies a limited amount of ani-
mal feed, but rarely sufficient for the needs of the chicks.
It usually is desirable to provide some meat scrap, though
this may not be necessary if the chicks have all the milk
they care to drink. Semisolid buttermilk now is generally
available for the use of poultry keepers in all parts of the
country and at fairly reasonable prices as compared ‘with
meat scrap or any other source of animal feed.

Growing chicks must have grit in order properly to
digest their feed, and, as a rule, a supply of commercial
grit should be kept on hand. This may not be needed by
range chicks, but if the feeder finds that they pick up grit

greedily when a small amount is thrown out for a test,
he should see to it that a supply is kept where they can

Growth Affected By Crowding

Too much emphasis can scarcely be placed upon the
fact that the conditions under which chicks are kept and
the rations fed have a marked effect upon the develop-
ment of the birds, and the grower has no right to condemn
a breeder for supplying inferior stock unless he has done
his part by giving the chicks favorable conditions for their
development. Where the chicks are badly crowded, or
where yardroom is limited, it nearly always pays to sell
the surplus cockerels and cull pullets as broilers. There
is no practical advantage in keeping the birds to maturity
when, in order to do so, it is necessary to handicap the
entire brood by crowding. Whenever there is any doubt
as to whether or not there is sufficient room, give the pul-
lets the benefit by selling off the cockerels just as fast as
they reach marketable size.

In order to put the essentials of care and feeding of
growing chicks in the simplest and most concrete form,
the accompanying schedule has been prepared, and if the
chick raiser will keep it on hand for reference during
the summer and will follow the suggestions there given,
he will find that his young stock will grow rapidly, will
be thrifty in condition, and will mature normally and at
the lowest feed cost.

CHAPTER VII

Some Practical Poultry Houses and How to Build Them

Medium-Cost Houses to Meet Every Practical Need of the Back-Yard Poultry Keeper Are Here Illustrated and
Described—Helpful Suggestions for Locating and Planning Small Poultry Plant—Details of House Construc-
tion Enable the Beginner to Do His Own Carpentry Work Successfully and Economically

LANNING the back-yard poultry plant should
| receive careful consideration and it is true
economy to secure all available information on
the subject before actually beginning building
operations. It is never wise to build hastily
nor on the impulse of the moment, even though only a
small flock is to be kept. The beginner will do well to
study the subject until he has a clear idea of what he is
going to do and what he will need in order to do it.

Success with fowls depends, in every case, upon the
caretaker’s interest in them, and it is much more im-
portant than appears on the surface, to give special at-
tention to making the poultry plant attractive. ‘“Appear-
ances” have much to do with the attitude that one takes
toward his flock—which fact explains the reason why those
whose poultry plants are neat and pleasing in appear-
ance so often get better returns from their fowls than
others who have makeshift buildings. It is true that
fowls may do just as well in a cheap, rough structure
as they will in one that is neatly built and made attractive
to the eye, provided they get proper care. The care the
fowls receive, however, is apt to be more or less in keep-
ing with their surroundings, and the average person is
much less likely to maintain his interest in a flock that
has nothing whatever to commend it to him except the
number of eggs laid, than would be the case if the fowls
were of good breeding, and the house one that he could be
proud to show to his callers.

Neatness and attractiveness do not necessarily call
for much added cost. They may be secured with quite
cheap materials if only a little pains are taken. The

back-yard poultry house illustrated on this page shows
what may be done with low-cost materials, without any
The owner is justly proud of it
On-

special increase in cost.
though it was built almost entirely of scrap lumber.

ly a little more material and a little more labor were re-
quired than would have been used in providing a shabby
structure of which the ee 4

owner would quickly become anaes : eee
SIDEWALK

ashamed. It is not necessary,
however, to put on any “ex-
tras” or to introduce special
ornamental features. A plain,
substantial building, neatly
constructed and painted, is
always attractive. If short
lengths of scrap lumber are N
to be used they may be ar-
ranged in panels, as in the
house mentioned in the pre-
ceding paragraph, thus dis-
guising the joints. Even
rough boards with cracks
and knot holes can be work-
ed into an attractive house
by covering with prepared
roofing divided into panels i
with narrow strips of wood

e
°

RESIDENCE

NY Bsr or

wae

a
POULTRY YARD ?

BROODER BROODER
‘ |

as in the house shown on
page 46.

Those who are fortunate
enough to have sheds or out-
buildings on their lots can
save considerable expense by

remodeling them so as to ee
make them available for the _ Beast ] audi

use of fowls. This is not
necessarily a difficult nor ex-
pensive undertaking, but it
will pay to do the work well, making the buildings truly

comfortable and convenient for the pur-

PLAN FOR POULTRY YARD
ON SMALT, LOT

pose. Too often such remodeling is done
in a hasty and ill-considered way and the
result is far from satisfactory. One
thing that must be kept in mind in re-
modeling old buildings for this use is the
fact that they often are rat harbors and
this condition should always be remedied
in whatever changes are made. Either
put in a concrete floor or, if a board floor
is used, raise the building at least a foot
off the ground. :

Too often those who build waste
both labor and material through failure
to secure suitable plans. To be genuine-
ly practical, the poultry house, wherever
it is built and for whatever purpose in-

AN ATTRACTIVE BACK-YARD POULTRY PLANT

This house was made of scrap lumber chiefly and at little cost.
4-foot window on the south side.
wes yard is a movable yard of the same dimensions for young chicks.

‘ . It is 6 by 6 feet with a 4 by
The yard is 8 feet square with a G-foot fence.

tended, should be correctly designed. It
is a grave mistake to assume that be-
cause the house is to be a small one and

i t . .
To the left expense a serious item any sort of

SOME PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 43

POULTRY HOUSE WITH WINDOWS ON ALL SIDES

This arrangement of windows gives better lighting and better ventila-
tion, but must be made draftproof in winter. Photo from Kans. Exp. Station.
makeshift structure will do. That usually results in a
building that is inconvenient and poorly planned, and
which at best only answers after a fashion the pur-
pose for which it was intended. Such structures, be-
cause of the discomfort and effort required in caring for
them, are almost invariably neglected, lice and mites mul-
tiply, and presently the owner gets discouraged and quits.

How to Lay Out the Back-Yard Poultry Plant

Back-yard poultry plants must be laid out, of course,
with reference to the amount of ground available. Those
who expect to keep a small flock for egg production, pos-
sibly keeping the birds in confinement all or most of the
time, will have no special interest in this subject. Others
who intend to keep a greater number of fowls, possibly
all that can be properly accommodated in the space avail-
able, will want to locate their houses and plan their
yards with some care.

For a back-yard plant of one or two laying or breed-
ing flocks, where the intention is to raise at least some
young stock, a layout such as is illustrated on page 42
will be found quite convenient. Here the rear lawn is
utilized for brooding the young chicks until they begin
to become troublesome, when they must be transferred to
cne of the house pens. A practical plan with such a plant
is to start in the fall with both pens well filled with lay-
ers. These will gradually be culled out until by the time
the chicks have outgrown their brooder in the summer

ae ae CE ceeirsnees Cantar aSaT cos
aS ee
y

t
I
j
pe
4

es (ee)

SO Ciel os Ses SEN ORL OE ew)

there will be left only enough adults for one pen, the
other then being available for the youngsters. So man-
aged, even a moderate-sized lot can accommodate 40 to
50 layers, enough young stock being raised to renew half
the flock each fall and providing about as many fowls for
table use as the average family will require.

Where a larger number of fowls is to be kept, a prac-
tical plan for utilizing a large back yard is shown in the
diagram on this page. This drawing is almost an exact
reproduction of the layout of a back-yard poultry plant
in a New York village. The owner for years realized
much pleasure as well as profit from his flock, and made it
a source of considerable revenue. He has found it no

serious trouble to take care of a flock of 50 to 125 layers,
doing so out of regular office hours—mornings, evenings
and Saturday afternoons, with a little help from his wife
and son, the latter quite small.

The portion of this lot lying between the street and
the hedge, marked K, was a beautiful lawn on which chicks

CONVENIENT LOW-COST HOUSE FOR BACK-YARD FLOCK

View shows front and part of interior. This house may be built with
sides and roof in separate sections for easy moving. Note adjustable muslin-
covered shutter for regulating ventilation. Photo from Storrs Exp. Station
were brooded in the spring until they began to interfere
with the flowers, when they were transferred to the fenced
section containing the brooder A and the grape arbor C,
which also was a lawn. There they remained until they
were large enough to fly out over the 3-foot fence, when

Soe

Ja,

a ~ ry

| $5

| | 5

t | n

[le
|
L
|
as LOT 80°x 200° a5)
fe Rees
& Pat
PLAN FOR LAYING OUT A GOOD-SIZED BACK-YARD POULTRY PLANT

This is almost an exact reproduction of the layout of a New York back-lotter’s poultry plant on which he keeps a flock of 50 to 125

layers, and raises 200 or 309 chicks cach year.
eggs and poultry for table use.

He realizes a substantial income from sales ot breeding stock and eggs fur hatching, also

44 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

they were again transferred to yard H, where they re-
mained until fall. This yard was provided with three
small colony houses, about 3 by 6 feet, in which all the
chicks, 200 to 300, were comfortably accommodated until

FRONT VIEW OF POULTRY HOUSE MADE FROM THREE
PIANO BOXES

the cockerels reached broiler size. Then they were either
marketed or transferred to the cockerel pen F in
the permanent house where they could be kept until wanted
for use on the table or grown to full size as breeders.
The permanent house represented by D D D was large
enough to accommodate 125 pullets and hens in the fall.
These were culled down through the winter so that at
breeding season there were not more than about 25 to a
pen. The section J was kept permanently in use as a
garden and, in addition, each of the yards E E E was in
garden crops once in three years.

This particular poultry keeper was a breeder of
standard fowls and his total sales, including hatching
eggs and breeding stock, totaled several hundred dol-
lars each year. The frontispiece on page 2 shows a poultry
plant similar to the one just described

greatly reducing the danger of the ground becoming in-
fested with disease germs. This often can be conveniently
done by providing front and rear yards. Under some condi-
tions the most practical plan is to have a small yard next
the house to which the fowls have access all the time
and which is frequently cieaned and disinfected; adjoin-
ing this is a larger yard kept in sod or in cultivated crops
to which the fowls are given access only at such times
as it can be done without injury to the growing plants.

One Pennsylvania poultry keeper provided a double
yard in this way, the small yard being excavated to a
depth of eighteen inches or two feet and filled in with
gravel. This gave excellent drainage and practically
eliminated all danger of poisoned ground. The adjoining |
yard was in grass sod, kept neatly trimmed, and the fowls
were turned on it often enough to supply them with a
large part of the green feed required, but not long enough
at a time to injure the sod. Such a grass plot, particu-
larly if the hose can be turned on it in dry weather, will
provide a great amount of the best succulent green feed,
and it will be available continuously from early spring
until late in the fall.

Planning the House

The beginner will do well to deny himself the pleas-
ure of planning the house and adopt an approved plan pre-
pared by some person who thoroughly understands the
requirements. He will find that by doing this he will get
a more satisfactory house and at lower cost than can be
secured in any other way. If, for any reason, he desires
to make his own plans he should be sure that he thor-
oughly understands the essentials and knows how to avoid
the errors in design that are particularly liable to develop
in small houses. It is not possible here to go into detail
in regard to poultry house construction, but there are
some special questions that every beginner asks and on
which he needs definitely to be informed in order wisely
to choose between the types of houses available and the
different methods of equipping them. These are here con-
sidered briefly.

Details of Construction

The floor of the poultry house may be of earth, boards
or concrete. Earth floors greatly reduce cost and are suit-
able for small houses that can readily be moved to new
locations, thus avoiding the necessity for periodically re-

and illustrates how practical it is to
utilize a good-sized yard in this way
and how attractive in appearance it
may be made. In none of the plans
presented has any effort been made
to designate the size of the houses
yards, etc., as this must be determin-
ed entirely. by the size of the lot and
the number of fowls to be kept or
raised during the year.

Where the soil is heavy and not
well drained, there is always some
danger of soil contamination when
fowls are kept in close quarters, and
it is advisable, wherever possible, to
provide double yards so that they can
be used alternately for fowls and for
growing crops, the latter using up the
fertilizer deposited by the birds and

SIDE VIEW OF POULTRY HOUSE MADE FROM THRIVE PIANO BOXES

SOME PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 4

moving the dirt and refilling again with clean earth or
sand as must otherwise be done. Such floors are not de-
sirable where the soil is not thoroughly well drained. Port-
able houses of large size should have board floors. These
make the house more durable by stiffening the frame so
that it is not racked in moving, are more sanitary, and
may be made ratproof. Permanent houses-should always
be provided with board or concrete floors. The latter
usually are cheaper in the long run and, being thoroughly
sanitary and easily cleaned, are the first choice of expe-
rienced poultry keepers.

The general dimensions of all well-constructed poultry
houses are similar; three and one-half to four feet of floor
space are generally allowed for each adult fowl where
Leghorns are kept, or 4 to 5 feet where fowls of the larger
breeds are kept, and 5 to 6 feet for small breeding flocks.
Small houses usually are built with a shed roof, making the
front 6 to 7 feet high and the rear 4% to 5% feet, these
dimensions depending somewhat on the height of the in-
dividual caretaker. There is no economy in making the
building so low that the attendant cannot enter it with-
out stooping.

A SINGLE PIANO-BOX POULTRY HOUSE

In practically all cases the east, west and north sides
are made tight for winter use, providing for most of the
light and ventilation in the south front. However, in
many sections, a house so constructed is too hot in the
summertime and, if over twelve feet in depth, will be
much better lighted and ventilated if small windows are
provided in the east and west ends. Many also provide
windows under the droppings boards in the back part of
the house. The results secured in experiments in the use
of artificial illumination (see Chapter XVI) have shown
the great importance of having poultry houses well light-
ed in order to prolong the day. A house that has only
small openings on the south side will be dark enough to
send the fowls to roost half an hour earlier during the
short days of winter than would be the case if some light
were provided. :

A house with small windows on all sides in order to
have the floor well lighted is illustrated on page 43, and
those who have tried this plan pronounce it quite sat-
isfactory. In any climate where it is necessary to keep
the fowls confined to the house for days at a time, a rea-
sonable amount of glass should be provided. Many, even
in the North, do not do this, but as a rule houses
so built are poorly lighted when the muslin shutters are

CROSS SECTION OF NEBRASKA BACK-YARD POULTRY HOUSE

Reproduced from Nebraska Bulletin No. 49

ciosed, as often is necessary in cold or stormy weather, and
it is impossible to keep the fowls properly occupied in
health-giving activities under such conditions. The use
of glass becomes of added importance in view of the grow-
ing belief among practical poultry keepers that a reason-
able degree of warmth is essential to best production in
winter. It rarely is practical to employ artificial heat in the
poultry house but it will pay to go as far as possible in
making the fowls comfortable by conserving heat without
unduly restricting ventilation. This means that enough
glass must be used so that the house will be well lighted
when it is desirable to keep the muslin shutters closed.

While there are some objections to the use of muslin-
covered shutters, this still remains the most practical
method of ventilating the poultry house. It provides for
an exchange of air without drafts, and experience has
shown that the use of a reasonable amount of muslin in
a house that has damp or frosty walls will promptly
correct the condition. The amount of muslin required de-
pends entirely upon climatic conditions. In the far North
a comparatively small area is sufficient, while in the South
the greater part of the front may be of muslin if con-
venient. Obviously, where much muslin is provided no
vlass will be required. Muslin is easily clogged by dust

ae gy

SHED-ROOF POULTRY HOUSE FOR SMALL FLOCK OF LAYERS

Photo from Nebraska Experiment Station.

46 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

and when wet is almost air-tight, for which reasons many
substitute burlap. This material provides for a more
rapid air circulation but obstructs the light.

The different illustrations in this chapter show the
various arrangements of windows and muslin shutters
that can readily be adapted to houses of almost any de-
sign. The small house shown on page 438 has no glass
at all, which reduces its cost but restricts its adaptability.
The muslin-covered shutter is arranged to slide up and
down on the outside, working in grooves on either side of
the opening. The opening can be adjusted to any desired
size, the shutter being held in place by a hook which en-
gages the wire netting back of the shutter. An eye at
the top of the frame is provided for the hook so as to
close the entire opening when desired. ;

One objection to openings that go clear up to the roof,
as here illustrated, is that under some conditions they
permit air currents to follow down the rafters and to
strike the fowls on the perches. To prevent this it may

LAYING HOUSE WITH OUTSIDE NESTS AND ADJUSTABLE SHUTTER

be necessary to place a light burlap or muslin screen in
front of the perches. In a good-sized house this screen
may take the form of a shutter hinged at the top so
that it can be hooked up out of the way when not needed.
In small houses where a shutter would be in the way, the
screen may consist of a curtain attached to a pole and
allowed to hang straight down from the ceiling, being
rolled up and fastened to the rafters when not needed.
As a rule, burlap is the best material to use as it will
prevent drafts without seriously obstructing ventilation.
The purpose of this screen is not so much to keep the
fowls warm, though that also is desirable in extremely
cold weather, but to protect them from drafts, and to do
this it need not extend below the level of the front perch.

On this and the following pages are illustrated a
number of houses suitable for back-yard use, some of them
small enough to meet the requirements of a little six to
ten-fowl pen for family use, and others-large enough for
a good-sized poultry plant where enough fowls are kept
to make them an important source of income. In the
space here available it obviously is impossible to give com-
plete plans for the construction of these houses, but the
illustrations presented and the general instructions for

equipment will give a fair idea of how to construct them.
Those who want complete plans for poultry houses of any
size are referred to “Poultry Houses and Fixtures” (8th
edition), a new, profusely illustrated 112-page book pub-
lished by Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Company.

A Piano Box House

A house for a flock of half a dozen hens can be pro-
vided at less cost by the use of a piano box than in any
other way. The illustration on page 45 shows a conven-
ient and simple manner of so utilizing such a box. The
window and door are placed in what was originally the
bottom of the box, the perch being located along the rear.
The nests can be placed along one end or, better still, on
the outside of the building thus making them more con-
venient of access and giving more room for the fowls in
the house. The door should be a double one instead of
single as here illustrated. The outer door should be mus-
lin covered and the inner one of wire. In mild weather
or on warm sunny days in winter, the
muslin-covered door can be left open,
thus providing good ventilation. In
cold weather, with this door closed
the fowls will be quite snug and
comparatively warm.

Poultry House Made From Three
Piano Boxes

The house shown in the two illus-
trations on page 44 is fairly good siz-
ed and represents probably the maxi-
mum of floor space that can be se-
cured with a given amount of lumber,
or at a given cost. As will readily
be seen, two piano boxes are placed
in an upright position with the backs
toward each other and 2 to 2% feet
apart. The backs are removed and
from these material is secured for en-
closing space between the two boxes.
The third box is placed on the ground
with the back-down and, after the
bottom boards are removed, is fas-
tened to the front of one of the up-
right boxes. The back part of the upper side of
this third box (originally the front) is _ loos-
ened and raised so as to give an even slope as shown. If
the house is to have an earth floor the boards removed
from bottoms and backs should furnish ample material to
finish it complete. If a board floor is desired it will be bet-
ter to provide two-by-fours for sills and joists and some
regular flooring lumber. This house is covered through-
out with prepared roofing. Perches are located to the left
of the door and the hinged shutter on the semimonitor top
can be closed down tight on occasion. As here built the
house has no glass and will be greatly improved by hav-
ing small 4- or 6-light sashes on each side. In addition,
a muslin curtain for the open front will be found desirable
in cold or stormy weather.

A Nebraska Back-Yard Poultry House

This house, designed by Professor F. E. Mussehl,
head of the Poultry Department of the University of Ne-
braska, is well planned for the small back-yard flock
where all lumber is to be purchased. It can be built quite
cheaply of second-hand lumber but will be only moderately
expensive if built new. As shown on page 45 it is

SOME PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 47

to be constructed of 6- or 8-inch ship-lap or, better still,
of car siding, the boards being nailed on up and down.
This house is on runners and is intended to be portable,
and for that reason is built with a fairly substantial frame

A WELL-PLANNED LAYING PEN

Interior of two-ven house, exterior view of which is shown on right. Feed
hopner and water vessel are on clevated platform. Note the, ceiled wall back
of the perches and overhead. There is a rear ventilator opening into the
spaces between the rafters. Photo from Indiana Exp. Station
as shown in the cross section. For back-yard use when
the house is to be moved but seldom, it can be built with-
out studs except at corners and on either side of windows
and door. The front is 6 feet, 6 inches high, and the
back 4 feet, 6 inches. The floor may be either 6 by 8
feet or 8 by 8 feet, the former size being large enough
for about 12 fowls and the latter for 16. The arrange-
ment of doors, windows, nests and perches is clearly in-
dicated in the cross section and in the half-tone photo-en-
graving of the completed house. The upper part of the
window and the opening in the door are to be protected
by means of muslin shutters. The shutter over the win-
dow can be hinged to hook up against the rafters when not
needed, or may be left loose so that it can be removed
and hung up on the wall. The most convenient way to
fix the shutter on the door is to hinge it at the bottom so
that when not in use it will drop down out of he way.

A Shed-Roof House with Outside Nests

For general use the house shown herewith offers
numerous advantages. It is usually built 6 by 8, 8 by 8
or 8 by 10 feet, and is provided with a muslin-covered
shutter so that a good degree of ventilation can be secured.

PRACTICAL WALL NESTS FOR THE LAYING HOUSE, WITH
HINGED FOOTBOARDS

Photo from Maryland Experiment Station.

Convenient outdoor nests are provided when laying fowls
are to be housed. It can be built of comparatively low-
grade lumber or second-hand boards, packing boxes, etc.,
and when covered with a good grade of prepared roofing

TWO-PEN MUSLIN-FRONT HOUSE FOR SMALL FLOCK

Interior view of this house is shown in illustration at left. For average
use it is not desirable to have the windows come down so near the floor, and
in cold climates smaller muslin-covered openings are advisable. Photo from

Indiana Exp. Station.

and stripped as here shown, will present a pleasing ap-
pearance and will be more durable as well. Outside nests
must be carefully constructed in order to keep them dry.
The usual objection to such nests is that rain and snow
get in around the cracks where the nests join the house.
it is not a particularly difficult matter to make the nests
storm proof, however, requiring only careful workmanship
in constructing them. It is desirable to make them re-
movable for cleaning and disinfecting.

This house has a board floor, and it will be much
stronger and more substantial if this is doubled, laying
the subfloor diagonally and nailing it solidly to the joists.
Over this place a layer of waterproof paper or a few thick-
nesses of newspapers, and cover with a good grade of
flooring, running the boards from front to back, rather
than from side to side, which will facilitate cleaning.
Houses of this sort are always much more conveniently
moved if runner sills are used.

A Two-Pen Laying House

The laying house illustrated on this page is an excel-
lent one where two flocks are to be kept. It may be built
in any convenient size, though it is rarely desirable to

WALL NESTS WITH FOOTBOARDS RAISED, CLOSING NESTS —
COMPARE WITH ILLUSTRATION ON LEFT

Photo from Maryland Experiment Station.

43 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

build it less than 12 feet deep. Where cold winters are
the rule, rather smaller muslin-covered openings will
prove more satisfactory and we do not regard it as desir-

ERG BREE RRERESG
we i

Pig

CONVENIENT COOP FOR BROODY HENS IN LAYING HOUSE

Photo from Maryland Experiment Staticn.

able to have the windows so close to the floor. All open-
ings should be 18 inches to 2 feet above the floor as it is
common experience that fowls in confinement are much
better contented where they are not able to look out on
the ground. The general arrangement of one pen
is shown in interior view given on page 47. It
will be noted that a droppings platform runs
along the wall, one corner being occupied by a
coop for broody hens and along the end of the
house, or the partition, are placed feed hoppers
and water vessels. The partition between the
pens may be of muslin or duck, which will pre-
vent drafts through the house and will entirely
separate each pen from the other. The underside
of the rafters is ceiled over the perches and there
are narrow doors under the eaves communicating
with the space between roof and ceiling. When
these doors are open additional ventilation is
provided which helps greatly in keeping the house

This is the New Jersey Multiple Unit Leying House and
the following brief description of it is condensed from New
Jersey Bulletin No. 325:

“This type of house has been adopted extensively
throughout New Jersey by commercial poultry keepers.

The multiple unit idea is standardized as follows: One
unit of this house is 20 feet wide and 20 feet
deep, giving 400 square feet of floor space. The
shed-roof construction is used and the house is

so designed in all details that it will furnish an ideal
environment. The front is so arranged that plenty of
sunlight can be admitted and adequate means for ven-
tilation are provided. Since it is usually desirable to
maintain a larger flock than 100 birds, two or more units
are generally built together.

“The house here shown is a double unit and is 20 feet
deep and 40 feet long. The sills are 4x6-inch material,
posts 4x4, studs and plates 2x4, rafters 2x4, and the
house is single boarded throughout on the ends and sides
with novelty siding. The back is boarded up and down
with yellow pine boards, tongued-and-grooved, and covered
with paper to aid in keeping the house warm in cold
weather. The roofing boards and all interior partitions,
droppings boards and sheathing, are built of 1x8-inch
barn boards or ship-lap.

cool in summer. Against the roof may be seen

the cloth shutter provided for closing the large
opening in the front when desired.

The New Jersey Multiple Unit House

When a large laying house is to be built, the one
illustrated herewith will be found particularly desirable.

CROSS SECTION OF STRAW-LOFT HOUSE FOR GOLD CLIMATES

“The studs in rear wall are 4 feet, 6 inches and 9
in front. The house is provided with a 2-foot
projection over the front to keep
rains and storms from beating in at

feet

the windows. The back wall is pro-
vided with rear ventilation, so ar-
ranged that the air can enter just
under the eaves and circulate between
the rafters above the perches. In or-
der to protect the birds on the perch-
es, the rear part of the house from
the droppings boards to the plate and
from the plate to the rafters to a
point over the front edge of the drop-
pings boards is sheathed on the inside,
thus making a sort of a protected
roosting closet.

“The house is divided every 20

NEW JERSEY MULTIPLE UNIT LAYING HOUSE

This house, briefly described on this_page,
ers who have good-sized laying flocks.
from storms. Photo froin N. J. Exp. Station.

is well adapted to the requirements of all poultry keep-
Hood shades the front in hot weather and affords some protection

feet by a solid partition running from
the back wall to within 6 feet of the
front wall. In the center of this par-
tition is located a large homemade

SOME PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 49

dry mash hopper, and water vessels occupy elevat-
ed platforms in the front of each section. A dust
box is placed directly under the glass window at each
end of the house. Each 20-foot section has in the center
a muslin-covered opening 4 by 10 feet, equipped with two
hinged curtains 4
by 5 feet. At
each side of the
muslin opening
A there is a large
B glass sash 2 feet,
38 inches wide
and 5 feet high.
One center win-
dow in each dou-
ble section is
constructed in
the form of a
combination door
and window, op-
ening ~clear_ to
the sill.”

A House for Cold
Climates

In Cold cli--
mates, particular-
ly where Leg-
horns are kept,
it is highly im-
portant to make
the house’ as
warm as is
practicable, and
under such con-
ditions there
probably is noth-
ing better than
the — straw-loft
plan. A cross
section of such a
house is present-
ed on page 48,
from which the

DRIP WATER SYSTEM

Where running water is available the system
here illustrated will save a great deal of labor in
watcring the fowls. A is a common gas cock ad-
justed to drip into cup D, which is about 12 inches
above the floor. B represents the wall of the
building and C, outside feed pipe. Drinking cu
overflows into 3-inch galvanized leader pipe (E)
which discharges outside the building, the over-

flow ciepiie et F Hina conducts i sek ae construction can
ground. Where the soil will not promptly absorb 5 * a
the water a gravel pit (H) is provided. G repre- readily be under
sents the ground level outside and I the floor of stood. A. straw

the house.
loft can be in-

stalled in a shed-roof house, but the gable roof is much
better adapted. to the purpose. As here shown, the
gable is filled with straw which not only prevents the
radiation of heat through the roof but absorbs moisture
and makes it possible to keep the house dry with a com-
paratively limited circulation of air. The straw loft also
-keeps the house cooler in summer. This method of con-
struction adds somewhat to the cost of building but con-
tributes greatly to the comfort of the fowls.

Another type of cold-climate house is illustrated on
page 51. In this house warmth is secured by low roof,
careful construction and correctly proportioned windows
and muslin shutters. With the latter closed the house
will be comparatively warm but is much more apt to be
damp than a _ straw-loft house, particularly when the
muslin is clogged with rain or when house is heavily
stocked. For this reason the ventilation requires more
frequent adjustment than in house shown on page 48.

Needed Equipment for The Poultry House

Suitable fixtures and equipment for the poultry house
are a more important factor in the success of any poultry
enterprise than is
commonly realiz-
ed. Whether the
daily work of
caring for the
fowls is to be
done easily and
with comfort, or
is to be a con-
stant bugbear,
will be deter-
mined quite
largely by the
facilities provid-
PLATFORM ed. No doubt

much money is
wasted in the unwise choice of fixtures, but probably
a great deal more is lost through failure to se-
cure what is really needed. Much has been said about
the desirability of having the interior of the house simple
and plain, but simplicity can be overdone. It is well to
recall now and then that the house and its facilities are
provided as much for the convenience of the caretaker as
for the use of the fowls, and anything that will make the
work easier should by all means be provided. Time and
labor-saving equipment about the poultry plant is of first
importance, especially where fowls are kept in large num-
bers or when labor is employed.

Fixtures in the poultry house, large or small, should
include perches, droppings board, nests, water vessel and
platform, dry mash hopper, compartment grit, shell and
charcoal hopper, etc. Some provision should also be made
for a holder for green feed, a trough for moist mashes
and a dust bath for winter use. If feed is kept in the
house there should be cans or bins for storing it.

For the most part, the equipment of the poultry house
should be light in weight and easily moved for cleaning.

WATER PAN AND

HOPPERS FOR DRY MASH, GRIT, SHELL, ETC.

Hopper on left is for dry mash feeding and is provided with a piece of
coarse sercen wire cloth to prevent waste. Hopper on right is divided into
four compartments for grit, shell, ete., likewise provided with waste-prevent-
ing wire “follower.”

50 ~ SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

This does not, as
a rule, apply to

WATER STAND

ere

droppings _ plat- = =
forms and_ nest me 4
supports. These hoy
can be made mov- ty
able, but it us- 7
ually is better to V
fasten them per-
manently in
i CORNELL WATER
place. While ae
i desir-
eee be The water stand here
able to be able shown is used and ree-
ommended at Cornell
to take every- University. It affords
* a simple, inespensive
thing out of the and sanitary method

of supplying water for

house in the
large flocks.

event of its be-
coming infested with lice and mites, there is no practical
advantage in making elaborate and troublesome prepara-
tions for meeting a condition that never need be encoun-
tered if reasonable care is taken.

Arrangement of Perches, Platform and Nests

The interior of the laying house illustrated on page
47 shows a method of installing perches, platform and
nests that is quite popular. The perches are supported
on hinges at the rear so that they can be raised up for
convenience in cleaning the platform. Use 2 by 3-inch
material for the perches, if not over 10 feet in length,
and 2 by 4 inches when longer. The supporting pieces
may be 1 by 4 inches with notches for the perches cut
1 to 1% inches deep. Where platform nests are not de-
sired, wall nests can readily be provided. There are va-
rious types of these, but the nests shown on page 47 are
particularly convenient.

Feed Hoppers

For use with large flocks it is important to have hop-
pers of good size. The one illustrated is a desirable type,
being easily made and waste preventing in a large meas-
ure, and the size of hopper and number of compartments
may be adapted to requirements. Hopper on left has a
single compartment and in this form is suitable for dry
mash feeding, the waste-preventing wire cloth being loose
except at the upper side so that it will follow the mash
down as the fowls consume it. The hopper on the right
has several compartments for grit, shell, ete., and is
likewise provided with a wire-cloth cover over the feed
trough to prevent the fowls from throwing out the con-
tents. Another good hopper for dry mash is shown in
cross section on
this page, the il-
lustration mak-
ing its construc-
tion so clear that
no particular de-
scription is re-
quired. In most
cases, however, a
sloping top will
be found more
satisfactory than
one on which the
fowls can perch.
If it is found
that feed is

SLATTED FEED PROTECTOR

May be used for feed trough, water vessel or
for holding green feed.

wasted with the hopper in its present form, use a strip
of wire cloth or one-inch poultry netting over the feed.

Water Vessel and Support

For flocks of good size, galvanized pails usually
are preferred for supplying water. These should be sup-
ported on a platform at least 18 inches above the floor and
wide enough all around to allow the fowls to stand com-
fortably and drink from all sides. A method of building
such a platform is illustrated herewith. The unsanitary
practice of placing the water vessel directly on the floor
is objectionable, as the water is always more or less con-
taminated by litter and droppings. The platform here
shown will elevate the pail high enough to prevent litter
from being scratched into it, and it can be easily and
cheaply provided. For a small flock any convenient metal
or earthenware vessel may be used, placing it on a slatted
platform as illustrated on page 49.

Drip-Water System

Where running water is available, various methods of
utilizing it to save time and labor have been devised.
Professor Dough-
erty of the Cali-
fornia Experi-
ment Station,
writes as follows
in regard to the
system in use at
that institution
—see illustration
on page 49.

“We use the
continuous drip
system for in-

door pens. An
automatic gas
cock is screwed

onto the end of
the feed pipe and
adjusted so that
it will drip at a
moderate rate in-
to the drinking
cup which is
placed below it.
This cup is of
pressed galvaniz-
ed steel, made
with lugs at the top which hold it in. position in the
top of a three-inch galvanized leader elbow. The top of the
cup is 12 inches above the floor of the house. Fow!s can
easily drink from the floor, yet the cup is high enough so
that little litter is scratched in. Cup is rinsed once each
day. It overflows into the three-inch leader elbow which
conducts the waste water outdoors where it drops into a
box in the ground. If the ground does not absorb the waste
water readily, as may be the case in heavy soils, a small
gravel pit should be provided at the foot of the box. Our
drip system is inexpensive in operation, and the water is
always fresh.”

Most of the equipment here illustrated is homemade,
but unless the poultry keeper is skillful in the use of
tools and has plenty of spare time he will find that regu-
lar manufactured articles are better adapted to his use
and, in the long run, more economical.

my
aE
CROSS SECTION OT FEED HOPPER

This diagram suggests a practical way of
constructing a feed hopper for either dry mash or
grain. The lip at the lower part of the hopper
helps to prevent waste. Usually the hopper will
he more satisfactory if built with a sloping top so
that fowls cannot perch on it.

CHAPTER VIII

Feeding the Back-Yard Laying Flock

Herewith Are Outlined Practical Methods of Feeding Adapted to the Requirements of Back-Lotters Generally —
Relative Merits of Different Feedstuffs and How to Combine Them in Satisfactory and Economical
Rations —How Feeding Methods Can Be Simplified Without Sacrificing Results

HE FEEDING of fowls can be made a compar-
atively simple matter and beginners, especially,
are apt to find that, as a rule, they get best re-
sults with plain, easily followed methods and
uncomplicated rations. Obviously, every poul-
try keeper should try to be well informed on the relative
values of the different grains and other feeds available
for his use. This knowledge is not acquired without per-
“sistent study, and ability to make practical application of
it comes only through experience. Fortunately, however,
the beginner has a short cut to correct feeding through
the use of ready-mixed feeds, by means of which he is
assured of a good degree of success practically from the
start. With only the best interests of the beginner in
mind it may be said that his easiest and safest plan is
to use standard brands of commercial scratch grains and
mash, feeding these exclusively and according to the
directions of the manufacturer.

Such rations contain a. good assortment of grains
giving needed variety, the grain and mash mixtures to-
gether supplying the different required nutrients in proper
proportion—the “balanced ration”—and the average be-
ginner will find them both cheaper and better than any
mixtures that he is likely to make up himself. The aver-
age feed store that attempts to carry a good assortment
of grains is compelled to charge comparatively high prices
for everything outside the common or locally obtainable
feeds. This is not “profiteering,” but is the inevitable
result of buying in small quantities and often in unfavor-
able markets. The back-yard feeder, with only a few
fowls, who attempts to make up a reasonably varied ration
from the supplies available at the local feed store thus
finds that his mixtures not only cost him too much, but
that he frequently has to use inferior grades.

As compared with average home mixtures, commer-
cial feeds are better because the manufacturer, operating
at an important grain center, can get better grades of

PRACTICAL, LOW-COST HOUSE BUILT OF ROUGH LUMBER AND
COVERED WITH PREPARED ROOFING

grain at a given price than local feed dealers. He has
no difficulty in securing suitable variety, can compound
his rations according to the most approved and thoroughly
tested formulas, and has the machinery for proper prepar-
ation and mixing. For home mixing there must be a

A COMFORTABLE COLONY HOUSE FOR COLD CLIMATES

Photo from Central Experimental Farms, Dept. of Agriculture, Canada.

thorough understanding of the feeding question and there
must be careful and exact attention to proportions and to
thorough blending. These are by no means impossible
conditions to meet, but in practice great numbers of poul-
try keepers have proved to their complete satisfaction
that they regularly get better results with less effort
and expense where they depend entirely upon ready-
mixed feeds.

Of course, all commercial feeds are not equally desir-
able. Some manufacturers, in attempting to make extra-
low prices, use inferior grains or formulas, in particular
employing too large a proportion of by-products, thus
supplying too much bulk or indigestible crude fibre. It
is not a difficult matter for the buyer to detect such ob-
jectionable brands. There are a number of reputable
manufacturers whose products can be used with entire
confidence in their uniform quality and nutritive values.
In buying, let quality instead of price be the controlling
factor. With mixed grains fed in the litter in the morn-
ing and again at night, and with mash fed dry in a hopper
to which the fowls have access at all times, the flock will
be reasonably well provided for day in and day out with-
out giving any further thought to the subject. Many back-
yard poultry keepers follow this practice the year around,
and with good results. One objection to this method, how-
ever, is that it makes no provision for the utilization of
kitchen waste.

How to Feed Kitchen Scraps

The average back-yard poultry keeper finds that the

scraps from his table may be made to form a good part
31

52 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

of the ration required for his flock, especially when prop-
erly fed. A large part of the value of table scraps is
wasted, however, as these usually are supplied. Fowls
have great difficulty in reducing large pieces to a size
suitable for swallowing, and after they have dragged a
crust or a piece of meat trimming about for some time
trying to tear it to pieces, they are apt to become dis-
gusted with the dirt accumulated on it and abandon the
attempt to eat it..

The feeding value of scraps is largely increased by
running them through a food chopper—the easiest and
best way to put them in edible condition. Parings, veg-
etables and meat trimmings—anything in fact that is not
small enough to be swallowed easily by the fowls—should
be prepared in this way. Such material mixed with
enough mash or corn meal to take up the excess moisture

feeders are opposed to the moist mash and, doubtless,
harm is done by feeding it in a careless or indifferent
manner. Nevertheless, if the back-yard flock is to be fed
economically and the kitchen scraps utilized to the best
advantage, there is no escape from feeding moist mashes
and the beginner may as well accept this fact and learn
how to do it right.

Starting in the morning, the first feed should always
be a liberal allowance of scratch grains. At noon, feed
kitehen waste consisting of all such material at hand that
is edible and in a wholesome condition. After this is run
through the food chopper add to it a quantity of good
commercial mash mixture sufficient to give the fowls all
they will eat in 15 to 20 minutes. If there is not enough
moisture in the waste to make a mash of the proper con-

sistency (crumbly wet but not sticky

or pasty) use sour milk or waste.
liquids of any sort that may be on
hand. Feed this mash in a trough so
constructed that the fowls cannot get
into it with their feet, and let them
have all they will clean up. If there
is any surplus it should be removed
and not permitted to freeze in the
trough in winter, or ferment and sour
in warm weather.

In the evening it is best to feed
whole or cracked grains, giving all
the fowls will clean up so that they
may go onto the perches with full
crops. However, if a surplus of nu-
tritious table scraps is left from the
noon meal, a second feed may be giv-

HOW BRAN TAKES THE PLACE OF GREEN FEED

Fowls con‘incd to this run had unlimited bran and required less green feed, as a result of w hich they
did not keep the oats in their run eaten down as did the fowls in the run illustrated on opposite page.

Photo from Maryland Exp. Station

makes a most appetizing feed and one that is highly nu-
tritious as well. Do not feed scraps in a sloppy condi-
tion, either chopped or whole, and never throw them on
the floor of the house or in the yard. This is not only
wasteful, but they soil the litter and make the yard sour
and foul smelling. This practice also results in fowls eat-
ing much filth and dirt which affects their appetites and
sometimes causes sickness. When green stuff and sloppy
materials form a large proportion of the kitchen scraps,
it is not wise to feed them too freely. The fowls need a
good proportion of their ration in the form of hard grain,
and it is better to select the best of the scraps and other-
wise dispose of the remainder, rather than to risk the
health of the fowls by feeding an excess of such material
just to “save” it.

Probably the simplest manner in which table scraps
can be fed, if they are not run through a food chopper,
is to have a trough or narrow box of suitable size in which
all waste may be placed. Provide a loose wire screen or
“follower,” fitting inside the receptacle, which will per-
mit the fowls to pick at the material freely without be-
ing able to throw it out and scatter it over the yard or
pen floor. This holder should be emptied and thoroughly
cleaned once a day, and any material that the fowls can-
not dispose of should be placed in the garbage or burned.

Kitchen scraps are often used as the basis of a moist
mash to be fed regularly once a day. Some experienced

en early in the evening, just as it
comes from the food chopper or, if
too moist to feed in this way, it may
be mixed with a sufficient quantity of
the dry mash mixture to take up the
surplus moisture. Do not depend upon scraps or mash fo?
the entire evening feed, however, especially in cold weath-
er, but give the fowls some whole grain the last thing be-
fore they go to roost.

Dry Mash or Moist

There can scarcely be any question as to the desir-
ability of providing the fowls with a good dry mash,
supplied in a suitable waste-preventing hopper to which
they have access at all times. Whether the mash feed-
ing should be limited to this or should also include a
regular daily feed of moist mash as well, will depend
upon various conditions. It is safe to say, however, that
the beginner who feeds carefully will get better produc-
tion by following the latter course than by depending en-
tirely upon dry mash. The only practical objection to
moist mash feeding for the back-yard flock is the fact that
the caretaker often cannot be at home to give it at the
desired time. If this cannot be arranged for it will
be necessary to depend entirely upon the dry mash, in
this case taking particular pains to secure one that will
be genuinely palatable to- the fowls.

When Should the Moist Mash Be Fed

There is scarcely an hour in the day that has not
been recommended by some one as just the right time for
feeding the mash. Every such recommendation, as a

FEEDING THE BACK-YARD LAYING FLOCK 53

rule, is based on the fact that the mash has been so fed
with good results, which seems to be reason enough for
doing it that way—until some one else demonstrates that
equally good results can be secured by feeding at some
other hour. As a matter of fact, it is immaterial when
the mash is fed, provided it is fed right. There are,
however, practical reasons why it is more difficult to feed
it properly when given at certain times of the day than
at others. If the mash is looked upon simply as an ap-
petizer and the quantity is limited to a light feed, with
dry mash before the fowls all the time in hoppers, it can
safely be given whenever it best suits the convenience of
the caretaker. When the fowls are to have all the moist
mash they will eat, most practical feeders prefer to give
it about the middle of the day.

It is common knowledge that fowls that are heavily
fed on a rich moist mash generally will huddle in corners
and remain comparatively inactive for hours, which is
distinctly to their disadvantage if this

with only a few birds can well afford to do this. It may
not be advisable to make warm feeds a regular feature,
but when the thermometer drops extremely low, when
the fowls appear uncomfortable and with little appetite,
then the effect of a warm feed made appetizing by the
addition of some choice table scraps, and seasoned mild-
ly with salt and pepper, is excellent. An evening feed
that always is popular with hens on a cold night is
cracked or shelled corn, thoroughly heated on the stove
or in the oven, with a little meat, suet, or something sim-
ilar added to flavor it. It is never advisable to give feeds
that are piping hot, particularly mashes. They should be
only pleasantly warm when placed before the hens.

Hew Many Daily Feeds

The beginner is apt to be too greatly concerned about
the number of feeds his birds should have, and when they
should be given. As a matter of fact, fowls are highly

oceurs during the early part of the
day. If the mash is fed about noon,
however, after the fowls have spent
most of the forenoon actively scratch-
ing for grain in the litter, a few quiet
hours then should do no harm and,
being easily digested, the mash will
be out of the way before the evening
meal when it is desirable for the
fowls to have a full feed of whole
grain. This is particularly important
in cold weather when the nights are
long and when, without a substantial
evening feed, the fowls will become
uncomfortably hungry long before
morning. It is chiefly for such rea-

sons as these that the average poul-
try keeper gets best results when the
mash is fed at noon. If there is any
reason why it is not convenient to
feed it at that time then another
hour must be selected, properly adapting the balance of
the ration to the change.

Does it Pay to Give Warm Feeds

The argument for warm feed rests chiefly, if not
solely, upon the fact that THE FOWLS LIKE IT. And
those who are trying to secure the best possible results
from their fowls hardly need be told that an important
means to that end is to give them what they want in or-
der to make them comfortable and contented. One of the
most important factors in getting eggs in cold weather
is appetizing feed and plenty of it. Probably no one has
ever proved that warm feeds at night or any other time
in cold weather directly bring about an increase in pro-
duction, but it is hardly necessary to furnish proof that
fowls that are well cared for, whose preferences are con-
sulted, and- whose appetites are stimulated at this season
of the year, will give better results than those that are
fed in a routine manner, getting nothing but dry, cold
feed. Moist mashes, in particular, should always be mixed
with hot water in cold weather, in order to prevent their
freezing in the trough before the fowls have satisfied
their hunger.. No good purpose is served by having the
fowls fill up on cold or half-frozen mash mixtures.

The poultry keeper who has large flocks probably
cannot take the extra time and trouble required in thus
humoring his fowls, but the back-yard poultry keeper

everything green in their run.
tration on opposite page.

DOES IT PAY TO SUBSTITUTE BRAN FOR GREEN FEED

Hens kept in pen illustrated above had no bran in their ration and made up for the lack by eating
i i Green feed is a cheaper source of bulk than bran. Compnrre with illus-
Photo from Maryland Exp. Station.

adaptable in this respect, and within reasonable limits the
poultry keeper can adopt methods of feeding quite large-
ly to suit his own convenience. This means that those who
find it inconvenient to follow the usual three-feeds-a-day
method can introduce whatever changes they find neces-
sary, giving only two feeds a day, or one, or they may
hopper-feed exclusively, provided they adapt the ration
to their method, and provided also that whatever method
is adopte! is uniformly adhered to. That is, it will not
do to feed three times one day, twice the next, and on
the following day four times, or none at all.

The most common method is to g‘ve three feeds a
day, and under ordinary conditions this really seems to
suit the hens best. It makes it possible to keep them busy
a good part of the day hunting in the litter for the grain
part of their ration; it permits utilizing the table scraps
in a warm moist feed about the middle of the day; and
the fowls can be sent to roost at night with crops full
of hard grain. =

The back-yard poultry keeper, however, who leaves
for his work before daylight during the winter months,
and possibly does not return until after dark, cannot
practice this method and may find it necessary to give the
entire day’s supply of grain at one time—night or morn-
ing. It is entirely practical to do this if plenty of litter
is used and the grain feed buried in it.

54 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

How Much to Feed

One of the most common questions of the beginner
is “How much shall I feed my hens?” The usual answer
that “no set rule can be given, as their requirements vary
greatly under different conditions,” does not afford him
much comfort. Presumably he already knows that, but

LAWN CLIPPINGS MAKE EXCELLENT GREEN FEED FOR FOWLS
AT ALL AGES

having no guide whatever in personal experience he needs
some standard of comparison by which he can determine
approximate requirements.
able after his anxiety has been aroused by repeated warn-
ings against overfeeding and overfattening—both real
dangers, under some conditions. ao

The quantity of feed required by a fowl at any given
time depends upon the breed to which it belongs, whether
it is full grown, whether it is producing eggs, whether it
is in poor condition or well fattened, also upon the season,
as all fowls require more feed in extremely cold weather
than in warm. It also appears to be governed by condi-
tions as yet not understood. For example, in experiment-
al work the writer has found individual variations of as
much as 50 per cent in comparing one week’s consumption
with that of the following week, with

He finds this especially desir- -

ing the day and give all they want of cracked grains at
night. In addition, pullets or extra heavy laying fowls may
have all of a good, bulky moist mash that they will clean
up promptly at noon.

Warm-Weather Feeding

The back-yard poultry keeper who has a flock of lay-
ing fowls will not find the daily care of them in summer
particularly different from wintertime requirements, aside
from the fact that the work will be less exacting, and the
returns often much more encouraging. At this season of
the year fowls that are reasonably well fed are pretty
certain to lay well under almost any condition. Assum-
ing that the winter ration has carried an extra-liberal
proportion of corn, the approach of warmer weather will
be the signal to reduce this grain, substituting feeding
wheat or wheat screenings, also oats, preferably soaked.

At this time of the year the health of fowls in con-
finement is quite apt to be at a low average, as the result
of various long-continued irregularities in feeding and
management. Plenty of succulent green feed is one of
the best conditioners, and where digestive disorders are
present, granulated charcoal should be kept before the
fowls. If the kitchen waste does not afford a sufficient
supply of green feed, the best way to provide it is in the
form of sprouted oats. These can be produced in a small
way in a pan kept in a~warm place in the kitchen or in
the furnace room, but a much more practical and con-
venient way is to secure a small-sized oats sprouter with
independent source of heat, so that a regular supply will
be available. After the grass gets a start it is an ex-
cellent plan to allow the fowls to run out on the lawn
for an hour or so in the morning or at any other time of
the day when they can be watched and prevented from
doing any injury. The lawn can be made an important
source of green feed if the fowls are handled in this way,
or if the grass is cut with a lawn mower and given to
them regularly.

How to Reduce Cost of the Poultry Ration

There are both direct and indirect ways of reducing
the cost of feeding fowls. Among the former may be
mentioned: careful buying, wise selection of feeds,
economical feeding, and utilizing homegrown green feed

all known conditions identical.
Heavy-laying hens naturally will
consume somewhat larger quantities
of feed than ordinary producers. The
Leghorn hens during the first five
years of the Storrs Laying Contest,
with an average yearly production of
161.8 eggs, each consumed 3.64 ounces
of feed daily. During the same
period the Plymouth Rock hens in the
contest, with an average production
of 153.4 eggs, averaged to consume

4.25 ounces of feed daily. At the
Vineland Contest (third year) the
average feed consumption of Leg-

horns was 3.5 ounces (average ege
yield 188) and of Plymouth Rocks,
3.93 ounces (average egg yield 169.2).
A safe general rule to follow is to
give a half-feed of grain in the morn-
ing, keep dry mash before them dur-

green feed.

SURPLUS LAWN CLIPPINGS SHOULD BE DRIED AND STORED FOR WINTER USE

To the right is shown green grass just after it is mowed and to the left is shown a pile of dried grass
ready to be packed away in barrels for winter feeding.
and will keep without molding. When thoroughly steamed it is greatly relished by the fowls as a winter

Properly cured, this materia! will retain its color

FEEDING THE BACK-YARD LAYING FLOCK 55

in place of grain. The average small-scale poultry keeper
buys his feed in small quantities, and pays dearly for the
privilege. Even if no more than ten or twelve fowls are
kept it will pay to buy everything, with the possible ex-
ception of meat scrap, oyster shell, etc., in 100-pound
bags. Practically all dealers give an important discount
over retail price in such quantities, and a reduction of 10
to 15 per cent in the feed bill can readily be effected in
this way.

In most eases the cheapest and most satisfactory way
to store feed is in galvanized iron garbage or ash cans
with covers, selecting a size that will be large enough to
hold the contents of a 100-pound bag. For the meat
scrap and other special feeds that are purchased in less
than 100-pound lots get smaller cans of the same sort.
If these are blocked up off the floor so that the bottoms
do not rust out they will last many years and will save
their cost several times over.

By wise selection of feeds is meant buying such
as the fowls will eat readily, and that give the maximum
of nutrition for the money invested. Do not buy expensive
grains if something cheaper is available, and do not be
slavishly bound to any special feeding formula. Watch
the price of standard grains, learn
their nutritive values, and use most
freely the kind that gives the best
value for the money. However, in
trying to economize do not be gov-
erned too much by the price per
bushel or pound. Remember that
fowls cannot digest crude fibre at all
and that bulky, trashy feed may cost
a great deal more in the long run
than a better grade.

By more economic feeding is
meant feeding well-balanced rations,
and in correct quantity. With poorly
balanced rations it may take five
pounds to give the fowls as much of
some essential nutritive element (pro-
tein for example) as would be secured
in four pounds of a better-balanced
ration costing no more per pound.
Overfeeding is not a common source
of loss in the poultry yard, but it
sometimes occurs nevertheless. The
results of overfeeding are wasted grain and the overfatten-
ing of fowls. With hens in good production there is little
danger of overfeeding, but there is danger of supplying
an excess of scratch grains resulting in failure to consume
the less palatable but nutritious parts of the ration.

Waste of dry mash at the hopper is a common source
of loss. This may be due to defective construction in the
hopper or to the use of a poorly proportioned mixture
that tempts the hens to keep picking at it and throwing
out the less palatable part to get at something they par-
ticularly want. Such waste in the aggregate may amount
to a considerable sum, and it is altogether unnecessary.
Often a slight change can be made in the hopper that will
stop it. If not, there are plenty of other hoppers on the
market that are satisfactory in this respect.

About the worst possible way to try to reduce the
feed cost is by skimping on quantity. The fowls require
a certain amount for maintenance and that much at least

the poultry keeper must provide, regardless of cost. Hav-
ing done that, only a little more is needed to supply the
additional amount required for egg production or normal
growth, and it is true economy to supply it.

Green feed is more than a relish for fowls. It supplies
various nutritive elements in a highly digestible form,
and if freely supplied will materially reduce the amount
of grain required. Under ordinary conditions no poultry
feeder has gone his limit in reducing feed costs until he
has made provision for an abundant supply of succulent
green feed.

The foregoing “direct”? ways of reducing the cost of
the ration are all practical and worth while, but the great-
est saving can be made by “indirect” methods, by which
are meant those that reduce the cost per pound of flesh
gained or per dozen eggs laid, doing so by securing a high-
er degree of efficiency in the flock. After all, what the
poultry keeper really is interested in is not reducing the
amount he pays out for feed, but increasing the per-
centage of profit that he realizes from the feed supplied.
As a rule, the poultry keepers who have the largest net
income per hen usually have the highest feed bills. The
greater profit is made possible by the higher average of

YARDS SHOULD BE UTILIZED IN GROWING GREEN CROPS WHENEVER POSSIBLE

The luxuriant growth of corn in the yards in above illustration shows how much green feed can be
produced in a small space.

Growing crops also provide shade and purify the soil

production secured. By all means save on the cost of feed
wherever possible, but beware of economies that mean
lewer cost per fowl and greater cost in production.

Qualities of Different Feeds

The poultry keeper who for any reason prefers to
make his own grain and mash mixtures needs to have a
fairly comprehensive knowledge of the relative values of
the different grains and other feedstuffs available for his
use. It is not possible within the limits of this book to
go into detail in regard to this, but the interested reader
will find “How to Feed Poultry for Any Purpose with
Profit” (published by Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing
Company—see page 104) a source of complete and authen-
tic information on this subject. The following brief
suggestions on the different poultry feeds in common use
are given that the beginner may have a fair working
knowledge of the subject, thus to enable him to supplement

56 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

ready-mixed rations when necessary or desirable, and to
make up home mixtures for emergency use.

Special attention should be given by the beginner to
variety in feeding, a matter of decided importance in
getting maximum results either in growth or production.
I. is not necessary to go to extremes in this respect,
but it is not reasonable to expect that either chicks or
fowls will have the keen appetites which are demanded
for best results in either growth or egg production unless
reasonable variety is provided. The beginner should
also understand that while there are some feedstuffs that
every practical poultry feeder prefers to use because ex-
perience has demonstrated their value, there is none so
essential that it must be secured regardless of cost. On
the contrary, any disproportionate increase in the cost
of a given grain should be the signal for promptly re-
ducing its percentage in the ration, or for omitting it
entirely, substituting the next best thing available at
more reasonable cost.

Corn is by all odds the most valuable grain that the
average poultryman can feed and, as a rule, the cheapest.
For the _ back-
yard. flock corn
should always be
eracked, except
in the evening
feed in extreme-
ly cold weather,
when whole
grains may be
safely fed. The
objection to
whole corn is
based upon the
fact that the ker-
nels are too eas-
ily found and the
fowls have prac-
tically no need to
scratch for it—
a serious objec-
tion indeed, in
the care of close-
ly confined flocks.
It is probably the
most completely digested of any of the grains fed to fowls
and owing to the high percentage of fat or oil which it con-
tains, is excellent for winter feeding. If sufficient atten-
tion is given to the fowls’ exercise, it may safely form
a considerable part of the grain ration even in summer.

LOW-COST DRY MASH OR GRAIN HOPPER

Corn is generally regarded as a highly fattening
grain. Some of its value in, this respect, no doubt, is
due to the readiness with which fowls can satisfy their
appetites on the large, readily seen kernels, but the com-
paratively high percentage of oil and the extra palata-
bility and digestibility of the grains doubtless has a direct
bearing upon this fact. Whatever the explanation may
be, the beginner should realize that its free use in warm
weather is attended with some danger, and since cracked
corn frequently is almost as expensive as wheat, the safe
plan is to use the latter grain “freely if price makes it
practical to do so. Wheat is low in fat and the kernels
are small and readily buried in litter so that much more
effort is required of the fowls in getting their share of
the daily allowance.

Wheat. While experiments show that fowls usually
will do better on corn than on wheat when limited to a
single grain, many poultry keepers depend quite largely
upon the latter, particularly in sections where but little
corn is raised. At the present time comparatively little
good milling wheat is fed, screenings and “feeding wheat”
being used instead. Apparently, wheat that is shrunken
or below milling grade for some other reason, even if
slightly damaged, is quite satisfactory for feeding, but
the poultry keeper should bear in mind that damaged
grains of any kind must be fed with care. Fowls are
highly susceptible to digestive disorders resulting from
mold or fermentation and where there is any evidence of
this in the grains fed, the proportion used should be
quite limited.

Oats have always been a favorite grain with poultry
feeders, particularly where the grains are plump and
heavy. They carry a high percentage of crude fiber,
however, and their feeding value, pound to pound, is lower
than either corn or wheat. In the dry state they should
not be fed too heavily, as the sharp points and excess of
fiber cause serious trouble at times. The beginner is apt
to conclude that since oats usually can be purchased at
a much lower price per bushel than either corn or wheat,
it is economy to substitute them for the more expensive
grains, failing to take into consideration the difference
in nutritive values due to the greater percentage of crude
fiber, which has no feeding value for fowls.

In order accurately to compare the feeding value of
different grains, the weights of their nutritive elements
alone should be considered. For illustration, in 100 lbs.
of oats there are 76.5 lbs. of nutrients (fiber, ash and
water free) as compared with 85.7 lbs in shelled corn,
and 85.9 in wheat. Making the comparison on the basis
of the bushel, there are 24.5 lbs. of fiber, ash, and water-
free nutrients in one bushel (32 lbs.) of oats, 48 lbs. in
one bushel (56 lbs.) of corn, and 52 lbs. in a bushel of
wheat. If 100 lbs. of corn are worth $3.00, then 100 lbs.
of oats are worth $2.678, and 100 lbs. of wheat will be
worth $2.995. Or, if corn is worth $1.50 a bushel, oats
would be worth 76.6c per bushel and wheat $1.62. There
may possibly be a slight difference in the digestibility of
the nutrients in these grains, but it is not probable that
it is material, and there is not sufficient definite informa-
tion on this subject to make a practical comparison on
this basis.

Keeping these relative values clearly in mind the
poultry feeder should have no difficulty in determining
when he can feed oats to advantage. The preceding com-
parisons have been on the basis of 32-pound oats. Where
extra-heavy oats are obtainable their value in comparison
with corn and wheat will be greater, pound for pound,
and that of light, chaffy oats containing a much higher
percentage of fiber will be less. In actual feeding, oats
are at a further disadvantage, due to the fact that while
a limited amount of crude fiber is an essential part of
the ration, the percentage must be much lower than in
the rations of any other of our domestic animals. About
4 per cent for the entire ration seems to be most desir-
able and when the proportion noticeably exceeds this it
is apt to result in decreased production, and acute in-
testinal disorders.

Fowls can handle a much higher percentage of the
crude fiber in oats if the grains are thoroughly softened.
It is for this reason that boiling and soaking are so
highly recommended. It has been found that where oats

FEEDING THE BACK-YARD LAYING FLOCK 57

are prepared in this way, or by sprouting, they can be
fed in almost any quantity desired without injurious re-
sults. It is not certain that such preparation adds to the
digestibility of the grain (though it probably does so in
the case of sprouted oats), but unquestionably it makes
the grain much more palatable to the fowls, prevents dan-
-ger of injury through the sharp points penetrating the
comparatively thin membrane of the crop, and greatly
reduces the irritating effect of the husk upon the intes-
tines.

Other Grains. The three grains just mentioned should
form the bulk of all grain mixtures except where there
are special reasons for introducing other less commonly
used grains. There are many others, however, that can
safely be fed to fowls in liberal proportion, and where
price makes it an object to do so these may largely re-
place corn, wheat or oats. Barley, rye, buckwheat,
kafir, milo, peas, sorghum seed, etc., are all eaten more
or less readily by fowls, but the back-yard poultry keep-
er will rarely find it to his advantage to purchase these
grains at the feed stores. Sufficient variety for all pur-
poses is provided in a mixture of corn, wheat and oats,
and there is no special advantage in adding any of the
other grains mentioned unless price makes it an object
to do so. In no case should any at-

centage to be used is determined chiefly by the amount.
needed to put the mash mixture in proper mechanical
condition for feeding, either dry or moist. As a rule,
not over twenty-five per cent (by weight) of bran is used
in the laying mash.

White Middlings are much more nutritious than bran
and more palatable as well, and usually are added to the
mash in about the same proportion as bran. It is sel-
dom practical to use a larger quantity than this, owing
to their tendency to make the mash sticky and pasty, in
which condition it is not readily eaten. In proper propor-
tion, however, middlings are a desirable addition to the
mixture and should not be omitted unless unobtainable or
too high in price. There is some confusion in different parts
of the country as to the meaning of the term “middlings,”’
but what is here meant by “white middlings” is a by-pro-
duct in the manufacture of flour, not quite as fine or as
white as low-grade flour or red dog, but with much less
bran than “shorts” or “brown middlings.”

Corn Meal is almost invariably an ingredient of the
mash. It increases palatability and, being low in crude
fiber, its use is especially recommended where the mix-
ture otherwise would be too bulky. It also helps to coun-
teract the pastiness of a mash rich in middlings. A

tempt be made to force the fowls to
eat any grain that they do not want,
simply because it is a little lower in
price than something else. The sav-
ing that will result from this policy
will fall far short of offsetting the
slower growth or reduced production
that is practically certain to result.

Ingredients of the Mash

The mash part of the ration af-
fords the poultry keeper’s best means
of balancing the nutritive ratio -and,
as a rule, makes it possible to reduce
the cost of the feeding through the
use of various by-products. It is gen-
erally assumed that the mash and
grain should be fed in about equal
proportions. Where growth or egg
production is to be stimulated, how-
ever, the skillful feeder may consid-
ably increase the proportion of mash.
This is done either by feeding moist
mashes, or by decreasing the amount
of grain fed thus forcing greater consumption of dry mash.
Where either practice is followed, however, due care must
be taken that the right kind of mash is fed and the health
of the birds should be closely watched. The beginner
will do well to stick to the conservative 50-50 ratio, and
in case of doubt to increase the grain part of the ration
rather than the mash. To do this may result in slightly
lower production but there will be less risk of unfavor-
ably affecting the health of the fowls.

Bran. In most cases bran is the starting point for the
mash formula, not because of its feeding value, which is
considered lower than some other feedstuffs, but because
it has an excellent effect upon the digestion, helps to
give the mash mixture the proper consistency, affords nec-
essary bulk, and also contains a relatively high percent-
age of minerals which are essential to health and produc-
tion. Because of its comparatively low feeding value,
bran is not a particularly economical feed, and the per-

Mangels are highly popular among poultry keepers for winter feeding.
are enormously productive on fertile soil. :
out the entire winter in caves or vegetable cellars, but must not be exposed to freezing temperature.

A CROP OF MANGEIS GROWN FOR WINTER GREEN FEED

They are easy to grow an«!
With proper handling they will keep in good condition through-

practical objection to using much corn meal is the fact
that this necessarily limits the amount of cracked or whole
corn that can be fed, and as it generally is desirable to use
corn freely in the scratch grain mixture its use in the
mash should be limited to the amount required to make it
palatable and to have it in proper mechanical condition.

Rolled Oats. Under many conditions it is desirable
to add rolled oats to the mash mixture, meaning by this
whole oats that have been run through the rollers or
through a feed mill and crushed or partly ground. Where
rolled oats are low in price they can be substituted in part
for bran. This grain is quite high in crude fiber, however,
and if soaked or sprouted oats are fed there seldom is
any need for them in the mash mixture.

Meat Scrap. Animal matter in some form is a neces-
sity in the feeding of fowls of all ages and it cannot be
neglected in the ration of either chicks, growing stock or
adult fowls without loss. Fresh meat no doubt is the

58 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

best form in which to supply it, but it rarely is possible
to obtain this at reasonable cost. The green cut bone se-
cured at meat shops usually is priced too high to be an
economical feed, though it may be used in limited quan-
tity for the sake of variety. Under most conditions com-
mercial meat scrap will be the back-yard poultry keeper’s

A GREEN FEED PROTECTOR

The frame of this protector is of 2 by 4-inch material, covered with one-
inch netting. Illustration shows a splendid crop of oats that has been pro-
tected from the fowls in this way until it secured a good start. Photo from
United States Department of Agriculture.

mainstay. Tankage is used by many owing to the lower
price at which it may be secured and, as a rule, good
results are reported. Meat scrap, however, is generally
regarded as a more desirable feed for fowls and is more
uniform in quality where standard brands are used.

Some ready-mixed mashes do not contain meat scrap,
and as this material is rather high priced, the back-yard
poultry keeper needs frequently to be reminded of its im-
portance in the laying ration and urged to keep a supply
on hand for use as needed. If the hens are eating about
equal quantities of mash and grain and laying well, meat
scrap may be added to the mash at the rate of 20 to 25
per cent. If the fowls are not laying heavily, or if the
kitchen scraps contain an appreciable amount of meat,
the proportion may be reduced to 10 per cent, provided
the reduction does not make the mash less palatable and
thus interfere with its consumption.

Fresh butcher’s scraps or green cut bone may safely be
fed at the rate of one-half ounce daily per hen, but if
supplied too freely will cause digestive disorders. The
same is true of meat scrap, too heavy feeding of which
will soon be indicated by soft, dark-brown droppings
with a peculiarly offensive odor. Tankage is more vari-
able in quality than meat scrap and must be fed with
greater care. It is deficient in bone, one valuable ingre-
dient of meat scrap, for which reason it will probably pay
to add some ground bone or bone meal to the mash when
tankage is used.

Other Ingredients of the Mash. The foregoing feeds
form the basis of all mash mixtures and usually nothing
else is actually required. Just as in the case of grains, how-
ever, where other mill feeds are obtainable at favorable
prices they may be substituted to a reasonable extent.
Oil meal used in the proportion of 5 to 10 per cent
is regarded as particularly desirable during the molting

season, and should always be added where there is a ten-
dency to diarrhea, also in mash mixtures that are too
high in crude fiber. Cottonseed meal is used in the South
to a considerable extent in place of meat scrap. Quite
contradictory reports have been published in regard to
its desirability in the poultry ration but it appears to be
safe to use it in limited quantity (not to exceed ten per
cent of the mash mixture) if a good grade of meal is
obtained. It is said, however, that meal made from seed
that has been frozen is apt to cause trouble. At its best
it is only a partial substitute for meat scrap and where
the latter can be obtained at a reasonable price the addi-
tion of cottonseed meal to a mash mixture is not advised.

Buckwheat middlings are highly nutritious and where
available at moderate cost may be used freely. Ground
barley, rye, or almost any grain or seed meal may be
added to the mash in limited proportion, being careful,
however, to make nc radical changes except for good
reason, then to introduce them GRADUALLY. In every
instance where something unusual is added to the ration
the feeder should watch the fowls carefully, noting daily
the consumption of the new feed and the condition of the
droppings on the droppings platform so that any tendency
to digestive disorders will be observed and suitable
changes made in the feed mixture before serious trouble
develops.

Home Mixtures of Feeds

A great variety of formulas for home mixtures could
be given, but to do so would be confusing rather than help-
ful to the beginner. As a matter of fact, pratical feeders
follow closely the same formulas, differences in propor-
tions or in grains used being largely matters of personal
preference or availability of supplies. Employing only
common feedstuffs that may be secured almost anywhere
in this country, a practical formula for a scratch grain
mixture consists of the following: For winter feeding:
two parts of corn, one part of wheat, one part of heavy
oats—by weight in each case. For summer feeding: one
part of corn, two parts of wheat, one part. of oats. Other
grains may be added to this foundation mixture as de-
sired, observing the precautions already suggested.

A good mash mixture for laying fowls and growing
stock consists of one part of bran, one part of middlings,
one part of corn meal, to which add 10 to 25 per cent of
meat scrap, the percentage varying with the age of the
fowls, their productiveness, and whether or not they have
any other source of animal food. The proportions of the
different ingredients in the mash mixture depend to some
extent upon the fineness of the meals employed, and for
that reason any formula should be looked upon as tenta-
tive, to be modified as occasion requires. If the fowls
consume more mash. than seems desirable, this may be
checked by increasing the percentage of bran. If too lit-
tle is eaten, increased consumption may be secured by
making the mixture more palatable, doing so by increas-
ing the percentage of corn meal or meat scrap.

Seme Accessories to the Ration

The feeds that have been discussed, as represented in
well-proportioned grain and mash mixtures, commercial
or home mixed, supply most of the fowl’s bodily require-
ments, but not all. To have a complete ration these must
be supplemented by other things.

Grit plays an important part in fowl digestion and
best results cannot be secured indefinitely without its use,

FEEDING THE BACK-YARD LAYING FLOCK 59

though fowls sometimes appear to get along well without
it for comparatively long periods. Almost any kind of
crushed stone, pebbles, broken dishes or crockery will an-
swer the purpose, though most will find it true economy to
use a good brand of commercial grit.

Oyster Shell. This material is the almost universal
source of supply for eggshell material, and it cannot be
omitted without loss. Do not make the mistake of think-
ing that so long as the fowls do not lay soft-shelled eggs
they are not in need of shell material. Experiments have
shown that production may be cut down one-half or more,
and the size of the eggs greatly reduced by the lack of
shell material, without the appearance of any soft-shelled
eggs. Laying fowls will not eat much grit when oyster
shell is provided and often appear to do well without any,
but it is better to be on the safe side and keep a supply of
both before them all the time. :

Charcoal. Many feeders do not supply charcoal but
it deserves a place in every poultry ration. It acts as an
absorbent, corrects acidity, and helps to overcome indi-
gestion in early stages. To a large extent charcoal is
insurance against indigestion.

Milk. Milk is an exceptionally good feed for fowls
of all ages and now that it may readily be obtained in the
form of semisolid buttermilk at almost any poultry feed
store, its general use is to be recommended. The back-
yard poultry keeper will, of course, see that his fowls get
all the surplus milk from the kitchen, either sweet or
sour, and where milk enters into the ration the percentage
of meat scrap can be correspondingly reduced.

Use of Condiments

Digestive stimulants, such as red (Cayenne) pepper,
ground ginger, mustard, etc., have a place, though a
comparatively unimportant one, in poultry feeding. Un-
fortunately most persons who undertake to use them
go to extremes and, in the long run, lose more than they
gain. All condimental feeds should be regarded as mild
correctives, practical for use because readily available,
but to be employed only as temporary stimulants where
some error in feeding or care has thrown the fowl out of
condition. Their use is particularly indicated in cases of
acute diarrhea, loss of appetite, etc.

With pure, wholesome feed and

no such power, and their use simply adds to the cost of
feeding and is apt to result in liver troubles.

The danger in feeding all condiments is in the use of
too large quantities, or in continuing to feed them for too
long a time. The proper quantity to use can readily
be determined by tasting the feed. It should be seasoned
pleasantly to the taste, and no more, and their use should
only be continued for a limited period.

Green Crops That Will Help to Reduce the Feed Bill

Comparatively few poultry keepers make any serious
effort to realize the possibilities for economy in feeding
that are afforded by the free use of green feed. Even
where an effort is made to provide such material, it is
done not because of its nutritive value but merely be-
cause it is believed that a certain amount is required in
order to keep the fowls in good health. Green feed un-
doubtedly improves the digestion of fowls, supplies need-
ed bulk and corrects the constipating effect of concentrat-
ed feeds such as hard grains, rich mashes, meat scrap,
ete. But just because it is looked upon as a sort of ac-
eessory to the ration instead of an economical source of
highly nutritious food, it generally is provided in as lim-
ited quantity as the poultry keeper can ‘get by” with.

There may be peculiar conditions under which the
poultry keeper can afford to buy bran, mealed alfalfa,
etc., at a cost of one and one-half to two cents per pound,
to be used in the place of green feed, but these conditions
are not common. Practically the only expense for green
feed is the labor involved in its production. With small
flocks this need hardly enter into consideration as, under
average conditions, the limited amount needed can be
grown at odd times when the labor utilized would other-
wise have no cash value.

Green Feed Protector

Those who have comparatively small runs for their
fowls find it possible to raise a good deal of green feed
in runs by using protectors similar to the one shown in
the accompanying illustration. The purpose of this pro-
tector is to give the plarts a chance to reach fair size,
after which they will stand weeks of grazing if the fowls

eareful feeding such ailments should
rarely develop, and it is certain that
where the use of such stimulants be-
comes advisable there is something
definitely wrong with the feed or the
method of feeding it, and this must
be found and corrected if good re-
sults are permanently to be secured.
It is useless to resort to condiments
and leave the cause of the disorder
uncorrected.

Condiments probably have some
stimulating effect on the egg organs
also. Ground mustard has been es-
pecially recommended for this pur-
pose and many persons have reported
excellent results from its use. They
probably will have some effect in the
ease of fowls about ready to lay, but
are practically worthless in “forcing”
production in the case of immature
pullets or resting hens. They have

raised.

A BACK-LOT POULTRY YARD SEEDED TO ALFALFA

This scene on the poultry plant of R. W. Van Hoesen, New York, shows a splendid sceding of alfalfa
and red clover in foreground with a plot of corn in front of the colony houses where young stock is being
The corn will furnish shade in hot weather, with a few more weeks’ growth, while the alfalfa and
red clover will furnish the best of green feed throughout the entire growing season.

60 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

are prevented from scratching and trampling them and
picking off the tender young shoots as they come through
the ground. Such quick-growing crops as lettuce, rape,
rye, oats, etc., are especially adapted to this use. The
protector may be made of 1-inch boards about 6 inches
wide, for the sides and ends, covering with 1-inch-mesh
netting and using cross strips to hold the netting up in
the middle, if necessary. A convenient size for the frame
is 4 feet by 8 to 12 feet.

Carefully prepare the ground where the seed is to
be sown, spading it thoroughly and putting it in garden-
bed condition. Then sow the seed and cover with the
protector. In warm weather the plants will grow quickly
in the fertile soil of the average poultry yard, and as
they come within reach of the fowls they will be greedily
eaten. When the plants become woody and slow in growth,
prepare a new seed bed and start a new plot. With a
little effort the entire run may be utilized in this way
during the season, not only providing a great deal of suc-
culent green feed, but also purifying the soil.

Growing Special Green Crops

Cabbage. Cabbage can be used either as a soiling
crop or stored for winter use, but if too heavily fed it
sometimes unfavorably affects the quality and flavor of
the eggs produced. Many persons find it a practical plan
to grow cabbage for market, selling all the sound heads
and feeding to the fowls the trimmings and the plants
that fail to head properly.

Mangels. Among vegetable crops grown for winter
use, mangels usually are the most desirable. Great quan-
tities can be produced on an acre of ground. Mangels need
not be seeded extra early as they make their growth
rather late in the season. Drill the rows three to three
and ‘one-half feet apart, use plenty of seed and do not
cover too deeply. As is the case with beet seed generally,
germination is rather uncertain. To be sure of a good
stand it is wise to sow liberally and thin the plants to
eight to ten inches in the row. The young mangels that
are thinned out will make splendid summer green feed,
but do not make the mistake of letting them stand too
long before thinning. Tearing out surplus plants after
they begin to crowd in the row will injure those that are
left, and may seriously check their growth. Give mangels
clean cultivation and pull them before freezing weather.

Miscellaneous Vegetables. There are numerous veg-
etables and waste products of the farm and garden, such
as potatoes, beet tops, tomatoes and apples, also clippings
from the lawn, edible weeds from the garden, etc., that
should be utilized when available. They are all valuable
and they all help to save more expensive feeds.

Sprouted Oats. Where special provision must be
made for green feed there is nothing better or more prac-
tical for everyday use than sprouted oats. In common
practice the grains are soaked for a few hours and then
spread on shallow trays and kept moist and warm, under
which treatment they quickly sprout and then are greatly
relished by the fowls.

The length to which the sprouts are allowed to de-
velop before feeding depends upon the rapidity with which
they grow, and on the personal preference of the feeder.
To utilize the feeding value of the oats to the best advan-
tage and to avoid danger of mold, it is better to feed when
the sprouts are quite short, and only a few days at the
right temperature are required to grow them to this stage.
Small lots of oats can be sprouted in trays or pans in the

kitchen or furnace room, but for quick growth and con-
venience in caring for them a regular oat sprouter should
be provided.

Drinking Water

An ample supply of wholesome drinking water is
highly important for fowls of all ages, particularly in hot
weather. Lack of water, even for a short time, will cause
intense suffering, while drinking from unwholesome
sources is quite apt to cause disease. Even when water is
regularly supplied much trouble results from a lack of
cleanliness in the vessels used. In hot weather various
forms of bacterial growth increase with great rapidity in
water and when the drinking vessels are placed where
filth can accumulate in them or are left with sides coated
with slime, a great risk is taken. The ordinary bodily re-
quirements of fowls for water are about the same at all
seasons, the normal wide range in daily consumption be-
ing influenced chiefly by weather conditions, also by
whether or not the fowls are laying. At the Missouri Ex-
periment Station a pen of 60 White Leghorn hens aver-
aged to. consume 24% gallons of water daily during the
warm weather, or at the rate of one gallon daily to 16
hens. For suggestions in regard to how to supply suitable
water vessels, etc., see Chapter VII.

How to Prevent Drinking Water From Freezing

Fowls need an abundance of drinking water in winter
as well as in summer, and will not do their best without
it. Fresh, clean water should be available for their use
from the time they come down from the perches in the
morning until they go to roost at night, no matter how
cold the weather may be. This is especially important
when dry mash is fed, as fowls will eat little of such ma-
terials unless they have water with which to wash it down.
Moreover, if the best possible results are wanted from the
fowls, do not compel them to drink ice water, which will
chill them, retard digestion, and seriously interfere with
their bodily comfort.

The back-yard poultry keeper often finds it difficult
to keep water from freezing in severe weather, particular-
ly if the supply for the entire day must be given in the
morning, with no opportunity to warm it up during the
day. Founts may be secured that are equipped with small
kerosene burners by means of which the water can be kept
at a moderate temperature, regardless of outside condi-
tions. The cost of operating these is slight, and they are
entirely safe when properly handled. Those who are so
placed that they do not wish to use heated’founts can se-
cure double-walled founts, with an insulating air space
between. In common practice these are filled with hot
water the night before so that the insulating air blanket
will be thoroughly warmed and the water reduced to a
temperature suitable for drinking by morning. It then
will remain free from ice throughout the day, under all
ordinary winter conditions.

A homemade insulated water vessel can be provided
by using a pail or can of suitable size, placing this in a
covered box a few inches larger and deeper than the pail,
this extra space being packed with chaff, sawdust, plan-
ers’ shavings, or similar nonconducting material. The
box should be deep enough so that when the water
vessel is in place only the top will be above the cover.
A water vessel insulated in this manner, if filled with
warm water in the morning, should keep free from ice
throughout the day.

CHAPTER

General Care and Management of the Laying Flock

Back-Yard Poultry Keepers Have the Best Chance to Secure Maximum Production From Hens—How to Hasten
Maturity of Late Pullets—Importance of Using Plenty of Suitable Floor Litter—How to Regulate
Ventilation in the Laying House—How to Break Up Broody Hens Quickly

VITH good, well-bred pullets coming to maturity
and beginning to lay in October, getting prof-
itable egg yields is largely a matter of proper
feeding, comfortable housing and good treat-
ment, and the last-named condition is by no
means the least important of the three. Time and again
persons whose fowls were in no way remarkable as to
breeding, and whose housing conditions were far from
the best, have reported most excellent production, for
which the only probable explanation that can be offered
is that the caretakers were “good poultrymen’’—meaning
chiefly that they gave their flocks proper care. Laying
fowls are far from being machines. They will, as a mat-
ter of fact, respond surprisingly to intelligent and sympa-
thetic treatment; and often this is the only “secret” of
individual success.

The small-scale operator has a much better chance to
secure high egg records from his fowls than those who
have large flocks and must depend upon quantity of pro-
duction for their profits rather than securing maximum
returns per hen. Even where all feed is purchased an
average of anything over 100 eggs per hen should be
clear profit; and when production reaches 125 to 150 eggs
or better, as can quite readily be realized in almost any
small flock, the net returns should satisfy the most enthu-
siastic. There is nothing mysterious or especially difficult
about getting good egg production either in the winter or
at any other time. It is simply a question of having hens
or pullets that are capable of laying and of KEEPING
THEM IN LAYING CONDITION.

It is true that many beginners do not have fowls
that meet these conditions, but that is not so much because
it is especially difficult to do so as because many will not
take the pains to learn what are the essentials in good
egg production at any time, and under any condition. An
illustration of this point is afforded by a letter recently
received from a man who was considering investing in a
small flock, but who had become uneasy
because of the experience of a neighbor
who had “started in pretty strong this
fall with about forty hens and to date
he has not secured any eggs and has
found it a rather expensive matter to
carry these unproductive hens for so
long a time.”

It was unreasonable, of course, for
either our correspondent or his neighbor
to expect hens to begin laying just as
soon as they were purchased and placed
in their new quarters, particularly so
since their owner was without experience
and must learn how to care for his fowls
and how and what to feed. Even with
skillful management, pullets or hens
must have a little time in which to be-.
come accustomed to their new quarters

and get into good laying condition. Just how long it will
take to do this will depend upon certain factors, these vary-
ing in number and importance with different flocks and dif-
ferent operators. If it takes longer than the impatient
owner thinks it should, there still is only one practical
thing to do and that is to continue feeding the hens
properly, keeping them comfortable, and making sure that
conditions generally are such as are favorable to produc-
tion. Depend upon it that when the fowls are in condi-
tion to lay, THEY WILL LAY.

If the beginner just mentioned, however, was one of
the large number who make their start blindly, assuming
that “a hen is a hen” and buying without accurate infor-
mation as to the character or the condition of the fowls; if
pullets, not knowing how many weeks of feeding would
be required to bring them to maturity; if hens, not know-
ing how old they were, or whether they were a lot of
worthless culls from the flock of some one better inform-
ed, he had only himself to blame if his venture proved a
losing one. Just because there are only a few conditions
essential to success is not a good reason for ignoring
all of them.

Hastening Development of Pullets

Persons who must depend upon buying laying flocks
each season often find it impossible to secure early-
hatched pullets, and must content themselves with late-
hatched, immature birds that will not begin laying for
some time. Pullets never begin laying until they are
fairly well matured and rounded out, and until this con-
dition is reached they should be fed a ration designed to
hasten maturity rather than one intended to promote egg
production. On a laying ration with a high percent-
age of protein, young pullets will keep right on growing
instead of maturing, and so long as growth continues
there is no hope of their laying. What is needed at this
time is not a laying ration, but a fattening one which

A VALUABLE FLOCK OF WELL-GROWN BIRDS READX TO GO INTO
WINTER QUARTERS 61

will check growth and cause the pullets to take on fat
instead—a most important point in hastening maturity.

To promote early laying, therefore, the ration should
contain liberal proportions of corn and animal feed (fresh
butcher’s scraps are especially desirable) and, if possible,
a daily feed of a rather heavy moist mash—that is, one
not too high in crude fiber. It is not advisable to feed
oats freely as that grain is particularly favorable to pro-
moting growth. Continue this fat-forming ration until
the pullets get plump and begin to sing and otherwise
indicate that the egg organs are well developed, after
which it may gradually be changed to the regular laying
formula.

It is not necessary nor desirable to resort to extreme
measures to provide exercise for late pullets. Exercise
is helpful in preventing adult fowls from becoming over-
fat, which is a sufficient reason for avoiding it with the
immature pullets that the owner is deliberately trying
to fatten. These will need just exercise enough to enable
them properly to digest their food and to keep in good
health, but if not too closely confined they will need little
attention from the caretaker in this respect. Stimulants
and condiments are of limited value in hastening egg pro-
duction. There is nothing that will “force” either hens or
pullets to lay when they are not in condition to do so, and
after they are in proper condition, good wholesome feed
end plenty of it is about all that is needed to start pro-
duction, if other conditions are reasonably favorable.

If the flock consists of hens instead of pullets, a fat-
tening ration should be avoided unless the fowls are known
to be in poor condition. Molting hens must be allowed
time in which to grow the new coat of feathers and to
recover from the strain of the preceding laying season.
Efforts to bring them into laying early in the winter are
rarely profitable. They should be well fed, however, sup-
plying a good nutritious ration, and when their appear-
ance indicates that they are approaching laying condition
they should then be placed on a laying ration, avoiding

SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

too heavy feeding, however, until egg production actually
begins, otherwise they may take on too much fat.

Artificial illumination is extremely helpful in hasten-
ing fall egg production in either pullets or hens, and no
commercial egg producer can afford to neglect the use
of this modern method—see chapter XVI.

Litter For the Poultry House and How to Use It

Litter for the poultry house floor is valuable chiefly
as an absorbent and deodorizer, as an insulator (making
the floor warmer in cold weather), and as a means of
providing exercise for fowls in confinement. Unless ab-
sorbed by litter the moisture contained in the droppings
of fowls will make any house damp and foul smelling
when the atmosphere is quite heavy or ventilation is re-
stricted in order to retain warmth. At such times all the
help that can be afforded by an ample supply of absorbent
material is required in order to keep the house in a sani-
tary condition. Dampness has an especially unfavorable
influence upon the health of fowls, young or old, and when
to this is added foul odors, disease is never far distant. In
winter, litter keeps the fowls’ feet from coming in contact
with the cold floor and adds greatly to their comfort. An-
other advantage is that it forms a cushion upon which
they may alight when they fly down from the perches.
Bumblefoot and injuries to egg organs are common
troubles when fowls are allowed to fly down from high
perches and alight on bare, hard floors.

Litter too often is looked upon as a sort of “extra”
that can be employed or omitted according to convenience,
instead of being regarded as an essential no more to be
neglected than feed or water. And there is no more
short-sighted economy than being oversparing or indiffer-
ent in its use. As an illustration of the practical im-
portance of looking after the supply of litter and of renew-
ing it often enough to keep it reasonably clean and fresh,
the experience of a New York poultry keeper may be men-
tioned. This man had a flock of 440 White Leghorns that

went into the winter in good condition and

[No.0 JANUARY FEBRUARY

were laying well until the litter became badly

Eggs |21]22/23/24]25]26|27|28]29]30
Produced

Daily

8} 9 Olt} 12}13}14 115 ]16}17}18}19}20}2 1}22) 23)

230

24)

es[2e[2A2a| 1 soiled and damp, due to long use and the close

confinement of the fowls. Through an over-
sight there was no straw on hand with which

220

to renew the litter and none could be obtained

210

for some days. As a direct result the egg

200

yield fell off rapidly and from an average. of

190

about 205 eggs per day it dropped to 80 on

180

the day when a supply of straw was secured
and the house thoroughly cleaned out and re-

170

littered. This done, the egg yield at once be-

160

gan to improve and in 14 days was back to

1So

two hundred. This record is graphically re-

140

produced in the illustration on this page,
which is worth the careful study of anyone

130

In THis| Date

who thinks that he can safely neglect this .

120

seemingly minor detail.

hainged

How Much Litter to- Use

100

The amount of litter to use and the fre-

[Lifetle

quency with which it should be renewed, will

AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF USING CLEAN LITTER

Above chart shows in graphic manner the egg production of the flock of 440 White Leg-
Litter should have been changed by January 25, but this
was not done until February 15, and the black line, which indicates the egg yield, shows the

horns mentioned on this page.

result. After litter was changed production quickly came back to normal.

depend upon a number of factors. So far as
cleanliness and the comfort of the fowls are
concerned, it need only be deep enough to keep
them off the bare floor and to prevent drop-
pings from sticking to it. But it must be re-

GENERAL CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE LAYING FLOCK 63

newed as often as it becomes noticeably damp or foul
smelling in winter, or dusty in dry weather.

So far as saving in the cost is concerned it is doubtful
if a sparing use of litter is any more economical than
supplying it freely. A thin layer will get damp and foul
smelling in a comparatively short time. A deep one will
absorb moisture and deodorize the droppings, and will
remain comparatively fresh and clean for a much longer
time than would the same quantity of material applied
in thin layers and frequently renewed. For this reason
the most practical and economical plan is to keep a good
coat of litter on the floor at all times. As it wears down,
add fresh material as needed, continuing to do this until
dampness or the accumulation of pulverized droppings
near the floor makes a complete cleaning out necessary.

The use that is to be made of the soiled litter and
droppings will have some bearing on how freely it is em-
ployed. The poultry keeper who grows some cultivated
crops and thus is able profitably to utilize the fertilizing
value of the droppings can better afford to use the litter
freely than can those who have no profitable way of
disposing of this valuable by-product. Whatever mate-
rial is employed, care should be taken to use none that is
extremely dusty or moldy. Fowls do not like to scratch
in dusty litter, and the constant irritation of the mucous
membrane of nostrils and throat caused by the dust some-
times results in outbreaks of catarrhal disorders. More-
over, dust in certain materials contains great quantities
of mold spores which, when inhaled, may cause a serious
disease of the lungs. Clover hay and shredded corn fodder
or stover are particularly dangerous in this respect.

Kind of Litter to Use

For most poultry keepers there is comparatively little
choice in materials, as they must take whatever is avail-
able. Probably few who are able to secure wheat or oat
straw at low cost will give any further thought to the

subject. Straw answers the purpose well, remains loose
with an occasional stirring, does not readily break up into
small particles, and probably is the most attractive of all
litters so far as the fowls are concerned. Straw is high
in cost in many localities, however, and its use then can
scarcely be classed as practical.

Where planer shavings are obtainable at low cost they
may be used to good advantage, especially in combination
with straw. Shavings alone make a good covering for
the floor in warm weather, when they are employed chiefly
to keep the floor clean. As scratching litter they are
not satisfactory, but a mixture of shavings and straw
is preferred by many to straw alone. Such a mixture
is more absorbent, provides more exercise and lasts long-
er than a coat of straw of the same thickness. Shred-
ded corn fodder or stover is used by many, and while not
as desirable as straw, is a fairly satisfactory substitute
for it. It should be well cured and free from mold.

Various other materials are used locally, such as hay,
leaves, pine needles, sawdust, coarse sand, etc., but none
can be considered really satisfactory. Hay usually is too
fine and packs badly; clover hay mats and the leaves quick-
ly break up into fine dust and are wasted. Forest leaves are
good while they last, but they also break up quickly and
become quite dusty. Moreover, the labor cost of collect-
ing them is out of proportion to their value. Sawdust and
clean, coarse sand are good as absorbents and for the
protection of the floor, but of no value as scratching
material. In the South, cottonseed hulls have given the
best of satisfaction in many cases and are comparatively
inexpensive.

Seasonable Directions for the Care of the Laying House

Pesistent efforts have been made in the last few years
to perfect a type of poultry house the ventilation of which
would require little or no adjustment to meet changing
weather conditions. Throughout what may be called the
“poultry belt,’ however, such changes
are so extreme that it is doubtful
whether automatic ventilation will
ever prove entirely _ satisfactory.
Even if this object could be achieved
the practical value of the feature
probably would be comparatively
slight to the small-plant operator.
One of the important details in the
everyday care of fowls is SEEING
THEM; and the almost inevitable re-
sult of automatic methods that re-
duce the attendance of the caretaker
is that the fowls fail to receive that
careful observation which is much
more apt to accompany frequent
visits to the poultry house.

Muslin when clean and dry is the
best known medium for introducing
fresh air into the poultry house with-
out drafts and without undue loss of
heat. It is important to remember,
however, that muslin when wet or
heavily coated with dust admits but
little air. Many persons, therefore.

COTTONSEED-HUILsL LITTER IN LAYING HOUSE

This interior view of a laying house at the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College Poultry Farm,
This material is sanitary and gives ]
pearance. Photo also shows special eaves and floor ventilation, and manure pit used in place of drop-

shows the floor littered with cottonseed hulls.

pings platform.

who have houses properly constructed
and adequately equipped with muslin
curtains often find the circulation of
the air too slow because of the condi-

the house a neat ap-

64 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

tion of the muslin, or because the shutters are kept
closed when they should be open. A moderate degree of
still cold will do the fowls no particular harm—not nearly
so much at any rate as impure air or excess moisture. It
is impossible to give an exact statement of the temperature
above which the shutters may be left open or below
which they should be closed, as there is a decided differ-
ence in the amount of cold that fowls can stand, depend-
ing upon whether or not they have been gradually accus-
tomed to low temperatures. When winter opens with an
extreme cold snap before they have become hardened they
will be uncomfortable at considerably higher tempera-
tures than would be the case after they are accustomed
to winter conditions. It is necessary, therefore, to use

SCREEN FOR FROTECTING FOWLS FROM DRAFTS

In narrow houses, also in buildings of faulty construction, it sometimes
is necessary to provide a screen to protect the fowls from drafts on the perches.
Screen here shown is permanent but for ordinary use one which can be fas-
tened up against the rafters when not needed will prove more satisfactory.

more caution early in the season about exposing the fowls
to severe cold. After they have become properly hard-
ened there is no need for closing the muslin curtains, day
or night, unless the temperature drops down to 20 degrees
or below. In the daytime they should always be open
when the sun is shining and the temperature is much
above zero. An exception to this may be noted in the
case of windy weather when the shutters should be closed
at higher temperatures than would otherwise be necessary.

The novice who wants to keep his hens as comfortable
as possible often is uncertain as to how to determine
whether he is giving ventilation enough, but with a little
experience he learns to gauge it by the smell of the air
and by the amount of moisture present. An infallible
sign of too little ventilation is the presence of excess
moisture. Reasonably clean litter that feels damp to the
touch, and walls and ceilings with frost or moisture
standing upon them, all point clearly to the need for
more air, which should promptly be provided even though
it may involve lowering the temperature of the house be-
yond what is considered desirable.

Preventing Direct Air Currents

Many poultry keepers who have cloth-front houses
experience some difficulty with direct air currents which
strike the fowls either on the perches or on the floor when
the fronts are open. Sometimes this condition is the
result of defective planning and construction and can only

be corrected by making suitable changes in the house.
It is not desirable to have the bottom of the opening
closer than three feet to the floor and, as a rule, at this
height there will be little trouble. If the fowls are ex-
posed to direct air currents when on the perches—a com-
mon fault in houses that are less than 12 feet wide—they
should be protected by curtains.

Summer Ventilation

Little need be said in regard to summer ventilation
except to urge providing all that the construction of the
house will admit. If after doing this the pens still are
uncomfortable, additional means of providing for air cir-
culation should be installed. The style of rear ventilator
illustrated on page 47 can be adapted to almost any type
of house and should never be omitted where the summers
are hot. If small windows are placed under the platform,
these should be removed as soon as warm weather comes
on, which will help greatly in making the back part of
the house comfortable. Hens often suffer more from
heat than from cold, and production and health during
midsummer are apt to be seriously affected by confine-
ment in hot, stuffy quarters.

Cleanliness

Speaking generally, a poultry house is clean so long
as it is dry and reasonably free from odors; and that
condition depends more on ventilation than on the fre-
quency with which the droppings are removed. A drop-
pings platform covered with an inch or two of dry drop-
pings will promptly take up the moisture of each night’s
deposits and the house will be as free from odor as one
that is cleaned every day or two. If the droppings re-
main moist, however, due to weather conditions, they
should be removed daily or, in freezing weather, as often
as they thaw out so as to make removal possible. As a
means of keeping droppings dry and to make it easier to
remove them in freezing weather, it is always desirable
to cover the platform at each cleaning with some absorb-
ent material such as dust, sand or sawdust.

Treatment of Broody Hens

Those who have fowls of the larger breeds, such as
Plymouth Rocks, ete., are apt to find that many of their
birds are persistently broody in the summer and unless
they are rightly handled the egg yield will be materially
affected. Fowls of the lighter breeds, such as Leghorns,
Anconas, etc., are less liable to become broody, thongh
there are no breeds that are entirely “nonsitting.”

It is a comparatively easy matter to break up brood-
iness if it is taken in hand promptly. Hens that are
allowed to sit for several days, however, before any at-
tempt is made to break them up, will frequently continue
broody indefinitely in spite of any measures that may
be taken. Just as soon as it is clear that the hen wants
to sit she should be taken from the nest and placed in a
coop especially provided for the purpose. This coop
should be open all around, with a slat bottom. Confine
the broody hens until they stop clucking, but do not
starve them. Continue to feed them well and supply
succulent green feed, water, etc., so that they will keep
in good physical condition. Where this pratice is follow-
ed they will usually begin laying again within a few days.
Broody hens that are well fed will begin laying in half
the time that would be required in the case of those that
have been starved and abused during this period.

CHAPTER X

Egg Production Without Outdoor Runs

Outdoor Runs Not Essential to Profitable Egg Production—The Conditions Under Which Famous Layers in Vineland
Contest Are Kept Can Readily Be Duplicated by Any Back-Yard Poultry Keeper—Remarkable Record
Made by Flock Kept in Confinement from Chickhood to End of First Laying Year

=] TTENTION has been called elsewhere to the
| fact that many back-yard flocks are kept con-
fined to their houses all year through, no yards
whatever being used. If fowls so confined are
to give good egg yields they must, of course,
receive proper care and treatment. To do this naturally
ealls for more work than would be demanded where fowls
have ample room, but those who do not find it convenient
to provide yards have the satisfaction of knowing that
this need not interfere with their keeping fowls suc-
cessfully if proper methods are adopted.

At the Indiana Experiment Station in a 12-month test
with fowls on open range, in yards, and confined to their
houses, it was found that the yearly production of pul-
lets in constant confinement was only 16 eggs less than
in similar flocks having free range, and only 12 eggs
less than in flocks that had good-sized yards. In this
experiment rations and methods were the same for all
flocks, and it is reasonable to assume that if attention had
been given to adapting conditions to the special require-
ments of fowls in confinement their egg yield would have
kept up fully to the production of the range flock. In
other words, constant confinement need not prevent good
egg production.

As a concrete example of how the confined back-
yard flock may be handled and of the results that may
be secured, the following interesting report is given.
This report first appeared in an extension circular of the
University of Missouri. It gives the results secured by
Professor H. L. Kempster, head of the Poultry -Depart-
ment, with his own back-yard flock.

The Story of a Back-Yard Flock

A Practical Demonstration of the Profit To Be Realized
From Fowls Kept in Constant Confinement—Can
Be Duplicated by Anyone Who Has Any
Back-Yard Space at All

By PROF. H. L. KEMPSTER, University of Missouri

W HILE neighbors were paying from 35 to 40 cents a
dozen for eggs during the early months of 1917, ten
White Leghorn pullets in the writer’s back yard were dem-
onstrating the efficiency of a small poultry flock in reducing
living expenses. These hens were purchased as immature
pullets November 1. Only two were old enough to lay
before January 1. At the end of seven months, May 31,
the flock had produced 749 eggs at a feed cost of less than
14 cents a dozen. The average retail price of eggs in
Columbia during this time was not less than 85 cents
a dozen. Thus, on the basis of that price, the hens re-
turned a labor income of $1.32 each.
The House.—The house was made of packing boxes
and covered with roofing paper. It is 5% feet square, 5
feet high in front and 34% feet high in back. Six feet

square and a foot higher would have been more convenient.
The door is 2 by-5 feet. Ventilation and light are provid-
ed by a space 2 feet by 3% feet. In the lower two-thirds
of this space is a window sash with six 8- by 10-inch
panes. The actual cost of this house, not including pack-
ing boxes, was $3.85.

Method of Feeding.—The method of feeding, especial-
ly the feeding schedule, was adapted to the convenience
of the caretaker. This was because he did not get home
at night until after the birds had gone to roost. In the
morning a pail of fresh water was provided and dry mash
was put in the hopper if necessary. Any available table
scraps, a crumbly wet mash composed of some dry mash
and milk or water, and a quart of the cracked corn were
fed at noon. When the days became longer the grain was
fed at night. So far as actual results were concerned, the
effect was the same. The birds would eat the wet mash
at noon and, when their hunger returned, satisfied their
appetites with the grain.

Egg Yield and Cost.—The egg production by months
was: Nov., 27; Dec., 15; Jan., 84; Feb., 116; March, 165;
April, 169; May, 1783; total, 749. The egg production dur-
ing November and December was low owing to the fact
that only two of the birds were mature enough to start
laying before January 1. The back-lot poultry keeper is
urged to get only full-grown pullets. Had this been done
there is no reason why egg production during the first two
months should not have more nearly approached the aver-
age. As it was, the feed cost of the 62 dozen and 5 eggs

PROFESSOR KEMPSTER'S $3.85 BACK-YARD POULTRY ae
5

66 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

was $8.66 or 13.87c a dozen. Since the average price for
eggs paid by the consumer has been at least 35c, it is thus
seen that the hens returned a profit of $13.18 or $1.32 a
bird for a period of seven months. No charge is made
against the birds for depreciation. From the standpoint
of their feed value they were worth more at the end of
the test than they were at the beginning.

Professor Kempster’s profitable experience with his
back-yard flock is by no means exceptional. Numerous
other reports of the successful adoption of this method
will be found in other chapters of this book, many of these
reports showing much greater average production. It
will be appreciated that starting late with immature pul-
lets is in no way a fair test of what may be accomplished,
though even that handicap did not prevent realizing an
excellent profit. What may be done by way of getting
truly high egg production from fowls in close confinement,
under favorable conditions and with the right kind of
stock, is indicated in the following article:

“Egg Factories” in Door Yards*

Constant Confinement No Bar to Securing High Egg Pro-
duction—Methods of Handling Record Layers at
Vineland Contest Can Be Successfully Adopt-
ed by any Back-Yard Poultry Keeper

By GRANT M. CURTIS,
Editor of Reliable Poultry Journal

z OWN at Vineland, the last week of April, this year,

we spent several hours on the plant of the Vineland
International Egg-Laying and Breeding Contest, in com-
pany with Professor Lewis and Elmer H. Wene—the lat-
ter being resident superintendent of this contest. As we
were filling our notebooks with the valuable facts Mr.
Wene was giving us, based on the care, management and
world-record production of the one thousand birds engaged
in this contest, we wrote down the following, among other
things:

“Last week our birds here—the entire one thousand—
averaged better than 65 per cent production. Several of
the Leghorn pens reached 70 per cent production. That
means seven eges a day from ten birds. The ‘high peak’
of production was attained two or three weeks ago when
the entire one thousand birds reached 67.7 per cent pro-
duction.”

“No,” continued Mr. Wene, “they have not been let
out of these houses, not a day nor an hour, since Novem-
ber 1 of last year, on which date the contest started of-
ficially. Nor will they be let out until about May 15, or
perhaps a little later than that—not until we find there
is a perceptible drop in production. By that time brood-
iness probably will be getting in its work, which will cut
down production. However, if as late as May 15 they
are still laying 60 to 65 per cent, we shall not let them
out in the yards until production actually drops to about
50 per cent.

“These houses are uniformly 8 by 10 feet in size and
each house connects with an alfalfa yard or run that is 34
by 80 feet in size. During the three-year period of this
laying and breeding contest we are carrying ten birds to
each house, but starting next November 1, in our second
laying and breeding contest, we are to place twenty birds
in each of these houses. An 8 by 10-foot house gives us

*Reprinted from September, 1919, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

80 square feet of floor space; therefore the 20 birds will
each have 4 square feet of floor space, which is regarded
as ample, in general practice.”

Think about this for a few minutes! Here we find
expert management of domestic fowl that has for its
object maximum egg production, under what are be-
lieved to be highly favorable conditions. Professor Lew-
is and Mr. Wene are deservedly proud, are truly elated
by the wonderful egg production they are obtaining this
year in the Vineland Egg-Laying and Breeding Con-
test. These birds, under their care, are many thou-
sands of eggs ahead of any similar contest ever held in
this country. And under what conditions are these high
egg records being made? Under exactly the conditions
that easily can be duplicated in any dooryard!

The Vineland 8 by 10-foot poultry house is a simple
affair—both simple and inexpensive. Such a house can
be located in almost any dooryard and positively no run-
way is needed as regards the health of the birds or to
secure high egg production, from the time that ready-to-
lay pullets are placed in the house in the fall of the year
until these birds start to molt the following summer and
then can be disposed of one at a time on the home table
as meat for the family, or sold in the local market. Said
Mr. Wene further:

“Under no circumstances would we let these contest
birds out in the runways until they have gone off in pro-
duction and have dropped to about 50 per cent, as before
stated. To let them out now (April 28) would be a se-
rious mistake as regards egg production—would cause
their production to drop 15 to 20 per cent in 48 hours or
such a matter. Naturally they would like it, and if we
were handling these birds as breeders with the intention
of hatching their eggs, it might be a good thing for them.
But our object is to get maximum egg production and it has
been proved conclusively that to let these birds out in
the yards would materially cut down their egg yield.”

Suggestive Results in Time Past

At this point permit us to digress a bit—going back
15 to 18 years in hen history. Off-hand, without looking
up actual dates, we think it was about 18 years ago
that writer visited the poultry plant of C. H. Wyckoff,
then located near Groton, New York. At the time of our
visit he had 600 to 700 White Leghorns that he was keep-
ing mainly for egg production—the eggs being sold for
hatching purposes in season and on the market for table
use the balance of the year. His houses, as we recall it,
were 16 by 40 feet, each with a partition through the
middle, making the pens 16 by 20 feet and each pen con-
nected with a yard or runway two rods by five rods in
size, or practically 33 by 85 feet. Mr. Wyckoff housed in
each pen 50 to 70 birds.

One year, for the entire 12 months, Mr. Wyckoff kept
600 S. C. White Leghorns in these houses and yards,
starting with an even 600 and losing only about a dozen
during the year, which losses were replaced promptly
from his surplus stock. Away back there, 16 to 18 years
ago, he obtained the remarkable egg yield of 194 eggs per
hen per year from this flock of 600 “business hens,” kept
under the conditions here described. These hens, except
in winter, were allowed to run out in the yards, and
green feed in the form of cabbages, mangels, etc., was
fed to them regularly. However, one pen of these Leg-
horns, located in an end house, had free range in a three-
acre apple orchard that, during the open season, was well

EGG PRODUCTION WITHOUT OUTDOOR RUNS 67

covered with grass—it looked like blue grass to us. Mr.
Wyckoff at the time was quite puzzled about this pen
because the egg yield from it ranged 15 to 20 per cent less
than from the same kind and quality of birds in the other
houses that had access only to much smaller yards from
which they had stripped every vestige of grass or other
green feed. Here was a clear hint that too much range
will cut down the egg production rather than help keep
it up to average or insure an increase.

Two. or three years later we visited the home and
poultry plant of Herbert N. Rollins (since deceased), at
Woodville, Mass., at that time a leading successful breed-
er of Light Brahmas of exhibition quality, known as the
Giant Strain, winners year after year at Boston, New
York, etc. Here we found that Mr. Rollins had crossed
White Leghorn males on Light Brahma cull pullets (pul-
lets not up to top-notch grade in exhibition points) and
we were much interested in his method of handling the
pregeny of this cross—meaning the pullets of course—
for egg production. He had a long

range, especially in the springtime, they would not lay
well. This meant an eternal conflict, so to speak, between
the busy, thrifty hen and the home or neighbor’s garden.
Those claims now are found to be erroneous. They simply
were not and are not now true. The conditions and re-
sults—in fact, unequaled results—at Vineland have clear-
ly and fully proved this. Those hens at Vineland do
their best work in confinement, as regards prolific egg
yield, and it would be entirely practical to keep them
confined straight through the spring and summer, until
the different individuals go into molt, by which time
they will have ended their first year of production as
pullet hens. We have here, then, the solid foundation
for a back-yard or dooryard branch of the poultry indus-
try, for the location and successful management of a
profitable “egg factory” in every house yard where a
small coop, 8 by 10 feet in size, can be located, in which
coop ten to twenty ready-to-lay pullets can be placed in
the fall. And if a gasoline lamp is centrally located in

poultry house, a rather ramshackle SS
affair, about 14 by 100 feet, as we |t 2 ;
now recall it, which he divided into
pens of 12% by 14 feet, or perhaps
a little larger. Two-inch-mesh wire
poultry netting formed most of the
south or front wall of this house (roof
sloped to the south, giving a low
front, comparatively), but there was
a muslin-covered frame that could be
let down from the inside to cover the
wired front in extra cold weather,
also to prevent snow and sleet from
blowing in.

Confined Throughout Entire
Laying Year

In each of these pens Mr. Rollins
placed about thirty of the crossbred
pullets (they looked like White Rocks
with moderately feathered legs),
quartering the birds there in late
October when he took them off the
range, and these birds were kept con-

fined continuously in the pens here
described throughout the winter and
following spring, up to the time when
they began to molt in the following
June, July or August. Then they were
sold on the market for table use. What was meant to be
egg-forcing feed was given them, the definite plan being to
obtain as many eggs as possible during their first year
of production, then to market them promptly when they
began to molt and had stopped laying.

We were at Mr. Rollins’ place in mid-June, as we re-
member, and up to that time these crossbred pullets,
closely confined as here described, had laid an average of
122 eggs per hen, which was not all bad for that “day
and generation,’ yet here we had the same method of
close confinement throughout the winter and following
spring that now is being employed with such illuminat-
ing and convincing success at the Vineland International
Egg-Laying and Breeding Contest!

In the “old days” everybody was taught to believe
that hens, in order to be healthy, must have range. Also
we were given to understand that unless hens had outdoor

This house is 8 by 10 feet and at Vineland is used with gravel or sand floor. ,
are kept indoors from the time the contest begins, November 1, until well along in the following summer.
House will accommodate about 20 layers.

VINELAND CONTEST HOUSE SUITABLE FOR BACK-YARD “EGG FACTORY”

Fowls at the contest

this coop, suspended from the ceiling, or if a twenty-five-
watt electric incandescent lamp can be hung from
the ceiling, the fortunate owner of each dooryard egg
factory will be able liberally to supply his home table
with new-laid eggs, from September or October of each
season for a period of eight to ten months, in a profitable
and satisfactory way not dreamed of half a dozen years
ago. All the facts that fully support the foregoing
statements are now at hand—have been furnished us in
official form. That was one of the impressive lessons we
learned at Vineland this last spring and we are glad to
be able to present it in these pages with special and de-
served emphasis. Without a doubt the location of ten to
twenty-bird “Egg Factories” in tens of thousands of door-
yards will benefit enormously the general public, and this
branch of industry should therefore be encouraged in
every practical way.

Raising Day-Old Chicks in Confinement*

Six Hundred Leghorn Day-Old Chicks Are Successfully
Raised in Close Confinement—In the Fall the Best
Pullets in the Flock Are Selected and Kept
an Entire Year in the Same Quarters

By G. WEBSTER MOORE, New York

EDITORIAL NOTE: The author of the following
article goes a step farther than recommended in the pre-
ceding article, not only keeping his pullets in confinement
throughout the laying period, but making his start with
day-old chicks which are raised in the same close quarters
that the pullets are to occupy when they reach maturity.
An itemized account of receipts and expenditures, accom-
panied Mr. Moore’s article, but is omitted for lack of space.

N ORDER to satisfy himself as to the profit in back-

yard poultry keeping under present conditions the
writer undertook and has recently completed the follow-
ing tests:

1. Can day-old chicks be reared in large numbers to
maturity and at a profit, when confined to the limits of a
back-lot house?

2. Can pullets be reared with sufficient stamina to
stand the strain of the first laying period if confined to
the house, and made to pay a profit?

The two round houses shown in accompanying illus-
tration were used in these tests, being set up on the back
lot of my home. May 15, 1917, 600 Single Comb White
Leghorn day-old chicks were put in the 16-foot house,
the fixtures provided for the laying flock being removed,
and the interior heated with a standard stove brooder.

The first three weeks they were fed Pratt’s Baby
Chick Feed. This feed was gradually changed to a mash
composed by weight of one part each of bran, middlings,
corn meal and ground oats, which was constantly before
them. Their grain was fine cracked corn with a small
per cent of pinhead cats fed in the litter to compel them
to exercise.

*Reprinted from February, 1919, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

They were fed all the sour skimmed milk they could
eat from the end of the first week until they were five
months old. Once each day they were given a moist mash
composed of the dry mash wet with hot water. Fine
oyster shell was given for grit. There was always be-
fore them a generous supply of lawn clippings. At four
weeks of age the cockerels were separated from the pul-
lets, put underneath the house and at eight weeks sold
for broilers.

At eight weeks of age 80 pullets were put into the
12-foot house. The remainder of the pullets were given
the 16-foot house with the run underneath. Ninety-seven
pullets were sold at three and one-half months old, the
remainder—160 pullets and 3 cockerels—were grown to
maturity. The first egg was laid October 5—at 4 months
and 21 days—by a pullet that weighed 5 pounds. Ac-
count herewith gives the financial report of the first test.
Out of the 600 chicks 67 died during the test.

Account with Chickens, May 15 to October 14

Receipts (value of stock sold and on hand)-----------.--.-..---$ 408.20
Expenditures (including cost of chicks and interest on investment)_-. 352.49
Net profit. .- =A agar ees gaae! = oils fae ese BDO aL

Pullets Kept Without Yards

The second test was begun October 15, 1917, with 160
pullets at 5 months old, and continued one year to Octo-
ber 15, 1918. Sixty pullets were put in the smaller house,
100 in the larger.

Their grain feed consisted of bolted fine cracked corn
until June, when it could no longer be obtained. A com-
mercial mixed grain feed was given the remainder of
the year. About 14 lbs. were fed each day, an hour be-
fore dark, in deep litter. A dry mash was kept before
them at all times, made of one part each, by weight, of
bran, corn meal and ground oats, until April, when bran
was obtainable. From April 1 to the end of the year
the mash was made of 4 parts Shumaker’s Stock Feed
and one part buckwheat middlings.

Each day about 3 p. m., a moist mash was fed, made
of 1% lbs. alfalfa meal soaked in hot water during the
day, to which was added 4 lbs. of meat
scrap, a little salt and sufficient of the

roe A

These houses are blocked up off the ground, providing a run underneath.

the chicks from which he selected the 160 pullets which formed his winter laying flock. From the time
the pullets were hatched until the end of the first laying season they were never allowed outside these

houses and the space underneath them.

THE TWO ROUND POULTRY HOUSES USED BY MR. MOORE

dry mash to make a crumbly mix-
ture. Occasionally in this feed some
poultry tonic was given. For grit
they would eat nothing but oyster
shell. Fresh water was always be-
fore them and given hot in cold
weather. Sprouted oats were fed
during the winter and lawn clippings
in summer.

Six pullets died from unknown
causes and eleven were killed. These
birds were never pampered, but the
attendant never neglected to give
them their feed and water on time
and kept the houses properly clean-
ed. The eggs and poultry were sold
at the door to a shipper who paid the
regular price for shipping to the
wholesale market. Grain and mash
feeds ranged in price from $4.00 to
$4.60 per 100 lbs.

Account with Pullets, October 15, 1917 to
October 14, 1918

Receipts (value of stock on hand) .$1,249.76
Iixpenditures (including interest on

investment) ye = eee - 902.39
Hiere Mr. Moore raised Nets Pro fitment eaene seers ea ROA TOT
Total profit on chicks and pullets.. 403,03

Meesilaidi ee ass ee eee 25295

Average per hens. 2_-2 222. 2 Bey Wavy $5)

CHAPTER XI

Profitable Markets for Surplus Poultry Products

Information on How to Produce Eggs of Superior Quality and How Successfully to Market Them at Home or by
Parcel Post—What It Costs to Produce Table Fowls —How to Special Fatten and When and
Where to Sell—Complete Directions for Home Canning of Chickens

a surplus of eggs or table fowls has a distinct
advantage over other producers in that he us-
ually is able to get full retail price for every-
thing he has to sell. As a rule, also, the cost of
packing and marketing is reduced to the minimum since
most sales are made at home, customers coming to the door
for their supplies, or deliveries being made in person as
convenient. There rarely is any trouble in finding sale
for poultry products, since in every community there is
always a demand for fresh eggs and fresh-killed fowls.
However, those who are looking to their sales as an im-
portant source of income will find it well worth while to
give the subject of marketing their careful attention in
order to realize as good prices as possible.

The town poultry keeper has an exceptionally good
opportunity to work up a select trade in table eggs, do-
ing this on the basis of quality, freshness, etc., and often
being able to secure premium prices for what he has to
sell. It should be understood, however, that to do this
often calls for a good deal of salesmanship. Whatever
may be the case in city markets, the average small-town
buyer must be educated to the point where any advance
over the regular retail price will be cheerfully paid, no
matter how superior may be the quality of the product
offered. It should be clearly understood, also, that pre-
mium prices are conditioned fully as much upon confidence
in the producer as on the quality of the article supplied.

No particular class of customers can be depended
upon to provide a market for premium-priced eggs. Fre-
quently, persons whose incomes are comparatively small
are truly appreciative of quality, while others with much
greater incomes develop a most extraordinary streak of
parsimony when this question is raised. The only prac-
tical plan for those who are seeking to get the best prices
for their products is to see to it that their eggs are al-
ways of unquestionable quality and attractive in appear-
ance—that is, scrupulously clean and neatly packed—and
then simply to try out their customers, adding the pre-
mium gradually and dropping, without argument, those
who are not willing to pay.

Quality in Eggs

All eggs are of good quality when first laid but all
are not equally good, as condition and flavor are deter-
mined to some extent by the ration fed. Fowls that have
a normal, well-balanced ration will lay eggs of the best
quality, but those that are fed too much mash, too much
sloppy kitchen waste, too much succulent green feed,
large quantities of onions or other highly flavored feed-
stuffs, etce., will not produce eggs of the best flavor, nor, in
some cases, will the eggs have the proper firmness and
consistency. The average buyer also wants eggs with
rich yellow yolks, a character that is determined entirely
by the ration. Some kinds of green feed, particularly
grass, clover, alfalfa, ete., also yellow corn, supply an

abundance of the pigment which makes yellow yolks.
Cabbage, milk, white corn and a ration lacking in corn of
any kind, unless reinforced with pigment-bearing green
feed, will produce pale-colored yolks.

It goes without saying that those who are catering
to a select egg trade will produce only sterile eggs, as
fertile eggs are subject to rapid deterioration in summer,
even at ordinary room temperatures. The back-yard
poultry keeper, of all others, has the least excuse for keep-
ing males in his flock. They are of no value whatever
in egg production, they add to the feed bill and, as a rule,
their early-morning crowing is highly objectionable to the
neighbors.

Special attention should be given to cleanliness, al-
lowing no eggs to leave the premises that are soiled or
stained, and of course no one will think of filling orders
with small-sized eggs or those that are thin shelled,
cracked or in any way abnormal in appearance. All such
eggs should be kept at home. Those who pay retail prices
or 4» premium are entitled to eggs that not only are of
unquestionable quality but that are in every way attrac-
tive in appearance.

Producers living within easy reach of a city market
are exceptionally well placed for working up a special re-
tail trade. An excellent illustration of the way in which a
city market may be developed and served is found in the
experience of R. W.VanHoesen, a New York poultry keeper
who has made his back-yard flock a source of considerable
additional revenue. Mr. VanHoesen lives on a town lot
measuring about 80 by 200 feet. Finding his home mar-
ket unsatisfactory, he developed a private retail trade
in Buffalo, fifty miles distant. The eggs from “‘Beauty
Farm” were packed in attractively printed pasteboard
cartons and carefully sealed. The eggs were scrupu-
lously clean, and as they were gathered regularly, stored
in a cool cellar and delivered twice a week, they were
entirely satisfactory in quality. At first they were
delivered in suit cases by messenger service; afterward
they were shipped in regular thirty-dozen cases consigned
to a schoolboy who was hired to deliver them. Monthly
bills were sent by mail and not a dollar was lost through
bad accounts.

Mr. VanHoesen secured his first customers by per-
sonal solicitation, taking pains to have them grouped for
convenience in delivery. After getting started there was
never any difficulty in finding customers, as the recom-
mendations of the first ones secured increased his list
faster than he could increase his production. Prices were
based on an advance of five cents over the highest New
York quotations. After getting established, however, it
was not found necesssary to follow market fluctuations
closely, the price being changed only three or four times
during the year.

During the broiler season surplus cockerels were dis-
posed of to these customers, who took all that were of-
fered them at $1.25 to $1.75 per pair, dressed (these were

70 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

prewar prices). From a back-yard flock of 150 hens
handled in this businesslike way Mr. VanHoesen made an
annual profit of $300 to $400. All the time, however,
he kept improving his flock and studying problems of
mating and breeding, until his reputation as a breeder
secured for him a still more profitable market in filling

} ~ Moore Ss \
BREAKFAST EGGS |\

AN ATTRACTIVE CARTON FOR THE RETAIL EGG TRADE
HELPS IN MAKING SALES

orders for eggs for hatching and stock for breeding, and
the retail trade had to be given up.

Many find parcel post a practical way of serving
city customers. Eggs may be shipped quite safely by
this method, delivery is prompt, and the cost is not ex-
treme if several dozens are included in a single shipment.
The experience related in the following article will be
suggestive and encouraging to those who are considering
this method of marketing.

Marketing Eggs Successfully at Retail By
Parcel Post

Shipments Direct to Consumer by Parcel Post Go Through
in Good Order When Properly Packed—Ceost cf
Marketing in This Way Is Not Excessive
if Returnable Cartons Are Used

By HAROLD W. GOULD, New York

N LOOKING back over several years’ experience in

building up a profitable parcel post egg trade in New
York City and Brooklyn, I find that the marketing prob-
lems present themselves in a fairly regular order, and
that if these are carefuly met and carried out in a busi-
nesslike manner, the marketing of his product will give
the egg farmer little trouble, especially if he lives within
50 to 100 miles from a large town, city, or other good
prospective market. Marketing problems may be listed
in order as follows:

1. Securing a high-quality product.

2. Finding satisfactory customers and keeping them
satisfied.

3. Finding a shipping box that will carry the eggs
at small cost and without breakage.

4. Keeping accurate records and making collections.

Naturally, only high-quality eggs will satisfy a
high-price market, and every egg farmer can easily
produce that quality if he will systematize his work. All
it requires is to have the fowls kept in clean houses, fed
upon clean feed free from anything that will give the
eggs an objectionable flavor—such as onions, garlic, etc.
The eggs should be laid in clean nests, should be gathered
twice daily, cleaned, graded as to size and color, candled,
packed, and sold when not more than two days old. It
should be the pride of every egg farmer to sell eggs of
as good quality as it is possible to produce.

When we can honestly feel that no one can produce

better eggs than we offer, we are ready to approach prob-
lem 2—that of finding satisfactory customers and keeping
them satisfied. This problem has been the stumbling
block. of many otherwise successful farms. I have tried
several methods with varying degrees of success, and
failure. Complete success hinges on getting in touch with
the right class of people—people who know and appreciate
what a good egg is, and who have the means to pay what
the eggs are worth. My most fruitful lead, and the one
from which I have secured as many customers as I could
possibly serve, has been through obtaining from some per-
son (high-class tailor, perhaps a ladies’ shop selling high-
priced gowns, etc.) dealing with a class of people
whom I wished to reach, a list of his customers whom
he could recommend. Another means is to buy a list of
names of the best people. Still another way is to adver-
tise in the daily papers of the town in which you wish to
sell. Send your prospective customers a neatly typewrit-
ten letter stating plainly exactly what you have to offer,
the conditions under which your birds are kept, the whole-
someness of the rations fed, and the care used to safe-
guard the high quality of the egg from the time it is
deposited in the nest until it reaches the customer. Tell
him as briefly as possible just what YOU would like to |
know if you were the prospect instead of the salesman.

After you secure a few customers of the right type
your troubles in marketing will be over. If your eggs are
what they should be—always of the same high quality
and freshness, always of a uniformly fair size and even
color, always full bodied, absolutely new laid and whole-
some, delivered without breakage and on time—you will
not only hold your old customers, but they will tell their
friends, who in turn will tell their friends, and it will
not be long before your sales at good prices will be lim-
ited only by your ability to produce the eggs. This class
of people will pay well for a product in which they can
place absolute confidence. The price will not make much
difference if it isn’t unreasonably high.

The next problem is that of finding a parcel post
shipping box that will carry the eggs at small cost and
without breakage. This detail gave me a great deal of
trouble for a long time. Sometime ago, however, I suc-
ceeded in finding two types of boxes which have practi-
cally ended my troubles along that line. The boxes which
I prefer for steady customers are made of metal. They
come in several sizes and are made of light but strong
material. They take no more postage than paper boxes
and when eggs are properly packed in them it is almost
necessary to throw a trunk on them to cause breakage.
Instead of using the regular fillers, I use, in most of my
boxes, a regular 1-doz. egg carton. These fit the metal

A FLOCK OF LEGHORN BROILERS ON POULTRY, PLANT
AT MANITOBA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

PROFITABLE MARKETS FOR SURPLUS POULTRY PRODUCTS 71

boxes perfectly and, with a layer of excelsior on top and
bottom, carry fully as well as with the regular fillers,
and can be packed much more rapidly. Reversible ad-
dress cards are supplied with these boxes and the boxes
can be used almost indefinitely. For customers who do
not care to return the shipping boxes I use a box made of
corrugated paper.

Our last problem, and one which must be properly
handled if we are to make a success of parcel post mar-
keting, is the keeping of accurate records and making
collections. It seems strange that so many otherwise
progressive poultrymen will continue to slip along year
after year with no definite method of keeping accounts,
no accurate idea as to whether their business is operating
at a good profit or a lean one, no data in black and white
to tell them just where they stand at all times. No up-
“to-date business men in other lines would think of trying
to manage their affairs without records, and likewise no
egg farmer can afford to neglect record keeping.

MARKETING TABLE FOWLS

The poultry raiser is fortunate in having a market
for his fowls at practically all stages of growth from the
time they are salable as squab broilers, at a weight of
three-fourths to one pound each, until they are fully
grown. He need not carry his chickens to any given size
regardless of cost or probable future market, but can
sell them whenever, in his judgment, they will command

_ the largest profit upon his investment of capital and labor
or when it best suits his convenience.

Whether the supply of table fowls is produced primar-
ily for table use, or simply represents surplus cockerels
and cull pullets in broods annually provided for renewing
the laying flock, much of the poultry keeper’s profit will
depend upon the judgment he shows in marketing. Many
persons who raise fowls make a mistake in carrying them
too long, while others, under different conditions, suffer
equal loss of possible profits by placing them on the mar-
ket when partially grown instead of keeping them until
they reach larger size. It is not practicable to lay down
definite rules for determining when to sell but it ought
not be a particularly difficult matter for the individual to
decide this for himself, taking into consideration the
amount of feed required to produce additional gains, cost
of feed, the probable selling price, and the room available
for accommodating the fowls.

Four Pounds of Feed to One Pound of Gain

The amount of feed required to produce a pound of
gain varies with the season, the breed and the conditions
under which the chicks are kept, but speaking generally,
from three to four pounds of grain will be required for
each pound of gain. For example, in some experiments
made at Cornell University, the feed consumed per pound
of gain in chicks up to six weeks of age, varied from 3.27
to 6.12 pounds, with an average of 4.21 pounds. During
the next six weeks, or from six weeks to twelve weeks
of age, from 3.4 to 4.1 pounds were required to produce
a pound of gain, averaging 3.8 pounds. These weights
represent “dry matter’? and should be increased by ten
to twelve per cent to get the ordinary weight of feed
used. The chicks in this experiment were Leghorns kept
in comparatively close confinement and probably represent
maximum feed consumption for gains secured. At Guelph
(Ontario) a mixed lot of 345 chicks, consisting of Or-
pingtons, Wyandottes, Rocks, Leghorns, etc., consumed an

average of 3.2 pounds of grain for each pound of gain,
the fowls being grown practically to adult size. Another
lot of 733 chickens, similarly handled, made an average
gain of one pound of weight on 3.34 pounds of grain. The
statement is also made that “several years’ figures show
that 4 pounds of grain will produce a pound of gain in
live weight.” At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station,
mixed lots of chicks, six to twelve weeks old, confined to
yards, consumed 3% to 4% pounds of feed to one pound
of gain.

On the farm, where the fowls have free range and
where a good part of their living is picked up in the form
of waste grains, weed seeds, green feed, bugs, worms,
etc., the amount of grain~.required will be lower
than in-the foregoing statement, and for that reason farm-

SUPERIOR-QUALITY BROILERS AND ROASTERS

The two fowls on the right are two-pound broilers, 8 weeks old. The

two on the left are fancy, small soft roasters 43 months old, weighing 5
pounds each. The back-yard poultry raiser will find his best profits in
producing table fowls of quick growth and ‘*faney’’ grade.

raised fowls can be sold at a lower price than back-yard
producers can afford to accept. As far as our informa-
tion goes, the amount of feed required to produce a pound
of gain does not appear to vary greatly from chickhood
up, so long as growth is rapid, though it naturally in-
creases as the fowl approaches adult size and gains are
more slowly made. The first pound is necessarily much
more expensive than succeeding ones, since to the cost
of feed must be added the value of the eggs from which
the chicks were hatched and the incubating and brooding
cost. Moreover, much more expensive feeds are common-
ly used at this stage of the chick’s development. In the
ease of Leghorns, it is generally conceded that the sooner
the poultryman can get rid of his cockerels the better off
he will be though, as a matter af fact, Leghorn cockerels

with proper handling can be brought to a weight of two
pounds without the use of any more feed per pound of
gain than is required with chickens of the larger breeds.

When to Sell Broilers

Growing chicks are marketed as squab broilers, mean-
ing chicks that will dress from % to 1 pound each, regular
broilers dressing from 1 to 2 pounds each, and fryers
dressing 2% to 3% pounds. The greatest demand for
squab broilers is in late winter, at which time they com-
mand extremely good prices. The principal market for

FINE ROASTING FOWL WEIGHING NINE POUNDS, FOUR
OUNCES AT SEVEN MONTHS

them is in hotels, restaurants and, to a limited extent, in
private families. Since the additional feed required to
grow these chicks to full broiler size is so slight, many
prefer to do this, and comparatively few dispose of their
chicks as squab broilers aside from those who have Leg-
horns or who must sell off the cockerels in order to make
room for later hatches, or to give the growing pullets
more room.

Regular broilers are in great demand in the spring and
early summer and command excellent prices, these grad-
ually falling off as the season advances and farm-raised
stock makes its appearance on the market, until late in
the summer they usually reach a low level. Under back-
yard conditions and for average markets, it seems safe
to say that so long as broilers will bring 25 to 30 cents
per pound live weight they can be solid as such to better
advantage than if raised to larger size.

Fryers or springers include the great bulk of the
young chickens used on the home table. Early broilers
generally are regarded as an extravagance, to be indulged
in only infrequently. When farm-raised chickens begin to
flood the market, however, prices go down and size in-
creases to 2% to 3% pounds, and almost any American
family can afford, now and then, to have “fried chicken.”

When and How to Special Fatten

Growing fowls, as they run at large, rarely are fat,
and to put them in best condition for marketing, with
tender, juicy flesh and carrying a fair amount of fat, it
is necessary to confine them and supply special rations.
Young fowls kept in close confinement for a couple of
weeks and heavily fed will make rapid gains in weight
and will improve greatly in quality of flesh, especially
if “milk fed,” in which method buttermilk forms an im-

SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

portant part of the fattening ration. Such fowls usually
command a good premium over the price paid for poultry
of ordinary quality. Remarkable gains in weight often
are secured in special fattening, 30 to 50 per cent in-
creases frequently being secured in the ten days to two
weeks which usually are occupied in the process. In
tattening a double profit is realized since, in addition to
the rapid gain in weight, the entire carcass of the fowl is"
worth more, pound for pound, than before it was put
through the special-feeding process. There is no com-
parison between the tough, stringy flesh of ordinary fowls
and the tender, juicy flesh of one that is properly fattened.

Confinement is an important detail in special fatten-
ing, the fowls being either closely confined to house pens
in flocks of twenty-five to fifty, or placed in specially de-
signed fattening crates. So far as gains are concerned,
it does not matter greatly which method is followed with
broilers, though Leghorn cockerels will do better in small
yards or roomy pens than in crates. Pen feeding is sim-
pler for the inexperienced feeder, while crate feeding
saves greatly in houseroom and produces somewhat bet-
ter quality of flesh.

Pen Fattening

Because it reduces the activity of the fowls to the
greatest practical extent, also for other reasons such as
economy in houseroom, labor, etc., crate fattening is pre-
ferred by commercial fatteners, but pen feeding undoubt-
edly has its place in the production of good-quality table
fowls. Rations and methods of feeding should be prac-—
tically the same in crate feeding. Provide suitable feed
troughs into which the fowls cannot put their feet, and keep
the pen floor covered with coarse sand or planer shavings
to absorb the moist droppings that are characteristic of
fowls when fed on sloppy rations such as are demanded
by this method of feeding. Keep the house clean enough
at least to be free from offensive odors. Pen-fattened
fowls, if neglected, will soon become quite filthy and in
this condition cannot reasonably be expected to make
profitable gains.

Crate Fattening

In crate fattening the fowls are confined to especial-
ly constructed coops or crates, generally of a type similar
to the one illustrated herewith, which has a capacity of
twelve to eighteen fowls, depending upon their size.
Where small numbers only are to be fed, the crates may
be quite simple in construction. The bottom should be
slatted to permit droppings to fall through to the pen
floor and the crate should be elevated about two feet.
The crate here shown has two partitions, dividing the
fowls into three lots of four or more. It seldom is desir-
able to have more than eight or ten in one lot.

The composition of the fattening ration usually is
limited to locally available meals, whatever these may be.
Fortunately, corn meal can be secured almost everywhere,
and is the one indispensable ingredient. In case of ne-
cessity, fair results can be secured with corn meal alone,
mixed with milk. Much better gains and better quality
of flesh will be secured, however, if more variety is pro-
vided. A good fattening mixture for crate feeding is 60
per cent of fine corn meal and 40 per cent of red dog
or white middlings. Another good ration consists of
equal parts by weight of corn meal, red dog and oat
flour. Finely ground oats with hulls sifted out, oat flour,

PROFITABLE MARKETS FOR SURPLUS POULTRY PRODUCTS 3

barley flour, buckwheat middlings or almost any fine meal
may be used, though in rather limited amounts except
in the case of oat flour which can be used in any desired
proportion when the price is favorable.

The ground grain mixture, whatever it may be, should
be mixed with buttermilk or sour skim milk until it is
quite thin, or so that
it will drop from the
mixing spoon or pad-
dle, but will not run.
Fowls are given all of
this gruel-like mixture
they will eat in twenty
minutes, and the sur-
plus then is promptly
removed. If the feed-
ing does not continue
more than ten days to
two weeks it is not
necessary to supply
grit, green feed or wa-
ter during this time,
but for longer feeding
periods better gains
will be made if these
are provided.
milk is not
available and the mash
must be mixed with

water, add about 5 to 10 per cent of meat scrap to
the mixture. There are a number of ready-mixed fat-
tening rations on the market much better suited to the
purpose, frequently, than any that can be prepared at
home, and certainly more convenient. The gruel-like mix-
ture just described is especially recommended for crate
feeding. For pen-fattened chickens it is better to make
the mixture somewhat stiffer.

The length of the feeding period will depend some-

- what on the age of the fowls, their general condition, and
the market in which they are to be sold. Chickens of
broiler size will make their best gains in about ten days
and seldom can stand more than two weeks of feeding.
Larger fowls will continue to make good gains and to
improve in quality and flesh for three weeks, or even four
if carefully handled. It is impossible to soften the flesh
of well-grown fowls in a short feeding
period, though if the market is one
which does not demand the highest qual-
ity it may not pay to carry the feeding
beyond two weeks. Other things being
equal, pen feeding may be continued
several days longer than crate feeding,
without injury to the fowls.

In special fattening, either in pens
or crates, the fowls should always be fed
lightly the first day or two. Heavy
feeding from the start, on a ration to
which the fowls are not accustomed,
is apt to cause digestive disorders.
Throughout the feeding period the at-
tendant should keep a close watch on the
droppings of the fowls. The condition
of these will indicate the first stages of
indigestion more quickly than they are
likely to be detected in any other way.

R. I. RED BROILERS
These two S. C. R. I. Reds weighed 4? If

pounds when 12 weeks old. To secure
tapid growth chicks must be strong and
must have first-class care.

When the appetites of the fowls begin to fail, which
should not be before the end of the second week if prop-
erly handled, the feeding should be discontinued. Leave
the birds without feed for twenty-four hours, then kill
and dress them and send to market.

How to Sell Table Fowls

Without doubt, the producer who is in position to sell
his fowls to a select private trade will get better prices
than can otherwise be secured, and if he is producing them
in sufficient numbers he will find it profitable to
cultivate this trade. Many broilers and roasters are re-
quired in the hotel and restaurant trade, but few producers
are able to establish satisfactory connections of this sort.
The average hotel is an extremely close buyer and stor-
age stock appears to be given preference chiefly because
of the ease, regularity and certainty with which supplies
can be secured from this source.

The preference of the market must be considered in
deciding whether fowls should be dry picked or scalded.
It is impossible to get top prices for scalded fowls in a
market which prefers dry picking. If to be sold to select
retail trade, broilers should be fully dressed—that is, they
should be picked clean and split down the back with a
sharp knife or a pair of heavy shears, and the entrails
removed. If shipped to city markets they usually are
killed and plucked, but not drawn. In plucking scalded
broilers, the removal of pinfeathers is made easier if
they are rubbed off rather than picked. This is done by
getting the hand well covered with feathers and lightly
rubbing the pinfeathers the wrong way, when they come
out quite readily. Extreme care in removing pinfeathers —
may not be profitable where the chicks are sold at whole-
sale, but for select retail trade it will pay to have them
reasonably clean.

Special Fatten Fowls for Home Use

Those who are willing to give a little attention to
proper fattening of fowls provided for home use will find
that they can readily have poultry meat of exceptional
quality. In spite of the great number of special-fattened
or “milk-fed” fowls produced in this country, few persons
outside of the large cities ever find them on the market.
So far as the average consumer is concerned, his only
chance to know what first-class table poultry is, is to do
his own fattening. It is not much trouble to do this, and
it pays in money as well as in improved quality.

A CRATE FOR SPECIAL FATTENING TABLE FOWLS

Chickens intended for the table gain rapidly in weight and their flesh improves notice-
ably in quality if special fattened in close confinement.

74 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Canning Chicken For Home Use

The average producer will find it to his financial ad-
vantage to use many of his surplus fowls on his home
table and should provide amply for his own needs before
seeking a market. Even where most of the fowls must
be disposed of in late summer, as is usually the case with
back-yard poultry keepers, it is possible to have poultry
for use on the home table a good part of the year by
canning the sur-
plus birds.

The home can-
ning of poultry
meat is not an
experiment. The
experience of
thousands of
housekeepers, as
well as the work
done by the can-
ning clubs in all
parts of the
country, has
shown_ beyond
question that the
method is entire-
ly practical be-
sides being com-
paratively simple.
As a matter of
fact, it is no
more difficult to
can chicken than
to do any other kind of canning if proper care is taken.

Especial attention should be called to the fact that
soup stock may be put up as successfully as meat. In-
stead of buying canned soups which not only are com-
paratively high in price but, as ordinarily supplied, con-
tain a minimum of meat in any form, and only a limited
amount of nutrition, the poultry raiser can put up chicken
soup, chicken broth with rice, chicken gumbo, etc., which
not only will be much more wholesome, nutritious, and
palatable than purchased soups, but can be provided
at a fraction of their cost.

In preparing poultry meat for canning, no vessels
are required which are not available in any household.
The cooking (sterilizing) is done in what is known as the
waterbath canner—any kind of a metal vessel that can be
placed over a stove, range or gas burner. A bucket, lard
can, wash boiler or any similar vessel having a tight-
fitting lid may be used. It must be deep enough so that
the water will be at least an inch above the tops of the
jars, and a false bottom should be provided to keep the
jars from coming in contact with direct heat, also to
provide a better circulation of the water, and a more
even temperature. ;

CANNED CHICKEN IN MASON JARS

It is just as practical to put up chicken, tur-
keys, ducks, etc., as fruits or vegetables. The
same methods are used and equally good results
should be secured.

Canning Directions

The following instructions for canning chicken are
given by the Missouri College of Agriculture. The meth-
ods here described are substantially those adopted by Can-
ning Clubs, Home Economie Departments and practical
housekeepers generally, and if followed carefully shouid
insure complete success.

“Method No 1. Dress the chicken and leave whole
or cut into pieces as preferred. Cover with boiling water
and simmer until the meat can be separated from the
bones. Return the bones to the liquid and boil it down

one-half. Pack the meat closely in hot glass jars, add
one teaspoonful of salt to each quart and fill the jar with
hot liquid. Adjust the rubber and top, leaving the latter
slightly loose. Sterilize 3 to 3% hours in a waterbath
canner. Remove and tighten the tops immediately. The
liquid remaining may be placed in a jar, sterilized 90
minutes, and kept for soup or gravy. Two pounds of
dressed fowl should make one pint of solid meat and a
pint of thick stock.

“Method No. 2. Cut the dressed, raw chicken into
convenient sections. Pack into glass jars, add one tea-
spoonful of salt to a quart, fill the jar with boiling water,
adjust the rubbers and tops as above and sterilize in a
waterbath canner 3% to 4 hours.”

Following are-some further suggestions on the sub-
ject from Farmers’ Bulletin No. 839 of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

“Spring Chicken Fried. After cleaning and prepar-
ing spring frys, season and fry as though preparing for
serving directly on the table. Cook until the meat is
about three-fourths done. If a whole spring chicken,
break the neck and both legs and fold around body of
chicken. Roll up tight, tie a string around the chicken,
and drop this hot, partially fried product into a hot quart
glass jar or enameled tin can. A quart jar will hold two
to four small chickens. Pour liquid from the griddle or
frying pan into the container over the chicken. Place rub-
bers and caps into position but not tight. Cap and tip
tin cans. Sterilize for 90 minutes—see Method No. 1.

“In a similar way any fowl or wild game may be
prepared by frying, oven-baking, roasting, or stewing. All
may be packed after cooking three-fourths done in any de-
sired way. Hot glass jars or enameled tin cans may be
used. When the products are packed while hot in the
containers, the hot liquids, gravies, dressings, etc., or hot
water should be poured over them. Put rubbers and caps
of jars in position, not tight. Cap and tip tin cans. Ster-
ilize 90 minutes—see Method No. 1. : :

“Chicken Soup Stock. Place 30 pounds chicken in 10
gallons of cold water and simmer over fire for 5 hours.
Remove meat from bones, then strain. Add sufficient
water to make 10
gallons of stock.
Fill hot glass
jars or enameled
tin cans with the
hot stock. Par-
tially seal glass
jars. Cap and tip
tin cans. Ster-
ilize 90 minutes.
“Chicken Gumbo.
Cut 2 pounds of
ham _ into small
cubes and boil 30
minutes. Mince 3
pounds of chick-
en and chop %
pound of onions
fine. Make a
smooth paste of
¥% pound of flour.
Add above to five
gallons of chick-
en soup-stock.
Then add %
pound of butter
and %4. pound of
salt and boil 10
minutes; then
add 3 ounces of
powdered okra
mixed with 1 pint
of water. Fill in-
to hot glass jars
or enameled tin
cans. Sterilize 90
minutes.”

A JAR OF CANNED CHICKEN

This is a popular type of glass jar used in
home canning of chicken. Jars should be
wrapped in paper on shelves to keep contents
from bleaching. Tin cans, which are cheaper,
are successiully used by many.

CHAPTER

XII

What the Back-Yard Poultry Keeper Wants to Know About Breeds

Practical Values of Different Breeds Frankly Stated, With Suggestions on How to Choose Breeds to Meet Individual
Requirements or Conditions—Brief Descriptions of Numerous Popular Breeds—Possibilities in Breeding
Standard Fowls for Exhibition and Developing Special-Quality Strains—Importance
of Striving to Combine ‘‘Fancy’’ and ‘‘Utility’’ Qualities

docile in disposition and accept the conditions of close con-
finement more readily than smaller and more active ones,
but unless special attention is given to compulsory exercise
they are apt to become overfat and to acquire the various
diseases that accompany this condition. This is partic-
ularly true after they have passed the pullet year. Fowls
of the smaller breeds, on account of their natural activity,
are less apt to become overfat and diseased, and will keep
in good laying condition with much less attention to ex-
ercise. They are more liable to become restless in close
confinement, however, and to acquire the vices of egg
eating and feather pulling.

Special Points to Consider in Selecting a Breed

Before deciding on a breed the beginner should de-
termine whether he is going to keep fowls exclusively or
chiefly for breeding purposes, for egg production, or for
the production of table fowls as well as eggs. If he pur-
poses concentrating attention on breeding exhibition fowls
his own personal preference as to “fancy” points will

3 ROBABLY no question is asked more frequently
by the beginner than “what is the best breed
Ge . . _
CRS for production is concerned, however, it is
S2Ge=-)) doubtful whether any important difference ex-
Many of the lesser known breeds whose “fancy” points
have been developed at the expense of or with indifference
poor showing at the nest, but such breeds as the Ply-
mouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte, Leghorn, etc.,
illustration, at the New Jersey Experiment Station the
average number of eggs laid by all hens of four popular
compiled and found to be as follows: Plymouth Rocks,
155; Wyandottes, 163; Rhode Island Reds,157; White Leg-
It is probable that there are other breeds that would
make equally good breed averages if represented in lay-
lacking such proof the beginner will
do well to use caution in considering
standing is not definitely established,
or that are known not to be in
keepers. Speaking generally, the rel-
ative popularity of any breed or va-
practical value—not perhaps to what
that value might be if its qualities
but what it is at present.
Of vastly more importance than
differences within the breed, due to
the extent to which the egg-laying
developed by careful breeding and selection. At the Vine-
land Contest the best and poorest averages in the differ-

for me to keep?” So far as inherent capacity
ists between what are known as the “popular” breeds.
to their productiveness, are apt to make a comparatively
are on more or less of an equality in this respect. For
breeds entered in several egg-laying contests has been
horns, 165.
ing contests in equal numbers, but
the claims of those whose relative
favor among commercial poultry
riety is a fairly good index to its
were developed by careful breeding,
differences between breeds, are the
ability of various strains has been
ent popular breeds were as follows:

Average Per Hen Average Per Hen

Breed Highest Pen Lowest Pen
iPlymouthpRocksecs= ss] me 222.2 99.7
Wyandotte scat eae eS See 222.5 118.
RhodevislandRede 92 se 22 - SSs 243.1 132.6
Mephornsse sess ssh eeae des cas: aes 222.89 127.7

Just how much of the wide margin between the high
and the low pens in each breed here represented is to be
attributed to differences in inherent egg-laying ability,
and how much to condition or age at the time the birds
entered the contest, it is impossible to say, but obviously
“breed” is of comparatively little importance.

Neither in adaptability to close confinement is there
much to choose between the breeds. Large fowls are more

cost less to buy or raise.

A PEN OF HIGH-PRODUCING R. I. REDS AT VINELAND CONTEST

This pen of 10 Reds laid 1,966 eggs in pullet year, or an average of 199.6 eggs per hen. Indi-
vidual records range from 14S to 243.

Photo from New Jersey Exp. Station.

largely determine his choice. If egg production is the
object, undoubtedly a given number can be secured at
lower cost from small fowls than from large ones. The
former not only consume less feed (about ten per cent
less on the average), but they require less houseroom and
The surplus young stock from
such breeds is of little value for table use, however, and
the adult fowls also are unpopular in poultry markets.
If table poultry as well as eggs are wanted, fowls of the
larger breeds must be selected. They will average to
weigh nearly twice as much at maturity as Leghorns, for
example, but with good management their egg production
will be fully as great.

There is some advantage in keeping nonsitting breeds,

though it is a matter of convenience rather than of results.
75

76 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

The production averages previously given show that fowls
of the larger breeds average to lay practically as many
eggs as Leghorns, which would indicate that the time
iost in broodiness is more apparent than real. In other
words, while Plymouth Rock hens are going through
broody periods, Leghorn hens may be taking a “rest”
that will occupy as much or more time but which is not
noticed simply because there is nothing in the conduct of
the birds to indicate it. Much can be done to prevent
loss of production through broodiness by giving the hens
proper attention. If they are broken up promptly they
can be brought back into laying again in a comparative-
ly short time. It is well to bear in mind, however, that
in most flocks some hens are much more inclined to brood-
iness than others, and these should be eliminated from the

A FEBRUARY-HATCHED LEGHORN PULLET LAYING
AT AGE OF 129 DAYS

. This pullet was hatched February 25 and laid her first egg July 4,
just 129 days after hatching. Early maturity is one of the poultry breed-
er’s interesting problems. Photo from Missouri Experiment Station.

flock, as it is not desirable to perpetuate extremes in this
character if only on account of the trouble caused.

Choice in color of plumage is largely a matter of
personal preference. White fowls are objectionable to
many town poultry keepers because their feathers almost
always present a soiled appearance, which detracts great-
ly from their beauty. A practical objection to dark-
feathered fowls is their discolored skin when dressed.
This may not be a serious matter unless the intention is
to specialize in broilers, in which case white, buff or red
fowls should be selected.

Influence of Climate

There are many profitable Leghorn flocks as far
north as Canada, but speaking generally, fowls of this

breed, with their large combs and tight feathering, are -

not as well adapted to cold-weather conditions as many
of the larger breeds. On the other hand, Leghorns us-
ually stand hot summers much better. For example,
during 1916-17 the average production by breeds at Storrs
(Conn.) and Vineland (N. J.) Laying Contests was as
follows:

Storrs Vineland
RPreed Average Fer Bird Average Per Bird
Plymouth ‘Roekz2-- 222 -2 <=-5-- = 161. 155.
Wyandotte.c o.5 22 - 2s 2. Saeco Sho les 165. 141.3
Rhode Island Red_.-___---.-- 15303. 150 6
White Leghorn .._- 167.5 169.7

While average egg yields were not materially differ-
ent, the relative productiveness of Leghorns and Wyan-
dottes (for example) at Vineland, with its mild winters
and hot summers, was not the same as in the colder
climate of Connecticut.

There is an indirect way in which the question of
breed concerns the back-lotter who buys a new laying
flock each fall and each time must negotiate the annual
shortage in early-hatched pullets, being compelled regu-
larly to choose between extreme prices for these (if ob-
tainable at all) or more moderate prices for comparative-
ly immature pullets or yearling hens, neither of which can
be expected to lay without several unproductive weeks
of heavy feeding, with which delay the average back-
yard poultry keeper is apt to be decidedly impatient. Un-
der such conditions, Leghorn or Ancona pullets have a
decided advantage owing to the fact that they come in-
to laying at an earlier age than pullets of larger breeds,
hence a higher average of maturity can usually be se-
cured when buying in the open market. This means not
only a saving in feed, but more fall eggs. Leghorn pul-
lets, being comparatively small, should be cheaper than
pullets of other breeds. .

Superior Merit of Standard Fowls

Even though the poultry keeper may have no inten-
tion of attempting to realize the largely increased revenue
that always is possible to him through the sale of breed-
ing stock and eggs for hatching from a well-bred flock,
he cannot afford to take up even commercial poultry
keeping with nonstandard fowls. Whether the basis of
comparison is the productiveness of hens, cost of feed-
ing, or uniformity of characters, external or hidden, the
advantage invariably is with standard fowls.

It is not denied that among fowls of inferior breed-
ing there may be some,that will possess desirable char-
acters in a marked degree, or that will prove good lay-
ers. The proportion of such is small, however, and the
uncertainty as to ability to transmit characters to off-
spring makes their use in the breeding pen invariably
disappointing. It is only by mating fowls whose an-
cestors have been bred for generations towards a definite
ideal, that there can be reasonable certainty of securing
uniformity in appearance, productiveness, or any other
desired character. And granting that many breeders
have been more interested in developing and fixing
special markings of feathers or other superficial charac-
ters than in developing size or productiveness, the fact
remains that the commercial poultry keeper who makes
his start with fowls of mixed or mongrel breeding de-
liberately handicaps himself, cuts his possible financial
returns in two, or worse, and definitely sets himself back
one, two, or more years as a successful poultry keeper.

Brief Description of Popular Breeds

Leghorns. Among commercial egg producers Leg-
horns are highly popular and, as has already been stated,
where eggs alone are desired they are much more efficient
producers than fowls of the larger breeds. Storrs
(Conn.) Bulletin 100, in analyzing five-year averages for
the International Laying Contest, states that the number
of eggs produced from each 100 pounds of feed consumed
is 158 for Plymouth Rocks, 159 for Rhode Island Reds,
182 for Wyandottes and 195 for White Leghorns. “In a
similar manner the number of eggs required to pay for
the feed for a pen of ten birds has been for the same
breeds 721, 695, 645 and 627 respectively. It will thus

WHAT THE BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPER WANTS TO KNOW. ABOUT BREEDS 77

be apparent that when one considers the returns from
100 pounds of feed rather than the return per individual,
Leghorns are exceptionally efficient in the matter of egg
production.”

If the comparison is on the basis of value of eggs
returned for each dollar spent on feed, “Wyandottes and
White Leghorns have been practically equal with $2.53
and $2.58 respectively. Likewise, Plymouth Rocks and
Rhode Island Reds have been very close .together with
$2.15 and $2.18 respectively.”

The standard weight of the Leghorn cock is 5%
pounds and of the hen 4 pounds, though in average flocks
weights usually will run somewhat below these. There
are six varieties of Single Comb and three varieties of
Rose Comb Leghorns recognized in the Standard.

Anconas are practically mottled Leghorns and are
becoming quite*popular in recent years. There are strains
of this breed that are highly productive, and to many
the mottled plumage is especially attractive. The stand-
ard weight of the Ancona cock is 5% pounds, hen, 4%
pounds. There are Single and Rose Comb varieties.

Minoreas are distinguished for the extra-large white
eggs produced, and many who have a special egg trade
which enables them to secure good premiums, find it
profitable to keep fowls of this breed. There are six
varieties of Single and Rose Comb Minoreas. The stand-
ard weights of all varieties, except the Single Comb Black,
are 8 pounds for the cock and 6% pounds for the hen.
The Black weights are 1 pound heavier in each instance.
The large size of the Minorca is some advantage when
fowls are sold for table use but the white skin and black
shanks of the Black Minorea are much against them,
while their extremely large combs make them compara-
tively unpopular where cold winters are to be expected.

Wyandottes have always been greatly in favor with
practical poultry keepers. Their fine bones and plump-
ness, even as broilers, make them highly acceptable for
market, especially among those who want table fowls of
moderate size. At the Storrs Laying Contest Wyandottes
were next to Leghorns in comparative efficiency in uti-
lization of feed, and practically equal to them in value
of eggs returned
for each dollar
spent in feed.
There are eight
varieties. The
standard weight
of the cock is 8%
pounds, of the
hen, 6% pounds.

Rhode Island
Reds have the
same standard
weights in adult
fowls as the Wy-
andottes. The
typical Rhode
Island Red is a
longer fowl than
the Wyandotte
and is somewhat
closer feathered.
This breed is
highly popular in
all parts of the

PARKS’ STRAIN PLYMOUTH ROCK WITH
SWORN RECORD OF 325 EGGS
IN 12 MONTHS

country and probably is more generally kept in the South
than any of the other general-purpose breeds. The rich
color of good Reds is most attractive, and young fowls of
this breed, when dressed, are largely free from discolora-
tion due to dark
or black pin-
feathers.
Plymouth
Rocks are the

largest of the
American class,
the cock weigh-
ing 9%% pounds
and the hen 7%
pounds. Seven

varieties are rec-
ognized in the
Standard. Noth-
ing, apparently,
can shake the
general popular-
ity of this breed,
particularly on
farms and among
those who want
large market*
fowls. The cockerels make good broilers and as roasters
and capons they are popular in practically all markets.
At the First, Second and Third Vineland Contests Ply-
mouth ‘Rocks ranked next to Leghorns in productiveness.
Fowls of this breed are apt to become overfat in their
second year and thereafter when heavily fed, particularly
in confinement, and for that reason require careful hand-
ling. Where they receive proper treatment, however,
just as good results can be secured with them as with the

BLACK ORPINGTON HEN WITH RECORD
UF 335 EGGS IN ONE YEAR
yt
Thos’ remarkable hen made the above record
at an Australian Egg Laying Contest. To the

best of our knowledge this is the world’s record.
Her eggs averaged 26.5 ounces to the dozen.

smaller breeds.

Orpingtons are quite popular in England and Austra-
lia as well as in this country. At numerous laying con-
tests they have made excellent records, particularly in
Australian contests. The world’s record at present, to
the best of our knowledge, is held by a Black Orpington
hen that laid 335 eggs in 365 consecutive days in a recent
Australian contest. Four varieties are recognized in the
Standard and there are several nonstandard varieties.
The average weight of the cock is 10 pounds, while that
of the hen is 8 pounds. Where white skin and legs are
not objectionable Orpingtons are highly popular.

Brahmas and Langshans are not in great favor among
back-yard poultry keepers. There are strains in both of
the breeds that are highly productive but, as a rule, if
bred to standard size they are not particularly good lay-
ers, and the fowls require rather expert handling in order
to give best returns. These fowls are striking in appear-
ance and are great favorites among those who are more
interested in breeding for exhibition than for production.
The standard weight of the Light Brahma cock is 12
pounds; hen, 91%4 pounds. The standard weight of Lang-
shans is 9% pounds for the cock and 7% pounds for the
hen, being the same as for Plymouth Rocks.

POSSIBILITIES IN BREEDING STANDARD FOWLS

Because of their beauty and the uniformity with which
they can be bred within definite lines, and, on the other
hand, the promptness with which changes or improve-
ment in character may be secured, the breeding of stand-
ard fowls is a fascinating pursuit. Thousands of men and

78 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

women in all parts of the country are giving their ear-
nest attention to the particular breeding problems in
which they are interested, which may be the improvement
of barring or other markings in the feathers, securing a
correct and attractive carriage, approaching more closely
to the Standard’s description of shape of body, increasing
size, securing earlier maturity, developing greater egg
production, ete. All of these qualities are capable of be-
ing transmitted to succeeding generations and of being
further developed and intensified. Just in proportion as
the breeder is able to accomplish such results he becomes
recognized as a skillful and successful breeder.

How to Start

Roomy quarters and ample range afford ideal condi-
tions for breeding fowls, especially where large flocks are
kept. Fortunately for the back-yard poultry keeper, how-
ever, it is possible to take up poultry breeding successfully
even in quite limited quarters. In point of fact, many of
the greatest breeders the country has ever known have

A BACK-YARD FLOCK OF PARKS’ STRAIN PLYMOUTH
ROCKS WITH REMARKABLE RECORD

The pen of fowls illustrated above is owned by Prof. E. F. Grund-
hofer of State College, Pa. Practically every hen in flock has a record of
200 or more eggs in 12 months. Hen in middle, third from either right or
left, has record of 313 eggs in that time.

acquired their skill, established their strains, and produc-
ed some of their greatest prize winners within the limited
space of a back yard. The beginner, therefore, need have
no fear of making a start even though he may have to
do so under similar conditions. He will find that with a
small flock he has one distinct advantage in being able
to give closer attention to the breeding of individual birds.

“Fancy” and “Utility” Breeds

The prospective fancier has a much wider range of
choice tm selection of breed and variety than it is advisable
for the commercial producer to exercise. Within reason-
able limits he can and should consult his personal prefer-
ence, keeping the breed in which he is mostly interested.
Only by so doing is he likely to bring to the work the ab-
sorbing interest and enthusiasm that makes the highest

suecess possible. If without special preference, it is well.

to look into the home market requirements, also to learn
what fowls are most successfully kept in the beginner’s
own. locality.

Among the 121 varieties of fowls now recognized in
“The Standard of Perfection’ there are a number that
are regarded as having little value in commercial poultry
keeping. In some of these, color combinations and uni-
formity of feather markings have been carried to a truly
wonderful extreme and simply as examples of the breed-
er’s art they fully justify their existence. They usually

are known as “fancy’’ breeds, it being commonly believed
that their peculiar characters have been secured at the
expense of practical qualities, such as size, vigor or pro-
ductiveness.

If the beginner has a genuine interest in any of these
breeds he should not hesitate in his choice because of their
comparative unpopularity. He should, however, avoid the
common error of selecting a new or comparatively un-
known breed or variety merely because of the expectation
that there will be less competition than in older or more
popular ones. Occasionally this step proves to be success-
ful when the breeder is able to establish himself quickly
as a leader in his line. Generally, however, while there
may be less competition there is also a limited market.
For most persons it is more practical to develop a strain
of superior quality in one of the “useful” breeds. The
best opportunity for profit that the average breeder has
today is in doing this, choosing the variety which most
appeals to him, either on account of its color or other char-
acteristics, and then striving to develop a strain which
will be distinguished not only for its showroom qualities
but also for its commercial value in the production of
eggs or superior-quality table fowls. In general, the be-
ginner will make no mistake in selecting any of the breeds
that answer the foregoing description, though location,
climate, market, etc., must be considered. Fowls of the
different breeds have qualities that often fit them pecu-
liarly for meeting certain conditions. Whatever breed
is chosen, the beginner should get the best foundation
stock that he can afford to buy. If not able to spend a
large sum, the start may be made with only a small
breeding pen or even a few eggs for hatching, or with
day old chicks. But whatever is bought, it should be of
superior quality. To start with inferior stock means
years of lost time and, in the end, much greater expense
than to start right at first.

The beginner who is starting to breed systematically
for improvement in “utility” qualities needs to be con-
stantly on guard against the tendency to allow these to
overshadow in importance, the true standard qualities
that are the foundation of permanently successful breed-
ing in any breed. It is proper and highly desirable
that productiveness, weight of body, etc., should receive
especial attention in utility breeds, but it is not desirable
to let this lead to deterioration in standard qualities.
The breeder who concentrates his efforts solely on egg
production is no more “practical” than the one who goes
to the other extreme and breeds for color or feather
markings regardless of the productive capacity of his
fowls. Both will fail in establishing desirable permanent
strains, and both stand in their own light as to financial
returns. :

That a combination of showroom qualities and high
productiveness is possible has been demonstrated so often
that it is no longer a debatable question. The individual ©
breeder may or may not wish to make the effort; he may
or may not have the breadth of vision or the interest
necessary to grasp both sides of the problem; but it can
be done and has been done, not once but in hundreds of
flocks. The beginner who aims at a practical combina-
tion of standard quality and high productiveness will suc-
ceed in proportion to the skill and persistence which he
employs. And for good stock of such breeding there is a
never-failing demand.

CHAPTER XIII

Mating and Management of Breeding Flock

Relative Advantages of Different Methods of Breeding and Mating Briefly but Clearly Explained—Why Inbreeding
Is Recommended and How It Should Be Practiced—Instructions for Handling Breeding Fowls in Sum-
mer, and Special Methods of Caring for Growing Stock Intended for the Breeding Pen

7) T IS IMPOSSIBLE to give in these pages full
By details regarding the numerous questions relat-
ing to the mating and everyday management
} of the breeding flock. All that can be attempt-

monly used and give some general instructions in manage-
ment so that the beginner may start right and may
continue the development of his flock with a reason-
ably clear understanding of what should be done and how
he may go about doing it. He should proceed without de-
lay, however, to secure more complete information on all
the various phases of this branch of the industry, if he
hopes to be truly successful. In Reliable Poultry Journal
Company’s new book, “Fundamentals of Poultry Breeding,”
will be found complete information on all branches of this
subject and we can do the earnest breeder no greater ser-
vice along this line than to direct his attention to this
invaluable work.

Methods of Breeding

Breeding Unrelated Fowls. The simplest and most
common form of breeding, especially among beginners, is
that in which unrelated males and females of standard
quality are mated on their general appearance. This sys-
tem of breeding is comparatively simple and easy, and if
the fowls “nick”? well excellent results may be secured.
However, unless the breeder happens to have an exception-
al breeding male, one that is characterized by “prepoten-
cy” and thus capable of stamping his characters upon all
or most of his offspring, the result of such a mating will
be more or less uncertain so far as high exhibition quality
is concerned. Where the breeder is satisfied to have a
standard-bred flock of good quality, but with little pros-
pect of producing high-class exhibition stock, this method
of breeding is safe and practical. It is the way in which
the majority of fair to good standard flocks have been
developed.

_ Line Breeding. The term line breeding means or
should mean that breeding is restricted to the selection and
mating of individuals of a single line of descent—in other
words, the mating of related fowls. When line breeding
is carried to the extreme and CLOSELY related individ-
uals are mated it then becomes inbreeding. It is true that
poultrymen are not agreed upon definitions fer line breed-
ing and inbreeding and by many the two terms are used
more or kess interchangeably. The definitions that have
just been given are substantially as found in Davenport’s
“Principles of Breeding,” a textbook in use in practically
every agricultural college in the United States, and they
represent the common use of these terms among live-stock
breeders .generally.

Line breeding, judicially employed, enables the breed-
er to perpetuate indefinitely the good qualities of an es-
pecially desirable individual and to develop a definite
strain strongly marked by ability to reproduce its peculiar
characters and to intensify and improve them. While
line breeding usually starts with close inbreeding, most

breeders get away from close relationship matings as
quickly as they can do so without weakening the charac-
ters they wish to perpetuate or develop.

Inbreeding is popularly believed to result in rapid
degeneration, and where it is practiced without careful
selection and proper safeguards the results often justi-
fy this belief. So far as poultry breeding is concerned,
however, there is no “curse” on inbreeding and nothing
mysterious about the results secured, whether good or
bad. Inbreeding simply intensifies the characters common
to both male and female, weak characters as well as
desirable ones. Hence, if male and female have a common
weakness or tendency to disease, as is apt to be the case
in closely related birds, inbreeding may and often does
prove disastrous. If breeders are careful to cull their
breeding flocks, however, discarding every fowl that is
not in first-class breeding condition, they can practice in-
breeding indefinitely without injuring the health and vigor
of their fowls.

It is not necessary here to go into the practical details
of inbreeding, or its dangers and how to avoid them. It
is enough for the present need of the beginner to get
these facts clearly fixed in his mind:

If he has fowls of exceptional quality the best
way of perpetuating them is to breed them back
to their own offspring, as sire to daughter or
dam to son.

If the fowls mated are strong and vigorous,
their offspring will also be strong.

Inbreeding carelessly practiced will sooner or
later justify the popular prejudice against it.
Indiscriminate Inbreeding. There is one method of

inbreeding, which may be called indiscriminate inbreeding
for lack of a better name, that is entitled to more serious
attention than it often receives from the beginner. This
method, which has the approval of some well-posted breed-
ers, consists simply in confining breeding operations with-
in a given strain or “line” but eutirely ignoring the degree
of relationship—that is, mating the fowls to the best
apparent advantage, regardless of whether they are close-
ly akin or not. In a flock of fair size such a method will
result in a limited amount of close inbreeding, but there
is no reason to believe that, in the long run, fowls so
produced will necessarily be inferior in vigor to the most
elaborately line-bred fowls.

It is not to be expected, of course, that any other
method will. produce fowls equal in quality to those se-
cured in painstaking line breeding. But not every one
will care to secure high quality at such a price, and there
are thousands of beginners who, when confronted with
the complications of that method, will throw up their
hands in despair. It should be encouraging to these,
therefore, to realize that they can keep their strains pure,
and can realize many of the advantages of inbreeding
without endangering the health of their fowls and at the
same time may greatly simplify the details of care and

management.
79

80 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Perhaps as fair a statement of the relative values of
the two systems as can be given is to say that for the
highest development and improvement in fowls—for defin-

ite strain build-

ae % ing—line breed-
ing is indispens-
able. But for

those whose am-
bitions are more
modest indiscrim-
inate inbreeding
may fully answer
their purpose. In
fact, it may be
doubted whether
the average be-
ginner will have
anything more to
show for the la-
bor and involved
record keeping of

systematic line
HEAVY-LAYING EXHIBITION.quaLity breeding than he
S.C. RHODE ISLAND RED could achieve

with much less
trouble and ex-
pense by simpler

That heavy-laying ability may be success-
fully combined with standard qualities is clearly
iliustrated by the hen shown above, which won
first prize, shape and color specials, and was

champion female at Rochester Show in 1917
That year she laid 298 eggs, the following, 311 methods. At the
and the third year, 289, a total of 898 eggs in risk of repeti-

three years. Sire and dam were both New York
winners. Is property of Lester Tompkins, Conn.

tion, however, it
should be clearly
stated that, in either method, slackness in selection or
carelessness in using fowls in any way inferior in vigor

will soon bring loss and disaster.

Methods ef Mating

It would not be fair to the beginner to represent
mating of fowls as an easy or simple matter. On the
contrary, if he can do so, it will be much better for him
to secure the help of an experienced breeder rather than
attempt to do it himself. Correct mating is vitally im-
portant to his future success, and at no other point does
the beginner need expert advice as he needs it here. If
he can secure such assistance he will find that the expert,
after carefully looking over his fowls, will definitely dis-
card such as have marked or conspicuous defects and
which therefore should not remain in the breeding pen
under any condition. The description of ideal fowls
given in the “Standard of Perfection” will be his guide
in doing this.

Compensation Matings. If he does not find it out be-
fore, the beginner discovers when he comes to mate his
fowls that the best he has fall short of measuring up to
the ideal for the breed. This should not unduly dis-
courage him, however, as the 100-per-cent fowl has never
yet been produced. In the finest flock there are only a
few that get very close to standard requirements, and
all breeders, leaders and beginners alike, have the same
general problem to solve—how best to mate up the fowls
they have, so that some improvement will be effected
year by year, or so that at least there shall be no falling
off in quality.

Practically all breeders, therefore, make more or less
use of “compensation matings,” which consist, in brief,
in “matching” the fowls so that certain defects in one
will be balanced by corresponding strength in another. It

is expected that the effect of such mating will be to
“strike an average,” making the offspring nearer to
standard description, in these respects, than either sire or
dam. This method is most successful where the defects
to be negotiated are of minor character. Where strongly
marked defects are matched the stock produced will in-
clude individuals of both types, with others showing more
or less imperfect blending. Therefore, the experienced
breeder matches slight differences but avoids strongly
contrasted characters.

Pen and Flock Matings. A single male mated to a
selected flock of females gives what is generally termed
a pen mating. This is regularly practiced in careful sys-
tematic breeding, whether line breeding is followed or not.
The method requires a separate pen for each’small flock
and, where many fowls are to be mated, involves a rela-
tively heavy labor cost in caring for them. It also de-
mands comparatively expensive housing. For this reason,
where only medium quality is aimed at, as in commercial
poultry breeding generally, it is customary to mate up
regular laying flocks, numbering from fifty to several
hundred females, providing males in about the proportions
indicated in the table presented herewith and allowing all
to run together. This is flock mating. Obviously, it must
be inferior to pen mating in quality of the stock to be
produced, but it is practical and desirable where low-cost
production is important.

Single and Double Mating. The term “single mating”
is applied to the method of breeding practiced where males
and females of equal quality can be produced from the
same mating. For example, a pen of White Wyandottes,
if properly mated, should produce equally good standard
quality in both males and females. In the case of some
breeds and varieties, however, equal quality in males and
females cannot be produced by one mating. To use the
classic illustration of Barred Plymouth Rocks, the off-
spring from a pen of what are known as “standard” fowls
of this variety will rarely be of standard color, but the
females will regularly be darker than the ideal and: the
males lighter. To produce cockerels of “standard color”
in this variety it is customary to mate darker-than-
standard females with a standard-colored or medium-dark
male. This is what is-meant by a “cockerel mating.” To
get standard females, a decidedly light male may be used
on standard-colored females. This is termed “pullet mat-
ing.” The general system is termed ‘double mating,”
since two matings or pens always are required in order to
produce a standard-colored pair, as described in the

“Standard of Perfection.”

Propotency

As compared with the results secured in breeding av-
erage or nonstandard flocks, standard-bred fowls regularly
show a high degree of uniformity in characters, especially
as regards general appearance. To the closely observant
breeder, however, even standard fowls exhibit a tendency
to a good deal of irregularity in this respect. Especially
in breeding unrelated fowls, there always is some uncer-
tainty in regard to whether a good percentage of their
offspring will closely resemble either sire or dam. This is
because fowls are not equal in ability to transmit qualities,
good or bad. The results of various matings display wide
variations in this respect. Certain individuals appear
now and then, however, that show remarkable capacity
for stamping their characters upon their offspring. The
ability to do this is called “prepotency.” The nature of

MATING AND MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FLOCK 81

prepotency and the methods by which it may be secured
and intensified, are by no means clearly understood. It
is believed, however, that purity of breeding is an im-
portant factor; hence line-bred fowls in which purity of
breeding is most marked, are thought to be particularly
prepotent, thus explaining the uniformly better results
secured with them.

Trap Nesting

In all line breeding, and in the production of pedi-
greed stock generally, it is necessary for the breeder to
be able certainly to identify the eggs laid by each hen,
at least during the breeding season. Where fowls are
bred for increased egg production, the eggs laid by each
pullet or hen must be identified the year around. To do
this the breeder provides trap nests. These are so ar-
ranged that only one hen can enter at a time and, once
in, she cannot get out until released by the attendant who,
in doing this, marks the egg with the hen’s leg-band
number. By keeping each hen’s eggs separate at hatch-
ing time and suitably banding the chicks, the breeder is
able to keep an accurate record of the ancestry of each
individual in his flock. Such information is indispensable
in systematic breeding.

Whether a given individual should practice trap nest-
ing or not, depends largely on the character of his breed-
ing operations. Aside from satisfying one’s natural
curiosity as to the productiveness of his hens and afford-
ing opportunity to discard the poor layers, it is doubtful
whether trap nesting is of any special value to the av-
erage breeder, since the use that he will be able to make
of the information gained will rarely be worth what it
cost him to acquire it. Each breeder must decide this
for himself, but it should be clearly understood that
trap-nesting large numbers of fowls is decidedly expen-
sive, also it is worthless from a practical standpoint
unless it is regularly and systematically carried out.

Constitutional Vigor

The importance of constitutional vigor in fowls has
already been briefly referred to, but those who contem-
plate inbreeding or line breeding must give especial at-

tention to it. Whether inbred or not, fowls are gener-
ally kept under highly artificial conditions and subject to
treatment tending directly to undermine their health.
Vigor, therefore, must receive constant attention in the
breeding flock, if good sound health is to be maintained.
Large hatches, strong chicks, reduced losses in brooders
and on range, capacity to digest large quantities of
feed and turn it into market eggs in profitable numbers
—these and numerous other important factors in real
success are dependent almost directly upon the attention
given to securing high constitutional vigor in the flock.
Much can be done to conserve vigor by proper feeding of
the breeding stock, providing abundant exercise and see-
ing to it that the eggs are hatched and the chicks brooded
under the most favorable conditions, but the best efforts
that can be put forth along these lines will bring but
a moderate degree of success if the breeding stock is
naturally deficient in this important character.

Proportion in Which to Mate

The number of females that can be mated with a male,
with reasonable assurance of securing good fertility, will
depend on the breed, the season and the individuality of
of the male. In the natural breeding season and with the
fowls on open range, excellent fertility has been secured in
flocks of forty or more hens and pullets mated to a single
cockerel, even in flocks of the larger breeds. On the
other hand, with fowls in close confinement and using old
males, it often is found necessary to reduce the number to
5 or 6 in order to secure high fertility. In general, the pro-
portions given herewith may be accepted as fair averages.
It may be necessary to reduce these numbers under some
conditions, particularly with fowls in close confinement
in cold weather, while they may be increased in excep-
tional cases where it is desirable to do so.

NUMBER OF FEMALES TO ONE MALE

General-purpose breeds in confinement -- Mate
General-purpose breeds in confinement _- Mate

8 females with cock
10 females with cockerel

General-purpose breeds on range _- _--Mate 10-12 females with cock
Genera!-purpose breeds on range_______- Mate 12-14 females with cockerel
Leghorns in confinement ___-__ - _.Mate 12-15 females with cock
Leghorns in confinement - _..Mate 15-20 females with cockere}!
Leghorns on range _- _- .-Mate 1

9-20 females with cock

.-Mate § females with dockerel

Leghorns on range -_ _-

SCENE ON BACK-YARD PLANT WHERE SEVERAL BREEDING PENS ARE KEPT

82 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Production of Hatching Eggs and Day-Old Chicks

Assuming that the beginner has successfully nego-
tiated the various questions in regard to the mating of
fowls, he still has a few problems of a practical nature
to consider before he will be ready to begin saving eggs
for hatching, either for his own use or to fill the orders
which he expects to receive from the public.

Fertility

Strictly speaking, an egg is fertile when the female
germ (present in every egg) has formed a union with
the male sperm. From that time on we have to deal
with an embryo—of microscopic proportions until the egg
has been incubated for some hours, but an embryo nev-
ertheless. In this sense fertility is a general character
in eggs produced by properly mated fowls, where no or-
ganic defects are present on either side. That is to say,
practically all eggs laid by such fowls are fertile, regard-
less of the season and regardless also of whether they will
hatch or not.

Not because it is an exact way to classify them but
merely as a matter of convenience, it generally is assum-
ed in practice that eggs are not fertile unless, when ex-

THE WHOLE FAMILY FINDS INTEREST AND PLEASURE IN A
WELL-BRED FLOCK

posed to proper incubating temperature, the embryos de-
velop to a point where they can be detected by the use of
an egg tester. Many eggs that are fertile, strictly speak-
ing, never make such development. Failure to do this
may be due to a variety of causes ranging from physical
weakness in the breeding stock through every kind of
improper handling of the eggs or exposure to injurious
temperatures, up to and including the first stages of incu-
bation. In some instances total infertility is due to or-
ganic defects, sterility in males being more common than
is generally realized.

Hatchability

This has to do with the vigor of the fertilized germ
or embryo. Not all-fertile eggs hatch. The percentage
that do so is determined by a number of factors. Some
fowls regularly produce eggs of a higher hatching power
than do others in the same pen. This is due to the fact
that hatchability is an inherited character, like the capac-
ity for heavy egg production. This fact has been so
clearly established that many careful breeders consider
it worth while to test out and remove from the pen fe-
males that produce eggs of marked inferiority in this

respect. Low hatchability also may result from keeping
the breeding fowls under unfavorable conditions, or may
be due to poor rations, insufficient exercise, mating too
many females with one male, also to improper handling
of eggs before or during incubation—to anything, in fact,
that may weaken or injuriously affect the embryo.

Management of Breeding Pens

During the regular breeding season there is compar-
atively little difference in the general feeding and man-
aging of breeders as compared with that given the laying
pens, aside from the fact that the former should have
more houseroom or floor space per bird and should, in
general, receive the caretaker’s best attention. About
the same rations should be given to breeders during the
breeding season as the laying flock receives, but feeding
for heavy production should be avoided, particularly if
it is intended to save eggs for hatching from the flock
throughout a long season. In a general way, the breeders
should have conservative treatment and feeding, but at
almost any cost see that they have an abundance of ex-
ercise—probably the most important detail in their man-
agement. With the right kind of stock properly mated
and brought to the breeding season in prime condition,
good production and high fertility are practically assured.

Summer Management of Breeding Stock

Breeding fowls often suffer serious injury through
neglect during the nonproductive period. When the hens
are laying heavily and their eggs are selling at good
prices, enthusiasm runs high and it is a pleasure rather
than a task to give them the care and attention necessary
to keep them in first-class condition. But when the breed-
ing season is over and production falls off or entirely
stops, too often the birds are left to shift for themselves
under highly unfavorable conditions, so that instead of
building up health and vigor they become still further
weakened, losses are heavy and results realized from
the survivors the next season are disappointing and un-
profitable. It is not necessary to make the care of breed-
ing stock a burden, but fowls that for several months have
been supplying valuable hatching eggs and are expected
to do so again the following year, certainly are entitled
to something more than neglect during the rest period.

After the breeding season is over the fowls should be
given free range if it is possible to do so. Exercise is,
beyond question, the best conditioner for fowls, and breed-
ing birds cannot have too much. If they must remain in
their regular quarters and be confined to yards, at least
make their quarters as comfortable as possible. It is not
advisable to feed for egg production after the breeding
season, though if the hens persist in laying on ordinary
rations do not try to stop them by starving or by making
violent changes in the feeding. Males that are not to be
kept over for the next season’s use should, of course, be
disposed of immediately at the close of the breeding sea-
son. The desirability of isolating the males that are to
be carried over depends upon the conditions under which
they are to be kept. Where there are a number of these
and they can be properly cared for, it is well to separate
them from the hens. But if isolation means that they are
to be closely confined to uncomfortable, unsanitary houses
with small, bare yards, and neglected in their feeding and
general care, as is far too often the case, then it will be
a great deal better to let them run with the flock.

CHAPTER XIV

Successful Methods of Breeding Exhibition Fowls

Experienced Back-Yard Breeders Tell How They Breed Standard Fowl of Exhibition Quality—Useful and Ornamental
Breeds Alike Can Be Kept—These Reports Show that from Partridge Cochins to Leghorns
Complete Success May Be Realized Where Proper Care Is Given

i} HE EXPERIENCE of George W. Mitchell,
veteran breeder of Partridge Cochins, is an ex-
cellent illustration of what may done within
the narrow limits of a back yard in producing
superior-quality standard poultry. For forty

¢ ee SS ,
years Mr. Mitchell has been a leader in breeding Partridge
Cochins and during all of this time, up to 1910, his breed-
ing operations were conducted within a yard 100 feet

square. Since 1910 the space available for his poultry
flock has been limited to only 40 by 100 feet. Naturally,
he does not try to raise large numbers, but his stock is
of unsurpassed quality. For example, during 1919 he
raised 60 birds from which number he picked out a string
for exhibition at the Boston Show that captured all but
two of the top prizes, his winnings being cock 1, 2, 3;
hens 2, 8, 4; cockerels 1, 2; pullets 1, 2, 3; first old pen;
first young pen. These winnings were made in good-sized
classes in strong competition. In a personal letter from
Mr. Mitchell to the writer the following details are given
in regard to the conditions under which his fowls have
been kept and bred.

: “From March, 1887, until the spring of 1910, were the
years covering the time when we were most actively en-
gaged, and making annual exhibitions at both New York
and Boston. My birds were all housed and raised on my
home lot in the heart of our city and only about five
minutes walk from the railway station, post office and
business center, and during all this time only occupied
space 100 by 100 feet, on which were the main house
of 16 by 60 feet and five houses 8 by 12 feet, together
with a brooder house and incubator cellar, each of the
latter being separate from each other, and the necessary
runs for each house. The main house, 16 by 60 feet, was
two stories in height, the upper story being fitted into
a complete exhibition and training room, having single
wire coops the entire length on the north side. On the
south side, with suitable aisle between, were pens about
4 by 8 feet where exhibition pens could be trained and
the others used to give the birds in the single coops a
chance to exercise as seemed necessary. This room, like
the lower story, was provided with electric lights and
was arranged so that it could be heated. Both the lower
and upper floors were piped with running water and had
every convenience for handling and feeding, and under
the single coops were pens 2% by 4 feet with gates
opening outward, for sitting hens. These worked very
nicely as the coops were placed the same height as at
New York and Boston Exhibitions. From 1910 until the
last season we bred in a very quiet way and not until
the last Boston Show did we exhibit extensively.

“In the spring of 1910 the lower part of the main
house, 16 by 60 feet, was converted into a garage and
from that time the birds have had 40 by 100 feet, the
brooder house and incubator cellars being done away
with, and we have since used but the five smaller houses
together with the exhibition room over the main house.

I am quite sure that the quality of our birds at the
late Boston Exhibition was of such a nature as to show
that they can be successfully bred, raised and suitably
matured on a city back-yard poultry lot, our success
being wholly owing to the attention we were able to give
to each chick, carrying out my idea that ‘the most es-
sential thing to understand is the necessary handling
of each individual bird.’ ”

Prize Stock Produced on City Lot*

Used Lot 75 by 132 Feet in Residence District of City of
86,000 Inhabitants—Invested in High-Class Ex-
hibition Stock and Produced Blue
Ribbon Winners

By M. L. DUDLEY, Iowa

LIVE on a lot 75 by 1382 feet, where there are no

vacant lots, in one of the principal residence districts
of Des Moines, Iowa. During the fall of 1910, I began to
think of buying some chickens. I made the chicken bus-
iness a study and determined to have as good a lot of
birds as could be procured. After looking the field over
I decided upon White Plymouth Rocks as being the best
for all purposes, and concluded to raise them.

I bought eleven pullets from a strain that had taken
17 first and 16 second prizes at recent Iowa State Fairs
and had carried off the laurels at numerous winter shows.
This strain is of unusual egg productinon. I then found
a male bird from a strain that had carried off the prin-
cipal prizes at the World’s Fair in Seattle in 1910, and
that came from a trap-nested hen that had laid 225 eggs
per year. Chickens of this’ grade cost more money to
begin with than inferior ones, but after the first outlay
they are no more expensive. The owner has birds of
which he is proud and, when properly handled, they may
be made highly profitable.

I bought these chickens in January, 1911, and placed
them in a small double-deck house, which I built. Early in
the spring I fenced off a chicken yard, 35 by 35 feet, and
built an open-front house, 10 by 20 feet, with cement
floor, using four feet of one end to keep feed in. I
bought a 70-egg Cyphers Incubator and hatched 110
chicks, raising 107 of them to maturity.

In the fall I divided the open-front house into three
apartments, providing yards for each, and built another
yard, 8 by 12 feet, back of my first house. In January
I bought three male birds of excellent quality, which,
with the one I had, I mated with my pullets, giving me
four good breeding pens. The eggs from these matings
hatched well and produced vigorous chicks.

During the fall and winter of 1911-1912 I sold 85
cockerels for breeding purposes at prices ranging from
$2.50 to $5.00 each, and during the hatching season of
1912 made satisfactory sales of eggs at $2.50 to $3.50
per sitting of fifteen.

*Condensed from ‘‘Reports of Successful Poultry Growers.”
83

84 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Birds Were First Prize Winners

I exhibited one pen of 4 pullets and 1 cockerel, a sin-
gle cockerel and a single pullet at the Iowa Poultry Asso-
ciation Show at Des Moines, Iowa, in January, 1912.
While I did not get a good wash on them, it being my
first experience, out of 7 pens exhibited I took third and
seventh prizes on cockerels (eighteen cockerels compet-
ing), and a cockerel I sold the previous fall took first. In
February, 1912, I hatched 210 chicks with equally as good
results as in 1911.

In August, 1912, I exhibited at the Iowa State Fair
some of my March and April hatch of pullets and cocker-
els and took 1st on pen, Ist on cockerel, and 1st on pullet.

The latter part of August, 1912, I sold 8 hens at $2.75
each, two April-hatched cockerels at $2.50 each, five
April-hatched pullets at $2 each and one cock at $14. I
now have left 160 old and young chickens, which are
worth on an average at least $2.50 each. I have kept an
account of all receipts and expenditures, as follows:

Receipts
For chickens and eggs___- : - : -$ 391.06
Value of house and equipment _ 153.98
160 chickens at $2.50 each _- 400.00
Total_- $ 945.04
Expenditures
Cost of chicken house, fence and equipment —-__- $ 153.98
Fee for exhibit at Iowa Poultry Association Show- 5.00
Chickens bought------- AY SS 61.94
For scoring chickens____ 6.75
Exhibit at Iowa State Fair 9.00
Advertising and postage 26.05
Feed to Sept. 10, 1912_ 242.01
Total_.- $ 504.73
Net Profit $ 440.31

Poultry Breeding As a Side Line Yields
$1,000 to 51,800*

Well-Known Breeder of White Wyandottes Tells How He
Started and How His Success Was Achieved—He
Had the Right Kind of Stock and Gave the
Birds Proper Quarters, Feed and Care
By J. W. Andrews, Massachusetts

Y EXPERIENCE with poultry covers more than
thirty years and I have bred White Wyandottes for
over twenty years. Since I was a small child I have been
interested in poultry. When but ten years of age, my

*From March, 1915, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal

OPEN FRONT ROOSTING
SHED SOXIO FEET.

RES/I DENCE

ee a

STREET
SIDE WALK

LAYOUT OF A FLORIDA POULTRY KEEPER’S BACK-YARD PLANT

The owner of this plant, while holding his regular position as telegraph operator gradually built up
a well-bred flock of R. I. Reds in his back yard and developed a profitable trade in baby chicks and eggs
He began with less than $100 capital, and
Illustration reproduced from ‘‘Reports of Successful

for hatching. Net profits in one year amounted to over $650.
at no time had more than 100 hens on his plant.

Poultry Growers.”

THIS SPACE USEO FOR
BROODER COOPS AND
PORTABLE RUNS

father built a small house for me and gave me ten hens,
with the warning that if they did not receive good care,
I would lose them.

They were a lot of mongrels, but from the beginning
they laid well and paid me a good profit. Needless to
say, they received the very best of care, for I did not
want to lose them. I was dissatisfied with these birds
however, and wanted a flock all of one kind. Finally I
bought from a well-known breeder, thirty White Wyan-
dotte eggs for $5, and have never regretted my choice.

My parents thought I was spending money recklessly
when I first bought eggs and paid such a price, for no
one at that time paid over fifty cents a sitting for eggs
around where we lived in Massachusetts. When I bought
a cockerel and paid $10 for it, they said I needed some one
to look after my money for me. However, it was money
that the hens had earned for me and I thought I had a
right to invest it to improve my poultry. The extra prices
paid for my stock and eggs soon proved it to be a paying
investment. I decided to do a little advertising and in-
serted a four-line advertisement in one of the poultry
papers, asking $1.50 for 15 eggs or $8.00 per
hundred, and sold all the eggs I could spare, receiving
for them about $160.

The next fall some of my birds were shown at
the R. I. State Fair, which was one of the largest, and I
won first prize on a cock bird which I traded for a very
white bird that did not get a ribbon on account of a
black feather in his hackle, but he was of the stay-white
kind and was great in shape. Real white birds at that
time were very scarce and this male having this quality
which my flock lacked, proved to be a great help to me at
that time. My fowls, while very good in shape and size,
were creamy and brassy. The male mentioned above
proved to be a great breeder of very white birds and as
there were not many white ones being shown, it helped me
a great deal when I showed my stock again, for my birds
were white. The following season I showed at the Bristol
County Fair, The Rhode Island State Fair, Providence
and Fall River, and won nearly all the first prizes.

The Demand Increases

My stock and eggs now began to be in demand and I
had no trouble in getting $3.00 for 15 eggs and sold
breeders at good prices, being offered
$25 for a cockerel which won first
at Providence, but I refused the
tempting offer, though it was a long
price for a male at that time. He
proved to be a great breeder and
helped to sell eggs for me on account
of being in my yards. That year I
made a profit of over $400 from about
45 breeders, and I raised nearly 100
chicks. My birds were exhibited at
the shows mentioned above every
year and continued to win well. Since
1897 I have shown at Boston every
year but one, and have never failed to
win a good share of the prizes. As
my Boston winnings began to in-
crease, the demand for my strain of
birds began to increase and I have
been able to realize good prices for
my birds and have had no trouble

INCUBATOR
HOUSE

SUCCESSFUL METHODS OF BREEDING EXHIBITION FOWLS 85

in selling all my hatching eggs for more than three
times the sum I received at first. I have also sev-
eral times sold cockerels at $150 each and last year
thirty show birds brought me $1,500, averaging $50 each.
For the past seven years I have realized a profit better
than $1,000 a year and one year it went as high as $1,800.

The fancy poultry business is not my main business,
as I am connected with a retail grocery and keep poultry
as a side line. I have two acres of land and generally
keep about 70 females to breed and I raise from 125 to
150 chickens, besides having a few raised on a farm for
me. I do all the work myself, except that I have a boy
to clean the houses.

A Woman’s Success With Standard Fowls

Has Been a Successful Raiser of Fowls in Ornamental
Class for Many Years and Finds the Work
Both Pleasant and Profitable

By ALICE CLEVELAND GARDNER, Massachusetts

WENTY years ago I did not know one hen from an-

other, but think I must have had an inherited love of
poultry. About a dozen years ago I had a very frail
little son who did not take kindly to milk and the next
best thing was chicken broth, so I kept a few hens so
as always to have fresh fowls and eggs for table use.
Also, the outdoor interest was good for both the little
boy and myself.

Very soon I became interested in purebred poultry
and poultry shows. From the very first I secured many
prizes, beginning with small shows. Now I have over one
hundred ribbons, including Boston and Madison Square.
When I kept more fowls than I could care for I hired
boys who were trying to earn their way through school.
From my years of bookkeeping I should say that if one
depends on hired help at least all of the money from
fancy sales is clear profit. To make a profit from utility
poultry alone one must do most of the work unless carried
on on a large scale.

Like most beginners I tried several breeds, always
having some bantams, especially the Japanese. At pres-
ent I have the Japanese Silkies. As the care of fowls and
careful culling year after year have had more to do with
the profits than anv special breed, I could not advise any
particular breed. Personally, I find the Silkies profitable
for they are small eaters, lay a good-sized egg, and many
of them, also as sitters and mothers for chicks from fan-
cy eggs, they are invaluable.

The Salmon Faverolles are the breed I have kept year
after year. I like their odd appearance and they are
always singing and contented in the worst weather con-
ditions. I have letters of inquiry for stock and eggs
from Maine to California, also Canada, and could always
sell more than I have to spare at fancy prices.

As I have done tutoring, Sunday School work and
Red Cross work in addition to my housework, chickens
have been a side line with me. As such I know they are
profitable if one has a love for them and patience enough to
give proper attention to details. I have faith enough in it
to plan for more and better poultry, for I believe there
will be a great demand, now the war is over. My spe-
cialty will be bearded and crested fowls.

Back-Yard Poultry Plant Yields $3,800*

Nearly Four Thousand Dollars in One Year From a Back-
Yard Flock of Standard-Bred S. C. R. I. Reds
Proves That Money Can Be Made Breed-
ing Standard Fowls in Close Quarters
By MRS. E. W. MAHOOD, Missouri
Fror SEVERAL years we kept poultry on a suburban

lot 150 by 180 feet in size, with good success. It has
occurred to me that I may be able to make some sugges-
tions which will help those who are now beginning to
keep a few chickens on town or city lots, in response to

MRS. MAHOOD’S BACK-YARD POULTRY HOUSE

House here illustrated is described by Mrs. Mahood and is one that was
occupied by breeding fowls the year her poultry operations yielded $3,800.

their country’s appeal to produce as much meat and as
many eggs as possible, as well as from motives of economy.

To begin with, it is not necessary to build a fancy or
expensive poultry house. Almost any outhouse can be
converted into a practical poultry house. The main things
to insist on are plenty of light and fresh air and a house
that is closely enough built not be drafty or damp. A
house with all of these qualifications is a good and prac-
tical poultry house.

Many building a poultry house make the mistake of
building one too high. We did this with our first house
and as a result the animal heat of the birds was not re-
tained when on their roosts at night and the male birds’
combs were badly frozen. Also, we soon learned that a
floor in the poultry house for laying or breeding stock
is an unnecessary expense. The chickens are really bet-
ter off with a dirt floor and plenty of litter. Often, how-
ever, it is necessary to raise this floor by throwing in more
dirt, in order to have it dry.

If you have no outhouse which can be used for your
chickens the most economical one to build is a low house.
I will describe one which we and some of our neighbors
used with success. These houses were two feet high in
the back and four feet in front, seven feet wide and any-
where from 12 to 16 or 17 feet long. It should not be
any longer, however, unless partitions are used, as too
long a house is always drafty. If one is buying new lum-
ber it is more economical of lumber and labor to have the
house just the length of the lumber used in building it.
As the boards are all nailed on lengthwise and covered with
rubber roofing materials on back, sides and roof, one can
utilize any scraps of old lumber one may have and yet
have a presentable house.

A one-foot-wide board is nailed to the bottom of this
house across the front, and at each end is a door, consisting

*Reprinted from February, 1918, issue of Reliable Poultry Journal.

86 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

of a muslin-covered frame. Between these doors the
opening is covered with poultry netting so that the chick-
ens can be confined when desired. This opening is pro-
vided also with a muslin-covered frame, hinged to the 2
by-4 supporting the roof in the front. This frame is
raised or lowered by means of a pole hinged to the
frame. The roosts are at one end of the house and can
be cleaned
ae eee Bo through the door
* 8) at the end. At
the other end the
nest boxes are
nailed and these
can easily be
reached through
the other door.
For the en-
couragement of
those who are
ambitious to
build up a_bus-
iness
poultry on a
small lot, Mr. Mahood and I have decided to divulge a busi-
ness secret. The last year we kept poultry on the suburban
lot of 150 by 180 feet, which we have mentioned, we sold

BUFF LEGHORN PULLET WITH RECORD
OF 163 EGGS IN SIX MONTHS

See accompanying article by R. E. Sims.

$3,800 worth of stock, eggs for hatching and day-old chicks:

Since then our expanding business has made it necessary
to move to a larger place so that we might be better able to
handle our increasing trade in S. C. R. I. Reds. The results
that we were able to secure on our back lot, however,
should encourage others similarly to utilize whatever space
may be available, even though comparatively small.

Remarkable Laying Strain Developed
on City Lot

In a Space Measuring 35 by 75 Feet Buff Leghorns Have
Been Bred With Remarkable Success—Pullet
Lays at Age of 3 Months and 20 Days

By R. E. SIMS, Arkansas

EDITORIAL NOTE: The successful experience of
R. E. Sims, as recorded in the following article, should be
an inspiration to breeders and back-yard poultry keepers
generally. Mr. Sims’ article was accompanied by sworn
statements covering the record of the ten pullets that laid
2,547 eggs in 12 months and the record of Biddy Buff
Grand—163 eggs from December 1 to May 31. We regret
that through lack of space it is impossible properly to re-
produce this documentary proof of these splendid results.

UR GROUND space is 35 by 75 feet. Here 36 breeding

hens—Single Comb Buff Leghorns—have given us
4,831 eggs in the seven months (this was in 1918). In
the same period I sold $426.65 worth of eggs and birds,
besides supplying my home with all the good fresh eggs
we could consume; and had 135 extra-fine youngsters on
hand, quite a number of them of true show quality. Car-
ing for my birds is not much trouble—in fact, I regard
it as a pleasure, as well as being profitable. Does it
pay? Just read the above figures over again.

One secret of our success is that we are sticklers for
quality, as all stock on hand are direct descendants from
227, 262 and 283 egg-record blood. It costs a little
more to start that way, but once you have them, they
pay a thousand-fold and are an asset to your business,
not only in production, but from an advertising point of

in fancy

view. Our pens are 10 feet wide by 35 feet deep, and
the birds are never out of them.

Greater egg production has been our aim. Ten years
ago, if we had a pullet to lay in five months we felt we
were doing fine, but year after year we kept our earliest-
to-lay pullets and each year we had several that would
lay 5 to 10 days earlier than before and last year we reach-
ed the record of 3 months and 24 days, which we thought
must be the limit of early-laying possibilities. That year a
pen of 10 pullets, hatched February 14, 1919, commenced to
lay June 9, 1919, and for the year ending June 8, 1920,
made a record of 2,547 eggs. At the end of this period
the birds were only 16 months old and still laying. From
June 9 to 30 inclusive, following the conclusion of this
12-month record, these ten pullets laid 183 eggs, making
a total of 2,730 in 12 months and 22 days, or an average
of 273 each.

This year, however, we have again broken our early
laying record. Our first brood was hatched February 18,
1920, from eggs from this pen of 10 pullets. One of the
pullets raised from this brood gave us the first egg on
June 7, at the age of 3 months and 20 days, exceeding
last year’s record by 4 days. Of 10 specially selected
pullets of this brood, 4 are now laying (June 13) and we
believe that all 10 will be laying by the time they are 4
months old. Any one who will start with good foun-
dation blood can win as we have, by careful breeding and
proper care and feeding. While these pullets have thus
shown wonderful laying ability they have not lost their
exhibition quality. Many have the very best show type
and color—in fact are superb in these respects. Breed-
ing and selecting for early maturity have not unfavorably
affected size, as is proved by the fact that our Buffs are
larger than most of their Leghorn cousins. The 10 se-
lected pullets, hatched February 18, 4 of which are now
laying (June 13), average three pounds each.

We are particularly proud of the record made by
Biddy Buff Grand. From December 1, 1919, up to May
31, 1920—just 6 months—she laid 163 big,. perfectly shap-
ed white eggs, average weight 2 ounces each. This pul-
let was hatched February 14, 1919, and commenced to
lay June 19, 1919, when but 4 months and 5 days old and
was a very heavy layer through July, August and Sep-
tember. On October 1 we took her out of the pen to
condition her for our State Show at Magnolia. Notwith-
standing faded beak and shanks, due to heavy laying, she
scored 94 points. She continued to lay every day in con-
dition pen so took her out and put her in back yard and
commenced to trap her on December 1 with results as
above stated. Bid-
dy Buff Grand a ; =e =a
is a granddaugh- [fee ; : :
ter to our Biddy
Buff with record
of 283 in one
year and a total
of 1,152 in seven
years. I am sor-
ry now that I did
not trap Biddy
Buff Grand from
the start as I
feel sure she is
better than a 300-
egg hen. Blood
will tell!

BUFF LEGHORN PULLET LAYING WHEN
3 MONTHS AND 20 DAYS OLD

' Was hatched February 18 and laid first egg
June 7. See accompanying article by R. E. Sims.

CHAPTER

X V

Culling Methods for the Back-Yard Poultry Keeper

There Are Great Variations in the Productive Capacity of Hens and Best Results Are Only Secured When the
Unprofitable Members of the Flock Are Culled Out—Simple, Easily Learned Methods of Cull-
ing Are Here Given—How to Detect Cull Hens in the Market

HE poultry keeper who does not begin in June
systematically to cull the nonlayers and the
poor layers from his flock is losing money. This
loss may be comparatively slight in some
cases, but in others it may mean all the differ-
ence between success and failure in the year’s operations.

It does not seem to be as clearly understood as it
should be that there are wide differences in the productive
capacity of hens which cannot be overcome by any known
method of feeding or management. In every flock, re-
gardless of breeding, there will be found at least a few
high-record layers; usually there will be a fair proportion
of good layers; and there will also be a number that will
be productive for a limited time, chiefly in summer when
prices are low, but whose total yield for the year will
fall far short of paying their board bill. Also, there
usually will be found some delinquents that will produce
no eggs at all, or so few that they are scarcely worth
considering. It is chiefly the last two classes that pull
down the yearly production of the average flock to its
present comparatively low level.

How to Keep the Egg Yield up to 50 Per Cent All Summer

According to Professor H. R. Lewis of the New Jersey
Experiment Station, an average production of 50 per cent
can and should be secured during the summer season. If
the average falls below this point it is proof that there
are some hens in the flock that are worse than poor pro-
ducers—they are not laying at all. Professor Lewis es-
timates that for each point below 50 per cent production
there are two idle hens in the flock. That is. if 100 hens
average to lay only 45 eggs a day there are 10 nonlayers
in the flock. If the average number of eggs is down to
85 a day, then there are 30 hens that are making no re-
turns for their feed. It should be understood that these
estimates are for well-managed flocks and are based large-
ly upon data secured at the Vineland Egg-Laying Con-
test, hence may not apply exactly to the average flock
though they probably are approximately correct.

It is not at all difficult for the back-yard poultry
keeper to keep his summer production up to a 50 per cent
average where modern methods of culling are adopted.
These are now so definite, so simple, and so readily applied
that anyone can easily eliminate the unprofitable members
of his flock. It is not meant by this to convey the im-
pression that even the expert can infallibly select the
nonproducers or the poor producers, or that he will not
sometimes include good layers among the culls. The
chance of error is slight, however, where proper methods
are followed. Moreover, it is a simple matter to “check

Note.—The importance of culling and the best_method of doing it arc
necessarily presented very briefly in this chapter. The information on this
subject made available in the last few years by the painstuking investigations
of both scientists and practical poultry keepers, has become far too extensive
to be treated in detail within the space here available. The interested reader
is referred to “Profitable Culling and Selective Flock Breeding,’’ in which
book will be found practically everything on the subject of culling that is now
known or is available for publication—see page 104.

up” on results simply by confining the culls separately for
a few days. This is frequently done at culling demonstra-
tions when proof of the accuracy of the tests is desired.

For example, one poultry keeper had a flock of 166
Rhode Island Reds from which 70 were culled out as
“slackers.” During the four days previous to culling he
secured an average of 34 eggs each day from the 166. For
the first six days after culling he secured an average of
32 eggs each day from the 96 hens that were left—and he
had 70 fewer hens to board. Another, before culling, was
getting an average of 7 eggs a day from 70 hens; 38 non-
layers were culled out and the 32 that were left, having
the field to themselves, reached an average of 12 eggs
per day—5 more than the entire flock had been laying.
Still another flock was divided into 32 layers and 19 culls;
from the first lot the owner received 66 eggs during a
given time, and only one egg from the culls.

In the face of such results as these, and similar re-
sults have been reported from practically every section
where special attention has been given to this subject, it
scarcely seems possible to overestimate the practical im-
portance of culling.

GENERAL APPEARANCE OF GOOD AND POOR LAYER

Hen on left was a poor layer. Was beefy in type, her abdomen being
covered with fat and hard to the touch. Smaller bird on right had little fat
in the abdomen which was soft and flexible. On opening these two birds,
reproductive organs of one on Jeft appeared similar to those in jar 10
shown in cut on page 90. The egg organs of the hen on right closely re-
sembled those in jar 8.

88 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

The numerous advantages of culling are thus set forth
by Professor Rice of Cornell University:

“By culling out unproductive fowls and selling them
when they cease to lay for the year, we accomplish a
number of profit-making things.

“First, we release a large amount of valuable feed
for productive purposes.

“Second, we place upon the market immediately an
important supply of poultry meat.

Outline for Examining Fowls for Egg Production

In order to lay well, a bird must have a sound body.
As a first consideration, the bird must be vigorous and
healthy if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health
are shown by a bright, clear eye, a well-set body, a com-
paratively active disposition, and an indication of good
blood circulation. Further, the bird must be free from
physical defects, such as crooked beak; excessively long
toenails; eyelids that overhang, so that the bird cannot
see well; excessively scaly legs, or
anything else that would keep the
bird from seeing or getting an abun-
dance of feed.

Loss of Fat and Loss of Color of Fat
Due to Laying

Pigmentation Changes. A _ lay-
ing fowl uses up the surplus fat in
the body. Especially, it removes the
fat from the skin. In yellow-skinned
breeds, this loss of fat can readily be
seen by the loss of the yellow color.
The different parts of the body tend
to become white, according to the
amount of fat which is being taken

EGG ORGANS OF FOWL IN LAYING CONDITION

“1—Fully formed yolk. 2—Ovary with partially developed yolks.
5—Line indicating spread of pubic bones. {

“Third, we keep only profit makers, thus increasing
the average production and profit per fowl retained.

“Fourth, we decrease the amount of labor required
by reducing the size of the flock earlier in the year, in-
stead of waiting until late in the fall.

“Fifth, we secure a higher price for the culled stock
by avoiding the overstocked late-fall markets.

“Sixth, we secure more efficient production because of
less crowded conditions and better care given to the stock
that is retained.

“Seventh, we get more satisf2ction because of the in-
tellectual incentive which always comes with larger pro-
fits and greater knowledge.”

What Is Meant by Culling

This term includes all methods of discriminating be-
tween layers and nonlayers in the poultry flock, the tests
being based upon consideration of external characters.
Culling canbe done to some extent at any time of the year,
but for a number of reasons it may be done more accur-
ately in summer and early fall than at any other season.
One advantage in culling at this season is that the poultry
keeper who wants to carry his fowls over for another year
can make practically certain that he is keeping only the
mos! preductive members of the flock.

Culling methods are based upon the fact that high
eee production results in certain changes in the external
characters of fowls, also in their body conformation.
These changes are so definite that the skillful observer is
able to tell not only whether the hen is laying or not, but
can also make a close estimate of her past production.

Following is the outline for examining fowls for egg
production as approved by the American Association of
Instructors and Investigators:

8—Oviduct.
Photo from Dr. B. F. Kaupp, N. C. Exp. Station.

from these parts, depending, of course,
on the amount of fat which has
been stored up in these various parts,
and the circulation of blood through
them. It should be recognized that all yellow color
changes are dependent on the feed, the coarseness of skin,
and the size of the bird. A large bird fed on an abundance
of green feed, or other material that will color the fat
deep yellow, will not bleach out in color in these various
parts as quickly as will a smaller bird or a bird which
naturally has a pale yellow coloring.

4—Rectum.

The changes occur in the following order: Z

Vent. The vent changes very quickly with egg pro-
duction, so that a white or pink vent on a yellow-skinned
bird generally means that the bird is laying; while a yel-
low vent means that the bird is not laying.

Eye Ring and Ear Lobe. The eye rings—that is, the
inner edges of the eyelids—bleach out a trifle more slowly
than the vent. The ear lobes of Leghorns and other
white-lobed varieties, bleach out a little more slowly than
the eye rings, so that a bleached ear lobe means a longer
or greater production than a bleached vent or eye ring.

Beak. The color leaves the beak, beginning at the
base and gradually disappearing until it leaves the front
part of the upper beak. The very tip of the beak is usual-
ly white before the bird is making eggs, and should not be
confused with the loss of pigment, due to production. A
very small ring just on the crest of the curve of the beak
very often is the last part of the beak to lose its color.
The lower beak bleaches faster than the upper, but may
be used where the upper is obscured by a horn, or black
color, such as in the Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth
Rocks. On the average-colored yellow-skinned birds, and
on the average-sized bird, a bleached beak means fairly
heavy production for at least the past four to six weeks.

Shanks. The shanks are the slowest to bleach out,
and hence indicate a much longer period of production
than the other parts. The yellow color leaves the outer

CULLING METHODS FOR THE BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPER 89

ring of the scales, then leaves the entire scale, on the
front of the shanks first, and. finally leaves after a longer
and greater production, from the scales on the rear of
rhe shanks. The scales on the heels of the shank—that
part of the shank just below the back of the hock joint
—-are the last to bleach out, and for this reason may
generally be used as an index as to the natural depth
of the original yellow color of the various parts of the
bird. <A bleached-out shank on an average-sized bird with
an average yellow color, indicates that the bird has been
laying fairly heavily for at least from 15 to 20 weeks.

Reappearance of Pigment. The yellow color comes
back into the vent, eye ring, ear lobes, beak and shanks
and in these individual parts in the same sequence as it
left, when the bird stops laying, only the color returns
much more quickly than it went out. A vacation or rest pe-
riod can sometimes be determined by the end of the beak
being bleached end the base being yellow, or a longer
vacation, vr rest, can be determined by the shanks being
pale or somewhat bleached and the beak showing a fair
amount of yellow pigment. In other words, if the degree
cf yellow color in a bird gradually increases in density
from the vent to the eye ring, to the lobe, to the base of
the beak, to the point of the beak and to the shanks, it
shows that the bird has laid continually without rest
for a period indicated by the amount of yellow present;
whereas, if the bird shows more yellow in any preceding
part of the sequence as outlined, it indicates a rest period
depending on the difference of the yellow color found
in these parts.

Body Changes Due to Laying

Vent. A laying hen has a large, moist vent showing
a dilated condition and looseness as compared with the
hard, puckered vent of nonlaying hens.

Abdomen. The abdomen is dilated as well as the
vent, so that the pelvic arches are widespread and the
keel is foreed downward away from the pelvic arches, so
as to give large capacity. The more eggs the bird is
going to lay in the following week, the greater
will be the size of the abdomen in proportion

Head. One of the finer indications, yet one of the
most valuable in picking the high layers, is the fineness of
the head. The head of a good layer is fine. The wattles.
and ear lobes fit close to the beak, and are loose and flat.
The face is clean cut. The eyes are full, round, clear and
prominent, especially as seen from the front. -

Feathering. The high layer is trimmer and always
apt to be somewhat more angular, that is, the feathers
lie closer to the body than on the poor layers, and after
a heavy production the oil from the base of the feathers
does not keep the plumage relatively so sleek and glossy
as on a poorer layer; but the plumage on the other hand,
becomes worn and threadbare.

Comb, Wattles and Ear Lobes. The comb, wattles and
ear lobes enlarge or contract, depending on the activity of
the ovary. If the comb, wattles and ear lobes are large,
full and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is in full lay.
If the comb is limp, the bird is only laying slightly, but
is not laying at all when the comb is dried down, especial-
ly at molting time. If the comb is warm, it is an indi-
cation that the bird is coming back into production.

Molting

When a bird stops laying in the summer, she usually
starts molting. The later a hen lays in the summer, or
the longer the period in which she lays, the greater will
be her production, so the high producer is the late layer
and the late molter. The length of time that a hen has
been molting, or has stopped laying, can be determined
by the molting of the ten large feathers at the end of the
wing, or in other words, the primary feathers. It takes
about six weeks to renew completely the primary feather
next to the middle feather of the wing, and an additional
two weeks for each subsequent primary to be renewed.

Temperament and Activity

A good layer is more active and yet more easily
handled than a poor layer. A good layer shows more

friendliness and yet elusiveness than a poor layer. A

to the size of the bird. The actual size of the
abdomen is, of course, greatly influenced by
the size of the bird and to a certain extent,
by the size of the egg laid.

Quality of Skin. Heavy production is
shown by the quality of the skin. Fat goes
out from the skin and body with production,
so that the heavy producers have a soft, vel-
vety skin that is not underlaid by heavy lay-
ers of hard fat. The abdomen, in particuiar,
is soft and pliable.

Pelvic Arches. Heavy production is shown
by the quality and the thickness and stiffness
of the pelvic arches. In heavy producers
these are apt to show high qualities by being
thin and pliable rather than stiff and thick; so
that the thicker and blunter the pelvic arches,
and the greater the amount of fat and meat
covering them, the less production or the
longer time since production.

Lateral Processes. These, like the pelvic

arches, should in a bird of good production or
in a bird which is producing heavily, show
good quality by being soft and pliable, prom-

inent and generally bent outward. ian

Skeleton on the left is that of a high producer.
indicated by scale, and wide span between these bones and the keel; also wide-spread latera|
Compare these with corresponding dimensions in the skeleton of the poor pro-
ducer on the right.

COMPARISON OF BODY CAPACITY IN GOOD AND POOR LAYER

Note wide distance between pubic bones

Photo from Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station.

90 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

poor layer or a bird which is loafing is apt to be shy,
staying on the edge of the flock, and will generally
squawk when caught.

How to Cull Fowls of Heavy Breeds

The suggestions that have here been given regarding
culling, apply to fowls of all breeds but more particularly
to Leghorns. In the case of fowls of the larger breeds,
the distinctions as a rule are not so readily made, though
of equal value so far as they can be applied. Large fowls
do not lose their yellow pigment as rapidly as small ones.
In hens having a horn-colored beak, as is the case with
Rhode Island Reds, the fading of the underbeak may be
used as a test, while in white-shanked fowls such as Or-
pingtons, also those with black shanks, pigmentation tests

fiocks of up-to-date farmers and commercial poultry keep-
ers who now quite generally cull their fowls carefully at
this season, keeping for another year only those that
have been good layers, and sending the nonproducers to
market. In every case, when buying fowls of unknown
quality it is wise to apply the tests for layers as described
in this chapter, which should be carefully studied by the
beginner. As a means of summarizing the tests to be
made it may be said that the person who is buying hens
about October 1 should avoid those that show the fol-
lowing marks of the poor layer:

Complete coat of new feathers.

Bagging down behind.

All serious physical defects.

Any indication of weakness, poor flesh, etc.

JARS CONTAINING REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FEMALE FOWLS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Beginning at the left, Jar No. 1 contains organs taken from a 3-month-old pullet; 2, from a pullet 4 months old; 3, 5 months; 4, from pullet with comb just
turning red; 5, from pullet that had just laid her first egg; 6, from a bird that had laid for a period of from 2 to 5 weeks; 7, from a broody bird; 8, from bird 18
months old, at end of laying season; 9, from hen in full molt; 10, from bird in dormant condition at end of laying period; 11, from bird that had molted and

started to lay. Photo taken at Cornell University.

are of little value. Here the poultryman must depend
chiefly upon the condition of the vent, the position and
pliability of the pubic bones, abdominal capacity as evi-
denced by the distance between pubic bones and keel, the
condition of the comb and the plumage, etc.

In handling hens of every breed, note particularly the
condition of the abdomen which will be soft and flabby
in heavy layers, and hard and tight skinned in nonpro-
ducers. The face of the laying hen is fuller and the ear
lobe full—not wrinkled. If molting has begun, the length
of time devoted to the process (which will indicate approx-
imately the date when the hen stopped laying) may be de-
termined by the stage of the molt. Generally speaking,
the body feathers are shed first, then the tail, and finally
the wing, which molts from the middle outward.

How to Detect Cull Hens

The back-yard poultry keeper who finds it necessary
to stock up in the fall with hens instead of pullets must
be on his guard to avoid buying the inferior culls from the

Bright yellow legs and beaks.

Hard, tight-skinned abdomen.

Blade of comb sticking up in rear (instead of “rocker”
comb following contour of neck). 3

If any of the hens offered show the following charac-
ters and are in good physical condition generally, by all
means include them in the lot selected: ;

Old plumage retained, or early stages of molt.

Rocker comb. :

Pale shanks and beak (in yellow-skinned breeds).

Loose-skinned, flabby abdomen.

Long keel, lower at rear than in front (to give ample
abdominal capacity).

Clean legs (free from scales).

Bright full eye.

Active disposition.

Large, moist vent.

CHAPTER XVI

How Artificial Light Increases Winter Production

Use of Artificial Light One of the Great Discoveries of Recent Years—Its Rapid Adoption by Practical Poultry Keepers
and the Remarkable Results Secured—How Artificial Light Makes Increased Production Possible and Best
Methods of Applying It—Special Rations for ‘“‘Lighted’’ Flocks, and How to Feed Them

fy] HE DISCOVERY of the influence of artificial
| light in increasing winter egg production is
Bs Ls one of great importance and the rapid adoption

of the method by poultrymen in ail parts of the
country has been remarkable. Thousands now

G EGO
a follow the practice each winter, with practically
no failures where a fair trial is given. In a single county
of western New York, for illustration, over 150 producers
are now regularly using “lights.” Regarding the adoption
of this practice in Canada, W. A. Brown, Chief of Poultry
Division, Canadian Department of Agriculture, writes as

follows: “In this part of Canada the use of artificial
light in poultry houses is more or less taken for granted;
in fact, in the section of the city of Ottawa in which I
live, it has been more than once remarked when persons
would step out of their houses on a winter’s evening that
the number of lights in chicken houses was almost as
great as the number of lights in dwellings.”

A number of our state experiment stations have test-
ed out the use of lights in comparative experiments, and
have scientifically demonstrated not only the advantages
of their use but have shown clearly just what increased
production may reasonably be expected. These reports
are highly interesting and instructive. At Cornell Uni-
versity, for example, quite a number of such tests have
been made and the increase in production during the short
winter months has been truly remarkable. For example,
in one test the per cent production of two pens of hens,
one with and one without artificial light, was as follows:

Per cent Per cent
; Production Production
No Light ug ge
NOV) 28; WeOCr 20seen asec et Snes aoe aes a ievé
Dec. 26—Jan. 22 -- Be 36.
Jan. 23—Feb. 19 -- 2 18.6 33.4
Reb!;20—MarqlQs20so secs ercs cata es oes 31.3 46.6

A duplication of the comparison, using pullet flocks instead
of hens, gave the following results:

Per cent Per cent

Production Production

No Lights With Lights
IN Ove ee Wec spel sce ere coe Si 22.4 36.6
Dee? 26—Van! (222222202 e2 Ld sec atics 23.1 54.2
Jane 23-—hep wy lO eset seen ee see aoa eyn 31.8 54.4
eben 20——Maryl Qe see emen ee cance saan 14.7 60.

Results of comparative experiments made by prac-
tical egg producers have been similarly clear cut and de-
cisive. As an instance we may cite the records secured
at Hillhurst Farm, New York, where 70 pullets were
illuminated and 350 of similar age and breeding were
kept without lights. Starting with lights on January 10
the production of the unlighted pen was 20.3 per cent
while that of the lighted pen was 28.7. Ten days later
the percentages of production were 14.6 and 32.9 respec-
tively; on the 20th day the percentages stood at 14.3 and
78.6 and at the end of 30 days the average of the unlight-
ed pen was 17.1 per cent as against 71.4 per cent for
the lighted pen. The effect of illumination on egg pro-
duction in this test is graphically illustrated in the chart
shown on page 92.

A recent circular issued by the New Jersey Experi-
ment Station gives the following illustration of the im-
provement in winter production, brought about by the
use of lights:

“Artificial lighting of henhouses has been enthusias-
tically and profitably adopted by over 100 poultrymen in
New Jersey, and more are joining the ranks daily. Are
the returns really worth the trouble and expense involved?
the skeptical ones ask. Here are a few figures compiled
by W. H. Ellis, a Monmouth County poultryman, who in
cooperation with the county agent has been running a
demonstration on the use of electric lights in one of his
laying houses. Draw your own conclusions.

“Without lights in October, November and December,
1918, 350 pullets laid 3512 eggs. During the same months
a year later 365 pullets with lights produced a total of
6178 eggs. A pen of one and two-year-old hens without
lights made a 24 per cent production in October, 1919;
in November this had slumped to 7% per cent and in De-
cember to 2 per cent. A similar pen with lights produced
28 per cent in October, 24 per cent in November and 15
per cent in December.

“With a 12 per cent increase in flock, Mr. Ellis by
the use of lights made an 87% per cent increase in pro-
duction, the exact figures being as follows:

1918 without lights 1919 with lights

October’, 1983: eges----.22> 2-25-22 e See 2 ee ..--4147 eggs
November 1973: eggs__..=- -. ----=.--~.-- ==:--- ___..-.-----3400 eggs
December 2521 eggs.-.---_- 2 <2 e355 5 Seco cee 82s. s5- 2522 ---= 0019 ORES
Total 6477 eggs 11,126 eggs

“But what of the expense involved in running a light-
ing plant? Figuring on the above three months, the
total estimated increased expense amounted to $76.00, the
increase in money taken in was $416, leaving $340 to the
good. Lastly, working under lights does not in any way
injure the layers.”

Instances like the foregoing could be multiplied in-
definitely if room were available for the purpose. Those
who wish to have further direct evidence as to the merits
of lights in increasing production are referred to “Use
of Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg Production,” a
well-illustrated, down-to-date book, published by R. P. J.
Publishing Company (see page 104).

To understand the reason why the use of artificial
light produces the remarkable results realized it is nec-
essary to consider the nature of the fowls and the prob-
able effects of the enforced idleness of long winter nights.
Fowls are highly active and under natural conditions are
on the move most of the time hunting for food, scratching
and digging and getting the exercise that is so essential
to their health and physical well-being. It is hardly pos-
sible for them to get the amount of exercise that they
require for best results in the short days that are char-
acteristic of the winter season, when the number of hours
of daylight are reduced until at the winter solstice, De-

cember 21, the day is only about 9 hours leng, and in
91

92 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

cloudy or stormy weather the fowls may not be off the
perches more than about 8 hours.

The poultry keeper, therefore, who is feeding for eggs
during this short-day period of limited activity quickly
learns that he must steer a careful course in order to
supply his fowls with the large quantities of feed needed
to make heavy production possible without having it di-
verted to the formation of body fat or resulting in diges-
tive disorders—both tendencies being directly favored by
limited activity.

There is an impression among many that the use of
artificial light is a forcing measure, the ultimate effect
of which must be to “wear out” the fowls or exhaust their
capacity for egg production and possibly even to use up
their reserves of health. Practical experience has shown,
however, that fowls under lights, IF PROPERLY
HANDLED, wiil keep in better health than those with-
out lights. This is proved not only by superiority in pro-
duction reaching over long periods, and by mortality rec-
ords, but also by experimental tests showing that the use
of lights on breeding stock gives better fertility. While
it must be admitted that there is yet a good deal of con-
jecture in the explanations given for the remarkable re-
sults secured by the use of lights it seems quite probable
that the chief factor is the better physical condition of the
fowls.

Experience indicates that feed consumption is only
slightly increased under light. In fact, many operators
recommend that the proportion of bulky feed be increas-
ed where lights are'used, thus suggesting that it is not
a matter of getting the fowls to eat more, but of securing
better assimilation of what is fed. In other words, fowls
miay eat all the feed they need for heavy production, even
in the shortest winter days, but unless their physical con-
dition is kept up to par by providing a normal amount of
activity they will not fully utilize it in egg production.

Within reasonable limits, therefore, or as practiced
by experienced operators, it may be said that the use
of artificial light is not a forcing measure but one whieh

a
ee
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CHART SHOWING INFLUENCE OF

Upper line marked ‘
under artificial illumination.
of 350 pullets kept under similar conditions but without lights.

tration from ‘'Use of Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg Production.’

BERs SER
ER ERER Eee

Hil

Rie
fee cals caf Sap eaT ea] Ret ee

sr CeeeneansnuMuntSaneneeTe

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT ON EGG PRODUCTION

‘illuminated”’ represents the percentage production line of a flock of 70 pullets
The lower line marked ‘‘not illuminated” shows the production of a flock
It will be seen from this chart that while
the production of the pen that was not illuminated was around 15 to 20 per cent, the production of the
pen with lights rapidly went up to 60 to 70 per cent and remained there ‘throughout February.

simply provides the fowls with more natural conditions,
under which they will keep in prime physical condition,
with better egg production as a direct and natural result.

It is true that the use of light enables those who wish
to do so to go beyond this point and, by excessive use of
lights and extreme feeding methods, actually to force
the fowls, with the result that average production in mid-
winter may be brought up to extraordinary percentages.
This is most unwise however, as such practice is quite
liable to injure the hens. Usually it throws them into
a molt with a breakdown in production that may leave the
total for the year much below what the fowls would reach
without artificial lights. The usual recommendation is
that the feeding and number of hours of artificial light be
adjusted to hold production at not over 60 per cent, and
it is not particularly difficult to do this.

Under some conditions the use of lights appears not
to increase total production for the year, but merely to
transfer production from spring to the winter months.
In other words, birds under lights will lay in the winter-
time the eggs that without lights they would lay in the
spring. The sum total of the results secured with lights
then is to get no more eggs from birds than would be
secured without lights but to get them in the wintertime
when the prices are highest. Many experiments, how-
ever, indicate that if the fowls are well handled it is
possible not only to get high production during the winter
months but also to secure a marked increase in the total
production for the year. For example, in the case of the
Cornell experiments already referred to on the preceding
page the average production of the hens in the pen with-
out lights was 100.73 eggs, while the pen with lights
averaged 127.92. In the pen of pullets without lights
the average production was 107.94, while the average of
the pullets that had lights was 145.27.

Kind of Lights Used

Those who have current available naturally prefer
electric lights because of their convenience and safety.
By the use of suitable equipment elec-
tric lights can be automatically turn-
ed on and off in the pens at the exact
time desired, thus avoiding interfer-
ence with the poultry keeper’s sleep-
ing hours or other engagements.
Many who do not have access to a
power line have installed private elec-
tric light plants, and where a large
number of fowls are kept it is not
unusual to have the revenue from the
increased production pay for the en-
tire plant in a single season. Those
who do not have electric lights, how-
ever, are not on that account debarred
from the use of this modern method.
Poultry keepers in various sections of
the country have reported the best
results with gas lights, gasoline lan-
terns and even ordinary kerosene lan-
terns. Those who have only small
flocks will find that lanterns can be
used with excellent results, but in
large houses incandescent gasoline
lights are recommended.

It does not seem to matter ma-
terially when lights are used so long
as the fowls have the necessary num-

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Tilus-

HOW ARTIFICIAL LIGHT INCREASES WINTER PRODUCTION

ber of hours of light (12 to 14), hence the illumination can
be adapted quite largely to the convenience of the caretak-
er. Many persons provide no lights in the morning but run
them until nine or ten o’clock in the evening. Others
turn them on at three in the morning and allow the birds
to go to roost at the natural time in the evening, while
others find it more convenient to turn the lights on for
shorter periods both morning and evening.

There is one point that the beginner will want par-
ticularly to take into consideration in deciding when to
use lights, which is the difficulty some report in keeping
the fowls from going on the perches at the usual time in
the evening regardless of the lights. It is possible to
avoid this by resorting to special feeding methods. Usual-
ly it is planned to feed something at this time that the
fowls like extra well in order to keep them down until the
hour fixed as the one when the lights are to be turned out
and the fowls left for the night. Turning the lights on
early in the morning prevents this difficulty as the fowls
then will promptly come down off the perches when it is
light enough to see, regardless of the hour. It is not de-
sirable, however, to turn the lights on early in the morn-
ing unless the fowls are promptly fed and watered. Where
nonfreezing founts are provided, the morning grain feed
scattered in the litter the night before, and a dry mash
supplied in hoppers to which the birds can have access at
any time, it is entirely practical to have all the artificial
light in the morning, and this can be done without any
inconvenience to the caretaker if automatic electric lights
are used.

Ht has been general experience that the fowls most
benefited by the use of lights are what may be called
second-class birds—that is, hens and late-hatched or cull
pullets. Obviously, early-hatched pullets that are in lay-
ing condition by October 1 and that may readily be made
highly productive without lights will not be especially
benefited by artificial illumination, since they will be lay-
ing approximately up to their capacity at any rate, but
the inferior pullets that under ordinary conditions would
lay but poorly, and hens one year old or over that perhaps
would not begin to lay until towards spring, will respond
quickly to the influence of lights, and it is with such flocks
as these that most marked results are regularly secured.
As a matter of fact, experiments at Cornell and elsewhere
have proved that it is possible to get as good or better
production from late-hatched inferior pullets as can be se-
cured with the best pullets without lights.

For example, at Sunny Crest Farm in New York, a
flock of 2,100 pullets was sorted, 1,600 of the better ones
being placed in a house without lights while 500 culls—
“the weakest, smallest, and most unpromising of our en-
tire flock”—were placed in separate houses provided with
artificial illumination. At the time lights were installed
(late in November) the production of the cull pen was
running about 20 per cent while the production of the se-
lected pullets was averaging 35 to 40 per cent. Within
three weeks after the lights were turned on, the production
of the best pullets had dropped to 20 per cent as the re-
sult of severe weather which came on about this time,
while the cull pullets were averaging 65 per cent. These
pullets remained greatly in the lead throughout the month
of December at which time lights were also installed in
the house where the best pullets were kept and in that
way the latter were brought up to the satisfactory pro-
duction being realized from the culls.

Reference has already been made to the fact that cer-
tain changes in methods of feeding are desirable where
artificial illumination is practiced. At the Western Wash-
ington Experiment Station, Professor Geo. R. Shoup, who
is a pioneer in the use of artificial illumination, reeommends

HENS SCRATCHING IN LITTER BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

This flashlight photograph shows a flock of White Plymouth Rocks busily
engaged in scratching in the litter for sprouted oats and dry grain at 7 p.m.
the house being well lighted by electricity. Illustration from ‘Use of Arti-
ficial Light to Increase Winter Egg Production.’

the following feeding methods which he has found thor-
oughly satisfactory under his conditions.

Method of Feeding Artificially Lighted Flocks at
West. Washington Experiment Station

“Where artificial lighting is regularly practiced, the
feeding method recommended by this Station for Leghorn
pullets laying heavily, based on units of 100 birds, is as
follows:

7:00 a. m.—8 lbs.
short sprouts.

ae 30 p. m.—8 lbs. seratch grain.

5:00 p. m.—4 lbs. of a good dry mash mixture wet
with Water to which fresh blood is added in proportion of
1 pint of blood to 1 gallon of water. In the absence of
blood, 4 quarts of sour milk or buttermilk may be used,
or blood meal, at the rate of about 10 per cent of the
mash fed, mixing this with a suitable quantity of water.

7:30 p. m.—Kale.

“Dry mash is supplied in hoppers, and during the day
one hundred birds will average to consume about four
pounds of this, also about a gallon of clabbered milk, which
is fed about 9:00 a.m. The kale, which is fed at 7:30, is
greatly liked by the fowls, and when brought in after sup-
per proves to be a good bait to bring the pullets off the
roosts, where many of them go after filling up on the
mash. Without a bait of some kind they will turn their
backs to the brightest lights and the attempt at lighting
will be a failure. After a few weeks of this practice the
pullets refrain from roosting early and most of them are
on the floor waiting when the kale comes in. After eat-
ing the kale they scratch industriously for grain in the
litter, eat more dry mash, water and shell, and by 8:30 or
9:00 p. m. are filled to repletion again.”

The Poultry Department at the New Jersey Experi-
ment Station has taken a leading part in promoting the
adoption of the use of lights and also has conducted a
number of experiments at the station and also has su-
perintended many practical tests on the plants of com-
mercial egg producers. The method of feeding recom-
mended by this institution is as follows:

of dry oats, germinated to very

94 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Method of Feeding Artificially Lighted Flocks
Recommended by the N. J. Exp. Station*

Scratch feed (parts by weight)

Cracked or whole corn -- a SR Se Ree ae
Wheat- puma Wiha ond. 0 Aan
Oats2ee 2282222 1

Mash feed (parts by weight)

Wheat bran - =
Wheat middlings_- sot
Corn meal_- eal
Ground oats (heavy) _- RINE ee AR ae Re en Seen e ea
Meat scrap or fish scrap ‘(high grade). cu. oss. oe tte or ee --}
Schedule for Feeding Scratch Feed
Pounds per 100 birds

Early A. M..10 A. M. Noon Late P.M. Total
September. _- a 3 es 2 5 10
October__ 3 ze 2 _o5 10
November 3 7 2 5 10
December 2 2 2 6 12
January -- 2 2 2 6 12
February 3 3 2 5 13

The mash feed should be fed dry and in boxes or self-
feeders kept constantly before the birds and available to
them at ALL times. This system of feeding mash may
be supplemented by feeding the same mixture wet and
given during the middle of the day. But only enough

HOW ARTIFICIAL LIGHT INCREASES NET RETURNS FROM THE FLOCK

The two circles shown above show the results of the use of light on 14 flocks of layers in New Jersey,

September 1, 1918 to March 1-15, 1919.

extent that 32 cents out of each dollar of receipts paid for feed and lights, leaving 68 cents net.
flocks for the same period, without light, it would have taken 61 cents of each one dollar of receipts to pay
Courtesy of New Jersey Experiment Station; reprinted from ‘‘Use of

for feed, leaving but 39 cents net.
Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg ‘Production.’

wet mash should be given so that they will clean it up in
half an hour at most. (This is important, as they usu-
ally get sick of wet mash if it is left before them any
longer.)

The scratch feed should be given at least three times
daily and in cold and disagreeable weather may well be giv-
en four times. The amount of mash the birds will eat
is influenced greatly by the amount of scratch feed giv-
en, as they will consume a large part of their daily ration
in the form of seratch feed if enough is supplied. Therefore,
only a small part of this scratch feed should be given in
the morning, thereby making the birds hungry for mash.
The scratch feed given in the morning is more for the pur-
pose of exercise than anything else, and it will be found
that they will work as hard and scratch as hard for one
pound as they will for ten pounds. When given too much,
they eat only that which they find on the surface of the

litter and then will be more or less satisfied and will not ,

dig for the part that sifts to the floor. A good big feed
ef scratch should be given at night, because if they can
be made to go to roost with a crop full of scratch feed,
it will last them through the night much better.

*From ‘‘Use of Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg Production.”

Where lights were used the egg yield was increased to such an

When this is supplemented with a wet mash it is best
to give the mash just after noon. Following this schedule
will be found to induce birds to work pretty well all day,
and will do away with a great deal of the inactivity which
is apt to develop during cold and bad weather.

Method of Feeding Artificially Lighted Flocks at
Sunny Crest Farm

One of the first commercial poultry farms to adopt
the use of artificial illumination in the East was Sunny
Crest Farm at East Aurora, N. Y., where the method has
been tested out on a large scale. Some of the results
secured at this farm are referred to elsewhere in this
chapter. The ration used at Sunny Crest, as given in
“Use of Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg Produc-
tion,” is as follows:

“At 7 a. m. give three quarts of grain to one hundred
hens.

“At 9 a. m. scatter a good-sized handful for the one
hundred hens in eight inches of dry litter and at this time
give all the green feed the hens will
clean up in one hour, giving them
sprouted oats, cabbage or mangel
beets.

“At 3 p. m. scatter another hand-
ful of wheat in litter for each hundred
hens.

“Night: Feed all grain that the
birds can pratically clean up. A small
quantity, however, left over at, the
time they go to roost will afford
healthful exercise early in the
morning.

“If sprouted oats are fed in large
quantities in the morning or early
forenoon, the grain fed can be cut
down to two quarts for the morning
ration.

“With us the straw is raked to
the front of the laying pen where the
windows are, each day or two, so that
the litter will be evenly distributed
for exercise. Birds face the light when scratching
for grain and therefore, as a rule, kick the litter to
the rear of the pen.

“The winter dry mash at Sunny Crest Farm consists
of the following:

One hundred pounds bran.

One hundred and twenty-five pounds corn meal.

One hundred pounds red dog flour.

Fifty pounds ground oats, heavy and ground fine.

Fifty pounds ground barley.

Seventy five pounds of meat scrap if buttermilk is
used, otherwise one hundred pounds meat scrap. Semi-
solid buttermilk (a commercial article) diluted, one and
one-half pints to ten to twelve quarts of water, is given
both morning and afternoon—about one pailful per
hundred hens a day—that is, half a pailful at each feeding.

“Our hoppers for two pens (built in the partitions)
each hold 2,100 pounds of dry mash and are 12 feet long,
thereby giving the flocks plenty of lineal space. If it is
found at Sunny Crest that the birds lack appetite or ap-
pear logy, the mash hoppers are shut down for a period
of three or four hours in the forenoon.”

In similar

CHAPTER XVII

Protecting the Health of the Back-Yard Flock

While Fowls and Chicks Are Subject to Numerous Diseases, the Percentage of Losses Is Small If Proper Care Is
Taken—The More Common Disorders Which the Back-Yard Pouitry Keeper Is Most Liable to
Encounter Are Here Briefly Described and Simple Treatments Suggested

OSSES from disease probably will run about
H 10 per cent per annum in the average flock.
This relatively high percentage of loss is not
due to any special liability to disease on the

== part of the fowls, but to the highly abnormal
conditions under which they usually are kept and to in-
different methods of feeding and general care. It is possi-
ble, but rarely practical, for the average poultry keeper to
provide such favorable conditions that the death rate in his
flock will be reduced to extremely low averages. As
a rule, he can better afford to accept some losses (though
10 per cent is unnecessarily high) than seek to avoid them
by the extra floor space and more careful attendance re-
quired. A marked reduction in losses can readily be se-
cured in the average flock, however, simply by giving a
little more attention to the needs of the fowls.

Most fatal diseases of poultry develop from compara-
tively minor ailments which through sheer neglect have
been allowed to become serious, and those who make it a
practice to keep their birds under close observation, who
familiarize themselves with them to such an extent that
they are able to note the first symptoms of a departure
from normal health, find that they can prevent develop-
ment of fatal diseases to a great extent. On the other
hand, those who are careless and indifferent and allow
their fowls to become seriously ill before applying suit-
able remedies cannot hope to escape heavy losses.

Cleanliness and Sanitation

Cleanliness as applied to poultry keeping is a relative
term and while practical requirements are only moderate-
ly exacting there are definite limits beyond which it is
not wise to go in neglecting them. Speaking generally,
a poultry house is clean as long as it is dry and free
from odors, excessive dust, and too high a percentage of
droppings in the floor litter. The back-yard poultry
keeper whose fowls must be indoors a good deal of the
time and who, in order to economize in floor space or in
the quantity of floor litter used, makes use of drop-
pings boards, will find that frequent cleaning of the lat-
ter is essential to keeping the house free from disagree-
able odors. The ideal plan is to clean the droppings
boards daily. Many find it convenient to do this, while
many more do not.

As a matter of practical cleanliness, daily cleaning is
not necessary, provided the droppings are covered with
absorbent material, such as road dust, sand, sawdust, etc.
In such cases the removal of droppings does not become
a necessary act of cleanliness until the fowls begin to
scratch the accumulation from the droppings board into
the floor litter. The point is that an accumulation of drop-
pings is free from .odor as long as it is dry and as long
as it is free from odor it is harmless to the fowls unless
they scratch in it and pick it over. It is doubtful if they
will do this to a harmful extent if their floor is well lit-
tered and if their ration is what it should be. Floor litter
is dirty when it is damp, foul smelling or excessively

dusty, no matter what may be the length of time that it
has been in use.

Remove Sick Fowls From the Flock

The safest and wisest plan is always to remove sick
fowls from the general flock and keep them isolated so

_that if the disease affecting them is a contagious one

there will be less danger of it spreading. There are, how-
ever, two practical difficulties in the way of carrying out
this policy generally. One is that most persons do not
have a suitable place to put the ailing birds. The make-

ROOSTING COOP AND COVERED RUN FOR SMALL
BACK-YARD FLOCK

_ Gives hens advantage of dirt floor and can readily be moved to new loca-
tion, insuring cleanliness.

shift quarters usually provided are inconvenient and iso-
lated from the rest of the buildings, and neglect generally
finishes any sick fowls that survive the disease. Anoth-
er difficulty is that where this advice is taken literally it
often results in the flocks being kept unsettled and dis-
turbed much of the time, to the great disadvantage of
all the fowls, sick and well alike.

While the theory of isolation for sick fowls is a good
one, when it comes to actual practice it is well to use a
little discrimination. For minor ailments that do not ap-
pear to be of an infectious nature it certainly is unde-
sirable to annoy the fowls by isolating them and later re-
turning them to the general flock where they invariably
will be treated as strangers and compelled to fight their
way to a mutual understanding again. Where many fowls
in the flock are affected at about the same time, it is
safe to assume that infection is more or less general, in
which case the practical thing to do is to treat all as sick,
and give such general treatment as may be desirable in
their permanent quarters. In this, as in many other de-
tails, the caretaker can save a lot of work and worry by
using a little good judgment along with his “rules’”—even
the most authoritative of them.

At least until thoroughly familiar with the symptoms

of ordinary diseases, the beginner should make it a practice
95

96 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

to dissect every fowl that dies from an unknown cause.
If he will do this he will find it easy to determine the
nature of the disease in a great majority of cases, and
knowing the disease and its cause will be able to prevent
the spread of the trouble or to apply treatment to new
eases before they have reached so serious a stage that the
use of remedies is of no practical value.

Disinfectants Are Needed

No matter whether there are any sick fowls in the
flock or not, the house should be thoroughly sprayed with
some good disinfectant,
now and then. Instead
of looking upon disin-
fection as a means of
curing disease after it
breaks out it should be
employed while the
fowls are well; as IN-
SURANCE AGAINST
DISEASE. Any good
disinfectant may be
used, spraying it on
thoroughly. Every
poultry keeper should
have a spraying outfit,
its size depending upon
the amount of surface to be covered. A five per
cent solution of crude carbolic acid may be used,
though better results usually will be secured with some
of the excellent commercial disinfectants on the market.
These usually are more easily handled, dissolve more
readily in water, and are thoroughly reliable and effect-
ive. As a rule, it is not advisable to attempt thorough
applications of liquid disinfectants in damp or extremely
cold weather. If possible, select a warm sunshiny day
when the fowls can be allowed to run out and when the
house will become reasonably dry again before the fowls
have to return to it.

HEN AFFECTED WITH ROUP

The Droppings Board As a Daily Health Bulletin

In many disorders the first indication of trouble will
be found in the droppings. To the observant poultry keeper
these afford a fairly reliable and easily read daily bulle-
tin of the health of the fowls. Acute indigestion, inflam-
mation of the intestines, liver trouble and many other
disorders, both slight and important, usually can be de-
tected in the droppings hours or even days in advance of
other symptoms, if the caretaker is familiar with the
appearance of normal droppings and with the causes of
variations from normal. This simple guide to the general
health of the fowls usually is almost completely over-
looked. As a result, valuable time is often lost because
the fowl does not “look sick.”

Every poultry editor is called upon at frequent inter-
vals to answer inquiries that read something like this:
“My fowls suddenly become sick. They have diarrhea
and die in a few hours.” In point of fact, fowls do not
as a rule “suddenly” become sick. On the contrary, they
may be hours or even days in developing serious symptoms
during which time their droppings progressively change
from normal to abnormal in appearance, until finally
the suffering of the fowls becomes so acute that it is able
to force itself upon the attention of the caretaker
who is too unobservant or too busy about other things to
look at the droppings board or even carefully to observe
his fowls until his attention and remedies alike are use-

less. Cultivate the habit of taking a glance at the drop-
pings board every time it is passed. The droppings do
not form a general index to poultry diseases, of course,
but they give information so important that failure to
note their appearance regularly is inexcusable.

TREATMENT OF COMMON DISEASES

In a general work of this character it obviously is
impossible to give complete information in regard to
poultry diseases. In the space here available it is pos-
sible only to indicate such general methods of treatment
as will enable the beginner to keep his fowls in good
health or to detect ailments at their first appearance and
apply suitable corrective treatment, thus to prevent the
development of serious diseases. At the risk of repeti-
tion. we wish to say again that the poultry keeper will
find it much easier to prevent losses by correct methods
of feeding and care and by prompt application of simple
correctives at the first appearance of trouble, than to
cure sick fowls after clearly defined diseases make their
appearance.

For our present purpose it is sufficient to classify
the common diseases with which the back-yard poultry
keeper will have to contend, as follows:

Colds and roup.

Diseases of digestive organs.
Miscellaneous ailments.
Diseases of chicks.

Colds and Roup

Fowls are more generally subject to catarrhal affec-
tions than other domestic animals, due in part to their
physiological make-up, but chiefly, perhaps, to the fact
that they usually are kept under more unfavorable condi-
tions than other animals. Colds probably are infectious,
and roup, which often results from neglected colds, cer-
tainly is. Where such diseases are present, the water ves-
sel is a highly effective means of spreading infection.
The fowls, in drinking, drop particles of infected mucus,
seabs, ete., into the water, which later are taken up by
the other fowls, and in a short time infection becomes
general. This is the reason why, at the first appearance
of any form of catarrhal disorder, some good disinfectant
should at once be added to the water supply and its use
continued as long as there are any sick fowls in the flock.

The most
common causes of
colds are drafts
through. cracks
or other small
apertures, which
may permit cold
currents of air to
strike the fowls,
particularly when
on the _ perches;
direct currents of
air caused by
doors or other
openings that
permit the wind
to blow through
the house at the
floor level; damp-
ness and foul air,
to which fowls
are very sensi-

ADULT FOWL WITH SOREHEAD

PROTECTING THE HEALTH OF THE BACK-YARD FLOCK 97

tive; filthy litter which carries more or less infection to
be taken up by the fowls in feeding, or through the lungs,
is dry and dusty; crowding and sweating on the perches
due to insufficient perch room or to their being placed
too close together; wrong feeding methods.

There is comparatively little chance of the small back-
yard flock being overheated by crowding on the perches,
but it is just as well to keep the danger in mind. Perches
should be spaced 12 to 18 inches apart, and 8 inches of
perch room should be allowed for each fowl of the Med-
iterranean breeds, and 10 to 12 inches for fowls like Ply-
mouth Rocks.

The feeding of hot moist mashes frequently is an
indirect cause of colds. Hot feeds do no harm in them-
selves, but it is usual for fowls, after getting a full feed of
such material, to huddle together in some corner and re-
main inactive for a considerable period—a combination
which is quite apt to cause trouble.

Serious summer colds among adult fowls are not
often encountered, but as cold weather comes on, cases
of dirty nostrils, snuffling, and more pronounced symptoms
become increasingly common. A simple cold or catarrhal
condition, with some snuffling and accumulations about
the nostrils, is not necessarily a serious matter, and if
the exciting cause is removed the trouble probably will
right itself without treatment. Such colds are quite com-
mon among: fowls, both old and young, and it is doubtful
whether there is any practical advantage in being con-
stantly on the watch for these symptoms and keeping
after them with some form of treatment, particularly in
the way of internal remedies. Frankly, the writer’s
practice is to ignore simple colds, so far as_ special
treatment is concerned, though if many fowls become af-
fected no time should be lost in trying to find and remoy
the cause or causes. ;

Careless or slack methods are not here advocated,
but from a practical standpoint the poultryman who gets
anxious and worried over every light cold or catarrh
that develops among his fowls will have little peace of
mind the year around. The thing to do is to make sure
that the fowls are not exposed to conditions which are
known to cause colds, especially when they are on the
perches, and to be on the watch for unfavorable symptoms,
but it is not necessary to attempt to treat every light
cold that develops.

About the easiest and simplest way to keep in touch
with the health of the fowls in this respect is to go into
the house at night, after they are on the perches. If
no snuffling, wheezing, or “whistling” is heard the eare-
taker can rest easy. If any of these symptoms are noted
the affected individuals should be found and examined.
Whether they should receive special treatment or not
will depend on circumstances.

No Trifling With Active Colds

In contrast with simple, inactive colds or ordinary
catarrhal conditions, active colds, such as come on sud-
denly and are distinguished by excessive discharges from
nostrils, watery eyes, or acute bronchial inflammation, in-
dicated by a peculiar whistle made in breathing, must
not be neglected. They may not always be serious in
themselves, but they pave the way for roup—one of the
poultry keeper’s most dreaded enemies. ;

The best form of treatment for active colds will de-
pend somewhat on the number of fowls affected and the se-
riousness of the trouble. If there are only a few, individual

treatment may be practical, since one or two treatments
cf{ten are sufficient to stop the trouble. There are several
excellent commercial remedies for colds and for roup in
mild stages, that can be recommended with confidence, and
better results usually will be secured where one of these
is used.

Treatment for Colds and Roup

For a simple cold in the head, where a good commer-
cial remedy is not at hand, an effective method is to dip
the fowl’s head in a two per cent solution of potassium
permanganate. If the eyes or nostrils are covered with
scabs or accumulations of pus, these should be removed
by the use of warm water before the remedy is applied.
It is a good plan to flush out the nostrils with some good
disinfecting solution, using a rubber syringe for the pur-
pose. When the eyes are affected they also may be

A WIDE EAVE OVER OPEN FRONT KEEPS FLOOR DRY

flushed with a solution of boric acid. Repeat the treat-
ment in twelve to twenty-four hours.

Any good disinfectant that will mix with water may
be used in the drinking vessels. Potassium permanganate
is preferred by many, using only enough to color the
water, renewing the supply two or three times a day,
as this drug loses its efficiency quickly when in contact
with any kind of organic matter.

In bronchitis, indicated by labored breathing, whist-
ling, rattling in the throat, ete., ten drops of spirits
of turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil are reeommend-
ed. Dose may be repeated after five or six hours if neces-
sary.

Where roup has definitely developed (distinguished by
the peculiar odor that usually, though not always, accom-
panies this disease) extreme measures must be taken.
This is a highly infectious disease and outbreaks should
be treated accordingly. Affected birds should promptly
‘be isolated from the remainder of the flock and may be
given individual treatment if not too numerous. Disin-
fect all drinking water for both sick and well birds, as
previously directed. Clean the poultry house thoroughly
and disinfect with a five per cent solution of crude car-
bolic acid. Keep the house clean and well ventilated at
all times.

Remember there is always a cause for outbreaks of
these diseases, and it is scarcely worth while to attempt
to treat the fowls if the cause is not promptly discovered
and remedied. It may be foul air and dampness due to
insufficient ventilation, drafts from cracks in the walls,

98 SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

exposure to direct currents of air from open fronts, over-
heating at night due to crowding on the perches or else-
where. Whatever it may be, it must be corrected if good
results are to be secured from any treatment.

Another method of flock treatment that many have
used with good results is to fill the house with a disinfecting
spray. Do this at night after the fowls have gone on the
perches and saturate the air thoroughly so that the fowls
will breathe the spray into their lungs, thus treating the
membranes of nostrils, throat, and bronchial tubes. One
or two treatments often will effect a complete cure. If
the house is too large to do this to good advantage it may
be practicable to enclose the fowls while on the perches by
means of temporary curtains of muslin or burlap, which
will make the treatment still more effective.

Diseases of Digestive Organs

There are numerous causes for diseases of this nature.
The feeding of sour or moldy material of any kind, lack
of such important elements in the ration as green feed,
erit, ete., are all liable to cause trouble, while even a
theoretically correct ration may result in disease when
fed to excess or given to fowls in such manner that they
do not secure the necessary amount of exercise.

Sour Crop in poultry is indicated by gaseous or ab-
normally fluid contents. It is detected by distension of
that organ, or by the escape of mucus from the mouth (a
form of vomiting), gasping for breath, or in more ad-
vanced cases by staggering and convulsions (vertigo). It
usually responds readily to treatment in early stages.

Diarrhea is not a disease but a symptom in various
diseases affecting the digestive organs. Wherever this
trouble appears proper correctives should be applied at
once but do not rest until the specific cause of the trouble
has been located and removed. :

Liver Disorders. Liver disorders are the outgrowth
of improperly balanced rations, lack of exercise, and lack
of green feed. Diseases of this organ are rarely detected
until they develop to a stage where medical treatment is
of little value. However, it is always wise to give some
simple treatment. If encouraging results are secured this
may be continued until a cure is effected, otherwise the
birds should be killed and burned or buried.

Treatment for Digestive Disorders

For practically all affections of the digestive organs
the best treatment is a purgative dose of Epsom salts,
which in the case of an adult fowl is a level teaspoonful.
Dissolve the salts in a little water and in individual cases
give with a teaspoon. If a number of fowls are to be
treated, use 1% pounds of salts to 100 fowls. Dissolve
in water, mix with mash enough to form a light feed,
and use troughs or trays enough so that all the birds may
feed at the same time. This is best given in the morning
before the fowls have had access to any other feed. Then
correct the ration, keep granulated charcoal before the
fowls in hoppers, look after the supply of green feed, and
provide more exercise if the fowls are closely confined.

In case of sour crop it is advisable to keep bicar-
bonate of soda in the drinking water, using no more than
can be without makimg the water unpalatable. Where
liver disorders are suspected give individual birds calomel
in 1-grain doses and follow with salts in 6 hours. Treat-
ment may be repeated in 24 hours if necessary. It is not ad-
visable to give calomel in such doses for more than two
consecutive days.

Less fattening rations, in some cases less meat scrap,
and in practically all cases an abundance of green feed
are indicated in digestive troubles and if the disease is
not in too advanced a stage the foregoing measures ‘will
bring about prompt recovery. However, fowls that have
once had serious attacks of this nature usually are apt to
have the same trouble again and the poultry keeper’s
surest means of avoiding loss is to put all such birds on
the market as soon as they are in good health again.
There are a number of commercial remedies that are of
great value in treating diseases of this class and, as they
may be placed in the drinking water, are much simpler
to give and generally more effective than home remedies
as these usually are administered.

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES

Diseases of Egg Organs. Where fowls are fed for
extra-heavy production, derangements of the egg organs
are naturally expected to appear in increasing numbers,
though the percentage can be greatly reduced by proper
management. Such troubles are always most common
in fowls in confinement. Where the grain ration is fed
in a limited amount of litter and the fowls able to secure
it with little effort, the muscles of the abdomen become
weak and flabby, and in this condition the functioning
of egg organs is interfered with, particularly if, as is fre-
quently the ease, this condition is accompanied by the
accumulation of masses of abdominal fat which further
interfere with their normal action.

There is comparatively little that can be done to cor-
rect these diseases in advanced stages, but those who ob-
serve the ordinary rules of feeding and who see that their
fowls are kept reasonably active will rarely have any
oeeasion to resort to individual treatment. In the best
managed flocks there will be occasional cases of prolapse
of the oviduct, but the percentage should be small. The
poultry keeper who has an undue proportion of such dis-
eases can depend upon it that his feeding methods are
not right. In prolapse of the oviduct (indicated by the
protrusion of parts from the vent), the bird often may
be relieved simply by pushing these back into place and

‘keeping her in a quiet place away from other fowls,

feeding a nonstimulating ration. Blood clots in eggs are
caused by rupture of small blood vessels in the ovary or
oviduct. They indicate an inflammatory condition the
remedy for which is to reduce production for a time by
lighter feeding.

Soft-shelled, or otherwise abnormal eggs, when they
do not result from lack of shell material, are usually
caused by an inflammatory condition. More exercise and ©
a lighter diet are the only remedies required.

Chicken Pox or Sorehead. This is an infectious dis-
ease, Similar in its character to roup, and by many in-
vestigators is believed to be caused by the same organ-
ism. The disease usually starts with the appearance of
small blisters, pimples or warty growths which develop
into crusts or scabs. These may increase rapidly in
number and in size until the entire surface of the comb
and other head parts are covered with the sores. Where
the tissue about the eyes is affected, the eyelids may
stick together and the fowl then dies from starvation.
Chicken pox varies greatly in virulence, the attacks some-
times being of short duration and with practically no
losses. In other cases large numbers of fowls succumb
to the disease. It is most liable to break out in early
winter among young pullets just as they are coming

PROTECTING THE HEALTH OF THE BACK-YARD FLOCK 99

into maturity, and in damp weather throughout the fall,
winter and spring.

If the disease is taken in hand at the start, spread of
the infection may be stopped by isolating the affected
birds and giving them separate treatment. Remove the
seabs and touch the raw surfaces with a swab saturated
with a 5 per cent solution of creolin or a 1-1000th solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate, then dust with iodoform. In
light cases no further treatment may be required, aside
from daily use of a good disinfecting ointment such as
carbolated vaseline. If the sores continue to show in-
flammation, dust with iodoform daily. Epsom salts is
believed by many to be a help in preventing the spread
of disease among the flock. The proper dose is one level
teaspoonful to each fowl. Dissolve the salts in a little
water and give it in a light feed of moist mash supplied
in the morning before the fowls have had access to
anything else to eat.

Frozen Combs and Wattles. While fowls with large
single combs are especially liable to frostbites in severely
cold -weather,’ few are entirely free from this dan-
ger. Even when the fowls have small rose combs, their
wattles often are well developed and these are as sensi-
tive to cold as the combs. There is comparatively little
danger of the fowls having combs and wattles frosted
while they have their heads tucked under their wings at
night, though this sometimes happens. The injury more
frequently occurs in the early morning when the fowls
come down from the perches. Frozen wattles usually result
from the fowls dipping them into the drinking water.
For this reason many poultry keepers make it a practice
to withhold water in severely cold weather, until toward
the middle of the forenoon when the house has warmed
up somewhat. It is better to do this than to risk in-
jury to the wattles, but it is much better still to provide
suitable drinking founts so that the fowls can drink
without getting their wattles into the water, or to have
the water sufficiently warm so that injury is not likely
to result.

Rubbing the combs and wattles with vaseline will
help to protect them from the frost, though such protec-
tion is of only slight value. Where there is danger of
frosting, the house should be kept as warm as possible
without too greatly restricting ventilation and, if neces-
sary, the number of birds in a pen can be increased by
combining two or more flocks, thereby giving them the
advantage of additional animal heat.

When it is discovered that there are frosted combs
or wattles, treatment should be given promptly. Thaw
the frozen parts and restore the circulation by rubbing
them with vaseline, or at least keep the birds where the
temperature will be high enough to prevent further freez-
ing, but do not take them to a warm room, as it is quite
important that the parts should thaw out slowly. An
~ excellent ointment for use in treating frozen combs is
composed of four parts of vaseline, two parts of glycer-
ine, and one part of turpentine. It should be rubbed on
once a day until recovery. If the parts are badly frosted,
more or less of the tissue will turn black and slough off.
This should not be removed, but should be allowed to
drop off naturally as the injured parts heal.

Egg Eating. Egg eating is a vice usually resulting
from idleness. Fowls that are closely confined and have
nothing in particular to do are the ones that develop this
habit, though it often owes its direct start to the presence
of broken or soft-shelled eggs in the nest. Darken the

nests in any practical way, see that the birds have an
abundance of shell material and give more attention to
exercise. In most cases the habit can promptly be bro-
ken up by giving the birds one or two “doctored” eggs.
Empty the contents of an eggshell through a small hole
in the large end and fill with a stiff paste made of three
parts of corn meal and one part of Cayenne pepper.
Place this egg in the nest where fowls are accustomed
to eating eggs and if necessary repeat once or twice.

Feather Pulling. One of the troubles that the poultry
keeper often has to contend with where the birds are
closely confined, is feather pulling. They appear to de-
velop the habit more for lack of something to do than for
any other reason and the male, if one is kept, is apt to
be the first victim. As soon as the practice begins, how-
ever, it quickly spreads to the other members of the flock
and if permitted to go unchecked will presently result
in nearly all the birds being more or less denuded, with
a most unfavorable effect upon the egg yield. The best
remedy for feather pulling is exercise. If the birds are
kept busily engaged during the day scratching for their
feed in litter, or if they can be given greater liberty,
they usually will discontinue the practice promptly, unless
it has become too deep seated.

As a preventive measure it is a good plan to prepare
a strong solution of bitter aloes and sponge the feathers
about the denuded parts with this, which makes them dis- -
tasteful to the birds. A lack of animal feed is sometimes
held to be the cause of the development of the habit,
and a regular and liberal supply of fresh meat is rec-
ommended. This is a good plan for almost any flock in
confinement, though it is doubtful whether a deficiency
in this part of the ration really has anything to do with
feather pulling. If the meat is fastened to a string and
hung high enough above the floor so that the fowls have

_ to jump to get it, this will assist in keeping them busy.

PREVENTION AND CURE OF CHICK DISEASES

In many chick disorders the symptoms are more or
less alike, though not so much so but that the caretaker
can detect little shades of difference that point toward
specific causes. The successful chick raiser does not feel
easy in regard to any brood so long as there is one mopy
chick in it. It may be constitutional weakness or some
other matter affecting a single individual (not all chicks
will live under even the best of conditions), but if there
is one weakly chick in the flock there is reason to suspect
that in another hour there may be two; and in a few hours
there may be a dozen. Watch!

When chicks are noisy, when they huddle in corners
or in the sunlight, when they stay under the hover for
hours at a time, when they refuse to go out at mealtime
and do not eat when they are out, there is every reason
to fear serious trouble. Such conduct indicates weakness
at least. It may not mean anything more serious than
that, but study the chicks and review everything that has
been done. Is the temperature of the brooder what it
ought to be? Does the thermometer register correctly?
Has the feeding been properly done? Have the feeds
been wholesome and pure?

Digestive Disorders

The chick’s digestive organs are peculiarly delicate
during the first few weeks of its life and anything that
unfavorably affects its health or strength is liable to
result in some affection of these organs. A chick that

100

has been kept in an insufficiently ventilated nursery cham-
ber in the incubator, that has been chilled either in the
incubator or in the brooder, that has been fed too much,
deprived of some needed element such as grit or green
feed, given cold water to drink, permitted to get wet,
crowded in brood-
er, kept confined
to the brooder
too long, or ex-
posed to any one
of a number of
possible sources
of bacterial
fection, will al-
most. certainly
have. digestive
disorders. Chicks
often suffer from
sour crop result-
ing from the use

in-

of unsuitable

feeds or improp-

er feeding. The

CHICK WITH GAPES chief symptom is
Treatment of chicks affected with this disease an accumulation

is difficult and results are uncertain. The most

practical plan is to prevent infection.

of gas and liquid
in the crop, caus-
ing distension and sometimes vomiting. Severe cases
may be accompanied by gasping and this disease occa-
sionally is mistaken for gapes on this account.

Use due care in feeding and keep the chicks liberally
supplied with charcoal and these ailments will be almost
wholly prevented. When the symptoms are first noted,
give Epsom salts and change the ration. In giving Ep-
som salts, use the following dosage: For chicks 1 to 5
weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 8 chicks; 5 to 10 weeks
old, 1 level teaspoonful to 5 chicks; 10 to 15 weeks old,
1 level teaspoonful to 3 chicks; 15 to 26 weeks old, 1 level
teaspoonful to 2 chicks. Salts may be given most conven-
iently when dissolved in water and mixed with a little
wet mash. Also give bicarbonate of soda (common bak-
ing soda) in the drinking water, making the solution as
strong as the chicks will drink it readily. Individual
doses of subnitrate of bismuth may be administered if

—desired, giving one-third of a grain 3 times daily to
chicks under 5 weeks of age.

Catarrhal Disorders

Chicks exposed to unfavorable conditions in or out
of the brooders, such as chilling, overheating, impure air,
ete., are more liable to develop catarrh of the bowels
than the various forms of nasal catarrh. Under some
conditions, however, they may develop nasal discharges
and “sore eyes’—forms of catarrhal inflammation. Keep
the brooders clean and dry and at the proper tempera-
ture, and do not expose the chicks unduly to cold winds
or rain. Whenever either symptom appears, give potas-
sium permanganate in the drinking water, using enough
to color the water well.

Gapes

Gapes is due to the presence of gapeworms in the
windpipe of the chick. The characteristic gasping for
_ breath is due in part to the presence of gapeworms
and in part to mucus secreted as a _ result of
irritation of the inner lining of the windpipe to which

SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

the worms attach themselves. The gapeworm egg or
embryo may be taken by the chick in various ways, as
through the drinking water, or by being picked up di-
rectly from the ground. Earthworms are known to be
instrumental in the spreading of infection, though they
do not, of course, give gapes to chicks unless the worms
are from infected soil.

If gapeworm infection is known to be present the
chicks must be kept away from the earth and from earth-
worms until at least four weeks old. Brood the chicks
on board floors and never allow them on the ground, es-
pecially when it is wet, or in the early morning when
earthworms come to the surface. If this method is fol-
lowed, special care must be taken to prevent leg weak-
ness, however, which usually results from close confine-
ment. 'When there is sufficient room to do so, a better
plan is to raise all chicks on land that has not been
occupied by poultry for at least a year. If the chick
grower can provide two or three chick parks or nur-
series in which the chicks may be grown on alternate
years, there will be practically no trouble from this cause.

Different remedies have been suggested for chicks
with gapes but reports regarding them are not always
satisfactory. Much the better plan is to prevent gapes
rather than try to cure it. Infected soil should be plowed,
cultivated, and heavily limed, and no chicks should be
raised on such soil for at least one year. Get rid of the
infection and then keep free from it by cleanliness, sani-
tation and the alternate use of different plots for brooding.

Leg Weakness

Leg weakness frequently occurs among chicks that
are from one to four months of age. There are various
causes of the trouble, such as lack of vigor in the breed-
ing stock, bottom heat in the brooders, overheating and
crowding in brooders, poor ventilation, special feeding for
rapid growth, lack of bone-forming material in the feed,
etc. Constant confinement on board or cement floors
frequently causes leg weakness. _Common symptoms are
unsteadiness of gait, lack of activity due to inability to
stand up, lameness, lying with legs stretched out behind
or at side, etc. ;

The common practice of confining chicks indoors for
long periods before they are allowed to run out, of provid-
ing insufficient litter on the brooder or house floor, and
indifference to providing exercise, cause three-fourths of
all cases of leg weakness. Medical treatment is useless.
Correct the conditions that cause the trouble and the
chicks will soon recover. The weakest, however, should
be removed from the general flock and be given a sepa-
rate brooder where they will not be trampled and abused
by the healthy members of the brood.

Limberneck and Vertigo

Young chicks frequently suffer from limberneck, caus-
ed by eating decayed animal matter or the maggots that
grow in such material. Do not confuse limberneck with
congestion of the brain, or vertigo. When the chick is
suffering from the latter disease its head may be drawn
back over the shoulder or twisted to one side, and the neck
may be turned so that the chick looks directly upward. Af-
fected birds will stagger, run backward and make other
peculiar motions, or may lie on one side. The trouble is
caused by digestive disorders, sometimes by worms, and _
oceasionally by injury. In well-developed cases of limber-
neck, the muscles of the neck are relaxed, allowing the

PROTECTING THE HEALTH OF THE BACK-YARD FLOCK 101

chick’s head to droop until often it touches the ground.
In the case of either disease give the chicks a dose of Ep-
som salts and see to it that the cause is properly removed.

Overgrown Wings

Frequently young chicks, particularly Leghorns, are
found trailing their wings, which appear to be out of all
proportion to the size of the chick. This trouble develops
occasionally as a result of too high brooder temperatures,
but, as a rule, it indicates a lack of strength which may
result from a number of causes. In many instances the
wings really are not overgrown, but are normal in length
and only appear overlarge because of the relaxed posi-
tion. When chicks are so affected it is a good plan to
clip the wings and relieve them of the extra weight.
Then restore the chick’s health by proper feeding and
brooding and there will be no further trouble.

Lack of Feathers

In many flocks there are found partially grown chicks
that have failed to feather out properly, sometimes hay-
ing no feathers at all except a few on the wings. This
condition may be due to a lack of constitutional vigor or
improper feeding, but more frequently to crowding in the
brooder at night. Generally it is found that if these
chicks are removed from the regular flock, warmly brood-
ed in small numbers, and well fed, they will promptly

feather out and make fair growth. Such chicks usually |

are stunted, however, and should never be retained in the
flock either as layers or breeders.

Stunted Growth

This condition generally is the result of insufficient
heat in the brooders, or crowding and poor ventilation in
brooders or coops. The general tendency to discontinue
supplying artificial heat before the chicks are properly
feathered out is responsible for much lack of thrift and
stunted growth. With hen-brooded chicks it usually is
the result of overcrowding. Coops that appear to be
amply large when the broods are first placed in them, be-
come badly overcrowded as the chicks increase in size.
Confining growing chicks at night to hot, stuffy quarters
in which they scarcely have standing room, a condition
altogether too common in late summer and early fall, can
have no other effect than to stunt their growth and impair
their health.

Toe Picking and Cannibalism

Young chicks, especially Leghorns, are quite liable
to form the habit of picking at each other when kept in
close confinement, the toes usually being the first object
cf attack. This sometimes goes so far as to result in the
loss of a number of the weaker chicks that are literally
torn to pieces by the stronger members of the brood.
As a rule, this vicious practice is the result of idleness,
though a lack of suitable animal feed sometimes appears
to be responsible for it.

Diarrhea in Chicks

Almost anything which unfavorably affects the phys-
ical condition of chicks is liable to cause diarrheal dis-
charges, and chick diarrhea always is more or less white
in appearance, owing to the presence of urates which, in
fowls, are voided in a semisolid state instead of as urine.
Because of the fact that the term “white diarrhea” is
generally applied to a particular disease, however, there

is a general and unfortunate tendency on the part of
poultry keepers to jump to the conclusion that chicks
showing any form of diarrheal discharge have the mys-
terious and much dreaded bacillary white diarrhea. As
a matter of fact, cases of this disease are few in number
as compared with the other causes producing similar
symptoms, and it is much safer to assume that the trouble
is NOT bacillary infection, until all the more probable
causes have been eliminated by thorough diagnosis.

It hardly needs to be said that for the cure of diar-
rhea and the prevention of its spread throughout the flock,
the direct cause must be discovered and removed. Where
this is done and a few simple measures are taken to relieve
the suffering directly resulting from diarrhea, the chicks
often may be restored to good health without any other
treatment. In the earliest stages of the trouble it may be
sufficient to use a digestive stimulant, such as Cayenne
pepper, ground ginger, or mustard. Use only enough
to make the mash slightly warm to the taste and discon-
tinue as soon as no longer needed. An excellent sooth-
ing feed for chicks suffering from bowel trouble in any
form is boiled rice, which should be cooked thoroughly
and boiled as dry as possible, taking up all surplus moist-
ure at feeding time by stirring in sufficient brown wheat
middlings or wheat bran with all coarse particles sifted
out. Let the chicks have all the boiled milk they will
drink but keep the vessels clean.

Charcoal is an excellent corrective in all intestinal
disorders and should be kept before the chicks all the
time, placing it in any convenient waste-preventing hop-
per. They will eat it more readily if supplied in gran-
ulated form with the fine dust screened out. It is taken
for granted that the chicks will always have a supply
of grit crushed to suitable size. Clean, coarse sand will
answer at first, but a good grade of commercial chick
grit is better.

In all digestive troubles with chicks, a liberal sup-
ply of green feed is important. This should be tender
and succulent however, and if the chicks are not accus-
tomed to having all they want, only a limited quantity
should be fed at first, increasing the amount as they get
used to it and can be trusted not to overeat. It seldom
is worth while to attempt medical treatment for diarrhea,
but if this is considered desirable, bichloride of mercury
probably is as good as anything. Get this in tablets of
1-1000 of a grain and dissolve twelve in each quart of
drinking water.

DIFFERENCES IN INHERITED CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR EXPLAIN
IRREGULAR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

These three Barred: Plymouth Rock chicks show how differences in in-
herited vitality and vigor affect their growth. Chick on left was a rapid
grower; the one on the right a relatively slow one. Photo from New Jersey
Experiment Station.

102

Importance of Post-Mortem Examinations :

There are few external symptoms that can be relied
upon in distinguishing between different diseases, and ex-
amination of the internal organs of dead chicks is the
only reliable means of doing this in many instances. The
chick raiser, therefore, must overcome his dislike for this
work and by repeated examinations thoroughly familiarize
himself with the appearance of the organs of both normal
and diseased chicks or he will never be able to identify
diseases with certainty. It will prove a good invest-
ment for the beginner to sacrifice a few healthy chicks
also, in order to learn exactly how their internal organs
appear when in normal condition.

A good way to make the examination is as follows:
Procure a shingle or board of white pine or other soft
wood, into which tacks or push-pins can be easily driven.
Place the chick on the board, breast uppermost, and
stretch out the wings and legs, tacking them in this
position. Slit the skin covering the breast and abdomen,
then peel it back sufficiently to expose the breast and the
muscular wall of the abdomen. With shears or knife
make an incision below each side of the breastbone and
remove the entire breast. This exposes the internal or-
guns without disturbing them in any way.

Liver Disorders

After removing the breastbone the liver will be in
piain sight and should be carefully examined. The
healthy liver has a uniform, dark chocolate color and is
firm in texture. If it is abnormally dark in color, or
pale with bright red edges or spots, suspect congestion
or inflammation. A pale liver with streaks and patches
of red is a symptom in bacillary white diarrhea, but is
observed frequently when no trace of bacillary infection
can be detected. When the gall bladder is distended and
the adjacent parts are discolored, -the ration probably is
lacking in animal matter.

Congested livers frequently are due to a lack of green
feed. Serious epidemics of diarrhea have been checked
by correcting the ration in this respect. Congestion may
be caused by insufficient exercise, supplying overstimulat-
ing feeds or condiments, or too much mash. If suitable
feeds are used and proper methods of feeding are adopted
it should be comparatively easy to prevent losses from this
source.

Aspergillosis and Congestion of Lungs

After examining and removing the liver, carefully
examine the lungs. These should be light pink in color.
If diseased they may be covered or filled with white cheesy
nodules the size of a pinhead or smaller, or the lungs may
be discolored and dark. If nodules are present the trouble
is aspergillosis, sometimes called brooder pneumonia.
Aspergillosis is caused by the growth of mold in the lung
tissue—just the same kind of mold that comes on bread
when it is kept too lorig in a can or box; the mold that
is found in cellars-and damp dark places generally.

The most common cause of infection is the use of
moldy hay or straw for brooder litter. The general use
of shatterings or chaff from the stable or haymow is
responsible for a great deal of this trouble. Dusty shat-
terings often are quite full of mold spores and the chicks
breathing this dust are infected.

Thexe is no known cure for aspergillosis. If its pres-
ence is promptly discovered much may be done to prevent
serious losses by at once removing the source of infection.

SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING

Use nothing but mold-free litter and feed; disinfect the
brooder every time a new lot of chicks is placed in it,
and be sure that it is absolutely free from mold.

When the lungs, instead of being full of nodules, are
discolored and dark and appear to be filled with frothy
mucus when cut open, the trouble is congestion or inflam-
mation. This disease sometimes is called brooder pneu-
monia, and frequently appears in epidemic ferm. It is
caused by improper brooding, impure air, also by allow-
ing the chicks to become wet, chilled or overheated.
Many heavy losses from this cause are reported by persons
brooding chicks in fireless brooders, especially in cold or
changeable spring weather. Inflammation of the lungs
is practically incurable, but readily prevented by the use
of brooders that provide an abundance of heat with a
forced circulation of pure, warm air, and by carefully
avoiding all exposure to chilling or overheating.

Bacillary White Diarrhea

Bacillary white diarrhea is one of the most difficult
chick diseases to combat successfully, though fortunately
it is by no means as common as it generally is believed
to be. In chicks dying from this disease the intes-
tines are pale, showing a dirty white color, and usually
are empty, but may contain a small amount of gray or
brown matter. Unabsorbed yolk generally is present and
has a stale odor, but is not necessarily putrid. In bad
cases of infection the first deaths may occur before the
chicks are taken from the incubator. Affected chicks are
chilly, listless, and with little or no appetite and are
“short backed.”

There is no cure for bacillary white diarrhea so far
as is now known. The only thing that can be done is to
try to hatch chicks free from infection and then start
them under the most favorable conditions, so that they
will be strong enough to throw off infection if it occurs.
Feeding milk—all the chicks will drink—is recommended,
and the ineubator and brooder should be thoroughly dis-
infected for each hatch or brood. Fine, absorbent litter
that will take up all moist discharges so that the chicks
cannot pick at them so readily, is especially desirable.

COMMON PARASITES AND THEIR PREVENTION

Lice of different kinds are foumd on practically all
parts of the fowl’s body, being most numerous, generally,
among the feathers below the vent. They are readily
killed by any form of grease, or by fine dust which stops
the pores through which they breath, though different
materials naturally vary in their effectiveness.

Insect powder, pyrethrum, tobacco dust, and various
other articles or combinations of these, have been recom-
mended, and they are more or less effective. Mercurial
or blue ointment is highly recommended by many and un-
doubtedly gives good results. A particle about as big as
a pea when rubbed on the skin below the vent usually is
all that is required to eradicate lice from this part of the
body. Where lice are distributed all over the body, it is
necessary to apply the remedy to the various sections
where the lice are found to insure reaching them all. Blue
ointment is a poison, and when applied too freely will
cause injury to the fowls. It is not recommended to use
this material on young chicks or growing stock, but it is
effective on adults.

Dipping the fowls in various lice-killing solutions is
highly recommended by many, and under favorable weath-

PROTECTING THE HEALTH OF THE BACK-YARD FLOCK

er conditions is an economic means of treating badly af-
fected fowls. It is not advisable to dip in cold weather,
however. Almost any sheep dip or good liquid insecticide
may be used for this purpose, but nothing should be em-
ployed that will discoler or gum the feathers.

Sodium fluerid, either as a powder or dip, is high'y
recommended by the United States Department of Agri-
culture, but must be used carefully to avoid injury to
the fowls.

Hen-hatched chicks are the particular prey of large

head lice, a few of which, at least, will be found on prac- _

tically all sitting hens, but which leave them for the
helpless chicks, almost as soon as they are out of the
shell. Because hens are almost powerless to protect them-
selves against lice and mites, either on nests or when
closely confined to coops, those that are to be used for
hatching or brooding should have especially

103

its effect is not lasting. Crude petroleum is much more
durable. Crude carbolic acid added to kerosene or crude
petroleum in the proportion of 5 to 10 per cent, makes
an effective and fairly durable spray. The New Jersey
Experiment Station recommends painting the perches with
coal tar and kerosene, fifty per cent of each, and it is
claimed that one such treatment will keep the perches free
froin mites for many months.

What has u.sveady been said in regard to commercial
preparations applies with equal force to remedies for com-
bating mites. There are on the market much more ef-
fective, more permanent, and more easily applied rem-
edies than the average poultry keeper is able to make up
for his own use, and, except in emergencies, it is a waste
of time and effort to use homemade preparations. In this
and in most other respects, the practical poultry keeper

thorough treatment to rid them of lice, and all
chicks should have their heads greased or treat-
ed with some good lice-killing remedy when
taken from the nest or placed under the hens.

The poultry keeper who values his time,
wants a properly compounded remedy that
is easily and quickly applied, is sufficiently
effective so that repeated applications will not
be required to do the work, and that will
eliminate the lice without danger of injury to
fowls or chicks. There are various commercial
lice-killing preparations on the market that ex-
actly meet these requirements, and that are
so much better and more convenient than
the so-called “home remedies” that there is
no practical reason for employing the latter,
except in emergencies when nothing else is
available.

Treatment for Red Mites

Red mites are the small, gray or reddish
insects found about the perches or perch sup-
ports. As only seven days are required for
the hatching of the egg and the growth of
the mite to adult size, it will be seen that
these pests multiply with great rapidity when conditions
are favorable to their development, as in hot summer
weather. These mites can live for several months without
food, and as they remain hidden out of sight in cracks, etc.,
in the daytime, their presence often is not suspected until
they have multiplied so as completely to overrun the
house. Where only a few are present, they will be found
on the underside of the perch, between the perch and its
supports, or in near-by cracks or crevices. When numer-
ous they may be found almost anywhere in the poultry
house, particularly on the droppings boards and nests.

Among the mite-killing preparations in popular favor
are kerosene, crude petroleum, crude carbolic acid, coal-
tar disinfectants, ete. Any of these will kill all the mites
with which they come in contact, but as it is difficult to
reach those that are hidden, it usually is necessary to
spray several times in order to be sure of getting them
all. Kerosene is highly effective, but as it has little body

TREATING PERCHES AND PERCH SUPPORTS FOR MITES

__ Use any good liquid lice killer and put it on heavily with a paint brush, applying it to all
sides of the perches. i

If there are any cracks see that these are filled with the sohation.

finds that it pays to make use of the knowledge and the
experience of others.

Sealy Leg

This is the work of a mite which burrows under the
seales of the fowl’s legs, thus causing the unsightly en-
largement of the shanks, so familiar to poultry keepers
generally. This mite readily succumbs to a thorough ap-
plication of almost any form of grease or oil.

Where the legs are badly encrusted with scale, the
most effective treatment is to soak them in lukewarm
water until the scales are softened, when they can be re-
moved with a stiff brush or tooth pick, after which the
legs should be greased with lard, carbolated vaseline, etc.,
or treated with a good lice-killing preparation. Since
these mites often burrow deeply into the scales and tissues
of the leg, it sometimes is necesssary to repeat the treat-
ment two or three times to effect a complete cure.

BOOKS FOR POULTRY KEEPERS

The practical, dependable books which form the R. P. J. Poultry Li-
brary are designed expressly to meet the need for accurate, up-to-date
information on all branches of the poultry industry. These books are
published in two series. One consists of books devoted to PRACTI-
CAL POULTRY KEEPING, for those who wish to engage in profit-
able production of market poultry and eggs. The BREED BOOKS
describe breeds and varieties, and give complete information on how
to breed and rear superior-quality exhibition fowls. Read the titles!

. As an earnest, practical poultry keeper or breeder, can you afford to
be without at least some of these Truly Helpful Books?

Eight Practical Poultry Books

ALL ABOUT PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF MARKET POULTRY AND EGGS

HOW TO FEED POULTRY FOR ANY PURPOSE WITH PROFIT—Most complete work on this
subject. Popular text and reference book. Illustrated.

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING—No other book like it. All val-
uable information on this important subject. Elaborately illustrated.

USE OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT TO INCREASE WINTER EGG PRODUCTION—Complete details in
regard to use of lights. Only comprehensive work on this subject. Illustrated.
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING—New and enlarged edition. Worth
many times its price to any one who raises chicks. Fully illustrated.
POULTRY HOUSES AND FIXTURES—New edition, completely rewritten and
brought down to date. Complete plans and specifications. 235 illustrations.
SUCCESSFUL BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPING—Invaluable to everyone in-
terested in poultry keeping on small scale. Unequaled guide for the beginner.
THE CHICK BOOK—Attractively illustrated. Everything about chick raising
from selection of breeding stock to finished product. 180 helpful illustrations.
EGG RECORD AND ACCOUNT BOOK—Meets the need for a simple method of
keeping accurate poultry accounts. Shows just where you stand, month by month.

Nine Valuable Breed Books

SUCCESSFUL MATING, REARING, AND BREEDING OF STANDARD FOWLS

THE PLYMOUTH ROCKS—A complete and authoritative textbook on this popu-
lar breed. All varieties represented. Color plates and many illustrations.

THE WYANDOTTES—An excellent breed book devoted to the Wyandotte fam-
ily. Well worthy of the breed. Color plates and many half-tone engravings.

THE LEGHORNS—Most complete book ever written about Leghorns. For egg
producers as well as breeders. Many illustrations. Color plates.

THE ORPINGTONS—AIl varieties. Tells how to select and mate for best results.
Complete and authentic information. Fully illustrated. Color plates.

THE ASIATICS—Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans. Complete information on
mating, breeding, exhibiting, etc. Beautiful illustrations. Color plates.
THE CAMPINES-—Silver and Golden. The largest and most profusely illustrated
work on this breed. Leading breeders are contributors. Color plates.

DUCKS AND GEESE—A complete guide for profitable duck and goose rearing
for market and exhibition. Special articles by foremost breeders, Well illustrated.

RHODE ISLAND REDS—Rose and Single Comb. The most complete and author-
itative book on Reds. Color plate and many attractive half-tone engravings.

TURKEYS: THEIR CARE AND MANAGEMENT—How to mate, rear, exhibit,
and market. Best book on turkeys ever issued. Beautiful color plate, Illustrated.

NEW POULTRY BOOK CATALOGUE

Write for our new illustrated Poultry Book Catalogue for prices and
full description of these books. It also lists practically every worth-
while poultry book issued by other publishers. It is an ENCYCLO-
PEDIA OF POULTRY LITERATURE and a valuable book of ref-
erence. Sent free to any address on request. Address

Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Company
Quincy, IIlinois, U. S. A.

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

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Hollinger Corp.
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Full text of "Successful back-yard poultry keeping; an authoritative guide to success in poultry keeping by intensive methods--practical details of management for those who are keeping fowls in limited space, whether to supply eggs and poultry for the family table or as a source of income"

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