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"Survey our empire and behold our home! "

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LIPPINCOTT'S

HOME MANUALS

KD1TKD HY
BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, PH.D.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS, TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

SUCCESSFUL CANNING
AND PRESERVING

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK FOR
SCHOOLS, CLUBS, AND HOME USE

BY OLA POWELL

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ASSISTANT IN HOME
DEMONSTRATION WORK IN STATES RELATIONS SERVICE

LIPPINCOTT'S

HOME MANUALS

Edited by BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Pii.l).

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

CLOTHING FOR WOMEN

BY LAURA I. BALDT, B.S.

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

454 pages, 7 colored plates, 262 illustrations in text,
$2.00 net.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND
PRESERVING

BY OLA POWELL

DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, IX r.

372 page.s, 4 colored plates, 164 illustrations in text,
$2.00 net.

IN PREPARATION

HOUSEWIFERY

BY L. RAY BALDERSON, B.S.

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

MILLINERY

BY EVELYN SMITH TOBEY, B.S.

TEACHERS COLLEGE, .COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

PUBLIC L .

•3

"
a

LIPPINCOTT'S HOMI; MAM ALS

EDITED BY BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS. I'M. I).
Touchers Collrge, Columbia University.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING
AND PRESERVING

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK FOR SCHOOLS,
CLUBS, AND HOME USE

OLA POWELL

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ASSISTANT IN HOME DEMONSTRATION
WORK IN STATES RELATIONS SERVICE

4 COLORED PLATES, 164 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

THE tfEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

7897.1.6

ASTQR, LENOX AND
T|LO^N FOUNDATIONS

1 9 I 7 L

Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A.

YOU WHO ARE STRIVING TO " MAKE
YOUR BEST BETTER " MY WORK IS
SYMPATHETICALLY DEDICATED

PREFACE

THE canning and preserving of food products is an important
factor in household management and of even greater importance
in national economy, since the conservation of foodstuff's, from
the time of production and natural time of consumption to a
later time, makes for a more varied and adequate diet, and that
secured at a lower economic cost. Practical success in canning,
preserving, drying, and brining turns upon the proper applica-
tion of the principles of science involved. The great necessity for
scrupulous care in every step of the whole process is imperative.
A worker who follows scientific principles and is watchful of
sanitary conditions will have results that are uniform and sat-
isfying. It is easy to talk of science in the abstract as applied
to such problems, but unless one can show just how this science
demands that the processes be conducted in order to secure suc-
cess, such applied "science" is mere pretence.

Women and girls are now facing a most wonderful oppor-
tunity for service in aiding to produce and conserve foods not
only for home consumption, but by increasing the commercial
products for export to Europe. The responsibility of wisely
utilizing the yield from greatly increased acreage rests in good
part upon the women and girls. Their work can be simplified
and made more effective by wisely applying scientific methods.

It is imperitive not only to produce and conserve supplies of
food, but also to select the most economical means of keeping the
various food products. In view of these facts, the suitability of
canning in comparison with other means of keeping food must
be considered. Since the public has been convinced of the con-
venience of handling and serving canned foods, canning has be-
come the most widely used and popular means of preserving lai'ire
quantities of fruits and vegetables. Some products could be
stored and sometimes prepared more economically in the home

vii

viii PREFACE

if conserved by other means of preservation, such as drying,
brining and storing.

Preserving foods by drying is a very desirable means and
one which is especially important to practice when there exists a
shortage of tin cans and when glass containers have advanced
a great deal in price.

Vegetables, such as sweet corn, green string beans, peas, and
fruits such as cherries, berries, peaches, and figs, can be dried,
and in this state they will furnish variety and serve as a substi-
tute for canned foods. If properly dried and stored many foods
are attractive and wholesome. Such vegetables as cauliflower,
cabbage, cucumbers, and chayotes are better saved in brine than
canned. Many other vegetables may also be kept in brine.
Legumes like peas and beans, root crops like carrots and beets,
while attractive when canned in a succulent stage, are more
nutritious and more economically stored when mature.

The use of various foods in the home should be planned in
advance, so there will be no waste, at the same time having food
for each meal economically combined and balanced so as to nourish
each member of the family properly.

This book has been written to help rather than to shine, and
if it does help, the author will be content,

OLA POWELL.
JULY, 1917.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

'I' i IK author wishes to acknowledge her appreciation to those
who have read and criticized the manuscript; to Mr. <). H. Mar
tin. Assistant in Charge of Demonstration Club Work, I'. S. I ),
partnient of Agriculture, for his interest and encouragement
during the entire preparation of the manuscript; to Miss Mar\
Iv Creswell, Assistant in Home Demonstration Work. T. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, for reading and criticizing the manu-
script, and for the interpretation of the Home DempnstratioD
Work given in Chapter XIX; to Miss Rhea C. Scott, Specialist
in Home Demonstration Work in Louisiana, for her sympathy, in-
1 1 -rest, and assistance throughout the preparation; to Mr. Charles
T. Hearing, Assistant Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, for reading and criticizing the chapter on ' 1-Yuit
Juices"; to Dr. M. X. Straughn, Scientific Assistant, Bureau
of Chemistry, 1T. S. Department of Agriculture, for reading and
correcting the chapter on "Jelly Making," also for the table for
using the Prix hydrometer in fruit juices for jelly making: to
Miss Caroline L. Hunt, Scientific Assistant, Office of Home Kco-
nomics, V. S. Department of Agriculture, for Chapter XVII,
"Uses of Fruits and Vegetables in the Diet"; to Mrs. -lane S.
McKiinmon, State Home Demonstration Agent in North Carolina,
for chapter on "The Business Side of Canning"; to Krantz. P.
Lund, Specialist, States Relations Service, Department of Agri-
culture, for valuable contributions to chapter on " Dr\ in- Kruits.
Vegetal)les, and Herbs"; to Mr. II. C. Thompson. Horticulturist.
Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, for criti-
cizing Chapter XV and for the information on storing garden
and orchard products; to Dr. L. A. Round. Scientific Assistant,
Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, for criticizing
chapter on "Pickling," and for furnishing the table for making
brines; to Dr. Albert Mann, Plant Morphologist. 1'. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and Dr. Albert Urubaker. .Jefferson Medical

x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

College, Philadelphia, for criticizing the chapter on ' ' Bac-
teriology as Applied to Canning"; to Miss Sarah Wilson, Drexel
Institute, Philadelphia, for criticizing the manuscript and pre-
paring the list of questions at the end of each chapter from the
point of view of a Home Economics teacher ; to Mr. F. H. Hall,
New York Experiment Station, for the recipe "Making Cider
Vinegar on the Farm"; to the U. S. Department of Agriculture
for photographs, material quoted, and ideas obtained from the
following publications: Department Bulletin No. 241, "Studies
on Fruit Juices"; U. S. Yearbook, 1914, "Apple Syrup and Con-
centrated Cider," by H. C. Gore; Farmers' Bulletin No. 644.
' ' Manufacture and Use of Unf ermented Grape Juice, ' ' by George
C. Husmann; Farmers' Bulletin No. 183, "Meat 011 the Farm:
Butchering, Curing and Keeping," by Andrew Boss; for circu-
lars from the States Eelations Service, Extension Work in the
South, prepared by Miss Mary E. Creswell and Miss Ola Powell ;
also to Major Lawrence Foot for the use of Arkansas Extension
Bulletin, "How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, Shoulders, and
Bacon"; to Mr. G. L. Tiebout, Louisiana State University, for
results of experiments in cauliflower brining; to Mr. J. A. Red-
head, Louisiana State University, for recipe on pepper chow-
chow ; to Mrs. Dora D. Walker, Assistant State Agent in Home
Demonstration Work in South Carolina, for recipe on "Pimiento
Ketchup"; to Mrs. Margaret Jonas, Assistant State Agent in
Home Demonstration Work in Kentucky, for recipe on "Can-
ning Cucumber Slices." A few of the recipes for use of canned
goods in this book are adapted from such authors as Miss Anna
Barrows, Miss Helen M. Spring, and Miss Fannie Farmer ; some
are from private sources, and others are original.

The following books especially were consulted during the
preparation of the material: "Household Bacteriology," by
Estelle D. and Robert Earle Buchanan ; ' ' Canning and Preserv-
ing of Food Products with Bacteriological Technique," by E. W.
Duckwall; "Complete Course in Canning," by C. L.. Denning;
"Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," by A. W. and K. G.
Bitting; also The Trade, Baltimore, and other magazines were
consulted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xj

Assistance is acknowledged from all of the eoinmerehil run
cerns which have so generously contributed illustrations and in-
formation. Thanks are also due and gratefully given to m;m\
others who have aided by advice, information, and eneoiir;i<_re
nient.

To Miss Carrie Harrison, of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, is due the phrase used as the dedication, "To you who
are striving to make your best better" —which expresses the
sentiment to-day animating the tens of thousands of canning <-luh
girls, South and North and West, as it also expresses the perennial
spirit of the American housewife.

OLA POWELL.
JULY, 1917.

CONTENTS

• •MUTER PAG]

I. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING I

II. BACTERIOLOGY AS APPLIED TO CANNING.. \r,

III. PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT :;r,

IV. CANNING IN TIN .v.i

V. CANNING IN GLASS 71

VI. PROCESSING — HOT-WATER BATH 77

VII. PROCESSING AT HIGH TEMPERATURE s7

VIII. FRUIT JUICES. . !»:;

IX. FRUITS FOR CANNING . . 124

X. VEGETABLES FOR CANNING . . i:W

XI. PRESERVES 1 I ->

XII. MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES Ki.'j

XIII. JELLY MAKING 174

XIV. PICKLING

XV. DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS

XVI. PRESERVATION OF MEATS

XVII. USE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET ... 127")

XVIII. CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION _'^_'

XIX. THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING . 300

XX. TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIKS. . Mlti

APPENDIX "• H'I

INDEX. '•'••'''•'•

ILLUSTRATIONS

COLOR PLATES

PLATE PAQ]

1 'reserves l-'mn /is/no •

I. Attractive Packs of Canned Fruits ]_!•;

II. Attractive I'ickle Packs L'U |

111. Food Chart -J7U

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

FIG.

1. Type of Can I'secl about 1889 3

•2. Manufacturing Tin Cans To-Day 4

3. Chart Showing Comparison of Value of Meat Products 1>\ Statr~

in 1S99 and I'M)!) 7

4. A Chart Showing Comparison of Value of Canned and Proci \ nl

Products by States in 189!) and 1909.. ^

5. A Processing Device for Home Canning Proposed in iss<> ID

fl. Parasitic Organisms It;

"i . Asperyillus fumiyatuts (Appears on Tomato Sauces and Preserves) is

8. Bacillus Found on Tomatoes, Showing Flagellse 19

!l I'i'nicilliii in (jlaucum (x 500) -Jii

10 Various Stages of Brewers' Yeast •_'!

1 1. linciUiiN liuti/ricits (Rods and Spores Found in Corn) i't

12. Anaerobic Pea Bacillus -'<

13. Bacillus megatherium (Vegetating Forms as Found in Can-; of

Peas) •_'»',

14. (.4) Can Rursted from Pressure of Gas Generated, I /.' i \ Normal

Can, (C) A Swell 27

!.">. Testing the Jar Seal

16. A Group of I'seful Utensils for Washing, Peeling. Corinir. (IiatiiiLT

and Slicing Fruit and Vegetables :i7

17. special Equipment Necessary to Obtain Most Successful and Arm

rate Results

18. Utensils Used in Blanching and in Cooking

19. The Processor and Rack with Jars Ready to be Sterilized., ;-'

20. Tongs for Handling Hot Cans. . I"

21. Cooperative Canning Minimizes Labor; Canning Club Girls in

Anson County, N. C., at Work

22. North Carolina County Agents at Peace Institute, Raleigh. \ < 4-J

ILLUSTRATIONS

23. A Homemade Ply-Trap 43

•24. Mississippi Club Girls Building a Fly-Trap for Out-of-Door Can-
ning 44

2.3. A Convenient Arrangement for Out-of-Door Canning 45

26. Canning Out of Doors, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va.. . . 46

27. Canning Tomatoes from the Scholarship Plot, State Normal School,

Harrisonburg, Va 47

28. A Kerosene Stove which Burns a Gas Flame for Heating Soldering

Tools 47

29. A Fire-Pot Burning Corn-Cobs for Heating Tools. A Gasoline

Fire-Pot or Charcoal Bucket May also be Used 48

30. A Folding Portable Canner 49

31. Standard Sizes of Tin Containers 49

32. Size of Cans Used for Household Purposes 50

33. Hand Machine for Sealing Special Sanitary Cans 51

34. Capping Steel and Tipping Copper 52

35. A Group of Jars for Household Use 53

36. Commercial Jars for Special Products 54

37. Appropriate Containers for Exhibit Purposes 55

38. Individual Containers 56

39. Box of Rubbers and a Jar 57

40. Sorting and Grading Tomatoes 61

41. Uniform Tomatoes Together 62

42. Scalding Tomatoes, Using a Square of Cheesecloth 63

43. Capping • . 65

44. Tipping 65

45. Heating, Tinning, Capping, and Tipping 66

46. Students Learning to Can in Tin 67

47. Labelling 68

48. Sterilizing Glass Jars 72

49. Packing Uniform Pieces of Rhubarb 72

50. Well-Packed Jar of Peaches 73

51. Paddles 74

52. Canning in Glass on Campus of Pea body College for Teachers,

Nashville, Tenn 75

53. An Ordinary Bucket Used as a Processor 78

54. A Wash-Boiler with False Bottom Makes a Convenient Processor. 78

55. Canner Made of Tubs for Outdoor Use 79

56. A Homemade Canner with Brick Fire-Box and Tub 80

57. Showing Construction of a Hot- Water Canner 81

58. A Kerosene Stove Burning a Gas Flame

59. A Folding Two-Burner Gasoline Stove

60. Tank Fitting Inside

61. A Steam Retort for Home Canning 88

ILLUSTRATION.- xvii

62. A Stoam Retort for Home Canning 88

t,:;. Another Type. Known as the Water Seal Canner

(14. Another Steam-Pressure Outfit for Home Canning

ii.">. Prc»ure ( uoker '.HI

tin. rniimieivial Retorts where the Steam is Piped in from the Boiler !•!

07. Household Fruit-Juice Press \n

i;v (loth Press Being Twisted '.'•>

ti'J. ( 'instruction of a Homemade Fruit Press 96

70. Fruit Press Ready for Use 97

7 1 . Fruit Press in Use 97

7_. A Homemade Fruit-Juice Filter 98

73. Bottling Fruit Juice . . 99

74. .Making Sealing Wax . . 101

7.'). Screw-Cap Bottle 102

7ti. A Hand Bottle Sealing Machine 102

77. Utensils Used in .Making Muscadine Syrup.. ... 107

7 - Making Vinegar on the Farm Ill)

7H. Fig Packs 1^7

MI. Attractive Packs of Canned Fruits: (a) Berries, (In Pears, (c)

Fruit Salad 1-7

81. A Balling Hydrometer . . 128

82. A Brass Cup which Can be Used in Place of Glass Cylinder for

Testing Density of Syrup and Brine 129

83. A Demonstration in Canning, Florida 130

84. Cleansing Rubber Ring . . 131

85. Fancy Packs of Canned Vegetables : (A) Baby Beet-. /.' < arrot

Circles. (C) Log-Cabin Pack of Beans, (D) Concentrated Soup
Mixture, i/; i Okra 1 •'•''

86. Roasting and Packing Pimientos . .

s7. Attractive Pepper Packs 142

88. Tomatoes Packed for Salad 1 4 »

89. Vegetables Packed Fresh for Soup Mixture. . . 14U

90. Packing Watermelon Rind Preserves 14'.'

91. A Chemical Thermometer — Centigrade. .

9± ( •oiiling and Plumping Preserved Fruits

'.»:;. Packing Preserved Figs. Walton County. Fla..
!I4. Only Freshly Picked Berries Should be Preserved.
!».'.. A Steam- Jacketed Preserving Kettle..
'.Hi. cuava Paste. Served with Cheese and Crackers..

97. A Commercial Jelly Strainer Placed on a Chair Back.

98. A Commercial Jelly Strainer Placed on a Table

99. Alcohol Test for Pectin in Fruit Juices..

100. Testing Fruit Juice for Pectin...

101. A Sad-barometer Floating in a 250-c.c. Cylinder

xviii ILLUSTRATIONS

102. Jellometer for Testing Fruit Juices in Jelly Making 180

103. Making Strawberry and Orange Pectin Jelly 181

104A. First Test Shows Drops of Syrup 182

104B. Finished Test Shows Jelly Flaking or Sheeting from the Paddle. 182

105. A Coffee Pot is a Convenient Utensil for Melting and Pouring the

Paraffin 184

106. A Few Good Glasses of Jelly Ready to Store 185

107. Fancy Jellies 187

108. Brine Hydrometer If

109. Brining Equipment 1

110. Sealing a Crock with a Band of Cheesecloth Dipped into Boiling

Paraffin

111. A Few Pickle Packs „,

112. Preparation of Vegetables for Mixed Pickles

113. A Fancy Pack of Mixed Pickles

114. Packing Pickles with Paddles 20o

115. Making Dixie Relish and Stuffing Pepper Mangoes 204

116. Brining Onions 216

117. Drying Raspberries 232

1 18. A Homemade Drier 232

1 19. A Reflector Drier 234

120. (A) Homemade Cook-Stove Drier, (B) Sectional View, Showing

the Passage of the Heated Air 235

121. Sliced Apples on a Wooden Tray 238

122. Drying Figs in California 239

123. Drying Peaches in California. Trays Stacked for Finishing Off. 239

124. Cutting a Pork 261

125. Trimming Hams 261

126. Picnic Hams Properly Trimmed 261

127. A Well-Trimmed Ham 262

128. A Well-Trimmed Breakfast Bacon 262

129. Grinding Sausage Meat the Second Time after Seasoning is Added. 267

130. Roast with Vegetable Madedoine Garnish 278

131. Fruit Macedoine 279

132. A Glass of Currant Jelly 279

133. Canned Asparagus and Pepper Salad 280

134. Log-Cabin Salad Made from Canned Beans 280

135. The Home Women, as Described by D. F. Houston, Secretary of

Agriculture 286

136. A Comfortable Garden Uniform 287

137. Another Style of Garden Uniform 288

138. Garden Uniform 289

139. A North Carolina Canning Club at Work 304

140. Properly Labelled Jars 308

ILLUSTRATIONS xix

1. Standard Packs in Tin :;ns

L. North Carolina County Agent Attending Canning School and < <>n-

ference, P.U5. ... :;i:;

1 Ci. A Cultivatt'd ( ity Vacant Lot in Philadelphia.
144. A Training Farm in Cleveland, Ohio. :;•_::;

I t">. A Cooperative Neighborhood (larden in Philadelphia, Pa .'!_'•

' Hi. A Tomato Plot in ("Jeauga County, Uliio .

Harvest Home Exhibit. Willard School. Cleveland. Ohio. I'.Hn :!2ii
Harvest Home Exhibit in Willard School, Cleveland. Ohio. I'.U 1 . . . :J27
Ten-Year-Old Member with Her Exhibit from a Tiny Plot.

18x22 Feet 328

enior Class at Harrisonburg Normal School, Va., Cultivating and

Spraying Their Plants . . •'!-'.'

" Baking and Tying Plants :>-'->

Prize Winning Short Course C.irls Pruning Tomato Plants . •':•':»

i53. Senior Class Receiving Instructions in Canning . :»:U

1.14. Students' Display of Canning Products from the Scholarship Plot .'!.'! I
155. Tomato Plot Cultivated by Senior Class at Hattiesburg Normal

School. Mississippi

i5(i. Plan of P.uilding Used for (aiming at State Industrial College,

Deiiton. Texas :;:;2

157. A North Carolina Exhibit of First-Year Products. 335

15S. A Parish Kxhihit in Louisiana.... •••'{''

!.">!). A .Miniature Exhibit Suggested as a Plan for a Fair

Kin. A Carefully Planned Kxhibit . 338

I ill. -hid/ing Canned Tomatoes and Beans..

Ki2. Thi> Cow Has Proved to be a Wonderful Prize for this Tennessee

Cirl ::»"

K;:;. (iardening Set: Kneeling Pad and Apron for Tools 341

SUCCESSFUL
CANNING AND PRESERVING

CHAPTER I

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC

CANNING

MOST great industries have existed in some form for a long
period of time, but the preservation of foodstuffs by canning is
distinctly a modern art, Men turned their thoughts ;it ;i very
early time to devising means of preventing foods from spoiling,
but until the beginning of the nineteenth century the only
methods employed to this end were drying, pickling, smoking,
and preserving in sugar.

French Government First to Discover Method. — The wars
of Napoleon were directly responsible for the discovery of the
efficacy of the hermetic sealing of foods in order to keep them.
Near the end of the eighteenth century a pri/.e was offered by
the French Government for the most practical method of pre-
serving foods for sea service and military stores. M. Nicholas
A p pert, of Paris, was stimulated by this offer of a reward and
began experimenting. He worked from 17!>."> until l^'i!', when
he submitted to his government a treatise on the means of pre-
serving foods. During this year he was awarded the pri/e of
twelve thousand francs. In 1810 he published the results of his
experiments.

Appert's Method. — His method was to enclose fruit, after
heating it, in a glass bottle, which was then corked and sub-
jected to action of boiling water. Tin- bottle was placed in a
water-bath and was heated very gradually for varyinir lengths of
time, depending upon the character of the food. . \ppert did not
know why foods kept when treated according to his method. !!.•
believed that air was the destructive agent and that its ex

2 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

alone would preserve food which had been cooked. In his
treatise he wrote: "Absolute privation of the contact of external
air is necessary after the internal air is rendered of no effect by
proper application of heat by means of a water-bath. ' '

Past Experiences a Background for Work. — Appert's wide
experience in life excellently equipped him to solve the problem to
which he had applied himself so devotedly. He had for nearly
fifty years been dealing with various lines of food preservation,
working as a pickler, a preserver, an expert confectioner, a
brewer, a distiller, and a chef. He continued his efforts, using
many different products, and so perfected the art of canning in
glass that it is difficult to surpass it even in these times with all
our modern appliances. His simple utensils and process-room
might provoke a smile to-day, for science had in his day not
really determined why canned food kept ; though his explanation
has proved to be wrong, his methods, oddly enough, worked.

Investigations Made by Guy Lussac. — Conclusions drawn
by Guy Lussac, an eminent French chemist, who was employed
by his government to investigate this* matter, coincided with
what appeared to be the controlling factor in the practice of can-
ning. He reported that spoiling of food was due to a series of
oxidation changes, and that by excluding the air these changes
could be prevented and the food saved. This theoiy was ac-
cepted, and the true explanation of the matter was not known
until the advent of the new science of bacteriology. Since the
principle of Appert's methods has been shown by time and ex-
perience to be correct, it is that on which all canning and pre-
serving have since been done. He is regarded as the father of
an art which has proved a boon to all mankind. The French
Government has erected a monument to perpetuate his memory.
His method was so simple that others began using it very soon,
and before 1830 it was put into commercial practice. Appert used
an open water-bath for heating his bottles, and this method is
one in common use to-day in home canneries. This information
on canning was desired primarily for military and naval stores,
but the advantage of having food preserved in this manner at-
tracted considerable attention to its use in the home.

HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING

Canning Begun in England. — In 1807 a paper was submitted
liv Mr. Sadding to the English Society of Arts, under the title "A
Method of Preserving Fruits Without Sugar for House and Sea
Stores." It is believed that this knowledge of the general prin-
ciples was obtained from Apport while Sadding was travelling
in France. About the
same time Peter Dur-
rand obtained a patent
in England for preserv-
ing meat, fruit, and
vegetables in tin cans.

DKYKI.Ol'MKNT or THE
TIN CONTAINER

The canning indus-
try from this time on
depended a great deal
on the can ; in fact, it
took its name ' ' can-
n ing" from it. The ap-
paratus for manufactur-
ing tin cans was at first
very crude. The bodies
were cut with shears
and the side seams made
with a plumb joint and
then soldered together.
A weight was pulled up
to the ceiling and al-
lowed to drop upon a
sheet of tin in order to cut tops and bottoms of the cans. The
die was cast on the under side of the weight, and the opposite die

was cast in a piece of metal below. The forming of these pit 9

depended on the weight being properly guided, therefore the pn>e
ess was slow and difficult. Heads or caps were made to set into
the body and were soldered in place by hand in a very primitive

Fio. 1. — Type of can used about

4 SLXVESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

way. Necessity has never more truly proved its title, 'The
Mother of Invention," than in the canning line (Fig. 1). These
cans were abont the size of a No. 2 can, except that they were
taller. From the crude homemade experimental apparatus there
have been developed for the purpose of the canner all sorts of
machinery and appliances. Now all parts of the can are made by
labor-saving machinery and put together by machinery. This
method reduces their cost enormously (Fig. 2). Commercial

FIG. 2. — Manufacturing tin cans to-day. (Heinz Co.)

houses abandoned glass in favor of tin cans because they would
withstand extremes of temperature and the initial cost was less.
The transportation both ways on the tin can was less costly and
the loss from breakage was eliminated. Tin is probably the con-
tainer used almost universally by canners now, although glass is
popular in the more exclusive canning and preserving kitchens
where very choice special products are put up into fancy packs.
The Real Cause of Putrefaction. — During the time of Tyndall
and Pasteur, 1822 to 1895, the real cause of putrefaction was

IIISTOUY ()K SCIKNTI I'M CANNING

determined to lie living microorganisms which come in contact
with the material which "spoils." To these men belongs the
honor of discovering' the fundamental principles involved. Now-
adays it is understood that the niece presence or absence of air in
a can is a matter oi' no importance in itself. Air plays no im-
portant part in putrefaction save as a carrier of living things,
which are commonly and popularly spoken of as germs, microbes,
microorganisms, or bacteria. All of these terms are used some-
what indiscriminately and all mean practically the same tiling.

DKVKl.OPMENT OP COMMERCIAL CANNING IN AMKUK'A

The canning industry was established in the I'nited States by
K/ra Daggett, in 1819. He had learned the trade before .-mi-
grating to this country, and packed salmon, lobster-, and oysters
in New York. The records show that William I'nderwood packed
preserves and table condiments in glass as early as 1S-J1, in I -Jos-
ton, and in 1835 he packed tomatoes in glass. The records also
show that William Underwood shipped his goods to South
America in 1821. In 1837 Isaac Winslow began experimenting
with the canning of corn in Portland, Maine. There is probably
no earlier record of canning in tin in this country than the work
of Isaac AY in slow. Corn was first canned on the cob. This
proved unsatisfactory on account of the bulk, and it was thought
the cob absorbed some of the sweetness from the kernels. .Maine
was the home of the corn canning, and is still so considered. The
first cannery in Baltimore was opened about 1SK). The canning
of corn, tomatoes, and fruits was started in Cincinnati. Ohio.
about 1860. The growth of the industry was very rapid. New
canneries sprang up like mushrooms in various parts of the coun-
try, and unskilled men vied with the older packers in the quantity
put out. This rapid growth resulted in the formation ot <'an-
ners' Associations, the development of which led to new and b.-tt-r
methods of work.

The question of preservation of food is one of the must inter-
esting and important in the whole field of applied science. H. I,.
Russell, of the University of Wisconsin, was the lirst man in this
country to apply the science of bacteriology to canning, in 1 ^

G SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

and in 1896, Prof. S. C. Prescott, of the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology, and W. L. Underwood, of Boston, began investiga-
tions regarding the bacteriological technique of canning. Until
this time the commercial art of canning was a mixed lot of theory
hedged about by mystery.

Theory of Canning Not Understood. — Factories were jeal-
ously guarded. It was almost impossible for an outsider to gain
admission. The canner really knew so little about the science
that he felt compelled to guard carefully his ignorance. He
tried to throw a glamour of secrecy over nearly every move-
ment simply through caution to protect what little good informa-
tion he possessed regarding the process of canning. The uncer-
tainty and the possibilities that losses might occur were a constant
source of worry and uneasiness to a great many who were en-
gaged in the canning business. The general public had a very
vague knowledge in regard to bacteria. Most people associated
them only with disease. Canners were loath to have the subject
of canning connected with germs, because they believed this
would frighten people, who would then not wish to eat any more
canned goods. If a season came in which bacteria seemed un-
usually prevalent, the canners considered it most mysterious and
attributed it to the "strange season." Since science has brought
to us the knowledge of microorganisms the lines of attack have
become more clearly marked, and with the modern weapons to
combat the foe we can fight the war against bacteria with safety
and assurance of success. The principal weapon of defence
against bacterial action is the practice of most scrupulous cleanli-
ness ; just as modern surgery depends upon absolute cleanliness.
Like most other manufacturing industries carried on by enter-
prising men, the process of canning has undergone complete
change as the scientific principles involved have come to be under-
stood and to be given a controlling power over the practical proc-
esses involved.

Location of Industry (Figs. 3 and 4). — Large quantities of
vegetables, meat, and fish are preserved along the Atlantic Coast ;
much of the salmon supply is canned in Oregon and Washington ;
meats are put up largely in Chicago and Kansas City, and fruits

HISTORY OF SUKNTIFIC CANNING

and vegetables of the highest grade are packed in California,
Hawaii, and Xew York. Maryland and New -Jersey rank very
high in the production of canned tomatoes. Maine and Illinois
lead in corn canning. The development in the canning industry
in the ten-year period is shown in the accompanying charts and
is largely due to improved machinery.

MM, I, IONS OK DOLLARS

Illinois

Kansas

N<?*> York

Nebraska

Missouri

lovta

Penmynari

Ohio

Indiana.

Massachusetts

Texas

Neu) Jersey

California

Wisconsin

Minnesota

Washington
Maryland

Michigan

Joo

FIG. 3. — Chart showing romparison of value of meat products liv -t:in-s in IVt'.i :m<l I'.MV.I.
i Thirteenth Census of U.S., Vol. VIII, 1910.)

A striking illustration of growth in the canning industry is
tlie rapid development of the pineapple canning in the Hawaiian
Islands indicated by the following table:

inoi 2,000 cases

1908 -l 1 o.ooo oasr*

1913 l.tit',7. (ion cases

This volume of business is the combined output of ten sepa-
rate companies. These results show the quirk appreciation of
a really good product by the consuming public. In the lirst e;m-

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

ning large quantities of juice were lost when the prime ripe fruit
was sliced. Recently it has been discovered that the juice con-
tains seven per cent of sugar and can be concentrated and used
for syrup in canning pineapple, thus saving the purchase of large
quantities of sugar.

Better Equipment Invented. — When corn canning was first
begun, the corn was cut from the cob with a common case-knife ;

MILLIONS OF DOLLARS

California

Neu/ York

Man/ 1 and

Washington

Pennsylvania

Indiana

Maine

Illinois

Massachusetts

Michigan

Wisconsin

Ohio

Nevl Jersey

Oregon.

lorfa

Delaware

Kentucky

Virginia

Missouri

Colorado

Minnesota

Utah

FIG. 4. — A chart showing comparison of value of canned and preserved products by states
in 1899 and 1909. (Thirteenth Census of U. S., Vol. VIII, 1910.)

then came the use of a curved form shaped to the ear. At this
stage of development "cutters" were the most numerous body of
workmen about the factory. For instance, in 1869, 800 hands
were employed in a factory : 375 were cutters and about 100 husk-
ers. Machines run by hand came in about 1875. Power machines
came into use about 1886. Much improvement has been made on
all machinery since that date. In canning corn, for example,
among the most important machinery are those which husk the

HISTORY OF SCIKXT1FIC CANNINC 9

corn, take off the silk, cut kernels from the cob, fill the can-, seal
the cans, put ou labels, etc. Different machines are made to lit
into the work of other machines so the various processes of han-
dling one product will be continuous. These machines an.- now
perfected in all details and are operated automatically. The
capacity is immense for carrying products through the different
departments in a very short time.

Processing Methods (Fig. 5). — In the early days of this in-
dustry the open-kettle method was used. The highest obtainable
temperature was 212- Fahrenheit, the temperature of boiling
water. It was soon realized that a higher temperature would kill
more "germs" and insure more successful results in a shorter
length of time. A little later a higher degree of temperature was
secured by the addition of common salt to the water-bath. Fol-
lowing this another method of obtaining a higher degree of heat
came into favor. It was found that by adding chloride of cal-
cium to water the specific gravity of water was increased and a
temperature of 240 Fahrenheit was obtainable without ebulli-
tion. The advantage claimed for this method was that it was
fuel-saving and labor-saving. Under this process, however, the
cans became discolored and considerable expense was incurred in
cleaning them. \Yith the coming of the ''steam-jacketed" copper
kettles and the "closed-process" kettle these previously described
methods of sterilizing were abandoned, except for the plain water-
bath, which is still in use. The steam-jacketed kettle is one in
which a kettle is surrounded by a metallic chamber like the com-
mon double-boiler kettle, except that the outer chamber is air-
tight and superheated steam is piped into it from a boiler, thus
raising the temperature of the cooking kettle considerably above
212 . Such steam-jacketed kettles are commonly used in lan_'e-
quantity cookery, as in hotel kitchens and industries like dyeing
and soap making, as well as in canning. The closed-process kettle
is simply a kelth- for boiling which can itself be closed tightly so
as to prevent all escape of steam; the heat which ordinarily
escapes from the water as the steam arises is thus kept within the
water and in the superheated body of steam in the closed cham-
ber above it, and so the temperature rises above 212 With tin-

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

introduction of steam retorts in 1897 the time for sterilizing was
shortened. Next came the present style of kettle and dry steam.
Latest Processor. — The agitating cooker is perhaps the latest
development. Bulky starch products are poor conductors of
heat, and it requires a long time for the heat to penetrate to the
center of the contents. The time for processing can be greatly
reduced by causing the cans to roll over and over in such a man-

pIG 5 — A processing device for home canning proposed in 1889

ner that the liquid present within each can will be carried more
quickly through the mass and the contents will be gently moved
to the inside surface of the can, where they become heated more
rapidly. It is necessary that this agitation be slow and even.

Other Labor-saving Devices. — There are machines for almost
every step of the handling of different fruits and vegetables for
canning; conveyors, sheet-iron tunnels where jets of water are
constantly running to wash the product, sorters, peelers, slicers,
fillers, and cappers; these and many other machines are avail-

HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 1 ]

able, and all arc labor-saving and space-saving as well. Tin- result
of this application of machines and power is that a great quantity
of products can be handled in a very short time.

Greater Demand for Canned Foods. — In 1890 there were
about one thousand establishments engaged in this industry and
th.- value of the output was a little less than $45,000,000. In
1916 the output for domestic consumption was thirteen times this
amount. The consumption of canned p?'oduets has increased
yearly, largely because the prices have been reduced as the com-
mercial process has been perfected, thus coming within reach of
a larger number of people. It has been said that in 1857 a quart
of tomatoes sold for 50 cents and a quart of peaches for $1.
Nathan Winslow sold to Samuel 8. Pierce, of Boston, one do/en
canisters of preserved corn for $4 in February, 1848. The publie
has been informed through reports and investigations and
through the advertising world that the conditions under which
reliable concerns work are sanitary and that canned food prod-
ucts are as desirable in their place as are fresh foods; the mon-
th e public becomes aware of these facts the greater is the demand
for this class of food. Reduced prices and a buying public
educated to the real value of canned foods explain the greater
demand for them.

Consumption and Estimated Value of Canned Foods in
1916. — A report which was given at the annual meeting of the
National Canners' Association in Louisville, Ky., in February.
1916, will be of interest here to show, to some extent, the use of
canned food in the United States. Three billion cans of food an-
retailed yearly at about $600,000,000. The consumption of corn
is estimated to be 100,000,000 cans annually ; of peas, 200,000,01" i.
and of tomatoes, 350,000,000. New York City spends yearly at
tvtail over $64,000,000 for milk. $45,000,000 for bread, $45,000.-
000 for eggs, and for canned goods over $150,000,000 — almost as
much as for milk, bread, and eggs combined. In 1016 the report
of the Canning Club girls and Home Demonstration Clubs in tin-
South showed 3,318,481 containers put up for home use and f»r
the market. In the North and West 7903 Canning Club members
put up L)ol,:!06 containers in 1916. This is. of course, only a very

12 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

small percentage of the full amount of such products put up in
the homes of the country. The economic significance of the use of
canned foods has grown to such proportions that it cannot be
ignored by the housewife or by the nation.

It is important to have vegetables and fruits in the diet, but
it is impossible to have them fresh at all seasons, especially with
the difficulty of distribution and transportation of foods in thickly
populated areas. The problem of extending the supplies from
season to season must necessarily be met by preservation of foods.
The composition and their importance in the diet place them
among staple foods rather than as accessories in the diet. A
judicious amount of fruits, vegetables, meats, and whole cereals
mingled with the canned products will doubtless furnish the
necessary supply of "vitamins," growth-promoting substances,
which recent investigations indicate are essential to good health.

United States Government Publication. — The United States
Government has many persons employed to work out some of the
problems that perplex the preservers of food. These people have
been studying for years and experimenting along these lines. Bul-
letins have been printed on the subject which can be secured
free, or at a very small cost. Many housekeepers are now eagerly
seeking this information. Laws also have been passed to attempt
to regulate the methods of preparation of canned foods. People
have gradually acquainted themselves with the ways in which
bacteria work for our good or ill, and it is no longer necessary
to whisper when discussing their effect on canned goods. It is
known that useful "germs" greatly outnumber the harmful
ones. Since we could not exist without the action of bacteria, we
must regard them as our friends rather than our foes, even though
there are a few species which might do us injury.

QUESTIONS

1. What proof can you give that canned goods hold to-day a large place

in the food supply of our large cities as well as in portions of the
country remote from the centers of population?

2. Why is it impossihle to collect statistics of the value of the foods

canned annually in the United States?

HISTORY ()F SCIENTIFIC CANNING ];;

3. Why is the study of the canning of foods a legitimate work for 1 In-

United Stales Government?

4. Wliat large classes in the community may he helped by the knowlcdj<

of (aiming disseminated by the government?

.".. What forces have made possible the extensive use of canned foods?
C. What has determined the locations of the canneries?

7. .State chronologically the different processing methods used, giving a

brief explanation of each.

8. What is the principle to which each process conforms?

9. To what science are we indebted for the explanation of the results ob-

tained in canning? _

10. What is the meaning of putrefaction? What is its cause?

11. To whom are, we indebted for the explanation of putrefaction f '\«

\vhom indebted for the application of scientific explanations to can
ning?

12. To whom are we indebted for the discovery of canning? What his-

torical events led to this discovery? Give approximate date.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BITTING, A. \\ . and K. G., ''Canning and How to Use Canned Food*."
1910. National Canners' Association, Washington, D. C. 30 cents.

•_>. I'.ureau of the Census, Statistics for Canning and Preserving, It) In.
Thirteenth Census of the United States Manufacturers, 1909. Can
be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Oilier. Washington, I"). C- 5 cents.

3. CORBETT, FLORENCE R., " Fruits and Vegetables." Technical Education

Bulletin No. 18. February. 1913. Teachers College. Columbia Uni-
versity. New York City. N. Y. 10 cents.

4. DEMING. OI.IN LEE, "Science and Experiment as Applied to Canning."

1902. Sprague Canning Machinery Company, Chicago, 111.

5. DUCKWAU., HOWARD WILEY, " Canning and Preserving of Food Product.

witli Bacteriological Technique," 1905. Pittsburgh Printing Com

pany, Pittsburgh, Pa. $5.
C. FISIIKR, IRVING, and FLSK, K. L., "How to Live," 1915. The Funk &

Wagnalls Company. New York City, N. Y. $1.
7. HUNT. A. !,., "Canning and Preserving," Twelfth Census of the Unite,]

States Manufacturers, vol. 0. part 3, 1900. pages 4(il to r>14. Super

intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C.
S. MENDF.L, LAFAYETTE BENEDICT, "Changes in the Food Supply and

Their I {elation to Nutrition," 1910. Yale University Press,

Haven, Conn. 50 cents.
9. MENDEL, LAFAYETTE BENEDICT, "Childhood and Growth." 1900. The

F. A. Stokes Company, New York City, N. Y. GO cents.

14 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

10. SHERMAN, HENRY CLAPP, " Food Products," 1914. The Macmillan Com-

pany, New York City, N. Y. $2.25.

11. SHRIVER, J. ALEXUS, "Pineapple Canning Industry of the World,"

Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. Department of
Labor.

12. The Pierce Publishing Company, Inc., The National Food Magazine,

45 West Thirty-fourth Street, New York City, N. Y. $1.50 a year.

13. The Trade Company, Baltimore, Md., The Canning Trade (a magazine),

almanac of the canning industry. $3.

14. VULTE, HERMAN THEODORE, and VANDERBILT, SADIE BIRD, " Food In-

dustries," 1916. Chemical Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. $2.
l.j. WARD, ARTEMAS, Grocers' Encyclopedia, I Oil. Artemas Ward, 50
Union Square, New York City, N. Y. !plO.

CHAPTER II
BACTERIOLOGY AS APPLIED TO CANNING

SCIENTISTS have established beyond a doubt that the dm im-
position of food is due to the presence of living organisms which
cause fermentation and putrefaction. These organisms are
molds, yeasts, and bacteria and belong to the lowest order of
plants. The presence of all or any of these types of germs on food
is the principal cause of its spoiling. Similar microorganisms
exist in teeming millions and are present everywhere. They are
in the water we drink, in the soil, floating about in the air we
breathe, and on all objects. All of these except mold arc so
minute as to be invisible without the aid of a microscope.
Molds, yeasts, and bacteria differ from the plants with which we
are more familiar in that they are unable to manufacture their
own food out of the air and the soil as the green plants do. These
types contain no chlorophyll or green coloring matter, and must
therefore get their food from substances already built up by
higher plants or animals. These colorless plants are generally
grouped by botanists under the division " fungi," though the
bacteria are strictly separated from the yeasts and molds. Both
the chlorophyll-bearing and the colorless plants embrace those
that are parasites and others that are saprophytes. The para-
sites live upon live animals and plants; the saprophytes live
upon dead animals and plants, and it is this class, therefore,
which concerns us in canning.

Some people do canning and preserving of foods successfully
with little knowledge of these germs, but to know something about
these minute forms of life, which are so abundant everywhere,
will make the work more interesting. When it is understood
why foods keep, uniform results may be more easily obtained.

Molds. — The molds, unlike yeasts and bacteria, are visible to

FIG. 6. — Parasitic organisms. In the following figures ha denotes aerial hyphse; sp.
sporangium; zy, zygospore; ex, exosporium; my, mycelium; me, mucilage; cl, columella; en,
endogonidia.

FIG. A. Spore-bearing hyphse of Mucor, growing from horse-dung. FIG. B. The same
teased out with needles (A, 4). FIGS. C, D, E. Successive stages in the development of the
sporangium. FIG. F. Isolated spores of Mucor. FIG. G. Germinating spores of the same
mold. FIG. H. Successive stages in the germination of a single spore. FIGS. I, J, K. Suc-
cessive phases in the conjugative process of Mut-or. FIG. L. Successive stages observed
during ten hours in the growth of a conidiophore ot Penicillium in an object-glass culture (D,4).

I: \< I I.RlOUMiY <>!•' I. \\XINr, 17

the naked eye. They are considered lirst because most Inn.
keepers and si IK lent s in I mine economics are familiar with them in
their growing stage. Al«lds require oxygen, considerable moisture
and heat, and use sugar and starches as food; moreover, they can
grow in the presence of acids. They thrive in damp, dark places
where there is little or no circulation of air. Because they have
the ability to grow in acids molds readily attack fruits and to-
matoes. At lirst in general appearance molds are gray, soft, and
tluH'y: later they show colors, as blue, green, brown, blaek, or
yellow. The color appeal's when the molds are reproduciii'_p
I'mler a microscope the minute, thread-like mass of mold found
upon jelly or bread shows a mycelium or root-like structure ex-
tending into the food upon which it grows. The upward-growing
branches bear special spore organs which contain thousands of
seed-like spores. The spores drop from the mold plant and float
unseen to other places. They grow with great rapidity. The
kinds reproducing yellow and green spores are sometimes found
on jellies, preserves, and dry meats. They are first green and
then yellow. Brown mold is found in putrefaction of fruit. Cer-
tain types of food materials, particularly the fruits, are most apt
to be attacked by molds such as Penicillium and Aspergillus ( Fi
7 and !h. These molds do not develop unless there is oxygen pr< -
ent. These mold spores being abundant in the air, it is impossible
to leave food exposed without having a number of living; spoiv>
fall upon it. If fruit is opened, partly used, and the jar is simply
covered again, the fruit will soon mold, due to the mold spoivs
which enter while it is open. If this fruit is to be kept it should
be reheated and sealed to exclude the air. I'sually the mold is
confined to the surface, but the decomposition products of its
growth frequently penetrate and flavor the whole mass. At one
time it was believed by some housekeepers that a thick layer of
mold on the top of crocks and jars containing jams and p
serves was a good indication of its keeping, because this layer of
mold excluded the air from the contents in the lower part of the
container. When these jars were opened it was necessary to
throw away several inches of the food which was next to the mold
and sometimes nearlv half of it. As the food stood with this

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

heavy layer of mold the odors and flavor permeated the balance
of the contents of the jar, and the product when served was not
so palatable and wholesome as it would have been had it been
sealed air-tight and processed when first put up (Fig. 8). In
addition, all waste of food is thus avoided.

Molds are easily killed by moist heat. A temperature of 100°
to 180° Fahrenheit will be sufficient to kill all mold. When food

FIG. 7. — AspergiUus fumigatus (appears on tomato sauces and preserves).

is sterilized, packed into jars or cans, and sealed immediately to
protect it, mold will not appear so long as the containers remain
air-tight. If the top of jelly is wiped off with alcohol this will
kill some of the spores. Sometimes a circular disc of paper which
has been dipped into alcohol is placed over the jelly before the
cap is placed on the glass. Often a thin layer of melted paraffin
is poured over the top of the jelly. Either method will kill any
mold spores which might have fallen on the jelly while it was

BACTERIOLOGY <>K < '. \.\\l \<:

open and cooling, [mmediately after so treating tin- jellv it
should lie covered to exclude tin- air (Figs. 6 and !)).

Yeast. — The yeast plants are not difficult to control in can-
ning. Yeasts are the natural agents which produce fermenta-
tion. As this word is commonly used it refers to the process hv

FIG. 8. — Bacillus found on tomatoes, showing flagellse, thread-like appendages.

which alcoholic liquors are produced from sugar solutions. F-r
mentation is the basis of producing stimulating beverages.
Methods of raising yeast bread are also examples of fermentation.
It is always the sugars present in these substances which undergo
the fermentation.

Yeasts are one-celled plants. They reproduce by budding;
that is, by the growth of a bud on the side of the cell. This bud

20 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AXD PRESERVING

becomes fully developed very quickly and separates itself from
the mother-cell, and after attaining the adult stage begins to
reproduce itself in a similar manner. Yeasts, under adverse con-
ditions, sometimes reproduce by forming spores within the cells.
The cell bursts and the wind carries the spores everywhere. The
use of yeast in bread making is familiar. J When given food ( in
form of sugar) , warmth, moisture, and air, yeasts grow, breaking
up the sugar and producing a gas, called carbon dioxide, and
alcohol./. Bubbles of this gas may be seen when a can of fruit fer-

V .

Vit;. 9. — Penicillium glaucum (a common mold)(X 500). (Frenkel and Pfeiffer.)

merits. Since yeasts are abundant in the air and on the skins
of fruits and vegetables, it is always necessary both to destroy
them on the food being canned and to prevent their further en-
trance into the sterilized foods by sealing the containers air-
tight. Yeasts are easily killed by moist heat at a temperature of
160° to 190° Fahrenheit. Occasionally spores, which are more
resistant than active plants, may be present. The organisms de-
scribed above are not difficult to control (Fig. 10).

Bacteria. — Bacteria are the most serious foes to combat in
canning because they are more difficult to kill by heat than
either molds or yeasts. They are present everywhere in enormous

i I:I

OF r.\.\\

plant, the

.
for

numbers. They are also unicellular plants, but are smaller tl
veasts. A youiiL!' bacterium cell attains full sixe and acquires tin-
capacity to reproduce itself much more rapidly than any other
form of life. So rapid is their reproduction that a single bae
terium may produce millions more in a few hours. The rapidly
multiplying bacteria often form more or less colorless viscous
masses or a thin scum float-
ing on the liquid in which
they are growing. Similar
masses form the green scum
sometimes seen on stagnant
water, due to the growth of
a microscopic
Spirogyra.

Bacteria require
their growth warmth,
moisture, and food. Many
kinds of bacteria prefer
protein^ food. Food for
bacteria Is lioT necessarily ^^ *=-•
of a highly complicated
nature. Many species will
find the right conditions
for nourishment and
growth if a small amount
of protein and some water
an- present. I Since few
bacteria thrive in acids or
in the presence of much sugar, their destruction is less difficult
in fruits and tomatoes than in vegetables such as corn. peas, and
beans, or in meats. \ which are the most difficult of all foods TO
can safely in the hfane.

P.acteria in the growing state can be killed by snb.jeetintr them
to moist heat at boilinir temperature for variable lengths of t
Moist heat is far more effective than dry heat. Many kinds ,,f
bacteria have the power under adverse conditions of producing
spores which are much more resistant .than the vegetative or

FIG. 10. — Various stages in the development
of brewer's yeast, seen, with the ex

ffS rtSJS^Ti?

^^L^™*^ ^,- ,."i-

sion of a single cell: and the third series :i
ro)ony_ Everywhere the light-areas

vacu

m.l

22 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

tively reproducing form in which the bacteria ordinarily are
found. Bacteria produce spores for the purpose of meeting un-
favorable conditions, and in this resting stage the living matter
may lie dormant for a long time, as it were, awaiting favorable
conditions under which the vegetative rapid reproduction form
can be resumed. These spores may be compared to the seeds of
higher plants in their ability to withstand unfavorable condi-
tions. While most of the bacteria which do not produce spores
can be killed at a temperature of 140° to 180° Fahrenheit, it
is a well-known fact that soBie_spores are able to resist heat at
boiling temperature for sixteen hours or more. Many bacteria
show great adaptability to temperature conditions. Drying or
dehydration for a long period of time will kill many organisms,
but, on the other hand, spores may withstand drying for years.
Sterilization to kill spores as well as the ordinary bacteria forms
may be accomplished by applying boiling temperature for a cer-
tain length of time on each of three successive days. Certain
resistant spores will germinate within twelve to twenty-four
hours after the first treatment ; but heating on the second daj
will kill these ; and the third treatment is a safeguard which will
destroy all remaining "germs" in most cases. This intermittent
or repeated sterilization with a constant temperature of 212°
Fahrenheit is perhaps a safer method and will assure success
more often than a single period of sterilization at the same tem-
perature for a longer length of time.

Almost all the bacteria which are so resistant to heat when in
the spore state are abundant in cultivated soil and therefore pres-
ent in pods, husks, and different parts of such vegetables as
corn, peas, and beans, which contain food upon which the spore-
bearing forms thrive. The presence of these bacteria upon the
parts of vegetables to be canned is therefore almost inevitable.
The difficulty of sterilization is increasingly great when such
vegetables have been bruised, allowed to stand, or have in them
decayed portions. When fruit skin is broken, molds fall to work
and open the way for bacteria to enter and start the decay. If
the juices of these plants become infected with spores of these
various species, the problem of sterilization is more difficult.

BACTERIOLOGY OF t LNNJNG

All bacteria in the spore state can also be drst n>\ v<l by sub-
jecting them to a temperature of 240° to 250° Fahrenheit, moist
lu-at, but special apparatus, as the steam-pressure canner, is nee
sary to produce such temperatures. For this reason the method
known as intermittent sterilization finds wide use among house
keepers and Canning Club members who do not possess steam-
pressure canners. This method of fractional sterilization consists
of applying boiling temperature to vegetables, already packed in
glass or tin, for a certain period on each of three successive days,
staling the jar immediately after each boiling or "processing"
if the lid lias been loosened to take care of the expansion caused
by the heat. Between each daily processing the containers are
kept at ordinary temperatures, under which the spores not killed
by boiling develop into the more easily killed vegetative or grow-
in-- state, which are then destroyed by the next period of boiling.
If spores are present in the jars or cans, rarely do they fail to
thus develop and be destroyed by the third processing (Fig. 11).
For peas and eorn. properly selected and handled carefully, proc-
essing for one hour in a water-bath at boiling on the first day.
and repeated on the second and third days, will ordinarily steril-
ize these foods in quart jars or Xo. 2 cans. The flavor of such
vegetables thus processed is considered by many to be finer than
when the vegetables are subjected to very high temperatures, as
in the steam-pressure cookers. Treatment for one hour on three
successive days is perhaps the safest method to follow with hot-
water canners, when canning such vegetables as sweet potatoes,
peas, corn, beans, etc. It is dangerous to use minimum periods of
processing, because during some seasons there are occasional "out-
breaks" where fields are infected with an unusual type or a larger
number of bacteria than ordinarily exist. Some fertilizers cause
the fibers of plants to toughen, and it is more difficult for heat to
penetrate them, therefore a longer sterilization period is required.
Kvery precaution should be taken to counteract the influence of
such danger by cleanliness, careful handling, and rapid working
from (me stage to another during the entire process of canning.

Enzymes. — In addition to the action of "germs" or minute
organisms, the spoiling of fruits and vegetables is hastened by

24:

SUCCESSFUL CA.NMNG AM) I'UKSKItVING

natural changes, which result from the action of enzymes or unor-
ganized fermenting agents found in nature (the pepsin of the
stomach is an illustration) which, while not cellular organism like
bacteria, do break down and decompose foodstuffs. These changes

FIG. 11. — Bacillus butyricus (rods and spores found in corn).

take place with varying rapidity in different foods and injure the
quality of the food. The delicate flavors- of many fruits are thus
destroyed when they are allowed to stand too long, and become
stale before being canned. This is an important reason why all

BACTERIOLOGY <>K CANNING o.-,

fruits niul vegetables should he canned as quickly as possible after
being gathered. The eanner need not pay great attention to
enzymes, because they are killed as soon as healed.

Classes of Bacteria. — A classification of bacteria in reference
to their need of oxygen is especially helpful to the canner; from
this point of view, bacteria are of three classes:

1. Aerobic — require free oxygen.

'2. Anaerobic — can live without free oxygen (Fig. 12).

FIG. 12. — Anaerobic pea bacillus.

•3. Facultative (Aerobic, anaerobic) — can live with or without
free ox^vgen.

Aerobic bacteria obtain the oxygen iiecessary for the process
of multiplication from the air, and if the air is cut off they either
remain dormant or die. Anai'-i-obie bacteria obtain their supply of
oxygen from organic compounds such as carbohydrates and pro-
teins. This class sometimes causes more violent fermentation
when forced to grow in the absence of free oxygen than when
growing naturally; being deprived of free oxygen, the tearing

2Q SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

down of organic compounds is accomplished with great rapidity
to supply the required oxygen, while the multiplication is les-
sened. This fact accounts for the rapid spoilage of goods which
have been improperly sterilized. The anaerobic bacteria bring
about decomposition with the evolution of a large amount of gas
(Fig. 13). This gas may accumulate in quantities sufficient to
bulge and even to break the container in which it is sealed (Fig.

FIG. 13. — BocjHus megatherium (the vegetating forms as found in a can of peas).

14). When products in tin bulge from the presence of gas inside
they are known as " swells. ' ' Some bacteria have been described
which bring about decomposition in vegetables and meat without
evolution of gas. They give evidence of their presence by the
development of peculiar odors and flavors. These are known as
"flat sours."

A large percentage of losses in canned goods is due to the
facultative anaerobes. The anaerobic bacteria, however, cause
spoilage in many cases where others are destroyed because the an-
aerobic belong to the soil and are spore-bearing and have the

BACTERIOLOGY OF CAXMNC -J7

power to withstand very high tempera! ures and afterwards de-
velop. Most all of the anaerobes are known as bacilli; that is.
they are rod-shaped.

Facultative aerobic, or facultative anaerobic bacteria belong
to a class which accommodate themselves to whatever condition in
which they may be placed :

Facultative aerobes are anaerobic by nature, but will grow
in an aerobic, state; that is, in air.

Facultative anaerobes are aerobic by nature, but will grow in
an anaerobic state; that is, where air is excluded.

FIG. 14. — (a) Can bursted from pressure of gas generated: (6) a normal can, (c) a swell.

Nearly all bacteria found in improperly sterilized sealed con-
tainers are spore-bearing organisms, either anaerobic or faculta-
tive anaerobic. If there should happen to be a leak in the can,
any variety may enter and set up decomposition. Non-sporu-
lating varieties are always destroyed at boiling temperature (212
Fahrenheit) ; so unless there is a leak or the sterilizing is incom-
plete, this variety will not be present.

A partial vacuum is an ideal environment for the growth of
anaerobic bacilli, since free oxygen interferes with the mullipli-
eation of these germs. On the other hand, they require oxygen
for growth, but they must obtain it by breaking down substances
that contain oxygen in chemical combinations.

Partially cooked material offers a more suitable medium for
these germs, because the cellulose or fiber is softened and there is

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

usually more .surface exposed, and the juices are richer in carbo-
hydrate or albuminous matter, as the case may be. The danger
from these bacteria is not so great where absolute cleanliness is
exercised and waste material is properly disposed of. Many bac-
teria which are capable of setting up putrefactive processes wrill
thrive luxuriantly on a great variety of cooked foods, when, as a
rule, they will not grow readily on whole raw materials.

Perfect Seal Important. — Putrefaction is sometimes found in

imperfectly sealed and sterilized
canned meats and vegetables.
This may be due to insufficient
sterilization or to leaky cans. In
the process of putrefaction there
are various ptomaines and toxic
poisons formed which sometimes
cause considerable trouble.

Testing the Seal. — (a) In
glass. After fruits and vegeta-
bles are canned and set aside until
entirely cold, the jars may be
tested by removing the clamp and
attempting to lift the lid from the
jar. If the lid comes off, the jar
was either not properly sealed or
the contents are fermenting and
may have to be discarded. If the lid remains tight, the chances are
that the contents are keeping (Fig. 15). When faulty sealing
alone exists jars may be reprocessed and the contents saved.
However, protein foods are sometimes attacked by bacteria
which thrive without the presence of air, and which decom-
pose canned foods without producing any gas. When these
have not been killed by processing, the food may appear good
and the jar remain sealed when it is spoiled. These spoils
in tin caused by bacteria which decompose food without form-
ing gas are known as "flat sours"; with them the can is not
bulged and shows no indication of spoiling. When such products
are opened they are slimy and soft and they are acid to the taste.

FIG. 15. — Testing the jar seal.

r,.UTKl!ll>l.iM;Y i IF CANNING 09

(&) Iii tin. The time to detect the leak is when the can is first
put into tin- sterilizer; a shower of bubbles will be seen coming
from the defective seal. If the can is removed immediately and
ivtipped or capped, the contents may be saved in good condition.
Occasionally the attempt is made to save defective cans, when
they are detected after the processing, by reopening the tip hoi.-,
repairing the can, exhausting and reprocessing for the regular
time. Products handled by this careless method are very likely
to cause most serious stomach and intestinal complications. This
practice is a very dangerous one.

After cans are cooled, before stacking them, they are sonic-
times tested by tapping the end of the can with a piece of mHal.
A dear, ringing sound indicates that the can is air-tight. If a
dull sound is heard when the metal strikes the lid, the can should
not be stored with the lot. A trained or experienced ear can very
quickly detect from the sound when all is not well within.

Substances Injurious to Bacterial Growth. — Many bacteria
in growing give rise to substances such as acids which are more
or less injurious to the cell life. The accumulation of acids and
other substances produced by bacteria interferes with the bacterial
growth and their power of multiplication. We have examples of
this in the "flat sours" and also in the brining of vegetables.
The acid present when frothing ceases above the brined cucum-
bers (lactic acid) is strong enough to kill most of the bacteria
in the brine. It is this lactic acid which cures and keeps the vege-
table if the air is excluded from it at this stage, and the forming
of scum yeast at the surface of the brine is prevented. Many
manufacturers do not know that their brine contains acid, yet the
instant it does not contain it the pickle begins to deteriorate. A
full explanation of this process is given in the chapter on "Pick-
ling," page 100. One of the principal factors in the manufacture
and preservation of saner-kraut is the development of lactic acid
in quantities sufficient to act as a preservative. Bacteria, yeast.
and molds are of value in preparation of foods such as vinegar,
pickles, sauer-kraut, cheese, bread, and butter.

Methods of Preserving Foods. — Just at this point it may be
helpful and interesting to consider methods of preserving food,

30 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

with a brief explanation of how each method accomplishes its pur-
pose. To understand these fundamental reasons enables one to do
canning and preserving more skilfully. The four methods com-
monly used are preservation of food by drying, by preservatives,
by heat, and by cold.

1. Preservation of Food by Drying. — This method perhaps was
one of the first known. In primitive times food was exposed to
the direct rays of the sun for the purpose of drying it. This
method is practiced at the present time, but more frequently the
product is subjected to a higher temperature. In the process of
drying a considerable portion of water is eliminated and many of
the organisms present are destroyed. Bacteria, yeast, and molds
cannot develop when the moisture in any food is very much
reduced below the original amount. The same is true when cer-
tain disinfectants, such as smoke or the fumes of sulfur dioxide,
are used in the cure. Meats and fish are frequently dried after
a preliminary smoking or salting. Many food materials contain-
ing an abundance of starch are sufficiently dried in the natural
process of ripening and drying ; for example, certain nuts, such
as chestnuts and the grains. Meats, meal, or floiir containing the
same amount of moisture as raisins or prunes would quickly spoil.
Fruits are usually readily preserved by drying on account of
their high sugar content. A dried or partially dried food should
be sealed from the air to prevent gross contamination and to pre-
vent moisture being absorbed due to its hygroscopic nature.

2. By Harmless Preservatives. — The most commonly used of
these preservatives are salt, sugar, vinegar, and certain spices.
In the presence of these, bacteria and yeast cannot grow success-
fully. Products such as jellies, preserves, and pickles are easily
kept because of the presence of one or more of these preservatives.
While the sugar or spices used may prevent fermentation, molds
are likely to occur on these foods unless sterilized and sealed to
protect them from the air. This can be done with all of the prod-
ucts, except jellies, by always processing and sealing after packing
them into the containers. Jelly can be protected from mold
by pouring over it a thin layer of melted paraffin when cold and
covering it tightly.

BACTKiMnmcY <>K CANNING ;;i

Sodium chloride (salt) is used for dry-salting lish and sonic-
times other meats. The salt rapidly removes a part of the water
and thus forms a medium which is not suitable for the growth of
bacteria. This is a physical action, because it is brought about by
greatly increasing the osmotic pressure. Some preservatives act
chemically by direct antiseptic action upon the microorganisms.
Preservatives that inhibit the growth of organisms by their chem-
ical action as antiseptics belong in two classes: (a) those which
are produced in the food as a result of fermentation of the food
material being packed ; (6) those which are added directly to the
food.

(a) 8 elf -fermentation as Preservation.. — Among the products
in which preservation is achieved through the results of fermen-
tation, in the process of curing, are pickles, olives, onions, sauer-
kraut, cauliflower, and some pickled meats and various other raw
materials. Lactic acid formed by the action of lactic acid bacteria
upon sugar may develop in sufficient quantities in-certain foods to
preserve them indefinitely against further change if properly
handled. The preservation of ensilage is largely due to the lactic
acid and other acids which are formed during the process of

curing.

(b) Preserving powders and other chemicals added to foods
for their preservation are considered detrimental to health. Not
only are foods containing them in quantity less wholesome, but
their use encourages carelessness arid the putting up of food which
is unsound and unfit to eat. Benzoic acid and salicylic acid and
their salts, and formaldehyde, boric acid, and borates are some-
times used. These compounds were purposely added by some of
the early canners to shorten their sterilization period. Fortun-
ately this method has largely been superseded by the more reliable
and less expensive sterilization by heat only.

Some products, such as ketchups, sauces, and "fruit sundaes,"
preserved with such chemicals as salicylic acid, benzoate of
sodium, and borax, are still on the market. In many cases this
method is used because the buyer prefers this class of goods, even
when he knows that preservatives have been used to keep them
in an unfermeiited state. Hotel and soda fountain trade some-

32 SUCCKSSFU, CAXMNG AM) I'UESEKYING

times prefers goods treated in this way because they will not spoil
so soon after being opened. Sometimes tomato ketchup and fruits
for sundaes will not keep for more than a week after the bottles
or jars are opened. Frequently fermentation sets in about the
fourth or fifth day, and mold will sometimes be visible to the eye
in live or six days, if they have been sterilized by heat only. So
long as the buyers ' trade will accept food which is bought in large
containers and lias been allowed to stand around open for days at
fountains and in hotels we may expect these preservatives to be
used. This method is cheaper and requires less care and skill than
the putting up of individual packages for each patron's service.
It is undoubtedly true that in a majority of cases it is advisable
to preserve food materials whenever possible without the addition
of antiseptics. They are unnecessary, and, though the actual
effect on the body of some is unknown, the burden of proof rests
upon those who employ them.

3. By Means of Heat. — Two methods of heat application may
be used — pasteurization or sterilization. In pasteurization the
food is raised to such a temperature that the organisms of certain
types, but not necessarily all organisms, are destroyed. This
process is ordinarily applied to milk and cream and to certain
alcoholic beverages, such as beer and wine. In some cases this
results in a prolongation of the time during which the food may
be used.

Sterilization by heat implies the use of a sufficient degree of
heat to destroy all organisms present ; and when the entrance of
other organisms into the sterilized food is prevented it may be
preserved indefinitely. In the preservation of foods by heat it is
necessary that a temperature be selected such that will destroy all
organisms capable of producing undesirable changes and y<jt
cause no undesirable changes to take place in the food itself.
The antiseptic action of the acid found in some fruits and vege-
tables is so increased by the temperature of boiling water that It
quite certainly sterilizes the product. Foods containing a large
proportion of sugars are also easily sterilized by boiling. Vege-
tables such as corn and peas are much more difficult to preserve,
inasmuch as they contain neither acid nor sugar in considerable

r,.\i TKI:H>I.<M;Y <>K CANNING 33

quantities and aiv ordinarily infected with certain of the anae-
robic spore-bearing bacteria which are capable of withstanding
high temperatures.

The heat used in the preservation of food by sterilization pro-
duces few changes other than those which would be accomplished
by ordinary cooking. Heat will not injure the flavor very much
unless it is prolonged.

Since sterilization or preservation by means of heat is the best
way to retain the natural flavors and wholesome qualities of fruits
and vegetables, this book will deal chiefly with this means of keep-
ing these foods.

4. Preservation of Food in Cold Storage. - -Practically all
foods can be kept for a time by the use of low temperatures. Cold
does not kill, but arrests the growth of organism. Some foods can
be kept indefinitely by freezing. Meats may be held for some
time at this temperature without deterioration ; in fact, for a time
with marked improvement in tenderness and flavor. Some bac-
teria may develop at temperatures below freezing-point of water,
but not if they are in a medium which is solidly frozen. The
length of time that food products may be kept in cold storage
without danger to the health of the consumer is a disputed ques-
tion, but it undoubtedly varies widely according to the nature of
the food.

QUESTIONS

1. To what is tlio decomposition of foods due? Mention some changes

which take place during the decomposition of foods.
•2. In what fundamental way do molds, yeast, and bacteria differ from

the plants with which \ve are most familiar?
.'!. What is the distinction between parasites and saprophytes?
4. Describe hriHly the characteristics of molds, including their necessities

for growth and their manner of growing and reproducing.
.">. Why do molds readily attack fruits?
I!. How may mold be prevented from growing on the top of jelly? Kxplain

your answer.

7. What is yeast'.' Describe briefly the manner of its growth and the

necessities for it.

8. What are bacteria? State one way in which they differ definitely from

molds and yeast.

34 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

9. Why is it more difficult to can beans and meat than it is to can fruits
and tomatoes?

10. What is meant by spore-bearing bacteria? How do spores differ from

bacteria in their tenacity of life?

11. Why are spore-bearing bacteria almost invariably present upon fruits

and vegetables ?

12. Why is it necessary to have sound fruits and vegetables for canning?

13. What tale does a bruise on fruit or vegetable tell to one versed in the

elementary facts of bacteriology?

14. Why is intermittent processing at 212° Fahrenheit a surer method of

sterilization than a single processing for a longer time in a water-
bath ?

15. What advantage lias the product of fractional sterilization over that

produced by a steam retort?
l(i. Why is it well to can fruit as soon as possible after it has been picked?

17. How can you explain the rapid spoiling of food which has been imper-

fectly sterilized ?

18. Describe " swells." What is the cause of them? Describe " flat sours."

What is their cause ?

19. Why is a large percentage of spoilage in canned goods due to anaerobic

bacilli? By what care can we reduce the danger of that to a
minimum?

20. Why is a leaky can or imperfectly sterilized product extremely dan-

gerous? What substances are formed in the process of putrefaction?

21. Under what conditions are bacteria, yeast, and molds of use in the

preparation of food?

22. What four methods are commonly used in the preservation of foods?

23. Upon what principle is the preservation by drying based? Why are

fruits more easily preserved by drying than are meats, fish, etc.?

24. Name the substances which may be classed as harmless preservatives.

From the attacks of what forms of microorganisms do these protect
foods? Explain the preserving power of two of these harmless
preservatives.

25. Why should preserving powders be condemned even when their in-

jurious effects cannot be proved?

20. What responsibility has the public in the continuance of the use of
such powders?

27. What is the aim in the preservation of foods by heat?

28. What is meant by pasteurization? By sterilization?

2!). Why are foods much more easily sterilized by boiling when there is
present a certain amount of sugar and acid?

30. Why is much care and skill necessary in the preserving of corn, peas,

etc., by heat alone?

31. Why can foods be kept for a certain length of time in cold storage?

BACTERIOLOGY <>F C INNING 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. KITTING. A. W., United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau (if
Chemistry. "The Canning of Foods." Bulletin No. 1.11, I'.Hi'. Supcr-
iiiiemlent of Documents, Government Printing Ollice, Washington,
1). C. 10 cents.

•J BITTING, A. \\'., United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of
Chemistry, " Methods Followed in the Commercial Canning of Foods,"
Bulletin No. l!Mi, May, 191.1. Superintendent of Documents, Govern-
ment Printing (Mh'ce, Washington, D. C. 10 cents.

X. Brc-HANAN, ESTELLE D.. and ROMEUT KAULK, " Household Bacteriology."
1913. The Macmillan Company, New York C'ity, X. Y. $2.25.

4. C(i.\N, II. W., "Bacteria. Yeasts, and Molds in the Home,'' 1912. Ginn
A Co., New York City. X. Y. $1.

."). DtvKWALL, ED\VAI;» WILEY, "Canning and Preserving of Food Products
with Bacteriological Technique," l!M)r>. The Pittsburgh Printing
Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. $.1.

(1. Ki.i.idTr. S. MAKIA. " Household Bacteriology," 1 !)!(). American School
of Home Eeonomics, Chicago, 111. $1.50.

7. JORDAN. FIIWIN ()., "Bacteriology," 1912. W. B. Saunders Company.

I'iiihulelphia, Pa. $3.

8. LOIIMS. F., and SMITH, X. II., United States Department of Agricul-

ture. Journal of Agricultural Research, " Life Cycles of the Bac
tiria." vol. (i, Xo. 18, 191(>. Superintendent of Documents, Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 2.1 cents.

0. M( Ki.:;ov, K. P., and BIGELOW, W. D., United States Department of
Agriculture. Bureau of Chemistry, "Canned Vegetables," Bulletin
No. !:;. part S, 1893.

10. VAN I;I:\S>::I.AI:I:, MARTHA. Cornell Reading Courses, "Household Bac-

teriology." January, 1913. New York State College of Agriculture,
Cornell University, Ithaca, X. Y.

11. WILEY, DR. HARVEY W.. "Foods and Their Adulteration," 1011. P.

Blakiston's Son Company, Philadelphia, Pa. $4.

\'2. " Bacteriology of the Household." in Lippincott's Home Manual Series
(in preparation). J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.

CHAPTER III
PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT

THE same general conditions hold for canning indoors or out
of doors. Convenient equipment, carefully selected and ar-
ranged, surroundings clean and free from dust, and a plentiful
supply of water are among the essentials.

INDOOR CANNING

During certain seasons of the year weather conditions make
it more comfortable to work indoors. Small quantities of fruit
or vegetables can be more conveniently handled in the kitchen
than out of doors.

Arrangement of Equipment. — When canning in the kitchen,
a part of the work, such as sorting, washing, cutting, and peel-
ing, may be done on the porch. Jars may be sterilized and brine
and syrup made in the kitchen while the fruit is being prepared
on the porch. After cooking, which with vegetables may in-
clude blanching and with fruits may involve plumping, the cool-
ing and packing may be done on the porch, provided it is
screened against bees, wasps, flies, and other insects which are
attracted by the odors of the products being canned. The at-
tractive odors of the fragrant fruits and spices are alluring to
these insects (Fig. 16).

Utensils Used in Preparation. — Only the equipment neces-
sary for convenient, accurate, and efficient work should be se-
lected. First, it is well to consider the utensils necessary for the
washing, peeling, coring, and slicing in the preparation of the
fruit and vegetables. For washing, it is best to use small brushes
having strong bristles, bowls for the water, and pans for drain-
ing. Some good types of knives for paring and peeling, selected
with reference to comfortable handling and well-shaped cutting
edge, are shown in the illustration. Since coring and slicing of
fruit are constantly being carried on in cooking operations the
year around, it is worth while to provide these inexpensive uten-
36

PREPARATION AM) KM!' I I'M KNT 37

sils, which will also add to Ihe efficiency of these operations in
canning. Good types are shown in figure 17.

FIG. 16. — A group of useful utensils for washing, peeling, coring, grating, and slicing fruit

and vegetables.

Fio. 17. — Special equipment necessary to obtain most successful and accurate results.

Successful results largely depend upon the accuracy with
which directions are followed. With this idea in view, a small
special equipment is suwsted. For measuring liquids, the one-

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

half pint glass cup and enamel or aluminum quart measure will
be sufficient. Tin utensils are objectionable because fruits are
discolored by them. In securing level measures of dry material
the use of a spatula is suggested. It has many other valuable
uses. A flat cane paddle used in packing may be substituted for
the spatula. Scales are invaluable when undertaking canning in
large quantities. The clock must be constantly consulted to in-
sure correct time for the various steps in the processes of canning
and preserving. The saccharometer is suggested for the purpose
of measuring the density of syrups used in canning fruits ; ther-

Fic. IS. — Utensils used in blanching and in cooking.

mometers aid in the jelly-making process, as well as in making
jams and marmalades. A fuller description of their use is given
in the chapter on " Preserving." A salt percentage scale is used
to determine the density of brine for use in pickling (Pig. 17).

Utensils Used in Cooking and Processing. — The equipment
thus far described is useful in preparation of fruits and vege-
tables for canning. Next to be considered are utensils for cook-
ing and processing. In the blanching necessary for some fruits
and vegetables a large vessel for boiling water is necessary. This
must be large enough to immerse wire baskets containing the
fruit to be blanched. The same pan or tray used later in the pre-
serving serves here for transferring the dripping baskets or

PREPARATION AND

I'MKNT

blanching cloth to the cold bath whieh follows the blanch in many

cases. The lar^v preserving kettle illustrated is useful in many
ways. It mi^lit he used for the blanching vessel, the preserving
kettle, and even as the processor. It is economy to have it of the
most durable material possible. Two ladles — one cup-like \\illi
pouring lip for liquids, and the other Hat and perforated for
skimming — will be helpful during the cooking as well as wheu
tilling the containers (Fig. 18).

Fio. 19. — The processor and rack with jars ready to be sterilized. Note all clamps are
raised and screw-top only partly screwed on.

In processing, which is described later, it is necessary to have
a tightly covered vessel large enough to sterilize a convenient
number of jars at one time. A rack which will raise the con-
tainers from the bottom of the sterilizer must be used to allow
boiling water to circulate beneath as well as around the con-
tainers being sterilized. This rack is most convenient when it is
supplied with handles so that all the jars on it may be lifted at
one lime i Fig. 19). Wire hot-jar lifters will prevent burning
ringers (Fig. 20).

Cooperative canning also is a method of minimizing labor
(Figs. L'l and ±2).

40 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

OUTDOOR CANNING

There are many advantages and pleasures in canning out of
doors, especially when large quantities of farm products are to
be taken care of in the shortest possible time. Outdoor canning
gives opportunity for cooperative work among clubs and neigh-
bors. In cooperative canning the minimum amount of labor, if
well organized, will give larger and better results. This work
has stimulated many women and girls to spend more time in the
open and bring other tasks out of doors. Choose a shady, green,
cool spot convenient to the water supply for the canning. The
fact has been mentioned before that insects are attracted by
odors from the fruit being canned, and it might be well to
consider baiting fly-traps near where the canning is done (Fig.

FIG. 20. — Tongs for handling hot cans.

23). Flies prefer nitrogenous food to sweets, and if the
traps are properly baited with milk clabber or meat they will
be less attracted to the products being canned (Figs. 23 and 24).
In addition to the equipment already described above under ' 'In-
door Canning,'' there are important matters of special concern
in outdoor canning.

Arrangement of Tables. — Tables of the proper height should
be conveniently arranged for different steps of the work. The
diagram shown offers a suggestion for placing of tables with
reference to the canner, especially when canning in tin (Fig. 25).

Table 1 is equipped for the sorting, washing, blanching, peel-
ing, and coring. It should be as few steps as possible from the
canner, to save time and labor in the blanching process.

Table 2 should be placed near Table 1, because the fruit is
passed to this table for packing, weighing, and adding of brine
or syrup.

Table 3, which is for capping and tipping and should stand
evel, should be near the canner, because of the numerous trips

I'KKl'AK. \T10N AM) K' U "1 I'M KN T

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

'a
"a

o
o

a
a

I'KKl'Al: \TH '\ AM) Knl II'MKNT

to be made between them. Table :! miulit be omitted if one is
canning in glass only. Illustrations slio\v other convfiiifiit ar-
rangements of tables for out-of-door canning (Fi<_;s. Jti ;m,l i_>7 .
When tin cans are used it necessitates the use of tipping cop
per and capping steel. Sometimes the same fire which heats tin-
water in the eanner is used to heat these tools. A little oil stove
\\hieh burns a uas tlaine is certainly worth having for ]ieatin<_r the
tools. It gives a hotter and cleaner fire than the wood lire in
the eaiiner; it heats the steel moiv quickly and saves cleaning and
redlining the tools so often

(Figs. "JSaiid 129).

.1 portable dinner is a
necessary convenience for out-
of-door canning. This may
either be homemade or pur-
chased. There are a number
of portable canners at reason-
able prices on the market at
present. Considering the fact
that most concerns furnish
tipping copper, capping steel,
and blanching trays with the
nittit, it is cheaper to buy

ne complete than to attempt
to build one and purchase a

••t of tools. The essential Flr- -3-- A >""<><'">ado fly-trap.

eature of such a eanner is a good, large fire-box, above which
is a compartment for heating water. In the water compart-
ment are placed two or three wire baskets for handling a quantity
of fruit at one time in blanching or a number of jars or cans in
processing. A wooden raek placed below these baskets raises them
above the fire-box and allows circulation of the water around jars
and prevents breaking during the processing. For this tank
there must be a close-fitting cover Kig. :\Q).

A large tub of cold water for eoolin«r tins should be placed
beside the eanner. When cannin-- in glass out of doors, a cloth
should be provided to place over the jars immediately after re-

L CANNI\<; A.M> I'liKSERVlNG

moving them from processing, to prevent the cold breeze from
striking the glass and breaking it.

SELECTING CONTAINERS

Types of Containers. — The type of container is very impor-
tant and should be considered when the first equipment for can-

FIG. 24. — Mississippi club girls building a fly-trap for out-of-door canning.

ning is secured. The most essential feature to consider is a
perfect closure; then the size and shape desired for different
products.

Tin Cans. — When canning is to be done in tin and the buying
is to be direct from the manufacturer, it is very necessary to order

PREPARATION AM) Kgl'lPMEXT \:>

the cans as early as possible to take advantage of the lower pric. 3
offered before .Inly 1. Many firms close their factories after
this date, and will not consider any order in less than carload

lots. The sa thing is true in some of the glass factories. It'

yon anticipate canning in large quantities, make an estimate for
your dealer or order early from the manufacturer. Tin cans
are designated by number rather than by the measure of liipiid
they carry, as is the case in glass containers (Fig. 31 j. Flat

Fin. 25. — A convenient arrangement for out-of-door canning.

No. 1 cans are the smallest that are advisable for use in home
canniii'-r. and their use is very limited. The No. 1 flat or s<|iiat
can is more attractive than the tall Xo. 1 for the most of the prod-
ucts packed in so small a tin, and is especially desirable for such
packs as sweet Spanish pimientos, figs, tomato paste, etc. The
Xo. '2 tin can is the size most generally used for canned vege-
tables and small fruits. Corn and peas are more easily sterili/cd
in this sized tin, and for that reason these products should not
be packed in any larger container. Xo. 3 can is used more often
in some localities than Xo. 2, especially for canning peaches,
tomatoes, pears, etc. (Fig. 32).

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

O
73

o
be

03
O

PKKPAKAT1ON AND Knl I I'M KNT

FIG. 27. — Canning tomatoes from the scholarship plot, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va.

FIG. 28. — A kerosene stove which burns a gas flame for heating soldering tools

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

The enamel-lined can is necessary when canning berries, plums,
cherries, beets, pumpkin, and hominy, which may not be packed
in the ordinary tin cans, because they are affected by the tin in
such a way as to rapidly lose their color and flavor. Figs also
will keep a brighter color when packed in these enamel-lined

cans. When enamel-lined cans
cannot be secured, these prod-
ucts should be packed in glass.
A No. 10 can is sometimes
used for tomatoes and spinach,
but in such a large container
a great deal longer time is re-
quired to sterilize food ; there-
fore it is better suited for hotel
and institution canning. It is
not generally advisable to pack
in No. 10 cans unless process-
ing is done under steam pres-
sure. Sometimes fruits are
packed in these containers in
a thin syrup during the very
busy season, then opened,
cooked more, and repacked in
marketable containers during
the less busy season, as the
orders come in. This is not
practicable, however, unless a

FIG. 29. — A fire-pot burning corn-cobs vpv-v lar^O mifllltitv of rineniTlo-
for heating tools. A gasoline fire-pot or char- "XJ ILV (

coal bucket may also be used. f ruit must be taken care of in a

very short while, and time cannot be allowed for plumping and
careful packing. Often semi-tropical fruits are handled in this
manner in the orchards and shipped to the large packing-houses,
where they are repacked in smaller commercial containers be-
fore marketing.

The square tin cans are sometimes used for asparagus tips.
In California such a container is more generally used for this
product than the round can.

PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT

Tin1 cans described above are those which can be secured with
solder hemmed caps.

rii" ('mis. — The so-called "sanitary" cans are widely

n^ONSTRATOB

FIG. 30. — A folding portable canner.

FIG. 31. — Standard sizes of tin containers.

used by commercial packers. They require a machine for seal-
ing. A small hand machine for sealing special sanitary cans
is illustrated here (Fig. 33). The cans with the proper closure

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

to use in this machine are a little more expensive, perhaps, than
the regular cans in stock, but the time and material saved by
this process more than cover the extra charge. This method

6 3//6"

Capacity
H6.Ioz.

4- '/4 "

Capacity 36.4 oz.

2 37//6

Capacity %

22.2 oz.

•v

1 3>/4"

INS

Capacity ' ^
12 oz. '

FIG. 32. — Size of cans used for household purposes.

eliminates the use of solder and canning flux in the sealing of
cans. If machinery cannot be employed hand tools will be
necessary (Fig. 34). It is necessary to designate the size when

PREl'AKATION AND Kgl'lI'M I-A r

ordering cans, since the diameter of Hie opening should cor-
respond with that of the capping steel to be used. There an:
two si/cd openings. 21/11.,-inrh and 2T/16-inch. Cans with th<-

FIG. 33. — Hand machine for sealing special sanitary cans. (Courtesy of Bowers Can Seal

Company, Boston, Mass.)

l2l/10-inch opening are more generally used. The solder hemmed
caps are preferable, because they save solder and time in put-
ting them on. Plain tin caps are not worth considering.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Glass containers are more varied in sizes and shapes than the
tin and lend more opportunity for displaying a variety of at-
tractively packed products, both for the home pantry and for
market. Throughout this book suggestions are made from time
to time about salable products in commercial packages. This
is for the purpose of encouraging the canning, preserving, and

FIG. 34. — Capping steel and tipping copper.

selling of surplus products. The highest quality of commercial
products on the market should tend to stimulate ideals and
standards (Fig. 35). These jars can be obtained in one-half
pint, pint, quart, and one-half gallon sizes.

Selection of Jars. — Jars should be selected with reference to
suitable size and shape for the product to be packed, keeping in
mind economy in the initial purchase and durability. Other

PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT

important considerations are beauty of proportion, tint and
Duality of glass. Not only are these qualities considered by
those who are packing for high-class sales, hut also by tin- hou.*
wife who enjoys artistic expression through arrangement and
preservation of beautiful form and color in skilful packing. The.
square jar is effective for showing quality and pack.

Lightning Seal. — The wide-mouth glass-top jar with wire clamp
which is attached to the neck of the jar is a sat isf acton* one. A
jar with this closure is known as one with a "lightning seal.'
This seal is made by different manufacturers and put. on Up-
market under various trade names. A jar with this closure is

- . , .."./

FIG. 35. — A group of jars for household use.

an easy one to handle while the jar is still hot. Immediately
after processing and sterilizing it is necessary only to push down
the lower clamp around the neck of the jar. This gives the
amount of pressure necessary to assist in the sealing of the jar
as it cools. The rubber used is placed in the groove of the neck
of the jar, and the cap fits down on the top of the rubber,
which prevents the bottom of the glass top from coming in direct
contact with tlie top of the jar. It is the rubber that makes
possible this seal by adhering to both the top and the jar. Every-
thing must be very hot to obtain a good seal, and for this reason
directions are often given for cooking the fruit in the jar.
This heating drives out some of the air, form in ir a partial
vacuum in the jar. At this point the clamp is pushed down,
preventing entrance of air as the jar cools. The jar is then

54 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

sealed by the pressure of air on the outside. Sometimes a jar of
this type is spoken of as a " self -sealing " jar. This sort of seal-
ing has great advantage over the old screw-top jars.

Screw-top jars which demand handling while hot are difficult
to screw on tightly enough to insure good sealing. If the tops

ABC

Fio. 36. — Commercial jars for speoi.il products: A. 10-ounce vase-shaped jar, hermetic top.
B. 12-ounce glass-top, screw-rim jar, rubber used. C. 10-ounce jar with hermetic cap.

are screwed down by hand, the wrists become tired and cramped
before many are sealed, and it is uncertain whether all are suffi-
ciently tight. There is a simple tool on the market for screw-
ing on tops.

The sine top should not be used, because fruits and vegetables
which contain acids are unfit to eat after contact with the
zinc cap. New tops should be secured for all jars of this
type. The glass used in this type jar is usually tinted. While
the fruit will be easily kept in this glass, it gives the fruit an

riUTAKATlON AND EQUIPMENT

unnatural appearance, and it is not so attractive.
ing fresh fruit and vegetables for sale, the fair natural color en-
hances the value of the finished product.

Safety-valve Seal. — The jar with tin- safety-valve seal is
beautiful. It is made of clear flint glass, and the seal is the
same principle as the lightning seal. "While being proces
lid is held in place by a wide black clamp which may br re

A B

FIG. 37. — Appropriate containers for exhibit purposes: A. Quart square jar.
pagne shaped ketchup bottle. C. Pint square jar.

moved when the jar is cold and sealed. It then presents a ^
attractive appearance. Jars of this type are more expensivi
than the other types mentioned. They are often used by
preserving kitchens that furnish goods for high-class, fancy trad
(Figs. 36, 37 and 38).

The "Hermetic" Jar.— The hermetical sealing jar
gold lacquered cap and wire clamp is used more often for com

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

mercial purposes, though there are some household jars of this
type on the market. The cap is said to be washed iu a gold
lacquer that will not be affected by vegetable or fruit acids
coming in contact with it. Around the inside edge of the cap
a gasket or rini of sealing composition fills the space between the
cap and jar, and this softens when heated and adheres to the
jar. The sealing of this jar is practically the same as the light-
ning seal jar. Heating forces out the air and forms a partial
vacuum in the jar; then the wire clamp, which should be

.1 B

FIG. 38. — Individual containers: A. 4-ounce vase-shaped jar, hermetic cap. B. Straight-
sided 4-ounce jar, hermetic cap.

placed 011 the jar at the beginning of the process, furnishes
sufficient pressure to prevent cold air from rushing into the jar
as it cools. It is the pressure of the outside air, nearly sixteen
pounds to the square inch, which keeps the jar sealed. Com-
mercial products are often packed in jars with this type seal.
Because the sealing composition is under the edge of the cap and
not exposed, it is not so liable to become punctured by mice
and roaches nibbling it, as is sometimes the case where rubbers
are used.

K ubbcr rings dry and deteriorate with age. They become
porous and sometimes crack. When this happens, the air gets

PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 57

ill and, because the partial vacuum is broken, the

longer good and the product will spoil. A perfect i

the rubber ring is exposed, will hold only so long as the life

the rubber lasts. In selecting- rubber rings it is

the best and always use new ones. The price of a do/en rings

is less than the value of the contents of one jar. so it is econoim

to have new rubbers each year. The thick, red and gray rubber

rings are among the best. The black one is better than the

FIG. 39. — Box of rubbers and a jar.

white, because the chemicals used to bleach this kind cans*
it to diy, crumble, and crack in less time than tin- better-grade
rubber (Fig. 39).

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the care necessarv to protect the food from insects while '

ing on the porch or under the trees.
•2. When considering a piece of equipment, what would determine

selection ?

.'5. What principles arc involved in the arrangement of table
4. State, in the order of their importance, the features to be

the selection of containers.
.">. Why are plain tin containers unsatisfactory for :

tables? What, kind of containers would you use

When is glass preferable to any other?

fi. DescrilK' the principle of the so-called " lightning seal."
7. When a rubber ring is used in the seal, which kind v

why should it be renewed every year?

58 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BITTING, A. W. and K. G., "Canning and How to Use Canned Foods,"

1916. The National Canners' Association, Washington, D. C. 30
cents.

2. BREAZEALE, J. F., United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers'

Bulletin 359, " Canning Vegetables in the Home," 1910. Secretary
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

3. BREAZEALE, J. F., United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers'

Bulletin 521, " Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work," 1913.
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

4. GOULD, H. P., and FLETCHER, W. F., United States Department of Agri-

culture, Farmers' Bulletin 426, " Canning Peaches on the Farm,"
1910. Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. 5 cents.

5. MCDONALD, MAY C., and STANLEY, LOUISE, University of Missouri, " The

Preservation of Food in the Home," vol. 15, No. 7. Extension Series 6,
March, 1914. University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

6. ROSE, FLORA, Cornell Reading Courses, " The Preservation of Food

in the Home," 1912, parts 1, 2, and 3. New York State College of
Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

7. SHAW, S. B., North Carolina Department of Agriculture, " The Home

Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." North Carolina Department of
Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

8. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service,

Office of Extension Work in the South: A-81, "Canning, Preserving,
and Pickling"; 782, "Peppers": 775, "Use of Vegetables from Win-
ter Garden." Office of Extension Work in the South, States Relations
Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

CHAPTER IV

CANNING IN TIN

SINCE canning in tin is becoming much more widely used in
the household, it may well be presented first. <>n the farm, f..r
instance, where there is a large yield of fruit or vegetables t<>
be canned, the canning process in tin can be handled with mop
speed, less danger of breakage, and at a very much small'-r
initial cost. For all these reasons, in many localities the canning
in tin is preferred.

Preparation for Canning in Tin. — Special equipment for
canning in tin should be assembled early in tihe season, as prices
are better then and there may be difficulty later in securim:
certain supplies, as already suggested. The cans should he
ordered early and the processing vessel, whether it be a com-
mercial canner or one made at home, should be installed some
time before the actual canning is to begin. When the canner is
decided upon and the solder hemmed caps and cans ordered,
the next to consider is the tipping copper, capping steel, and a
file. To clean these tools, a canning flux should be made and
some powdered sal ammoniac placed in a can to rub the tools
with after heating.

Making Wti.r. — Put some commercial hydrochloric
atic) acid in a glass or crockery vessel (not metal), add strips
of sheet zinc until no more can be dissolved. To tbis add an
equal quantity of water. Label this "Flux" and use carefully.
Very little must be used, and care must be had not to allow any
of it to enter the can, as it will injure the contents,
flux is described under "Capping." When canninir, hav.
vessel (a can will do) with enough flux in it to clean the to
Keep separately, in a glass bottle, the quantity to be used in
sealing cans.

Cleaning and Tinning the. Steel ami Copper. --\\ is of tirsi
importance to have capping steel and tipping copper in

(ill SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

condition, hi ease they are rusty, they may have to be filed.
Otherwise, rubbing them with coarse sand-paper or on a brick
will smooth them. Care must be taken to keep the edge of the
capping steel true if the file is used. Both the tipping copper
and capping steel must be kept tinned or coated with solder to
make the solder How evenly when sealing the cans. Place a
handful of sal ammoniac mixed with a few pieces of solder (one-
half cupful of sal ammoniac and three inches wire solder) into
an old can. This proportion will be sufficient for returning
the tools one time. The sal ammoniac can be used again if
more solder is added. Heat the already smooth tipping copper
and capping steel until almost red hot, dip into the flux, then
into the sal ammoniac and solder, turning them about and
rubbing them until bright and well coated with solder; then
dip into the flux again. The best sealing can be done with the
least effort if the tools are kept in a clean, bright condition.

Plenty of clean white cloths should be at hand during the can-
ning process. There should lie wire lifters for handling hot cans
and blanching trays. Sufficient wood should be piled near the
canner for keeping up the fire. A tub of cold water for cooling
the tins as soon as they are removed from the processor should
be at one side of the canner, and there should be a wrater supply
near at hand, because it Avill be necessary to change the water
from time to time in order to have a cool supply. The equipment
should be placed, if possible, where it can be used for the entire
season.

Having outlined a convenient arrangement of this equip-
ment, the various steps in the process of canning in tin may next
be considered.

STEPS TAKEN IN CANNING IN TIN

1. Selection of good sound fruit and vegetables is of para-
mount importance. Unless the product to be canned is of the
highest grade and in prime condition, it is useless to hope that
special care and skilful packing will result in anything more
than disappointment and failure. In securing fine quality, much
depends upon having the vegetable or fruit absolutely fresh,

CANNING IX TIN'

crisp, and clean, and kept cool. All steps, from

end, of any lot, of canning should be carried through as rapidly

as possible. A good slogan is, " One hour from the fu

can."

'2. Sorting and grading should be done von- carefully, ac-
cording to the size and degree of maturity and ripeness. I'se
only uniformly well-ripened products (Figs. 40 and 41). I>U
card all defective ones, and use together those of the same
In canning, the flavor is retained only when young, tender,

FIG. 40. — Sorting and grading tomatoes.

quickly grown vegetables are used. Commercial concerns some-
times have what they call grading paddles. They consist of a
flat board with holes, which correspond to the opening in the
glass jar in size. Peaches, for instance, which are too small
are set aside to be packed as sliced peaches or for sweet picl
and the ones which are too large are kept together, '
that slip through easily are made up together in one ball
This grading before cooking simplifies sorting dien pael
saves much time, and tdves a. more uniform product throughout.

3. Scalding, Peeling, and Coring.-
peaches and tomatoes, are scalded in order to peel them smoothly.

SIVCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Put fruit or vegetables to be scalded into trays or squares of
cheesecloth and lower into boiling water for. one minute (Fig.
42). Remove at once to prevent cooking. Plunge into cold
water, which prevents softening of the fruit and causes it to
shrink, making the skin more easily peeled from the flesh. "When
the skin does not come off clean without tearing bits of flesh,
it is an indication that the scalding has not been successful.
This may be due to having the fruit too green, to overcooking,
or to adding a large quantity of fruit at one time, which too

FIG. 41. — Uniform tomatoes together.

quickly cooled the water. A slender-pointed knife is useful for
peeling and coring.

4. Blanching consists of plunging the vegetable or fruit into
a large amount of boiling water for a short time. A wire
basket or square of cheesecloth serves for handling large quan-
tities of fruit at one time. The blanch gives a more thorough
cleaning, because the scalding water tends to remove the bacteria
from the surface of the fruit or vegetable. It also improves the
flavor and removes strong odor and flavor from certain kinds of
vegetables. The fruit shrinks in the blanch and becomes more
flexible. A full pack is then more easily made. The time re-

CANNING IN TIN

i|uiivd for blanching varies with the slate of maturity ,,f tin-
different i'ruits and vegetables. |-»laneliiii'_r peaehes ami p, .
uives them a more transparent appearance, better texture, ami
mellow llavor. Using it for cherries will prevent splitting ami
cracking. Spraying fruit with cold water after Maiielm^ wj||
make it finer. Sometimes it is well to drop the vegetable int,, ;

FIG. 42. — Scalding tomatoes, using a square of cheesecloth.

cold salt-bath for an instant after the blanching to make it
more crisp. In the case of green beans, peas, and okra. such a
cold salt dip may help to keep the green color.

5. Sterilizing containers is very essential before packim:
them. This may be done while the fruit is being sorted,
the cans and drop into boiling water for ten to fifteen minutes
On removing them from the water, turn open ends down on a

64 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

clean towel to keep out dust and air. If stacking them, turn
open ends of two cans together.

6. Packing. — The can should be filled as full as possible with-
out crushing pieces. There should be no space which would
allow the pieces to move about and bruise and break one another.
In general, when packing in tin for the market, it is well to do
sufficient weighing to insure minimum weights from falling below
the standard chosen. Federal and most state laws require that
cans be filled as full of food as is practicable for processing,
and that they contain only enough liquor to fill the space and
cover the contents. Plan in advance and work rapidly. Do not
allow filled cans to stand before adding liquid and exhausting,
because to do so will injure the product. Add seasoning and
mark the cans with pencil or knife to show contents.

7. Adding Water, Brine, or Syrup. — Add the liquid to
within one-fourth of an inch of the top. Shake the can and tap
gently 011 the table to dispel air within the can. Now clean
and wipe the groove around the opening and slip on the solder
hemmed cap (Fig. 43).

8. Capping. — Use a small brash, cord, or little mop, made by
tying a clean white cloth around the end of a small stick for
applying the flux around the groove, being very careful to
allow none of it to enter the can. The flux is used to make the
solder adhere to the tin. Apply the clean, hot capping steel,
holding the cap firmly in place with the center rod while lower-
ing the steel. Turn the steel steadily until the solder flows:
a half turn forward, a half turn back, with a sudden twist
forward again to swing the melted solder around the groove
evenly while lifting the steel. Hold the center rod firmly until
the solder cools, making a perfect seal.

9. Exhausting. — Place the cans in trays and lower into boil-
ing water to within one inch of the top to drive the air out of
the cans. Let them stay the shortest time possible to drive out
the air. Dense foods like corn and sweet potatoes require a
longer time for exhausting than products which are more juicy.
The denser foods are poorer conductors of hea*t, and it takes a
longer time for the contents in the center of the can to become

CANNING IX TIN

heated. Ordinarily three minutes is long enough for exhausting
cans not larger than No. 3. Exhausting is necessary. If omit t
the air left in the can expands, causing it to bulge. The can
may not resume normal shape, or, if it docs and is exposed to

FIG. 43. — Capping

FIG. 41. — Tipr

a warmer temperature, it may again expand, giving the appear-
ance of a "swell." Future orders may be cut off because of a
single can like this. The presence of air in the can may cause
the tin to dissolve more rapidly and enter into the food.
10. Tipping. — Immediately after exhausting, <

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

hole at the top of the can. Dry the cap, apply flux as for
capping, and use a little wire solder (Fig. 44). Hold the hot
tipping copper in the right hand, placing the point over the hole,
and barely touch the solder to it. Bring the hot copper ver-
tically over the hole and lift it so that only a bead will drop
and make a neat, round tip.

11. Processing is heating to sterilize the contents of the cans,
which have been packed, exhausted, and tipped. In a hot-water
canner, the water should be boiling vigorously when tihe cans
go in. Lower the can slowly under the wrater and watch for a
shower of bubbles. If the bubbles are seen, this shows that there

FIG. 45. — Heating tools, capping, and tipping.

is a leak at the point from which the bubbles come, and the can
must be taken out and resoldered. Account should be taken of
the time beginning when the water first boils after emerging
from the cans. Keep it boiling continually. When processing
in a steam-pressure canner, begin counting time when the gauge
denotes the amount of pressure you wish to use in processing.
In intermittent processing, the vegetable is processed for forty-
five to sixty minutes at boiling temperature on each of three
successive days. The time is sometimes reduced to two days
with very young, fresh string beans and other more easily
sterilized vegetables.

(\\XIXG IX TIX

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

12. Cooling. — Cool all products in tin as quickly as possible
after processing to stop the cooking. Overcooking breaks down
the texture of fruit and injures the flavor and color. Plunge
cans into very cold water immediately, especially when process-
ing intermittently. Never stack cans together until entirely
cold. The cans should be dried before storing to prevent rust-
ing. This may be done by either drying them witlh a cloth or
standing them in the sun after the plunge in cold water.

13. Test for Defects. — Tap the top of the can with a metal,
and if the containers are sealed a clear, ringing sound is noticed.
If the seal is imperfect a dull sound will be heard. It is a
common sight in factories to see a workman beating a rapid

FIG. 47. — Labelling.

tattoo 011 the ends of cans with a metal. He can detect by the
variation in sound or a single blow when all is not right (Figs. 45
and 46).

14. Labelling. — Cans should never be labelled until perfectly
cold (Fig. 47). It is better to wait five or ten days so as to be
sure that they are all sound. If products are to be sold, they
should be freshly labelled just before shipping and have the
net weight stated in pounds and ounces, with packer's name
and address on each can. Place the sealed end down so the
smooth end will appear at the top when standing on the shelf.
The paste used should be placed only on the label at the end,
so that no paste will touch the tin. It may cause rust if the
paste touches the can.

i AN XING IX TIN

Paste :

1 cupful of flour 1 cupful of cold \vutt>r

1 teaspoonful of powdered alum J/L> teaspoonful of oil of <-lovc»-

3 cupfuls of boiling water

Mix the Hour and one cup of cold water thoroughly. Add
the boiling water and bring slowly to the boiling-point, beating
all the while to prevent lumps. Boil for five minute:
cooked, add the alum and oil of cloves, pour into glasses with
covers. This will keep for some time and make an excellent
paste for use in labelling cans and jars.

Frequently the outside of the cans is lacquered before label-
ling to prevent rusting. In damp climates, where cans rust
easily, this is advisable. An attractive label will add a great deal
to the appearance of the finished product, and it should be
chosen carefully with this idea in view.

Any one wishing to can for the market should look up tin-
state laws and requirements about the matter. It is not so neces
sary to be familiar with the Federal laws unless interstate ship-
ments are to be made. Detailed information on state laws and
regulations may be obtained by writing to the State Food Com-
missioner, State Board of Agriculture, and Federal rules and
laws can be secured from the Bureau of Chemistry, V. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Write for the publica-
tions and state what products are being packed for sale.

This information is given for the benefit of thosr
canning for commercial purposes; every one who cans for the
market should be encouraged to know the food laws,
sound more serious than they are, and one should not
whelmed with the seemingly endless details attached to the can-
ning business. New facts pertaining to food conservation are
being published constantly, and those who are interests
various phases of the subject should keep informed by securing
from their State Board of Agriculture, the U.
Agriculture, and the National Canners' Association, from time
to time, all publications and reports.

70 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

QUESTIONS

1. What is the meaning of efficiency in canning?

2. Describe the equipment needed and its arrangement when preparing to

can in tin.

3. How is " flux " made ? For what is it used ?

4. What is your standard for the external appearance of a tin of fruit or

vegetable? What steps are necessary to secure this standard?

5. Describe how to coat with solder the tipping copper and the capping

steel.

6. When such a tin has been opened, what standard should the contents

equal? What steps are necessary to secure this standard?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
See end of Chapter VI, page 86.

CHAPTER V

CANNING IN GLASS

CANNING in glass is very similar to canning in tin. The
same principles hold good throughout. The initial cost of con-
tainers is greater than when canning in tin, hut for h<nnc use
it is more economical, because glass is used year after year,
while tin should be used only a single time.

The first four steps under "Canning in Tin" arc also to be
followed when packing in glass (see p. 60) ; the additional steps
are given below. Convenient arrangement of all equipment is
MTV essential before undertaking the work.

5. Sterilizing. — Jars should be washed and placed, side down,
in a vessel and covered with cold water. The water should !>»•
slowly brought to a boil and allowed to boil for fifteen minutes
(Fig.' 48).

6. Packing. — After selecting and sorting the fruit or vege-
table for uniformity in ripeness and size, and after blanching it,
the fruit should be arranged in the jar with reference to sym-
metry and the best use of the space within the container. In
placing the fruit or vegetables into a jar, a thin, flexible paddle
or spatula, made out of cane or soft white wood, is useful,
important to have a good, clear syrup. Clear, soft, or distilled
water should be used. Sometimes better results could be ob-
tained if the quantity of water used for making the syrup could
be first boiled, strained, and cooled before using. Mix the sugar
and water by stirring as it heats, to be certain the syrup is
uniform (Figs. 49, 50, and 52) .

7. Paddling. — A more slender paddle is used for taking
bubbles of air out after the liquid has been added. This is done
by running the paddle down the side of the jar and touching
the bubble with the rounded end of the paddle. The air creeps
up the paddle to escape and is displaced by the liquid,
liquid should be added after paddling in order to have the

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

full to overflowing. These paddles can easily be made at home
(Fig. 51). Bamboo cane is suitable material for making them;

FIG. 48. — Sterilizing glass jars.

FIG. 49. — Packing uniform pieces of rhubarb.

an old fishing pole will do. Split the cane, cut the paddle nine
to twelve inches long, leaving a joint at the top for a handle.

CANNING IN GLASS

*6 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AXJ) PRESERVING

draught to strike them. In intermittent processing raise the
clamp of tiie jar at the beginning of each processing to allow for
expansion. Seal at the close of each processing. The hermetic
jar is not a suitable one for intermittent processing. Processing
in glass in a steam-pressure canner is described in a later chapter,
"Processing at High Temperatures" (see p. 87).

10. Labelling. — Each jar should be washed and polished
before labelling. Here again the choice of the label should
be made carefully. One just large enough to have printed
the necessary requirements is sufficient. Choose a neat label:
white is preferable, with plain, simple black printing. A fancy
colored label may not be in harmony with the color of the
contents of the jar and will detract from the attractiveness of
the product. Place the label on the plain side of the jar, mid-
way between the seams and one-quarter inch from the lower
edge. When labelling products to be sold, the name of the
contents, name and address of the packer, and net weight in
pounds and ounces must be stated.

Storing Canned Products. — Store the canned products in
a cool, dry, dark place. Light will cause the color of the
products in glass to fade, while products in tin are, of course,
not affected by light.

QUESTIONS

1. Give in outline form and in order the steps necessary when canning in

glass.

2. What steps in this process differ from the steps in canning in tin? To

what are the differences due?

3. Which container is more economical for home use? Why is this true?

4. State definitely the principles which are the basis for all kinds of can-

ning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
See end of Chapter VI, pages 83 and 8G.

CIIAITKII VI
PROCESSING— HOT-WATER BATH

PROCESSING is the term applied to the operation of sterilixini;
or heating to destroy bacteria so that the canned goods will keep.

All fruits and juicy vegetables are better in color ami
texture if sterilized at or near the boiling-point. (212° Fahren-
heit). For this purpose the hot-water bath is commonly used.
Sometimes these oufits can easily be made at home, according to
the amount of canning which is to be done.

Homemade Canners. — If only a few jars or cans an- to In-
processed at a time, then Hat-bottom vessels, such as a wash-
boiler, ham boiler, preserving kettle, or bucket deep enough to
permit of being covered after the jars or cans are placed on the
false bottom inside, will serve the purpose (Fig. 53). When
any of these utensils are used it is necessary to have a false
bottom on which to set the jars or cans while processing. Narrow
strips of wood or wire netting made of medinm-si/ed galvani/
iron may be used for this rack. The vessel should be equipped
with a tight cover, preferably tin, which is kept in place while
th.- sterili/ing is being done (Fig. 54). Such small outfits art-
intended for iise on an ordinary cook stove or range.

A homemade cauner for use out of doors, where larger quan-
tities can be handled, may be made out of tubs or fifty-pound
lard cans. Heat for these canners is furnished by portable
stoves, or by furnaces made of brick or stone (Figs. 55 and 5ti)

Commercial Outfits. — The purchase of an
especially made outfit in which to do the cooking is not necessary
There are, however, a number of inexpensive commercial out-
fits which uive very satisfactory results. Some of these canners
are well Imilt and excellent work can be done, both for com-
mercial purposes iind for home use. These outfits range in size
from those having a four-can capacity to those havinir a capacity
of a few hundred cans. The price varies according to si/»
the canner and the number of tools and accessories included in

the Olltfit.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

FIG. 53. — An ordinary bucket used as a processor.

FIG. 54. — A wash-boiler with false bottom makes a convenient processor,

PROCKSSIN(! — MOT-WATER HATH

Manufacturers furnisli catalogues having full de>
and price-lists of these various outfits, and in order to
canner best suited to conditions a study of dillVivnt ratal*
will help to make the decision. Tlie requisites of ;i -rood i
tnercial hot-water outfit may 1)0 enumerated thus
quality of material used and of workmanship in the construe-
tion ; next, the convenience and cost of operation, in order that

FIG. 55. — Canner made of tubs for outdoor use.

the best results can be obtained with the I'-ast
penditure of time, labor, and fuel.

Equipment Accompanying the Purchased Canner.-
usual portable canner for out-of-door use consists of the following

Canner
Fin -box
Return flue
Water tank
Trays or wire baskets
Chimney
Tight cover

Accessories
Tipping copper
Capping steel
Can tongs
Tray lifters
Fluxing brush
Charcoal bucket or
Fire-pot for heating
tools

Materials

liumlle of wire solder
Powdered sal ammoniac
Bottle of llux
Coarse sand-paper or
file

>L\XES>FUL CANNING AND

^ 'me canners are round and some rectangular iu shape. Th
secti -n or fire-box has a small opening: in the door through
which the soldering tools may be placed for heating. The water
in the upper section will heat more quickly if a smoke passage

is placed in such a way that the
water chamber is heated from
the smoke passage as well as
from the fire-box. Sometimes the
chimney is attached at the front
of the canner near the lire-box
door : this necessitates the smoke
returning from the outlet at
the other end of the fire-box back
to the chimney, and. if the
water chamber extends down be-
tween the smoke passage and
the fire-box, the extra heat ob-
tained in this way will cause the
water to boil more ijuickly. thus
- ving time and fuel. The 1 -
krTs or trays for holding the cans
in the canner are made of gal-
vanized metal, with a wire bot-
tom and wire handles. This 1 s-
ke: - s as a false bottom and
fits into the water tank, resting
slightly above the top of the fire-
box and smoke passages. A
wooden rack should be placed be-
low this basket when canning
in glass so that the bottom of the metal tray will not rest directly
on the fire-box. A basket full of cans may be lifted out with
wire tongs. The top of the canner is fitted with a tight cover.
which keeps in the heat ^Fig. 57) .

Canners should have water in the upper section before a fire
is built; if this is neglected with the type of canner whk-h is

J* IG. DO. — A. homdmuK csnn

-..-.::- '- .

.~G— HOT-W

wint

- vfc

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

soldered together, the solder will melt and the water will leak out,
making the canner useless until it is mended.

The chimney should be tall enough to provide a good draught
and to carry the smoke away. The smoke from a pipe which is

FIG. 58. — A kerosene stove
burning a gas flame. (Globe Gas
Light Company, Boston, Mass.)

FIG. 60. — Tank fitting inside.

FIG. 59. — A folding two-burner gasoline stove. (W. J. Baker Co., Newport, Ky.)

too short is most objectionable to those who are canning (Fig.
57).

For Heating the Tools. — The tools may be heated in the
fire-box of the canner, but the suggested fire-pot, charcoal bucket,
or gas-flame stove is better for this purpose, since the tools heat
more quickly and do not have to be cleaned so often (Fig. 58) . An

l'i;< >CESSING— HOT-WATER BATH

ordinary bucket with a 'hole cut out of one side near tin- bottom
will make a good substitute for a fire-pot if charcoal or corn-
cobs are burned in it. Care must be taken to have the fuel
burned to a bed of glowing coals before attempting to heat the
tools. This is necessary to keep the copper and steel smooth
and clean (Pigs. 58, 59 and 60).

A Time-table for Use in Canning Fruits and Vegetables
When the Hot-water Process is Used. — To obtain satisfael
results with these outfits, consideration should be given to the
length of the sterilization period, which is indicated in the tab
below, in the column headed "Process." Since the temperature
cannot be controlled below the boiling-point, it is necessary to
start counting the time when the water begins to boil and I
the boiling constant throughout the process. Complete steriliza-
tion can be obtained by following this table if the essentials as
outlined in other chapters are fulfilled.

Intermittent Processing. — The vegetable is proce
forty-five to sixty minutes at boiling temperature on each of
three successive days.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe an outfit for processing by the hot-water l>ath i

made at home. Explain the principle which makes neci
detail described above.

2. If purchasing a commercial hot-water outfit, what points

considered ?

3. How will the position of the chimney on a commercial ranncr influeno

the time needed to heat the water?

4. Describe a homemade fire-pot. What fuel may be used in it?

condition should the fuel be before placing the to<
this rare iin-ossary ?

5. Why do starchy vegetables require a longer prot

containing a large percentage of water?

6. Why is it necessary to keep the temperature constant during

processing?

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND 1'KESERVING

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86 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BITTING, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods,"

1910. Published by the National Canners' Association, Washing-
ton. D. C. 30 cents.

2. BITTING, A. W., Bulletin 9, " Processing and Process Devices." Na-

tional Canners' Association, Washington, D. C.

3. Commercial catalogues from manufacturers of canners, glass and tin

containers, and other equipment.

4. CRESWELL, MARY E., and POWELL, OLA, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Farmers' Bulletin No. 853, '' Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables,"
States Relations Service, Office of Extension Work South. U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

5. CRESWELL, MARY E., Georgia State College of Agriculture, "Home Can-

ning of Fruit and Vegetables," 1915. Published by the State Col-
lege of Agriculture, Athens, Ga.

0. " Creole Cook Book," 1914. Published by the Picayune, New Orleans, La.
$1.25.

7. FARMER, FANNIE MERRITT, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1007.

Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80.

8. McKiMMON, JANE S.. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service.

" Canning and Preserving with 4-H Brand Recipes.'' June, 1916. State
Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

!). SPRING, HELEN M., " Individual Recipes in Use at Drexel Institute,"
1909. John C. Winston Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 25 cents.

10. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry: In-

formation concerning state laws governing packages and labelling of
canned products can be obtained from State Boards of Agriculture.
Similar information concerning interstate shipment of canned
products can be obtained from the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

11. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service.

Office of Extension Work in the South: A-81, "Canning. Preserving,
and Pickling": 782, "Peppers": 775, "Use of Vegetables from
Winter Garden." Can be secured from the Office of Extension Work
in the South, States Relations Service, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

12. VANDERBILT. SADIE B., Columbia University, " Phvsical and Chemi-

cal Tests for the Housewife," 1913. Technical Education Bulletin
No. 19. Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York City,
N. Y. 10 cents.

CHAPTER VII

PROCESSING AT HIGH TEMPERATURE

Steam Retorts. — Iron boxes or steel cylinders, known as
retorts, are used in processing by steam at a temperature above
the boiling-point (i. e., higher than 212° Fahrenheit). The retorts
may be vertical or horizontal, the size being determined by the
number of cans to be handled daily.

In the vertical retorts steam may be used alone or it may be
introduced into water; in. the horizontal retorts steam alone is
used. Vertical retorts are used where canning under high tem-
perature is desired in the home, and in small canning plants. The
steam pressure ma}' vary from five to fifteen pounds, thus giving
a temperature of 220° Fahrenheit (105° Centigrade
Fahrenheit (124° Centigrade). The proper control of time and
temperature is very important. This is regulated by re
thermometers and temperature controllers attached to the retort.

Small Outfits for Home Canning. — An expensive equipment
is not necessary when canning in small quantities at home.
variety of small steam, canners for home canning are on the mar-
ket Fig. 61). The prices vary according to the sizt
of material used in making them. The construction of the
fits resembles that of the regulation steam boiler,
of a high-grade metal, and the seams are so riveted, s
joined as to make them water-tight and steam-proof,
packing is placed around the groove in the outer rim of th
which keeps the inside chamber steam-tight when the
clamped on. This part of the canner wears
should be replaced if the canner is to continue
results.

A brass pet cock which allows for the free circulation of >
and escape of dead air is screwed into the cover,
left slightly open while processing.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

FIG. 62.

FIGS. 61 and 62. — A steam retort for home canning.
(Northwestern Steel and Iron Works, Eau Claire, Wisconsin.)

FIG 63 — Another type known as the water-seal canner requires only a small amount of
water and it can be raised quickly to the boiling point with the use of very little fuel. A
slight pressure can be secured.

PROCESSING AT HIGH TEMPEKATUKK

There is a dial gauge, the needle of which moves upward wh-n
the temperature of the interior of the caniier rises abov,- boil

i>12° Fahrenheit).. The figures on the face of the dial indicut<-
the number of pounds of steam pivssuiv imd also its equivalent

I-'IG. G4. — Another steam-pressure out6t for home canning.

degree of heat. A safety valve is also attached. The "weight and
arm'' style valve automatically regulates the pressure inside the
retort from one to iifteen pounds. The weight on the arm may l>e
set at any point on the lever, as it is made to slide back and forth.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

When a certain time for the process is desired the steam gauge
should be watched until it shows the required amount of pres-
sure. Set the weight so that enough steam will escape from the
valve to retain that temperature. After the processing the steam
should be let off by raising the bar on the valve or by opening the
pet cock before removing the cover of the canner (Fig. 64).

A wire basket or galvanized crate comes with the outfit. This
is a great convenience, for it can be used in blanching, exhausting,
and sterilizing. While sterilizing is in progress this basket or
crate rests on a false bottom, which is sometimes made of galvan-
ized iron. This permits of free circula-
tion of steam underneath and around
the cans. The capacity of a small retort
is about 150 to 250 cans daily, and it will
generate and hold about fifteen-pound
pressure of steam. An outfit to be use
in canning under steam pressure shorn
be built of strong material and have suffi-
cient attachments to determine and regu-
late the temperature. The results of
processing under steam cannot be as-
sured without a thermometer; a gauge
for reading steam-pressure is a substi-
tute, since, as indicated in the table
below, a definite pressure gives a definite degree of heat (Fig. 65) .
A steam retort may be converted into a hot-water canner by
filling the canner with water and keeping it at a temperature of
212° Fahrenheit. Some outfits require that the steam be piped
into the retort from a boiler tank. This is more often true with the
larger and more expensive outfits (Fig. 66). Separate retorts
which can be used over a stove or out of doors are made, and often
gasoline burners are sold with them as a necessary accessory.
Charcoal furnaces and a gas-flame oil stove will give good results,
and they are less expensive and more easily handled. Other
canners have a fire-box built in ; when used out of doors the fire is
protected and steam can be obtained more quickly.

FIG. 05. — Pressure cooker.

PROCESSING AT HKJII TEMPERATURE

. 66. — Commercial retorts where steam is piped in from the boiler. (Heini Company)

TIME-TABLE FOR PROCESSING BY STEAM

Name of product

Blanch

Season-
ing

Exhaust

Temper-
ature, F.

Pressure
in
pounds

Time
No. 2

run,

pint*

No. 2

No. 3

Asparagus

Same

as
for
hot-
water
can-
ning

Same

as
for
hot-
water
can-
ning

Same

as
for
hot-
water
can-
ning

Same

as
for
hot-
water
can-
ning

Dcyr tea
2-40
1240

22<S
22S

250

240
24S
24S
240
250
240
22S
240
234
24 S
22S

10
10

1.')
10
15
10
10
15
10
5
10
8
i:.
5

M ir.'.llt

30
45

30
30

SO
55
50
30
45
70
66
20
35
65
40
35

Be ins

Beets

Brussels sprouts. .
Corn

Egg-plant

Ho.niny . .

Ckra

Peas ....

Potato, sweet ....
Pumpkin
Kraut

Spinach

Squash

Succotash

Vegetable soup . .

Much time, labor, and fuel can be saved by sterili
the heavy starchy products under steam pressure
and Fipr. 66).

92 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by the term " processing at a high temperature "?
•2. For what kind of foods is this method particularly advantageous? Ex-
plain your answer.

3. What two points must be watched constantly while processing at a high

temperature? Explain your answer.

4. How would you examine a steam canner to determine its value?

5. What part of the best canner will deteriorate with u-t-v

G. What is the purpose of the "pet cock" Where is it located? How
should this cock be while processing? Explain your answer.

7. Describe how to secure the pressure desired while using a steam canner.

8. When a definite time is desired for the processing, from what point in

this process will you count the time?

9. What precaution should be taken before opening the canner? \\1iy is

this necessary?

10. For what other method of canning may a steam canner be used? How
can this be done?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

See Chapter VIII, page 122.

CHAPTER VIM
FRUIT JUICES

Value. — The many ways of using fruit juices make them a
most valuable product to have on hand throughout the year.

Medicinal. — Fruit juiees were used almost exclusively for
medical purposes until recently. It is still a common practice in
Europe for physicians to send their patients to the vineyards to
drink the fresh juices as they come from the press.

Daily Menu. — The juices of such fruits as grapes, -currants,
cherries, blackberries, raspberries, plums, and apples make whole
some and delicious beverages, as well as being a pleasant addition
to the daily menu. Nothing is more refreshing on a hot day than
a cool fruit-juice drink, which may be easily prepared from bot-
tled juices.

The dessert may be varied with very little expenditure of
strength, time, and money by the use of different, fruit, juices.
These may be used in making sherbets, ice-cream, puddings,
sauces, and gelatine desserts.

Social Functions. — The combination of fruit juices makes an
attractive fruit punch to be served at any social function.

GENERAL PREPARATION

Much depends on the methods used in picking, assorting, and
cleaning the fruit used in making fruit juices, syrups, and

vinegar.

Picking. — It is important to select only ripe fruit ; green fruit
gives too much acidity to the linished product, while over-ripe or
spoiled fruit imparts a disagreeable taste,
baskets are better adapted for picking, because they prevent

crushing and bruising of the fruit.

Assorting. — Even after careful picking it is
the fruit on the trays, selecting only the sound fruit, and dis

ing the green and rotted fruit.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Washing. — The fruit should be washed carefully to free it
from adhering dust and dirt, which" are always found in more or
less amounts on freshly picked fruits. This is best accomplished
by placing the fruit in a wire basket or colander and allowing a
spray of water to run over the fruit. Often the fruit is bruised
with the hands when washing it in a deep pail of water, so this
method should not be used. It is important to use utensils which
will not be affected by fruit acids, and to preserve in glass storage
containers, in all fruit-juice work.

EXTRACTING JUICES

The amount of work involved is relatively far less when the
juice is extracted in large quantities than in small amounts, be-
cause of the many labor-saving devices that are applicable if one
is handling material in quantities.

FIG. 67. — Household fruit-juice press.

Cold Process. — This process consists of crushing and then
pressing the fruit to facilitate the overflow of juice. An ordinary
cider mill may be used for handling the fruit in quantities, but if
only a small quantity is to be taken care of, the fruit may be
crushed with a potato masher, food chopper, or fruit- juice press
(Fig. 67). After crushing, the fruit is then pressed in a cloth by
twisting the two ends in opposite directions (Fig. 68) until the
greater part of the juice is extracted.

A homemade press may be constructed as follows:

FRUIT JUICES

Figure 69 shows a very efficient lever press which any farmer
\vlio is handy with tools can make for himself from material which
can be found on almost any farm at any time. The press consists
of the following parts : Two upright posts (F) are set deeply and
firmly in the ground, about twelve inches apart. It is well to
atfach cross-pieces (ordinarily known as ''anchors" or "dead
men") to the ends in the ground to prevent the posts from pulling
out too easily. The lever (E) may be hung either between these
[' sts by means of a bolt (T) or to the side of a building, or a
hole large enough to admit the lever may be notched in a tree and

FIG. C8. — Cloth press being twisted.

a lever fastened by a bolt. At the other end are two posts, between
which the lever can be raised by means of block and tackle. The
press itself consists of two timbers (D) on which rests the press
bottom (B). On this bottom is set a press basket (A}, consisting
of two sides and two ends held together by means of rods (I),
and so constructed that it can be easily taken apart and put
together H'jain. The sides and ends are bored full of small holes.
from three-tMirhths to one-half inch in diameter, through which
the juice is pressed. Wlien the press is filled with fruit, the top,
which fits inside the basket, and the cross blocks (/) arc put on

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

and the lever caused to press down on them. A large tub (C)
is placed under the press to catch the juice. The rope running
through pulley block (G) fastened to cross-piece (K) is used to
lift up the lever of the press; while pressure or weights on the
end of the lever (E) work the press.

For ordinary purposes a press basket three feet square and
two feet high, holding a ton of crushed grapes, will be found to

FIG. 69. — Construction of a homemade fruit press.
Drawing made from illustration in U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farming Bulletin No. 758.

be a very convenient size. It is perhaps well to state that the
longer and heavier the lever, the greater the pressure exerted on
the fruit. When it is not convenient to make the lever very long,
weights are placed or hung on the outer extremity in order to
increase the pressure. With a little ingenuity any farmer can
adapt this press to suit his individual requirements. (Figs. 70
and 71.)

Sometimes in pressing grapes for beverages only the "free-
run juice" is desired. This is the juice which is found between
the skin and the pulp. Only sufficient pressure to burst the skin
is necessary to secure this ' ' free-run juice. ' ' This gives a product
which is more brilliant, clear, fragrant, and delicately flavored
than the "total juice."

FRUIT JUICES

Hot Process. — Juices of small fruits may he pn-paivil with
or without previous heating, but healing before pressing increases
the yield of juice, intensities the color, and develops a more dis-

Fio. 70.

Fie;. 71.

In. 70. — Fruit press ready for use.
FIG. 71. —Fruit prt-ss in use. (Courtesy I". 8. Department of Agriculture.)

tinctive flavor than can be obtained by simply cold pressing.
There are, however, a few exceptions. -Juices flow more readily
from fruit when heated than when cold. When the fruit juice is
to be used for jelly-making the hot pressing; is necessary, because
heat is essential to develop the pectin, the jelly-making sub-
stance found in fruit juices.
7

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

If the berries or small fruits are to be heated before pressing,
about one-half the quantity should be crushed with a wooden
potato masher in the vessel in which it is to be cooked before heat-
ing. Place the utensil containing the fruit over a second vessel
containing hot water, so that the fruit may be steamed -instead
of stewed until tender. A better color and flavor will be retained
if the fruit is not allowed to come in direct contact with the fire.
The less juicy fruits require addition of water and a longer heat-
ing to extract the juice.

FIG. 72. — A homemade fruit-juice filter.

Usual factory methods render the pomace, or cheese (the re-
maining pulp), almost dry enough to burn. From an economical
standpoint, squeezing the pulp is considered a good practice, ex-
cept where the free-run juice alone is desired. When the juice
is extracted it may be filtered by allowing it to drip through a
flannel or felt cloth. Both the "free-run juice" and "total
juice" should be carefully strained before bottling. After the
juice has dripped through this filter, allow it to stand while the
bottles are being sterilized, so that the suspended substances

FRUIT JUICES

present will drop to the bottom and render the juice less turbid.
Now the clear juice may be poured off without disturbing the
sediment. The juice which has been strained should be pro-
tected from the dust. This can easily be done if a strainer such as
shown in figure 72 is used.

PACKING

Reheating the Juice. — Some concentrated juices are packed
cold, but thin juices will not keep unless heated to a temperature
of 170° to 100° Fahrenheit. The temperature should never be
allowed to go above 200° Fahrenheit. Fniit juices should never
boil, because boiling injures the eolor and flavor. If a ther-
mometer is not available to regulate the temperature, heat the
juice in a double boiler and allow it to steam or simmer for five
minutes.

FIG. 73. — Bottling fruit juice.

Bottling. — The preparation of fruit juices for bottling in the
proper season requires little time and skill (Fig. 73). The juice
should be poured immediately into hot sterilized bottles, allowing
about one inch at the top for the expansion when the juice in
the bottles is heated. If the juice is strained cold into the bottles
more space'at the top should be allowed for expansion than when
juice is packed hot. When juices are bottled for beverages
addition of a small amount of sugar will produce a finer flavor.

100 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

The proportion varies, but a fair allowance is one cupful of
sugar to one gallon of juice. No sugar should be added to the
juice when it is bottled if it is to be used for jelly-making later.
This method of allowing the bottled juice to stand undisturbed
insures the getting rid of tartaric acid crystals in grape jelly
which are so objectionable. On standing, the tartaric acid crys-
tallizes and the crystals settle. When the juice is to be used for
jelly-making it should be poured off carefully, so as not to dis-
turb the sediment which contains these crystals.

Corking. — Soak new corks for one-half hour in warm soda
water (one teaspoonful of soda to one quart of water), and then
dip them into boiling water immediately before using. The corks
should be placed loosely in the bottle before pasteurizing. Some-
times a small circle of cloth is tied over the cork during pas-
teurization to keep it from blowing out. This is better than
using a patented device. Neither of these will be necessary if
sufficient space is allowed at the top of the bottle when filling with
juice and the water-bath is kept at the proper temperature.

Pasteurizing. — The term "pasteurizing" is used, here in
place of sterilizing because of the low temperature used in heating
fruit juices.

An ordinary wash-boiler makes a simple homemade pas-
teurizer if fitted with a false bottom. This false bottom prevents
the bottles from coming in direct contact with the bottom of
the vessel. A free circulation of water around all sides of the
bottles will keep them from breaking. The vessel should be
filled with water to within one inch of the top of the bottles.
Heat the water slowly and allow it to simmer for twenty to
thirty minutes, the length of time to depend upon the size of
the containers used and the kind of juice being pasteurized.
Testing the temperature of juice in the bottles with a thermometer
gives greater accuracy. If this test is used, allow the corks to
float on the water in the boiler until the pasteurization point is
reached. Heat the juice to 140° to 150° Fahrenheit and hold
this temperature for thirty or forty minutes, cork the bottles,
and cool to temperature of 70° to 75° Fahrenheit before remov-
ing the containers from the water-bath.

FRUIT JUICES

Sealing. — [mmediately after the pastenri/ing the sterili/ed
corks shoiiM In' driven tightly into the hottles lo seal them
securely. IMaee the neck oi' Ilie bottle on the edge of Ilie table
and with a sharp knife cut the corks off even with the tops of
the hottles and seal air-tiirht with melted paraffin or wax (Fig.
74). After cutting the cork, turn the bottle upside down and
dip one inch of the neck into the melted wax, Inrninir the bottle
as it is lifted out to give a smooth coating to the sealing wax.

FIG. 74. — Making sealing wax.

Homemade Sealing Wax. — Melt together equal parts of
shoemaker's wax and resin. This should be done in a pan over
hot water to prevent scorching and to make it n pretty amber
color. Dip the corked bottles into it after it has melted.
Various colors may be obtained by adding the following in given
proportions to the melted wax. To each three pounds of resin
used add :

For red color, ys ounce Chinese vermilion.
For black color, 3 ounces lampblack.
For green color, 5 ounces chrome preen.
For yellow color, 5 ounces chrome yellow, 1 ounce shellac.
For a white sealing wax, melt together 2 pounds white resin, 1 ounce
white varnish, 1 pound beeswax, and % ounce zinc white.

102

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Capping. — If a screw cap is to be placed on the bottle over
the cork, the sealing wax should be omitted (Fig. 75). When a
crown cap is used the bottles of fruit juice are usually pasteurized
open and the cap crimped on by a hand machine immediately
after the pasteurizing (Fig. 76).

Fir;. 75. — Screw-cap bottle.

FIG. 76. — A Ijiind bottle sealing machine. (En-
terprise Manufacturing Company, Philadel-
phia.)

Labelling. — The appearance of the package depends a great
deal on the label. Before labelling, wash and polish each bottle.
Place the label midway between the seams of the bottle and one-
fourth inch from the lower edge. On each label should appear
name of product, net weight stated in pounds and ounces, and
the name and address of packer. Fresh clean labels should be
placed on commercial bottles just before they are packed for
delivery.

KUU1T JUICES

Storing. — All bottled fruit juices should be stored in a cool,
dark, dry place. If left in a bright light tihe color will fade and
the juice will be less attractive. Unfermented juices properly
made and bottled will keep indefinitely if not exposed to the air
or to infection from mold germs. When a bottle is once opened
the contents, like canned goods, should be used as soon as possible.
The bottles or jars should be small enough so that the contents
may be used at once, and not allowed to stand until they spoil.

SPECIAL PRODUCTS

Cider. — Cider making requires a comparatively inexpensive
fcjuipmeut and involves only a small amount of labor. Cider
i> not considered a profitable commercial product, because it is
bulky and perishable. By following the methods given for
bottling other fruit juices, fresh cider may be easily kept through
the year. Usually cider is sterilized at too high a temperature,
which destroys the delicate flavor of the fresh juice and renders
it unappetizing. The length of time cider may be kept open
In- fore it ferments sufficiently to be considered as becoming
"hard" or sour varies with temperature conditions and also de-
pends on the presence of fermenting agents.

Concentrated Cider or Apple Syrup. — The sugar percentage
is low in fresh cider, and it contains so much water that the
market for it is limited. Methods of reducing its bulk and chang-
ing it into an article which will keep throughout the year have
been devised. Attention has often been called to the fact that
when ordinary cider freezes part of the water separates and
freezes, leaving unfrozen a concentrated cider having natural
cider flavor and a reduced water content, a higher percentage of
sugar and other solids. Experiments in boiling down fresh cider
to secure a concentrated syrup gave a product with a distinctly
acid flavor, due to an excess of acid known technically as malic
or apple acid. The problem resolved itself into removing the
excess of acid, and this was finally accomplished by adding car-
bonate or milk of lime to the cider, which precipitates the acid
and. after settling or filtering and boiling, yields a staple and at-
tractive table syrup. This syrup has a fine flavor and will keep

104 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

indefinitely in sealed containers like syrup made from cane or
sorghum. Small quantities for home use can be made with
ordinary utensils.

Method for Making Apple Syrup. — The average farm house-
wife who is provided with a large preserving kettle can easily
make several quarts of apple syrup in her own kitchen. Although
she may not find that she can sell her product profitably, she at
least will find the method valuable in converting the windfalls
of her own farm into a delicate and pleasant syrup for the use
of her family. This product is a palatable and valuable food.

M<thod.1 — To make one gallon of apple syrup, stir into
seven gallons of apple cider five ounces of powdered calcium
carbonate (carbonate of lime), which is a low-priced chemical,
readily obtainable from a local drag store in the form of pre-
cipitated chalk or powdered marble-dust. Heat the cider and
allow it to boil for a few minutes. As the cider will foam
slightly, it is necessary to use a vessel at least one-third larger
than the volume of cider. Pour the cider, after boiling, into
vessels, preferably half-gallon preserving jars, which permit the
condition of the liquid to be observed. Allow the liquid to
settle until perfectly clear. This will take several hours or over
night. After the liquid is perfectly clear and shows a distinct
sediment at the bottom, pour off the clear portion into the
preserving kettle, being careful not to pour off any of the
sediment. Add to the clear liquid a level teaspoonful of the
carbonate of lime and again stir thoroughly. The process is
completed by boiling down the clear liquid. Inasmuch as the
liquid when boiling down foams more than on the first heating,
the kettle should be only one-third full when boiling commences.
Where a large kettle is not obtainable, the liquid will have to
be boiled down in batches. Allow the liquid to boil rapidly. If
the housewife has a thermometer, she should allow the liquid to
boil until it reaches 220° Fahrenheit, Where no thermometer
is at hand, boil the liquid until it reaches about one-seventh of
Hie original volume, or until a small portion when cooled rapidly

1 From Year l!.».k Separate 039, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

FRUIT JUICES 105

and poured from a spoon shows about the same consistency as
maple syrup. The aim is to make a thin syrup rather than one.
that will candy.

When the syrup has readied this point, pour it olV into the
jars and let it stand where it will cool very slowly. Slow cooling
is very important in making the syrup clear, as it allows all
sediment and added substances to settle out completely. A con-
venient way of bringing about this slow cooling is to put the
vessels into a tireless cooker or to put the jars containing the
syrup in a wash-boiler, surround them with hot water, and
allow the whole to cool. When the syrup has cooled to room
temperature there will be found a white sediment, which is known
to chemists as malate of lime, a harmless compound of the lime
and the acid of the apples. This is identical with the product
known as maple sand, which occurs naturally when maple sap
is boiled down into syrup. When the settling lias been com-
pleted, carefully pour off the clear portion of the syrup into a
kettle, heat nearly to boiling, and pour hot into sterilized jars,
which should be at once sealed.

Another method would be to transfer the boiling syrup from
the preserving kettle into the sterilized bottles and seal imme-
diately. The sediment which appears at the bottom in no way
affects the syrup. When ready to serve, simply pour off the
clear portion, leaving the sediment, which is not easily disturbed,
at the bottom. The syrup might also be bottled while cold,
processed, and sealed as for fruit juices. The syrup will be a
clear, ruby-colored product, possibly varying from a deep-ruby
red to lighter shades, according to the character of apples used
in making the cider. This syrup is similar in consistency to
maple syrup, and can be used like any other table syrup. If
made in accordance with these directions it will have a delicate
and novel flavor, somewhat similar to that of the sugar which
forms when apples are baked. It will be found that children
will enjoy it on bread and butter, and that it will afford a nev
and useful flavoring adjunct or sauce for puddings or other
desserts.

106 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Muscadine Grape Syrup. — The process of making Muscadine
grape syrup is very simple, and with proper care an inexperi-
enced operator can succeed. Since the making of grape syrup is
very similar to the methods used in making apple syrup, it is
unnecessary to outline the procedure in detail.

Varieties. — The varieties having the highest natural sugar
and lowest natural acid content usually make the most delicious
and highest quality syrup and also yield the most syrup per
gallon of fresh juice. The Scuppernong, Thomas, Luola, Mish,
and other similar varieties of high quality make the best syrups.
The -James makes a syrup of fair quality, while the Flowers and
Eden varieties make syrups which, relatively speaking, would be
called acid and rough.

Pressing. — Cleanse the various parts of the press; scald it
so that it will swell and will not leak. So soon as each pressing is
completed it is important to remove all pomace from the press
and to wash with clean water all the parts that have come in
contact with the juice. This will prevent fermentation and
souring at the press and the giving of foreign flavors to later
lots of juice.

Crush the grapes and then press them cold. The free-run
or first juice that comes from the press is more desirable for
syrup making than that which is secured under pressure. This
is principally due to the fact that the free-run juice is higher
in sugar content and lower in acid content than the pressed
juice. When pressure is applied the juice flows freely at first
and then at a gradually slower and slower rate for many hours.
The pomace should never be allowed to stand in the press longer
than five or six hours. For many reasons it has been found
desirable to press during the day, cook the juice the first time in
the late afternoon or evening, allow it to stand in the precipitating
jars over night, and boil it down to a syrup the next morning.
A bushel of grapes will yield, when cold pressed, from two and
a quarter to four gallons of fresh juice, depending upon the
variety. Most varieties yield at least three gallons. On this
basis, condensing the juice to one-ninth of its volume, which has

FRUIT JUICES

107

been found to give a syrup of satisfying consistency, one hush. -I
of grapes, cold pressed, should yield one and one-third quarts
of syrup. Heated grapes yield more juice tihan cold-pressed
grapes, but make a syrup of inferior quality.

Heating. — Heat the juice and strain it. To every six quarts
of fresh Muscadine juice stir in two ounces of powdered calcium
carbonate (carbonate of lime) to remove the acids. Boil for
six or eight minutes as with apple syrup, and pour hot into
sterilized glass jars or pitchers. Allow the liquid to stand over
night. Pour off the clear portion into a cooking vessel, being

FIG. 77. — Utensils used iri making Muscadine syrup. (Courtesy U. S. Department of Agri-
culture.)

careful not to pour off any of the sediment. Add one-sixth
of a level teaspoonful of calcium carbonate for each six quarts
of fresh grape juice which it represents.

Complete the process by boiling down the clear liquid, being
careful to keep the caramel forming on the inside of the pan
wiped off with a wet cloth so that scorched caramel will not fall
into the syrup and cause it to have a burned flavor. I>oil the
liquid, being careful not to allow it to burn when it is nearly

108 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

done. Skim during the cooking process and continue the cooking
as for apple syrup.

Cooling. — When the syrup has reached the proper thickness,
pour it off into the jars, cover, and place them in a hot-water
bath or in a tireless cooker where they will cool very slowly.
Slow cooling is important in order to obtain a clear syrup.

When the syrup has cooled to room temperature it can be
bottled.

Bottling. — Pour off the clear syrup, leaving behind the sedi-
ment, which is not easily disturbed. Bottle, sterilize, and seal at
once (Fig. 77).

Fruit Syrups. — Fruit syrups which are left over from can-
ning either small or large fruits should be bottled, pasteurized,
sealed, and stored away to be used for flavoring or making
beverages. A delicious drink is made by adding two or three
teaspoonfuls of fruit syrup and the juice of one-half lemon, to a
glass of cold water. They may also be used for flavoring ice-
creams, sherbets, and other desserts.

Such fruits as peaches, strawberries, and pineapples give
more satisfactory results when made into syrups before bottling.
Sugar helps to develop the flavor of these fruits. Sauces for
sundaes and for flavoring are often made from red cherries,
plums, currants, red and black raspberries, strawberries, black-
berries, apricots, peaches, rhubarb, pineapples, and lemons. A
good proportion to use for berries and small fruits is two cup-
fuls sugar to eacih quart of juice.

For each quart grated fresh pineapple allow two pounds sugar to one
cupful of water.

For each pound apricots, fresh fruit, allow one pound sugar to one pint
of water. tf

For each two pounds peaches, fresh frui^, allow one pound sugar to
one cupful of water.

For each quart rhubarb juice allow two pounds sugar.

For each cupful lemon juice, one tablespoonful of grated rind, allow one
pound of sugar to one cupful of water.

General Method of Preparing Vinegar. — Cider vinegar is fre-
quently made in the country home, but often when this product

FRU IT JUICES KIM

'.s put on the market it is found to 1'all short in one require-
ment or another. The need of a careful study of this process
is necessary, because the expense attached to its production is
small, since Nature does most of the work, and can he utilized
in the home or sold as one of the by-products to increase the
income of the farm.

MAKING CIDER VINEGAR AT IIOMF,'-'

Why Study Was Needed. — The making of eider vine-jar is a
familiar operation in almost every farm home (Fig. 78). The
final product is a necessity on every table, blie small apples
from which it is usually made are of practically no value for
other purposes, the labor and expense of picking them up and
pressing them are slight, and from the time the cider is in the
barrel Nature does the work. Thus the process appears a simple
one, easy to start, and self-operated to its termination in a salable
commodity ; so that the work-burdened farmer, with several
barrels of cider in his cellar, may, in his few moments of leisure,
think with pleasure of this farm operation which will brin--r him
profit without further outlay of strength or money.

Yet vinegar is a food product and, as such, has come under
the eye of state law, which says that to be legally salable the
finished goods must meet certain requirements. Cider vinegar
must contain 4.5 per cent of acetic acid and 2 per cent of cider
vinegar solids before it can be lawfully sold, and frequently
farmers who have made vinegar from pure apple juice only, and
who have stored this under what they believe to be proper con-
ditions for the proper length of time, find that their product
falls short in one requirement or the other. Thus, without
fraudulent intent or attempt at adulteration or dilution, the
homemade vinegar fall* under suspicion. Complaints of this
condition reached the New York station in considerable number
some years ago, and in an effort to find the cause or causes of the
difficulty an extensive investigation of the subject has been made.

'These directions are quoted from X. Y> State Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin Xo. 258, written l.y K. II. Hall.

HO SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Cider has been pressed during different years and from different
varieties of apples, and has been stored under varied conditions,
with and without additions of yeast, "mother" or additional
malic (apple) acid. In all, thirty-six experiments have been
carried through periods of time varying from forty-four months
to seven years. Each sample of cider was analyzed monthly for
ten months and at two-month or three-month intervals after that
time, attention being paid to seven constituents in most of the
analyses; so that a great amount of data has been collected, of
much chemical interest and practical value.

Simple Yet Complex. — As seen by the farmer, vinegar mak-
ing is a simple process ; to the chemist, though less intricate than
many other chemical transformations, it is complex ; while to the
biologist the various steps in the change of sugar in the fresh
apple juice to the acetic acid of vinegar are manifestations of
very complex life activities of many species of organisms, divided
into two great groups, yeasts and bacteria, each group perform-
ing a specific function in the change. There may also come into
action, under certain unfavorable conditions, other bacteria which
hinder the useful transformations, or which destroy the prod-
ucts desired and thus lower the quality of the vinegar. This
interplay of living organisms, sometimes for good, sometimes for
ill, has not been studied in all its details, and has been consid-
ered, in this investigation, only as results were produced, the
chemical transformations alone being considered.

Chemistry of Vinegar Making. — In a general way these
transformations are two: Sugar, the ordinary cane-sugar and
other forms known as invert sugars (dextrose and Isevulose), in
the sweet cider, is first changed into alcohol through the fermen-
tative action of one group cf organisms ; then the alcohol, by the
action of a second group of organisms, is changed to acetic acid.

Chemically considered, each molecule of sugar consists of six
atoms of carbon, twelve atoms of hydrogen, and six atoms of
oxygen. When this molecule of sugar is acted upon by the proper
ferments, it passes through a series of chemical changes which
may be said to result, finally, in splitting it up into two molecules
of alcohol, each containing two atoms of carbon, six of hydro-

FRUIT JUICES

1 I

gen. and one <>f oxygen, and two molecules of carbon dioxide gas,
cadi containing one atom of carbon and two of oxygen. This
may be expressed in the form of an equation :

Sugar Alcohol Carbon diox.de

C6H,,U6 2C2H6O + 2CX)2

Theoretically, we should be aide to get from 100 parts of
sugar by weight about 51 parts of alcohol and 4!) parts of carbon
dioxide ; but because of evaporation and certain minor chemical
changes we can get in practice only about 45 to 47 parts of alco-
hol or less.

After the alcohol is formed, the organisms which act upon
it begin the transformation to acetic acid. In this process oxy-
gen is taken from the air. The result may be similarly repre-
sented by ail equation :

Alcohol Oxygen Acetic arid Water

C6HI2O + 02 = C2H4O2 + H20

Theoretically, again, we should obtain from 100 parts of
alcohol about 180 parts of acetic acid, but we usually get less
than 120 parts. So, starting with 100 parts of sugar in the
apple juice, we may get under favorable conditions from 50 to
55 parts of acetic acid ; therefore to have vinegar with 4.5 per
cent of acetic acid we must have juice containing not less than
8.5 per cent of sugar.

Sugar in Apples. — This percentage, however, is found in
practically all ripe, sound apples, although in a record of about
100 analyses of 80 varieties of American-grown apples, made at
X. Y. station, in Washington, I). C., in Pennsylvania, and in Vir-
ginia, five samples, of as many different varieties, were too low
in sugar to produce vinegar of the required acidity. The sugar
in apples reaches its maximum in ripe fruit, being low both in
those that are green and those that are over-ripe. It averaged, in
the apples used in the tests at N. Y. station, 13% per cent, and
varied less than 2 per cent either above or below the average.
A somewhat surprising fact to those not familiar with the ohera-
istry of the subject is that "sweet" apples do not owe their
sweetness to their large percentage of sugar, but to the small

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

amount of malic acid they contain. For example, the sample of
Red Astrachan juice contained 10.16 per cent of sugar and 1.15
per cent of malic acid; while Tolman Sweet and Sweet Bough
contain about the same amount of sugar, but only 0.10 to 0.20
per cent of malic acid.

Alcoholic Fermentation. — Starting, then, with juice contain-
ing sufficient sugar, what are the conditions which will best
promote the changes to alcohol and to vinegar and prevent loss ?
The sugar must first be acted upon by the enzymes, or ferments,
which are produced by yeast plants. The yeast germs are usu-
ally present everywhere, so that they pass from the surface of
the apples into the juice as it is pressed out, Or fall into the
cider from the air. It has sometimes been held unwise to wash
apples before pressing them, for fear of carrying away the neces-
sary yeast germs; but the apples used in all the station tests
were washed without apparent interference with alcoholic fer-
mentation. If apples have become dirty it is certainly best to
wash them, as otherwise there is danger of introducing bacteria
that interfere with proper fermentation. In ordinary cellar
temperature, most of the sugar is changed into alcohol in five or
six months, the change being slow during the first month, but
quite rapid during the second, third, and fourth months. The
process may be greatly hastened by storing in rooms warmer
than cellars usually are during the fall and winter months. By
placing bottles of vinegar in rooms of different temperature,
running from 55° to 85° Farhenheit it was found that at 55°
only 21/4 per cent of alcohol was formed in three months; at 60°
and 65° Fahrenheit, more than 41/) per cent; and at 70° and
85° Fahrenheit, about 61/. per cent was formed in the same
time. At higher temperatures than this, evaporation of the
alcohol would be liable to cause loss.

The additio.ii of yeast also hastens alcohol formation, so that
at a temperature of 55° Fahrenheit cider with yeast added gave
614 per cent of alcohol, and at 70° Fahrenheit, with yeast, iy±
per cent, both in one month. The use of any form of commercial
yeast, if sufficiently fresh, will probably be found to give good
results.

I i;i n .11 K i -

II:;

Acetic Fermentation. — After the yeast fermentation lias been
completed ill,- acetic-acid forming bacteria begin to attaek the
alcohol ami produce acetic acid. This process is ordinarily very
slow for about three months after the sugar has all been changed
to alcohol (that is, during the eighth, ninth, and tenth months
• if ('.'liar storage), but advances rapidly from the tenth to the
fourteenth month and is practically completed in two years.
This process also moves more rapidly, when once well started, at
higln-r temperatures; but differences of temperature appear to
have little eft'eeT during the three months after the sugar has
disappeared. Ileuinning with the tenth month of storage, how-
s', and up to the end of two and one-half years, nearly twice
a irivat a percentage of acetic acid was produced where the
temperature varied from 50° to 90° Fahrenheit as where it was
from 4") to h'.~) Fahrenheit. The percentage of acid formed at
lower temperatures never became as great as at higher tempera-
tures, though part of the apparent increase in the warm room
was due to evaporation of the water. The best results were
secured at temperatures of 65 = to 70° Fahrenheit.

It is the ordinary practice to add vinegar, especially vine-
gar containing "mother," to the barrels in which vinegar is
makinir : and the investigation proved the practice a most excel-
lent one, as the acetic fermentation was more rapid and more
complete in every case where this form, of inoculation or "seed-
ing" was used. This addition of "mother" is comparable
the addition of a "starter" in souring milk, for the "mother"
is produced by the growth of the acetic bacteria in the presen<-,-
of air and contains large numbers of these bacteria.

It appears to be of advantage in some cases to draw off the
elear portion of the cider after alcoholic fermentation has be- n
completed, leavinir the dregs: and to continue the process in
new. clean barrels or to wash out the settlings and return the
clear liquid to the barrels. This proved of considerable advan-
tage in the case of vinegars stored at low temperatures, but of
Less utility when the vinegar was stored at higher temperatures
where the acetic fermentation proceeded rapidly. Possibly with
cider made from uncleaned apples and carelessly strained juice
8

1 i i SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

the results along this line would be more striking; for the liability
to contamination with undesirable germs would be greater in
such cases.

Loss of Acetic Acid. — In both alcoholic fermentation and
acetic fermentation the air should have free access, especially in
the latter; for, as can be seen by the equation given to explain
the process, oxygen must be added to alcohol to make the acetic
acid, and this must come largely from the air. On this account
the barrels should not be filled more than two-thirds or three-
fourths full with the apple juice or with the "hard" cider. But
when the acetic fermentation has ceased to be active and the
amount of acetic acid is safely above 41/-} per cent the vinegar
should be drawn from the barrels and strained, the barrels
cleansed, the vinegar returned, filling the barrels full, and the
bung driven in tight.

Unless this is done, destructive fermentation may begin and
the acetic acid decrease instead of increasing. In several experi-
ments where the vinegar was held in loosely stoppered casks or
bottles it lost all or nearly all its acid, and in some cases actually
Ic-came alkaline in reaction. This destructive fermentation may
be due to new species of bacteria introduced, or even in some
cases to the same acetic acid-forming species which, when the
alcohol is exhausted, attack the acetic acid itself.

As showing how complex may be the processes passing in
vine'gar, the case may be cited of four one-quart bottles of the
same juice stored under the same general conditions. At the
end of five years bottles A and B contained 5.74 and 5.44 per
cent, respectively, of acetic acid, bottle C 2.10 per cent, and
bottle D gave an alkaline reaction. Bottles A and C contained
nearly three times and bottle B two and one-half times as much
solids as bottle D.

Malic Acid. — The acid of fresh apple juice is not the acid of
vinegar, but a fixed acid called malic acid. This has certain
chemical characteristics which make it quite easily recognizable ;
and so its presence in vinegar has been considered an index to
determine whether the vinegar was or was not truly vinegar from
apples. But these investigations have proved that this acid dis-

FRUIT JUICES ||;,

appears quite rapidly from vinegar, so that in twenty-four
months it had shrunk from an average of 0.55 per cent to 0.02
per cent; while in some older vinegars it had disappeared en-
tirely. The relation of malic acid to cider vinegar is being further
studied.

Legal Standard. — The legal standard of the state for acid, 41/->
per cent of acetic acid, has been upheld fully by these results;
for apple juice from good ripe apples, properly managed in
fermentation, should and does easily give 4i/> per cent of acetic
acid within two years at cellar temperatures and in less time
at higher temperatures.

Concerning solids, the wisdom of the standard is not quite so
clear. In several experiments made in this investigation, vine-
gars made from pure apple juice and well above the limit in acid
contain less than two per cent of solids.

Conditions Producing Poor Vinegar. — Among the conditions
which may produce vinegar below standard are these: (1) The
juice may be poor to start with because made from varieties of
apples low in sugar, from green apples or from over-ripe or d>
caved apples; or the juice may be watered either directly or by
watering the pomace and pressing a second time. (2) The fer-
mentation processes may be delayed or disturbed by using dirty
fruit or unclean barrels, thus affording entrance to undesirable
organisms and causing the wrong kind of fermentation ; the tem-
perature may be too low to insure the necessary activity of favor-
able organisms; or air may be excluded by filling the barrels
too full or putting the bung in too tight so that the bacteria can-
not live and work. (3) The acetic acid may disappear after its
formation, destructive fermentation being encouraged by leaving
the bung-hole of the barrel open or the barrel only partially full.

To Make Good Vinegar. — Briefly summarized, tihe method to
be employed for the manufacture of good vinegar at home, with-
out the use of generators, is this: Use sound, ripe apples, picked
or picked up before they have become dirty, if possible, other-
wise washed. Observe the ordinary precautions to secure clean-
liness in grinding and pressing, and discard all juice from second
pressings. If possible, let the juice stand in some large recep-

L16

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

lade for a few days to settle, then draw off the clear portion into
well-cleaned barrels which have been treated with steam or boil-
ing water, filling them only two-thirds or three-fourths full.
Leave the bung out, but put in a loose plug of cotton to decrease
evaporation and to prevent the entrance of dirt. If these barrels
are stored in ordinary cellars, where the temperature does not go
below 50° or 45° Fahrenheit, the alcoholic fermentation will be
complete in about six months; but by having the storage room
at a temperature of 65° or 70° the time can be considerably
shortened, and the addition of compressed yeast or its equivalent
at the rate of one cake to fiv3 ~ 1]o"« of juice may reduce the
time to three months or less. Use a little water to thoroughly
disintegrate the yeast cake before adding ic to the juice. The tem-
perature should not go above 70° for any length of time, to avoid
loss of the alcohol by evaporation.

. .'• '•:

FIG. 78. — Making vinegar on the farm.

After the sugar has all disappeared from the juice (that is.
when the cider has entirely ceased "working"' as revealed by
the absence of gas bubbles), draw off the clear portion of the
cider, rinse out the barrel, replace the liquid and add two to four
quarts of good vinegar containing some "mother," and place at
a temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. The acetic fermenta-

I KUT JUICES

tion may be complete in three months or may take ei
months, according to the conditions under which it is carried on ;
or if stored in <-ool cellars may take two years or more1. If the
alcoholic fermentation be carried on in the cool cellar and the
barrel be then taken to a warmer place, as outdoors during tli<
summer, the time of vinegar formation may be reduced from
that given above to fifteen or eighteen months. Where the alco-
holic fermentation is hastened by warm temperature storage and
the use of yeast and the acetic fermentation favored by warmth
and a good vinegar "start," it is possible to produce go.nl
merchantable vinegar in ~- "ix or twelve months.

When the acetic fermentation has gone far enough to produ. •••
4.5 to 5 per cent of acetic acid, the barrels should be made as full
as possible and tightly corked in order to prevent destructive
changes and consequent deterioration of the vinegar.

RECIPES

Bottling Juice of Grape Fruit.3 — Bring the grape-fruit juic.-
to the boiling-point in a porcelain-lined or enamelled kettle, pour
it while still hot into sterilized bottles, and seal hermetically.
The juice when so handled will keep indefinitely, and provides a
base for "grapefruitade" or other acid beverages having the
characteristic acid, somewhat bitter, flavor of the fruit. Experi-
ments show, however, that it is highly important that the bottle
be completely filled, so that no layer of air will be left between
the top of the juice and the cork or seal. "When air in any amount
comes in contact with the top of the sterilized juice it will cause
the juice to change its color. In handling the juice it is particu-
larly important that it be kept from coming into contact with
iron or other metals easily acted upon by fruit acids.

The investigators found also that it was possible to freeze the
grape-fruit juice into solid ice and then, by whirling the ice in a
centrifugal machine, to take out a larger part of the water and
leave the solids and flavoring matter of the fruit. This freezing
and concentrating of the juice greatly reduces the bulk and

3 This recipe was prepared by the Bureau of Chemistry. I". S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

118 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

makes a product which can be sterilized by heating and kept
indefinitely.

Clarifying Juice. — Those who wish to make a clear juice may
filter the grape-fruit juice before it is heated by adding to it
from two to three per cent (about three ounces avoirdupois to the
gallon) of infusorial earth well washed with hot water. The
mixture is then forced through a non-metallic filter-press and the
clear juice reheated and boiled. With the freezing process, the
juice is filtered after concentration, about twice the amount of
infusorial earth being used per gallon of concentrate.

The chemists, in connection with this bottling of grape-fruit
juice, notify the public that the same process is not suitable for
bottling the juice of oranges and lemons, which will not retain
their flavor if handled in this way.

While as yet, so far as known, there is no commercial market
for sterilized grape-fruit juice, it is believed that many persons
will find this juice, with the addition of water and sugar, a
pleasant variation from lemonade or limeade. Those who like
grape-fruit should find the beverage inviting. The method is so
simple that those in regions where grape-fruit are cheap and
plentiful can prepare this product on a small scale with ordi-
nary household appliances.

Bottling Grape Juice. — Juice compressed from the various
cultivated grapes can be bottled. Kecipes follow for leading
Southern and Northern varieties.

Scuppernong Grape Juice. — After washing the grapes, crush
while heating them. Fruit juice will flow more readily when the
fruit is heated, but the pulp should not be allowed to boil.
When the pulp is thoroughly soft, strain through a double cheese-
cloth and squeeze as much juice through it as possible, then strain
the juice through a flannel cloth without squeezing. This will
give a clear juice. After this heat the juice to 180° Fahrenheit,
skim and strain into sterilized bottles, place the corks in loosely,
place the bottles on a rack in the water-bath, and pasteurize for
fifteen minutes at a temperature of 180° Fahrenheit. Pound
the cork in tightly, dip the top of the bottle into sealing wax, and
store away in a dark, dry place. If this juice is to be used for a

FRUT .11 K'KS uc,

beverage and sugar is desired, it may he sweetened to taste be-
fore heating and pouring into the buttles.

Scuppernong juice packed in this way can be used for making
jelly later in the season. However, the jelly made from this juice
will not be iirm enough unless half the quantity of the grapes
used are green and the other half ripe. The green grapes will
furnish sufficient pectin to give it the proper consistency, and
the ripe ones will furnish the color and flavor.

Unfermented Concord or Niagara Grape Juice. — To every
five pounds of Concord or Niagara grapes use one pint of water.
Crush grapes, add water, bring to boil, and strain through jelly-
bag. Add one-half cupful of granulated sugar to every quart
of juice. Bring just to a boil and pour into sterilized bottles,
pasteurize, and seal air-tight.

Berry shrub may be made of strawberries, raspberries, or
dewberries. Select sound fruit, wash, measure, and place in a
stone jar. For every four quarts of berries use one quart of vine-
gar. Cover the jar by tying a cheesecloth over it. Stir the berries
daily for three or four days. If the weather is very warm do not
let it stand over three days. Strain without squeezing and put
into kettle, allowing one pound of sugar to each pint of liquid.
Boil slowly for five minutes, bottle, cork, and seal. Dilute with
cold water for serving.

WAYS TO USE FRUIT JUICES

Grape Cup. — To three pints of grape juice add four whole
cloves, one cupful of sugar, the juice of four oranges with one-
half grated orange rind and a few leaves of lemon verbena or
mint. Bring to boiling-point, cool, and let stand to ripen for two
or three hours. When ready to use, stir in the stiffly beaten whites
of three eggs, a quart of unfermented grape juice, and a pint of
water, and serve in tumblers with ice.

Fruit Cup. — Two tablespoonfuls of green tea, two quarts of
boiling water, two cupfuls of sugar, juice of one orange, one cup-
ful of currant juice, juice of two lemons. Pour water over tea.
let stand five minutes, then strain over the sugar: add lemon and
orange juices, cool, and let ripen in a cool place for six hours.

120 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

When ready to serve, add the currant juice, pour over cracked
ice in deep glasses, garnishing each serving with a small, old-
fashioned yellow rose or a sprig of mint. If desired, the cracked
ice may be omitted, the punch being poured over raspberry ice
or peach or pineapple sherbet instead.

Fruit Punch. — One quart of raspberry juice, one quart of
currant juice, three lemons, one pineapple, two quarts of cold
water, three oranges. Sweeten to taste.

Cherry Punch. — Take one quart of cherry juice and add a few
crushed cherries. To one and one-half pints of hot juice and
pulp add three-quarters of a pound of sugar, one cupful of
water, juice of one lemon. When sugar dissolves, cool the mix-
ture and freeze. When half frozen, add beaten white of one egg
and one ounce of crushed cherries.

Grape Punch. — Juice of two lemons, juice of one orange, one
pint of grape juice, one quart of water, one cupful of sugar, one
cupful of shredded canned pineapple or one pint of cherries.
Combine and let stand several hours to ripen before serving.

Orange Ice. — The juice of six oranges and four lemons, five
cupfuls of sugar, and the grated rinds of two oranges. Pour boil-
ing water over other oranges and lemon rinds. Let stand fifteen
minutes and strain. Pour the flavored" water over the other in-
gredients, and add enough cold water to make one gallon. Freeze
and serve in orange glasses or orange skins.

Strawberry Ice. — Two cupfuls of water, three-quarters cupful
of sugar. Boil from five to ten minutes. Add one cupful of
strawberry juice, one-half or one tablespoonful of lemon juice,
one or two sheets of gelatin. Soak gelatin in little water. Bring
sugar and water to boil. Pour over gelatin. Stir until dissolved
and strain into strawberry juice. Freeze.

Raspberry Ice. — One quart of raspberry juice, one quart of
water, three tablespoonful s of lemon juice, three and one-quarter
cupfuls of sugar. Boil sugar and water for twenty minutes ; cool,
add berry juice and lemon juice, and freeze in three parts ice to
one part salt. For a rose-colored ice use only the red berries, but
for a rich wine color use part or all black raspberries.

Raspberry Float. — Take one-half cupful of red raspberry

h'UUT .UK ES

L21

juice and one cupful of fruit. .Mix in gradually two tablespoon-
fuls of powdered sugar. Beat the whites of two eggs until stiff
and fold into them the sweetened raspberries.

Blackberry Flummery. — Boil one quart of blackberry juice.
Kiih together four tablespoonfuls of corn-starch and four tea-
spoonfuls of sugar, add to fruit juice, and boil for ten minutes.
Strain, cool, and serve with cream or custard.

Grape Frappe. — One pint of grape juice and one pint of
watt-r. I teat to boiling-point and strain through cheesecloth.
Add juice of two lemons and one-half cupful of sugar. Strain
and freeze.

Fruit Nectar. — One quart of hot water, one pint of grape-
fruitade, one egg-white, one-half cupful of finely chopped mint
leaves, two cupfuls of sugar, four oranges, four lemons. Boil
the sugar and water for ten minutes. Cool, add the fruit juice,
and freeze in three parts ice to one part salt. When half frozen,
add the egg-white well beaten. Pack in ice and salt two or three
hours to ripen. When ready to serve, half fill tall glasses with
the ice and pour over the grapefruitade, which should be freshly
opened. Scatter finely chopped, fresh, or candied mint leaves
over each serving.

Apollinaris Tea. — Two quarts of apollinaris water, one gallon
of strong tea, three dozen lemons, one-half dozen oranges cut in
small pieces with peelings, one quart of cherry juice, one quart
of grape juice ; sweeten to taste. Serve with crushed ice in punch-
bowl. This makes enough for one hundred people.

QUESTIONS

1. For \vliat purposes may bottled fruit juices be used in the home?

2. At what point should care begin in our endeavor to secure a good bot-

tled fruit juice?

3. Why cannot green fruit or over-ripe fruit be used in making an ex-

cellent fruit juice?

4. Why would bruising the fruit in packing or by careless washing produce

an inferior product .'

5. What is meant by the " free-run juice" of the grape? What method is

used in obtaininir it? For what purpose is it used? How does free-
run jnici' dill IT from the total juice?

G. What advantage has the juice obtained by the hot process ovrr that ob-
tained by the cold process?

122 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

7. Why is the hot process necessary when the juice is to be used in jelly

making?

8. How may the color and flavor be retained when using the hot process?

9. Why should fruit juices not be boiled? How may they be reheated with-

out danger of boiling?

10. What precautions are necessary in handling the filtered juice that the

product may be as clear as possible?

11. What is the difference between pasteurization and sterilization?

12. What precaution should be taken to prevent the corks blowing out during

the pasteurization?

13. What fact makes necessary the false bottom in all canners and pas-

teurizers?

14. What is meant by the term " simmer '".' How can you tell when water

is simmering?

15. Why is it necessary to cover the cork and one inch of the bottle with

wax ?

16. Why is it necessary to store fruit juices in a dark place?

17. How will economy determine the size of the bottle prepared for home

use?

18. Under what conditions would the making of apple syrup be economical

on the farm?

19. Give an outline of the method for making grape syrup, including under

each step the special care needed that the final product may reach the
standard desired.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. " Creole Cook Book," 1914. Published by the I'icdi/iine, New Orleans, La.

By mail, $1.25.

2. BEARING, CHARLES T., United States Department of Agriculture, Farm-

ers' Bulletin 758, "Muscadine Grape Syrup," 1916. Can be secured
from the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

3. FARMER, FANNIE MERRITT, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1907.

Published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80.

4. GORE, H. C., United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of

Cheminstry, " Studies on Fruit Juices," Bulletin No. 241, June, 1915.
Can be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington. D. C. 5 cents.

5. HALL, F. H., and VAN SLYKE, L. L., New York Agricultural Experiment

Station, " Making Cider Vinegar at Home," Bulletin No. 258, De-
cember. 1904. New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva,
N. Y.

fj. HUSEMANN, GEORGE C., United States Department of Agriculture, Farm-
ers' Bulletin No. 644, " Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape
Juice." April, 1915. Can be secured from the Secretary of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C,

FRUIT .JUICES 123

7. KKEX, ADELAIDE, " With a Sauce Pan Over tlie Sea," 1902. Published
by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $l.f>0.

S. SMITH, FUANCKS LOWE, " Recipes and Menus for Fifty," 1!H:J. I'ul>
lished l>y Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. $l.f>0.

9. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, " Apple
Syrup and Concentrated Cider''; ''New Products for I'tili/.ing Sur
plus and Cull Apples." liy 1 1'. C. (!ore, Yearbook Separate C30, from
Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1!)14. Can be pur-
chased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Oilice, Washington, 1). C. 5 cents.

10. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Do-

mestic Commerce, " Pineapple Canning Industry of the World."

11. VAN SLYKE, L. L., "Chemistry of Homemade Cider Vinegar," New

York Experiment Station Bulletin No. 258. Geneva, New York.

CHAPTER IX

FRUITS FOR CANNING

Apples. — Only sound, smooth, medium-sized cooking apples
should be canned. The late fall and winter varieties are usually
slightly acid, and they retain their flavor better than do the sweet
varieties. Apples shrink more in canning than most fruits, and
for this reason they should be blanched for one minute, then
plunged into a cold bath, packed, and covered with a syrup of 10
to 15 degrees density (see p. 132).

Process quart jars ten minutes. Exhaust No. 3 cans two min-
utes and process eight minutes at boiling temperature (212°
Fahrenheit ) in water-bath.

Apple Sauce. — Peel, core, and steam the apples until soft, run
through colander, return to the fire and heat thoroughly, pack
hot into cans or jars, and seal at once. Process ten minutes at
212° Fahrenheit in a hot-water bath.

Berries. — For dewberries, blackberries, raspberries, and
Logan berries, practically the same methods of canning may be
used. The condition of the fruit will have much to do with the
quality of the product. The berries should be gathered in shal-
low trays or baskets and not in deep vessels which allow them to
be bruised and crushed. They should be uniformly ripe, sound.
and as large as possible. It is necessary to can all varieties of
berries in glass or else to put them in enamel-lined cans, be-
cause if canned in ordinary tin cans the berries will lose both
color and flavor very quickly, and be unfit for use or for sale.

The flavor of canned berries will be finer if sugar is used in
canning. It is best to make this into a syrup. The use of berry
juice instead of water in this syrup will give a richer color and
flavor. For fine berries, use a syrup of 30 degrees density (about
three and one-half pounds of sugar to one gallon of berry juice or
water).

After the berries have been carefully sorted and lightly washed
124

FIM1TS FOR CANNING

by placing; in colander and pouring water over them (instead
of putting into a pan of water), pack as closely as possible with-
out crushing. This can be done better by putting a few berries in
the jar or can, pressing them gently into place, and proceeding
layer by layer, than by nearly filling the jar loosely ;md then try-
ing to press them down.

Fill jars full of fruit and cover with cooled syrup. Fit the
rubber in place and fasten the lid loosely on glass jar and then
process pints for six minutes and quarts for twelve minutes,
counting the time after boiling begins. When packing in tin
cans, fill them to within one-quarter of an inch of the top, cover
with syrup. Dry the groove around the opening with a clean
cloth and cap. Exhaust in tin for three minutes and process Xo.
2 cans for eight minutes and Xo. '•} cans for ten minutes. Xo.
Id's should be exhausted four minutes and processed for thirty
.minutes.

Cherries. — Cherries keep their flavor and color with difficulty
in tin, even in enamel-lined cans. For this reason glass is prefer-
able. The large black and sweet white cherries are usually packed
iinpitted, while the reverse is true of the acid cherries. The un-
pitted cherries present a better appearance, and many people
like the distinctive tlavor which the retained pit gives to the
product. When cherries are canned whole they should be
blanched in hot water at about 180° Fahrenheit for twenty or
thirty seconds. This will slightly soften the fruit and prevent
splitting. Then drop cherries into a cool syrup and they will
plump considerably before packing eold into jars. For sour
cherries use a syrup of 40 degrees density, and for sweet ones
use a 30-degree syrup (see Syrup table, p. l:J2>. Process
quart jars for twenty -five minutes; exhaust Xo. 2 cans for two
minutes and process for twenty minutes in a water-bath at boil-
ing temperature (212° Fahrenheit). Both the exhausting and
processing of cherries in quart jars are accomplished at the same
time.

Figs. — Figs for canning should be sound and firm (Fig. 79).
Treat them with a soda bath as for preserving. Kinse thron-_rli
two cold-water baths, drain and cook for forty to sixty minutes in

126 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

the syrup (two cupfuls of sugar, four cupfuls of water). Cool,
pack, and cover with the syrup and process for thirty minutes
in quart jars. When canning in tin the figs retain a better
color and flavor when canned in enamel-lined cans.

Gooseberries. — Because of extreme acidity green gooseberries
can be safely canned without processing. The berries are picked
when nearly full grown, but green. Stem, wash, pack into jars,
cover with fresh cold water, and allow the jars to stand for ten
minutes. Drain off the water and again fill to overflowing with
fresh cold water and seal, using sterilized rubbers and lids.
Gooseberries canned in this way are used for pies.

Rhubarb may be canned in the same manner as gooseberries.

Peaches. — Sort the fruit, using firm, sound, uniform peaches
for canning, and putting aside the soft, broken ones for jam. A
few very large peaches are sometimes canned whole in a heavy
syrup and are called Melba peaches.

Firm, perfect peaches may be lye peeled, but if very ripe the
fruit is made too soft by this process. The lye method of peeling
is superseding the former methods of peeling by hand or by
boiling water. The objections to this method were 110 doubt due in
some measure to improper usage. Have ready a boiling lye solu-
tion (four tablespoonfuls of concentrated lye to one gallon of
water). Drop the peaches into this for about twenty to thirty
seconds, lift them out, and drop into clear boiling water for a
like period. After this place them into a cold bath, when the skins
will come off easily. Cut them into halves, remove the seeds,
and immerse fruit in a hot syrup testing about 30 to 40 degrees
with a "Brix" spindle. The percentage of solids in a liquid is
indicated by the reading at the surface of the liquid when the
Brix hydrometer is floated in it (pp. 131 and 132). Allow them
to stand in this syrup until thoroughly cold, then pack, placing
the halves in overlapping layers, the concave surface of each half
being downward and the blossom end facing the glass. Fill each

NOTE. — If the peaches are not firm, they may be peeled by lowering
them in a wire basket or cheesecloth into boiling water until the skins slip
easily (about one minute), remove, plunge for a minute into cold water, and
slip off the skins (Plate I).

.RY!

ASTOR, L

IONS

FRUITS FOR CANNING

FIG. 79. — Fig packs.

l'i'.. SO. — Attractive packs of canned fruits: a. Borries. b. Pears, c. Fruit salad.

128

SUCCESSFUL CANMiNU AND PRESERVING

jar or can with strained syrup and paddle care-
fully to remove air bubbles. Exhaust No. 3 cans
three minutes, process for fifteen minutes. In
glass, process quart jars for twenty minutes and
half gallons for thirty-five minutes.

Pears. — Select pears ripe, but not soft. Some-
times whole Seckel pears are canned, but the
Bartlett pear is preferred to other varieties for
canning, due to its texture and flavor. Pare,
blanch, put into a cold soda batli (one teaspoonful
of soda to one gallon of water), drain and pack
rapidly. When packed whole, leave stems on and
place each layer stems up, letting the second row
fill the spaces between the two stems, and repeat.
If the pears are to be cut they should be pared,
evenly divided into halves, and cored. The fruit
must be kept submerged in water after being
pared or it will discolor quickly. Eight or ten
large, perfect pieces, covered with syrup, will give
a good pack. Pack pears, cover with a syrup
of 20 to 30 degrees density, and process quarts for
thirty minutes ; exhaust No. 3 cans three minutes
and process for twenty-five minutes at 212°
Fahrenheit in a water-bath.

Plums. — The green-gage, yellow egg, and Lom-
bard are the varieties of plums used for can-
ning. Only sound, uniform fruit should be
selected; stem, wash, grade, prick with needle to
prevent bursting, pack as firmly as possible with-
out crushing, cover with a syrup of 40 degrees
density, and process quarts for fifteen minutes;
exhaust No. 2 cans two minutes and process ten
minutes, counting the time after the water-bath
begins boiling. Enamel-lined cans are necessary
when packing plums in tin.

Olives. — The canned ripe olive has been used
lGhydr7me?ealhn8 in tn^s country almost exclusively as a condiment,

FRUITS IMI; , \\\ING

L29

owini: partly to price and partly to the irregularitv of the
product. It has iiiinsually high nutritive value and a peculiar
pleasing taste, tWO elements which c< nil luei K I it as ;i food, provided

the consumer can depend upon getting these qualities. Tin- meth-
ods of packing are in a more or less
experimental stage, and improve-
ment is constantly being made.

The .Mission olive is preferred
I'm- canning, owing to the superior
flavor and better texture. A recipe
for handling olives is quoted under
the chapter on "Pickling," p. 217.

Fruit Macedoine. — A eombina-
tion of fruits makes an attractive
pack i:i a .">i>- to 4< (-degree syrup,
and it is a convenient product to
have on hand, since it is ready to
serve either as a fruit cocktail,
salad, or dessert. Some of these
combinations may be more easily
obtained in one section of the
fountrv than another. Anv light-

«/

colored fruits will make a pleasant
mixture:

(a) ( Ireen-gage plums, pears,
and gooseberries.

(b} Pineannlp<s 1-n n-itu <',<r* Fia. 82.— A brass cup which can b«
leappies, KUmquatS, tigs, used in place of glaas cylmder for test-

\'ery often fruits such as berries are not included in these com-
binations, because they would discolor fruits of lighter color and
would have the tendency to lose their form (Fig. 80).

• iolden dressing is a pleasing addition to this mixture when
served in any of the above-mentioned ways.

Special Hydrometers. — In order to proceed with certainty
instruments called hydrometers have been devised for accurately
measuring the density of liquids. The one used for the special
purpose of measuring the density of sugar solutions is known a--
a saccharometer. There are three different kinds of sugar hy-

130

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Kl;UT> I OB CAXXlMi

1:11

drometers used; namely, Hailing, Urix, ami Uaume. Tin- readings

are the -;iine mi the Ualli;i._r and Urix instruments. Uoth indi-
cate tlir percentage of sugar present in a solution of water. If
I he Uaume is used, ;i tahle slaving the percentage of sugar eorre
spondiug t.» the degrees Urix is necessary for these recipes. This
hydrometer is not snitaUe i'or use in preserving, since the read-
ings should he converted into terms of either Urix or Ualling.
The Urix instruments may he secured with a range of xero to :{()
degrees or :{o to (id degrees graduated in tenths of a degree, and
the Ualling with a range of /ero to 70 degrees graduated in
halves of degrees i Kiir. SI). This latter instrument is the one
shown in the illustration. Its range prevents the necessity »f

FIG. 84. — Cleansing rubber rings.

buying two spindles, and it is accurate enough for ordinary use
in canning and preserving. For testing fruit juices in jelly
making, an instrument Avith scale ranging from zero to '30 de-
grees and graduated in tenths of degrees is used. The Ball HILT
scale shown in The illustration is inexpensive.

I'snit/ the Instrumt-ntf;. — AVheii placed in sufficient water ti>
cover it, the spindle floats and the reading at the surface will he
zero. If put in a heavier liquid than water, it will float, hut at a
different level. By adding solids, in the form of sugar, to water,
the density increases and the spindle rises. In using a sa<-
charometer it is necessary to have a vessel of sufficient depth in
which to float it to make the readings. This should he very nar
row so as not to require a large quantity of syrup to measure iK

132

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

density. A 250-cubic centimetre glass cylinder or a brass sac-
charometer cup is used (Fig. 82).

Sometimes a tall, slender olive bottle will serve this purpose.
The instruments are fragile and only accurate when used for
testing syrups at the temperature indicated on the spindle. These
instruments will lose their accuracy if too frequently dipped into
very hot solutions. The spindles may be secured mercury
weighted or weighted with shot.

Amount of sugar used for syrup of different degrees, using a
gallon of water as a basis to which the sugar is added :

SUGAR SYRUP TABLE.

Quantity of sugar
Density,

degrees,

Water

Brix or

Balling Pounds Ounces

Per 1 gallon water.

14.8

Per 1 gallon water.

7.5

Per 1 gallon water.

14.75

Per 1 gallon water.

12.5

Per 1 gallon water.

7.75

Per 1 gallon water.

8.75

Per 1 gallon water.

5.25

Per 1 gallon water.

55 10

Per 1 gallon water.

60 12

Per 1 gallon water.

If a hydrometer is not available, see note under Syrup table, page So. Working 'without

hydrometer.

QUESTIONS

1. Why are glass or enamel-lined cans necessary for canning berries?

2. Describe how to pack berries that the best results may be obtained.

3. Of what should the syrup be made which is to be used in the canning of

berries?

4. Why may green gooseberries be safely canned without processing?

5. Describe in detail the " lye method " of peeling peaches. What are the

advantages in usins this method? When is it unwise to use it?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

See Chapter X, page 147.

CHAPTER X

VEGETABLES FOR CANNING

Brine used for packing most of the vegetables is made of
two and one-half ounces of salt to one gallon of water, except fur
asparagus, for which a heavier brine is used which contains four
ounces of salt to one gallon of water.

Seasoning. — A seasoning mixed in the proportion of one part
of salt and two parts of sugar is used in some canned vegetables.
Two level teaspoonfuls of this mixture should he added to each
(jtiart jar or Xo. :$ can of tomatoes, and one teaspoon t'nl added
to each Xo. 2 can. This mixture is also used for peas, lima beans,
and corn. The flavor of these products is much superior to those
canned without sugar and salt seasoning.

Asparagus. — Select only young, tender asparagus for can-
ning. It should be packed immediately to preserve it at its best.
The stalks should be graded as to size and washed carefully to
prevent any staining from the soil. The stalks are tied into
bundles and blanched from three to four minutes. On account
of the tips bring more tender than the stalks, place the lower
ends in the blanch first, allow them to stand for two or three
minutes, and then emerge the entire bundle for one or two
minutes longer, then plunge into cold water. The asparagus is
again carefully graded into white and green lots and packed
laiet'ully, having the lips up. Fill the cans or jars with brine
i four ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process inter
mittently for one hour on each of three successive days in a hot-
water bath : or in a >3team canner for thirty minutes at a
temperature of 240° Fahrenheit, under ten-pound steam pressure.
Asparagus which has been allowed to stand over night has lost
much in color and flavor; it should be canned immediately after
cutting.

Artichokes. — A very small amount of this vegetable is park'-d
in this country. The domestic artichokes have a thicker "biscuit '
OTI the base of the leaves than the imported.

133

13-i SUCCESSFUL CANNING- AND PRESERVING

Select burr heads uniform in size, remove the larger outer
leaves and tie the others together, then blanch for five minutes,
pack into jars and cover with brine (two and one-half ounces of
salt to one gallon of water). Process pint jars and Xo. 2 cans
in boiling-water bath for one hour. Sometimes just the hearts, or
' ' biscuits ' ' as they are often called,, are packed. The base of the
flower should be one to one and one-half inches in diameter and
half an inch thick when the leaves are removed. The vegetable
is blanched and dipped into a cold bath before being trimmed.
They are then packed into the jars and covered with brine and
processed in the same manner as the whole heads.

This vegetable is considered a delicacy. It is used almost ex-
clusively in the hotel trade. One difficulty in packing this vege-
table is that it turns dark while packing and becomes unattrac-
tive in appearance, though the flavor may be unchanged.

String Eeans. — The green "Refugee" and "Stringless Green
Pod" are good varieties for canning. Beans should be picked
while still young and tender and should be canned very fresh.
When the beans within the pods have grown to any size canning
is more difficult and the finished product is poor. The beans
should be graded according to thickness, and only small, tender
beans should be used for canning. String the beans and cut
them into two-inch lengths; cutting diagonally, or "on the bia<."
gives an attractive product. Blanch for three to five minutes in
a soda bath (one teaspoonful of soda to one gallon of water),
plunge into a cold salt bath (one tablespoonful of salt to one quart
of water) for twenty to thirty seconds. This treatment will assist
in preserving the green color, and the finished product will be
more attractive. Drain well and pack quickly. The beans may
be packed in log-cabin fashion in square jars. If the beans
are to be packed whole, they should be cut into even lengths,
packed in the jars, covered with brine (two and one-half ounces
of salt to one gallon of water) , and processed in the hot-water bath
intermittently : or they may be treated in a steam canner for
forty-five minutes at a temperature of 240° Fahrenheit, under
ten pounds steam pressure, which will be sufficient to sterilize
beans in quart jars and Xo. 2 cans.

\ KCK.T AKI.Ks KOI; CAXXIXc;

Wax Beans. — Tin- wax beans are handled in the same way as
the string beans. Sometimes the seasoning of sugar and sail is
added to this product when packing. Exhaust No. L' cans three
minutes and process intermittently.

Lima Beans. — There are two varieties of lima beans — the
vine or pole variety and the bush variety. The first named is
used for drying and the last for canning green. This vegetable
should be gathered when the beans are in prime condition and
sorted carefully. The very large beans, that look starchy and
have the appearance of soaked beans, are often canned for succo-
tash in the section of the country where corn and beans mature
at the same time. After blanching the beans, till the cans, add
brine (two and one-half ounces of salt to one gallon of water),
exhaust and process in the same manner as for string beans.

Baby Beets. — Beets used for canning should be of uniform
deep-red color throughout. The best variety of beets for canning
is the "Detroit."' From a standpoint of quality, only young,
tender beets should be canned. Sort, putting uniform sixes to-
gether, steam for about twenty minutes, or boil until three-
fourths cooked, to loosen the skins. Do not allow cold water to
touch the beets after they have been cooked, as it sometimes
causes them to lose color. Peel and pack whole those beets which
average one inch in diameter: those above two inches are cut
into slices. Cover the beets in the cans with clear, hot water.
The flavor of the finished product is better if no seasoning is
added during the canning. Process -quart jars one to two hours,
exhaust No. '_' cans for three minutes and proces
quarts, or in a steam carmer for 30 minutes at a temperature
of 2'JS Fahrenheit,

Beets should never be packed in tin unless the cans are enamel
lined. About thirty baby beets to each No. 2 can is considered a
good pack: by weight sixteen ounces of beets and four ounces of
liquor give a standard pack (Fig.

Carrots. — Carrots used for canning should be young and
tender and not more than one and one-half inches in diameter.
They are washed, scraped carefully, steamed or boiled until three

136

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND J'lfKSKKVIXiJ

T. * t

3
O

a
O

to
o

•8

§
a

c
a

in
r.

\ EGETABLES H'K CANNING

fourths cooked, and cut into lengths of the can, sliced or diced.
Fill the jars or cans and cover with brine (two and one-l,
ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process for one hour.

An attractive pack of carrots in glass may be made by plac-
ing th.- circles in layers, fitting the second layer into the sj>..
left by the first layer and repeating until the jar is filled. Tin-
center should be tilled in as each outside layer is placed HirainM
the glass.

Corn. — In the canning of corn much depends upon the careful
selection of t.-nder. juicy corn before it reaches the starchy sta.
If allowed to grow beyond the? point of greatest succulence it be-
comes tough and dry. The sweet white variety is preferable
canning. The Western yellow corn is less succulent. Corn grows
stale very quickly and 1 ses its flavor, therefore it should never he
allowed to stand louder than a few minutes after being snapped
from the stalks before canning. Blanch on the cobs from one to
three minutes. There are different procedures followed in cutting
the kernels from the cob: the kernels may be cut very close
the cob and no scraping done; this will give a canned corn with
nearly whole separate kernels in the brine. By another method
the cutting may be done in such a manner that the outer end of
the grain is cut off first, and then the lower part of the kernel
is removed by a second cutting: this cutting will give a creamy
consistency to the finished product. Another style of cutting :
corn from the cob is to slit the end of the kernels and sque
out the contents; this will give a hull-less product similar to the
commercial "Kornlet." After removing the corn from the cob
it may be packed into tin- j::rs or cans cold to within one inch of
the top: add one and one-half teaspoonfuls of the salt-and-sugar
mixture to each jar or can and cover with clear water: paddle
to allow the liquid to permeate to the bottom of the containers.
Exhaust No. _ tin cans for ten minutes, process intermittently,
cooling immediately ;:fter each processing by plunging the cans
into cold water. If canning in <_rlass. process quart jars iir
mittently. raising the damp during each processing: for «•<

expands in iking and the jars may be broken unless the lids

loosened during each pr i^~.

138 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

A product of more uniform consistency can be obtained by
heating the corn with the seasoning (sugar, salt, and a little
water) before packing it into the cans. This will cause the ex-
pansion of the kernels before packing, and the result will be a
fuller pack and shorten the time of the exhaust to five minutes
instead of ten minutes, if the corn is packed hot into hot cans.
It may seem that the heating of the pulp complicates or lengthens
the process, but the time saved in exhausting and the condition
of the finished product make it worth while.

Take every precaution to have good rubbers, and keep the
process at boiling-point for the entire time. The steps in the can-
ning of corn should follow in rapid succession, allowing one hour
from the time the corn is gathered until it is sealed in the can
ready for the process. If processed or sterilized in a steam retort,
eighty minutes under a fifteen-pound pressure will be suf-
ficient for heavy corn ; or, if a water-bath is used, canned corn
should be processed intermittently for one hour on each of three
successive days.

Lye Hominy. — Use the sweet flat corn. Most early varieties
of sweet corn, of which "Stowell's Evergreen" is an example,
have the flat kernels. To obtain best results in preparing lye
hominy, dissolve two ounces of concentrated lye in one gallon of
boiling water ; drop the corn into this solution and boil rapidly for
twenty-five to thirty minutes. Drain and drop into cold water. If
possible, allow cold water to run over it for three or four hours
to remove all traces of the lye. After this, place in a barrel churn
and turn the churn for five to ten minutes to remove the hulls
and black eyes. After removing the hulls, place the corn in an
enamelled, kettle, cover with clear boiling water, and cook until
tender. Wash again and remove any hulls or eyes which you
failed to take off in the churn. Enamel-lined cans or glass should
be used for packing hominy. Fill the cans to within one-half
inch of the top and cover with brine (two and one-half ounces
of salt to one gallon of water). Cap and exhaust for ten min-
utes. Process in No. 2 cans intermittently in a hot-water bath,
or in a steam canner for fifty minutes under a fifteen-pound
steam pressure. This product is more easily sterilized in No. 2

V K< ; KTA ISLKS FOR CANN I N( ', , ;;,

cans. It is very important that all trace of tin- lye In- removed
before packing the hominy into the cans.

Okra. — Select young, tender pods, removing the stem end
without cutting into the seed sections, blanch in the soda bath < as
for beans), plunge into the cold salt bath, drain, pack into jars,
cover with brine, and process the same as for beans. This
product is used almost exclusively in Southern cookery and is not
generally known in the North. If the okra is 1o be packed for
soups, it may be sliced after blanching, as it is hard to cut after
canning. If a steam canner is used, process for thirty minutes
under a ten-pound steam pressure (Fig. 85).

Peas. — Peas are more difficult to can than most other vege-
tables, and special care should be taken in handling them. Use
only fresh, young peas. They should be gathered in the early
morning and canned as soon as possible. Work should be done

rapidly, and the peas should not stand after being shelled. Shell
and sort, putting peas of the same she and grade of maturity to-
gether. He sure not to use hard, ripe peas among the tender
ones. The peas are blanched according to their age and size until
well done: this pi-events a cloudy liquor and makes the peas
tender, also removing some of the gluey substance which some-
times coats the peas. The very young, tender peas need scarcely
more than one to two minutes' blanch, while the very old ones
may need twenty minutes'. The time should be sufficient to make
the peas tender, otherwise they will remain hard in the processing.
The peas are blanched in the soda bath and dipped into the
cold salt water for twenty to thirty seconds after blanching, the
same as for beans. Tack the peas to within one-half inch of the
rop of the jars or cans. If the cans are too full, some of the peas
may burst during the processing and make the liquor cloudy. Put
one and one-half level teaspoonfuls of the salt-and-sugar mixture
JM each Xo. 2 can. Cover the peas with water, exhaust No. '2 cans
three minutes, and process in hot-water bath intermittently one
hour on each of three successive days. Tf the peas are very small
and tender, forty-five minutes to each processing will be sufficient.
Cool the tins quickly after each processing. This may be done by
plunging the cans into cold water. Process quart jars one hour

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

on each of three successive clays. Xo. 2 cans of peas may be
sterilized in a steam retort for forty-five minutes under a ten-
pound steam pressure.

Pimientos. — The peppers should be picked in the early morn-
ing and handled carefully to prevent bruising. This can be done
by placing them in shallow trays, from which they can be easily
sorted. The medium-sized, uniformly sound peppers should be
canned whole. The irregular, broken ones may be cut into
strips and canned or used in relishes, sauces, or soup mixtures.

Select sound, uniform pimientos of medium size. To remove
seeds, cut around the stem of each with a slender paring knife and
remove the inside partitions. To peel, place the peppers in a hot
oven from six to ten minutes (until the skin blisters and cracks),
being careful not to allow them to burn. Then remove the skin
with a slender paring knife. Flatten the peppers and pack in
horizontal layers. No liquid is used in canning pimientos. The
processing brings out of the pimientos a thick liquor, which almost
covers them in the can or jar. Cap and exhaust Xo. 1 cans for
two minutes and Xo. 2 cans for three minutes. Tip and process
in hot water at boiling temperature (212° Fahrenheit), 'the Xo. 1
cans for twenty minutes, the Xo. 2 cans for thirty-five minutes.
When canning in glass the pint, jars should be well filled, then
capped and processed for twenty-five minutes at 212° Fahrenheit
(Fig. 86).

Chile Peppers. — The long, sweet green Chile peppers are
picked and canned when full grown. Unlike the pimientos, the
Chile peppers are canned before any tint of red appears. The
pods may be dropped into hot oil to loosen the skins from the
fleshy part. As soon as they are cool remove the skin, stem, and
press out the seeds, leaving the Chile as nearly whole as possible,
roll the Chile peppers and pack into cans, cover with brine, using
one ounce of salt to one gallon of water, process the same as for
pimientos (Fig. 87).

Pumpkins. — The best pumpkins for canning are those which
color and ripen evenly. Wash the pumpkin, cut into slices, and
steam until tender. Remove the pulp from the shell and heat it
thoroughly in a pan over boiling water. A double boiler is a

VEGETABLES mil CAXNINC

II!

convenient utensil to use for this pnrpos,-. Spices may be add. d
to the ])uiiii)kiii if d^ired, and the flavor obtained by c-ookin-r
spires in at the time of canning is better than making the addition
at the time of using. The following proportion of ground spi
is generally used : For each quart of steamed strained pumpkin

\'\~^=^^

\\ IV

FIG. 86. — Koasting and packing pimicntos.

add one-half cupful of brown sugar, two teaspoonfuls of chum
mon. one tcaspoonful of salt, and one teaspoonful of gingei-. Stir
thf pulp until of a smooth, even consistency, pack into cans or
jars while hot, and process in a water-bath intermittently one

hour on each of three successive days or process in a steam-

142

CANNING AND ['RESERVING

pressure outfit for sixty-five minutes under ten pounds pressure.
Rhubarb. — Select rhubarb which has matured quickly. Trim
off the upper and lower ends, wash and cut into even lengths.
It may be packed in long strips in glass or it may be cut into
inch lengths. Fill the jars as tightly as possible without crushing
the pieces, and add water or syrup. As sugar is necessary when
using the rhubarb, it is better that it be added at the time of can-

FIG. 87 — Attractive pepper packs in the center.

ning.

If syrup is desired, use one-half cupful of sugar to one
quart of water. Rhubarb when packed in tin must be put into
enamel-lined cans. It is usually preferred when canned in glass.
Process No. 2 cans and quart jars in hot-water bath for fifteen
minutes at 212° Fahrenheit.

Spinach. — Prepare the spinach by picking off all the dead
leaves and cutting off the roots. Cover one peck of spinach for
two minutes with scalding water in which vou have dissolved one

\ KCKT MILKS Kill; CANNINC 1 |;{

teaspoonful of soda to a gallon of water. Wash thoroughly,

using a large tub of water so dirt can sink to the bottom: drain
and hoi] rapidly in boiling water four to six minutes. Drain well
and pack into sterili/ed jars or cans, cover with boiling salt
water, using one tablespoonful salt to one quart of water. Process
in a water-batli for one hour at 212° Fahrenheit, or in a steam
canner for 35 minutes under ten pounds pressure.

Other Greens. — Young, tender beet tops, Swiss chard, and
dandelion^ may lie canned by the method outlined for spinaeh.

Squash. — Squash is canned by the same method as pumpkin,
omitting the spices.

Sweet Potato. — Sweet potatoes should be canned as soon as
possible after dicing1. A potato which is dry and mealy when
canned is desired for market. The Nancy Hall is one of the
best varieties for canning1. The Triumph and Southern (^ueen
are also used. When the potatoes are allowed to stand before can
n ing they bruise easily and start to decay at the points where the
rootlets emerge. Select absolutely sound potatoes, sort, putting
together those of the same size — those under one and one-half
inches in diameter in one lot and those above one and one-half
inches in diameter in another — boil or steam until the potatoes are
about half cooked, when the skin will slip off easily. Peel as soon
as the potatoes are cool enough to handle, and pack hot into cans
or jars as quickly as possible to prevent discoloring. For a
fancy pack the potatoes are placed in layers, but a standard pack
can be made by mashing the potatoes, heating thoroughly, and
packing the potatoes hot. All space in the can should be filled
with potato, as the presence of air will cause discoloration. Ex-
haust Xo. •'> cans for ten to fifteen minutes. The exhaust -should
he very hot, as the sweet potato is a poor conductor of heat, and
the heat penetrates through the sweet potato to the center of the
can very slowly. Process for four hours straight in boiling water
or seventy minutes under fifteen pounds steam pressure.

Tomatoes. — The fruit should be gathered in shallow trays
and the picking done in the shortest posible time. The tomato is
a delicate fruit, and if it is allowed to stand several days before
canning, or if it is picked before being ripe and allowed to stand,

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

it does not develop its characteristic fiavor. Sort and grade the
fruit. Wash, putting into trays or squares of cheesecloth, and
lowering into boiling water for one minute. Remove at once to
prevent cooking. Plunge into cold water to make the fruit
firmer. Peel promptly. Cut out the core with a slender-pointed
knife, being careful not to cut into the seed-cells. Pack only
red, ripe, sound tomatoes, whole or in large pieces. Add two
teaspoonfuls of the sugar-and-salt mixture to each No. 3 can or
quart jar, and one and one-half teaspoonfuls in each No. 2 can ;

l-'jc;. 88. — Tomatoes packed for salad (the thick sauce has been drained off).

exhaust for three minutes and process No. 2 cans for twenty
minutes and No. 3 cans and quart jars for twenty-five minutes.

In canning tomatoes in tin no addition of tomato juice in
excess of the amount present in the tomatoes canned should be
allowed if the product is to be put on the market. Any water
or extra tomato juice is considered an adulteration. When it is
desired to keep tomatoes whole for exhibits or home use, they may

\ KcKTAm.Ks FOR CANNING !,-,

he parked carefully in glass. A thick tomato sauce poured over
them \vill aid in keeping the tomatoes whole, plump, and nf a
better color than is possible when they are parked in a thin
liquor. Prom an economical Standpoint, a jar of tomatoes packed
in sanee is a tine product ; the sauce may he used Tor soups and
whole tomatoes for salads (Fig. 88).

Tomato Puree. — Small, irregular, and inidersi/od tomatoes
can be made into puree or soup. For this purpose they should
be cooked and strained at the time they are canned rather than
canned fresh. The tomatoes are washed, graded, and cooked
until tender, then run through the colander and put over the
fire again. The mixture is then concentrated to from one-
half to one-third of the original volume. This concentrated to-
mato sauce may be canned and processed by the method outlined
for tomatoes. The concentrated mixture, of course, requires
fewer cans and jars, as the amount of water canned is reduced,
and, with cans costing as they do, this is an important con-
sideration.

Soup Mixture. — A good combination to use for this mixture
is one quart of thick tomato pulp, two cupfuls of corn or tiny lima
beans, and two cupfuls of okra, with seasoning of salt, sugar, pep-
per, and sliced onion (Fig. 89). Cook this mixture together for
ten minutes, pack in Xo. 2 cans or glass jars, exhaust for five min-
utes, and process for two hours, or in a steam canner for thirty-
five minutes under five pounds pressure.

Turnips. — ( 'aimed turnips are not generally used. Sometimes
they are packed commercially for hotel use. Only small, tender
turnips should be canned. Wash, scrape, blanch for five to eight
minutes, pack into cans, cover with hot brine (two and one-half
ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process for two hours,
or intermittently one hour on each of three successive days.

Creole Sauce. — Two cupfuls of corn, three tablespoonfuls of
chopped onion, one tablespoonful of celery seed (crushed), three
tablespoon fids of butter, one cupful of sliced okra, one hay leaf.
one clove of garlic (chopped), one quart of tomato juice and
pulp, one cupful of chopped sweet red pepper, one cupful of
chopped sweet green pepper. Salt and pepper to taste. Strain
10

146

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

FIG. 89. — Vegetables packed fresh for soup mixture.

VKCKTAI'.I.KS r<»U CANNING

i r,

tin- seeds and skins out of the cooked tomatoes, keeping all pulp
possible. Cook chopped onion in butler until yellow. Add the
prepared vegetables and seasoning. Simmer until the corn is
tender. Pack hot in twelve-ounce or pint jars or No. L' cans.
Process in the glass jars for twenty minutes. Exhaust No. '2
cans for five minutes and process for fifteen minutes.

Mushrooms. — Directions for canning mushrooms may be ob-
tained from the bulletin 'Preserving "Wild Mushrooms"
Bibliography).

QUESTIONS

1. State a general outline to be followed in tlie selection, preparation, and

canning of mt»t vegetables. If any step should be omitted for special
vegetables, note the step, naming the vegetables for which it should
be omitted; if there should be any steps added for special vegetables,
describe them, naming the vegetables for which they are necessary.

2. What is the usual strength of brine used with vegetables?

3. What is the proportion of sugar and salt in the sugar-and-salt mixture?

4. For what vegetables should a tin can not be used unless it is enamel

lined? Why is this true?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTERS IX AND X

1. HATSNER, A., "The Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats,"
1!)12. Published by Scott, Greenwood & Son, London. $3.

•2. PER.NOT. E. F.. " Preserving Wild Mushrooms," Experiment Station Bui
letin Xo. 98, Oregon Agricultural College. January, 11IOS. Published
by the Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.

3. ROSE, FLORA. "The Preservation of Food in the Home," 1!>12, parts 1,

2, and 3, Cornell Reading Courses. Published by the New York State
College of Agriculture. Cornell University, Ithaca, ? V.

4. The Canning Trade. "A Complete Course in Canning." P.HI. Published

by the MacNeal Printing Company, Baltimore. Md. $•>.
f>. YOUNG, EKMEXTINE, '' Canning and Preserving Fruit and Yegetables and
Preparing Fruit Pastes and Syrups,1' 1892. Published by the Rural
Publishing Company. Ne\v York City, ? Y.

CHAPTKK XI

PRESERVES

A PRESERVED FRUIT is one wliich has been cooked in cane-sugar
syrup until it is clear, tender, and transparent. It should keep
its form and plumpness and be crisp rather than tough or soft.
When finished, the cells of the fruit should be filled with the fla-
vored syrup in place of the fruit juice.

In general, all the principles thus far discussed in canning are
to be applied also in preserving. The special problem in preserv-
ing is to be able to introduce the syrup gradually enough to make
it possible for the syrups to permeate the fruit thoroughly with-
out shrinking and toughening it. When fruit is dropped at once
into hot syrup that is too dense, the juice of the fruit will be
drawn out so rapidly by this heavy liquid as to shrink the fruit.
Then the outside surface becomes so coated with thick syrup that
little can enter the fruit. In order to prevent this toughening, and
shrinking, it is necessary to start the cooking of the fruit in a
thin syrup. Most preserves should be begun in a syrtip testing
about 30 to 40 degrees Brix or Balling and gradually have the
syrup thicken by boiling with the fruit in it (Frontispiece).

Cooking Preserves. — Preserves should be cooked over a very
hot fire as rapidly as possible to have the finished product spark-
ling bright, clear, and of a. good color. If slowly cooked, the result
will be a dull, dark, unattractive product. The fruit, while cook-
ing, should be well covered with the syrup so that no top pieces
will dry on the surface and shrivel before a sufficient amount of
syrup has entered the pieces to plump them. Sometimes the
syrup becomes too thick before the fruit is sufficiently clear and
tender, as may happen when a small quantity of fruit is cooked
in a large pan. In this case the water in the syrup evaporates
more quickly on account of the broad surface exposed, and the
syrup should be thinned by adding a small amount of water or a
quantity of thinner syrup. Beginning the process of preserving
fruit in a thin syrup, cooking rapidly until pieces are clear and
148

PRESERVES

L49

allowing tin- fruit to stand immersed in tin- syrup over- iii^lit will
cause more of the syrup to permeate the fruit and plump it. It'
this process be carried on gradually enough, the fruit may he com-
pletely saturated with syrup as in the case of crystallized

FIG. 90 — Packing watermelon rind preserves, Peabody College for Teachers,

N u~hville, Tenn.

products) without shrinking. The finished product should keep
its original form, be plump, mellow, and clear.

For preserving such fruits as chayotes, pears, and watermelon
rind (Fig. 90) a syrup not heavier than 30 degrees Hallintr p

150

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

12!) ) should be used to begin the cooking. Juicy fruits like berries
may be put at the beginning into a heavier syrup, about 40 to 45
degrees Balling, because the abundant juices of
the fruit quickly reduce the density of the syrup
before shrinking can take place. Finished pre-
serves are packed in a syrup ranging in density
from 50 to 60 degrees Balling. When acid fruits
are added to the syrup some of the sugar is in-
verted or changed to a form which will not readily
crystallize, and for this reason the syrup may be
made heavier without danger of crystallization.
Since long cooking injures the color and flavor
of fruits, it is desirable to cook delicate fruits,
such as berries, for as short a time as possible.

Cooling Preserves. — Cooling rapidly after
cooking gives preserves a better color and flavor
than can be secured when they are packed hot.
Standing immersed in the syrup after cooking
helps to plump the fruit. Shallow enamelled
trays or pans are desirable for cooling. Running
cold water underneath the pans will help to cool
them more rapidly (Fig. 92). Tin utensils should
not be used, because the fruit juices will discolor
in it.

Packing. — Pack preserves cold. Bring the
syrup in which they have been standing to boil-
ing, strain, test, and, if proper density, pour over
the packed preserves, paddling the packed jars to
remove all air bubbles. If not of the right weight
for packing, the syrup must be concentrated to
the proper density by boiling it. A well-packed
jar of preserves will contain fruits or pieces of
fruit of uniform size appropriate for filling the
space within the jar. These pieces should be
arranged in rows or layers in such a way as to give the entire
pack a symmetrical or well-balanced appearance. A little more

icaHhermo

Centigrade.

PRESERVES

tin.e and care is required to ]>ack in this \vay, hut the space i>
economi/ed and tlie quality of the linishnl produet is enhanced

(Fig. 9:5).

Sealing Preserves. — To st al properly and to insure safety
from mold, it is necessary to process all preserves after packing
them into the sterilized jars. This processing may he done in a
\vater-hath hy heat helow or at the boiling temperature, depend-
ing upon the kind of products packed and upon I lie length of
time the heat is applied. Since preserves contain so much sugar,
which acts as a preservative, it is only necessary to process
against molds. This may he accomplished hy placing the filled
jars in a water-hath, heating it to a temperature of 180° to 11)0°

FIG. 92. — Cooling and plumping preserved fruits.

Fahrenheit, and holding that temperature for ahout thirty
minutes. This method preserves a hetter texture and Havor in
the fruit, than can he retained when processing is done at a
higher temperature.

Process preserves or jams in twelve-ounce or pint jars for
twenty minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (temperature of simmering
water). AVhen jars with glass lops and screv caps or wire
clamps (lightning seal > sire used, leave the pressure of the clamp
on the top of cap until the jars are entirely cold.

Special Equipment. — Success depends more upon the p.-rfe.-i
freshness of the fruit than any other feature. 'From the patrh
with dispatch," is a good slogan.

152

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Uniform results may be obtained more easily if some special
equipment, such as good enamel or aluminum vessels, sc--»ales,
measuring cups, wooden spoons, paddles, thermometers, a -nd
saccharometers, is secured. A thermometer which gives readings
by degrees Fahrenheit for each degree from zero to 250° is use
ful in determining the finishing point in preserves (Fig. 91) ;
105i/20 to 1061/0 « Centigrade, or 222° to 224° Fahrenheit is
recommended as the finishing point for most fruits. The syrup

FIG. 93. — Packing preserved figs, Walton County, Florida.

will not reach 224° Fahrenheit until a sufficient amount of water
has been driven off by the boiling. The temperature test is per-
haps the simplest test for the finished preserving syrup. All of
the different batches of preserves should be cooked enough and
be of uniform consistency. Some sour fruits, such as cherries and
currants, when preserved are cooked to a higher temperature
because of the acid present. 106° to 108° Centigrade or 224°
to 226° Fahrenheit is a good finishing point for these products.
The saccharometer is a little more difficult than the ther-
mometer to handle, since sufficient syrup must be taken from

\ KS

L53

the keltic, poured over the spindle into a cylinder or l...iilc d< ••(,
enough to lloat it, and t.h<> reading1 taken, or the spindle may )>,-
floated in the kettle if it is deep enough.

Proportion of Sugar.— I'snally three-fourths pound of .snir:ir
i'or each pound of fruit is allowed for preserves. Firm fruits

. v L

FIG. 94. — Only freshly picked berries should bo preserved.

like ijiiiiK-es. melon rinds, hard pears, and oral) apples are better
if cooked in boiling water until tender before adding them to
the syrup.

The use of preserves in Hie daily menu should lie limited, sincr
they are so much richer than fresh and plain canned fruits.
Strawberries, plums, sour cherries, quinces, and melon rind are
more palatable when preserved than when canned.

Berries. — Only freshly picked berries should be preserved
Kig. !)4i. Practically the same methods are to be followed in the

154 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

preserving of all berries. Berries should be gathered in shallow
trays or baskets, and not in deep vessels which allow them to be
bruised and crushed. They should be uniform, ripe, and sound ;
only large, firm berries should be selected for preserving. All
berries should be carefully sorted and lightly washed by placing
in colander and pouring water over them rather than putting
them into a pan of water.

The following proportion is recommended: two pounds of
whole berries — two and one-half pounds of sugar — one pint of
berry juice.

If the best possible color and flavor is to be secured for the
finished product, the syrup for preserved berries should be made
of berry juice, obtained by crushing, heating and straining the
softer broken berries. Boil together the berry juice and the
sugar and skim and cook the syrup before dropping the berries
into it, to prevent shrivelling and toughening the fruit. Return
to the fire and bring slowly to a boil in a covered pan. Remove
the cover and cook until the fruit looks clear, being very care-
ful not to overcook; the berries should remain whole. If a
thermometer is used the cooking may be finished at 222° to 224°
Fahrenheit. Skin and cool in a covered pan. If berry preserves
are covered for five minutes before removing from the fire and
the vessel left covered while cooling the product will be more
plump. The fruit will be better if allowed to cool in shallow
trays or pans and stand in the syrup over night ; it improves the
shape and flavor, as the berries absorb more of the syrup, be-
come heavier, and pack better. Lift the berries out of the syrup
carefully and pack cold, filling the sterilized jars with berries be-
fore pouring the syrup over them. A good pack requires more
berries than syrup. Cap, process pint jars for ten minutes at
180° Fahrenheit, seal, and store in a dark dry place.

Packing syrup for berries should have a density of 50 to 55
degrees Balling (see p. 129).

Strawberry Preserves. —

2 pounds of berries i/2 cup of berry juice

lys pounds of sugar

PRESERVES

Wash, rap. and stem the strawberries. Make a syrup of the
suirar and juice and add the berries. Cook to 222 Fahrenheit
or Id-")'., Centigrade, or until the syrup is very thick. Cook
quickly, paek into sterilized jars, and seal as for preserves. More
of the natural Haver is retained by using this method, and no
syrup will be left over, which means a saving in sugar, but tin-
yield is not so great and the fruit does not remain whole and
plump as in the first method given above.

Currant and Cherry Preserves. — White currants and cherries
may be preserved by following the same directions given for
strawberry preserves, except that in using a thermometer to de-
termine the finishing point for cherry preserves the temperature
> IK mid be run up to 226° Fahrenheit or 107° Centigrade. A
heavier packing syrup is more necessary for sour cherries than
for the sweet ones.

Sun-cooked Preserves. — Cherries, currants, raspberries or
strawberries alone, or a combination of two-thirds currants and
one-third raspberries, may be cooked by this method. Dampness
is a great foe to successful sun cookery. The berries should be
washed, capped, stemmed, drained, and measured. Allow an
equal weight of sugar for fruit. For each two pounds of berries
measure one-fourth cupful of berry juice and heat with the
sugar. Cook and pour over the whole berries in shallow trays.
Stand in the sun for three or four days, bringing indoors each
night. Allow the fruit to remain in the sun until it is well
plumped and the syrup has thickened almost to a jelly. If thr
sun fails to shine, keep the preserves in a cool oven.

Sour Orange Preserves. — The peel of the native sour orange,
'which is found in the southern part of the Gulf States, makes
delightful preserves. Grate off evenly all yellow, cut the oraiiL"^
into quarters, and peel. Soak the peel in salt water (one cup-
ful of salt to one gallon of water) for two or three days, chang-
ing the water twice daily. Cover with clear water and boil for
ten minutes, drain, and repeat the boiling twice to remove all
bitterness. When the peel is tender drop it into a heavy syrup
(two cupfuls of sugar to two cup fills of sweet orange juice) for
each two pounds of peel, and cook rapidly until clear and trans

|;)(; SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

parent. Cool before packing, pack into sterilized jars, process
pints for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, seal, and store.
Preserved Whole Kumquats. —

•2 pounds of whole kumquata - pound* of sugar

( after cooking) I quart of water

Scrub the kumquats with soap and warm water, scald them
with boiling soda water, using a cupful of soda to five quarts
of water. Allow fruit to stand in the soda bath until cool,
drain and slit each kumquat with a sharp-pointed knife to pre-
vent them from bursting open while cooking. Drop into boiling
water and cook for ten or fifteen minutes (until tender). After
this the seeds can easily be removed. Boil the sugar and water
together for ten minutes, add the drained kumquats and cook
until clear and transparent, The fruit will keep its shape better
if the cooking is done in a covered pan. Carefully place the
fruit into trays, pour the syrup over it and allow to remain over
night to plump. Pack the kumquats into sterilized jars, strain
and pour the syrup over them, process pint jars for fifteen
minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, and seal tightly while hot.

Kumquat Preserves. —

1 pourfd of kumquats % pound of sugar

1 pint of water

The kumquat pulp, which remains in the filter after the juice
has been drained off for jelly, may be made into a preserve. The
seeds should be removed when the fruit is first prepared for the
jelly. Pass the pulp through a food chopper, wreigh, and allow
three-fourths pound of sugar for each pound of pulp. Cook the
water and pulp together for twenty minutes, add the sugar, and
continue boiling rapidly until the mixture becomes bright and
clear and of proper consistency. If Satsuma orange juice is
used in place of water in these kumquat recipes an even more
delightful flavor may be obtained in the finished product.

Preserved Peaches. —

1 peek of peeled peaches 3^/2 pounds of brown sugar

3 pints of cider vinegar ys ounce of nutmeg

1 ounce of cloves 1 ounce of cinnamon

I'KKSKKN ES

[ the peadies and put them into a stone jar. Break up
s. scald, and then strew them through the peaches. Boil
sugar and vinegar together for ten minutes and pour over •
I .caches while very hot. Repeat this for three consecutive days,
then boil all together for ten minutes, cool, pack, and process.
Plums may be preserved by the same method as for peaches
but adding one pint less of vinegar.
Preserved Pears. —

1 pound of pears 1 cupful of water

% pound of sugar

1'ears may be preserved whole, in halves, or quarters. Seckcl
pears are often preserved whole. If Keifer pears are used, they
should boil in clear water after being pared until they can be
easily pierced with a darning-needle. Then place them in the
syrup, cook, cool, plump, pack, process, and seal the same as for
all preserves.

Ginger Pears. — I'se hard or under-ripe pears, pare, core, and
cut into very thin slices. To eight pounds of pears allow eight
pounds of suirar. one cupful of water, juice of four lemons. Cut
the lemon rinds into thin strips and add. Also add one-eighth
pound of <_ri nirer root cut into pieces. Simmer until thick as
marmalade. Pack like peach jam.

Ginger Apples. — Hard varieties of apples are delicious \
preserved by the method just outlined.

Apple Preserves. —

1 pound of apples 1 cupful of water

1 pound of sugar % lemon sliced thinly

Whole crab apples, packed with or without the stems, make
an attractive preserve. Pare, allow the apples to remain whole,
and follow same directions given for plain preserved peaches.

After the apples have plumped in the syrup over night it
may be n«- ss y to pour off the syrup and boil it for ten minutes,
or until it is of the desired consistency. Strain the syrup and
pour it over the apples, which have been carefully placed so that
all stems will be upward. Process and seal as for all presen a

Larire. firm apples, if used for preserves, are perhaps !>•••

158 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

if pared, cored, and quartered before cooking in the syrup. The
parings and cores may be boiled for fifteen minutes in the water
and strained out before the sugar is added to make the syrup.
This will add color and some pectin to the preserving syrup.
Pectin is the jelly-making substance found in some fruit juices.

Golden Pumpkin Chips. — Remove the skin and seeds from a
medium-sized pumpkin which has been cut into quarters; then
slice the pieces across, cutting each piece about one-quarter
inch thick. Prepare a syrup as for preserved apples, allowing
three-quarter pound of sugar to each pound of pumpkin, and
proceed by the directions given in that recipe.

Preserved Watermelon Rind. —

1 pound of melon rind 1 lemon

1 pound of sugar 1 ounce of lime (CaO)

•2 quarts of water

Cut the rind into one-inch squares, remove peel and all pink
part, and weigh. Soak over night in lime water (one ounce of
lime to two quarts of water). The lime (calcium oxide) may be
secured from a drug store. The following morning allow the
rind to stand for two hours in clear water. Drain well, then
drop into boiling water and boil rapidly for ten minutes. Drain
again and add gradually to the syrup (made by boiling together
two cupfuls of sugar and one quart of water). Add to this the
juice of one-half lemon and three extra slices of lemon. Cook
until the melon is tender and transparent. Allow to stand cov-
ered with the syrup until cold, arrange the pieces attractively in
the jars, garnishing with slices of lemon. Cover with the syrup
testing 50 to 55 degrees. Process and seal (see p. 129).

Gingered Watermelon Rind. —

1 pound of melon rind 1 ounce of ginger

iya pounds of sugar % lemon

Follow the same method as for melon rind preserves until
after the rind has been freshened in cold water. Then drain
well and boil rapidly for fifteen minutes in strong ginger tea
(one ounce of ginger to one quart of water). Finish cooking in
a 30-degree syrup made by using two pints of the strained ginger

I'KKSKUVKS

tr,-i with two pints of water and otic and one-halt' pounds of
simar. Cook rapidly until lender and transparent (about one
hour). After rind has boiled for one-halt' hour, add one-half
lemon, cut into thin slices. Cook until rind is tender and trans-
parent. Cool, pack, and process like preserves.

( lingered watermelon rind, chopped finely, is excellent to com-
bine with canned sweet red pimientos for making the Spanish
chutney (see p. 206).

Preserved Figs. —

(i quarts of figs 1 cupful of baking soda

4 pounds of sugar <i quarts of boiling water

.'! quarts of water

Select firm, sound fruit, discard all over-ripe or broken figs.
Sprinkle one cupful of baking soda over the selected figs and
cover with about six quarts of boiling water. Allow them to
stand for fifteen minutes, drain off this soda solution, ami rinse
the figs well in clear, cold water. Let the figs drain while syrup
is being prepared. Mix sugar and th,« three quarts of water,
boil for ten minutes, and skim. Add well-drained figs gradu-
ally so as not to cool the syrup. Cook rapidly until figs are clear
and tender (about two hours). When the figs are transparent,
lift them out carefully and place in shallow pans. If the syrup
is not heavy enough (testing about 50 to 55 degrees with a sac-
charometer), continue boiling until it reaches the desired density,
then pour it over the figs, being careful to see that the fruit is
entirely covered. Let stand over night. Next morning pack the
figs cold in sterilized jars, having stems all the same length and
placing the figs so that all stems will lie upward. Fill each jar
to overflowing with the syrup of 55 degrees density i p. 129).
Cap, clamp, process, and seal immediately.

Yellow Tomato Preserves. —

4 pounds of fruit V4 ounce of ginger

6 pounds of sugar % lemon

2 quarts of water ]/2 ounce of cinnamon

Boil together water, sugar, lemon, and spices for fifteen
minutes, or until 217 Fahrenheit is reached: add fruit irradn-

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

ally and cook gently until the fruit becomes bright and clear,
stirring occasionally and being careful not to allow it to burn.
If a thermometer is used, cook to 222° Fahrenheit, pour into
trays, stand over night, pack the tomatoes cold, and strain the
syrup over them. Process as for other preserves.

Small green or red tomatoes may be preserved whole by this
same method.

Pineapple Preserves. —

1 pound of fruit % pound of sugar

Peel, core, and slice the fruit, place alternate layers of sugar
and fruk in ^ bowl and allow to stand over night. Next morn-
ing drain off the syrup and boil it for ten minutes, add the fruit
and continue cooking fifteen minutes, remove from the fire,
skim and pack into jars, process pint jars at 212° Fahrenheit for
fifteen minutes in a water-bath.

Cherry Preserves. —

4 pounds of cherries 1 cupful of cherry juice

3 pounds of sugar

Make a syrup of the sugar and fruit juice, cool, add seeded
cherries, and cook rapidly until fruit is clear and syrup is of
the proper consistency. If a thermometer is used, finish cherry
preserves at 106° to 108° Centigrade, or 223° to 226° F. Cool,
pack into jars, and process as for other preserves.

Cherries (Vinegarette). —

4 pounds of sweet cherries 3 pounds of sugar

1 quart of vinegar 1 cupful of cherry juice

Carefully remove the stones, place cherries in trays or pans,
and cover with diluted vinegar (two cupfuls of water and one
cupful of vinegar). Allow to stand over night, drain well next
morning, and cover the four pounds of fruit with a heavy syrup,
made by boiling together three pounds of sugar and one cupful
of cherry juice. Allow to stand in this syrup in the sun for
three or four days to plump. Pack into jars and strain the syrup
over them. Cherries preserved in this way are sometimes called
homemade maraschino cherries. This product may be artificially
colored with vegetable coloring matter, which can be secured from

PKESER\ KS

16]

thr .Iru-irist. A small amount of tin- n>l..rinir slioul.l |,,. ail.|.-.|
when the cherries are put in Ihr heavy svnij).

Candied Fruits.— Whole cherries, apricots, peaches, ami pears

FIG. 95.— A steam- jacketed preserving kettle. (Heinz Company.)
Note use of thermometer and arm and ball weight valve to control steam pressure.

in halves, sliced pineapples, and whole figs are often prepared in
this way. It is a leriirthy and tedious procedure. It calls :
11

162 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

slow cooking on the instalment plan, and shallow trays for
plumping the fruit are necessary.

First, the fruit to be candied should be washed, peeled, or
pared, if necessary, cut or sliced and dropped into boiling water
for two or three minutes. Drain well, cover with syrup made by
boiling together one pound of sugar for each pound of fruit with
one cupful of water. Boil rapidly for fifteen minutes, remove
from the fire, and allow to stand over night. The next morning
boil for ten or fifteen minutes again, and repeat the heating and
cooling for four to six days, according to how rapidly the water is
drawn out and the syrup is absorbed. The fruit plumps slowly,
and the gradual increase in the density of the syrup caused by
the many cookings insured tender fruit which is filled with syrup. N
After the fruit is transparent and bright, lift it from the syrup
and dry in the sun or in a cool oven.

Crystallized Fruit. — If a crystallized fruit is desired, use
fruit prepared by the preceding recipe. When the fruit is dry,
cover it with a 60-degree syrup (see p. 129) and allow it to stand
for two or three days ; then drain off the syrup and dry the
pieces of fruit in the sun or in a cool oven.

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by preserved fruit? What is the standard for such?

2. What is the special problem in preserving?

3. What preliminary step is it wise to take when preserving hard fruits,

as quinces, hard pears, etc.?

4. Why should preserving be done over a hot fire? What is the efl'ect of

slow cooking?

5. What is the difference between preserved, candied, and crystallized

fruit?

6. Describe a good saccharometer to use in preserving, stating its name,

purpose, and method of use.

7. How may a thermometer be used if no saccharometer were at hand ?

S. Describe how each instrument may be used to determine when the final M

point in cooking has been readied.
!>. When preserving, how will you decide how dense the syrup shall be

into which you place the fruit?

10. Why should preserves be allowed to cool before packing?

11. When packed, at what temperature should they be processed? What is

the purpose of this processing?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
See Chapter XIII, page 188.

CHAPTER XII

MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES

MARMALADES, jams and conserves, when well made, always
show a jelly-like appearance, thus denoting that there must be
Mini" pectin present in the fruit which is used. Pectin is the
jelly-ma Uinu1 property found in some fruit juices (see description
under "Jelly Making." p. 174). Marmalades, jams and con-
serves should be cooked very rapidly over a hot fire in order to
retain the best flavor and a bright color. These are the most
attractive features of the finished products.

Marmalades. — If large fruits are made into marmalades they
are thinly sliced and cooked in a clear syrup as in preserving.
The finished product shows the fruit appearing in small pierr.
throughout the mixture, and it is smooth in consistency.

When marmalades are made of citrus fruits, such as grape-
fruit, orange, kumquat, and lemon, the pectin is found in the
white inner skin ; none is present in the juice. The yield of the
finished product of marmalades made by the three-day process is
greater, but it is perhaps no clearer nor more jelly-like in con-
sistency than that which is made in a single day. The pectin in
the fruit is extracted by standing, heating, and reheating with
the acid present. Cool marmalade to 176° Fahrenheit or 80°
Centigrade before pouring into glasses or jars. This prevents
the pieces from rising.

Jams. — Whole small fruits are used in making jams, but the
fruit does not remain whole in the preparation of jam. Th<
syrup is bright and the mixture is alike throughout when tin-
product is finished. Practically the same methods are follow. -.1
in making jams of all berries. The ripe broken ones give a line
color and flavor, but one-half of the quantity of the berrie-
lected for making jam should be slightly under-ripe; this is
necessary to give the jelly-like consistency to the finished prod

1.;:;

164 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

net. More pectin is usually present in rare-ripe or under-ripe
fruit than in prime ripe fruit. Cooking in small quantities will
also help to retain the color and flavor. A more delicate flavor
will be retained by allowing three-quarters pound of sugar to
each pound of berries than by using an equal proportion by
weight of each.

Jam should be cooked rapidly in a porcelain-lined vessel and
stirred with a wooden spoon or paddle. Frequently move the
spoon across the center of the pan, first toward you and then from
you, and around and across the pan, being careful to move the
mixture from the bottom of it. Do not stir too rapidly or beat
the mixture. A thermometer is useful in making jams, cooking
to 222° Fahrenheit when finished. They will then give the same
test as for jelly: cool a small quantity in a spoon, and when it
flakes off the side of the spoon instead of coming off in drop^ it is
finished, and should be removed from the fire immediately. Jams
HIV thicker when cold than when hot, and care should be taken
not to cook them too long.

Hy processing jams in pints or small jars in the hot-water
bath for twenty to thirty minutes at 180° Fahrenheit the flavor
and the color are better preserved than when processed at boil-
ing temperatures or over. A perfect seal may be secured by
tightening the cap immediately at the end of the processing.

Fruit butters and pastes are those products made from the
edible portion of the fruit which has been passed through a sieve
and which has had the excess of water driven off, by cooking,
until its consistency is somewhat similar to the dairy product
butter, but not quite as thick. The fruits used for the making
of butters should be ripe, as immature or green fruit will notice-
ably affect file flavor of the product, and the fruit must be sound,
as any decayed portion of the fruit entering into the manufac-
ture will affect the taste and is readily detected by chemists,
the use of partly decayed fruit being in violation of the Federal
and state food laws. In the process of making butters it is
necessary that the edible portion be passed through a colander
or a sieve of some description. The size of the mesh of the sieve
will tend to affect the texture of the finished product. Only a

\IA1IM. \I.\DKS, JAMS AND (. t >.\sKUV !•>

small amount of sugar is required, and most of the fruit butters
have some spices added to them. The excess of water is driven
off bv cooking until the consistency is somewhat similar to the
dairy butter. Fruit butters are generally used in the same
manner as jams and marmalades.

r'rnit pastes and rolls are somewhat dryer than the butter
and are used for sandwich idlings and often as a confectionery.

Conserves. — Conserves are made either of small or large
fruits, or both combined, with sometimes the addition of nuts and
raisins. Rapid cooking and constant care are essential when
making conserves. Nuts, when used, should be added live minutes
before removing from the fire.

MARMALADES

Orange Marmalade. —
.'5 pounds of oranges
3 lemons

IV-j pints of water
3 pounds of sugar

Wash, remove the peel and seeds, cutting one-half of the
peel into very thin strips, and add it to the pulp and balance of
the peel, which has first had the yellow portion grated off and
has been passed through a food chopper with the pulp. Cover
with water and let stand over night. Boil for ten minutes the
next morning, allow to stand for twelve hours, add the sugar and
again stand over night. Cook it rapidly the next morning until
the jelly test can be obtained. This is indicated by the Hakim:
and sheeting from the spoon. Cool to 176° Fahrenheit, pour
into sterili/ed glasses, and seal with paraffin.

Sour Orange. —
1 pound (if period sour orange
1 quart of water
li/, pounds of sugar

pound of perl
from oranges

removed

Wash the fruit, remove the peel in uniform sections, using
only the portions which are free from blemishes. Cut the peel
into as thin slices as possible, cover with water, and boil for ten
minutes. Drain, cover with boiling water, and repeat the pn>.-
ess four or five times to remove the bitter flavor.

166 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Weigh the pulp, slice, and for each pound of oranges allow
one quart of water and boil until very tender. Pour into a
flannel jelly-bag, press until no more juice can be obtained, and
filter the juice through another clean flannel jelly-bag without
pressing. Measure and pour the juice into the kettle, add the
sliced peel, and l1/^ pounds of sugar for each pound of fruit
taken, and boil rapidly until it reaches the jelly point.

Grapefruit. — Make this according to directions given for sour
orange marmalade, adding three-quarter pound of sugar to each
pound of fruit, instead of one and one-half pounds.

Kumquat. — Clean the kumquats with a brush and water.
Cover them with scalding soda water (one-half cupful of soda
to one gallon of water) and allow them to stand for five minutes.
Rinse in clear water, slice the fruit, and remove the seeds. Re-
move the centers from one-fourth of these slices, parboil them
for three minutes. Place all except slices in a preserving kettle,
and for each pound of pulp allow one quart of water. Cook
until tender. Strain, measure, and add one pint of sugar for
each pint of fruit juice. Add slices or circles of the rind and
cook all together until the jelly stage is reached. Cool, pour
into sterilized containers, and seal. The pulp and rind which
remains may be made into a delicious jam.

Combination (Orange, Grapefruit, and Lemon).—

1 orange 1 grapefruit

1 lemon

Wash and shred the fruit, add three times the bulk of water,
boil for fifteen minutes, and let stand over night. Next morn-
ing boil for ten minutes and let stand again. When cold, meas-
ure pint for pint of sugar and cook over a rapid fire until jelly
stage is reached.

Crab Apple. — Wash and core crab apples and put them
through a food chopper. Place in a preserving kettle and add
water, not quite covering the top layer of apples. Cook until
tender. Weigh and add three-quarters of a pound of sugar to
each pound of fruit. Cook until the jelly stage is reached ; pour
into sterilized glasses, cool, and cover with paraffin.

MAKMALADKS, JAMS AND CONSEKVKS ],;;

JAMS

Berry. — While wild berries may be used in all these recipes,
the quality of the cultivated berries is better. The Kldorado is the
best variety of blackberries, and the Cuthbert is the best variety
of raspberry for jam. Follow general directions for making jams
of all berries (see p. 163).

Grape. — Remove the grapes from the stems, wash and press
the pulps from the skins. Boil the pulp until tender, and run it
through a sieve to remove the seeds. Add the skins to the pulp
and weiirh. To each pound of fruit allow three-quarters of a
pound of sugar and cook together for fifteen to twenty minutes,
or until the skins are tender. Two hundred and twenty-six de-
grees Fahrenheit will prove a satisfactory finishing point if a
thermometer is used. Pack hot into sterilized jars and seal im-
mediately. Spices may be added if desired — cinnamon, white
pepper, and cloves.

Fig Jam. — Select ripe figs, remove all stems, treat them with
scalding soda solution, and rinse thoroughly as for preserving.
Cook in quantities not larger than three pounds at one time.
Allow one and one-half pounds of sugar to each three pounds
of figs. Add barely enough water to start the cooking (about
one-half cupful), crush the figs, heat to boiling and add the
sugar. Cook rapidly to 220° Fahrenheit. Pack and process like
preserves (see pp. 150 and 151).

Peach Jam. —

2 pounds of peaches 1 pound of supar

y2 cupful of peacli juice 2 teaspoonfuls of bark cinnna-

1 cracked peach seed nion (broken in small

ys teaspoonful of allspice pieces)

1 sprig of mace 1 teanspoonful of cloves

1 inch of fjinjrer root

Tie spices into cheesecloth bags; cook all materials
until a temperature of 222° Fahrenheit is reached. R.-m«>v«'
spice-bag. Pack hot into sterilized jars, clamp on hot caps, and
put away to cool.

168 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

BUTTERS

Apple Butter. —

10 pounds of apples '1 tablespoonfuls of g r o u n d

4 pounds of sugar allspice

'1 tablespoonfuls of ground 3 tablespoonfuls of ground cin-

cloves namon

Ct quarts of cider

Wash, slice, and weigh the apples. Put into a kettle with the
cider and cook until the apples are very tender. Pass them
through a sieve to remove the skins and seed. Add sugar and
spices to the pulp. Cook until the mass is as thick as desired,
stirring frequently to prevent burning. Pour into sterilized
crocks or jars, and when cool cover with paraffin.

Peach Butter. —

1 bushel of peaches 1 gallon of peach juice

5 pound* of sugar

Prepare the juice and allow it to stand until slightly fer-
mented. Combine peaches, juice, sugar, and one-half dozen
peach kernels. Cook and pack as for apple butter.

Guava Butter. — Cook guavas until tender in just enough
water to keep them from burning. Press through a strainer to
remove the seeds. Measure the pulp, and for each quart of
pulp allow three cupfuls of sugar; cook and pack hot as for
apple butter (Fig. 96).

Lemon Butter. — Select four medium-sized lemons, squeeze
out the juice and grate the rind. To this add one-half pint of
water, one pound of sugar, and three eggs which have been
beaten together. Mix thoroughly and cook rapidly. After about
five minutes add a tablespoonful of butter and continue the
cooking until a consistency such as is required for apple butter
is reached. Care must be taken to see that the product does
not scorch. Pour into sterilized glasses, cover with paraffin,
and set aside in a cool dark place.

Peanut Butter.—

2 quarts of Spanish peanuts 2 ounces of salt

4 quarts of Virginia peanuts

MAi; MA LADES. JAMS AND CONSERVES |,;:,

Koast the peanuts uniformly brown, urind, add the salt and
ui-ind twice again so as to have the salt well distributed through-
out. Pack into small jars and sterilixe twelve-ounce containers
for one hour at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering) in a water-bath.
If there is too much oil in the butter it will separate and the
nuts will rise, leaving the oil in the bottom of the jars. The
Spanish peanut contains a large amount of oil, therefore it is
necessary to im\ this variety with Virginia peanuts in the pro-
portions given above.

CONSERVES

Rhubarb Conserve. — Wash the rhubarb, cut into small pieces,
and allow for every three pounds of rhubarb three oranges,
three pounds of sugar, three-quarter cupful of water, one pound
of seeded raisins, and one-half pound of shelled pecans (if de-
sired). Slice oranges, rind and all, wash raisins, and scald the
nuts. Mix all together and boil over a low fire for about forty-
live minutes. If a thermometer is used, cook to 104° Centigrade.
Pour hot into jars and seal at once.

Medley. Fruit Conserve. —

2 pounds of peaches ys pound of apples

•2 pounds of quinces 3 lemons

I ' ;_> pounds of pears Sugar

Wash the fruit, peel or pare, core, and stone the fruit; pass
it through a food chopper and weigh. To each pound of fruit
allow three-quarters of a pound of sugar; put fruit and sugar
in alternate layers in a bowl, and let stand over night. Next
morning place in the preserving kettle with the pulp of lemons
and one-half the rind sliced in thin strips. Boil until mixture
becomes very thick. One cup of scalded chopped nuts may be
added if desired, five minutes before removing from the fire.
Pack hot into hot sterilized jars and seal at once.

Plum Conserve. —

:! pounds of Damson plums 1 pound of seeded raisins

(after cutting) 1 oranpe

I ' .. pounds dl' sugar 1 cup of slielled pecans
Juice dt I lemon

170 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND JMIKSKRVING

Slice plums, orange and lemon, add sugar and cook until thick
and transparent. Put nuts into mixture five minutes before
removing from the fire. If a thermometer is used cook the
conserve to 103° Centigrade. Pack hot into sterilized jars and
seal immediately. Process pint jars for thirty minutes at 180°
Fahrenheit in a water-bath.

Fig Conserve. —

'1 pounds of fresh figs or I1/; pounds of sugar

1 <|iia;'t of plain canned fi.us ys cupful of pecans (shelled)

I orange % pound of raisins

Cut all, except nuts, into small pieces and cook until thick
and transparent (about one hour). Add nuts five minutes
before removing from stove. Pack and seal hot. Process as for
plum conserve.

FRUIT PASTES

Fruit pastes are sometimes made for home use from the fruit
pulp which is left after some of the clear juice has been extracted
from the fruit for jelly making. A product of delightful flavor
may be made by combining the pulp of different kinds of fruits.
Press the pulp through a sieve, measure, and to each pound of
cherry, plum, raspberry, strawberry, currant, or gooseberry pulp
allow one pound of powdered sugar. Cook together over a low
fire, carefully watching to prevent scorching, until it begins to
thicken. Cooking the pulp in a double boiler for the last half
hour of the cooking will aid in keeping the paste from burning.
If the pulp is well boiled down it is more easily dried. Scalded
and chopped nut kernels, crystallized orange peel, or preserved
watermelon rind or citron can be cooked in the paste. Pour
one-half inch layers of the rather solid mixture upon marble or
glass slabs or platters which have been rubbed with salad oil.
Place where a breeze or current of air will pass over it and allow
to dry for two or three days.

Cut the paste into one-inch squares, roll in granulated sugar,
and stand again in a draft for two or three days. Pack in tin
boxes, glass jars, or paraffin-coated containers. If packed in
layei-s, place a piece of parchment paper between the layers.

M \i;\l \I.\DKS, JAMS AND CONSERVES 1" |

'ul. p<dili. npplr. and quince pastes are made in the
same manner, except the proportion of sugar may be redii<-,-,|
for the apple and quince, three-quarters of a pound of SUIMI-
being a fair allowance for each pound of pulp. These cubes of
fruit paste make attractive garnishes for custards, fruit cock-
tails, creams, cakes, etc. Different flavorings, such as vanilla
or peppermint, may be used in these pastes, and sometimes harm-
less vegetable colors are stirred into the mass just, as soon as it
is removed from the fire.

A fancy pack of bands of color might be arranged as in
jelly packing if several different fruit pastes are made at one
time. When nearly dry (before cutting), put the different
colors and flavors in alternate layers until four or five layers
have been used. Press lightly and allow to stand for one hour
in a draft. Cut into one-inch strips, cutting through all the
layers, and dry again for one hour.

Store as for other pastes.

Fig Paste. — Treat the figs with a soda bath as for preserv s,
rinse and cook until tender in fresh, clear boiling water. Drain
well and put the figs through a food chopper or rub pulp thronuli
a colander. Allow one pound of sugar for each quart of pulp.
Mix and cook until it is a rather solid mass. Spread with an
oiled spatula on the oiled surface of a flat dish, marble or glass
slab, and finish drying in the sun. Three or four days will be
required for drying. The trays should be brought into the house
each night, and they should be protected from both flying and
crawling insects. When thoroughly dry. roll, wrap, and pack
as peach roll (p. 172).

Quince Cheese. — Wash tin- fruit, cut into quarters, renm\e
core, stem, and flower. Cook the quinces until very tender in
water, drain and rub through a sieve. Measure and allow three-
quarter i)ound of sugai- for each pound of pulp, and boil to-
gether until it is so thick that it will not quickly run together
when a spoon or wooden paddle has passed through the ma»v
The pulp left from quince jelly can be pressed through a sieve
and used as-fresh pulp in making this paste or "cheese." I'onr
hot into hot sterilixed glasses and seal like jelly. This "quince

172

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

cheese," when turned out of the glass, will hold" the shape of the
mould and may be sliced.

Peach Roll. — Select ripe, soft peaches, remove the skins and
s! ones, weigh the fruit and add one-fourth pound of sugar to
each pound of fruit, place over the fire, and while cooking-
mash with a wooden spoon. When the fruit is very soft, rub
it tli rough a colander to insure that no hard lumps remain.
Continue the cooking until a heavy consistency is readied.

FK;. 96. — Guava paste, served with cheese and crackers.

Uemove from the pan, spread on a smooth board which has
been greased, place in the sun and cover with cheesecloth to
keep off insects. When it is dry, sprinkle with granulated sugar,
roll it up and wrap tightly in a cloth. It will keep for a long
period of time

Green Tomato Mince Meat. —

2 tablespoonfuls of ground cin-
namon

1 teaspoonftil of ground cloves

2 teaspoonfuls of nutmeg

2 cupfuls of chopped apples (if
desired )

1 jicck of green tomatoes
2JX> pounds of brown sugar
•1 pounds of raisins

1 pound of beef suet
]X> cupful of vinegar

2 tablespoonfuls of salt

Slice the tomatoes thinly, or put them through a food chopper,
allow to drain, cover with cold water, place over the fire, and
boil for five minutes. Drain well, add suet, vinegar, fruit, and

MARMA1.ADKS, .JAMS AND CONSERVES L73

seasoning. return to the lire and allo\v to simmer for from thirty
to forty-live minutes.

QUESTIONS

1. State the general standard for marmalades and the care neeessary to

secure eaeli characteristic.
•2. Where is pectin found in the citrus fruits? How can it be extracted?

IIo\v can the pieces in a citrus marmalade he prevented from rising?
.'{. From what are jams made? State the standard for jams and the care

necessary to secure each characteristic.
4. Describe the care necessary while the jam is cooking. What caution is

it wise to keep in mind while stirring jam-*? Describe carefully the

method for testing marmalades and jams.
.">. Under what conditions would you choose to make a conserve rather than

a marmalade or jam?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

See Chapter XIII, page 1SS.

CHAPTER XIII

JELLY MAKING

Description. — Jellies are made by cooking together certain
fruit juices and sugar in the proper proportions. A good glass
of jelly is clear, sparkling, transparent, and of a beautiful color.
When slipped out of the glass, it holds its form and will quiver.
It can be cut with a clean, distinct cleavage, retaining the clear
surface and angles made by the knife. Tenderness and firmness
are unmistakable qualities. The aroma and delectable flavor of
a good jelly recalls the beauty and fragrance of .an orchard
or a vineyard. There are two types of jelly— the fruit jelly,
that is made from the natural fruit juices which contain sufficient
pectin for making good jelly, and the pectin-base jelly, which
is usually artificially colored and has the addition of some
flavoring. Many advocate the natural-fruit jelly in preference
to the pectin-base, tinted and flavored with rose, mint, and
other such flavors, because they consider the pure natural-fruit
jelly more artistic.

If the resulting mass is syrupy and sticky or tough and
gummy, it fails to meet the requirements for a jelly.

Pectin, the Properties Necessary for Jelly Making. — Pectin
is the essential jelly-making substance found in fruit juices. A
combination in fruit juices of pectin, acid, and sugar in the
proper proportions is essential in order to make good jelly. The
best fruits for jelly making are those which contain both acid
and pectin. The pectin, the fundamental jelly-making quality,
does not exist in all fruits, and it is more abundant in slightly
under-ripe fruit than in that which is fully ripe. As the fruit
ripens, it becomes sweeter and it is believed that the pectin,
which is a carbohydrate, is changed by the heat of the sun into
a fruit sugar. Therefore, fruits which are not over-ripe are
most satisfactory for jelly-making. Apples, currants, goose-
berries, grapes, and oranges are fruits most commonly used for
174

.1KI.LY MAKING

i ;

.jelly making. Sonic t'niils rich in pectin do no) contain acid
and will not make jelly unless an acid is added. The <|iiince
and Liuava arc examples nf this, .fellies may lie made I'mm
such fruits as cherries, pineapples, rhubarb, strawberries, and
peaches if the necessary pectin is added. Pectin can he ex-
tracted from the white part of the orange-peel and added to
these juices. Therefore, a very satisfactory jelly can he made

FIG. 97.

FIG. 98.

FIG. 97. — A commercial jelly s'rainer placed on a chair back.
FIG. 98. — A commercial jelly strainer placed on a table.

obtaining the flavor and color of fruits which do not contain
sufficient pectin to make good jelly. If half the fruit selected
is ripe fruit and the other half slightly under-ripe, the ripe
fruit will furnish the fine flavor and color, while the under ripe
fruit will contain the jellying property and give a better con-
sistency to the finished product.

Extracting the Juice. — This is easily done by applying heat.
Fruit juice Hows more readily when the fruit is heated than
when the fruit is simply crushed. Heating is necessary also

176

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

to develop the pectin in the fruit. Sometimes when no pectin
is found in the raw pressed juice of certain fruits juices cooked
out of the same fruit will show a large amount of it. Addition
of acid before cooking will also help to bring out the pectin.

Alcokol

FIG. 99. — Alcohol test for pectin in fruit juices.

ABC

FIG. 100. — Testing fruit juico for pectin.

Tin- (piince is an e\;mi|>le of fruit which often requires an acid
to br added.

•Juicy fruits should first be crushed and have only enough
water added to allow the fruit to cook until tender. Less juicy
fruit, of which the apple is a type, requires more water. For

.IK LI A MA KIM,

L71;

0— If!

20-E-V?

V -

oo-=

ID—

300—

220-

FIG. 101. — A aaccharometer

Hooting in a L'.'iO-r. c. rylindcr.

cadi pound of apples use two pints of
water and cook until the pieces arc very
tender.

Squee/e the cooked fruit in a niuiM
cued doiiltle cheesecloth to extract the
juice, and then strain the juice through
a flannel or haircloth jelly-bag which lias
first been dipped into boiling water. By
squeezing the pulp before letting the juice
stand to drip through the jelly-bag more
juice is obtained from the first dripping.
Frequently the fruit juices may be ex-
tracted a second time by adding water to
the pulp and recooking it. The second
extraction is weaker in pectin and will
require less sugar than the first extraction
(Figs. 97 and 98).

Test the juice for pectin and find
whether there is considerable pectin
present. Pour into a glass one table-
spoonful of the fruit juice and add to it
the same amount of grain alcohol (95 per-
cent pure), mix by turning the glass
gently, then pour carefully into another
glass. If the pectin precipitates in a solid
mass or clot, it is usually safe to add a
cupful of sugar to each cup of juice in
making jelly (Figs. 99 and 100).

If the pectin does not collect in this
manner, the amount of sugar should be
decreased. The most usual mistake made
in jelly making is the addition of too
much sugar, the result being a syrup
instead of a jelly. This test for the pres-
ence of pectin in fruit juice is not an
accurate quantitative test, but simply
indicates whether little or much pectin

178

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

is present. Different juices contain varying proportions of pec-
tin, so one can readily see what a risk is taken when equal
volumes of sugar and fruit juices are cooked together to make
jelly, using the same rule for every sort of fruit. If the pectin
test shows a small amount of pectin, only half the volume of
sugar should be used to each volume of fruit juice. Sometimes
a saccharometer is used to determine the percentage of fruit
solids present in the fruit juice and to determine from the read-
ing the amount of sugar necessary to combine with a given
quantity of juice to make good jelly (Fig. 101). Consider
apple juice first after the juice has been extracted from the
fruit by crushing, heating, and straining; cool it to room tem-
perature. Pour some of the juice into a slender cylinder which
is deep enough to float the Brix or Balling spindle. Read the
figure on the spindle which appears at the surface of the juice
and if, for example, the reading is 8 on the spindle, then thirteen
ounces of sugar will be the proper proportion of sugar to
combine with each quart of juice to make a good jelly.

The following table may be used when testing apple juice
with a spindle to determine the amount of solids in the solution
and the amount of sugar necessary to combine with it to make
a jelly. Cool to room temperature before taking the reading :

For each quart of juice add

Reading of

sugar

Brix at 20°

Centigrade

Pounds

< hmces

5.0

5.5

6.0

9.6

6.5

10.7

7.0

11.6

7.5

12.4

8.0

13.2

8.5

14.1

9.0

15.0

9.5

15.8

10.0

™

This table is arranged for juices which have a temperature
of 20° Centigrade or 68° Fahrenheit. The juices should never

-IKI.IA .MAKING [79

In- tested immediately upon straining, unless they have cooled
to room temperature.

As already stated, in making jellies more failures result from
addition of too much sugar to the juice than for all other causes,
and if the amount of sugar can be determined success is almost
sure. Doctor Straughn has constructed tables like the above,
which indicate the amount of sugar to be added to juices when
their density is known, and this density can lie determined by
means of the Brix spindle or saccharometer. The use of the
Brix spindle correctly necessitates the use of the table con-
structed for this purpose to transfer the Brix percentage density
reading into the amount of sugar needed. This method has now
been simplified by Doctor Straughn, who has devised an instru-
ment, called a jellometer, with direct readings in ounces of
sugar to be used for each quart of the juice, thus doing away
with the tables (Fig. 102). To use the jellometer it is only
necessary to float it in the fruit juice, which has been cooled to
room temperature. The point at which it floats indicates the
number of ounces of sugar to be added.

Quantity of Juice Cooked at One Time. — Xo difficulty should
be found in handling eight or ten glasses at one time if every-
thing for the complete process is conveniently arranged before
cooking is begun. The capacity of the kettle should be four
times as great as the quantity of juice cooked.

When to Add the Sugar. — The time for adding sugar is of
importance even if the sugar has been properly proportioned
to the juice in the beginning. There is no single trick to per-
form that will assure perfect results in jelly making, but a good,
uniform product may easily be obtained by carefully following
the general principles of jelly making which are outlined. The
old method required that the sugar be added in the beginning
of the process. The longer sugar is boiled with a weak acid,
such as we have in fruit juice suitable for making jelly, the
more the sugar is split or inverted into simple sugars, and the
longer this goes on the less danger there will lie in having the
sugar crystalli/e out. Another method is that of cooking the
juice and adding the sugar near the end of the process. The

180

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

2*
ati

FIG. 102.— Jellometcr for testing fruit juices in jelly making.

.IKI.I.V MAKING

isl

latter method, however, is not so good as the first, since, it' the
siiuar does not all dissolve and mix thoroughly with the fruit,
juice, some of the sugar used is likely to crystalli/r out. After
tin' jelly stands for a while these crystals may he seen through-
out the jelly. Midway between these extremes we might choose
a happy medium by adding- the sugar just as soon as the jui'-.-
boils. Although adding cold sugar to the hot juice stops the
cooking by a partial cooling of the juice, there is no real virtue

4L T n

'I ' 4 t

In;. 103. — Making strawberry and orange pectin jelly, Walton County, Florida. A.
Grating yellow peel. B. Straining juice. C. Passing white part through food chopper.
D. Testing for finished jelly. E. Pouring jelly into glasses.

in heating the sugar. The prolongation of the cooking, if there
is any, is less trouble than heating the sugar when there is no
appreciable gain.

Cooking the Jelly. — When the proper amount of sugar is
determined, allow the juice to boil before adding it (Fig. 103).
Clarify the juice by skimming it before the addition of sugar.
Add the sugar gradually to the boiling juice, stirring until it is
all dissolved. Cook very rapidly to keep the jelly a bright color
and (lie product clear. Skimming the juice after the sui:ar is
added is not a good practice from an economical standpoint.

L82

SI « CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

A thermometer will aid greatly in jelly making. If placed
in the cooking juice it will indicate the approach of the jelly
stage, and the cooking juice will not need to be watched very
closely until the temperature of 216° to 217° Fahrenheit or
102° to 103° Centigrade is reached. After this the juice cooks
very rapidly and requires constant watching. The juice for
jelly should not be allowed to simmer. All jellies should be
made as quickly as possible when once the cooking has begun.

FIG. 104 A. — First test shows drops of syrup

FIG. 104 B. — Finished test shows jelly flaking or shooting from the paddle.

By long cooking, the acid affects the pectin in such a way as to
cause it to lose some of its jelly-making power. Long cooking
also has the tendency to make the finished product dull and
darker than jelly which has been cooked rapidly over a hot fire.
Test the juice to determine when the jelly is finished. Take
a small amount of juice in a spoon and cool it by gently moving
it in the air for a few seconds and allow it to drop from the side
of the spoon or wooden paddle. At first it will just run off as

.IK u A MAKING jS;;

a syrup; then, as it cooks, the drops will become heavier, and
when the drops run together and slide off in a flake or sheet
from the side of the spoon, leaving the edge clean, the jelly i->
finished and should be removed from the fire at once. Skim-
ming while cooking the juice is wasteful. Be careful not to
break the scum while testing the juice for the jelly stage. After
a good jelly test is obtained and the vessel is removed from the
fire the scum may be removed all at one time before pouring
the jelly into the containers. It is very necessary at this point
to keep a cool head and work rapidly so that the jelly will not
have time to cool in the pan (Figs. 104A and B).

Pouring the Jelly into the Glasses. — Jelly should be poured,
while hot, into hot sterilized glasses. Fill the glasses full. Little
bubbles collect on the surface, and these can be removed in a
teaspoon by running it around the top of the jelly. If possible,
allow the jelly to stand in the sun as it cools. When it is firm
the jelly will have shrunken, leaving a space for melted paraffin.
Pour a layer of melted paraffin over the top to seal it from the
air i Fig. 105). The paraffin will run down along the edge and
stick more securely if a small wooden stick is carefully run
around the edge of the jelly after paraffin is* poured on. If the
paraffin runs down between the jelly and the glass for about
one-fourth inch it will not be so easily slipped away from the
jelly as it is when simply poured over the top in a thin layer.
Another way to protect the jelly is sometimes used. A circle of
paper is cut to fit into the glass, then dipped into grain alcohol
or brandy and placed ov°r the jelly. The alcohol or brandy
serves, as does the hot paraffin, to kill any mold that might have
dropped on top of the jelly as it stood to cool.

Covering the Glass. — Covering the glass is necessary after
the paraffin or the dipped paper circle is placed on top of the
jelly. Tie paper down tightly around the edge of the glass or
put a tightly fitting cover over it.

Labelling. — Place small, neatly printed labels half way be-
tween the seams of the glass and near the lower edge. The label
should be no larger than necessary to print the required in-
formation if the jelly is to be sold. Too much of the product

184 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

is hidden when a large label is used. Generally it is riot attractive
to use brightly colored labels, because they detract from the color
of the product.

Storing Jellies (Fig. 106). — A bright light will cause jellies
to fade in color and also cause them to "weep"; that is, leak
out and spoil the label. Keep them in a cool, dark, dry place.

FIG. 105. — A coffee-pot is a convenient utensil for melting and pouring the paraffin.

If a tender jelly is handled or allowed to stand for several
months in a jar which is not hermetically sealed, it is very apt
to "weep." To prevent this weeping, commercial concerns her-
metically seal their jelly jars. By using the crimped crown
cap mid (lie hand-sealing machine illustrated in the chapter on
"Fruit Juices" (p. 302) jelly glasses may easily be sealed air-
tight. When the jelly is to be sealed in this manner it should
first be allowed to cool and then have a thin layer of melted

JKI.LY MAKING

185

paraffin or a circle of paper which has been dipped into grain
alcohol placed over the top before crimping on the cap.

Fancy Packs. — Fancy packs of jelly may be made by packing
two or three jellies of different flavors and colors in one '_rla».
It is necessary to allow the first layer to cool before adding the
second, and so on. Apple juice or orange pectin may lie used I'm-
a base and have the different flavors and colors added. For
instance, jelly can be made of cherry, pineapple, strawberry.

FIG. 106. — A few good glasses of jelly ready to store.

rhubarb, and other fruits by adding the necessary pectin in the
form of apple juice or orange pectin. A mint jelly may be made
by coloring either apple or orange pectin jelly green with a
vegetable coloring matter and flavoring it with the fresh mint
or a very few drops of spirits of peppermint.

Fancy Jellies. — Fancy jellies can be made from non-pectin
fruits and other materials by using a pectin preparation made
from the orange or apple and combining this with strawberry

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

or other non-pectin fruits or with mint and other flavors. The
non-pectin fruits, it will be recalled, include cherries, pineapples,
rhubarb, and peaches. The use of one-half of the orange or
apple pectin prepared as below, and one-half of a non-pectin
fruit, will give satisfactory results, providing a jelly with the
color and flavor of some desired fruit, although the latter will
not of itself make jelly. The preparation of orange pectin is
described and a couple of sample recipes for these fancy jellies
are given (Fig. 107).

Preparation of Orange Pectin. —

'.j pound of white portion or- 3 tablespoonfula of lemon juice

6 cupfuls of cold water

Scrape or grate the yellow from the peel of the orange.
Remove the remaining white portion and pass it through a food
chopper. Weigh, and for each half pound allow three cupfuls
of cold water and one tablespoonful of lemon juice for each cup
of water. Mix thoroughly, allow to stand for four or five hours,
then boil for ten minutes, and cool. Add another three cupfuls
of cold water. Bring to a boil and let stand over night. Next
morning boil for five minutes, allow to cool, place in a flannel
jelly-bag, squeeze it to remove all the juice, and then filter the
juice through a clean flannel jelly-bag without pressing it.

This pectin may be used as a foundation in making jellies
from fruit juices which do not contain a sufficient amount of
pectin. If the pectin is to be kept for use later, pour it into
sterilized jars while hot, process quart jars in a water-bath at
simmering (180° Fahrenheit) for thirty minutes; seal and store
in a dark place.

Strawberry and Orange Pectin Jelly. —

1 cupful of orange pectin 1 cupful of strawberry juice

1 cupful of sugar

Mix the pectin with the berry juice and bring it to boiling,
iidd the sugar, and continue boiling until the jelly stage is
readied. This finishing point is indicated by the flaking and
sheeting from the spoon. Skim after removing jelly from the

JELLY MAKIXC |v,

fire; pout1 immediately into hot sterili/ed jelly glasses, ('mil
and cover wit ti melted pariiflin.

Mint Jelly.—

1 pint of orange or apple pectin 2 drops of oil of peppermint

1 pint of siifjar 2 drops of jircen ve^etalile col-

oring

Heat the pectin to boiling, add the sugar gradually, and
continue boiling until the jolly will Hake from the side <>f a
spoon. At this point add carefully two drops of oil of pepper-
mint, together with the two drops of green vegetable coloring

Fio. 107. — Fancy jellies.

matter. (This vegetable coloring may be obtained from a drug
store.) Stir gently and pour while hot into sterilized glasses.
After a few moments the scum which rises to the top may be
easily removed from the jelly with a teaspoon. When cold, pom-
hot paraffin over it. Place sterilized lids over the jelly glasses
or tie a circle of white paper over each.

Equal parts of pectin and non-pectin fruit juices combined,
using the same amount of sugar as pectin, will usually be the
proper proportion to use, when a flavor and color of mm-pectin
fruit are desired in jelly.

}gg SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRKSKRVlNG

QUESTIONS

1. State in your own words the standard for jelly.

2. What do tlio best jelly-making' fruits contain?

:5. What is the character of pec-tin? What is the effect of the heat of the
sun upon it? What effect has long cooking upon it?

4. Describe how to test a fruit juice for the approximate amount of pectin

present.

5. What is the usual mistake in jelly making? How can this he avoided?
G. How should jellies be cooked? Why is this necessary?

7. Describe how to determine when the jelly has cooked sufficiently.

8. What is a satisfactory method of sealing jelly? In what kind of a

place should it be stored?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Fox, MINNIE C., "Blue Grass Cook Book," 1004. Published liy Fox,

Duttield & Co., New York City. N. Y. $1.50.

2. (.'OLDTIIWAITE, N. E., " Principles of Jelly Making," Food Series No. 3,

vol. 1, No. l.~>, Cornell Reading Courses, May, 1012. Published by
the New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y.

3. GOLDTIIWAITE, N. E., " Chemistry and Physics of Jelly Making," article

published by the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
vol. 1, pp. 333-344. June, 1000; vol. 2, pp. 457 to 4G2, November,
1010, American Chemical Society, Easton, Pa. $0 per year.

4. GOLDTIIWAITE, N. E., " Principles of Jelly Making," University of Illi-

nois Bulletin No. 31, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.

5. HARRIS, AGNES ELLEN, "Jellies, Preserves, and Marmalades," Exten-

sion Bulletin No. 3, State College for Women. Published by the State
College for Women, Tallahassee, Fla., June, 1015.

li. McKuiMON, JANE S., "Strawberry, Blackberry, and Raspberry Jam,"
Nortli Carolina Canning Club Recipes. Published by the State Col-
lege of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

CHAPTER X I V

PICKLING

THE preservation of food with salt or vinegar, either with or
without, the addition of spices or sugar, is commonly known as
pickling. The predominating flavor determines the kind of pickle
—sour piekle, sweet pickle, or spiced pickle. Green and slightly
unripe fruits and vegetables are generally used for pickling. A
great variety of vegetables and fruits may be kept by this method.
Among the most common vegetables which are pickled are encum-
bers, tomatoes, beets, onions, carrots, martynias, artichokes, cab-
bage, and chayotes.1

The method of grating horseradish or putting it through a
food chopper and combining it with sufficient vinegar to moisten
it is one of the simplest types of pickling. Some vegetables give
better results it' they are soaked in salt water over night or until
thoroughly cured. This makes the tissue firmer and extracts
water from it. Some fruits and vegetables require this special
treatment, while others need only to be parboiled in salt water.
l»y either of these methods the tissues are better prepared to
absorb the flavored vinegar or syrup.

Utensils to Use in Pickle Making. — Only porcelain-lined or
granite-wear kettles should be used when cooking pickles. Acid
will attack metal utensils and they should not be used. A granite
or wooden spoon should be used for stirring. A perforated agate
ladle is a convenient utensil for lifting the pieces of pickle from
the kettle. Finished pickles should be packed into sterilized jars
oi1 crocks.

Sweet Pickles. — Among the fruits especially good for sweet
pickles are peaches, apples, plums, watermelon and cantaloupe
rinds, cherries, grapes, gooseberries, figs, and pears.

iThe chayote (Clnii/nla r<//ilin) is rather a comparatively ne\v vegetable.
It is a. climbing vine, resembling the encumber in growth, although it i*
much more vigorous and prolific. The fruit is pear-shaped and -oinewliat
corrugated, with a single flat seed.

190 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PKESERV1NG

Mixed Pickles. — Mixed pickles are made from various combi-
nations of such vegetables as beans, cauliflower, onions, small ears
of corn (two or three inches in length), cucumbers, and cabbage.

Relishes. — Pickles consisting of finely, evenly chopped vege-
tables are known as relishes ; Chile sauce, chow-chow, and pica-
lilli are often so classified.

Chutney. — Chutney is a hot sweet pickle originated in India.
There are a number of other condiments made in many ways
that belong to this class of pickle. Chutneys are of Oriental
origin. They are served with curries, cold meats, sausage, and
stews.

Mangoes. — The mango is a fruit believed to be a native of
southern Asia, but it is now grown in nearly all sub-tropical
countries. In addition to use as a fresh fruit, mango forms the
basis of most chutneys of East India type and is also canned and
(it her wise preserved. The mango melon is a small round melon
with yellow skin and white flesh. It is cultivated chiefly for
domestic mango pickling and preserving. Often small green
melons, burr gherkins, and peppers are stuffed and pickled.
The term "Mango" is popularly used for stuffed pickles.

Ketchup and Sauces. — When the materials to lie pickled are
finely chopped, cooked, and strained, and the resulting product is
a more or less thick fluid, they are called ketchups or sauces.
Many fruits and vegetables may be used for this purpose, but
tomatoes are more generally used.

Dill Pickles. — In making dill pickles and sauer-kraut the acid
is produced by fermentation and not by adding vinegar. The
lactic acid bacteria convert the sugar present in these vegetables
into lactic acid which acts as the preserving agent. The dill is
added for the sake of its spicy flavor.

BRINING

Large quantities of vegetables may be taken care of during
the harvesting season by brining them and allowing them to cure.
They may be finished several months later in a less busy season,
and when vinegar, sugar, and spices are likely to be cheaper.

H( KU.\<;

This method of keeping vegetables has been practiced since
primitive times, Our ancestors saved much <>!' their surplus rrup
by storing it away in lirine. Sometimes this material kept well;
often it did not. The failure was alt rilmted to had hick, and the
reasons for it were unknown. Tremendous losses in the spoilage
of piekles in factories led to scientific investigation of this subject
As a result valuable information has been contributed to the pub-
lic. Otto Halm's experiments at the University of Michigan are
the source of much of this information.

The causes of spoilage will be discussed later. The different
methods used in brining and pickling may be more satisfactorily
explained by the use of a single product; for example, the
cucumber.

PICKLING THE CUCUMBER

Preparation. — It is not necessary to wash the cucumbers
before putting them into brine, since the bacteria on the outside
of the vegetable aid in the process, and the brine piekles are
washed, anyway, before being eaten. This does not apply in
the case of dill pickles. These are eaten as they come from the
crocks. German bacteriologists recommend that a little whey
from sour milk be put into the pickle barrel to hasten the
fermentation.

Brine. — Soft water should be used in making the brine.
AVater containing much iron or lime will discolor the piekles.
Put the cucumbers into brine very soon after they are gathered.
A good measure of salt is absolutely necessary to prevent spoil-
age, but salt alone is not enough. The strength of the brine
used can easily be determined by using a salometer — a hydrom-
eter or spindle which will show the density or strength of the
brine by floating in the liquid (Fig. 108). The cucumbers may
be put down in a 45 degree to a 60 degree brine. The salt
draws out water from the vegetable tissues and toughens them
somewhat. For this reason the wreaker brine will give a
better texture to the finished product. About one pound nine
ounces of salt dissolved in one gallon of water will cause a sal;
hydrometer to float at about 45 on the scale, which will show that
it is a 45 degree salt solution. The cucumbers should be weighted

192

•

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

down so this solution will completely cover them. A
cheesecloth may be placed over the top to exclude the
dust and at the same time admit air.

BRINES

Approximate,
percentage of
solution

Weight of suit

Quantity of
water

Degrees,
salometer

2 ounces

6 quarts

4 ounces

6 quarts

6 ounces

6 quarts

8 ounces

6 quarts

10 ounces

6 quarts

12 Y± ounces

6 quarts

143^ ounces

6 quarts

16 }/2 ounces

6 quarts

1 pound 3 ounces

6 quarts

1 pound 6 ounces

6 quarts

2ys pounds

6 quarts

3 pounds

6 quarts

4 pounds

6 quarts

100

FIG. 108.

Brine hydrom-

otor.

From the above table it will be understood tbat tbe figures
representing the percentage of salt in a solution is obtained
by dividing the number of degrees which are read on a
salometer by 4; for instance, to make a 68° salt solution we
have to dissolve 68 divided by 4, or 17 parts of salt in 83
parts of water.

Grading. — Cucumbers should be graded according
to size, as follows (Fig. 109) :

Size 1 — 1 to ~2 inches — Small gherkins.
Size 2 — 2 to 3 inches — Small pickles.
Size 3 — 3 to 4 inches — Medium pickles.
Si/e 4 — 4 inches and over — Large pickles.

Bacteria Necessary. — Many kinds of bacteria are
present on the surface of the cucumbers, especially if
a little dirt adheres to them. Among the other organ-
isms there are a considerable number of lactic acid
bacteria. The presence of salt and lack of air in the
brine prevent most of the other bacteria from grow-
ing; the lactic acid organisms, however, not being
restrained to as great a degree as the other types grow
upon the substances given off by the shrinking of the

r
•

PICKLING

L93

194 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

cucumbers in the salt solution and convert the sugar into lactic
acid and gas.2 The gas escapes and can be seen in little bubbles
on the top of the brine. The bubbles indicate that fermentation
is taking place. The acid turns the grass greenness of the
vegetable to an olive green, which color is recognized as being
the correct tint for pickles. When the frothing ceases the acid
present in the brine is strong enough to kill most of the bacteria
in the liquid, and from this time on the pickle brine should be
covered, as explained below.

Spoilage Caused by Other Bacteria. — It is important, from
the beginning of the process, to keep the vegetable being pickled
weighted below the surface of the brine. If pieces protrude, the
so-called potato bacillus will grow upon the exposed surfaces and
cause spoilage. They grow rapidly and may do great damage in
a very short time. The addition of a little vinegar will destroy
these bacteria if they are discovered before much damage is
done.

Test for Acid. — To determine when the brine reaches the
acid stage, put a piece of blue litmus paper into it. If the litmus
paper turns red, showing the presence of acid, all air should be
excluded from the brine. This prevents the formation of yeast
scum, which causes the spoiling of the pickles.

Preventing Scum Yeast. — This is not difficult. Simply skim-
ming the yeast off is not sufficient, because it will grow again
unless the container is sealed air-tight immediately after the brine
Icsts acid. The very fact that yeast grows a scum proves that it
must have air in order to live. It cannot endure hot sunlight,
either. The bacteria which form the acid in the brine have just
the opposite characteristics. They grow at the bottom of the
crock or jar, where they avoid the air and where there is no light.

Excluding the Air. — It is necessary to exclude air, because
air may carry in with it yeast, and the scum, which might form,
would cause the pickles to soften and spoil. So soon as the acid
test is obtained take care to weight the cucumbers down under the

2 Most of the gas is caused by the respiration or breathing of the living
tissue cells of the cucumbers; a small amount, however, is produced by
types of lactic acid bacteria.

I'll 'KM NT;

195

brine, cover the brine with a piece of cheesecloth, and then pour
on a thick layer of melted paraffin. Place the lids on the crocks
or jars and wrap a strip of cheesecloth, dipped in hot melted par-
affin, around where the lid and the top of the container meet, let-
ting1 the paraffin harden and seal the opening. The paraffin is
inexpensive and can be remelted and used year after year. Care
should be taken not to pour it over the brine until fermentation
has ceased, otherwise the gases arising from the brine will crack
the paraffin and make remelting necessary. The containers should
not be disturbed after they have been so sealed. One important
characteristic of this scum is that it will not grow in the absence

FIG. 110. — Sealing a crock with a band of cheesecloth clipped into boiling paraffin.

of air, therefore the exclusion of air from the surface will entirely
prevent the scum from forming (Fig. 110).

Brining in Barrels. — Tn treating large quantities, secure tight
kegs or barrels. These may have to be charred and cleansed well.
It is possible in brining vegetables to commence with a lighter
brine, but they should probably be packed in a brine not lighter
than 60 degrees. As soon as the brine tests acid, the barrels
can be bunged up tightly to keep out all air. Since the brine is
likely to settle and become strong at the bottom and weak at the
top, it is best to turn the casks or barrels over every week for the.
first few weeks.

196 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

When these pickles are open they should be firm, good olive-
green color and in fine condition. The great secret of pickle-mak-
iiiLr lies in bringing about acid fermentation quickly, and, after
this is done, in preserving the acidity of the brine by covering
tightly.

SPICED CUCUMBER PICKLE

Open the containers, weigh and freshen the cured cucumbers
by allowing them to stand for an hour or two in clear, cold water.
It is believed that the pickles are improved in texture (made crisp
and firm) by dropping them into a lime bath (one ounce of lime
to one gallon of water) for about two hours. The lime used is
calcium oxide and can be obtained from drug stores. The color
may be intensified by neutralizing the acid with a soda bath (one
teaspooiiful of soda to one gallon of water). If either of these
baths is used it is necessary, immediately afterwards, to plunge
the cucumbers into clear, cold water for one hour. Drain well
and place in a granite kettle which has been lined with spinach
or grape leaves, cover the cucumbers with the leaves, and pour
over them boiling water, allow to stand in these leaves until thor-
oughly cold, drain well, and cover with a scalding vinegar solu-
tion (one pint of vinegar to three pints of water). Cool quickly
and allow them to stand for three or four hours. By so treating
with grape or spinach leaves a better green color may be obtained
in the finished product. Place cucumbers in a fresh vinegar bath
(two pints of vinegar to twTo pints of water") . Allow them to stand
until next morning.

Spiced Sour Pickle. — If a spiced pickle is desired, allow spices
in the following proportion to each two-pound lot of cucumbers :

1 ounce of stick cinnamon f> cupfuls of the last vinegar so-

Y2 ounce of cloves lution in which the cucumbers

% ounce of dried ginger root 3 have been standing

Boil vinegar and spices together for five minutes, pour over

'•'• Dried ginger root, or race ginger, can be obtained from the drug store.
The white coating on the ginger is due to the lime water in which it has
been dipped after drying to prevent insects from eating it. The coating is
carbonate of lime. This race ginger should be dropped into boiling water
and drained before adding it to the syrup.

PICKLING

—
o"

jt)8 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

the drained cucumbers, allow to cool, and then pack into jars and
pour the spiced vinegar over them.

Spiced Sweet Pickles. — If a sweet pickle is desired, make a
syrup of the six cupfuls of vinegar solution and one and one-half
pounds of sugar and cook together with spices for fifteen min-
utes, pour over the cucumbers, and allow to cool over night. Next
morning drain the spiced syrup from the cucumbers, boil for ten
minutes, and again pour over the cucumbers, stand for two hours,
then boil together with the pickles until they become bright and
clear (about ten minutes), cool quickly in a covered pan, and
when cold arrange the cucumbers attractively in jars and pour
over them the strained spiced syrup.

Cucumber Sweet Meats. — An attractive pack may be made
by slicing the sweet pickled, medium-sized cucumbers before
packing. Cut slices one-half inch thick, also cut a small circle
from the center of each slice. Place a raisin or red cherry in the
center for a garnish, arrange uniformly in the jars, strain the
syrup in which the pickles have been plumping, and pour over
the cucumbers in the jars, paddle to remove air bubbles, seal and
process (Fig. 111).

Plain Cucumber Pickle. — After washing the brine from the
cured cucumbers, allow them to stand in fresh, cold water for
three hours. Drain and cover with a weak solution of vinegar
and allow them to stand for two or three hours. Put in kettle :

1 quart of vinegar 1 pound of brown sugar

Y4 cupful of whole black pepper 2 tablespoonfuls of cloves

1 <>r -2 pods of red pepper 1 tablespoon ful of mace

Boil for five minutes and pour over the cucumbers which have
drained from the first vinegar. This amount is for one gallon
of pickle. Pack into jars, cover with the spiced vinegar, and
process to seal air-tight.

Cucumber Slices. — Select medium-sized cucumbers. Peel
and slice thinly. To each gallon of slices sprinkle one cup of salt.
Let st; ;ind for twelve hours; drain out the salt water; drop slices
into glass jars, cover with pure, cold cider vinegar, seal and
process in water-bath for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit
(simmering).

Spiced Cucumber Salad. —

Vegetables Spiced vinegar

5 pounds of sliced cucumbers 1 quart of vinegar

(about 2 dozen) % cupful of sugar

ys cupful of chopped onion 1 table-spoonful each of salt,

2 cupfuls of sweet red pepper powdered ginger, and inus-

( chopped) tard seed

1 cupful of sweet green pepper 1 tablespoonful each of wlmlc

(chopped) pepper, celery seed, cloven.

cinnamon, and allspice

Mix the cucumber and onion and sprinkle alternate layers
with salt, using three-quarter cupful for this lot. Let stand over
night. Put peppers in brine (one cupful of salt to one gallon of
water) over night. Next morning drain vegetables and freshen
for one to two hours in clear, cold water.

Put all whole spices in cheesecloth bag, except the celery seed
and mustard seed, which are put in loose. Add spices to the
vinegar and boil for five minutes. Drain the vegetables well and
pour the hot spiced vinegar over them. Let stand twenty-four
hours. Pack, distributing the pepper well and flattening some of
the iMiciimber slices against the face of each jar. Fill jars with
same vinegar and paddle well to remove all bubbles. Garnish
with strips of red pepper or pieces of spice. Process pint jars for
fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering).

Sweet Pickled Cucumbers and Red Peppers. —

12 sound cucumbers 1 teaspoonful of black pepper

8 sweet red peppers 1 teaspoonful of celery salt

1 cupful of brown sugar 1 teaspoonful of ground clov.-

1 teaspoonful of salt 1 teaspoonful of allspice

l pint of vinegar

Cut the cucumbers in slices one inch thick. Remove the seed
s;ieks from the peppers, and cut peppers lengthwise in strips <>in
inch wide. Place alternate layers of each in a preserving kettle.
Sprinkle one-half cupful of salt over them, cover with cold water.
and let stand four hours. Strain and wash thoroughly in cold
water to remove the brine; now put the cucumbers and peppers
back into the preserving kettle, mix together the sugar and sea
sonings, add to pickle mixture with vinegar, and cover ;md conk

200

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

until tender, stirring slowly and often. It will take twenty to
thirty minutes. Pack into jars and process as for spiced cucum-
ber salad.

Rummage Pickle. —

2 quarts of green tomatoes

1 quart of ripe tomatoes

2 bundles of celery

4 medium-sized onions
2 sweet green peppers
2 sweet red peppers
1 quart of small green cucum-
bers

Put the vegetables through a food chopper, sprinkle with one-
half cupful of salt, and allow to stand over night. Drain well
the next morning and mix thoroughly with all ingredients. Allow

4 tablespoonfuls of salt
1 quart of vinegar
1 pound of brown sugar
1 tablespoonful of mustard
1 tablespoonful of cinnamon
1 small hot red pepper

FIG. 112.- — Preparation of vegetables for mixed pickles.

ID si, -i i id for from four to five hours. Pack into jars, process, and
seal.

MIXED PICKLES

Mixed Pickles. —

)> large heads of cabbage 1 peck ot green tomatoes

1 quart of vinegar 1 dozen medium-sized onions

- pounds of sugar 2 dozen cucumbers

% ounce carli of cloves, cinna- 1 dozen green peppers
limn, allspice and mace.

I'll KLING 201

Chop them separately and very line. .Mix all logethei and put
in alternate layers of the mixture and salt. Let stand over night.
Then sqnee/.e dry and cover with cold vinegar. Lot it stand
twenty-four hours and squce/e as before. Mix vinegar with
spices, add sugar, boil for live minutes, and pour over 1 he chopped
vegetable. Allow to stand for several hours. I 'ark in jars, gar-
nish with strips of red pepper, cover with the spiced vinegar, and
process (Figs. 112 and 113).

Green Tomato Pickle. —

I Ballon of green tomatoes 1 tablespoon fnl of whole cloves

V'2 dozen large onions 1 tablespoonful of allspiee

3 cupfuls of brown sugar 1 tablespoonful of celery seed

1 •_• lemon (crushed)

3 pods of red pepper 1 tablespoonful of mustard seed

.'{ cupful* of vinegar 1 tablespoonful of ground nnis-

1 tablespoonful of whole black tard
pepper

Slice the tomatoes and onions thin. Sprinkle over them one
half cupful of salt and let stand over night in a crock or enamel
vessel. Tie the pepper, cloves, allspice, and celery seed in a cheese-
c loth bag. Slice the lemon and chop two pepper pods very fine.
Drain the tomato and onion well. Add all seasoning except one
pepper pod to the vinegar, then add the tomato and onion. Cook
for one-half hour, stirring gently at intervals to prevent burning.
Remove spice-bag to prevent darkening product. Pack in pint
jars and garnish with slender strips of the red pepper, placing
them vertically on the opposite sides of each jar. Process for
fifteen minutes.

Mustard Pickle. —

Vegetables Dressing

1 pint of whole small cucuni- 1 quart of vinegar

bers 4 tablespoonfuls of flour

1 pint of sliced encumbers 1 cupful of brown sugar

1 pint of small whole onions 3 tablcspoonfuls of powdered
1 cupful of string beans mustard

:: sweet green peppers y2 tablespoonful of turmeric

3 sweet red peppers 1 teaspoon fill of celery seed
1 pint of green fig tomatoes or (crushed)

1 pint of canlillower

202

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

FIG. 113. — A fancy pack of mixed pickles.

PICK u \e;

203

Cut all vegetables before measuring — tomatoes into halves,
cucumbers into slices, string beans into one and one-half inch
lengths, diagonally or on the bias, and chop peppers. All vege-
tables should be tender, and the whole encumbers not longer than
two and one-half inches.

Put all vegetables into brine over night, then freshen in clear

Fin. 114. — Fucking pickles with paddles. (Heinz Company.)

water for two hours. Let these vegetables stand in liquor of one-
half vinegar and one-half water for fifteen minutes, and then
scald in same liquor.

To make mustard dressing, rub all the dry ingredients together
until smooth, then add the hot vinegar slowly, stirring to make
smooth paste. Cook over p;m of water, stirring carefully, until

204

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

sauce thickens. Then drain the vegetables thoroughly and
pour the mustard dressing over them while hot. Mix well and
pack into jars. Process pint jars for twenty minutes at 180°
Fahrenheit (simmering) (Fig. 114).

RELISHES

Dixie Relish. —

1 quart of chopped cabbage
1 pint of chopped white onion
1 pint of chopped sweet red

pepper
1 pint of chopped sweet green

pepper
5 tablespoonfuls of salt

4 tablespoon fuls of mustard

seed
2 tablespoonfuls of celery seed

(crushed)

% cupful of sugar
1 quart of cider vinegar

Soak the pepper in brine (one cupful of salt to one gallon of
water) for twenty-four hours. Freshen in clear, cold water for
one or two hours. Drain well, remove seeds and coarse white sec-

FIG. 115. — Making Dixie relish and stuffing pepper mangoes.

tions. Chop separately, and measure the chopped cabbage, pep-
pers, and onions before mixing. Add spices, sugar, and vinegar.
Let stand over night covered in a crock or enamelled vessel. Pack
in small sterilized jars (Fig. 115).

When ready to pack, drain the vinegar off the relish in order

-3

YORK

ARY

f, t'NOX
>N fJUNDAUONS

I'K KI.INC

205

that tlu- jar may be well [tacked. Pack the relish in the jars,
pressing it carefully: then pour over it the vinegar which was
drained oil'. Paddle the jar thoroughly, to get every bubble out,
and allow the vinegar to displace all air spaces. Garnish each
jar with two slender strips of red pepper. Place these strips ver-
tically on the seams in the jar on opposite sides. Cap, clamp, and
process for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering).

Pepper Relish. — Take one dozen sweet green peppers and
one dozen sweet red peppers, and add three large onions, chopped
line. Cover with boiling water and let stand ten minutes, drain,
cover again, and let come to a boil. Then let stand again. Drain
dry and add three tablespoonfuls of salt, two pints of vinegar,
and two cups of granulated sugar. Cook fifteen minutes and pack
in jars.

Corn Relish. —

1 dozen ears of corn
1 head of cabbage
3 sweet red peppers
3 sweet green peppers
1 quart of vinegar

1 cupful of sugar

~2 tablespoonfuls of mustard

1 tablespoonful of salt

1 tablespoonful of celery salt

Blanch corn for two minutes and drop into a cold bath for a
few seconds before cutting from cob. Cook all together for
t went y minutes. Pack into sterilized jars, seal, and process.

Uncooked Tomato Relish. —

ys peck of ripe tomatoes

1 quart of cider vinegar

6 green peppers

i; -\vect red peppers

4 medium-sized onions

1 -j cupful of chopped cabbage

'2. teaspoon fills of celery seed
ys teaspoonful of red pepper
1 teaspoonful of ground cloves
4 teaspoon fuls of mustard seed

(yellow)

ys cupful of salt
1 cupful of sugar

Scald and peel tomatoes, chop all ingredients fine, add season-
ings, and mix well. Add the vinegar and allow to stand over
night. Xext morning pack cold into small sterilized jars, seal, and
process.

200 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Sweet Pepper Chow-chow. —

3 peeks <>i s\veel red peppers % peck of onions

1 cupful of grated horseradish 3 cupfuls of sugar

.") i;il.les|)ooiit'iils of salt 3 ounces of celery seed

4 ounces of mustard seed (crushed)

y., tablespoon ful of black pepper 1 teaspoonful of cloves

3 teaspooiifiils of cinnamon 1 teaspoonful of allspice

1 gallon of ((iO-grain) vinegar 2 teaspoonf ills of ground ginger

Sixty-grain vinegar is a commercial term for expressing the
acidity of the vinegar. Its equivalent, expressed in percentage,
would he <i per cent acetic acid.

( 'hop peppers and onions, mix all ingredients, and cook over a
slow lire for three hours. This quantity will fill fifteen pint jars.
This relish can be improved by adding tabasco sauce to suit the
taste.

CHUTNEYS

flo! Xtri'i /s to Serve with Curries, Cold Meats, Sausage, and Stews

B. S. Chutney. — This chutney is packed in red and yellow
hands in the jars. These colors represent the banner of Spain,
and for this reason it is called Banner Spain or B. S. Chutney.

Red part Yellow part

2 pounds of sweet Spanish Pi- 1 pint of small yellow fig toma-
miento or 2 No. 1 cans of Pi- toes ( preserved ) or

miento 1 pint of gingered watermelon

1 pound of sugar rind or

Juice of 4 lemons 1 pint of gingered chayote

2 hot peppers sweet pickle

l!<<! I'arl. — Peel the peppers according to the instructions
given for canning. Chop sweet and hot peppers together, add
sugar and lemon juice, and let stand in an enamelled vessel or
crock for twelve hours. Drain off the liquor and allow it to sim-
mer for ten minutes. Pour it over the peppers again and let stand
for four hours. Simmer the liquor again for fifteen minutes,
Allowing the peppers to remain in while simmering.

Yi/luir I'«rt. — Use one pint of preserved yellow tomatoes,
one pint of chopped gingered watermelon rind, or one pint of
chavotc sweel pickle. The preserved yellow tomatoes should be

PICKLING

201

kept as nearly whole as possible. If the gingered watermelon rind
or chayote is used it should be chopped or cut into small, uniform
pieces that will pack easily.

A ten-ounce, vase-shaped hermetic jar is an attractive package
for this product. In packing:, place the heavier color — red — at 1 1n-
bottom in a one-inch layer ; then place a one-inch layer of yellow.
Continue in this manner until the jar is neatly filled. Combine
the liquors and boil five minutes, strain, and pour it over the con-
tents. Paddle to remove air bubbles. Cap, clamp, and process
for ten minutes.

The small yellow fig tomato used in the chutney recipe is the
variety which may be used for green tomato pickle and whole
ripe-tomato preserves.

Apple Chutney. —

1 pound of green sour apples

1 pound of button onions

1 pound of raisins

1 pound of soft brown sugar

1 quart of cider vinegar

1 clove of garlic

2 ounces of race ginger root

4 ounces of Chile peppers (or

any hot peppers)
8 ounces of salt

1 tablespoonful of celery seed
(crushed)

Put the onions and salt and one cup of water in a bowl and
cover. Renew this bath each morning for two days.

Pare, core, and slice the apples, soak with the other ingredients
in a pint of cider vinegar for two days, add onions, and put
through a food chopper. Combine with another pint of vinegar
and boil until the apples are tender. Pack in small jars, seal,
and process.

MANGOES

Stuffed Pepper Mango. — Mango peppers are mild, sweet,
yellow, and waxy in appearance. They are highly esteemed for
pickling. Soak sweet peppers in brine (one cupful of salt to one
gallon of water) for twenty-four hours. When ready to stuff,
take from brine, rinse in fresh water, carefully cut a circle off tin-
top of each pepper, and save same, to be placed on peppers after
stuffing. Remove the seeds and white sections. Soak in clear,
cold water for one or two hours. Drain carefullv. Stuff with

208 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Dixie relish (p. 204), being careful not to press it in too
tightly. Place top on the pepper and make secure by one or two
stitches or by pinning cap in place with two or three wooden
toothpicks. Pack as many stuffed peppers as can be placed in
the jar without crushing. Then fill the jar to overflowing with a
spiced vinegar. Process for fifteen minutes in quart jars.

Spiced Vinegar. —

% gallon of vinegar I1/y tablespoont'uls (if mustard

% cupful of grated horseradish seed

1% tablespoonfuls of celery 1 tablespoonfnl of salt

seed (crushed) 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon
1 cupful of sugar

Cloves, nutmeg, and grated onion may be added if desired.

Green Mango Pickles. — Use tiny green nutmeg cantaloupes
and cure in brine as for cucumbers. When cured, soak the man-
goes in cold water for two days; then scald in kettle lined with
spinach or grape leaves. Cool, drain, and boil for fifteen minutes
in weak vinegar. Drain and cover them with the second spiced
vinegar for a week. After that, take the seed from them and fill
Iliem with the following spices:

1 pound of ginger, soaked in 1 o u n c e of c e 1 e r y seed

brine a day or two, until soft (crushed)

enough to slice 1 ounce of mace

1 ounce of ground black pepper ys ounce of cloves

1 ounce of allspice 1 cupful of grated horseradish

y.> oniicr of turmeric 4 ounces of white mustard seed

', pound of garlic, soaked for 4 ounces of yellow mustard seed

a day or two in brine, then
dried

A | >int of chopped sweet pickles or preserved watermelon rind
will improve the flavor and texture of this mixture for the filling.

Bruise all the spices and mix with one teacupful of salad oil.
To each mango add one teaspoonful of brown sugar. This mix-
ture will fill four dozen mangoes, having chopped up some of the
broken ones to mix with the filling. Tie them or pin together with
wooden toothpicks, pack in jars, and cover with sweet vinegar,
;i I lowing one pound of brown sugar for each pint of the spiced
vinegar in which the melons soaked. Seal and process.

PICKLING

Spiced Cucumber Mango. — Select large cucumbers and pre-
paiv tlit'in ;is for spiced cucumbers, and allow them to stand \'«r
about a week. Slice a cap from the stem end and scoop out tin-
center of the pickle, fill with Dixie relish (p. 204), replace the
cap. and fasten with wooden toothpicks. Pack into jars, cover
with spiced vinegar (p. 208), seal, and process.

Sweet Mango. — Large sweet pickles may be capped, scooped
out, and tilled with the following mixture:

1 cupful of preserved citron or % cupful of preserved oraiiv

watermelon rind and grapefruit peel

% cupful of candied cherries J/4 cupful of conserved <jiiiL"T

Fasten the cap in place, pack in jars, garnish with candied red
cherries or orange-peel, cover with spiced syrup, seal, ar.d proee^.
This makes a delicious sweet mango.

KETCHUP

Tomato Ketchup. — Select red-ripe tomatoes. The extra
juice, small and broken fruit, which will not do for canning, may
be used, if they are sound red. Any green or yellowish parts of
fruit will make a ketchup inferior in flavor and color, and not
Liood for market. I'se whole spices tied loosely in a bag while
cooking, and remove before bottling to prevent darkening* the
product caused by ground spices. This does not apply to red
pepper, which helps to give a bright-red color. The pulp of sweet
Spanish pepper or the ground Hungarian paprika may also be
used to give color and flavor. Remove seeds from sweet red pep-
per, chop, and add one cupful of this pepper and two medium-
sized onions to one gallon of tomatoes before cooking.

Cook the tomatoes thoroughly, put through a colander or sieve,
>aving all pulp, and measure. For every gallon of pulp use the
following :

2 tahlespoonfuls of salt 1 level tablespoonful each of

4 tahlespoonfuls of sujrar whole allspice, cloves, cin-

1 taldespoonful of m u s t a r d namon, and pepper

(powdered) 2 small red peppers, sliced and

1 pint of good cider vinegar seeds removed

210

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

After putting tomatoes through colander, add ground spices
and spice-bag, and cook for one and one-half hours, or until nearly
thick enough, 1 hen add vinegar and cook until thick. Rapid cook-
ing (being rarrl'iil not to scorch the ketchup) will give a better
color than slow cooking. The finished product should have a fine,
bright-red color.

Pour the ketchup at once into hot sterilized bottles. If any
quantity is made for sale, set the hot bottles at once into a vessel
of hot water, having a rack or false bottom in it to prevent break-
age, pul the cork stoppers in loosely, and process at boiling-point
for thirty minutes. Drive the corks in tightly, and when cool
dip mouth of bottle into melted paraffin, or cover stopper with
sealing wax.

Recipe for making sealing wax was given on page 101.
English Mushroom Ketchup (Nice for Soups and Sauces).—

I pint of vinegar

-ii pounds of mushrooms

1 pound of salt

To r;ich quart of liquor add 1

ounce of bruised or ground

ginger
nutmeg

1 teaspoonful of horseradish

% ounce of cloves

y> ounce of allspice

1 teaspoonful of whole pepper

1 sprig of mace

2 onions

1 clove of garlic

Rim mushrooms through food chopper, mix salt through them,
and let stand for twelve hours, then drain. To the liquor add all
ingredients, boil slowly two hours, add vinegar, bottle, process,
and seal.

Grape Ketchup. —

4 pounds of grapes

L tablespoonfuls of cinnamon
1 tablespoon each of cloves and
allspices

14 teaspoonful of cayenne pep-
per, if desired
1 cupful of vinegar
1 teaspoonful of salt
lya pounds of sugar

Wash and stem the grapes, and steam them over water until

Put through a colander. Add the spices, sugar, salt, and

vinegar and let simmer for fifteen minutes. Bottle and seal. Use

I'K'KLING

whole spices tied in a cloth while cooking and remove before bot-
tling-. This will give a better color than when ground spices are
used.

Cranberry Ketchup. —

5 pounds of cranberries
1 pint of vinegar
•J pounds of lirown sugar
1 •_. tablespoonful of paprika

3 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon
% tablespoonful of ground

cloves
l/2 tablespoonful of salt

Cook the cranberries and vinegar until the berries burst, press
through a sieve, add other ingredients, and let simmer until thick,
process fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering), cork,
and seal.

Pimiento Ketchup. —

6 pounds of ripe, roasted, and

peeled piniientos
2 tablespoonfuls of salt
2 pounds of sugar

2 tablespoonfuls of powdered

ginger
2 tablespoonfuls of powdered

cinnamon
1 quart of vinegar

Roast and peel the pimientos as for canning. Remove stem
seeds, weigh, and pass through a food chopper. Rub spices
together, add sugar, and mix well with the pepper pulp. Heat
thoroughly and add the vinegar slowly. Cook all together until
smooth and of the proper consistency. Pour hot into sterilized
bottles, cork or cap, and seal. If the bottles of ketchup are to be
shipped, sterilize them in a hot-water bath for thirty minutes at
180° Fahrenheit (simmering), and cork or seal immediately.

SAUCES

Chile Sauce. —

1 gallon of chopped ripe toma-
toes

y% cupful of chopped white
onions

i/3 cupful of chopped sweet
green peppers

M> cupful of chopped sweet red
peppers

y2 cupful of brown sugar

2 tablespoonfuls of ginger
1 tablespoonful of cinnamon
1 tablespoonful of mustard
1 nutmeg (grated)
1 quart of vinegar
% cupful of salt
ys teaspoonful of cayenne pep-
per

212 SUCCKSS1 l'l> CANNING AND PRESERVING

Peel the tomatoes and onions. Chop the onions and peppers
fine. Boil all the ingredients except the vinegar together for two
hours or until soft and broken. Add vinegar and simmer for one
hour. Stir frequently. Bottle and seal while hot.

Pepper Sauce.— Wash small cherry or Chile red and green
peppers, pack into bottles, cover with good cider vinegar and cork.
It will be ready for use within a few days. As the sauce is used
more vinegar may be added to the peppers from time to time.

Tabasco Sauce. —

4 do/en rod tabasco or Chile ]/2 cupful of spiced vinegar

peppers 1 clove of garlic

Moil the linely chopped garlic and peppers until tender, drain,
rub through a sieve, and add to the paste enough spiced vinegar
to make it of a creamy consistency. Bottle and seal. Onion may
be used in place of garlic if desired. Use spiced vinegar. Recipe
given on page 208.

Tomato Paste. —

I <|uart of thick tomato pulp % teaspoonful of salt

1 slice of onion ('2 inches in 1 teaspoonful of paprika

diameter! 1 tablespoonful of mixed spices

Mix one tablespoonful of spices about as follows: One-half
teaspoon t'ul each of mustard seed, cloves, cinnamon, crushed
celery seed, and bay leaf, one-quarter teaspoonful of whole black
pepper, and one sprig of mace.

Tie spice in cheesecloth and cook with tomato pulp in a pan
over water until thick enough to hold the shape of a spoon when
a spoonful of it is dipped out. Pack hot into small sterilized jars
or Hat No. 1 cans, process fifteen minutes at boiling.

I'KKSKItVING VEGETABLES BY FERMENTATION4

The preserving of food products by fermentation has been
practiced for centuries. In Europe many fermented substances
are common articles of food. In the United States, however,
pickles and sauer-kraut are the only foods commonly prepared

4 The recipe for preserving cucumbers, chayotes, beets, and string beans
\>y fermentation was contributed by Dr. L. A. Round, Bureau of Chemistry,
Department of Agriculture.

PICKLING 213

in this manner. A number ol' vegetables which are commonly
preserved by canning can be fermented and kept indelinitely.
Whenever it is difficult to obtain tin cans and glass jars, fer-
mentation is the most feasible method of preserving many food
products. The following procedure is recommended :

Cucumbers, Chayotes, Beets, and String Beans.4 — Cucum-
bers and ehayotes may be satisfactorily fermented by the fol-
lowing method: AYash the fruit, if necessary, and pack into a
clean, water-tight barrel, keg, or crock. On the bottom of the
barrel place a layer of dill and a handful of mixed spice. When
half full add another layer of dill and another handful of spice.
AY hen the barrel is full, add more dill and spice. If a keg or
crock is used, the amount of dill and spice can be reduced in
proportion to the size of the receptacle. "When nearly full,
cover with cabbage or spinach leaves and a board cover weighted
with stone. Make a brine by adding one pound of salt to ten
quarts of water. To each fifteen quarts of brine so made add
one quart of vinegar. Add sufficient brine to cover the material
and allow to ferment. The strings should be removed from
string beans before fermentation. In case of beets and string
beans, also, if they are to be served like fresh string beans,
the addition of spice is not necessary. Beets, of course, re-
quire careful washing 1o remove all dirt before brining. When
the acid test with litmus paper is obtained, seal the brine
air-tight.

Dill Pickles. — Dill pickles are made from fresh or salted
cucumbers • (the former are choicer, but the latter have better
keeping qualities). Employ pickled dill seed or herb 5 and "dill
spice," composed of allspice, black pepper, coriander seed, and
bay leaves, in addition to the brine.

Soak 100 cucumbers in a 30-degree brine until the brine will
give an acid test with litmus paper. Drain and arrange in
layers in a crock, putting in a layer of cherry or grape leaves

5 Dill is an herb of the parsley family, fjrmvn chiefly for its aromatic-,
pungent seeds, -which are. employed in the manufacture of sauces, pickles, etc.

214 SUiVKSSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

first, then the cucumbers, then a few cloves, the dill, a few small
pieces of red pepper, and then the leaves. Continue until the
crock is full. Cover with the brine which was drained off and
to which have been added one-half cupful of mustard seed, one-
half cupful of horseradish and one-half cupful of salt. Cover
with a light, weight and seal air-tight for winter use.

Brining Cauliflower. — A surplus crop of cauliflower can be
brined and used in mixed pickles later in the year when other
vegetables mature.

The "Rice" heads of cauliflower are heavier than the smoother
heads, and are not so fine for the market, but they are very good
for pickling. Plain tight barrels or kegs may be used. ' ' Second-
hand'' charred barrels are veiy satisfactory. Be sure barrels
are clean before filling with the cauliflower.

All outer leaves should be removed, and the stump and heads
should be put in whole, if possible. Pack cauliflower heads in
barrels until two-thirds full, and fill barrel with brine
which tests 40° with a salometer. Head the barrels and bore a
small hole (one-half inch to three-quarters inch) in the
top and fill the barrel to overflowing with brine through this
hole. A little brine has to be added from time to time to take
care of any leakage. Turn barrel at end of each week for six
weeks. To do this, bung hole up tightly and turn barrels upside
down so the salt which has settled at bottom will be equally
distributed again. Watch for leakage and be sure to keep cauli-
flower well covered with brine.

After two months the cauliflower should be repacked. Skim
the brine, using a skimming ladle. Dip out the cauliflower and
repack fairly tight in a clean barrel which has been scalded.
Cover with brine testing 40° with salometer. If an instrument
is not at hand for testing the brine, use one pound of salt to
each gallon of water (one pint of salt to eight pints of water).
Bung up, fill top with water to take care of leakage, and allow
to stand about five-months or until ready to use.

The Hollanders commence with a 30-degree brine and finish
with a :'.r>-<le<rree brine. They cure in casks only, and their
caulitlower has a better flavor than the domestic, because the

PICKLING 215

brine is kept so low that they iret a lactic acid cure. The same
principle is followed in the cure of genuine dill pickle.

Sauer-kraut or " Grout." — lTse one to three quarts of salt to
twenty gallons of shredded slaw or cabbage, or three pounds of
salt to each one hundred pounds of shredded cabbage will give
a irood flavor to the resulting kraut. Remove outside leaves and
the ha I'd core of cabbage. Shred the rest finely. Line the keg
with the larger leaves on the bottom and sides as you fill it. Put
in a three-inch layer of shredded cabbage and sprinkle with four
or live tablespoon fills of salt. Continue to repeat the process,
lining barrel with the large leaves. Pound it all down well until
the cask is full and covered with the brine. The salt soon ex-
tracts a considerable amount of juice from the cabbage, and this
brine should rise above the slaw. Cover with the large leaves
and a board cover to fit inside the cask. Weight this cover down
with heavy weights so it will keep the cover level. Care should
be taken not to use lime or sandstone for weights, for the acid
produced by fermentation attacks the lime and destroys the
seeping quality of the brine. It is necessary that the cabbage
be entirely covered with brine at all times. Keep in a cool, dry
cellar for three weeks to a month. Remove the scum and see
that it is well covered with juice. When the weather is warm
the kraut will cure in sixteen to eighteen days, when it is ready
for use or for canning.

It may be packed in No. 3 cans and covered with boilin^

-."^

water. Cap, exhaust five minutes, tip, and process thirty minutes
in a hot-water bath at 212° Fahrenheit.

Sauer-kraut is usually made in the fall for winter use. It
may be eaten raw, fried, boiled with pork with onions added, or
with wienerwurst sausage and browned in oven, or cooked with
spare-ribs.

Brining Onions. — Onions may be cured by the first method
given for brining cucumbers in a 45-degree brine (p. 192). \Vhe,i
tlie liquid gives an acid test the jars or crocks should be sealed
from the air. The onions will keep several mouths bv this

2ir>

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

IMCKUM; 217

method, and may bo used in mixed pickles later, or spiced ,-iinl
put in vinegar (Fig. IK)).

Pickled Onions. — Select small white onions and sort into
two sixes, one-halt' inch diameter in one and t hive-four) lis inch
in other. Peel, cover with fresh water, and let stand for two
days, changing the water on second day. Wash well and put
into brine for four days, changing brine at end of second day.
Take out of brine and put into boiling water. Let stand for
ten minutes, then put into cold water for two hours. Drain, and
pack into jars, putting in a few small red peppers, and garnish-
ing with sprigs of mace. Fill jars to overflowing with spiced
vinegar, made previously, as below, and allowed to stand for a
few days with spice-bags left in it. Process as for pickles.

Spiced Vinegar for Pickled Onions. —
'L. Ballon of vinegar I1/- tablespoonfuls of mustard

li/, talilespoonfuls of celery S(,(.,|

seed 1 taMespoonful i,f salt

i/-2 cupful of grated horseradish
1 cupful of sugar ! tablespoonful of cinnamon

Cloves, nutmeg:, and grated onion may be added if desired.

Pickling Olives." — In California, Arizona, and other states
where olives can be grown successfully many housewives are
interested in pickling them by household methods for home use.

The two varieties which have given the best results in home
pickling are the Mission and Manzanillo. The Mission holds its
color well while being pickled, and with reasonable care in the
extracting process yields a product which is firm and of good
flavor. The Manzanillo is superior to the Mission in flavor, but
the fruit is of a finer texture and is prone to soften during
t n-atment ; the color of the finished product is not so good as that
of the Mission.

The finest pickled green olives come from the south of Spain.
California and Arizona lead in the marketing of the pickled
ripe olive. On the Pacific coast the green olive is no longer
receiving attention.

" NOTE. — Directions for pickling olives obtained from Farmers' Bulletin
i'!)<;. 1 !><>7, U. S. Department of Agriculture. l>y \V. \V. Skinner.

OJ8 sr< VKSSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Fruit for pickled green olives is gathered when it has attained
full size, hut before final ripening begins. It is sorted according
to size and quality, then washed and placed in a solution of lime
and potash to remove the bitter taste.

The olives, either green or ripe, should be picked into pails
about one-third full of water, to prevent bruising, and sorted
as to si/e and ripeness. The fruit is then placed in suitable
vessels (preferably stone jars, though wooden kegs may be used
if sterilized so that they are free from mold spores), the water
poured off, and the fruit covered with a solution made of two
ounces of soda lye, one ounce of lime, and one ounce of common
salt to a gallon of water. The solution should be thoroughly
mixed and allowed to stand an hour before using, and is best if
made of boiled and cooled water. It should stand about two
inches above the fruit, and if any of the olives float it is necessary
to cover them with a board and weight.

The time of the lye treatment varies from three to seven days,
aecorilinir to the variety, size, and ripeness of the fruit. The
solution should be examined daily, and should the sleek, soapy
feeling peculiar to lye disappear it indicates that the solution
is exhausted. The old solution should therefore be poured off
and new solution added. It should also be changed at once
should any scum or mold appear. The fruit should be fre-
quently examined, always sampling the largest olives by cutting
away a portion with a sharp knife. The progress of the lye
toward the interior of the fruit is plainly marked by a distinct
dark ring. When the ring has reached almost but not quite to
the pit it is time to remove the lye and commence the washing.

The lye should now be poured off and water added and
renewed morning and night. The wash-water should also be
Itoiled as a preventative of mold, which is very likely to develop
at this stage of the pickling process. The fruit should be kept
in water, as before, with the board and weight, and throughout
the extraction, washing, and salting the vessel should be closely
covered. It will require from four to seven days to remove all
traces of the alkali. Washing should be continued so long as the
fruit has the peculiar hot taste due to the presence of lye, and it

I'll Kl.INC

is well to test it with ml litmus paper, which will turn him- if ;i
trace of the lye remains. Ji' the olives are still hitter after the
washing lias been completed, they should receive a second treat-
ment with lye, followed by washing-.

When free from lye the olives are ready for pickling. Some
use brine only or salt and vinegar mixed, others add fennel and
thyme or coriander and laurel leaves. The fruit is generally
pickled whole, but when desired to give a stronger pickle savor
it is marked with incisions to the stone.

It' olives are to be brined, use two ounces of common salt to
a gallon of water. The brine should be thoroughly boiled, cooled,
and poured over the olives. The next day this solution should
be poured off and a solution containing four ounces of salt
should be used. If the stronger solution is used to begin with,
the olives will shrivel. The fruit should next be treated with
an eight-ounce brine, and, if intended to keep for some time,
linally with a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to tho
gallon. A fourteen-ounce brine, however, makes the olives too
salty to be used without a slight soaking.

The better method of keeping the finished product is to
process the olives after adding the eight-ounce brine. Glass
fruit jars filled with olives and brine, with the covers lightly
screwed down over the rubbers, are heated to 180° Fahrenheit
(simmering) for thirty minutes. They should then be removed
and the covers quickly tightened. By this process the flavor
of the olive is not injured, and if properly done the fruit will
keep at least several months without deteriorating.

A perfect pickled green olive is yellowish green, very firm,
with pinkish pit and agreeable flavor. Fruit of lesser quality
is dark in color, with meat soft and mushy, or woody and taste-
less, these defects being caused either by age or imperfect curing.

Pickled or salted ripe or black olives are purplish black in
color, and dark and rather soft in pulp, with a bland flavor
due to the oil developed in the ripening. They are processed
in much the same manner as green fruit, as prior to pickling
they retain the characteristic bitter flavor. Green olives are essen-
tially a relish. Ripe olives are a wholesome and nutritious food.

220 SU< CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Plain Mock Olives. — Mock olives may be made for home use
from unripe plums. The plums, when just beginning to ripen,
but still green, should be pickled in a 45-degree brine (one
pound, nine ounces of salt and one gallon of water). The brine
should be poured, hot, over the fruit and allowed to stand for
thirty-six hours. It should then be poured off. Place the fruit
in a new brine and boil for one minute. Drain the plums,
pack into jars, cover with hot brine. Seal and process pint jars
for thirty minutes at 212° Fahrenheit,

Spiced Mock Olives. — One gallon of green plums soaked for
twenty-four hours in 45-degree brine (one pound, nine ounces
of salt and one gallon of water). Drain, place into stone jars,
and pour scalding vinegar over them. Next morning drain off
this vinegar, add to it two tablespoonfuls of mustard seed, and
boil for two minutes. Pour, hot, over the plums and allow to
stand until cold. Pack in bottles, cover with hot strained liquor,
seal, and process as for plain mock olives.

Pickled Mushrooms. — Steam whole mushrooms, place into
jars, cover with vinegar, seal, and process as -for mock olives.

FLAVORED VINEGARS

Tarragon Vinegar. — Bruise one cupful of Tarragon leaves,
pour over them one quart of good apple vinegar, and allow to
stand for from ten to twelve days. After this time strain care-
fully through a flannel cloth, bottle, and seal air-tight.
Celery Vinegar. —

I quart of vinegar S tablespoonfuls of celery seed

1 tablcspoonful of salt (crushed) or 1 quart of

1 tablespoonful of sugar chopped fresh celery

Meat the vinegar, add the seasoning, and pour while hot over
the celery. Allow to cool, cover tightly, and set aside for from
twelve to fifteen days. Strain, bottle, and seal.

Onion Vinegar. —

I quart of good vinegar 1 tablespoonful of salt

% cupful of chopped white 1 tablespoonful of sugar

onions

Scald llu- vinegar and spices, pour over the onions, allow to
stand for two weeks, strain, bottle, and seal.

IMCKUM; -j-ji

Tarragon, celery, and onion vinegar are delicious when us^l
in dressings and served with salads.

Artichoke Pickle. — Scrub and scrape young artichokes,
plunue them into boiling brine (one-quarter cupful of salt to one
quart of water) for live minutes. Then put into clear, cold
water for a few minutes. Drain and cover with a spiced vine-
irnr i p. L'08). Let stand over night, and pack in sterilized jars.
Cover with the spiced vinegar and process small jars in water-
bath for fifteen minutes and quart jars twenty-five minutes at
180° Fahrenheit (simmering).

Pickled Beets. — Cook small beets until tender, slip the skins
off. pack into jars, cover with spiced vinegar, seal and process
for thirty minutes at simmering). Beets are better canned in
water and made into pickle as desired.

Sweet Pickled Carrots. — Boil young, tender carrots until
three-fourths done, scrape, cut in thin slices, and pour a boiling
spiced syrup over them, made by boiling together one quart of
vinegar, one quart of sugar, one tablespoonful of cinnamon,
cloves, and one teaspoonful of mace and allspice. Allow to
stand over night in this syrup. Next morning boil for five
minutes, cool (|iiickly, pack into jars, strain syrup over them,
seal, and process as for all pickles.

Spiced Green Tomatoes. —

('» pounds of small whole green 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon

tomatoc- % tablespoonful of cloves

4 pounds of sii'jiir % tablespoonful of allspice

I pint of vinegar % tablespoonful of mace

Small green fig or plum tomatoes are suitable for this pickle.
Scald and peel. Make a syrup of the sugar, vinegar, and spices.
Drop in the whole fruit and boil until the tomatoes become
clear, pour all into trays, cool quickly, pack cold into jars, strain
syrup over them, seal and process.

Spiced Rhubarb. — I 'eel and slice one pound of rhubarb.
Sprinkle over one cupful of sugar, and let stand over night.
Next morning drain off the syrup, add one-half cupful of sutrar.
and put over the fire. Tie in spice-bag (six whole cloves, three
whole allspice, a bit of mace, a six-inch stick of cinnamon, and

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

a two-inch piece of ginger root), put into syrup and boil ten
minutes, skim out spices, add rhubarb, and cook until clear.
Seal in small jars.

SPICED FRUITS

Spiced Crab Apples. — Choose round crab apples uniform in
size; do net pare them. Make a spiced syrup by boiling to-
ijrilici- one quart of vinegar, one quart of sugar, one tablespoon-
ful of cinnamon, cloves, and one teaspoonful of mace and all-
spice, add crab apples, and heat gently, being careful not to
burst the fruit. Let stand in syrup over night, pack cold, cover
witli syrup, seal, and process pint jars fifteen minutes at 180°
Fa 1 1 IT 1 1 1 1 eit ( simmering ) .

Pickled Watermelon Rind. — One pound of watermelon rind
boiled in one quart of salt water (one-quarter cupful of salt to
one quart of water) for fifteen minutes. Drain well and dip
into a cold bath until the fiavor of salt is gone. Drain care-
fully and stand in lime water over night (two ounces of lime to
one gallon of water). Drain next morning and cook rapidly in
a syrup made by boiling together one pound of sugar, one pint
of water, one pint of vinegar, one teaspoonful each of cloves,
• •imiHiiion, allspice, and one-half teaspoonful of mace. Cook until
rind becomes clear and transparent. Cool before packing, proc-
ess as for other sweet pickles, and seal.

Cantaloupe Pickle (Sour). — Select under-ripe cantaloupe,
peel, cut into sections. Place two pounds in stone jar and pour
over a boiling mixture of one quart of vinegar, one pint of
\vater, adding spices tied in spice-bag:

1 /•• teaspoonfuls of mace (» tcaspoonfuls of cloves

.' teaspoonfuls of cinnamon 1 pound of su°-ar

Xrxt day pour vinegar off and bring to boil. Add sugar and
drop in the spices and sections of fruit and boil until trans-
parent. Pack fruit in jars and boil vinegar mixture for fifteen
minutes longer to make a heavier syrup. Pour it over the fruit,
cap jars, and process pints for fifteen minutes.

Cantaloupe Pickle (Sweet).— Soak one and one-half pounds
of rind for three hours in lime water (two ounces of lime to one
Dillon of water). Drain and soak in fresh water for one hour.

PICKLING 223

Make a syrup by boiling together one quart of water and one
pint of sugar, add well-drained rind, and cook rapidly for thirty
minutes. Allow to stand over night. Next morning add one
cupful of sugar, one cupful of vinegar, and spice-bag (one
tablespoonfn] each of cinnamon, cloves, and allspice, and one-
half tablespoonful of mace). Cook until rind is transparent
(about one hour). Cool and pack in small jars. Cover with the
strained syrup and process.

Sweet Pickled Chayote. —

2 pounds sliced chayotes % ounces of whole cloves

•2 pounds of sugar % ounce of dried ginger root

1 ounce of stick cinnamon

Select half-grown chayotes, a green variety preferred, and
slice thinly cross-wise. The slices from the smaller end of each
fruit will make the most attractive pickle. The larger pieces
may be chopped and used instead of cabbage in Dixie relish
(p. 204).

The chayotes must first be cured in a 45-degree brine (about
one pound, nine ounces of salt to one gallon of water). Place
the sliced chayotes in a crock, cover them with the brine, and
weight down with a plate. As soon as the brine around the
chayotes will give an acid test with litmus paper (that is, will
turn blue litmus paper pink) the chayotes are ready to be
pickled. This will require three to five days.

If not made up into pickle at once it will be necessary to seal
them air-tight. This can be done by sealing the jar with a
layer of cheesecloth dipped in melted paraffin over which the lid
is placed and sealed with strips of cloth which have been dipped
in melted paraffin. The cured vegetable will keep as long as kept
air-tight, but the color will not be as good as if finished at once.

Freshen the brined chayotes by standing in cold water for
about two hours. Drain and let stand for two or three hours in
a weak vinegar solution (one cupful of vinegar to three cupfuls
of water). Place in stronger vineirar solution (one and one-half
cupfuls of vinegar to one and one-half cupfuls of water) for a
couple of hours. Then add the sugar and the spices, which art-
tied up in cheesecloth bags, to this solution. Cook the chayotes

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

in this syrup until clear and transparent. Let stand until cold
or over night in the syrup so that the slices will plump. Cut a
tiny circle from the center of each slice of chayote and garnish
with circles of sweet red pepper. Pack in jars, pour over the
strained syrup, and process like other pickles.

Cucumber rings are sometimes garnished and packed in this
manner.

Sweet Pickle Figs. —

5 quarts of lijjs 1 quart of sugar

1 quart of water 1 tablespoonful of cloves

1 pint of sugar 1 teaspoonful of allspice

1 pint of vinegar 1 teaspoonful of mace

1 tablespoonful of cinnamon

First, cook five quarts of figs until tender in about a 30-
degree syrup (one quart of water to one pint of sugar).

When figs become tender, add one quart of sugar, one pint
of vinegar, one tablespoonful of cinnamon, one tablespoouful of
cloves, one teaspoonful of allspice, and one teaspoonful of mace,
and cook until figs are clear and transparent. Allow them to
stand in this syrup over night. On the following morning pack
the fruit into jars, cover with syrup. Sterilize pint jars in
water-bath for fifteen minutes at boiling or thirty minutes at
180° Fahrenheit (simmering).

Spiced Currants and Gooseberries. —

7 pounds of fruit 3 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon

1 pint of vinegar '2 tablespoonfuls of cloves

."> pounds of sugar

Make a syrup of the sugar, spices, and vinegar. Cool, add
the fruit, and cook rapidly for from twenty to twenty-five
minutes. Pack into jars while hot and seal at once.

Spiced Grapes. — Pick the grapes from the stem, wash and
slip the pulp from the skins, steam the pulps over a vessel of
hot water or in a double boiler until they can be rubbed through
a coarse sieve to remove the seeds. Combine pulp with skins
and weidi. To each seven pounds allow the same proportions
of sii'_:;ir and spices as for currants and gooseberries given above.
Cook all together until very thick, pack while hot, and seal at once.

TICKLING 225

Damson Plums and Cherries. — These fruits may In- spiced
in the same manner as currants and gooseberries (p. 224 j.
The addition of one teaspoonful of mace and two teaspoonfuls of
allspice will improve the flavor. After they are cooked in the
syrup until tender, lift them out and cook syrup fifteen minutes
longer, then pour over the fruit and allow to stand until cold.
Pack", seal, and process pint jars fifteen minutes at 180 ' Fahren-
heit (simmering).

Sweet Pickled Peaches. —

(i pounds of fruit 4 ounces of stick cinnamon

3 pounds of sugar 2 ounces of whole cloves

1 pint of water 1 ounce of ginger

1 pint of vinegar

Select firm clingstone peaches. It is better to have them
under-ripe than over-ripe. Peel by either method given under
canning peaches (p. 126), and drop at once into a syrup which is
made by boiling together the sugar and water, and boil for
fifteen minutes. Cool quickly and allow to stand for from two
to three hours. Drain off the syrup, put vinegar and spices into
it, boil for fifteen minutes, then add the peaches and cook to-
gether for half an hour. Let stand over night. Xext morning
drain off the syrup, boil for twenty minutes, add the peaches, and
continue cooking for fifteen minutes longer. Cool again and let
stand for two hours or over night, then boil all together until
the peaches are clear and tender. Pack peaches cold into jars,
•jarnish with snips of stick cinnamon, cover with strained syrup,
>e;d. and process quart jars for twenty minutes at 180° Fahren-
heit (simmering).

Spiced Pears. —

7 pounds of hard pears % lemon (rind)

3y2 pound- df sugar ys ounce of whole cloves

1 pint of vinegar % ounce of whole allspice

1 ounce of ginger root 2 ounces of stick cinnamon

Cut pears in half, remove the seeds, and pare. Make a
syrup of vinegar and sugar, tie the spices in small pieces of
cheesecloth and add them to the syrup. When this mixture
begins to simmer, add the pears and lemon rind and bring to the
boiling-point, cool quickly, and allow to stand over night. The
15

si ( CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

next morning drain oft' the syrup from the pears into a porcelain-
lined «>r a-ate kettle, bring the syrup to boiling-point and pour
over the pears, allow to stand over night again. Next day drain
and heat the syrup as before, repeating this for four or five con-
secutive days, then boil the syrup down until it is just enough
to cover the fruit, add the fruit to the hot syrup and boil for
thirty minutes, pack the fruit into jars, garnish with snips of
cinnamon, cover with the syrup, seal, and process for thirty
minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering).

The pears may be finished in one day by boiling them in
ihe syrup until the fruit is clear; remove the fruit and boil the
svrup down to 221° Fahrenheit, add the fruit, reheat it, and
finish as above. The fruit is less rich if done in this way.

QUESTIONS

1. Wliat is meant by "pickling"?
•_>. Whut is tlie secret of pickle-making?

:;. Why should some vegetables be soaked in salt water until cured and
others parboiled in salt water before the flavored vinegar or syrup
is ad tied?

1. What strength brine would you use if you were preparing it for cucum-
ber pickles? How approximate this if you have no hydrometer at
hand?
.">. While the pickle is in brine, why should the container be covered only

with a doth so as to admit air?

(,. \( what stage in the preparation of pickles are bacteria useful? Ex-
plain their action. How arc these introduced into the brine?
7. What is the value of the presence of an acid in the brine? How can

you test for it?
s. Why should the air be excluded as soon as the acid is formed in the

brine ?

'.>. Why is it well to turn the kegs or barrels containing pickles in brine?
III. Why is a lime bath sometimes used?
I I. Why is a soda bath sometimes used?
12. If either bath is used, what must necessarily follow?
I::. What is the standard for the finished product?
11. 'Jive an outline of the preparation of olives.

PICKLING
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. CRAWFORD, R. F., "Report on the Dutch Brined Vegetable Industry,

British Board of Agriculture, 1002. Published by Darling- & Son
London. 8 pence.

2. "Creole Cook Book." 1014. The. Picayune, Xew Orleans, La. By mail.

$1.25.

3. Fox, MINNIE C., "Blue Grass Cook Book," 1004. Published by Fox

Duttield & Co., Xe\v York City. X. Y. $1.50.

4. HOFFMAN AND EVANS, '• The Uses of Spices as Preservatives." article in

the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by
the American Chemical Society, Easton, Pa. $6 a year.

5. KEOLEIAN, ARDASHES H.. "Oriental Cook Book," 101:?. Published by

Sully & Kleinteich. Xew York City. X. Y. .$1.25.

(i. POWELL, B. E.. " How to Keep Brine Pickles," article in the (lootl
Housekeeping Magazine of August. 1014. Published by Good House
keeping Magazine, 110 West Fortieth Street, Xew York City. X. Y
$1.50 a year. 15 cents a copy.

7. HAIIN. OTTO, article on '• Pickling." Published by the Canning Trade,

Baltimore, Md.

8. RICHARDSON, CLIFFORD, " Spices and Condiments," Bulletin Xo. 13. part

2. 1887. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Chemistry.
o. ROUND, L. A., and LANG. H. L.. " Preserving of Vegetables by Salting
and Fermenting," Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C., 1017.

in. SIIINKLE, CHARLES A., "American Commercial Methods of Manufac-
turing Preserves, Pickles. Canned Goods, etc.," 1012. Published
by C. A. Shinkle, Menominee, Mich. $10.

11. SKINNER. W. W., "Pickling Olives and Mock Olives," Farmers' Bul-
letin Xo. 206, 1907, U. S. Department of Agriculture (Experiment
Matimi \\'<>rk). Can be procured from the Superintendent of Docu-
ments. (inviTiiment Printing 0;fice, Washington. D. C. 5 cents.

CHAPTER XV
DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS

(IKNERAL METHODS

THE drying of foods has been practiced since the beginning

of civilization.

Drying is one of Nature's own processes in the drying of
grains, such as wheat, oats, corn, and many other seeds. Nature's
methods have been improved by the application of artificial heat,
which hastens the process. This is used to dry perishable products
which under natural conditions could not be kept. Modern meth-
ods of evaporating products afford less opportunity for the
accumulation of dirt and for fermentation.

Foods prepared in this way are less bulky and require less
space for storage than in the natural condition. First-grade dried
fruits and vegetables are about as expensive as the same product
would be if canned, but they are lighter in weight, require
less space in shipping, and can be packed in less expensive
containers.

The first commercial products which were put on the market
were inferior in quality because the packages were not only unsan-
itary but the products had often been injured by dust and insects.
This led to a general depreciation in the value of dried foods.

Insufficient drying is one of the commonest causes of trouble.
Some laws require that marketable dried fruits shall contain not
more than 27 y^ per cent of water, and this limit practically elimi-
nates that particular trouble to great advantage of the industry
as a whole. If a larger proportion of water remains, the fruit
tends to discolor, mold, or sour. A bushel of green apples, for
example, weighs about fifty pounds, and should make seven or
eight pounds of white stock, four pounds waste, five-sixths of the
fruit being water. Apples when dried still contain 25 per cent
of water.
228

DKYINC MM [TS, YK<;KT.\|:UN AM) lll.i;):^

The comparative merits of the open-air "drying" ami the
indoor "evaporating" processes hinge entirely upon the matter ..f
climate. In California open-air drying is almost universally
practiced, as the sections where fruit is dried are practically free
from excessive moisture and rain during the entire drying season.
In other parts of the United States the evaporating process has
superseded open-air drying for commercial purposes. The results
of the evaporating process are obtained in a shorter length of
time, and the product has better keeping qualities and conse-
quently commands a higher price than sun-dried fruits from the
same localities.

The evaporating process industry in the United States began
about 1868. It is said that in Wayne County, New York, alone,
more than 2000 small evaporators are used right in the orchards.
The dry kiln, which is most in favor now among the larger pack-
ers, consists of a drying bin with a slat floor built over a furnace.
The fruit is spread on the floor and dried by the heat rising
through and around it.

A type of homemade dry kiln used in some sections of the
count] \ can be made as follows: AValls of brick or stone are built
up a foot or two above the ground, with the front end left open
for a lire door. The size of this kiln depends upon the amount of
material to be dried. Many farm kilns are four feet wide and
eight to ten feet long. At the back end a flue is built, and this
should extend four or five feet above the top of the kiln. Iron
bars are placed across the top of the structure, and sheet iron or
tin placed over these. A layer of clay mortar is spread over the
whole surface to the depth of about two inches. After applying
the mortar a fire should be started in the furnace to bake the clay.
The firing should be done with a slow fire, and any cracks forme.:
during the baking should be closed up with thin mortar. The
material to be dried on this type of a kiln is placed on large metal
trays to the depth of two or three inehe^. Only a few hours are
required for the drying process. Most any fruit or vegetable can
lie dried on this type of drier, but those most commonly drie 1
are apples, peaches, cherri'^. and sweet corn.

A d-seription of the apple driers n-^.-.i for vegetable dryinir i"

230 *l"« CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Western New York is given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 291, "Evap-
oration of Apples." Other interesting descriptive matter and
illustrations may be found in Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. Ktt, by J. S. Colwell, State College of Agriculture,
I'M 11 ma n. Wash. The chief use of the kiln evaporator in New
York, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Virginia, Washington, and Ar-
kansas is for the drying of apples, and many long-established
plants had never dried anything else until 1915, during which
time many evaporators in Monroe and Wayne counties, New
York, ran full capacity in drying carrots, .cabbage, onions, celery,
and Irish potatoes for the French WTar Department. These crops
when dried were mixed together under a certain formula and
placed in fifteen-pound cans, which were sealed and shipped to
the allied army, where they were used in making soup and stews
for the soldiers.

This great demand for concentrated products has stimulated
investigations and experimental work in drying foods. The
Bureau of Chemistry in the United States Department of Agri-
culture has obtained some most interesting results by the use of
an electric fan. It was found that products were dried rapidly
and retained a good color by the use of the fan. This indicates
the value of currents of air in drying. In any system of drying
there needs to be considered the circulation of air as well as the
application of heat.

Indoor Drying. — The indoor methods of drying have been
found necessary in large parts of the United States now on ac-
count of the moisture present in the atmosphere. The following
methods of indoor drying are sometimes used commercially:

1. The fruit is enclosed in a chamber where heated air is cir-
culated over and through the fruit until 70 to 75 per cent of the
water is extracted.

'_'. Vacuum driers are sometimes used. The evaporation is
more rapid, but the color of the product is affected. If sulfuriz-
in'j is applied a better color may be preserved.

•">. Hydraulic pressure for certain products has been found
i«» he a most effective method, but is not generally used in America.

French Methods of Vegetable Drying. — The following gives

|)RYIN<; FRUTS, \ F< I FTAIII.KS AND HERBS 23]

two French methods of drying green vegetables, which form tin-
basis of a large industry in that country, some experiments witli
which are under way in the United States:

1. The greens are carefully selected, trimmed, and put into a
hurdle of coarse linen cloth. This hurdle is set up in a chamber
which is warmed by means of hot air. The heat circulates through
pipes, running back and forth through the chamber of the evapo-
rator, at a temperature of 95° to 113° Fahrenheit, or 35° to 45°
Centigrade, being regulated according to the condition of the
greens. The heat should be raised gradually to prevent a loss of
flavor and color. The advocates of this process claim that the
heat is more evenly distributed and the temperature more uni-
form, avoiding danger of scorching the fruit.

'2. Another operation of drying green vegetables is carried on
in France most successfully by a gradual pressing while drying
the product. The volume of greens lessens four-fifths by the use of
a powerful working hydraulic press. The greens are laid into two
strong iron boxes which are placed at the end of the mounting
beam of the press and a strong, close-fitting pounder presses
them. By this process a cabbage head of very great size may be
reduced to easily fit into a letter envelope ; when again moistened
and prepared it will almost fill a half-bushel measure. Many
plants treated by this method will recover their original form and
color when again soaked in water. Some vegetable mixtures are
pressed into forms like cakes of chocolate and simply \vrapped
in a paper or put into tin pails. Dried spinach is packed in tin
boxes, and £, vegetable mixture for soups is sold in small card-
board boxes. If moisture is kept away from these products they
will keep any length of time without losing their value. Potatoes,
carrots, peas, and beans all may be preserved in the same way.

Sunlight Drying. — The simple method of exposure to sunlight
was practiced universally until recently. In California and other
sections, which are free from excessive moisture, open-air drying
is still extensively employed. The fruit is cleaned, cut, then
placed cut side up on wooden trays, about three by seven feet in
si/e, sterilized with sulfur fumes, and placed in the sunlight
for five days, or until sufficiently dry.

232

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND IMlKSKKVING

FIG. 117. — Drying rasplx-rrirs.

FIG. 118. — A homemade drier.

DRYING FRUITS \ K< I KTAI'.LKS AND IIKKBS

It is important to protect drying fruits from the rain, dew,
dust, and insects.

Placing it in a screened rack or under glass or mosquito
netting will protect it from Hying insects, and crawling insects
may be kept away by standing the racks or table legs in pans
of water (Fig. 117). The drying can also be expedited by a
proper arrangement of the fruit on the trays. It should always
be placed in single layers, because piling it up prolongs the dry-
ing process. Evaporation of the water diminishes the bulk, so
that later the contents of several trays may be put on one. This
simplifies the amount of handling. During the first two days
the pieces of fruit should be turned several times to aid in the
process of drying. This is especially true of large fruits, such as
peaches, pears, and apples. Simple devices for drying fruits can
easily be made. Unless the weather conditions are ideal the
product dried in the sun is liable to become discolored and moldy.
This method of drying requires considerable labor.

DRIERS OR EVAPORATORS

Vegetables and fruits can be dried in an oven, in trays or racks
over the kitchen stove, or in a specially constructed drier. There
are small driers on the market which give satisfactory results.
The small cook-stove driers or evaporators are small, oven-like
structures, usually made of galvanized sheet iron, or of wood and
galvanized iron. They are of such a size that they can be placed
(.n the top of an ordinary v ood or coal range or a kerosene stove.
These driers hold a series of small trays on which fruits or vege-
tables are placed after being prepared for drying. Portable
outdoor evaporators are rvpi-eially convenient when it is desired
to dry as much as ten bushels of fruit or vegetables per day. They
are usually constructed of wood, except the parts in direct contact
with the heater. The homemade dry kiln used in some sections of
the country can be cheaply and easily made (p. 229).

A Homemade Drier Fig. 11$ . — Make a frame about thirty-
six inches long and eighteen inches wide, which will hold three
movabl.' shelves. The frame of the shelves or trays is made of two
of wood, one inch by eighteen inches, and two pieces, one

234

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

inch by thirty-six inches, and is covered with white cheesecloth or
pieces of rlour sack which have been washed thoroughly. Place
these trays about twelve inches apart in the framework of the
drier. Si retch wire netting or white mosquito netting over the top
and sides to keep away the flies and insects. Supports made of

FIG. 119. — A reflector drier.

nails or pieces of metal and placed at the corners of the bottom
of the frame will permit its being used on the back of the stove
in damp, cloudy weather.

A Reflector Drier (Fig. 119). — Select a small, strong box and
remove all sides but the bottom and back and replace these with
pieces of glass. Paint the inside of the bottom and back of the box

DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HKKI:-

white. These white surfaces reflect the sunlight, which causes <\
rise of temperature on the inside. This shortens the process of
drying- the fruit. Leave small openings in the bottom of the
box through which the air passes. Place the fruit or vegetable in
the box, and do not remove until dried thoroughly.

Homemade Cook-stove Drier i Fig. 120). — A drier that can
be used on a wood or coal range or a kerosene stove can be easily
A B

FIG. 120. — A. Homemade cook-stove drier. B. Sectional view showing the passage of the

heated air.

and cheaply made. Dimensions : Base. 24 X 15 inches : height, 36
inches. A base six inches high is made of galvanized sheet iron.
This base slightly flares toward the bottom and has two small
openings for ventilation in each of the four sides. On the base
rests a box-like frame made of one or one and one-half inch
strips of wood. The two sides are braced with one and one-quar-
ter inch strips which serve as cleats on which the trays in the drier
rest. These are placed at intervals of three inches. The frame
is covered with tin or galvanized sheet iron. This is tacked to
the wdod.-n strips of the frame. Thin strips of wood may be used

036 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

instead of tin or sheet iron. The door is fitted on small hinges
and fastened with a latch. It opens wide so that the trays can be
easily removed. The bottom in the drier is made of a piece of
perforated -alvanized sheet iron. Two inches above the bottom
is placed a solid sheet of galvanized iron which is three inches less
in length and width than the bottom. This sheet rests on two
wires fastened in the corners of the drier. This prevents the
direct heat from coming in contact with the product and serves
as a radiator to spread the heat more evenly.

The first tray is placed three inches above the radiator. The
trays rest on the cleats three inches apart. A drier of the given
dimensions will hold eight trays. The frame of the tray is
made of one-inch strips, on which is tacked galvanized screen
wire, which forms the bottom of the tray. The tray is 21 X 15
inches, making it three inches less in depth than the drier. The
lowest tray, when placed in the drier, is even with the front,
leaving the three-inch space in the back. The next tray is pushed
to the back, leaving a three-inch space in the front. The other
trays alternate in the same way. This permits the hot currents
of heated air to pass around and over the trays. A ventilator
opening is left in the top of the drier through which the moist air
may pass away.

The principle of construction is that currents of heated air
pass over the product as well as up through it, gathering the
moisture and passing away. The movement of the current of air
induces a more rapid and uniform drying. The upper trays can
lie shifted to the lower part of the drier and the lower trays to
the upper part as drying proceeds, so as to dry the product uni-
formly throughout.

In order to secure the best results of evaporation it is neces-
sary to run the temperature as high as possible without injury to
the fruit, and to keep the air in rapid circulation throughout the
< hamber. It is under these conditions that the slight chemical
elm litres in perfectly evaporated fruit take place. The albumin,
instead ot !i(-ing slowly dried, is coagulated and greatly assists in
the preservation of the fruit with the richness and flavor it
possessed in its natural state.

ruriTs. YKCKTAIU.KS AND HERBS 23-;

It is important to know the temperature of the heat in the
drier, and this cannot be determined very accurately except lo-
using a thermometer. An inexpensive thermometer reading de-
crees from 100° Fahrenheit to 200° Fahrenheit, or thereabout,
can lie suspended in the drier. If a thermometer is not used the
greatest care should l>e given to the regulation of the heat. The
temperature in the drier rises rather quickly, and the product
may scorch unless close attention is given.

DRYING FRUITS

The dried fruits are not only important foods for the house
hold, lint because they contain valuable food material in concen-
trated form they are convenient foodstuff for the traveller and
explorer.

In very dry climates fruits are usually dried in the sun.
Most fruits dried in the sun discolor unless especially treated.
For drying fruits in small quantities for home use the drier
is more satisfactory. On very hot, dry days fruit may be
dried in the sun until surface begins to wrinkle, then finished in
the drier. Only fresh ripe fruits should be used. Ripe fruits dry
more quickly than unripe and retain a better color.

The ideal moisture content of dried fruits is about twenty-five
per cent. The ability to judge accurately as to when the fruit has
reached the proper condition for removal from drier can only be
gained by experience. When sufficiently dried it should be so
dry that it is impossible to press water out of the freshly cut ends
of the pieces, and will not show any of the natural grain of the
fruit on being broken and yet not so dry that it will snap or
crackle. It should be leathery and pliable.

Before spreading fruit on tin- trays of the drier line the tray
with wrapping paper or cheesecloth. There is a possibility of the
acid of the fruit acting upon the zinc. After drying, cool quickly,
as fruit when cooled slowly shrivels and looks unattractive.

Apples. — It is not advisable to dry early varieties of apples,
because they lack firmness of texture. The fruit must be carefully
pared and cored, with all blemishes removed. Sometimes, in
commercial plants, after the apples are sliced they are subjected

SI tVESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

to the fumes <>f burning sulfur to bleach them and to prevent
further .liseoloration. This practice is not advisable for home

use.

Apples are often sliced in rings, one-quarter of an inch thick,
or they are quartered. The rings dry more quickly than the
quarters ' Fig. 121). Arrange the slices in single layers on the
trays. Place these in the sun or in an evaporator until the apples
are drv. It' sunlight drying is practiced the apples should be
brought indoors every night and each morning returned to the
sun until flic apples are dry. Usually this process will require
three or four ihiys. In the evaporator only four to six hours are
necessarv to dry the fruit. Have the temperature at 110° Fahren-
1,,-it to begin with, and raise it gradually to 140° Fahrenheit. The
I) nil should be so dry that when a handful of slices is pressed
together firmly into a ball the slices will be springy enough to
separate ;it once upon being released from the hand. The texture
uf the fruit as it is handled should be soft, velvety, and leathery.
I ',irk 1 he slices neatly into pasteboard boxes which have been lined
\\ith paraffin paper, or tie in paper sacks and store in tin boxes
iua dry place to protect from insects and dust.

Dried apple cores and skins are evaporated separately in the

same way as the fruit. When
properly cured they possess com-
mercial value in home and for-
eign markets for the manufac-
ture of jellies and vinegars.

Apricots. — It is necessary to
start the drying of apricots with
a higher temperature (130°
Fahrenheit), because they con-
tain a high percentage of water.
After two or three hours turn
the fruit and lower the heat.
Continue the process as for
peaches (p. 240).

121.— Sliced apples on a wooden tray. *

Berries. — Heating the fruits
carefully in a moderate oven for a short while before and after

DRYIX<; KI;ITIS, VEGETABLES AND 11

si. lining insures a better product if sunlight drying is practiced.
Raspberries. — IHack or purple raspberries are best for dry
ing. Pick carefully in shallow trays to prevent bruising. Sort,

FIG. 122. — Drying figs in California.

FIG. 123. — Drying peaches in California. Trays atacked for finishing off.

selecting only sound berries, wash lightly, and place between tea
towels or in the sun to dry off surface moisture. Spread them
in thin layers on the trays or racks to dry. Raise the temperature

o40 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

gradually from HO3 to 125° Fahrenheit iu about two hours. Do
not raise temperature higher than 130- Fahrenheit until a con-
siderable portion of moisture has evaporated, as otherwise there
will be expansion and loss of juice by dripping. This is accom-
panied by loss of flavor and color. Finish drying berries at 140°
for two or three hours. It is necessary to dry berries from four

to five hours.

Cherries. — AYash, dry off surface moisture before spreading
unseeded cherries in thin layers on trays. If cherries are seeded
there will be a loss of juice. Dry from three to four hours at a
temperature of 111) to 150° Fahrenheit. Raise temperature

gradually.

Figs (Fig. 122). — 1. Select two quarts of perfect whole figs,
allow them to stand in a gallon of lime water (one ounce of lime
to one gallon of water) for one hour. Remove the figs from the
lime water and stand in clear, cold water for half an hour. Drain
the iigs well and drop them into boiling syrup. Make syrup by
boiling together one quart of sugar and one quart of water for
ten minutes. Cook the figs rapidly in this syrup for forty or fifty
minutes, remove the figs from the syrup, drain and place on trays
or platters in the sun for several days, or place them in single
layers on trays in the evaporator for three hours at a temperature
IV. mi 1:50 to 1 .">!)• Fahrenheit. If dried in the sun the figs should
be turned each day and the tray should be brought indoors at
night. It will be necessary to have the tray covered with glass or
ehe.-sedoth to protect the fruit from insects. During the time the
figs are drying, if it should rain, keep them in an oven at a
very low temperature.

2. Select three quarts of firm, sound figs and drop them into
boiling lye solution (two tablespoonfuls of lye to two quarts of
water) for one minute. Lift them out carefully and put through
two cold baths, then drop into lime water, using one ounce of lime
to a gallon of Avater; allow the figs, to stand in this lime water
for an hour, drain well, and rinse in clear water. Drop them
into a syrup which you have made by using one quart of sugar
and on.- quart of water, cook the figs in this syrup rapidly until
they are clear, drain, and place them stems up on the platter in

DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 241

the sun and allow them to remain in the sun or in a cool oven
until they are thoroughly dried. Three to four hours in an
evaporator at a temperature from 130° to 150° Fahrenheit will
dry them sufficiently.

Peaches (Fig. 123). — Peaches are usually cut in halves, and
may be evaporated with or without being peeled. Cut in halves,
pit, lay in trays pit side up, and dry at a temperature of 110°
Fahrenheit to 140 ° Fahrenheit for four to six hours. Sometimes
they are dropped into a thin syrup before being dried. This gives
a better flavor and color with some varieties of peaches.

Pears. — Pare, core, and cut fruit into eighths. As pears dis-
color quickly, do not let stand long before drying. To prevent
discoloration, as the fruit is prepared it may be dipped for one
minute into a cold salt bath, using one ounce of salt to one gallon
of water. Dry off surface moisture and put into the evaporator,
having the temperature 110° Fahrenheit, raising temperature
gradually to 150° Fahrenheit. Dry for four to six hours, and
longer if necessary. Pears may also be steamed ten minutes be-
fore drying.

Plums. — Select medium ripe plums, cover with boiling water,
and cover the vessel and let stand twenty minutes. Small, thin-
fleshed varieties are not suitable for drying. Drain, remove sur-
face moisture, and dry for four to six hours, raising the tem-
perature gradually from 110° to 150° Fahrenheit.

Storing Dried Fruits. — After trays are removed from the
evaporator, such fruit as apples, peaches, etc., is put into bins,
where it is stirred occasionally and allowed to remain until it
passes through the sweating process. The fruit is again sorted ac-
cording to appearance and quality before storing. The purpose
in storing a dried product is to protect it from moisture, dust,
and insects. Sometimes spoilage is caused by lack of proper
storage. Any food which has been properly dried will keep in
paper bags suspended from the ceiling of a fairly dry room in-
definitely unless attacked by insects. The bags should be double-
tied or sealed (see p. 247) to protect them from the dust. A
safer way to store dried fruits would be to put these bags into tin
buckets or boxes with tightly fitting covers.
16

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Preparation of Dried Fruits for Use.— Failure to serve dried
fruits in attractive ways is due usually to not soaking them long
enough before cooking, and to adding sugar too early in their
preparation. Dried fruits, like dried vegetables, require long
soaking in plenty of water, and must be allowed to come slowly
t,, a boil and then to boil gently until the fruit is plump and
tender.

DRYING VEGETABLES

Kquallv as great care should be given to the selection and
preparation of vegetables for drying as for canning. To secure
a fine quality of dried products much depends upon having the
vegetables absolutely fresh, young, tender, and perfectly clean.
Wash all vegetables and clean well. If steel knives are used in
paring and cutting, have them clean and bright, so as not to dis-
color the vegetable.

After vegetables are prepared properly they are then blanched.
The blanch gives a more thorough cleaning, removes the strong
odor and flavor from certain kinds of vegetables, and softens and
loosens the fiber. This allows the moisture in the vegetable to
evaporate more quickly and uniformly. It also quickly coagulates
the albuminous matter in the vegetables which helps to hold in
the natural flavors. Blanching consists of plunging the vegetable
into boiling water for a short time. Use a wire basket or cheese-
cloth bag for this. After blanching the required number of
minutes, drain well and remove surface moisture from vegetables
by placing between two towels or by exposing to the sun and air
for a short time.

The vegetable thus prepared is spread in a thin layer on the
trays of the drier. The temperature for drying should be rather
low to prevent scorching the product. For most vegetables, after
surface moisture is removed, begin drying at a temperature of
110° Fahrenheit. Increase temperature gradually from 110° to
14.")° Fahrenheit. Complete drying for most vegetables in two or
three hours. The time required for drying vegetables varies;
however, it can easily be determined by a little experience. The

DRYING FRUITS. VK<! KTABLES AND HERBS -J 13

material should be stirred or turned several times during the
drying in order to secure a uniform product.

Green String Beans. — All varieties of string beans can be
dried. Wash and string beans carefully. The very young and
tender string bean can be dried whole. Those that are full
grown should be cut in one-quarter to one-inch lengths with a
vegetable slicer or a sharp knife. It is better to cut beans than
snap them. They are then put in a bag of cheesecloth or in a
wire basket and blanched in boiling water for six to ten minutes,
depending on the maturity of the bean. One-half teaspoonful
of soda may be added to each gallon of boiling water to help set
the green color in the bean. Remove surface moisture according
to directions given above. Begin drying at a temperature of 110°
Fahrenheit and raise temperature gradually to 145° Fahrenheit.
Wax beans are dried in the same manner as the green string
beans.

Lima Beans. — Lima beans can be shelled from the pod and
dried. If gathered before maturity, when young and tender, wash
and blanch for five to ten minutes. Length of time for blanching
depends upon size and maturity of bean. Remove surface
moisture and dry for three to three and one-half hours at the tem-
perature given for string beans.

Dry Shelled Beans. — Different kinds of beans, after maturing
and drying on the vines, can be treated as follows : Shell, wash,
and spread in thin layers on the trays of the drier and heat ten
minutes, beginning at 160° Fahrenheit and gradually raising the
temperature to 180° Fahrenheit. This high temperature will
destroy all insect eggs that might be on the beans. Cowpeas or
any field pea can be treated in the same way. Cool and store
carefully. It might be added that the heating of the bean or
pea destroys its vitality and thus treated cannot be used for seed
purposes.

Garden Peas. — When drying the very young and tender sugar
peas, use the pod also. Wash and cut in one-quarter inch pieces,
blanch in boiling water six minutes, remove surface moisture,
and dry the same length of time and at the same temperature as

244 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

string beans. It is not necessary to use soda when blanching peas.

The garden pea, which has a non-edible pod, is shelled and
blanched for three to five minutes. Remove surface moisture,
spread in a single layer on trays, and dry for three to three and
one-half hours. Begin drying at 110° Fahrenheit, raise tem-
perature very slowly in about one and one-half hours to 145°
Fahrenheit. Continue drying one and one-half or two hours at
145° Fahrenheit.

Sweet Corn. — Select very young and tender corn, and pre-
pare at once after gathering. Boil or steam on the cob six to
eight minutes to set the milk. To improve flavor a teaspoonful
of salt to a gallon of water may be used. Drain well and cut corn
from the cob, using a very sharp and flexible knife. Cut grains
fine, only half way down to the cob, and scrape out the remainder
of grain, being careful not to scrape off any of the chaff next
to the cob. Dry from three to four hours at a temperature of
110° to 145° Fahrenheit. When field corn is used, good, plump
roasting ear stage is the proper degree of ripeness. A pound of
dried corn per dozen ears is an average yield. This method gives
a delicious product which is easily kept.

Corn may be dried in the sun. Dry in oven for ten to fifteen
minutes and finish drying in the sun. Sun drying is, of course,
not satisfactory in damp weather, and the dried product will be
darker in color and not as attractive in appearance. When dried
in the sun it should be heated in the oven to kill insect eggs before
storing.

Carrots and Parsnips. — Clean, scrape or pare, and slice in
one-eighth inch slices. Blanch for six minutes, remove surface
moisture, and dry for two and one-half to three hours. Begin
drying at 110° Fahrenheit, and raise the temperature gradually
to 150° Fahrenheit. Kohlrabi, celeriac, and salsify are dried by
the same method.

Beets. — Boil the whole beets without peeling until a little
more than three-fourths done. Dip in cold water, peel, and slice
in one-eighth or one-quarter inch slices. Dry for two and one-
half to three hours at a temperature of 110° to 150° Fahrenheit,

DRYING FRUITS, VK< IKTABLES AND HERBS

Okra. — AVash, Munch for three minutes in boiling soda water
(one-half teaspoonful of soda to one gallon of water), and
dry for two to three hours at a temperature of 110° to 140°
Fahrenheit. Dry young and small tender pods whole. Older
pods should be cut into one-quarter inch slices. Small, tender
pods are sometimes strung on a string and hung over the stove
to dry. If dried in this manner, heat in the oven before storing.

Onions and Leek. — Wash, peel, and slice onions in one-eighth
to one-quarter inch slices. To avoid any unpleasantness, peel and
slice holding under water. Blanch in boiling water for five min-
utes, remove surface moisture, dry for two and one-half to three
hours, beginning at 110° Fahrenheit and raising temperature
gradually to 140° Fahrenheit. Leek is cut in one-quarter inch
strips and dried as onions.

Peppers. — Peppers may be dried by splitting on one side, re-
moving seed, drying in the air, and finishing drying in the drier
at 140= Fahrenheit. A more satisfactory method is to place
peppers on a biscuit pan in a hot oven and heat until the skin
blisters. Peel, split in half, take out seed, and dry at a tempera-
ture of 110° to 140° Fahrenheit. In drying thick-fleshed pep-
pers like the pimiento, do not increase heat too quickly, but dry
slowly and evenly. Small varieties of red peppers may be spread
in the sun until wilted, and the drying finished in the drier, or
they may be entirely dried in the sun.

Pumpkin and Summer Squash. — Pare and cut in about one-
half inch strips and blanch for three minutes, remove surface
moisture, and dry slowly for three to four hours, raising tempera-
ture from 110° to 140° Fahrenheit.

Vegetable Soup Mixtures. — Each vegetable used in the soup
mixture is prepared and dried separately. They are put together
in different proportions, the desired vegetable predominating. A
combination of several vegetables makes a most desirable soup
mixture. Those most often used are carrots, cabbage, onions,
celery, and okra.

Cabbage. — Cabbage is shredded or cut into strips a few inches
long. Blanch for ten minutes, drain, remove surface moisture,

946 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

and dry for three hours at a temperature of 110° to 145°
Fahrenheit.

Mushrooms. — Only dry mushrooms may be successfully
cured. Use mature mushrooms for drying. After they have been
peeled, place tin-in in single layers, with caps down, on boards
or drying racks, exposing them to the hot sun and air. Turn
the mushrooms frequently. Bring the trays indoors each night, as
the mushrooms absorb moisture rapidly. Finish them off by put-
ting tin-in in the oven or evaporator for one hour at 130° to 140°
Fahrenheit. AY hen they are brittle, run them through a spice or
a coffee mill. Pack the mushroom powder at once into dry
bottles and seal tightly. Dried mushroom powder keeps well, and
this is a delicious flavoring to use in meat gravies made with milk.
Whole mushrooms may be dried by the same method. After they
are soaked they resemble the fresh ones, with the exception of
being a little more tough.

Dried Celery and Parsley Leaves. — Celery and parsley
leaves can be dried in the shade or for two hours in a cool oven
(110° to 130° Fahrenheit). The temperature should be raised
gradually. These leaves may be mixed in equal parts and pow-
dered. Put the dried leaves through a spice mill, or use a rolling
pin for pulverizing them. This combination makes a good sea-
soning for soups and stuffings. It should be stored in cans or
jars air-tight, otherwise it will soften on standing.

Legumes. — Dried mature legumes are not only cheap, but
they are rich in nourishment. Baked beans, for example, furnish
more nutriment than beef costing two or three times as much.

Storing Dried Vegetables. — When vegetables are first taken
from the drier, if completely dried they are very brittle. They
are more easily handled and are in better condition for storing
if allowed to stand one to three hours to absorb enough moisture
to make them more pliable before putting them into bags or
storing otherwise. If it is not convenient to store products imme-
diately, and they are allowed to stand for several days, they
should be h.-ated to 160° Fahrenheit, to destroy any insect eggs
that might he on them. Care should be taken not to heat the
vegetable higher than 160° Fahrenheit.

DRYING FRUITS. STEGETABLES AND HERBS 247

Dried vegetables should always be stored in moisture-proof
containers and in a dry place, free from dust and dirt. The best
container is a tin box, bucket, or can fitted with a tight cover.
Perhaps the most convenient and cheapest container is the small
paper bag. A small amount should be put into each bag, just
enough for use in one or two meals. This will prevent the opening
of any dried product that cannot be consumed in a short time.
The upper part of the bag is twisted to form a neck. The neck
is bent over and tied tight with a string. Dip a small brush into
melted paraffin and paint the entire bag. This makes the bag
practically moisture and insect-proof. To further protect from
insect ravages, label and pack bags in a tin container with a
tight-fitting cover. A large number of bags can be stored in
an ordinary lard can. A glass jar with a tight seal is a good con-
tainer for dried products. Paraffin-coated paper containers of
various sizes can be found on the market. If such containers are
used they should also be stored as the paper bags.

All dried products should be examined occasionally, and, upon
the first appearance of insects, spread in thin layers in the sun
until insects disappear; heat to a temperature of 160° Fahrenheit
and restore carefully.

Preparation of Dried Vegetables for Use. — 1. Soak for sev-
eral hours in warm or cold water to absorb the moisture lost
through evaporation.

2. Drain and boil such vegetables as peas, beans, and spinach
in soda water, using about one-eighth teaspoonful of soda to one
quart of water.

3. One tablespoonful of lemon juice added to dried beans after
soaking them adds much improvement in flavor.

4. Add seasoning to the dried vegetables to make them more
palatable— celery, mustard, onions, cheese, nutmeg, etc.

5. Dried vegetables are used in soup, and most deliciously
flavored thick puree may be made of them. Four ounces of dried
soup vegetables (sliced carrots, potatoes, cabbage, onions, etc.)
will be sufficient to make three quarts to one gallon of vegetable
soup.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

DRYING HERBS

" Oh ! who can tell the hidden power of Herbs,
And might of magic spell ! "—tipenser.

The ancient housekeeper was far more interested than the
modern one in gathering and drying her own herbs at the right
season for culinary and medicinal uses. In the olden days herbs
were relied upon to give variety to the daily menu and for tonic
qualities, while to-day the flavor only is the dominant thought.
A dash of prepared ' 'kitchen bouquet ' ' will answer all purposes.

Fiviich and Italian cooks excel in the skilful use of the variety
of herbs in their cooking, while only three or four herbs — parsley,
mint, sage, and thyme — are generally used by the American cooks.

The cultivation of herbs has been considered within the
woman's domain because of the close relationship between herbs
and cookery. In some cases it has been found profitable as a com-
mercial enterprise. The Durham mustard which is now popular
on the market was first prepared by a woman. Her ingenuity in
making mustard flour and then preparing the Durham mustard
has won for her a worldwide reputation. Most herbs are easily
cultivated, since they are not disturbed by insects because of
the essential oils found in them.

In many communities or neighborhoods herbs might be grown
cooperatively, each kitchen garden to contain herbs agreed upon
in advance.

Picking. — Herbs should be gathered in the morning after the
dc\\- has disappeared. The blossoms of catnip and like herbs are
gathered. The belief that herbs should be gathered only when
in blossom is probably an erroneous one. When only the leaves
are desired to dry, they should be gathered while they are young
and tender. If the leaves are picked when they are young and
fresh a m-\v growth continues to come, and these are as good as
the first picking.

Drying. — Often the whole plant has to be dried in order not
to shake off the seed pods. Stems and seeds may be spread out to
dry on sheets of cotton cloth, or dried on trays of wire mesh or in
a fruit evaporator, when one is available. Herbs which have been
allowed to dry in the shade for one day can be quickly finished

DRYING Fill* ITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 249

by subjecting them to a temperature of about 110° to 130°
Fahrenheit in an oven or an evaporator. The length of time
varies with the kind of herb being dried. The following herbs
will dry sufficiently in the time given, if the temperature of 110°
to 130° Fahrenheit is kept uniform :

Parsley for about 1 hour 30 minutes

Sage for about 1 hour 10 minutes

Mint for about 1 hour

Thyme for about 1 hour

Savory for about 1 hour

Marjoram for about 45 minutes

Tarragon, basil, chives, and spearmint can also be dried.

Feli. — Young, tender sassafras leaves are gathered in the early
spring, dried and powdered. The French use this in gumbo and
for seasoning and thickening gravies and sauces.

Sweet Bay Leaves. — Sweet bay leaves are gathered while still
young and tender and dried in the shade and bottled to use for
seasoning.

Peppers. — Small hot peppers are strung on cord and hung up
to dry slowly in the shade.

Storing Herbs. — An attractive way to pack herbs is to wrap
them carefully in wax paper and place in small cans or packages.
Dried leaves may be packed in glass jars, and powdered herbs
are more often packed in narrow-necked bottles. The herbs are
less liable to become moldy if they are kept dry and closed from
the dust. When leaves and blossoms are to be packed they must
IK- dean and free from steins. Herbs such as anise, coriander,
caraway, fennel, lovage, and horehound are often used in confec-
tionery. Angelica is valued for its stems, and it is sometimes
candied. Iris root, dried lavender, sweet grass, clover blossoms,
and rose petals have been used from time immemorial by house-
wives to perfume their linen closets.

Medicinal Herbs. — Since domestic medicinal remedies are no
longer made, the growing of medicinal herbs is not common, but
it might still be made a source of income in a limited way.

An article in the United States Yearbook of the Department of
Agriculture for 1903 states: "As a result of such a study of the

250 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

situation as has thus far been practicable, the Southern States
seem to offer many advantages for the prospective drug grower.
The long-growing season needed for many drug plants, the low
price of labor, and the usual low price of land combine to make
sections of the South seem promising in this connection."

1 Tori is which can sometimes be sold to local druggists are as
follows :

Boneset Tansy leaves and blossoms

( 'jitnip Yarrow leaves and blossoms

Mullein Wintergreen leaves

SJILM' Red raspberry leaves

Lobelia Jimson-weed leaves

Mnthcrwort Red clover
I lass wood (lower

Bark. — The bark is peel, so that none of the wood is left.
I'.laekhaw, cherry, poplar, and Wahoo barks may be sold in small
quantities and usually bring from three to eight cents a pound.
In some cases the bark of the root is called for, such as the bark
of llie Wahoo and Blackhaw roots, and these bring from ten to
t \\enty cents per pound.

Seeds. — Pumpkin, sunflower, lobelia, prickly ash berry, cara-
way, dill, burdock seed, and corn-silk are sometimes sold for three
to fifteen cents per pound.

Roots. — Ginseng, burdock, bloodroot, yellow dock, mandrake,
Indian turnip or spikenard root, Jack-in-the-pulpit, and sarsapa-
rilla often sell for three to ten cents per pound.

HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES

To those persons fortunate enough to possess land for the
growing of vegetables sufficient in quantity for the "needs of the
family, storage is an economic necessity. Likewise it is an eco-
nomic necessity to grow vegetables to store. A half-acre garden
should produce far more vegetables than the average family
can con si nne during the maturing period of the crops. Only a
small portion of the garden should be planted to those vegetables
which must be used as soon as they reach maturity. The re-
mainder should be devoted to crops that are to be canned, dried,

DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 251

or stored. It is comparatively easy to keep by storing such vege-
tables as potatoes, beets, carrots, parsnips, salsify, turnips, cab-
bage, celery, onions, sweet potatoes, dry beans, and dry limit
beans. Some of the crops may be stored in the cellar under the
dwelling, in pits or banks, or in caves or outdoor cellars. Others
can be kept in any dry place, such as the pantry or attic.

The Storage Room in the Basement. — Many houses are
heated by a furnace in the cellar. The pipes are, as a rule, car-
ried under the joist, thus warming the cellar to some extent.
For this reason it is best to partition off a small room in one
corner of the cellar to serve as a storage-room for potatoes, beets,
carrots, parsnips, salsify, and turnips. If possible, this room
should have at least one window for the purpose of regulating
the temperature. The floor should not be concreted, as the nat-
ural earth makes better conditions for the keeping of vegetables.
Bins may be constructed for the various products, or they may
be stored in boxes, baskets, or barrels. This room will also serve
as a storage place for fresh fruits and canned goods. The vege-
tables to be stored should be harvested when the ground is dry,
and allowed to lie on the surface long enough for the moisture to
dry off -before placing them in storage. The tops should be re-
moved from beets, turnips, carrots, and salsify before placing
them in storage.

Outdoor pits or banks are very generally used for keeping
potatoes, beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, cabbage, and salsify.
Select a well-drained location and make an excavation. This is
lined with straw, leaves, or similar material, and the vegetables
placed in a conical pile on the material. The vegetables are then
covered with straw or similar material, and finally with earth to a
depth of several inches. The depth of the earth covering is de-
termined by the severity of the winters in the particular locality.
It is well to cover the pits with straw, corn fodder, or manure dur-
ing severe weather. Such pits keep the above vegetables very well,
but have the objection that it is hard to get the material out in
cold weather, and where the pit is once opened it is desirable to
remove the entire contents. For this reason several small pits

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

rather than one large one should be constructed so that the entire
contents may be removed at one time. Instead of storing each
crop in a pit by itself, it is better to place several vegetables in
the same pit, so that it will be necessary to open only one pit to
get a supply of all of them. In storing several crops in the same
pit it is a good plan to separate them with straw, leaves, or other
material. The vegetables from the small pit may be placed in the
basement storage-room, where they can be easily secured as needed

for the table.

Cabbage may be stored in a special kind of bank or pit. The
excavation is made long and narrow and about the same depth as
for the other vegetables. The cabbages are pulled and placed
in rows in the pit with the heads down and roots up. The whole
is covered with dirt; no straw or litter need be used. These
pits are made as long as desired, as it is possible to remove por-
tions of the stored product without disturbing the remainder.
Cabbage need not be covered as deeply as potatoes, as slight freez-
ing does not injure the cabbage. The heads of cabbage are some-
times stored in banks or pits in a manner similar to potatoes,
turnips, etc. This method is open to the same objection as when
it is used for potatoes : it is hard to get at the material when it
is needed. Another method of storing cabbage consists in setting
the whole plant in trenches side by side with the roots down and
as close together as they can be placed. Dirt is thrown over the
roots and against the stalks to the depth of several inches. A low
fence is built around the storage place, and rails, scantling, or
other supports laid across the top. About two feet of straw or
other material is then piled on top of the storage pit.

Celery may be stored in a modified type of outside pit, or in
the row where it is grown. When stored in a pit or trench the
plants are taken up and set side by side in a shallow pit a* close
together as it is feasible to pack them, and wide boards set up
along the outside of the pit. Dirt is banked against these boards,
and the top covered over with corn fodder or similar material.
When celery is kept in the row where it is grown the earth is
banked up around the plants as the weather gets cold. When
frrozing weather occurs the dirt should be brought to the tops

DRYING FIU'ITS, YK< iK'l AliLKS AND IIKRKS

of the plants and the ridge covered with coarse manure, straw or
fodder, held in place by means of stakes or boards.

Outdoor Caves or Cellars. — Outdoor caves or cellars are
superior to banks or pits in many respects. They require no
more labor to store the vegetables than an indoor cellar, yet
give a uniform and low temperature during the entire year. They
possess practically all the advantages of the bank or pit, yet may
be entered at any time during the winter for the removal of any
portion of the stored product without endangering the keeping
quality of the material that remains. These storage cellars are
usually made partially under ground, although in the southern
portion of the country they are usually entirely above ground. In
sections where severe freezing occurs it is well to have the cellar
partially under ground. In order to avoid steps down to the level
of the floor, with the consequent extra labor in storing and re-
moving the vegetables, a side-hill location is desirable for the
cellar. An excavation is made into the hill of the approximate
size of the cellar. The dirt from this excavation may be used
for covering the roof and for banking against the sides of the
structure. A frame should be erected by setting posts in rows in
the bottom of the pit near the dirt wralls, sawing these off at a uni-
form height, placing plates on top of the posts, and erecting
rafters on these plates. The whole should be boarded up on the
outside of the posts, with the exception of a space for a door
in one end. The whole structure, except the door, is covered with
dirt and sod. The thickness of the covering will be determined by
the location ; the colder the climate the thicker the covering.
The dirt covering may be supplemented by a layer of manure,
straw, corn fodder, etc., in winter time. Outdoor cellars are
usually left with dirt floors, as a certain amount of moisture is
desirable. These cellars may also be made of concrete, brick,
stone, or other material. Such cellars are to be found in many
sections of the country, and provide almost ideal storage facilities
for potatoes, beets, turnips, carrots, parsnips, salsify, and celery.

Sweet potatoes should be thoroughly matured before harvest-
ing, dug while the ground is dry, carefully handled, and thor-
oughly cured by holding them at a temperature of 80° to 85°

SI ivK.sSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Fahrenheit for a week or ten days after harvesting. After this
they should be stored in a place where the temperature remains
in the neighborhood of 55° Fahrenheit. Such a location is usually
near the furnace in the cellar, or near the furnace chimney on
the second floor of the house. There is little merit in wrapping
them in paper or burying them in sand. Sweet potatoes are
stored in outdoor pits or banks, but this method is not to be recom-
mended except where no other facilities are available. Sweet
potatoes stored in pits are not as good in quality as those stored

111 houses.

Onions should be well matured before harvesting, and should
be allowed to become thoroughly dry before being stored. They
may be put up in baskets, crates, or bags, and placed in a cool, dry
plaec. The attic is better than the cellar for storing onions. Tem-
peratures slightly below the freezing-point do not injure them.

Beans, Peas, and Other Dried Products. — Such vegetables as
may be kept in the dry state should be grown to as great an extent
as possible. Various kinds of beans, including lima beans, should
be allowed to dry on the vines. Lima beans should be gathered
as they mature, and placed in a warm, dry place until dry enough
to shell. Xavy beans and kidney beans are usually harvested
when a maximum number of pods are mature and the vines cured
like hay, after which they are threshed or shelled. Peas are
handled in the same way as navy beans. After the beans and peas
are threshed or shelled and dried off they should be placed in
bags and hung in some dry place, such as a closet or attic.

QUESTIONS

1. \Yliat advantages have dried vegetables and fruits over canned ones?
± Is then- any advantage in this means of preservation in the home?
3. State three essential steps in the drying of herbs, vegetables, or fruits.
I. What special care should be taken in the storage of dried products?
r>. Whnl are the principal causes of an unsatisfactorily dried product?
(i. Why should the use of herbs be encouraged in this country?
7. Suggi'-t as many ways as possible for the use of dried vegetables in the

diet.

What special points should be considered in the preparation of them?
!i. What, mistakes are often made in the preparation of dried fruits for

serving?

DKYINC, FIIUITS. VKCKTAI'.I.KS AM) IIKIM'.S

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. ABEL, AMBROSE, " Preservation of Food," 1857. Published liy Case.

Lockwood & Co., II art lord, Conn.

•1. BAKUOWS, Miss ANNA, " Kxtension Course in Vegetable Foods," March.
11)10, Farmers' Bulletin 123, United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Can Lie purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington, I). C. 10 cents.

3. CALUWELL, J. S., "Evaporation of Apples." Bulletin 131, May, 11UO.

Published by State College of Washington, Pullman. Wash.

4. COHBETT, L. C., "Raspberries." 1005, Farmers' Bulletin 21.3, United

States Department of Agriculture. Can be procured from the Supt.
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents.

5. " Creole Cook Book," 1914. Published by The Picayune, New Orleans,

La. By mail, $1.25.

ti. GIBBS, WALTER M., " Spices and How to Know Them." liti)!). Published
by the Matthews-Xorthrup Works, Buffalo. X. Y.

7. (iot'LJ), II. P., "Evaporation of Apples," 1!)07 and 1915, Farmers' Bul-

letin 291, United States Department of Agriculture. Can be obtained
from the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington. D. C.

8. HENKKL, ALICE, " Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds," 1913, Bulletin 26, B. P. I..

United States Department of Agriculture. Can be purchased from
the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C. 5 cents.

9. HEXKEL, ALICE, " Weeds Used in Medicine," 1904, Farmers' Bulletin

188, United States Department of Agriculture. Can be purchased
from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office;
Washington, D. C. 5 cents.

10. LEWIS, C. I., and BROWN, W. S.. " Fruit and Vegetable By-products,"
April, 1914, College Bulletin Xo. 128, Oregon Agricultural College.
Published by the Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.

II. MARSHALL. LrciLE, "Garden Herbs: Culture and Uses." The Ohio

Farmer, January s. 1910, vol. 137. Xo. 2. Published by the Lawrence
Publishing Company. Cleveland, Ohio.

12. PLAT. Siu llr<,ii, " Delights for Ladies." 1632. Sold by J. Holer. London.

13. PEP.XOT. E. F., " Preserving Wild Mushrooms," January, 1908, Experi-

ment Station Bulletin 98. Oregon Agricultural College. Published
l,v the Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.

14. TIM i:. KODNEY II.. "Cultivation of Drug Plants in the United States.

Yearbook Separate Xo. 325. in the Agricultural Yearbook of 1903.
United States Department of Agriculture. Can be purchased from
the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Wa-h-
ington, D. C. 75 cents.

15. Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 841, "Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the

Home," United States Department of Agriculture.

aiAPTKK XVI

PRESERVATION OF MEATS

SINCE the earliest ages people have preserved meats by various
means, and some of the methods in use to-day have come down
from a great antiquity. Most of the modern methods of meat
preservation, which have wide commercial use, can also be used
in the home, with the single exception of canning meats, which
it is not wise for the home maker to attempt who is inexperienced
in canning. Among the principal means used are drying, smok-
ing, and curing with salt,

GENERAL METHODS

Drying. — This is not only the oldest method of preserving
foods, but it is the simplest, While drying is better ad;r.
the curing of fruits and vegetables than it is to meats, yet
are often shredded and dried in many parts of the world. Drying
meats should only be practiced where there is little moisture in
the atmosphere, or the meat will spoil before it becomes dry
enough. It is never advisable to attempt to preserve meats by
this method in cities where there is great danger of I .
Dried meat maintains all of its nutritive properties, but it is not
easily digested on account of the toughened t >- - - roduot

is not attractive in appearance, and this fact als s gainst its

extensive use.

Smoking. — The custom of smoking me..-- - said to have
originated from the habit of suspending meat near the fireplace in
the dwelling. The meat became saturated with the creosote f:
the smoke, which gave it an agreeable taste and aided in its keep-
ing qualities. The creosote was formed by the burning of the wood.
and the smoke closed the pores to some extent, exe" _ the

- '- : '•- : r .'-•-::. k- 1

they usually undergo a treatment of salt and sag th s :ne-

times a small amount of saltpetre added to modi: lor, c :«m-

.'] to aid prexe: of the meat,

: injurious to health by some bygienuta,

••; many may <>\,yi'.l to it* me. It is included in

,f the«e .' because its me had h-: •" : ,r*r been cus-

tomary.

•auv; t.h<- old method of amokhig meat* is long and expen-

r and quicker way baa eome into practice rather re-

tly. \)\T(- rorth is latter method state that brine is soaked

into the meat, which is then treated with "smokine" or '"liquid

smoke. ' ' This solution may be purchased from a local druggist,

_ «) ponin'J* of meat 1 ooBce c:

4 quarts of eoars* salt

1 potmd of brown soszar % foood of jmrnad pepper

•he saltpetre in the water, add salt and sugar, and
mix well. Rub this mixture into the meat, and lay cm a beneh
in a cold place for fourteen days. Then apply the liquid smoke
with a brush, dry well, and in a few days paint the meat again
with the liquid. Hang up, and when thoroughly dry wrap the
meat in heavy brown paper and then in a clean floor sack.

Much time is saved by using the above recipe, hot the meat

which has been cured in the old-fashioned smoke-house is much

finer in flavor and texture. Smoke-houses are stOl in use in many

s of the c vuntry. The meat should not be sub jeeted to the

smoke until it has been properly eared and drained.

Curir.i- in Brine and Dry 5al*.:r.v. — ...:::. _• _•

soon as the meat is cold and while it is still fresh. Frozen meats
should not be salted, as the action of the frost will prevent proper
penetration of the salt and uneven earing will result.

Pure water, salt, sugar, and saltpetre are all the ingredients
needed for ordinary curing of meat. Meat may be packed in
large earthen jars or in clean barrels, tight enough to prevent
leakage. The barrel or jar may be used again and again unless
meat has spoiled in it. These vessels should always be scalded
thoroughly each time before packing fresh meat into them.

Brine-cured meats are best for farm use. for the reason that a
13

Sit CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

suitable place for dry-curing is not usually obtainable. It is also
less trouble to pack the meat in a barrel and pour on a brine than
to go over it three or four times to rub in the salt. The brining
method also gives better protection from insects and vermin.
Trouble is sometimes experienced in keeping brine, but if pure
water is used and directions are followed in making the brine
there should be no difficulty in keeping it for a reasonable length
of time. During warm weather brine should be closely watched.
If it becomes "ropy" it should be boiled or more brine made. A
cool, moist cellar is the best place for brine-curing. Dry-curing
may be done successfully in a cellar also, though even more
moisture is needed to effect a thorough cure. The cellar should
he dark and tight enough to prevent flies and vermin from dam-
aging the meat. When meats which have been cured in brine are
boiled the shrinkage is greater than those which have been cured
by dry-salting.

PRESERVING BEEF l

Corned Beef. — The pieces commonly used for corning are
the plate, rump, cross-ribs, and brisket, or, in other words, the
cheaper cuts of meat. The loin, ribs, and other fancy cuts are
more often used fresh, and, since there is more or less waste of
nutrients in corning, this is well. The pieces for corning should
lie cut into convenient-sized joints, say five or six inches square.
It should be the aim to cut them all about the same thickness so
that they will make an even layer in the barrel.

Meat from fat animals makes choicer corned beef than that
from poor animals. When the meat is thoroughly cooled it
should be corned as soon as possible, as any decay in the meat is
likely to spoil the brine during the corning process. Under no
circumstances should the meat be brined while it is frozen.
Weigh out the meat and allow eight pounds of salt to each 100
pounds: sprinkle a layer of salt one-quarter of an inch in depth
over the bottom of the barrel ; pack in as closely as possible the

NOTE. -This recipe and others which follow are quoted from Farmers'
' Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and Keeping,"
Andrew Moss, Q. S. Department of Agriculture.

PRESERVATION OF MKATS 359

cuts of meat, making a layer five or six inches in thickness; thm
put on a layer of salt, following with another layer of im-at ;
repeat until the meat and salt have all been packed in tin-
barrel, care being used to reserve salt enough 1'or a good layer
over the top. After the pack has stood over night add, for
every 100 pounds of meat, four pounds of sugar, two ounces of
baking soda, and four ounces of saltpetre dissolved in a gallon
of tepid water. Three gallons more of water should be sufficient
to cover this quantity. In case more or less than 100 pounds of
meat is to be corned, make the brine in the proportion given. A
loose board cover weighted down with a heavy stone should be
put on the meat to keep all of it under the brine. In case any
should project, the meat would spoil and cause the brine to
deteriorate.

It is not necessary to boil the brine except in warm weather.
If the meat has been corned during the winter and must be kept
into the summer season, it would be well to watch the brine
closely during the spring, as it is more likely to spoil at thac
time than at any other season. If the brine appears to be
ropy or does not drip freely from the finger when immersed
and lifted, it should be drained off and new brine added, after
carefully washing the meat. The sugar or molasses in the brine
has a tendency to ferment, and, unless the brine is kept in a cool
place, there is sometimes trouble from this source. The meat
should be kept in the brine twenty-eight to forty days to secure
thorough corning.

Dried Beef. — The round is commonly used for dried beef, the
inside of the thigh being considered the choicest piece, as it is
slightly more tender than the outside of the round. The round
should be cut lengthwise of the grain of meat in preparing for
dried beef, so that the muscle-fibers may be cut crosswise when
the dried beef is sliced for. table use. A tight jar or cask is
necessary for curing. The process is as follows: To each 100
pounds of meat weigh out five pounds of salt, three pounds of
granulated sugar, and two ounces of saltpetre ; mix thoroughly
together. Eub the meat on all surfaces with a third of the mix-
ture and pack it in the jar as tightly as possible. Allow it to

260 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

remain three days, when it should be removed and rubbed again
with another third of the mixture. In repacking put at the
bottom the pieces that were on top the first time. Let stand for
three days, when they should be removed and rubbed with the
remaining Ihird of the mixture and allowed to stand for three
days more. The liquid forming in the jars should not be removed,
but the meat should be repacked in the liquid each time. The meat
is ready to be taken from the pickle, and should be smoked and
hung in a dry attic or near the kitchen fire where the water will
evaporate from it. It may be used at any time after smoking,
although the longer it hangs in the dry atmosphere the drier it
will get. The drier the climate, in general, the more easily meats
can be dried. In arid regions good dried meat can be made by
exposing it fresh to the air, with protection from flies.

Pickling Meat. — Authorities differ in regard to the formula
used in the pickling of meats. The following recipe is often used
for tongue and small pieces of meat :

Cured Tongue. —

2 gallons of water 1 ounce of saltpetre

3 pounds of salt % cupful of sugar

Rub part of the salt into the meat, dissolving the remainder
of the salt, the sugar, and the saltpetre in the water. Boil,
skim, and strain to remove all impurities. Cool thoroughly be-
fore adding meat. Place a weight over the jar to keep the meat
under the brine. Keep in a cold place and the tongue will be
cured and ready to cook in four or five days.

PRESERVING PORK ~

Plain Salt Pork. — Rub each piece of meat with fine common
salt, and pack closely in a barrel. Let stand over night. The
ii.-xt. day weigh out ten pounds of salt and two ounces of salt-
petre to each 100 pounds of meat and dissolve in four gallons of
boiling water. Pour this brine over the meat when cold, cover,
and weigh down to keep it under the brine.

NOTE.— These directions for handling pork were contributed by Major
Lawrence Foot. Special Agent Marketing, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Little Rock, Ark.

PRESERVATION OK MKATS

2G1

How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, Shoulders, and
Bacon. — Meat raimoi In- safely cured if it has any animal heat
in it.

Cutting a Pork (Fig. lL'4). — Remove the head one inch be-
hind the cat's, the feet one ineh aliovc the knee-and-hoek-joints.

FIG. 124.— Cutting a pork.
b

FIG. 125. — Trimming hams.

FIG. 126. — Picnic hams properly
trimmed.

The hams should be trimmed neatly and round, making long
hams; cut six inches below the stifle-joint (Fig. 125). The
shoulders can be cut into picnic hams if desired (Fig. 126).
Notice carefully the illustrations of hams, picnic hams, and bacon
properly trimmed (Figs. 127 and 128). Remove the backbone

NOTE. — Drawings made from illustrations in Farmers' Bulletin No. 183.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

by sawing off the ribs close to it. Remove the ribs, leaving as
little meat on them as possible, as that meat will be needed in the
sides to have bacon "with a streak of lean." Trim the sides
neatly and with straight edges; leaf fat and the fat trimmings
go into lard, the lean into sausage.

Salting. No sugar and no saltpetre are used in this recipe.

A hanging pew, box, or cask may be used for packing salted

FIG. 127. — A well-trimmed ham.

FIG. 128.- — A well-trimmed breakfast bacon.

pork. First, place a layer of salt and pepper on the bottom of
the pew or box, then the pieces of meat, skin down, salting the
top heavily; then another layer, skin down, salting it, and so on,
covering every particle of the meat, sides, ends, and top, with
salt. When done the meat will look like a pile of salt. Hams,
shoulders, and bacon are salted in this manner and allowed to
Ihree or four weeks, according to the weather. If it is

ri;i-:sKi;\ A'rio.N OF MKATS

very cold it takes a longer period. If the weather turns warm,
shorten the period, but endeavor to cure the meat in a room that
will average a temperature of .">() , it' possible. It' during curing
tin* salt becomes crusted, overhaul the meat, rub the salt in thor-
oughly by hand, and pack it back in the same salt. When the
meat has remained in the salt for the proper time, remove it,
wash the meat thoroughly with tepid water, scrubbing it with a
brush until all salt is removed from the outside, then hang "as
the hog walks" —shanks down. The hams and shoulders should
hang by wire from the thick ends. Drain the meat thoroughly
for at least twenty-four hours, then put smoke to it.

Smoking. — The meat should hang at least fifteen feet above
the fire. Start a slow fire with green hickory chips and smother
the flame, if any. with corn-cobs. The meat should be warmed
up gradually with a cool, dry smoke and smoked from ten to
fifteen days, or until the meat has the proper color, a light
chestnut. The house should never get hot (see p. 268).

Sugar-cured Breakfast Bacon. — For up-to-date "sugar-
cured" breakfast bacon, take pieces one inch to one and one-
half inches in thickness, six to eight inches wide, and fifteen to
eighteen inches long, and treat with salt, sugar and saltpetre
mixture for fifteen to twenty-two days, unless strips are heavier.
To every 100 pounds of meat weigh out eight pounds of salt,
two pounds of granulated white sugar, and two ounces of salt-
petre, mix all thoroughly, dampen the top side (not skin side)
lightly with water by using a whisk broom dipped in water, then
rub the mixture into the top side, the edges, and the ends.
Sprinkle bottom of box with the mixture, lay in the piece that is
rubbed, skin down, and sprinkle .with the salt mixture, giving a
light coating on top, then another, and so on. Every seven days
from the day packed, overhaul all, rub each piece again, and re-
salt with the same mixture lightly. The bacon that is one inch
thick should remain in mixture fifteen days. The bacon that is
one and one-half inches thick should remain in mixture twenty-
two days. Heavier bacon may require longer time. Then take
out, wash thoroughly, hang in smoke-house twenty-four hours to
drain, and smoke to a light-chestnut color. This recipe should

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

not be used where the meat must be kept in a warm and dry
place, «s the preservatives will not penetrate easily and uni-
formly.

Pickled Hams and Bacon in Brine. — This recipe differs from
the one given ( p. 262), in that it calls for saltpetre and water. It
has given satisfaction and is preferred by some. When the meat
is cold, rub each piece with salt and allow it to drain over night.
Then pack it in a barrel with the hams and shoulders in the
bottom, using the strips of bacon to fill in between or to put on
top. Weigh out for each 100 pounds of meat eight pounds of
salt, two pounds of brown sugar, and two ounces of saltpetre.
Dissolve all in four gallons of water, and cover the meat with
the brine. For summer use it will be safest to boil the brine
before using. In that case it should be thoroughly cooled be-
fore it is used. For winter curing it is not necessary to boil
the brine. Bacon strips should remain in this brine four to six
weeks ; hams, six to eight weeks. Hams and bacon cured in the
spring will keep right through the summer after they are smoked.
The meat will be sweet and palatable if. it is properly smoked,
and the flavor will be good.

Head-cheese. — Cut a hog's head into four pieces. Remove
the brain, ears, skin, snout, and eyes. Cut off the fattest parts
for lard. Put the lean and bony parts to soak over night in
cold water in order to extract the blood and dirt. When the
meat is cleaned, put it over the fire to boil, using water enough
to cover it. Boil until the meat separates readily from the bone.
Then remove it from the fire and pick out all of the bones. Drain
off the liquor, saving a part of it for future use. Chop the meat
up finely with a chopping knife. Return it to the kettle and
pour on enough of the liquor to cover the meat. Let it boil
slowly for fifteen minutes to half hour. Season to taste with salt
and pepper just before removing it from the fire. Turn into
a shallow pan or dish. Cover with a piece of cheesecloth and put
on a board with a weight to make it solid. When cold it should
be sliced thinly and served without further cooking.

Scrapple. — The process for making this article of food is like
that for head-cheese until the bones are removed and the meat

PI;K>I:I;\ ATION OK MI:. vis

chopped. When the liquor is added, return the pan to the stove
to boil. ( 'ornmeal is ! hen st irred ill until the contents arc as thick
as cornnical mush. Stir it constantly for the first fifteen minutes.
Then set it hack on the stove to boil slowly for an hour. When
it is done, pour it into a shallow dish to mould. Hot grease
poured over the top after scrapple is put into moulds will help
in keeping it. When cold it is sliced in thin pieces and fried.

Pickled Pigs' Feet." — Pigs' feet should be thoroughly scalded,
cleaned, \\ashcd and chilled, and cured in a clean, sterili/ed
wooden vessel. Strength of pickle depends upon length of time
it is to be carried, say an SO pickle with five ounces of saltpetre
pei- 100 pounds of meat for shipment in ten days; a 100° pickle
for five days. Some curers use in addition one and one-half
pounds of suirar per loo pounds of feet. Pigs' feet cured by
this method will be white and more attractive than when pickled
with spices.

If spices are used it must be remembered that cloves tend to
darken the feet. Curing should be effected in a clean wooden
receptacle, using clean water for each batch.

Trying Out Lard. — Only the best of fat should be used for
choice lard. Leaf fat is the best. Leaf lard is that which is
made from the leaf fat which lies around the kidneys. The
next best in quality is that from the back, and the poorest
quality is that from around the intestines. The greater part of
the lard marketed is obtained by melting together the whole fat
except the leaf fat. The back strip of the side also makes nice
lard, as do the ham, shoulder, and neck trimmings. Fat from
around the intestines should never be mixed with the leaf and
back fat. It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept
separate. All scraps of lean meat should be cut out of the fat
before trying out, as they are very likely to stick to the kettle and
gel scorched, giving an unpleasant flavor to the lard. When
preparing the fat for trying, cut it into pieces from one to one
and one-half inches square. The pieces should be nearly equal
in si/e. so that they will try out in about the same time. Fill a
clean kettle about three-fourths full, and put in a quart of water

3Quoterl from " Tin- National Pruvisioner."

966 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

or, if convenient, a quart of hot lard. One or the other is neces-
sary to prevent the fat from burning before the heat is sufficient
to bring out the grease. Keep the kettle over a moderate fire
until the cracklings are brown and light enough to float. Fre-
quent stirring will be necessary to prevent burning. When done,
remove from the stove and allow to cool slightly, and then strain
through a muslin cloth into a large jar. Stir it occasionally until
it is cool enough to begin to solidify. If pails or smaller jars are
to be filled, the lard should be dipped out while just warm enough
to be liquid. Stirring while the lard is cooling tends to whiten it
and makes it smoother. Lard should be stored in a dry, cool,
dark place. Light, moisture, and high temperatures affect its
quality unfavorably.

SAUSAGE

Sausage. — Pork sausage should be made only from clean,
fresh pork. The shoulders, neck, and lean trimmings are usu-
ally iist'd for sausage. Unless part of the fat is removed and
used for lard the sausage is likely to be too fat. To each
eighteen pounds of lean meat allow six pounds of fat. Mix the
fat and lean meat together in chopping. Where a rotary cutter
is used it is best to cut the meat twice (Fig. 129). After it is
cut the first time, spread it out thinly and season. Eight ounces
of pure, fine salt, four ounces of ground black pepper, four
ounces of pure leaf sage, rubbed fine, and one teaspoonful of red
pepper to each twenty-four pounds of meat will suit the taste of
most persons. The seasoning should be sprinkled thinly over the
cut meat and the meat again run through the cutter to mix
the seasoning thoroughly. This method will give a more even
mixing of the spices than can be obtained by working it with the
hands. For immediate use the sausage may be packed away in
stone jars or crocks, to be sliced for frying. Many people stuff
it into casings made from the small intestines of the hog. When
this is done the intestines must be turned inside out and care-
fully cleaned.

A good substitute for casings may be had in narrow muslin
bags. These, when filled, should be two and one-half or three

PRKsKKV. \TlnN

MK.\1>

267

iiK-hes in diameter and ri.irhti't-n to twenty-four inches long.
Stuff the sausage in tightly by liand and hang in a cool pla<-r.
If the sausage is to be kept for som- time, melted lard should b.-
rul)l>ed over the outside of the bag. This excludes the air.
Sausage may lie kept for some time in a large jar if a thin
coat of hot lard is poured over the top.

Mixed Sausage. — This may be made from a mixture of pork
and lit-ff in almost any proportion. It is the custom of many

FIG. 129. — Grinding sausage meat the second time after seasoning is added.

farms to kill three or four hogs and a beef during the winter for
the year's supply of meat. When this plan is followed a nice
supply of sausage can be made from the trimmings. Sausair'-
should not contain too much fat. A good proportion is two
pounds of lean pork, one pound of fat pork, and one pound of
lean beef. Chop together fine and' season the same as for pork
sausage. Pack in jars, muslin bags, or casings. Many people
prefer this to clear pork sausage, as it is not so fat.

Bologna Sausage. — To each ten pounds of lean beef use one
pound of fat pork, or bacon if preferred. Chop finely and
season with one ounce of salt to each four pounds of meat, one
ounce of the best black pepper (ground, purr to each six

SUCCESSFUL CANXIN*; AND HJKSKIIVING

U nf meat, and a little ground coriander. Stuff into cas-
ino called beef "middles" or beef "rounds." If stuffed into
middles, make the sausages ten or twelve inches long, and allow
them to hang straight. I f st uflVd into rounds, make them twelve
to fifteen inches long, and tie the ends together so as to form
rings. Smoke for ten or twelve hours. Cook in boiling water
until the sausages float. Dry on clean hay or straw in the sun,
and hang away in a cool place until wanted.

Casings. — Sausage casings are the intestines of hogs, cattle,
or sheep which have been emptied and cleaned. They are turned
inside out and soaked in a solution of lye or lime water, thor-
oughly washed, and then salted down. When cleaned and put
up by a reputable packer they are as good as when cleaned at
home, and when they can be bought at a reasonable price (three
cents a pound, perhaps) it hardly pays to clean them for home
use. The casings from different animals are used for the vari-
ous kinds of sausages. Beef casings are of three kinds— ; ' rounds, "
made from the small intestines; "bungs," made from the large
intestines, and "middles," made from that part of the entrails
leading from the bung to the rectum. The "rounds" are used
for bologna, the "hiinirs" for bologna, ham, and blood sausage,
and the "middles" for bologna and summer sausage. Hog cas-
ings are made from the small intestines of the hog, and are used
mainly for pork link sausage. Sheep casings are from the small
intestines of slice]), and are commonly used for Wienerwurst and
other small sausages.

THE SMOKE-HOUSK

The smoke-house should be eight or ten feet high to give

the best results, -and of a size, suited to the amount of meat

likely to be smoked. One six by eight feet will be large enough

for ordinary farm use. Ample ventilation should be provided

to carry off the warm air in order to prevent overheating

Small openings under the eaves or a chimney in the

will be sufficient if arranged so as to be easily controlled.

fire-pot outside of the house proper, with a flue through which

the smoke may be conducted to the meat chamber, gives the best

ATION ui-' MEATS 269

conditions for Ninukiim1. \Vlifii tliis cannot well lit- arranged, a
lire may be built on llie lloor of the house and the meat shielded
hy a sheet of metal. AY he re the meal can be hung six or seven
feet above the lire this precaution need not be taken. The con-
struction should be such as to allow the smoke to pass up freely
over the meat and out of the house, though rapid circulation is
at the expense of fuel.

Brick or stone houses are best, though the first cost is greater
than if they are built of lumber. Large dry-goods boxes and
even barrels may be made to serve as smoke-houses where only
small amounts of meat are to be smoked. The care of meat in
such substitutes is so much more difficult and the results so much
less satisfactory that a permanent place should be provided if
possible.

The following specifications were furnished by Major Law-
rence Foot, of Little Kock, Ark. From these figures one can get
an idea of the approximate cost of a small smoke-house. In dif-
ferent localities the price of material and labor will vary some-
what. This bill of lumber and specifications are for a smoke-
house ten feet by sixteen feet, roof one-third pitch, with dirt
fioor and brick foundation :

(17.-) brick, $8 per 1000 $5.40

Tlmr squares of composition roofing 0.00

Sills, 2 pieces, 4 X 6 inches, 10 feet long (!4 feet

Sills, 2 pieces, 4 X 6 inches, 10 feet long 40 feet

Si.lin.u-, 02 pieces, 1 X 12 inches, 12 feet long (J20 feet

Battens, 52 pieces, ^ X 3 inches, 10 feet long. . . 154 feet

Rafters, 1 1 pieces, 2X4 inches, 10 feet long 117 feet

Joists. 7 pieces, 2 X 0 indies, 10 feet long 70 feet

Plates, 2 pieces, 2X4 inches, 10 feel l.mg 13 feet

Plates, 2 pieces. 2 X 4 inches. 10 feet long 21 feet

Shreting 300 feet

On sides of door, 2 pieces, 2X4 indies, 10 feet long 13 feet

Door battens, 1 piece, IX4 inches, 12 feet long 4 feet

Tutnl fert ($14 per 1000) Ulli feet

Tot sil cost of above - $31.22

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

,%. t U

The above lumber will permit the roof to extend one foot over
th,. -ables and one foot over the sides. The sheeting is not worth
as much as the other lumber; $8.78 additional will make the
house cost about $40. This $8.78 should pay for the carpenter's
work (two days should do it), bricklayer, mortar, hinges, pad-
lock, and nails.

On tli.- rid-e of your roof you should have two ventilators,
divided as follows: 'if house is sixteen feet long, one five feet
from one end and the next five feet from the other ventilator;
make same of -al vani/ed sheet iron one foot long, in the shape
of a pipe four indies in diameter; let six inches be above the
ridire and six indies below, and so built on the ridge (the tinner
.-an do that) as not to let the rain leak into your house. Use a
loose wooden cover of sufficient weight to keep them (the covers)
in place so as 1«> fully open or partly close, but always keep them
a little open in order to make a slight draught to let the smoke
out slowlv and give a cool smoke. A ventilator at the bottom of
your door will help this slight draught, but the inside of same
should be covered with close wire netting in order to keep out
flies, and the same kind of netting tied tightly with wire should
also be placed over and around your roof ventilators for the
same purpose. The house should be absolutely dark, "light-
proof." This will keep out flies, which breed skippers. Put
your foundation in the ground below frost line.

Fuel. — The best fuel for smoking meats is green hickory or
maple wood smothered with sawdust of the same material. Hard
wood of any kind is preferable to soft wood. Resinous woods
should never be used, as they are likely to impart bad flavors to
the product. Corn-cobs are the best substitute for hard wood,
and may be used if desired. Soft wood and corn-cobs give off
large amounts of carbon in burning, and that is deposited on the
meat, making it dark in color and rank flavored. Juniper berries,
fragrant woods, and apple parings are sometimes added to the
lire to Havor the meat.

Filling the House.— Meat that is to be smoked should be re-
moved from the hrine two or three days before being put in the
If it has been cured in a strong brine, it will be

PKKSKKN \TION OF MKATS -.•- 1

best to soak the pieces in cold water over niirlit to prevent ;i
crust of salt from forming on the outside when drained. Wash-
ing the meat in tepid water and scrubbing clean with a brush is
a good practice. The pieces should then be hung up to drain
for a day or two. When drained, they may be hung in the house.
All should be suspended from the joists and rafters below the
ventilators, and should hang so that no two pieces come in con-
tact, as this would prevent uniform smoking.

Keeping up the Fire. — A slow fire may then be started, warm-
ing up the meat gradually. During the winter months in cold
climates it is best to keep the fire going continually until the
smoking is complete, holding the temperature at about the same
point. If the fire is allowed to die down, the meat becomes cold
and the smoke does not penetrate readily. This results in heavy
smoke on the outside and very little on the inner portions of the
meat. During the spring months and in the summer a light fire
may be started every second or third day for two weeks, the
meat being allowed to hang in the smoke-house until sufficiently
colored. When the fire is kept going steadily and an even tem-
perature is maintained, twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be
required to finish one lot of meat. Smoke will not penetrate
frozen meat, and it will be necessary to extract all frost from it
before filling the house. The house should be kept dark at all
times to prevent flies entering. As soon as smoked sufficiently,
the meat should be cooled by opening the ventilators or doors.

KEEPING SMOKED MEATS

When hard and firm the meat may be canvased or packed
away for summer use. Smoked meat may also be Jsft in the
smoke-house for some time during moderate weather. The house
should be kept perfectly dark and well enough ventilated to
prevent dampness. A dry, cool cellar or an attic with free cir-
culation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all
seasons if it is kept dark and flies are excluded. A fine way to
keep the smoked meat is to place the meat, when smoking is
finished, skin down, in a single layer on p hanging table in the
smoke-house. The table should be hung "ivith wires so the mice

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

raimc.t reach the meat. They can easily do this when the tables
are hung with cords. Sift wood ashes over these hanging tables,
place on them only (tin- layer of meat, skin down, and cover
ends, sides, and top enmpletely with sifted ashes at least two
inches thick. Make ashes from such woods as poplar, ash, cot-
tonwood, or such hard woods as hickory, maple, walnut, etc.
The ashes should be sifted until as fine as flour, and the meat
.-an remain untouched and only removed as needed for the
table. Hams so treated will keep remarkably well for several
years. It is generally conceded that a ham attains its full excel-
lence when it is a year old.

This method seems to follow out the method used by the
Westphalians in smoking their hams, except that they allow them
to hang until wanted for use, and once in a while, especially in
damp weather, give them a little smoke.

I i' to be kept only a short time, hams and bacon will need
only to be hung out separately without covering. For longer
keeping it will be necessary to wrap them first in heavy brown
paper and then in burlap, canvas, or muslin and bury them in a
grain bin or other suitable place, the object being to gain a uni-
form temperature and to keep away insects. A coat of ground
pepper rubbed into the meat before wrapping will be distasteful
to them. For absolute safe-keeping for an indefinite period of
time it is essential that the meat be thoroughly cured. After
it is smoked and has become dry on the surface it should be
wrapped in parchment paper; or clean wrapping paper will do
where parchment paper cannot be had. Then inclose in heavy
muslin or canvas, and cover with yellow wash or ordinary lime
whitewash, glue brim: added. Hang each piece out so that it
does not come in contact with other pieces. Do not stack in
piles.

Recipe for Yellow Wash for Meat Canvas. — For 100 pounds
hams or bacon take :

3 pounds of barvtcs (barium 1 ounce of glue

sulfate) (i ounces of flour

1 miner of chrome yellow
(lead chromate)

ri;i>i:i;vATiox OF .MKATS 273

Half fill a pail with water and mix in the Hour, dissolving
all lumps thoroughly. Dissolve the chrome in a quart of wain-
in a separate vessel and add t he snlnl i(»n and the glue to the Hour;
bring1 the whole to a boil and add the barytes slowly, stirring
constantly. .Make the wash the day before it is required. Stir
it frequently when usinir, and apply with a brush.

Cooking Ham. — Hams cured without sugar in the salt to
sweeten them will perhaps be better if boiled by the follow-
ing recipe. The sugar placed in the kettle will in a great
measure add to the sweetness of the ham, and if the ham has
taken too much salt the sugar will help that fault also to some
extent.

A Coniltiinitian Virginia din] Louisiana Recipe. — Immerse and
soak the ham or shoulder in water the night before cooking (if
one year old or over, soak twenty-four hours), then wash thor-
oughly in tepid water. The ham is then placed, skin down, in
a boiler full of boiling water. After putting- in the water, add
a teaeupful each of sugar and vinegar. The temperature should
then be allowed to lower slightly and the water just kept gently
simmering several hours, with the top on the kettle. As tin-
water boils out, add fresh boiling1 water, and always keep the
boiler full. l>y putting' it in boiling water the albumin is co-
agulated at once on the surface of the ham and much of the
juices and flavors kept in until cooked. When the ham is done
it will turn over, skin up, and the meat will leave the bone in
the leg for an inch. After the ham is cooked, take kettle and
all off the stove, skim off the impurities, and let it cool off in
the water in which it has cooked, as it will reabsorb part of
the nutriment and juices which have been drawn out during1
cooking, and the shrinkage is much less than if taken out imme-
diately.

Baking Ham. — The following day remove outside skin, stick
with cloves one-half inch apart, and cover the ham well with
brown sugar and bake, basting it frequently with cider. When
it is well baked, take it out of the oven and baste another ten to
twenty minutes in the pan on top of the stove. The sugar crust
should be quite brown and crisp when done.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

QUESTIONS

I. What methods have ben, ns.-,l for centuries in the preservation of meat?
•1. Why should meat be cured as -oon as possible after the animal heat |.

has been lost?
.3. Why can you not depend up.,n the result if frozen meat be cured or

smoked ''.

4. Why is brine-cured meat more practical than dry-cured when the meat is |

cured at home?

5. For what must the brine be watched closely, especially during warm :

weather? What are the causes of the brine spoiling? What care must
be given it and the meat in it it' a brine is found to be spoiled?

0. Wliv mu-t the meat be weighted so that every portion is kept under the

brine 1

1. What cut of beef is usually selected as the nicer portion to dry? How

should it be cut?

8. Describe the process of curing and the time taken to accomplish it.

When is tin- lieef ready I'or use?

9. What is meant by sugar-cured hams and bacon?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. HITTING, A. W. and K. G., "Canning and How to Use Canned Foods."
1910. Published by 1 he National Canners' Association, Washington.
1). C. :W cents.

-. Boss, ANDREW, " Meat i>n the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and Keeping,"
190G, Farmers' Bulletin ls:i, I'nited States Department of Agricul-
ture. C'an be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing ( Hliee. Washington, D. C. 5 cents.
3. CATO AND VAJ;I;<>. " Uonian Farm Management," done into English, with
notes of modern instances, by a Virginia Farmer, 1913. Published
by the Macmillan Company. New York City. N. Y. $2.

WBENCK. " How to Make as Good Hams in Any State as are
Made in Virginia." University of Arkansas. Published by the Ex-
tension Division of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark.

'• How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, Shoulders, and
Bacon," 1915. Published by the Extension Division. University of
Arkansas, Fayetteville. Ark.

MINNIE C., "Blue Crass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox,
Dullield & Co.. NVu York City. N. Y. $1.50.

Modem Practice of Canning Meats." 1911. Published
by the Brecht Company, St. Louis. Mo. *.,.

Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats,"
Published by Scott, Greenwood ,V Son, London. $3.

CHAPTER. XVII

USE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET

FRUITS and vegetables would he welcome on our tables if it
were only for their beauty of form and color, and for the pleas-
ing variety of flavors which they give to our meals. Consider-
ing, however, that besides being attractive to the eye and the
taste they are absolutely necessary for health and for physical
well-being, it seems worth while to make every effort to use them
as freely as we can afford to. It is the part of wisdom, also, to
preserve them in times of plenty for use in times of scarcity and
high prices.

These foods should not be undervalued because they cannot
supply all that is needed in the diet. They cannot take the
place of meat or milk, to be sure, or of bread or butter, but they
are as important in their places as these other more substantial
foods are in theirs.

The healthful diet, as a whole, should supply a large number
of substances, which, for convenience, may be here grouped
under four heads :

First, fuel. This is needed by the body much as the locomo-
tive needs coal as a source of energy or of power to do work. The
greater part of the fuel of the body is provided by fats, sugar,
and starch.

Second, protein. This, like fat, sugar, and starch, is a fuel,
but, unlike them, it supplies many of the materials needed by
the body of the child for making new tissues, and by the bodies
of the grown persons for making good the losses in the bodily
machinery that are constantly taking place as the result of the
wear and tear of work.

Third, non-burnable or mineral-building materials. These
substances, like protein, are needed by the young for growth
and by all as a means of keeping the body in good repair.

275

SU< < -KSSI-TI, CANNING AND PRESERVING

Fourth, cor) ;i in newly discovered substances which are be-
lieved to lie growth-promoting and body-regulating, and there-
fore needed to keep I lie human machine in good running order.
These substances correspond with the cleaning materials and the
lubricating oils used on the locomotive. They neither serve as
fuel rior enter into the structure of the body, but have an im-
portant part to play in its operation.

In considering the necessary nutrients of the body in the
order in which they are listed above, we come first to those which
cannot be supplied in any very large measure by fresh fruits and
vegetables. Apples, oranges, turnips, asparagus, and, in fact,
all Ilie fruits and vegetables contain large amounts of water,
usually eiirht parts out of ten by weight. In some cases, par-
ticularly those of the succulent vegetables like lettuce, cucum-
bers, and tomatoes, water constitutes over 90 per cent of the
weight. They have the same relation to butter, oil, and other
fats as fuels for the body as soft wood or paper has to coal
\\hen ennsideivd as fuels for a locomotive. Even those who eat
fruits and vegetables very freely seldom get from them, in the
'•nurse of a day, more than a tenth of the energy they need for
i heir work.

Nor can fruits and vegetables be used as the chief source of
protein. This is best supplied by milk in the case of the child,
and by milk, meat, eggs, and cheese in the case of grown per-
-ii i is. A 11 HIM n- the foods usually classed as vegetables, only the
dried legumes navy beans, peanuts, soy beans, and others — pro-
vide much protein. Taken as a whole, the vegetables seldom
provide more than five per cent of all the protein needed in the
course dl' ;i i lay (Plate III).

The statement of the uses to which fruits and vegetables
cannot lie put clears the ground for an understanding of their
very iM-eat usefulness in other particulars. As sources of min-
eral-building substances, particularly iron, they are invaluable.
This should not be taken to mean that without fruits and vege-
tables the diet \\ould be entirely lacking in iron, for it is pres-
ent iii large amounts in lean meats, ei^ yolks, cereals, and other
common Foods In these last-mentioned substances, however, iron

IT. ATI: in

US Department of Agriculture

Office of Experiment Stations

A C.True-. Director

Prote

>©5DTfl©K] ©IF

Fat Carbohydrates Ash

-Water; 58.9
Carbohydrates: 29 .1

Ash: 2.0

Prepared by

C.rTLANGWORTHY

txpert In Charge of Nutrition Investigations

Fuel Value
1. Sq In. Equals
1000 Calories

CZ)

Water

FUE

L VALUt;

740

CALORIES PER POUND

1600

CALORIES PER POUND

Water: 89.2

TEM©

Carbohydrates:?.

FUEL VALUE

195

CALORIES PER POUND

EDIBLE PORTION

Water: 75

Carbohydrates'.IS./

Ash:0.7

FUEL
VALUE

500 CALORIES
PER POUND

(Courtesy, Office uf Home1 Kccinoinic.s, U.S. Department of Agriculture.)

FOOD CHART

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

FRUITS AND VK< ;F.TAP,LKS IX THE DIET 277

is combined with ;i large amount of furl in the form, sometimes
of protein, sometimes of starch, sugar, or fat. If, therefore,
meats, eggs, cereals, etc., are eaten in large enough amounts to
supplv iron, they provide too much fuel for the body, and this,
if not Ininied out to supply energy, is likely to lie deposited in
the form of fat. Tiiless fruits and vegetables are freely eaten,
therefore, one of two unfortunate conditions is likely to exist:
Either the diet will be deficient in iron, or it will be too "hearty/
It is because of their very wateriness that fruits and vegetables
can he freely used as a source of iron and other mineral sup-
plies without overloading the body with other substances.

In the diet of children fruits and vegetables are particularly
useful. Milk, which is an indispensable part of their food, con-
tains plenty of lime and some iron. The iron, however, is in-
sufficient for health. Soups and other dishes made out of milk
and spinach or other vegetables are therefore important items
in the diet of children.

Of the many other ways in which fruits and vegetables help
to keep the body in order it will be sufficient to speak here only
of two or three. First, they give bulk to the diet, and for this
reason are believed to have an important part to play in the
digestion of other foods. Their delicate, fibrous framework con-
sists of a substance called cellulose, which is not digested. The
cellulose, therefore, remains unchanged as it passes through the
digestive organs and serves to prevent other foods from settling
down into compact masses. Whether this is the whole explana-
tion of the laxative effect of these foods or not is still uncertain.
]\ is probable that the mild acids and mineral substances which
all of them contain contribute toward the same end. However
that may be, they serve in some way to keep the food from
accumulating in the intestines until it undergoes undesirable
decomposition.

There is also a theory that fruits and vegetables have an im-
portant part to play in offsetting certain substances that are
produced in the digestion of meat, poultry, fish, eggs, etc. A cer-
tain amount of these last-mentioned foods is needed for body-
building purposes. Without fruits and vegetables, however, they

SU< CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

would, according to the theory. In- left in the unfortunate posi-
tion of bavin- performed a great service to the body and then of
being obliged to injure it. Accompanied by fruits and vege-
tables, thev do their beneficent work and then are transformed
into harmless substances in preparation for being eliminated from

the body.

It is 11 iw generally believed that the more meat and eggs a per-
son eats the more fruits and vegetables he needs. To think, there-
fore, that because one has eaten a large amount of meat he needs
no vegetables or fruit is. a mistake, for under these circumstances
he needs vegetables and fruits more than if a small amount of

FIG. 130. — Roast with vegetable macedoine garnish-
ment only had been eaten (Fig. 130). In a heavy meal of meat,
therefore, allowance should be made for fruits and vegetables.
If necessary, this should be done by the cutting down of fats and
sweets. A meat or vegetable salad or fruit for dessert follows
more logically after a heavy meat course than such desserts as
suet puddings or pie (Fig. 131).

It should be remembered, also, that while such foods as
boiled rice, macaroni, and hominy are often eaten with meat or
combined with it in the making of extremely attractive dishes,
they are not substitutes for potatoes in the diet. When one of
them is served with meat the housekeeper should think of it
not as a substitute for vegetables, but rather as taking the place

KIM ITS AM) VKCKTAI'.LKs 1\ TMK DM I

379

of part of llir bread usually eaten ;il tlie meal, for rice, macaroni,
or hominy has exactly the same uses in the diet that bread has.
She should, therefore, take particular pains to supply some other
vegetable in the form of a salad or of fruit for dessert in meals
which contain meat but no potatoes.

Finally, fruits and vegetables are an important source of
certain recently discovered substances, sometimes called vita-
mines, which are thought to promote growth in children and
to have an important part to play in keeping all people, old as
well as young, in good physical condition.

Fiu. 131.

FIG. 132.

' '

FIG. 131. — Fruit macedoine.
FIG. 132. — A glass of currant jelly.

What has been said so far about the nutritive value of
fruits and vegetables applies to them when they are fresh and
undried. After they have been dried they arc no longer watery
foods, but contain a very large percentage of nourishing ma-
terial. P>eans and peas, when dried, contain more protein than
meat does, and even after they have been soaked in water and
cooked they are considered good substitutes for meat and eggs.
It is well, therefore, for the housekeeper, when she plans meals,
to class the dried legumes with the meats.

The well-ordered meal contains good bread, or a cereal food

230

>n"CESSFrL CAKXIXG AND PRESERVING

served in sonic other attractive way; a little food from the meat
or meat substitutes, enough to insure sufficient protein; a little
butter or other fat to give richness; a little sugar or other
sweet to furnish flavor, and, last but not least, a vegetable or a
fruit (Fi'.:. 1;!-). These five kinds of food should all be repre-
sented in the diet at all times. The varied diet which contains all
of these five kinds of food is needed to make a perfect ration. If
one is laekin«r. the diet will be deficient in some thing needed for
health or palatability. The time was when the winter diet was

FIG. 133. — Canned asparagus and pepper
salad.

FIG. 134. — Log-cabin salad made from
canned beans.

always one-sided because of the absence of fruit and vegetables.
That time is now past, or should be, for with our present knowl-
edge and skill in canning and preserving fruits and vegetables
\ve may easily have a complete ration all the year round
iFi-rs. i:« and 134).

QUESTIONS

1. Name tin- substaiici - that should be included in a healthful diet — stating

tin- use of each in the body.

2. Why arc fruits and vegetables absolutely necessary for health and

physical well-being?

'.',. What constitutes a balanced meal when a large portion of meat is served?

4. Name some substitutes for bread and outline two combinations for a
meal which contains these substitutes.

~>. \\ hat newly discovered substance has been found in fruits and vege-
tables? What is the function of these substances?

• I. Whal dried vegetables can be substituted for meat?

7. What, is contained in a well-ordered meal?
. Tl'ow can yuu plan to have this complete ration all the year?

FRUITS AND YKCKTABLES IN THE DIET

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. I:AKI:O\VS, ANNA, and LINCOLN, M. .T., " llmne Science Cook Book,"
1904. Published l>y \\'liitcoinh & Harrows, Boston, Mass. $1.

•J. BITTIM;, A. \\'. and K. (>., ••('aiming and llo\v to Use Canned Foods,"
191(i. Published by tbe National Canners' Association, Washington,
I). ('. :{() cents.

3. "Creole Cook Book," 1!U4. Published by Tin- /'is-ayune, New Orleans,

La. By mail. $1.2.~>.

4. DAVIDIS, HENRIETTE, " Practical Cook Book," 1897. Publislied by C. N.

Casper, Milwaukee, Wis. $1.2f>.

5. FARMER, FANNIE MERRITT, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1907.

Published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80.
0. Fox, MINNIE C., "Blue Crass Cook Book," ]!>04. Published by Fox,
Dullield &• Co., New York City. N. Y. $!..")().

7. FRENCH, ALLEN. " The Book of Yegetables and Garden Herbs," 1870.

Published by the Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $1.75.

8. KI.N.NK, HELEN, and COOLEY, ANNA M., "Foods and Household Manage-

ment," 191o. Published by the Macmillan Company, New York City,
X. Y. si. K).
!». Lippincott's Home Manual on Food.

10. Si'UiNO, HELEN M.. "Individual l\ecij)es in I'se at Drexel Institute,"

l!Mi!». Publislied by John C. Winston Company, Philadelphia, I'a.
:M cents.

11. SOUTIIWORTH, iL\Y E., " 101 Mexican Dishes," 1914. Published by Paul

Elder & Co., San Francisco, Calif. 75 cents.

12. " Uncle Sam's Cook Book," a price list of bulletins on foods and cook-

ing, American foods and cooking. United States Government. The
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Ollice, Wash-
ington, 1). C.

1:5. WILSON. KI.I/AISETH L., and HUGGINS, MOLLIE, "Good Things to Eat."
1900. Published by the Publishing House of the M. E. Church,
South. Smith & Lamar, Agents, Nashville, Tenn. $3.

1 t. l!osi:. M.\I:Y SWAKIX. " Feeding the Family." Published by Macmillan
Company, Ncu ^'c.rk City. N. Y. .^2.10.

CHAPTER XVIII

CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION

CANNING Club and Home Demonstration Work is conducted
under the cooperative agreement between the several state col-
leges of agriculture and the United States Department of Agri-
culture. In the South all this work is directed by the organiza-
tion of state and county agents. In the North and West this work
is part of the Boys' and Girls' Club Work and is supervised by
state leaders, assistant leaders, district workers, and, in some
places, county agents. In the 419 counties organized in the South
in l!)l(i there were about 60,000 girls enrolled to carry on can-
ning and poultry club work, together with related activities in
sewing, cooking, and gardening.

Aim. — One of the objects of the work is to develop a skill that
shall increase the economic earnings of girls and women in the
country. Their home has many functions not performed by the
city home. It is a producing as well as a consuming center. Its
contribution to the income of the farm, especially in saving the
waste and expense of conducting farming operations, often meas-
ures the difference between profitable farming and unprofitable
t'a ruling. The skill and business ability of farm housewives and
children are a notable contribution to the economic resources of
thr farm. In many cases incomes must be increased before stand-
ards of living can be raised or progressive community enterprises
fostered. I'rorrnlino- upon this basis, the work in the South has
added materially to the wealth, health, and happiness of country
people.

Financing the Work.— In the beginning, generous" financial
help from the General Education Board— the corporate trustees
of a fund of more than $50,000,000 given by John D. Rockefeller
''"'_• educational purposes— made possible the free development of
This was soon followed by state and county appro-
priations. In 1014 Congress made appropriations to take the
282

« ANNING < i.i i: ORGANIZATION

place of those being made liy tin- (ieneral Education Board, and
the Smith-Lever Kxtension Act of 1914 brought its first Federal
appropi iations in 1915, thus giving permanent support to demon-
stration work in agriculture and home economics. In 1917 there
was in the 15 Southern an organization of about 500 counties
supervised by 13 state, 21 assistant state, 15 district, and 4!)4
county agents, making a total of 543.

During 1914-1915 in forty states slightly over $320,000 was
spent in home economics demonstrations, while in 1916-1917
in forty-eight states $750,000 was allotted, an increase of over
130 per cent in two years. This money wras derived from the
I'nited States Department of Agriculture, the state colleges of
agriculture, Federal anl state cooperative extension act funds, and
county and other local sources. In 1916 the allotment of funds
for extension work for farm women was derived from the follow-
ing sources: $107,000 from funds appropriated directly to the
United States Department of Agriculture, $260,000 from Federal
extension act funds, $120,000 from state extension act funds,
$32,000 from direct state appropriations in addition to the
amount appropriated by the state to offset the Federal coopera-
tive extension funds, $178,000 from county appropriations, and
about $80,000 from other miscellaneous sources.1

Initial Work. — Following the development of United States
Farm Demonstration "Work as a means of instructing farm men
and subsequently of boys' corn clubs, because boys also insisted
upon being eiirolled as " demonstrators," there was a very in-
sistent demand for activities for girls which should give them
opportunity to carry on skilful work in their homes and enter into
friendly contest with one another. The opportunity to influence
and instruct adults through the interests of their children was
recognized from the first.

Activities which have fundamental connection with every
country home, and which involve the need for accurate informa-
tion and skill in doing, were selected. During 1910 some girls'
tomato clubs were organized in South Carolina and Virginia, with

1 XOTE. — Statement, also table showing total amount of funds avail-
able for extension work among farm women, is quoted from the " Weekly
Xews Letter " of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

284

>IXCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

WOMEN COUNTY AGENTS AND FUNDS AVAILABLE FOR EXTENSION WORK

AMONG FARM WOMEN

State

1914-'15

1915-'16

1916--17

Number
of
counties
with
women
agents,
Julv 1,
1914

Funds
for
home
eco-
nomics
work

Number
of
counties
with
women
agents,
Julv 1,
1915

Total
number
of
women
extension
workers

Funds
for
home
eco-
nomics
work

Number
of
counties
with
women
agents,
July 1,
1916

Funds
for
home
eco-
nomics
work

S16.156

1
37

(=)
3
1
1
33
54
5
3
7
9
8
35
22

4
5
(-)
38
3
2
5
i
4

"3
4
38
4
9
29
12
2
1
38
(•)
40
37
6
1
25
3
12
4

819,510
1,558
20,767

L'.nL'.i

3,250

i',899
32,135
28,321
3,450
15,450
4,000
28,800
9,236
19,056
13,640
1,425
11,230
4,667
4,474
7,715
25,964

"5,700
4,950
1,050
2,150
4,099
2,300
6,250
43,265
5,300
16,400
24,095
3,150
6,060
1,925
41,390

25,554
24,288
5,287
2,500
24,337
3,092
13,946
9,000
2,800

27
'34

"SO
54

"i
'35

"7
1

'38

"i
"i

' 'i

' i
"32
'34

39
2

'i4

828,870
1,100
44,628
5,000
3,334
2,600
2,100
40,373
53,500
4,200
16,200
4,700
31,930
12,351
26,250
22,805
2,966.
12,880
4,888
7,000
8,390
34,288
8,500
5,600
7,600
914
5,600
4,800
2,400
15,075
53,623
7,990
19,495
30,076
3,835
7,300
1,600
51,887
1,685
43,092
36,920
5,825
2,700
33,357
4,300
17,413
8,160
2,950

i:,

11,262

3,752

"9
13

643
22,211
14,222
3,014
2,978
4,780
19,052

o,N<>7

15,732
9,058

19
13

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois .

Indiana

Iowa

Louisiana

Maryland. . .

5
33

4,102
4,636
1,518
4,756
is, 553

0
33

M&ssachuset t -

Michigan

.Minnesota

M i--i-L-ippi

Missouri

Montana

1,804
5,057
1,844
978
1,774
1,474
5,050
25,719

'34

Nebraska

Nevada

Ni-w Hampshire. . . .
New J<-rs(-v

New Mexico. . .

New York. . . .

North Carolina. . . .

North Dakota

Ohio

12,760
11,123
4,016
1,767
1,667

20 .-.r,.:,

2,112
12,231
17,040
2,191

'24

24
27

i 'klahoma

' ' r i i' ' ' 1 1

' Ivania

Rhode Island

Siiith Carolina

'is

South Dakota

ssee

1 exas

Vermont

Virginia

15,438
2,429
7,630

22
10

Washington.

Virginia

iiain. . . .

\\ \ oi:iing. . .

2,958

Total

279

$320,979

350

602 $538,061

478

$755,990

2 Figures not available.

CANNING CLUB <•];<; ANIXATION 055

the aid of teachers and other school officials. These girls culti-
vated tenth-acre plots of tomatoes, following some simple in-
structions furnished by the Office of Farm Demonstration Work,
and canning their vegetables under the instruction of one of its
representatives. The results of this experiment were made the
basis during the next year for the organization of from two to
four counties each in the states of South Carolina, Virginia, and
Mississippi, under the leadership of women who were appointed
to take charge of each state and with the aid of a few county
workers whose services were secured for brief periods in the can-
ning season. In 1!>12 eleven states had workers in charge with
160 counties organized, and in 1917 every Southern state was
organized, and similar plans are rapidly developing in the North
and West.

The State Agent. — In the beginning of the girls' canning club
work a state agent or organizer was appointed. To help her in
each county organized, a capable woman was secured for about
two months in the year to hold the canning demonstrations in the
summer and give what volunteer help she could in spring and fall.
The clubs were organized and the first instruction was given
through the schools where the girls could be met in groups. Cor-
respondence and an occasional visit from the county agent had
to suffice as instruction and supervision until the canning season
opened, when regular field meetings, in way of canning demon-
strations for groups of members, were held at central points in the
county. Again in autumn, the collecting of results and the hold-
ing of an exhibit of canned products were largely volunteer work
of the county agent. The results which these workers obtained
were so notable that in a short time this general plan was adopted
permanently, the period of employment for the county agent in-
creasing rapidly to nine or twelve months.

The girls' canning clubs, with a tenth-acre garden as the basis
of each individual 's work, have made possible a gradually evolved
four years' program of work which thousands of girls have
eagerly entered upon. Each year finds a larger percentage of
thi-se girls continuing the program and finishing the season's
activities. As in all real demonstration work, the girl becomes
a "demonstrator." She agrees to follow instructions and use

286

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

approved methods ; her work and its results being accomplished
with more skill, greater efficiency, and showing finer quality than
that which has heretofore been known, become an object lesson for

others and the center of in-
fluence in the home and com-
munity. Each season brings
its characteristic activity of
natural work, accompanied
by the stimulus of individual
ownership and group contests
in skill and definite accom-
plishment.

Four-year Program of
Work. — Since the mastery of
some definite phase of work
is essential for each year, a
systematic program has been
worked out. During the first
year the girls select tomatoes
as their main crop, learning
a great deal about the cultiva-
tion of this vegetable and how
to market both fresh and
canned products. They ac-
quire considerable horticul-
tural skill in managing their
gardens. The financial rec-
ords they keep give a good
business training. For the
public demonstrations which
they give for the benefit of
their communities, these girls
find it necessary to make at-
tractive uniforms, aprons,

caps, lowcls, holders, etc. This gives sewing a very definite place
in their work, and it is done for a special purpose rather than
for the sake of a lesson.

Fio. 135. — "The home women of the coun-
try, if they will Rive their minds fully to this
vital subject of food conservation and train
• •[vert in household thrift, can make
of the housewife's apron a uniform of national
.significance."- I >. K. IIoUHTON, Secretary uf
Agriculture.

e'ANM.NC CIA I', ORGANIZATION

28"t

An instance of the use of such uniforms is given in the report
of a county agent, as follows :

"The meeting at Plicba was especially interesting. Sixteen canning
c'lub girls in white uniform, cap, and apron gave a program with club songs
and yells. Afterwards they served a two-course luncheon to the mothers
and teachers. The latter were especially interested and announced their
intention of going back to their schools and have their club members make
caps and aprons and learn the club songs."

FIG. 130. — A comfortable garden uniform.

The use of these uniforms has a tendency to make popular
suitable working clothes for girls and women. Advanced girls
continue their sewing by making uniform dresses of appropriate
design and material. In a number of the states they have chosen
pink or blue chambray for their dress material, each member hav-

288

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

ing the privilege of choosing either color she prefers. With this
combination of attractive pink and blue dresses, with white uni-
form aprons and caps, a group of these girls, with their county
agents in all-white, resemble a huge bunch of sweet peas. Tan
or gray linen crash makes very neat uniforms when worn with
the white aprons. In some sections near the coast where colored
material quickly fades, white uniforms are more satisfactory for

FIG. 137. — Another style of garden uniform.

'•aiming work. Of course, the uniform dress worn for this work
should be light weight, and of such material as can be often and
easily washed. In 1916, in 419 organized counties in the 15 South-
cm States, 21,172 girls reported the making of 23,767 aprons,
caps, holders, and towels, and 3875 uniform dresses to be worn for
public demonstrations (Fig. 135).

The white dresses are not appropriate for the garden work
among vines and dirt, as they soil easily and are likely to become

( \\MN<; (LIT, ORGANIZATION

289

stained. The gardening uniform which has been adopted in some
sections is the bloomer and middy blouse combination. The
regular gymnasium bloomers arc suitable for ibis purpose. Women
working in agriculture because of war conditions abroad adopted
the bloomers for reason of comfort, convenience, and economy.
The bloomer overalls for women are on the market in America,
and have been adopted in several factories (Figs. 13f>, 137,
and 138).

An attractive gardening set consisting of an apron for tools
and a kneeling pad might be made of matting, burlap, denim.

- **•- -v *-.. - g

FIG. 138. — Garden uniform

oilcloth, or heavy canvas. Matting lined with brown denim and
bound with red tape makes an attractive color combination
and is very suitable material, because the color does not show
soil easily.

This equipment is easily made and will be found most useful
in the garden, especially during the transplanting seasons. The
making of the garden kneeling pad and apron gives opportunity
for teaching something about sewing and will arouse more interest
in garden work. The garden pad is used to kneel upon when
planting seeds and transplanting plants. This work can be done
19

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

uith more rase and comfort, and the use of the pad and apron
will protect the clothing a great deal when working in the garden.
Tin- pocket arrangement in the pad is convenient for carrying the
small plants which are to be transplanted. The apron is a com-
panion pim- and is used for carrying tools— planting stick,
prnn ing shears, trowel, and garden line. A small pocket for seeds
iiiiirht be stitched on the front of the middle pocket to make the
apron a little more complete (Fig. 163, p. 3-41).

During the second year two vegetable crops are cultivated,
iliese being chosen with definite regard to home needs and mar-
keting conditions. In addition to the canned vegetables, many
.-Inlis market soup mixtures, sauces, and special products which
have been originated for them, like Dixie relish and B. S. Chutney.
Sewing is continued in the making of uniform dresses of attrac-
fcive and appropriate design and material.

During the next two years perennial gardens are started and
either small fruits or perennial vegetables, suited to the locality
or especially attractive for market, are planted. Many girls
who have proceeded thus far are ready to make a reputation for
special products from Southern fruits, such as the fig, scupper-
nong, May haw, and guava, or to succeed admirably with the
Spanish pepper, for which a great demand exists. The prepara-
tion of their vegetable products for the table and contests in
bread making are given considerable place. In many instances
winter gardening is carried on extensively.

With the increased supply of wholesome food, by means of
the fall garden, canning and poultry club products, the agent has
a wonderful opportunity in the fall and winter to get into the
kitchens and teach the preparation and combination of these
products for serving.

src<iESTED PROGRAM FOR LOCAL GIRLS' CLUB MEETINGS2

February

('all meeting to order. Organize.

Distribute daily record hooks, explain same and urge the importance
of attending all club meetings, local, spring and fall rallies, institutes,
and fairs.

Discuss soil best suited to tomatoes, Bordeaux mixture, construction of
lint In <| ;unl ,-,,|,i frame (show model, if possible), and choice of seed.

' l!y Miss Minnie L. Garrison, County Agent, Edgemoor, S. C.

i AXMMi < I.I I1. URBANIZATION •_><.' 1

Man-It

Call meeting to order, Roll-call. Minutes (review of last lesson).
Report- of work (loin- since last meeting.

Measui -i meiit of one-tenth acre plot and preparation.

Trail-plant ing to cold frames, etc.

Bookbinding for cook books, histories, etc.

Game or club yell.

April

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes.

Vary with bread and poultry program.

Bread. — Judging bread.

Distribute helpful bulletins.

Refreshments — eggs in nest or goldenrod.

Poultry. — Talks on poultry, breeds, hatching, etc.

Demonstrate candling or testing eggs.

Decorate Easter eggs or have egg hunt. Remind girls of true meaning
of Easter.

Kodak pictures.

May

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes.

Plain sewing, based on uniform cap and apron. Apron party.

Distribute copies of club songs and yells. Practice same for spring
meeting.

< ither instructions concerning special meeting.

June

(all meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. Reports on benefits de-
rived from having attended spring meetings.
Study cultural instructions.
Visit plot and give comments.

Demonstrations. Pruning and staking, repeat Bordeaux spray, etc.
Discuss cook books, recipes, and drawings for same.
Serve salads, utilizing vegetables.
Kodak I'ietures. music.

July

Fireless cooker. Canning demonstration.
Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes,
l.i-t of canning supplies, literature prepared in advance.
Canning demonstration, using fruit and vegetables.

Empha-i/f grading, sterilization, full pack, attractive pack and quality.
Dinner.

(itt together, talk over morning's work. Demonstrate jelly makin?.
Sn'_rLr,.,t ••Canning Christmas Presents."
Distribute literature before leaving.
Songs and yells.

SUCCESSFl I. CANNING AMJ PRESERVING

August

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes.
Practice canning s]i<cial products.
Basket making.

September

Literary program. Short business meeting.

Roll-call — answer with current events, etc. Magazine article or report
on interesting library hook.

Head sketch of Doctor Knapp's life.

\Vord building, using letters composing club motto.

Puzzle — dissected labels.

Show pictures of good exhibits with projector if possible.

October

C'all meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes.
Go over records again. Sum up.
Demonstrate labelling, packing, etc., for fairs.
.Judging canned goods.
A^ign work for girls during fair.

Cooperation Between School and Home. — It can be easily
seen that all of these activities are carried on in the home and
i'onu an integral part of the life of the girls themselves, but every-
where the schools are taking a very active part in promoting this
work. The cooperation of the teacher is always essential.

In each community organized the girls are selected and en-
rolled through the school early enough to undertake gardening
After the Hub members have been enrolled and they have selected
plots for their one-tenth acre gardens the teacher can render valu-
able assistance. With her aid the girls study the instructions for
the purpose of securing information as to how to carry on the
work at home. The teacher giving the best cooperation correlates
the work with regular lessons in reading, arithmetic, language,
drawing, ;uid really makes it a part of the school life. She often
or«r;ini/cs the members into clubs and holds the first meeting at
the school. Here they are taught the construction of a hotbed
or cold frame, and sometimes one is built on the south side of the
school building; plants are raised in it for the home gardens, and
;i number of lessons are based on the planting and care of these
l»eds. When these plants have grown large and strong enough

CANNING i I.I M < MH ;. \MX.\TK3X 093

to tran>plant, a meeting is planned at the home of some club mem-
ber, where they learn the principles of transplanting.

Club work furnishes constant opportunity to enliven school-
room routine with vital interests and fine motives for study.
Many instances of the helpful reaction which these clubs have
upon the schools have been reported. In a similar way they give
the schools a better opportunity to bring influences to bear di-
rectly upon the homes.

Community Activities. — By the time school closes the work
lias reached an interesting stage and the club members continue
to work together. At this season the county agent meets with
tin- clubs on the one-tenth acre plot, gives cultural instructions,
and makes preparation for the canning work. Midsummer brings
the canning season, and here again at the home of the club mem-
ber having the first ripe tomatoes the girls of the community
meet to work together, with the county agent demonstrating how
to take each step in the canning, and the girls doing the actual
work under her supervision. After one or two such demonstra-
tions the girls acquire sufficient experience to give a public
demonstration in canning, at which the neighbors are taught
what the girls are already skilled in doing.

Cooperation for community development or benefit to the
group is now beginning among farm people. Club members
often undertake it more readily than their parents.

Instances of neighborly cooperation are not rare. One county
agent reported that upon visiting one little girl, named Gladys,
sh<- found that she had been ill for two weeks and unable to set
out her tomato plants, wThich were fast becoming too large to be
transplanted easily. Upon the agent's visit to the next home she
t1' ported the instance, and a member of the same club immediately
suggested that they get together and do the transplanting. In a
short time six girls met at Gladys's home. The little sick girl
was able to be carried out in a chair and sit in the shade to watch
the others happy at work transplanting the tomatoes for her.
Words failed and tears came instead when she tried to thank her
friends for this kindness.

A county agent reported that the home of one of her club

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

members \vas destroyed by fire. Before she had opportunity to
visit i his community, the president of the club had called a meet-
ing it IK 1 its members had arranged to give a "shower" of canned
products to the club member to whose family this loss had oe-

eurred.

Nut only is individual initiative aroused, but elements of lead-
ership are developed in country communities where they are most
needed. As a means of developing leadership, many state schools
give short courses for prize-winning club members from the
various counties. These girls have proved their efficiency by suc-
cessful work and already possess qualities of leadership. Upon
being given definite instruction in even a few lines of work they
can In* inspired to return to their communities and extend to
others the same aid. These girls frequently become the officers
of their clubs and the local representatives through whom the
county agent works in developing many community enterprises.

During one short course each prize winner gave the story of
her vcar's work and told how she spent the money earned from
her tenth-acre garden. One girl had for two successive years paid
her expenses at the county high school out of her earnings; an-
other was helping her brother through college ; another purchased
a fine cow, and still another enabled her father to hold his cotton
until spring by making her funds available for certain family
expenses. In every instance the business experience was one
which reiiected dignity and judgment,

The County Agent. — Tt can be readily seen that the centers
of influence in demonstration work are the farms and homes
win-re individuals, perhaps a modest little girl or quiet, home-
loving woman, make the demonstrations which teach a lesson to an
entire community. This lesson carries greater weight and is
more convincing than if made by a skilled specialist from a dis-
tant institution, but it can be accomplished successfully only
when there exists an organization whose leaders have won perma-
nent place in the confidence and affection of the people with
whom they work. In the organization of home demonstration
work in the South the county agent holds this important place.
A state {igent with headquarters at the State College of Agri-

CANNING i i.i I; < >i:« . \ \ IXAT10X 395

culture directs the work, and frequently technical help is given
by specialists who come from the same institution. The state
agent is, in an important way, the connecting link between the
county agent and the force of extension workers whose head-
quarters are at the state colleges and in the United States De-
partment of Agriculture.

The county agent becomes the personal medium through which
information is furnished and by whom skilful demonstrations
are directed. The efficient county agent must be a leader and an
organizer. She must possess fine sympathy and good judgment.
Her knowledge of people and conditions in her county must be
wide and accurate. To all this there must be added good training
in home economics and a constantly increasing knowledge of the
lighter branches of agriculture, such as horticulture, dairying,
and poultry raising.

Demonstration work for women has made most rapid progress
where preceded by at least a year of work among girls. Definite
results are more quickly obtained among young people who have
high enthusiasm and who, fortunately, lack experiences which
suggest failure and who are without a sense of caution which
previous failures suggest to the mature mind when new enter-
prises or new methods are proposed. Then, too, the mother's
gratitude for training given to her daughter paves the way for
active acceptance on her part of instruction and help.

Demonstrations Among Women. — Improvement in manage-
ment of rural homes has not kept pace with that of the farm itself,
nor can it be compared to the management of the city home from
which has been taken every creative industry. For these reasons,
one line of demonstration which has been eagerly undertaken
by hundreds of women is the making and use of labor-saving
devices and securing more labor-saving equipment from the out-
side. The economic needs of women on farms demand greater
skill in the constructive activities which are. fortunately, theirs
to manage and from which the opportunity for financial income
and the satisfaction of creative work of high order rightfully
come. Therefore, demonstrations in poultry raising, home dairy-
ing, etc., are among the first to be undertaken.

SUCK KSSI-VL CANNING AND PRESERVING

A form of organization which has been found very successful
is that for the cooperative marketing of products which results
from ciTtain demonstrations. Of these, some of the most success-
ful have been organized for the purpose of disposing of poultry
products. In one county nine egg circles sold 4370 dozen eggs
in a few months. The products were so carefully graded that bet-
ter prices were secured for them than had been received by indi-
viduals before carrying on the work cooperatively.

Demonstrations involving the preparation of food for the
table, and sanitary measures, are also popular. While the reports
do not show the extent of the work, it is interesting, however, to
note that during the year 1916 the county women agents enrolled
and instructed 37,255 girls in canning clubs, 8911 girls in poultry
dubs, 21,083 women as home demonstrators, and 2211 women in
poultry clubs. The number of clubs organized for women during
this year was 963; a total of 27,260 meetings was held, with an
attendance of 476,366. The number of girls reporting results
from canning work was 21,605. Of this number, 7058 made dem-
onstrations in cooking club products and 11,384 made bread
demonstrations. There were reported 350 scholarships won as
prizes by the club girls. The total number of containers of fruit
and vegetables packed by the women and girls under demonstra-
tion methods was 3,318,481, with a total value of $669,839.56.
The total number of winter garden demonstrations by the girls
and women was 7649. A total number of 37 egg circles was or-
ganized by the women and girls, and the total value of poultry
products was $53,952.76.

The following improvements or devices were 'made or installed
under the leadership of the women agents : 3058 homemade fire-
less cookers have come into common use, accompanied in many
instances by the purchase of kerosene stoves. There have been
iv ported over 2000 demonstrations made in the use of a homemade
iceless refrigerator by which the problems of the sanitary han-
dling of milk and improvement in butter making are largely
solved. A good beginning has been made in installing 264 home
water systems, 57 inexpensive homemade shower-baths, and a
number of improved sewage disposals.

CANNING i l-l I'. <>K<;. \NI/ATK)N

Iii a number of enmities demonstrations along sanitary lines
were begun \vitli campaigns against flies which involved the mak-
ing of -}.")().") ily traps in a short time, followed by other active
measures against this pest. One thousand two hundred and
seventy houses have been screened as a result of these "fly cam-
paigns."

The making of a few practical devices has been a great stim-
ulus to a large number of people who have contributed clever
ideas and useful models for many kinds of work. County agents
rapidly receive demands for advice in arranging kitchens and
adding built-in conveniences. To meet these demands, extension
specialists in farm mechanics are devoting considerable time to
assisting the county agents with specifications and plans.

Many labor-saving devices have been made or installed in more
conveniently arranged kitchens. The following were also made
in li'Ki under the supervision of the women county agents:

Kitchen cabinets 180

Floor mops 1 1 !>

Number of wheel trays 22.5

Number of ironing boards . 243

Some valuable work has been done in home butter making for
the market. In addition to the iceless refrigerators, the following
improved home dairy equipment has been made or purchased
under the guidance of county agents:

I'.utter paddles 035

Butter moulds 024

Thermometers 241

Shotgun cans (for handling milk) 211

Barrel churns ISO

Number of hand butter-workers 7!)

Number of pounds of butter made under demonstra-
tion methods 70,513

In any demonstrations undertaken, whether in the making and
use of labor-saving devices, in better utilization of farm products
for the table, management of sanitary or hygienic problems, etc.,
it must be recogni/ed that in addition to technical information
brought from the outside there exist in any community many ex-
cellent practices and much valuable information which are not in

293 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

common use. To find such practices and arouse individuals to a
sense of their obligation in extending them to their less fortunate
iifijrhhors is often a valuable part of the work of the county agent.
As soon as this is undertaken, or whenever a few individual women
successfully carry out definite demonstrations in their homes, ac-
tive demand arises for community organization which shall bring
together those having a common interest in some line of work and
in addition give opportunity for social life and recreation. Or-
ganizations thus developed assume a permanent place in their

communities.

With the initial work that has been accomplished, the fine
MI I • port and cooperation given by many existing organizations
and institutions, with Federal, state, and county appropriations
rapidly being made, and a demand for the organization of counties
far exceeding each year's possibilities, it is safe to assume that this
phase of extension work is permanently established. It has met
the need of the most progressive, as well as the least developed,
homes and communities.

The county agent now has an avenue of approach into every
activity of the home. With increased opportunity for training,
which institutions are giving by adapting their courses for her
need, and with the opportunity for permanent service in her
county, the work of the county woman agent will continue to be
a most potent influence for progressive and happy country

homes.

The activities described are typical of the home demonstra-
tion work now being conducted in the 15 Southern States, and
are fairly comparable with that more recently started in the 33
Northern and Western States.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. MARTIN, <>. B., and CRESWELL. MARY E., States Relations Service, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, Circular No. A-82, "Canning Club and
I Ionic- Demonstration Work."

2. MARTIN. < ). B., and HILL, I. W., States Relations Service, U. S. Depart-

mi-nt of Agriculture, Circular No. A-74, "Organization of Boys'
A.L'ricultural Club Work in the Southern States."

CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 399

3. BENSON, O. II'., States Relations Service, I". S. Department of Agriculture,

Circular No. NR-31, "Suggestions fur Organization of Brother-
Daughter Clubs," and Circular No. NR-21, "Farm and Handicraft
Clubs."

4. \\"ARI>, \V. F., Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul-

ture, Farmers' Bulletin No. f><ili. " Organization of Boys' Pig Clubs."

5. LAMON, HAKKY L., Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 5G2, •' Organization of Boys' and
Girls' Poultry Clubs."

(i. Senate Document No. 537, Government Printing Olllce, 1014, " Life of
Dr. Seeman A. Knapp." 63rd Congress, 2nd session, Senate Docu-
ment 537.

7. LORD, ISABEL ELY, " Costume in the Cookery Laboratory," Journal of

Home Economics, vol. 8, No. 2, Feb., 1916, American Home Eco-
nomics Association, Baltimore, Md. 25 cents per copy, $2 per year.

8. CRESWELL, MARY E., and POWELL, OLA, States Relations Service, U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, Circular No. 781, "Canning Club Cap and
Apron."

0. KNAPP, BRADFORD, and CRESWELL, MARY E., •' The Effect of Home Demon-
stration Work on the Community and the County in the South,"
U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book. $1.00. Separate,
No. 710, 1916.

10. SCOTT, RHEA C., " Home Labor-Saving Devices," J. B. Lippincott
Company, Philadelphia, Pa. $1.00.

CHAPTER XIX

THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING

As Outlined by the North Carolina State Agent in Home

Demonstration Work

THAT there is an excellent market for home-canned products
of standard Lrrade has been amply proved by the Girls' Cannir
Clubs of the South. Just as soon as it was established in the
minds of the public that t>»eir products were to be depended
upon for an extra^17. .i»er of whole fruit of uniform color ac
a weight running up to the maximum in a can, there was •no
trouble in getting these cans on the pantry shelves of the hou.e-
wife. and later, in increasing numbers on the shelves of the
grocer.

Five years ago, when the canning clubs first began to can in
tin for the market, they started with girls eager to earn money
for themselves but absolutely untrained in the art of putting
vegetables and fruits into cans and sterilizing them sufficiently
well to insure their keeping qualities. Fortunately, these p-irls
were young and impressionable, and they went in whole-ht irt-f
edly to carry out instructions in the new methods of canning
which the state supervisors were bringing to them.

Marketing. — In North Carolina it was back in 1912 that the
problem of getting the products before the consumer began,
although the girls had only 33,000 cans and these all filled with
tomatoes. This was our first year in the organization, and both
supervisors and girls were inexperienced in the commercial
world. I can remember my consternation when the 33,000 cans
\veiv dumped upon me to sell, and every little club girl was
asking that they be sold immediately, as she needed her money.

II. re \\-e were with a large number of cans to be disposed of
and with no reputation in the business world — worse than none,
in fact, for we had to shoulder the reputation made by the usual
carelessly packed product which the farmwife brought to the
•jroeer' Thinking it would be a good plan to sell in bulk, I sent
samples of our tomatoes to a large grocery house in New York.
300

TIIK Ul SJNESS Sim-: UK CANNING ;;ul

The products were examined and pronounced excellent, but in
one of the cans there was found a very light-colored tomato,
;-nd, quite properly, the firm refused to take any product that

ould not be relied upon as uniform throughout.

Standardizing. — This criticism at the very outset of our

larketing career probably did us more good than anything that

could have happened. I felt that there might ta a light-colored

nato secreted in every one of those 33,000 cans, and, calling

iite headquarters the fourteen supervising county agents, we
had a heart-to-heart conference regs-vclinT a standard pack, and
••'•ed that we must not seek an outsidi -^-et until we had
pr.ved at home that we could put up an m that could be
r. led upon. These women went back to their territories to dis-
pose of what the club girls had produced among their own com-
mjnity housewives. If any can was found not to be what it
should be commercially it was replaced by the club member or
money was refunded. Strict rules and regulations regarding
standards were enforced, and if a girl infringed the rules, ig-
no.-antly or carelessly, she wras not allowed to use the label.

The Girls' Own Responsibility. — Tn a surprisingly short
i ini these little business women learned the necessity of uniform
packs, and the agents set to work inaugurating market cam-
paigns and inspiring the girls to assume the responsibility of
the cisposal of their own products. This they did by loading

,'agons with cans and bringing them into the towns and villages,
selling in this manner every can they had filled. In many county
papers advertisements were run, saying that beans, peaches,
tomatoes, berries, and so on, would be brought into town on Satur-
day by the canning club girls and orders might be left with the
county agent, whose address was given.

Sawmills became a great source of revenue, many girls re-
porting that they had sold out to the "hands" before they could
put the labels on the cans. The first dealings we had with
merchants were sales made to the small country grocer here and
there who found his supply low at times and thought he might
try a few cans of this "homemade stuff." As our output began
to grow, in the larger towns where the housewives had eaten of

SI < < KSSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

CO-OPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK

IN AiilUCULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS IN NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH CAROLINA A. & M. COLLEGE

Nortb Carol ina State Department of Agriculture. Division of Home Demonstration Work,

lniti'il States Department of Agriculture, Co-operating. Division of Markets.

Town of

Date

Name of Merchant

Deliver to

SIGNATURE OF PURCHASER

Street No

NORTH CAROLINA GIRLS' CANNING CLUB
_ 1 =

Doz. Cans Tomatoes '" Per Doz.

" String Beans ® " "

, " " Blackberries © " "

" " Peaches ®. " "

" " Soup Mixture® " "

@.. " "

....... © " "

@p- " <i

Total $
Approved. . 191

SIGNATURE OF MERCHANT

FURTHER ORDERS FOR CANNED GOODS MAY BE PLACED
WITH COUNTY AGENT

SIGNATURE OF COUNTY AaENT

Town

THK I'.l'SINKSS SIDK OK CANNINli ;;u:;

our products and found them good, we decided to make house-
to-house (Mtivussrs to secure orders through grocers.

Sales Demonstration. — Certain club members with initiative
were given order books, with which they secured quite enough
orders from the housewives to make the 4-11 brand products
well worth while to the grocer. Beautiful exhibits in glass were
put iu his window with "What you see in the glass you will find
in the tin "; and, if he desired it, the county supervisor, with
one or two of her girls, would go into the store and demonstrate
the different ways in which 4-II Brand * products might be used.
These little business women in their white caps and aprons
served string-bean salad, tomato bisque, tomato jelly, or demon-
strated what might be done witli berries, peaches, corn, or kraut.

Convincing the Retailer. — In one county the grocers were
quite hard to convince that anything made at home could pos-
sibly be as good as what was shipped from the factories, and
the county supervisor was forced to call in the Chamber of Com-
merce to assist her in convincing them. It was decided that a
committee of grocerymen should be asked to come to the Cham-
ber and pass judgment on the standard brands of tomatoes sold
in the town and on the Girls' Canning Club product. Two dis-
interested persons selected cans — four different brands — and from
a pile of several hundred 4-II Brand cans they selected two. The
contents of these cans were poured into six glass bowls, each bowl
being numbered. When they were set before the grocers for
judgment the bowls receiving the best grade held Canning Club
products, the others grading third, fourth, fifth, and sixth. This
was enough to arouse interest in the grocers and was, with a
house-to-house canvass for orders, sufficient to bring us a trade
that carried every one of our county cans to the retail merchant

Selling Direct. — One of the best and most satisfactory selling
arrangements is to be made with institutions, colleges, and hotels,
and our advanced girls are working up quite a trade in No. 10
or gallon cans. If these institutions can rely upon you for a
steady and uniform output they are glad to be in touch with a

1 The 4-H in the brand is a Canning Club slogan, signifying the de-
velopment of the head, heart, hand, and health.

304

SFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

producer who can deliver products they know to be well flavored,
clean, and high in tin- percentage of pulp to the can.

Bettie Van Tapscott and her mother, of Alamance County,
did some excellent work in this line. Bettie says: "We filled
last year an order of beans and pears for Swain Hall, at the
University of North Carolina, and when that was delivered I
sent Mr. Tischler, the man who buys, a sample of my tomatoes.

FIG. 139. — A North Carolina canning club at work.

I If immediately ordered 100 dozen. I had only 1003 cans, so
I divided the order with a neighbor club member. Mr. Tischler
told me if what I sent him proved satisfactory he would give me
another order for this year. I guess it did, for he gave me an
erder for just as many as I would accept. I filled it and sent it
to him yesterday, and he wants another fifty dozen already. You
see, it is no trouble to find a market if you go at it right. I
correctly mark, label, and crate all products I send off."

Club members undertake cooperative work more readily than
\\ill their parents. One enterprising girl informed her county

TIII: lu >INI-:SS SIDE OF CANNING 305

a-. 'lit that slic hail already booked orders for canned products
to thr value of $168. When asked if she could lill them all, she
said, "Oh, no; I expect to have a good many more orders than
this when all my letters are answered, but there are eight of us
in our club and we will do it together." (Fig. 139.)

Two sisters of Mecklenburg County, Margaret and May Belle
Brown, who have been club members since the work first started
in the fall of 1!>12, have sent into state headquarters reports
of each year's work. They have kept a strict account of the
yield and of the expense of planting, cultivating, and market-
ing. and in five years' time they have recorded a total profit of
$SS! ).:!?. This does well indeed when the first year they cleared
only $4."), and they suffered from the terrible floods of July, 1916,
that laid waste so many fields and gardens of the South.

Profits Made by Five Girls in 1916. — Here are five girls
whose 1!)16 marketing records are good:

Profit
Mi» Klsie Yarborough, \Yake County $155.86

Miss Hettie Van Tapscott, Alamance County 137. -0

Miss Ella Maie Kelly, Richmond County 110.58

Miss Kmina Reid. Mecklenburg County 109.71

.Miss Hessie Steele, Richmond County 101.45

One Family Record. — The family record of Mr. and Mrs.
Watts and their two daughters, Mary and Clyde, of Wake
County, is interesting. They canned in the summer of 1916 :

2000 cans tomatoes $200.00

3000 cans sweet potatoes 300.00

500 cans string beans 7.1.00

200 cans corn • 30.00

300 cans butterbeans (10.00

300 glasses apple jelly 45.00

S quarts fig pickle 3.20

12 qunrts tig preserves 9.00

8 quarts scuppernong preserves (i.OO

8 quarts tomato pickle 4.00

200 glasses blackberry jam 40.00

0530 total containers. Estimated value, $772.80

Estimated cost, 193.20

20 Profit, $579.00

-I c VKSSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

A Summary Showing Increase of Work Done by Years
Since 1912. — This is a summary of Canning Club work in North
Carolina for a period of five years, 1912-1916 :

Year

Number
counties
organized

Number
girls
reporting

Number
cans and
jars

Value of
products

Total
cost

Total
profits

1912

229

33,019

$3,301

$825

$2,476

lit i:{

235

70,000

7,000

1.750

5,250

1914
I'M")

32
37

814
2,386

259,019
633,447

35,361
104,241

9,425

28,985

25,935
75,256

1916

3,453

680,551

117,816

29,432

88,383

Totals

1,676,036

$267,719

$70,417

$197,300

1912.
1913.
1914.
1915.

SHOWING GROWTH OF PROFITS FOB FIVE YEARS

STANDARDS

That a can may be accepted by the trade and that a home
canner may stand on an equal footing with the commercial
eanner, standards of excellence must be the same. First, it
would be well to select a standard variety of fruit or vegetable
to can. White peaches in one can and yellow in another, under
thr same brand, will not be tolerated by the trade unless marked
while peach or yellow peach. This will apply to the shrivel pea
and the marrowfat — each good of its kind, but each needing a
definite distinguishing name, even if they both appear under the
same brand.

The brand may be considered the family name which the
packer adopts for his products, and each variety he puts out will
have a given name which will distinguish it from the rest of the
family. If a canner decides to put string beans upon the market
he should select a variety which has practically no strings and
which is round and meaty and green in color. These qualities
arc demanded by the trade and can be had in the "Green Pod

THK I'.rsiNKSS SIDK OF CANNING ;',n;

Stringlesa Heaii." This bean, even when LJTOWII to medium sixc,
is still juicy, tender, and stringless, and has proved a iniu-li better
rainier than the old Valentine.

Grading. — /leans are graded as to size, the first grading being
given to the very small bean. This grade is called in commercial
parlance "Rat-tail." The next grade is medium, and the third
the broken bean. Kaeh of these is excellent in its way, as even the
broken bean is gathered while it is tender and before well-formed
beans are to be found in the pod.

Tomatoes should be red-ripe, and to grade as extra standard
tin- can should be packed full of either whole tomatoes or very
large pieces. Sometimes the whole fruit is too large to put in the
can opening and must be cut. One green or light-colored tomato
will ruin your grade.

Peaches should he graded according to the number of halves
that can be packed in a can, and the contents of a can should be
absolutely uniform in size and color. Rome of the California
peaches are so large that only eight halves can be packed in a No.
3 can. These, of course, would have an extra fine grading. We
cannot hope in the East to equal the size of the California fruit,
but our flavor seems to catch the trade, and many of the Eastern
peaches grade extremely well on that account.

Berries will be graded as to size, only ripe fruit being used.

:*<>np mixture, chow-chow, and ketchup must each be of a uni-
form consistency, as must jams and preserves.

The cans, jars, and bottles should be selected carefully and
the number of ounces that they contain carefully noted on the
label. Directions as to weights of cans and quantity of contents
will be found elsewhere in this book.

The Label. — The label for a can should be carefully chosen
and must not be changed except under unusual circumstances.
This label becomes the sign-patent of what is in the can, and any
reputation which the contents of the can may make is recorded
under its particular label in the purchaser's mind. To change
often would b " disastrous, as the public has begun to look for what
it desires under a particular cover, and is a little suspicious that
it is not getting quite as good if a change is made (Fig. 140).

Sl't CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

FIG. 140. — Properly labelled jars.

FIG. 141. — Standard packs in tin.

THK I'.I^INF.SS SIDE OF CANNING 300

I was much amused at an old grocer who had been buying
from tin- ('aniline < 'lubs when all of the labels bore pictures of the
I mit or veiietjible in the can. The new labels were very neat and
attractive, but were without pictures, simply the name of the
vegetable being printed on them. "I can't buy these." lie said.
"1 would have to take out my spectacles and read the name on
those cans every time I wanted peaches or tomatoes for a cus-
tomer for tlie whole lot of them."

Consult your grocers and see which style they prefer. Make
your selection and stick to it. Every label should bear the name
and address of the canner, and should have printed thereon the
weight of contents of can (Fig. 141).

When striving for an extra trade a well-advertised cleanliness
of methods does much to bring a high-class patronage. To pub-
lish that all canning is done under a wire-screened shed or in a
fly-proof room, that the workers wear immaculate uniforms and
close-fitting caps, and that conditions around the canner are sani-
tary in every respect is a great incentive to the hospital or hotel
buyer.

MARKETING POLICY

During the fall and winter of 1916, for example, prices of
canned products ran riot, and all preconceived ideas of what was
a good marketing policy were scattered to the winds. A county
agent who had heretofore found it wise and expedient to visit the
town merchant in the spring and secure his order at a certain
price for future delivery discovered that she had brought trouble
upon herself unless she had designated some special girls to fill
those orders at the time the contract wras made.

Prices commenced to climb even in August, and by October
tomatoes were selling at $1.10-$1.25 a dozen to the retailer,
"When the agent thought it time to fill the contracts taken at $1
she found many of her girls had sold at $1.25 and many
more were holding for the advanced price that was certain to
come. She had not put the matter before the girls in the spring to
find if they would take the contract, believing that any of them
would be glad of the chance to sell tomatoes in quantity at one
dollar, as had been the case in previous years. It was therefore

< ESS] I I. < AXXIXG AND TIMESERVING

a distiiicT shock to find so many already sold out or arranging for
higher jiriccs. It was at the last the club spirit that saved her,
for the girls rliihln d together and agreed each one to furnish a
part of the on Ices taken, that the loss might not fall heavily on
any one of them and that the business honor of the clubs might
be saved.

I'.nsiiiess plans which have been evolved from that experience
seem to be sound. The county supervisor will always more or less
act as a go-bet ween from club girl to merchant, because the mer-
chant finds it very convenient to telephone her an order or to see
her about the coming output when she is in town: hut after the
a-cnt finds what the grocer needs she is wisely selecting certain
girls to go to him, make their own bargains, and sign any con-
traets which may be eventually agreed upon. This puts the re-
sponsibility on the proper person — the producer — and leaves the
county agent free to advise, to keep her eyes open for possible
chances, to see that standards are maintained, and to look to the
carrying out of the state's marketing policy: namely, not selling
to the merchant and also to the consumer in any town. By this
policy we avoid selling to the grocer and also to his customers,
and so keep the good-will of both (.Fig. 142).

It was a little difficult to instill this into the girl at first. She
could not see why it was not proper to sell all the products pos-
sihle to the housewives at certain advanced prices, and what she
could not sell in this way later to sell to the merchant at a less
pi-ice.

(iond business principles, however, are part of her training,
and she sees the wisdom of the position when she and her fellow-
club members are producing in such quantities that it is upon the
grocer that they must rely to take the whole output. He pays
promptly a satisfactory price — even if less than the consumer—
and the difference is almost made up when the delivery of all
products can be made at one time instead of in small lots.

Prices. — Prices are governed by supply and demand. In
101") from 85 cents to $1 per dozen was a good price to receive
for Xo. :! tomatoes. In 1016-1017 tomatoes in Xo. 3 cans sold
as high as &1.SO to *2 per do/en to the retailer. Nineteen hundred

THE Hi SINESS SIDK < >F CANNING 311

;iiid lit'tct-ii \vas a good garden year, and a large number of cans
were put upon the market. Nineteen hundred and sixteen was
one of the worst trucking years the country had ever known. Not
only did the long drought of April and .May damage the early
plants until we could expert only half a crop, but in the South
the .July floods almost wiped out what remained. The supply
of canned products was therefore very short all over the coun-
try, and the reserve supply of the jobbers and grocers had been
called upon to such an extent that even a bumper crop in 1917
would scarcely meet the demand of ordinary circumstances. As
it was, war conditions made an extra supply necessary and put
upon the home the responsibility of tilling every available glass
jar for home use and every tin can for market.

"While empty till cans were high, the price of full cans was
correspondingly high, and there appeared to be no chance of a
canner losing out in the market if his pack were of standard
grade.

In North Carolina the club girls have found it at times not
unprofitable to sell to the jobber. Indeed, there are circumstances
under which this is advisable. If a supervisor finds herself with
a large output in a county, the market not very brisk, and the
young caiiners quite impatient to sell, as is sometimes the case
in a new county, a jobber who will agree to take the whole output
or as much of it as the girls will agree to let go may prove himself
a friend in need. The price is not much below the retail man's,
and the short length of time it takes for the girls to reimburse
themselves gives them courage and determination to keep on at
the work another year. In some cases drop orders for these job-
bers may be accepted ; that is, a jobber will buy several thousand
cans from a county, asking that one thousand be sent to John
Doe, of Wilmington, and so many more to a firm in Charlotte,
and so on. This saves the jobber the extra expense of receiving
the whole shipment himself and reshipping to his customers.

Principal Money Crops. — The club girls' principal money
crops are tomatoes, string beans, and soup mixture, though the
demand for sweet potatoes, corn, kraut, peas, berries, peaches,
preserves, jams, and pickles is constantly growing.

Sl< CESSF1 L IANMNG AND

Five years ago the girl found it difficult to get her products
upon the market without much hard work. To-day, because of
her fidelity to standards and her willingness to make good any
losses to the merchant, he is seeking her out and in many counties
is taking every 4-11 Brand can that is put upon the market. In
1916 the canniiij: clubs of the South could have sold many times
their output, and they are now looking forward to a more than
doubled output, feeling that they have an assured market for all
they can produce, and a great duty to perform in producing
everything that their energy and determination can wrest from

the ground.

Shipping. — The best marketing policy is to build up a trade in
your own community. Certainly, unless your canning output
is large enough to number in carload lots, it would not be
profitable to ship to any great distance. Freight rates in small
lots are high and rather unsatisfactory as to length of time in
delivery. In North Carolina we frequently ship from one county
to another when a territory has produced a large number of cans
and feels that its market might not be sufficiently well estab-
lished to dispose of them readily. But we are careful to ship to
the nearest county having a market for more than it produced,
and we make certain that the shipment goes over one line only.

For the most part, cans should be shipped in cases containing
two dozen. Look at the regulation tomato box in any grocery
stoiv and observe the size. These boxes should be marked ou
both ends by a label. Just the same label which you paste on
your can will answer and should be placed in the middle of the
end spaces. This will enable the grocer to determine easily the
contents of the case.

Last year I found some grocers and many institutions willing
to have their products in tin shipped to them in barrels. The
freight rate is cheaper on barrels, and if excelsior is used in the
packing to prevent scratching of labels, six dozen No. 3 cans can
he sent very well in this receptacle.

Shipment of products in glass can be made in barrels well
packed with excelsior and arrive with practically no breakage.
1'astehoard cartons are good for small packages of glass. Glass is

Till. BUSINESS SIDK OF CANNING

313

best sent by express, though short-distance f reight is quite safe for
glass iii barrels. The parcels post may be used to advantage for
small packages, but they must be put in either a heavy pasteboard
carton or a light wooden one and be well packed.

The Invoice. — When an order is shipped, an invoice or list
of what is included in the shipment should be sent to the pur-
chaser and a copy filed for the shipper's information. Never

I-'ic. 142. — Xorth Carolina county agents attending canning school arid conference, 191o.

neglect this, as much confusion results otherwise. A copy of the
bill of lading should also be sent, but an express receipt should
be kept by the shipper.

The Payment. — Some merchants ask that shipment be made
sight draft with bill of lading attached. This means that the pur-
diasrr pays before taking the shipment from the station. Any
banker will explain this shipment. Other merchants prefer the
bill sent and a certain length of time in which to pay it. Any

SC< ( KSSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

— -r

~ i-

.j=

) en

•B

"o5

1
-

•B

o
o

i— i
O

a
2

THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 315

grocer whose rating is good should be able to arrange satisfactory
means of payment with the shipper. In five years of doing
business with the merchant the North Carolina Canning Clubs
have never to my knowledge lost a penny through nonpayment of
bills.

In trading with the housewife cash payments are preferable,
as too much time is consumed in a second visit to collect for small
orders.

Records and Accounts. — Every canner should keep an ac-
count of just what she spends in her yearly venture. A com-
plicated system of bookkeeping is not necessary ; but to deter-
mine just what is cleared during the season and to be able to
know whether the business pays, a strict record of what is paid
out in money and time must be kept. The following things should
be listed : cost of ploughing, fertilizer, seed, plants, time con-
sumed in planting, cultivating, harvesting and canning, and the
cost of sugar, cans, jars, labels, crates, etc. The cost of mar-
keting must also be included.

A record should also be kept of what is sold, the prices re-
ceived, and when delivered.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe briefly your idea of business integrity.

2. What| plan of marketing do you believe would be the most feasible in

your community? Why?

3. A fundamental demand of a commercial product is uniformity: give a

brief explanation of each way in which packs should be uniform.

4. In what ways may the label influence ease of marketing?
.">. Explain how prices are governed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. McKiMMON, JANE S., "Marketing the Canning Club Product*," article
in Country Gentleman, issue June 3, 1910. Published by the Curtis
Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

i2. Tinted States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service,
"Canning Club Record Book," B-511, i. Published by the Office of
Extension Work in the South, States Relations Service, Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

CHAPTER XX

TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES

THE material contained in this volume may be used as a text-
book in the hands of students in a course of canning and pre-
serving given for high school, normal school, and college students.
Here and there such courses are being given, and in many other
institutions the subjects of canning and preserving are given at-
i cut ion. This book will also prove useful as a reference volume in
connection with extension and other special courses, and in sum-
mer school courses for study as to utilizing fruits and vegetables
cultivated on the city vacant lots, high school training farms, and
school gardens.

Many schools and colleges are adding this line of practical
work, in raising and canning fruits and vegetables, to their Home
Economics courses. It had been found that the best results can
be obtained where the productive side of the question is considered
first, and where raising the products precedes their utilization in
canning.

The subject of preservation of foods has been only barely
touched upon in most of the Home Economics courses. Little
time or study in schools has been given this very important phase
of food conservation until very recently. Now the colleges of
agriculture and colleges for women in nearly all of the states have
included in their regular courses work in canning, or they give
during the year a short course, which includes such instruction.
Some of these courses are planned for Farmers' Week, Farmers'
Institutes, and other special short courses. Sometimes courses
are given iu the state institutions for women and girls who have
won the highest and best records in their state in home demonstra-
tion work and canning clubs. While the principles presented
should cover representative phases of the subject, the practical
316

IK V.CHING t A.NNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES ;; ] -

work done will naturally be determined by seasons. Brief or a
more exhaustive study should be given, according to the age and
maturity of the students. It is understood that more of the bac-
teriology of canning will be given to advanced students. In
planning courses the teacher should plan her work with refer-
ence to

1. Aim.

2. Subject-matter.

3. Methods.

4. Equipment.
;">. Library.

A SUMMER SHORT COURSE

For a two-week summer short course the plan outlined below
is suggested for the first year's work in canning. Necessary in-
formation to carry on such a course may be gotten from the text.

Lesson I. Lecture — Principles of canning.

Lesson II. Canning tomatoes or berries in glass.

Lesson III. Arranging necessary equipment for canning in tin. Canning
tomatoes in tin.

Lesson IV. L'tili/ing tomato by-products: (a) Tomato puree; (6) to-
mato paste; (c) green tomato pickle; (d) tomato ketchup.

Lesson V. Plain fruit canning in tin— either peaches, figs, or pears —
giving recipe for putting up a by-product for each fruit
used.

Lesson VI. Fancy packing of fruits in glass for exhibit purposes.

Lesson VI T. Canning beans and peas in tin.

Lesson VII I. Fancy packing of beans and carrots in glass for exhibit pur-
poses.

Lesson IX. Canning corn in tin; canning baby beets in glass.

Lesson X. Canning sweet Spanish pimientos whole, in glass and in tin.

Lesson XI. Canning soup mixture in glass; packing of vegetable mace-
doine in glass.

I. ''-son XII. Arranging an attractive exhibit of products canned. Instruc-
tions on judging and scoring. Examination.

The second year's course should include preserving, jelly mak-
ing, and crystal] i/ing of fruits, as given in the following outline.
A longer course in ;i single season for more mature students might

include both.

O Lb

- v CESSFL 1. CANNING AND TRKSKR

1. Lecture- — General principles of preserving.

11. IV \\atenne'.en rind or citron melon, also bottlir

Lesson 111. Finishing \\atennelon rind preserve. Starting berry shrub.
Lesson IV. IV- served i - ;s . pears, with recipes for by-products.
peach v j marmalade, gingered pear, and jams.

L0>.> \ Making the by-products of the fruit ehoseu for preserving.

Lesson VI. Making marmalades and conserves. Grape-fruit, kumquat.

_-e marmalade: tig. plum, or rhubarb conserve.
Lesson Vll. Fruit pas:.- ' -.Hers: apple, apricot, tig. or peach. Drying

fruits a:".d • 'es.

Lesson Vlll. Jelly making. IVgin crystallising fruits.
Lesson IX. Pickling. .; \ egctables.

Lesson \. > 'i- ing of meats. Lectun
Lesson XL Making s\\ect pickles.
Lesson XI 1. Making relish, chutney. ir.ani:oc>

Lesson XI 11. Finish crystalli/ing fruits and packing fruit pastes.
Lesson XIV. Arrange an attractive exhibit of products preserved. ' \-

struetions on judging and scoring.
Lesson \\. ^nmmary of \vork done.

It is impossible to suggest a course of study which might i>e
adopted without changes, since the value of such a course depends
greatly upon the choice of suitable products, and those which th
people being taught most desire to know about. The locality and
the season of the year will cause the selection of material to • «>rj
considerably in different sections. However, considerable iMii
formity can exist in the instructions planned for an organi/.; lion
in a section or an entire state, depending" upon a range of latitude
and variation in climate.

COUNT'S SHORT COURSES

A Mate-wide plan for all county short courses for canning elub
girls has helped work out a line scheme of standardizing the
special club products made during the four years' program of
work throughou, the state. The following is part of the plans
which have been outlined for use in short courses:

First-year Canning Club Members. — First hour each day
devoted to lecture on one of the general topics: Sanitation. Per-
sonal Hygiene. Principles Underlying the "Work.

II.A< m\<; CANNIM; \\\> KKI.AII.D .\< IIVITIES :;!:,

Two- to three hour period daily for practical work in canning

malo products: salad tomatoes in thick sauce packed in glass,

plain canned tomatoes in tin, tomato puree, tomato paste in tin

and glass, green tomato pickle in glass, tomato ketchup in bottles,

,iml sf.up mixture in glass.

A part, of llie time during these short courses is devoted to
other phases of the club work which arc emphasized at different
seasons of the year, such as gardening, poultry work, winter gar-
den! g, sewing, bread making, and cooking and serving of club
• .duets.

Second-year Canning Club Members. — Tin- second-year
numbers spend the first hour in assembly hearing the general
1 . 1 ;re. The practice period i.s devoted to work in canning and
p ""serving the special products which they are growing on llieir
one-tenth acre plots; soup mixture in tin, fancy packing of
beans, peaches, or figs in glass, vegetable maeedoine (band pack-
ing) in glass, baby beets, okra, Dixie relish.

Third-year Canning Club Members. — bixie relish, canned
THinicntos, chutney, jelly, and preserves.

^ourth-year Members. — (Canning Club, Home Demonstra-
tion1 Club, and Ladies from Town.)

Jellies, preserves, marmalades, jams, and conserves. Pickling
(brining of vegetables).

The short course outlined above is based upon the general
plan of work which has been adopted in all the Southern States.
It includes a program of work for four consecutive years. A
description of this four-year program is given on page 302. In
other sections, Xorth and West, there are similar organizations of
girls and women with programs which give gardening and can-
ning work a large place. Such work provides for girls and young
women of the farms a useful vocation, stimulating them to broader
activities and more useful lives. From the standpoint of the indi-

SU< i I»FUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

vidual, such work gives fine opportunity for development of self-
reliance, initiative, and skill in special lines. This skill has a
direet eeonomic value, because the girls possessing it are enabled
to earn money. I>y the cooperative community effort called forth
by tin-*.- lines of work, rural life is made more attractive for men,
women, and young people alike.

AN OUTLINED PKOOKAM OF WORK FOR GIRLS' DEMONSTRATION CLUBS IN

OKLAHOMA

I . Canning Clubs

First year f One-tenth acre tomatoes or home

\ garden.

A. One-tenth acre
gardens:

H. Winter gardens

Second year ....( One-tenth acre tomatoes and one other
\ vegetable.

f One- tenth acre tomatoes, two other

Third year I vegetables or one-twentieth acre

j vegetables, one-twentieth acre per-
( ennials.

I One-twentieth acre new perennials,
one-twentieth acre perennials from
third year or home garden.

1. Fall gardens.

2. Catch crops.

3. Cover crops.

Fresh.

(a) Standardization of all garden and orchard products < p ' ,

(b) Economic preservation of all waste products on farm.

(d) See outlined plan of Home Demonstration Work, page 321.

II. Poultry Clubs

{ 1. General utility purposes.

(a) Select ion of breeds for I 2. Egg production.

[3. Market.

(b) Marketing of poultryand poultry products.

Breeding.

Treatment of diseases.
Grading.

(d) Use of reports.

(«•) Exhibit (Eggs.

\ Pure-bred birds from setting of eggs.

(/) See outlined plan of Home Demonstration Work, page 321.

TEAl SING i A NX ING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 321

AN OUTLINE PLAN OF HOME DEMONSTRATION WORK FOR WOMEN IN

OKLAHOMA

f Fireless cooker and oil stoves.

1. Labor- and time-saving devices. . J Fly-traps and sanitary appliances.

j Ironing boards, wheel trays, tables
with rollers, running water, etc.

2. Economic production of wholesome food from all garden and poultry club

products.

11. Sterile utensils.

2. Care and use of milk.

3. Butter making.

4. Marketing of dairy products.

4. Sewing:

(Cap.
(a) Making of club uniform. . . < Apron.

I Towel and holder.
(6) Selection of material for clothing,
(c) Making of simple cotton dress.

( Begin with batters and end with yeast

5. Bread making . J bread.

] Economic use of stale bread.
[ Care of bread.

COURSE OF STUDY IX FARMERS' BULLETINS FROM U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRI-
CULTURE FOR WOMEN COUNTY AGENTS IN OKLAHOMA

Fur February, March, and April
Farmers' Bulletin No. 183 Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and

Keeping.

Poultry ( State lesson sheets ) .

Gardening (State lesson sheets).
(>42 Tomato Growing in the South.
C79 House Flies.

For May, June, and July

034 (Year Book) Clean Water and Ilo\v to Get it on the Farm.
G07 Farm Kitchen as a Workshop.
541 Farm Butter Making.
375 Care of Food in the Home.
444 Remedies and Preventives against Mosquitoes.

i'nr August, September, and October
51 Standard Varieties of Chickens.

<i44 Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice.
478 How to Prevent Typhoid Fever.
270 Modern Conveniences for Farm Home.
»il(i Selri-tjoii of Household Equipment.

132 Correlating Agriculture with Public School Subjects in the Southern
States. Stmly one Text-book on Foods.

SI « CESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING
HARDENING AND CANNING IN CITIES

Such organ i/ations as Boards of Education and Civic Asso-
ciations have .-..iMliurted gardening and canning in a number of
cities. In the canning instructions conected with the vacant lot
gardriis. training farm plots, and school gardens in cities the
fruit and vegetables should be canned as they mature. Sometimes
a nearby school building which is usually closed during the sum-
mer months has available a well-equipped domestic science labora-
tory which could be used to great advantage in this summer work.
If such a place is not available, a shady spot near the garden

FIG. 1-13. — A cultivated city vacant lot in Philadelphia.

may be selected and here outdoor equipment set up for the can-
ning work. Only a limited number of utensils are necessary.

Vacant Lot Gardening. — The vacant lot gardening in Phila-
delphia is typical of what some of the cities are doing and of what
all should do (Fig. 145). Many property owners in this city lend

i- land witli The understanding that in case they wish to sell,
build, or use the land the gardeners will release it on a six weeks'
not ice. The work is conducted under the auspices of the Philadel-
phia Vacant Lot Cultivation Association. Several hundred fam-
ilies are made happier and brought to better health every year
of this opportunity to get close to Mother Nature. Such

TEACHING CANXlNti AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 323

SI CCKSSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

a. privilege enables many people to provide wholesome food and
recreation for their families during the summer months. Often
a goodly supply of potatoes and other vegetables is grown and
stored for winter use. At the same time the city is beautified by
growing gardens on the vacant lots (Fig. 143).

What is not used in the homes or sold fresh might easily be
canned, or dried, stored, and sold later or used during the winter
months.

FIG. 145. — A cooperative neighborhood garden in Philadelphia", Pa.

School gardens (Fig. 144) should be large enough to produce
u supply of vegetables for the home table, with a small surplus
i o sell or to can. In some country schools gardens have been culti-
vated by the children and the vegetables canned for use during
tlie winter in hot school lunches.

The training farm work in Cleveland, 1910 to 1913, may be
eited to show what city school gardens will accomplish. There
the e| i i I, | fen studied the canning and preserving of all vegetables
irrown in their gardens, these canning lessons being given in the
Domestic Science Department of the Schools.

°'"' nl> <li(1 features of the work has been the exhibit of the

TEACHING r \\VI\<,

IlKLATKD ACTIVITIKS

325

garden products and canned goods (Figs. 147 and 148). All of
the prodiK-ls exhibited were grown and put up by the children in
the Willard School Farm (Fig. 14(J).

After the planting season, before the vegetables mature, there
is opportunity to bring together the necessary equipment in a

FIG. 146. — A tomato plot in Geaupa County, Ohio.

suitable place. The building of homemade canners and fly-traps
may be taught as a part of the preparation for outdoor canning.
The fundamental principles of canning should first be taught
through the use of the material most easily canned. Some of the
early berries and fruits are easier to can than the vegetables,
and lend opportunity for practice before the products which are
more difficult to can come into bearing.

CANNING IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS

Normal schools have already recognized the value of srivintr

SFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

-3
~.

TI:AI mx<; CAXXIXG AND TVPILATKD ACTIVIT;

328

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

TEACHING CAXXTXO AND KKLATKD ACTIVITIES ;;-.".)

Fia. 150. — Senior class at Hnrrisonburc Normal School, Virginia, cultivating
and spraying their plants.

FIG. 151. — Staking and tying plants.

SI CCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

their st inlrins pi-ad ical work of this nature so that later, as teach-
ers, they may be prepared to direct these activities among chil-
dren siieressi'iilly. In many institutions students have organized
themselves into canning clubs which they have conducted for the
purpose <>i' learning how to carry on these organizations among
children.

The following series of illustrations will given an idea of what
was done at one of the state normal schools in Virginia (Figs.
150, 151, 15:2, 153, and 154). A one-half acre scholarship plot

FIG. 152. — Prize winning short course girls pruning tomato plants.

was given' to the senior class. They were to plant, spray, culti-
vate, stake, and prune the tomato plants. The canning club girls
\vlio won the state short course scholarships from various counties
came to this school in the summer. The plot furnished oppor-
tunity for practical instruction in the garden. When the stu-
dents returned to school in the fall the garden was in bearing.

HM- district agent in home demonstration work, who had her

headquarters in this school, gave many demonstrations to the

senior students in the utilization of this vegetable in various

'lain canned tomatoes, whole salad tomatoes m thick

TK.\( HIM; CANNING; AND RELATED ACTIVITIES

331

sauce, tomato puree, tomato paste, tomato ketchup, and green to-
mato pickles were the principal products made. The students be-

Fio. 153. — Senior class receiving instructions in canning.

FIG. 154. — Students' display of canning products from the Scholarship Plot.

came skilled in canning and gave demonstrations for the benefit
of other members of the school. Some of these products were

SU( L CANNING AND PRESERVING

FIG. 155.— Tomato plot cultivated by senior class at Hattiesburg Normal School, Mississippi.

P 1 :m of

for canning at State Industrial College, Denton, Texas.

TKAUIIM: < ANMM; AND I;I;I.ATI:D ACTIVITIES .;.;:;

used in the school dining: hall and some were sold. The proceeds
are to be turned each \ rar into a permanent scholarship fund for
canning club girls of the state.

The training given in the state normal school has enabled
teachers to give tine assistance to the county agent in organizing
canning clubs (Fig. 155). Colleges are also giving courses in
canning; a notable example is the State Industrial College at
Denton, Texas, which has provided a canning laboratory build-
ing (Fig. 156).

M < i.KSTED LIST OF SUPPLIES FOR

, lir.:

1 Fan-shaped -ink brush
' . 1 >ozen brushes for test-tubes

. etc. :
1 Xo. 3 food chopper

1 Sterling slicer

. etc.:

2 Silver-plated dessert knives

1 Rubber-tipped sink shovel
y. Dozen spoons, tea, heavy

j dated

2 Spatulas, steel, nickel-

plated, 6-inch blade

. Crockery, etc. :

1 Dozen plates, dinner, 9-
inch, plain

Enamel Boilers. 1'finx. Cups. Tra>/n, etc.:
1 Tray, white enamel, oval
3 Bowls, white enamel, four-
quart
3 Pans, enamelled, sauce. Xo.

24
3 Pans. enamelled. stew,

\e-c-o six-quart
C> Pans, enamelled, milk,

round, six-quart
1 Pan, dish, tin, large size

A SMALL LABORATORY'

i/2 Dozen brushes for small cyl-
inders
y2 Dozen brushes, bristle

1 Hand bottle capping machine
1 Hand fruit press

1 Sure-cut can opener
1/2 Dozen spoons, table, heavy

plated ( set of 0 )
% Dozen forks, table, heavy

plated (set of G)
1/2 Dozen knives, paring,

three-inch blade

1 Dozen dishes, side, plain

white

ya Dozen crocks, glazed stone,
1-gallon, with covers

1 Tureen. oval. enamelled.

thirteen -quart (used lor

hot- water bath processor i
1/2 Dozen cups, enamelled
1 Cup, tin, one-quart
1/2 Dozen pans, enamelled.

milk, oval
1/2 Dozen bowls, enamelled.

one-quart
1/2 Dozen bowls, enamelled.

two-quart

1. (AN XING AND PRESERVING

i limit Is. Jar l-'ill' »•. ct( .:

1 I'ati'iit funnel, pint size, cop-
JM r. nickel lined

Glasx Containers <»nl Measures:

1 Gross No. 12 champagne

shaped catsup bottles.

roll top and crimp cap

3 Glass measuring cups, yg

pint, graduated
100 Processing clamps

1/2 Dozen graduates, glass,

cone shape, eight-ounce

1/2 Dozen cups, feeding, glass

2 Dozen glasses, jelly

1 I >ozen jars, preserve.

Mason's standard one-
pint

1 Dozen jars, Mason's

Atlas one-quart, wide
mouth

Miscellam </».s :

2y2 Yards oilcloth, white
6 Yards denim, upholster-
er's dark blue
10 Yards cheesecloth,

bleached, 36 inches wide

i'!,- Apparatus, Scales, ami X

1 Scales, double beam, porce-
lain plate, 10-inch square,
with brass scoop

- Confectioner's thermom-
eters, range 80 degrees
to 350 degrees F.

.'! Chemical thermometers,

scale range 110 degrees C.

3 Chemical thermometers,

scale range 230 degrees F.
14 Dozen salt per cent scale. 0
per cent to 100 per cent

1 Sugar hydrometer. Balling
scale 0 degree to 70 de-
grees, y3 degree gradation

1 Aluminum jar filler

1 Dozen jars, Mason's

Atlas one-pint, wide

mouth
4 Dozen No. 5004 10-ounce

vase-shape jar, with

hermetic cap
4 Dozen No. 5042 12-ounce

glass top, screw rim

2 Dozen No. 209 10-ounce

tumbler-shape jar, with
hermetic cap
6 Dozen No. 184 4-ounce

jar, with hermetic cap
1 Gross thick red or gray
rubber jar rings

5 Yards ilannel, white
1 Dozen yards towelling. 17-
inch linen

1 Dozen rolls paper hand
towelling

Sugar hydrometers, Brix
scale range, 0 degrees to
30 degrees, graduated \'.A
degree

Sugar hydrometers, Brix
scale, range 30 degrees to
60 degrees, graduated i/3
degree

2 250 c.c. cylinders, for float-
ing spindles

1 Small steam pressure proc-
essor

Small '' water-seal '' can-

ner

1 Wash boiler to be used for
a '* hot-water " canner

TE.U H1N<; CANN1NC AND KKLATK1) ACTIVITIES

335

, .Vfnii'/irrs. Ladli'S, etc.:

1 Sanitary .-ink basket
1 No. bid [i u roe sieve

1 Oblong wire draining tray for

processing boiler

2 Aluminum ladle, oval bowl for

pouring, hook on middle of
handle

Woodi-n Ware, etc.:

2 Flat wooden spoons

1 Small potato masher for

crushing fruits
1 .Far, slop, papier-mache

2 Perforated aluminum skim

mers

1 Large aluminum strainer
1 Wire frying basket with bail

for blanching vegetables
1 Puree seive
I Colander

/2 Dozen cane packing paddles
y. Dozen cane syrup paddles

Wooden paddles for testing
jelly

Jellv racks

The above list is intended for experimental work: for in-
dividual class work the list would need to be supplemented. Can-

Fio. 157. — A North Carolina exhibit of fir:

ir products.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

ning instruction can be given in an ordinary cooking laboratory.
One does not need a special room, although, as the work u
velops, a room set aside as " A Canning Laboratory" will tenu
to dignify Ilic work and simplify the task of the instructor,
lecture room with a raised platform wJiere demonstrations u
lantern slide lectures could be given for the benefit of all s^
would be most useful. A list of catalogues and sample ,— ^i
commercial firms should be secured and students should ''
iarize themselves with the sources of supplies (see Appen.
p. 346).

PIG. 158. — A parish exhibit in Louisiana.

TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED AITIV1TIKS

Exhibits -Numerous benefits may be derived from exhibiting
p finished products of canning and preserving work in I

< clllbs V "harvest home" in the school, a commumt
-ntv or state fair attracts attention to what has been ,
Vd and interests a greater number of people.

•ortant results of the exhibit is its use as a means of
tandards of quality. It impresses forcibly
1 for uniform products. Uniform containers
tfi improve the appearance of the whole exhil
58).

ifiitii

Flo 159._A miniature exhibit suggested as a plan for a fair

.ure 159 shows a miniature exhibit suggested as a plan for
a state fair booth. Each small pyramid, which is covered with

awards

338

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Fro. 100. — A carefully planned exhibit.

counties are assembled together, and the color scheme of the whole
display is very effective. The center frame is supposed to repre-
sent a glass jar in shape. It is painted white, with a gilt band
paint i'<I around the top to represent a lacquered jar cap. The
white \voodcn frame is lined inside with white cheesecloth, and
if a slnmg light is placed behind this cloth in the center it will
shine through the clear liquid in the jars and make the products

TKACHIM; CANMM; AND UEI.ATKD ACTIVITIES

3;;1.'

show up brighter aiul to much better advantage. This is an espe-
cially fine arrangement to show off effectively clear jellies, pre-
serves, marmalades, and fruit juices. By placing products of one
kind only on each shelf all around the frame an effective combi-
nation of bands of color can be obtained.

When exhibits are carefully planned and arranged it affords
great pleasure to all who see them, and renders much easier the
work of those who do the judging and place the blue ribbons
(Fig. 160).

Judging the exhibits, if well performed, serves as a means of
• •stablishing standards of quality that make for excellence. Tt

101. — Judging canned tomatoes and beans.

emphasizes the importance of careful work, and of uniform pack-
ing in standard containers and packages.

Score Cards. — Such a card lists all the essential characteris-
tics of a certain kind of product and assigns percentage numbers
on a scale of a hundred; the more important items are given
larger numbers, the less important items are given smaller num-
bers, and the sum of the numbers is made 100. A product is ex-
amined and compared by the judge with an ideal or perfect
product; the ideal product would be scored 100; the product
being judged will be discredited one or more points under the
various items, and the score allowed it will be the sum of the.se
discredits taken from the perfect score of 100 (Fig. 161).

The use of the score card has come to be common in judging
such materials, and such cards help greatly to emphasize the
essential points.

340

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

GENERAL SCORE CARD FOR CANNED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Appearance Color 15

Clearness ... 10 25

Texture 10

Flavor 20

I'niforniiiv. .Ripeness . 10

Appropriate size 5 15

I'ack (arrangement in glass or weight in tin). 15

Container Label 5

Neatness 5

Appropriate package ... 5 15

Total 100

FIG. 162. — This cow has proved to bo a wonderful prize for this Tennessee girl.

Every one who sees such an exhibit and hears the public
judging will go away with an intelligent appreciation of the"
exhibit and be stimulated with a greater desire for improvement
through better methods of work.

Somewhat different scores are used for judging jelly, pre-
serves, and relishes, and the following are only suggestive scores
which will aid the judges and exhibitors by calling attention to
the essential points that make for high standards :

TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 341

FIG. 163. — A gardening set consisting of a knowing pad and an apron for tools.

SUCH ESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Kcorr Card for Jelly:

Appearanee Color 10

( iearness 10

Crystals (lack of).. 5 25

I (lllMr-t'-lH-y 40

Flavor .. 20

( oiitainer Label 5

Neatness 5

Appropriate size ..5 15

Total . 100

The pronounced yet natural color of the fruit is most desir-
able. Natural fruit flavors and colors are much more artistic
than artificially colored and flavored fancy jellies. Clear, spar-
kling, transparent jelly with no signs of crystallization make the
product attractive in appearance. The texture is tender and cuts
easily. It breaks with distinct cleavage, and the angles retain
shape. The glasses should be uniform in shape and of appro-
priate size, practical for use in the average home. The clean
covers should fit tightly, and a small, neat label should be properly
placed.

- ore Curd for J'rcsi-rres:

Fruit Appearance (color and clearness) 10

Uniformity of pieces 10

1'ack ( arrangement) 10

Flavor 15

Texture 10

Container 5 60

Syrup. . .Clearness and color 10

Flavor 15

Consistency 10

Proportion of juice 5 40

Total 100

The preserved product should retain as nearly as possible
original shape, color, and flavor of the fresh fruit. Too often the
fruit flavor is destroyed by iise of too much sugar. Preserved
fruits should be plump and firm, yet tender and transparent.
The pieces should be of uniform size and arranged in the jar

TKA( HIM: t ANNING AND ItKLATKI) A< TIN ITIKS ;;|;1

with reference to symmetry and l>est use of the space within the
container. About one-fourth as much syrup as fruit is a fair pro-
portion of syrup to fruit in a jar.

»S'corc Curd for If dishes:

General appearance (color and clearness) l.~>

Choice and proportion of materials Id

Size and uniformity of pieces l.~>

Attractiveness of pack, garnish, etc 10

Flavor 25

Texture of material 20

Container 5

Total 100

The fresh, crisp texture is usually preferable in relishes.
Pieces should be small, but of uniform size ; attractive packing and
placing the garnish should be considered. Usually for relishes a
iiafrow strip of sweet red pepper, a small whole hot pepper, and a
snip of some spice are placed on each seam of the jar. The label
is [daced midway between these narrow strips and one-fourth inch
from the bottom of the jar.

Suggestions for Judging. — For judging vegetable and fruit
pickles the general score card may be used. Those who exhibit
should be familiar with the score cards and know what points
will be considered in judging and understand why products do
oi1 do not win the blue ribbons. "When the premium or highest
award is not obtained the persons competing for it should know
how they can improve.

Prizes. — The awarding of prizes should be most carefully
planned, since more harm than good may be done if awards are
not fairly made. Open competition offers stimulus to many, and
larger numbers strive to attain the mark of the goal. Money
prizes are not always advisable rewards to offer, unless in the
form of bank deposits. Such deposits often establish a basis for
the beginning of a savings account. Prizes to be given in city
and country are naturally of different types (Fig. 162).

SI ( i ESSFUL CANN1NC AND PRESERVING

Appropriate prizes will tend to create a greater interest in
country life. Many such prizes have been the starting point for
much improvement and development about the home, especially
when- the prize continues to gro\v and proves a good investment
for the time spent on it. Funds from prizes and especially, of
course, from the sale of garden and canned products, have made
possible further education for many Canning Club girls.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. CKESWELL. MARY E.. Georgia State College of Agriculture, "Girls' and

Boys' Club Work— A Manual for Rural Teachers," Bulletin 101,
February, 1910. Published by the State College of Agriculture,
. \thens, Ga.

2. CKISTIE, GEO. I., "Educational Contests in Agriculture and Home Eco-

nomics," Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 255, Office of Experiment Station,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington. D. C.

3. DOWDLE, Miss Lois, and WOOD, MRS. BESSIE STANLEY, Georgia State

College of Agriculture, "Girls' Club Work in Georgia," 1916. Pub-
lished by the State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga.

4. Lippincott's Farm Manuals. 1914. Published by the J. B. Lippincott

Company, Philadelphia. Pa.

5. M< KniMo.N. JANE S.. ••Marketing the Canning Club Products," article

in the Count ri/ <i, ntU-unin. issued June 3, 191G. Published by the
Curtis Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

(i. Noi:ni\. J. B. J., •'Exhibiting, clarifying, and Judging Homemade
Products." llayettsville. Md. 2.> cents.

7. RM.M . MADGE J., "Judging Household Exhibits," September, 1910.
Published by the Alabama Polytechnic Institute. Auburn, Ala.

s. I'nited States Department of Agriculture. States Relations Service.
Ollice of Extension Work in the South. B-511-i. "Canning Club
Record P.ook." Published by the Ollice of Extension Work in the
South. States Relation.- Service, Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C.

f). United States Department of Agriculture. A-82, " Canning Club and
Home Demonstration Work" (Organization Circular). Published
by the Office of Extension Work in the South. States Relations Service,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

THAI HIM; i \NM\<; AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 345

In. I'nited States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service,
bulletins published by Ihe Office of Investigations on Farmers' Insti-
tutes and Movable Schools. Published by the States Relations
Service. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. f.

11. Yearly Reports, Home Gardening Association, Sixth and St. Clair

Streets, Cleveland, Ohio.

12. Yearly Reports. Philadelphia Vacant Lot Cultivation Association, 2211

Land Title Building, Philadelphia, Pa.

APPENDIX

ADDRESS LIST OF STATE INSTITUTIONS FROM WHICH AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION WORK UNDER THE SMITH-LEVER ACT IS DIRECTED

For information concerning club work in any state write to the Director
of Extension at the State College of Agriculture.

STATK

ADDRESS

Alabama
Arizona .

Arkansas .
California

Colorado .

Connecticut
Delaware . .
Florida .

Georgia
Idaho . .
Illinois

Indiana
Iowa

Kansas . .
Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Man-land

"Massachusetts
Michigan ....

346

Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn.

College of Agriculture, University of Arizona.

Tucson.

Extension Director, Old State House. Little Rock.
College of Agriculture, University of California,

Berkeley.
State Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Col-

lins.

Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs.
Delaware College, Newark.
College of Agriculture, University of Florida.

Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens.
Extension Dim-tor, the State House. Boise.
College of Agriculture, University of Illinois,

Urbana.

Purdue University. Lafayette.
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic

Arts. Ames.

Kansas State Agricultural College. Manhattan.
College of Agriculture, The State University,

Lexington.
Louisiana State University and Agricultural and

Mechanical College, Baton Rouge.
CollegQ of Agriculture, University of Maine,

Orono.
Maryland State College of Agriculture. College

Park.

Massachusetts Agricultural College. Amherst.
Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing.

APPENDIX

- 1 vn:

ADDi

.Minnesota .

Mississippi
.Missouri

Montana

Xcliraska

Nevada

N~i'\v Hampshire.

New Jersey.
Xe\v Mexico.

New York

Xortli Carolina.

North Dakota.

Ohio

Oklahoma

i Mvgon

Pennsylvania . .
Rhode Island . .
South Carolina.

South Dakota. .
Tennessee

Texas

Utah . .

Vermont

Virginia . . .
Washington

College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota,

University Farm, St. Paul.
Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College,

Agricultural College.
College of Agriculture. University of Missouri,

Columbia.

Montana State College of Agriculture and Me-
chanic Arts, Bozeman.
College of Agriculture, University of Nehraska,

Lincoln.
College of Agriculture, University of Nevada,

Reno.
New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the

Mechanic Arts, Durham.
Rutgers College, New Brunswick.
New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic

Arts, State College.

New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca.
North Carolina College of Agriculture and Me-
chanic Arts, West Raleigh.
North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural

College.
College of Agriculture, Ohio State University,

Columbus.
Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College,

Stillwater.

Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis.
Pennsylvania State College. State College.
Rhode Island State College. Kingston.
Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina,

Clemson College.

South Dakota State College, Brookings.
College of Agriculture, University of Tennessee,

Knoxville.
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas,

College Station.

Agricultural College of Utah, Logan.
University of Vermont and State Agricultural

College. Burlington.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Blackshurg.
State College of Washington, Pullman.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

STATE

ADDRESS

West Virginia.

Wisconsin

Wyoming

College of Agriculture, West Virginia University,

Morgantown.
College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin,

Madison.
College of Agriculture, University of Wyoming,

Laramie.

ADDRESS LIST OF FIRMS FURNISHING SUPPLIES FOR CANNING

AND PRESERVING

Canning Outfits and Supplies

American Can Company. Atlanta, Georgia Home canners, cans, and

labels.

liachr, Mrs. Hermine... .Baltimore, Maryland .... Tray for boiler (3 in 1).

29 Garrison Lane.

E. F. Kirwan & Company.Baltimore, Maryland . . . Hot-water bath canner.

Eubanks, Geo. L Union City, Georgia. . . .Hot- water canners, cans.

Farming Canning Ma-
chine Company Meridian, Mississippi. . .Hot- water bath canner.

Favorite Manufacturing

Company Tampa, Florida j Water-seal canner.

Griffith & Turner Co. . . .Baltimore, Maryland . . .Steam canners.

205-207 N. Paca St.

Hamp Williams Hot Springs, Arkansas. .Home canners.

Home Canner Manufac-
turing Company Hickory, North Carolina. Hot- water bath canner.

TIenninger & Ayes Manu-
facturing Company . . .Portland, Oregon Steam canners.

Monarch Manufacturing

Company Chattanooga, Tennessee. . Hot- water bath canner.

Modern Canner Company.Chattanooga, Tennessee. . Hot- water bath canner.

Northwestern Steel and

Iron Works Eau Claire, Wisconsin. . .Steam canners.

Phillips & Buttorff Manu-
facturing Company ...Nashville, Tennessee ... Hot- water bath canner.

Pressure Cooker Com-

Pany Denver, Colorado Aluminum steam canners

and cookers.

Raney Canner Company.. Chattanooga, Tennessee. . Hot-water bath canner.

Royal Home Canner Com-
pany Chattanooga, Tennessee.. Hot- water bath canner.

APPENDIX ;;);,

Southern Kvaporator
( mil pan v ciiauaiiM,,LM. Tennessee Eot-water bath canner.

Spragne Canning Machin-
ery Company Chicago Illinois Steam fanners.

222 North \Val.asli Ave.

Stahl, F. S (.hiincy, Illinois I lot- water kith caniirr.

The C'andy C'anner Com-
pany Overtoil, Texas Hot-water bath canner.

Utility Company Hickory, North Carolina. Hot-water canner.

West Manufacturing

Company Philadelphia. 1'a " Carbery Water-seal

Canner."

Mechanical Nrn/.s unit Sralirn for 'I'm iiinl ( 1 la-UN

American Metal Cap

Company Brooklyn. New York . . . ..Metal bottle caps.

Summit St. and Com-
mercial Wharf.

Bowers Can Seal Com-
pany Boston, Massachusetts. . .Automatic can sealers,

146 Summer St. tin cans.

Burpee & Letson. Ltd. .. .South Bellingham, Wash.Automatic can sealers,

tin cans.

Crown Cork and Seal

Company Baltimore. Chicago, San

Francisco, and other

cities Metal bottle caps and

sealers.

Henninger & Ayes Manu-
facturing Company ...Portland, Oregon Automatic can sealers,

tin cans.

New Process Cork Com-
pany Hoboken, New Jersey . . .Metal bottle caps.

15th and Garden Sts.

The Knterprise Manufac-
turing Co. of Pa Philadelphia, Pa Bottle cappers — from

three inches to 14
inches.

fttcamcrs
Wilmot, Castle & Co. ... Rochester, New York. . . .Steamers.

SI cri:ssFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Manning, Bowman A ( o..Meriden, Connecticut . . .Alcoholite stoves.
Glove Gas Light Com-
panv ............ Boston, Massachusetts . .Kerosene gas stoves.

\V. .1. linker ( 'uiM|>;m.v . . . Newport, Kentucky ..... Gates folding camp stove,

gasoline stove.

Tin ('mix. f//i/.v.s -liii-n, l-!<trtlirnir(trc Jars, Bottles, and Rubber Rings

Acme Glass Company. ...Olean, New York ........ 8- and 10-ouace ketcluij)

bottles.

American ('an Company .. Baltimore, Maryland . ..Tin cans.

Philadelphia, Penna.
New York City.
Chicago, Illinois.
Atlanta, Georgia.
Ball Brothers Class Man-

ufacturing Company . . Mnncie, Indiana ....... Mason and glass-top jars.

Boston Woven I lose and

1,'nUier Cumpanv ..... Boston, Massachusetts ..Rubber rings.
Chesapeake Class Coni-

paiiv ................ Baltimore, Maryland . . .Glass jars.

Continental Can Com-

pany ............. ...Chicago, Illinois ....... Tin cans.

TTazel-Atlas Class Com-

pany ........ . , ...... Wheel ing, West Virginia. Fruit jars and tumblers.

Hemingray Glass Com-

pany ................ Covington, Kentucky . . .Glass jars.

Kerr Class Manufactur-

ing Company ........ fraud Springs, Oklahoma. Kcmtomy jars.

Marion Flint Glass Com-

pany ................ Marion. Indiana .......

I.Vvson, Frank ......... Atlanta, Georgia ....... Bottles.

1'obin-. A. K., & Co ..... Baltimore, Maryland ...Tin cans and general

equipment.
Savannah Wooden-ware

Company ........... Savannah, Georgia ..... Glass jars.

Scliloss. Men ........... San Francisco, Calif. .. .Two-piece top jars.

Smalley Fmil .lar Com-

|'-"iy ... ......... Boston, Massachusetts . .Queen glass jars.

Southern Can Company .. Baltimore, Maryland ...Tin cans.
Staunton .lar Corpora-

. .Buffalo, New York ...... Vacuum seal jars.

Kllicott Sipiare.
Tennessee Can c ..... |iany .Chatfaiiooga, Tennessee.. Tin cans.

AIM'KNDIX 351

Thatcher Manufacturing

( ompany Klmira, New York (Mass jars.

Travis (Mass Company .. Clarksburg, Virginia . ..IMass jars.

United States Can Com-

panv Cincinnati, Ohio Tin cans.

Virginia Can Company .. Buchanan, Virginia ....Tin cans.

Western Stoneware Com-
pany .Monnioiith, Illinois Earthenware jars.

White Crown Fruit .Jar

Company Louisville, Kentucky . . .White Crown screw caps

for Mason jars.

National Can Company. .Baltimore, Maryland . . .Tin cans.

Vegetable and Fruit Drying Equipment fur Commercial and Home Use

Alien Fruit Company ... .Salem, Oregon.

Heck Evaporator Com-
pany Watsonville, ( 'alifornia.

I.outell Manufacturing

C'ompany Rochester, New York.

Ulymyer Iron Works

Company Cincinnati, Ohio.

Caledonia J«ean Harvest-
er Works Caledonia. New York.

Drvine. J. P., Company. .Buffalo, New York.

Falirncy, E. 15 Waynesboro, Pa.

Field, J. A., & Co St. Louis, Missouri.

(ith and Howard Sts.

Gaylord, F. D Sodus Point, New York. . Furnaces.

C.eiieral Dehydrator Com-
pany New York City, N. Y.

114-118 Liberty St.

Coodrich, A. ('., & Co. .. North Yamhill, Oregon.

( J ranger Manufacturing

( 'ompany Philadelphia, Pa.

I larrison Rich ( 'arrolites, California.

Miller. F. IT ( 'aledonia, New York. . . . Furnaces.

Munsville Plow CompanyMunsville, New York.

Palmer & Co Noble, Illinois.

Sebastian Brothers Odin, Illinois.

Smith's, E., Sons I'.utValo. New York.

Sceley, IX W Sodus Point, New York... Furnaces.

Shaver. IT. W Sodus Point, New York... Furnaces.

Soul hern Canner and

Evaporator Company. . Chattanooga, Tennessee.

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING

Sperry, I). R.. & Co North Aurora, Illinois.

Steam Heat K\aporaiing

Company Charlotte, Michigan.

Stutzman Manulact nring

Company Ligonier, Indiana.

Trescott, W. A Fairport, New York.

Minn llnticnitfi Corrugated Cardboanl <'<>nt<tin<Tn

American Paper Products Company. . St. Louis, Missouri, 205 Bremen Ave.

Andrew I'aper l!o\ Company Chattanooga, Tennessee.

Empire Printing and Box Company. . Atlanta, Georgia.

Hinde & Dauch Paper Company Sandusky, Ohio.

LaFore Ki.-ter Company Philadelphia, Pa., 1211 Noble St.

Lawrence Paper .Manufacturing Com-
pany Lawrence, Kansas.

Mid-\Vc>t l',o\ ( 'onipany Anderson, Indiana.

l.'oliert i oir Company Brooklyn, New York.

SeftoM Manufacturing Company . . . . Cliicago, Illinois, 1301 West 35th St.
Thompson & Norris Company Boston, Massachusetts.

Brooklyn, N. Y., Prince and Concord
Sts.

Brookville, Indiana.

('oiittiiners

American Can Company New York City, N. Y., 447 \V. 14th St

American Mono-Service Company. . . . Newark, New Jersey.

Purity Paper Bottle Company "Washington, 1). C., K541 S. Capitol St

Sanitary Paper Mottle Company Sandusky, Ohio.

Weis Manufacturing Company Monroe. Michigan.

\Vyle. T. Wilson Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

INDEX

Accounts for canuers, blanks and

directions, 314, 315
Accuracy, special equipment for,

37-39
Acetic acid formation in vinegar,

I 1 I. 113

in vinegar, law require-
ments, 109, 115
loss in vinegar making, 114
percentage in 60-grain vin-
egar, 206
fermentation of vinegar, 113,

117
Acid, addition to sweet juices in

jelly making, 175, 176
essential in fruit jelly making,

175

Acidity test for pickling brine, 194
Acids, injurious to bacterial growth,

29
Address list, institutions directing

extension work, 346
lists, iirms having canning out-
fits, etc., 348-352
Aerobes, nature and action on food-
stuffs, 25-27

Agricultural extension work, insti-
tutions directing, list, 346-348
Air, exclusion from pickle brine,

directions, 194, 195
Alcohol formation in vinegar, 110,

111
use in protecting jelly from

mold, 185
Al'uholic fermentation in vinegar,

112, 116

America, canning introduction and
development, 5, 6

23 353

Anaerobes, nature and action on

foodstuffs, 25-28
Antiseptics, objectionable in foods,

31,32

Appert, Nicholas, studies and experi-
ments in canning foods, 1, 2
Apollinaris tea, recipe, 121
Appendix, 346-352
Apple butter, recipe and directions,

168
chutney, recipes and directions,

207
cores and skins, drying and use,

238

juice, use with other flavors
and colors for jelly, 186, 187
preserves, recipe and directions,

157, 158

sauce canning, 124
syrup, directions for making,

104, 105
Apples, canning, directions, 124

drying, directions, 230, 237, 238
sugar content, relation to vin-
egar making, 111, 112
Appropriations, state and federal,

for demonstration work, 283
Apricots, syrup making, directions,

108

drying, directions, 238
Apron for garden work, 289

housewife's, significance, 286
Aprons for canning-club girls, 287,

288

Artichoke pickle, recipe, 221
Artichokes, canning, directions, 133.

134
Asparagus canning, directions, 133

354

INDEX

Aapenjillus, injurious fungus, 17
Atlantic Coast, canning industry, 6

i
B. S. chutney, recipe and directions,

206, 207
Bacon pickle in brine, 2G4

sugar-cured, directions, 263, 264

Bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic,

classification and action, 25-

harmful to cucumber pickles,

194

in cucumber pickling, 194
in resting stage, resistance, 21,

22
nature, growth, and control, 20-

23, 25-28
nonsporulating, destruction, by

hoiling temperature, 21, 27
relation to canning, importance,

6, 12
relation to vinegar making, 1 Id,

114

>iilisiaiices injurious to, '29
P.aeteriology as applied to canning,

15-35

H'n Illus butyricus, illustration, 24
Bacillus found on tomatoes, show-
ing flagellae, illustration, 19
Bacillus megatherium, illustration,

Palling hydrometer, description, 131
Baltimore, canning industry, begin-
ning, 5
Banner of Spain chutney, recipe and

directions, 206, 207
Banks, earth, for storing root vege-
tables, 251-252

Parks, medicinal, selling to drug-
gists, 250
I'.arrels, use in cucumber brining,

bunging and turning, 195, 196
Pa-ement storage room for vege-
tables, 251

Basket, fruit-press, description, 95
holding cans or jars for proc-
essing, 80

Bay, sweet, leaves, drying, 249
Beans, canned, grades, 307

canning, directions, 134, 135
dried, cooking, 247
fermenting, directions, 215
green, string, drying directions,

243
heat destruction of vitality for

seed use, 243

shelled, drying directions, 243
protein source, 276, 279
sterilization intermittent, for

control of bacteria, 22, 23
storage, 254
Beef casings, 268

corned, directions, 258, 259
drying, directions, 259, 260
preserving, methods, 258-260
Beets drying, directions, 244
fermenting, directions, 215
pickled, recipe, 221
small, canning directions, 135
I Jerries, canned, grading, 307
canning, directions 124, 125
drying, directions, 238, 239
preserving, general directions,

154

washing, directions, 125
Berry shrub, directions for making,

119

P.ibliography, 13, 35, 58, 85, 86, 122,
123, 147, 188, 227, 255, 274, 281,
344, 345

Blackberry flummery, recipe, 121
Blanching, directions, 62, 63
utensils, 38, 39
vegetables for drying, 242
Bloomers for garden work, 288, 289
Boiling ham, recipe (Virginia and
Louisiana combination ) , 273

1 N DEX

355

Boiling temperature, destructive to

bacteria in growing state, 21, 27

Bologna sausage, directions, 207,

_V,s

Bottles, sterilizing, 98
Bottling fruit juices, 99, 100

grape syrup, 108

Brands for canned goods, import-
ance, 30G

Breakfast bacon, sugar-cured, direc-
tions, 263, 264
r.rine, ai-idity test, 194

for corned beef, directions, 258,

259

for cucumbers, making and test-
ing, 192
for curing meats, directions,

258, 260
for picking bacon and hams,

264
sealing from air, directions,

194, 195

use in canning vegetables, 133
Brines, salt percentage table, 192
Brining cauliflower, directions, 213,

214

onions, directions, 215
principles and directions, 190,

191
Brown, Margaret and Mary Belle,

success in canning work, 305
Bulletins for women county agents,

Oklahoma, 321

Business side of canning, 300-315
Butters, fruit, general directions.
164, 165

Cabbage drying, directions, 245
storage methods, 252

Calcium chloride, addition to water-
bath to raise temperature, 9

California, fruit and vegetable can-
ning, 5

California, open-air drying of foods,

229, 232

Candied fruits, directions, 101, 102
Cane paddle, use in canning, 3S, 71,

72,74
Canned goods grading, 307

selling, work by North
Carolina canning clubs,
300-306
products, consumption and

value, 1916, 11
score card, general, 340
storing, 76
Canner, commercial, outfits, 77-82

homemade, 77
Canneries, early, establishment and

rapid increase, 5
Canners, steam, for home use, 87-

Canning, bacteriology of, 15-35
beginning in England, 3
business side of, 300-315
club organization, 282-299

work, North Carolina, sum-
mary, 1912-1916, 306
clubs, initial work, 283, 285
members, 1916, 296
Oklahoma, outlined pTo-

gram, 320

output, 1916, 11, 296
commercial, introduction and
development in America, ."">. ''>
equipment and preparation for.

36-58

improvements, 8-11
importance in supplying varied

diet, 12

in glass, 71-76
in large containers, 48
in tin, 59-70

industry, location and develop-
ment, 6-8
laws, information, 69

356

INDEX

Canning outfits and supplies, firms,

address list, 348-352
scientific, history, 1-14
teaching, school courses, etc.,

316-345
time-table, processing by steam,

91
time-tables, hot-water process,

83-85

Cans, cooling and protecting, 43
sanitary, description, 49
sealing, tools, 50, 51
testing, 68
tin. manufacturing, early and

present methods, 3, 4
Cantaloupe pickles, recipes, 222, 223
Canvas for meat, yellow wash,

recipe, 272, 273
Capping bottles, directions, 102

tin cans, 64

Caps, adjusting on glass jars, 74
Carbonate of lime, use in making

fruit syrups 104, 107
Carrots canning, directions, 135
drying, directions, 244
sweet pickled, 221
Casings, sausage, cleaning and pre-

uaring, 268
Cauliflower brining, directions, 213,

214

Caves for storing vegetables, direc-
tions for making. 253
' rlcry leaves, drying, directions.

246

storage, 252, 253
vinegar, recipe, 220
Cellar, storage of vegetables. 251
Cellars, outdoor, for storing vege-
tables, directions, 253
Cereals, substitute for bread, 278
i liiiyotes fermenting, directions, 215
sweet pickled, recipe and di-
rections, 223, 224

Cheese, head, directions, 264
Chemicals added to foods, detri-
mental to health, 31, 32
Chemistry Bureau, Agricultural
Department, experiments in
drying foods, 230
of vinegar making, 110, 111
Cherries canning, directions, 125
drying, directions, 240
spiced, directions, 225
vinegarette, recipe and direc-
tions, 160

Cherry preserves, recipe and direc-
tions, 155, 160
Chicago, meat canning, 6
Children's diet, importance of fruits

and vegetables, 277
Chile peppers canning, directions,

140
Chili sauce, recipe and directions,

211,212

Chimney for outdoor canner, 82
Chow-chow, sweet pepper, recipe

and directions, 206
Chutneys, definition, recipes and di-
rections, 190, 206, 207
Cider making, directions, 103, 104
Cincinnati, canning industry, begin-
ning, 5

Cities, gardening and canning, 322
Clarifying grape juice, 117, 118
Cleanliness, importance in control

of bacteria, 6

( Icveland school gardens, 323, 324
Clock, necessity for accurate work.

Club members, assistance to one an-
other instances, 293. 294
work, cooperation of home and

school. 292, 293
Clubs, canning, organization. 282-

299
canning. See also Canning clubs.

INDEX

Cold .-torage. use in food preserva-
tion, 33

Color, preserving in blanching, 63
Coloring for jellies, note, 187, 188
Community activities, benefits of

dull work, -2!):?, 294
Concentrated eider making, 103
Concord grape juice', directions, 110
Conserves, description. 165

marmalades and jams, 163-173
Containers, estimating and order-
ing, suggestions, 45, 50
packed, demonstration work,

number and value. 29(1
sterilizing before packing, 63,

types, description, 44-57
Conveniences, home, results of dem-
onstration work. 206, 207
Cooker, agitating, description, 10

See fl/.sv* ( 'aimer: Processor
Cooking dried fruit* and vegetables,

direct inns. 242, 247
jelly, general directions, 182,

183
preserves, syrup density, etc.,

148-150

Cook-stove drier, homemade, direc-
tions for making. 235, 236
Cooling can-, directions, 68

presn\c-. directions. 150, 151
Cooperation l>et\\een home and

school, 202. 20.']
community, increased by club

work, 20::
in growing herbs, desirability,

248
method of minimizing labor.

39-41

Copper and steel, cleaning and tin-
ning, directions, 5!i. <;o
i Hi-king fruit juices. 100
Corks, cleaning and >terili/ing, 100

Corn, canned, annual consumption,

report, 1916, 11
canning, directions, 137, 138
earliest record, Portland,

Maine. 5
equipment . improvement,

8, 9
location of leading supply,

methods, 5
relish, recipe and directions,

205
sterilization intermittent, for

control of bacteria, 22, 23
sweet, drying, directions, 244
Covers for jelly glasses, 184
Crabapple marmalade, directions.

166

Crabapples, spiced, recipe, 222
Cranberry ketchup, recipe and di-
rections, 21 1
Creole sauce canning, directions,

145-147
Crops, profitable to girl canners,

311, 312

Crout. Kee Sauer kraut.
Crystals, tartaric • acid, prevention

in jelly. 100
Cucumber and red pepper, sweet

pickles, 109, 200
slices, pickled, 108
sweet pickles, 198
Cucumbers brining, 101. 102, 195,

196

fermenting, 215
grading for pickles, 192, 193
pickling, general directions and

recipes, 191-200
Curing meats, general directions,

257, 258
Currant cherry preserves, direc-

t ions. 155
Currants, spiced, directions, 224

INDEX

Daggett, Ezra, canning industry es-
tablishment in United States, 5
Dairy equipment improvement un-
der demonstration work, 207
Damson plums, spiced, directions.

225

Demonstration work among farm
women, results, 295-298
of club girls, 285, 286
Desserts made with fruit juices,

119-121

Dial gauge on steam canner, S9
Diet, need of fruits and vegetables

supplied by canning, 12
use of fruits and vegetables,

275-281

varied, importance, 12, 280
Dill pickles, directions, 190, 213, 214
Dispatch in preserving when fresh,

importance, 25, 01, 151
Dixie relish, recipe and directions,

204
Dried fruit, cooking, 242

sorting and storage, 241
vegetables cooking, use in soups,

etc., 247
reheating, 246
storing 246, 247

Driers, fruit and vegetable, descrip-
tion and use, 233-236
homemade, directions, 233-230
Dry kiln, homemade, description

and use, 229
Drying equipment, firms, address

list, 351

food preservation method, prin-
ciples, 30

foods, general methods, 228-236
fruits, vegetables, and herbs,

228-2.-.:.

herbs, directions and time-
tables, 248, 249
meats, general principles, 256.

Durrand, Peter, English patent for
canning in tin, 3

Egg circles, work and number, 290
Klertric fan, use in drying food, ex-
periments, 230
Enamel-lined cans, description and

advantages, 48
necessary for certain prod-
ucts, 124, 126, 128, 138,
142

Energy, sources in foods, 275
England, early history of canning, 3
English mushroom ketchup, 210
Enzymes, nature, and effects on

food, 24, 25

Equipment and preparation for can-
ning, 36-58

canning, improvements and in-
ventions, 8-11

for girl's garden work, 289, 290

for portable outdoor canner, 79

special, for preserving, 151, 152

Evaporating, method of drying

foods, 229
Evaporators, descriptions, citations,

230
fruit and vegetable, description

and use, 233-236
Exhausting tin cans, directions, 64,

65
Exhibits, prize, illustrations and

suggestions, 336-339
Extension of useful information by

home demonstrators, 298
work, address list of institu-
tions directing, 346-348
Extracting fruit juices for jelly,
175-178

Fancy packs of jelly, 186
Feli, drying and use, 249
Fermentation, cause, 15

INDEX

Fermentation, destructive in vinegar

making, cause, 114
form* and proce->c^. I'.t, 20
in pickling lirine. necessity and

result, 1!»4

in vinegar making. 1 12, 114. II ti
ii.-i- in preserving vegetables.

215-220

Fig canning, directions, 12;!, 12G
conserve, recipe and directions.

17(i

jam, directions, 1G7
paste, directions, 171
preserves, recipes and direc-
tions, 159

Figs, sweet pickle, recipe and direc-
tions, 224

Kilter, fruit-juice, homemade, 98
Financing demonstration work, 282-

284
Fire-box built in, outdoor canners,

90
Fireless cookers, installed in farm

homes, 296
Fire-pot for heating canning tools,

48, 82, 83
Fir>t year work for girls' canning

club-. 2Sii-290, 318, 319
Fish canning, earliest record in

America, 5

" Flat sours,'' cause and appear-
ance, 26-28
Flavoring sauces from fruit syrups,

uses, 108
Flux, making, and use, directions,

59, 64, 66
Fly campaigns, demonstration work,

297
Fly-trap, homemade, illustrations,

43,44
Fly-traps, results of demonstration

work, 297
use near canning locality, 40

Food, drying, protection from rain.

dust and insects, 233. _'lo
laws, knowledge needed In

mercial canning, GO
partially cooked, good medium

for germs, 27
p r e p a r a t i o n demonstration

work, results, 29G
preserving methods, old and

new, 1, 29-33

spoilage, theories of early can-
ners, 1. 2, ti
cause, discovery, 4, 5
Foods, canned, consumption and

value, 1916, 11
increased demand. 1 1
classes supplying needs of body,

275,276
drying, general methods, 228-

236
Foodstuffs, putrefaction, causes, 4,

5, 15, 20-28
Fourth-year canning club course,

319
Fruit butters and pastes, general

directions, 164, 165
cup, directions for making, 1 19
driers or evaporators, descrip-
tion and use, 233-236
juices corking and sealing. Inn.

101

extracting for jelly mak-
ing, 175-178
heating, 99, 100
homemade filter, descrip-
tion, 98

pasteurizing, 100
preparation, bottling, stor-
ing, etc., 93-123
reheating and bottling, 99,

100

testing in jelly making.
178, 179

360

INDEX

Fruit juices, uses, recipes. 119-121
value ami use, '.!.'{

medley conserve, recipe and di-
rections, Hi!)

nectar, directions, 121

press, homemade, construction

and use, 94-97
household, 94

punch, directions for making,

120

Fruits and vegetables, use in the
diet, 275-281

candied, directions, 161, 162

canning, directions, 124-132
time-table, hot-water proc-
ess, 84, 85

cooking to extract juice, 175,
176

crushing and straining., 95, 96

dried, storage, 241

drying, directions, 231, 237-241

for canning, 124-132

importance in diet, 12

liability to molds, 17

nonpectin, 174, 175, ISO

packing in glass jars, 71

picking, sorting, and cleaning,
93, 94

preparation for canning, scald-
ing, peeling, and blanching,
61-63

prompt canning important to
success, 24

properties necessary for jelly
making, 174, 175

selection, sorting and grading,
(JO, 61

spiced, recipes, 222-226

underripe, use in jelly making,
175

washing, peeling, coring, etc.,
utensils, 36, 37

Free-run juice, superiority, 96-98,

106

French method of drying green
vegetables, 230, 231
government, work in discovery

of canning methods, 1, 2
Fuel for smokehouse, and directions

for fire, 271

Fungi, injurious to fruits and vege-
tables, 17

Garden kneeling pad and apron, 289,

290

Gardening in cities, 322
Gasoline stove for canning, 82-90
Gauge, dial, steam cooker, 89, 90
General Education Board, help to

demonstration work, 282
Germs causing putrefaction, nature

and control, 20-28
Ginger apples, directions, 157

pears, directions, 157
Girls' club meetings, program, sug-
gestions, 290-292
See also Canning clubs
Girls, fine marketing records for

canned goods, 305
responsibility for their own
canned products, 301-303, 310
(Mass, canning in, 71-76

containers, shapes, sizes, and

types, 52-57

first use in canning, 2, 3
jars, packing for shipment, 312,

313

selection, 52, 53
sterilizing, 71
testing the seals, 28, 29
Glasses, jelly, filling and covering,

183, 184
Golden pumpkin chips, directions,

158
Goldthwaite, Miss, mention, 188

INDEX

361

Gooseberries funning, directions,

126
spiced, recipe and directions,

224

Green mango pickles, recipe and di-
rect inn.-, -08

tomato pickle, recipe and direc-
tions, ~()\

Greens canning, directions, 143
Grading canned goods, 307

cucumbers for pickling, 192,

193

fruits and vegetables, 60, 61
Grape cup, directions, 119
frappe, directions, 121
jam, directions, 167
juice bottling, 117

clarifying, 117, 118
heating in syrup making,

107
ketchup, recipe and directions,

210

Grape syrup, directions, 106-108
Grapefruit marmalade, directions,

166

Grapes, spiced, directions, 224
crushing and pressing, 106
green, pectin content, 118
Guava butter, directions, 168
need of acid in jelly, 175

Ham baking, recipe, 273

boiling, recipe (Virginia and
Louisiana combination), 273
cutting, salting, and smoking.

261-263

Hams, pickling in brine, 264
Hawaii, pineapple canning, rapid

development, 7, 8
Head cheese, directions, 264
Health, importance of vegetable

food in diet, 277-279
Heat, use in food preparation,
methods, 32, 33

Heating grape juice for syrup, 107
Herbs, drying, directions, 248--
importance in cooking, 248
use in confectionery and per-
fumery, 249
use in medicine, possibilities,

list, 250
Hermetic seal jar, description and

use, 55, 56, 74, 76
History of development of scientific

canning, 1-14
Hog casings, 268
Home conveniences, installation in

farm homes, 296, 297
demonstration clubs, canning

output, 1916, 11, 296
work for women, Oklahoma,

321
work, object, funds, agents,

etc., 282-299

economics work, expenditures,
sources and amounts, 283, 284
storage of vegetables, 250-254
vinegar making, 109-117
Homemade canner, 77

conveniences, results of demon-
stration work, 296, 297
driers, description and direc-
tions, 233-236
fly-trap, illustration, 43, 44
fruit-press, construction and

use, 94-97

fruit-juice filter, description, 98
sealing wax, recipe, 101
Hominy, lye, preparation and can-
ning, 138, 139

Hydraulic pressure, use in drying
foods, 230

Iceless refrigerators, demonstration

work, results, 296
Ices, fruit, directions for making,

120
Illinois, canning industry, 7

INDEX

Indoor canning, arrangement of

equipment, 36, 37
drying, commercial methods, 230
Intermittent processing, definition

and direction, 22', 23, 76, 83
Invoice for shipments of canned

goods, 313
Iron in vegetable foods, 277

Jams, general directions, 163, 164
grading, 307
marmalades and preserves, 163-

173

Jar lifters, description and use, 39
Jars, glass, selection, 52, 53
Jellies, fancy, use of pectin, flavor-
ing, etc., 186
storing, 185

Jellometer, description and use, 180
Jelly cooking, quantity of juice, 180

general directions, 182
crystals, prevention, 100
making, 174-188
pouring into glasses and cover-
ing, 183, 184
protection from mold, 18, 30,

183, 184

qualities essential to good prod-
uct, 174
score card, 342
testing, directions, 183
'• weeping," prevention, 185
Jobber, selling to, in marketing

canned goods, 311

Juices, fruit, bottling for jelly mak-
ing, 99, 100

fruit, extraction, methods, 94-99
fruit. See also Fruit juice

Kansas City, meat canning, 6
Kerosene stove, gas-flame, use in

canning, 82-90

Ki'lchiip, definition, recipes, and di-
rections, 190, 209-211

Ketchup grading, 307

Kettle, steam-jacketed, description,

9, 161
Kiln, dry, homemade, description

and use, 229
Knives, paring, selection, 36
Kumquat marmalade, directions, 166
preserves, recipe and directions,

156
Kumquats, whole, preserves, recipe

and directions, 156

Lactic acid, use in preservation of

vegetables, 29, 31
Labelling fruit juices, 102
glass jars, directions, 76
jelly glasses, directions, 184
tin cans, 68, 69
Labels, can, importance, and printed

contents, 308, 309
Laboratory, small, list of supplies,

suggestions, 333-335
Labor-saving devices for canning,

8-11
results of demonstration

work, 297

Lard, trying out, directions, 265, 266
Lawrence, Major, specifications for

smokehouse, 269-273
Laws, canned products, obtaining in-
formation, 69
Leaves, herb, drying, 248
Legal standard, vinegar, New York,

109, 115
Lemon butter, directions, 168

syrup, directions, 108
Lightning-seal jar, description, 53,

54
Lima beans, canning, directions, 135

drying, directions, 243
Lime carbonate, use in making fruit

syrups, 103, 104, 107'
water, use in drying figs, 240

INDEX

363

Liquid smoke, formula and use, 257
Leeks, drying, directions, 24.".
Lumber for constructing smoke-

house. list and cost, 269, 270
LUSMH-. (Juy, invot Ration- of can-
ning, and theory of food spoilage, 2
l.vi- hominy, preparation and can-

ning, 138, 139

solution for soaking olives, 218
in peeling peaches, 120

Macedoine fruit mixture, directions,

129

Miuhiiie for sealing cans, 49, 51
Machines for canning corn, improve-

ment on old methods, 8, 9
labor-saving, use in canning,

8-11

Maine, canning industry, 7
Malate of lime, settling in apple'

-yrup, 105
Malic acid, disappearance from vine-

gar, 114, 115
removal from apple juice,

103, 105
Mango, sweet, recipe and directions.

209
Mangoes (pickles) . definition, recipes

and directions, 190. 207-209
Marjoram, drying, directions. 24'.'
Marketing canned goods, girls' clubs.

300
policy for canning clubs, 309,

310

Marmalade, general directions, 163
Marmalades, jams, and conserves,

163-173

Maryland, canning industry. 7
Meal, well-balanced, requirements,

279, 280
Meat canvas, yellow wash, recipe.

272, 273

packing in smokehouse, direc-
tions, 271

Meats drying, general principles
preservation, 25G-274
should be accompanied by vege-
table foods, 278
smoked, keeping, 271, 272
Medicinal herbs, gathering and dry-
ing. 249, 250
Medley fruit conserve, recipe and

directions, 169
Mince-meat, green tomato, recipe and

directions, 172, 173
Mineral materials supplied by foods,

275, 276
Mint drying, dirertiun-. -J41.'

jelly, directions. L873 188
Mississippi normal-school garden

work, 332
Mixed pickles, definition, recipes,

and directions, 190, 200-204
Mixtures, fruit, canning, directions,

129

Mock olives, directions, 220
Mold prevention in canned foods,
jellies, etc., 18, 30, 151, 183, 184
Molds, nature, growth, injury to

food, and control, 15-19
Money crops for girls' canning gar-
dens, 311, 312

" Mother," vinegar, addition in vine-
gar making, 113
Muscadine grape syrup, directions

for making, 106-108
Mushroom ketchup, English, recipe

and directions, 210
Mushrooms, drying directions, 24G

pickled, directions, 220
Mustard dressing for pickles, direc-
tions, 203
Durham, first prepared by a

woman. 248

pickle, recipe and directions,
201-204

364

INDEX

Navy beans, harvesting and storing,

254

New Jersey, canning industry, 7
New York, canning industry begin-
ning, 5

City, expenditures for milk,
bread, eggs, and canned foods,
11
evaporators, drying vegetables

for French army, 230
fruit and vegetable canning, 7
vinegar making and legal stand-
ard, 109-117
Wayne county, evaporators,

number in use, 229
Normal schools, garden work and

instruction, 325, 330-333
North Carolina canning club girls,

illustrations, 41, 42
canning clubs, business experi-
ences, 300-315

county agents, illustration, 313
Nutrients supplied by foods, 275-
280

Oil stove for heating copper and

steel, 43, 47

Oklahoma, girls' clubs, program, out-
line, 320

women's clubs, program, out-
line, 321
Okra canning, directions, 139

drying, directions, 245
Olives, brining, directions, 219
pickling, directions, 217-220
varieties used for pickling, 217
washing, directions, 218, 219
Onion vinegar recipe, 220
Onions, brining, directions, 215
drying, directions, 245
pickling, 215, 216
storing, 254

Open kettle for processing, descrip-
tion, 74

Open-air drying adapted to dry cli-
mates, 229, 232, 237
Orange ice, recipe, 120

marmalade, recipe and direc-
tions, 165

pectin, preparation, 186, 187
peel, source of pectin, 175
sour, preserves and marmalade,

155, 165, 166
Orange-lemon-grapefruit marmalade,

recipe, 166

Oregon, canning salmon, 6
Organisms causing fermentation and

putrefaction, 15-28
Outdoor canning, arrangement of
tables and equipment, 40-44
caves or cellars for storing vege-
tables, 253
Oxygen, relation to bacteria, 25-28

Packing canned goods for shipment,

312

containers, directions, 64
fruit and vegetables in glass

jars for canning, 71
preserves, in jars, 150, 151
Paddles, use in canning, and direc-
tions for making, 38, 71, 72, 74
Paddling contents of glass jars to

exclude air, 71, 72
Paraffin, use in sealing pickle con-
tainers, 195
use on jelly to prevent molds,

183-184
Parasitic organisms, illustrations,

16
Parcels post, shipments of canned

goods, 313
Parsley leaves, drying, directions,

246, 249

Parsnips, drying, directions, 244
Paste for labels, formula and direc-
tions for use, 69

INDEX

365

1'a-ti , tomato, recipe and directions,

212
1'astes, fruit, general direct ions, 170,

171
I'a-teiir. ui-coveries in bacteriology,

importance, 4, 5
I'aMeuri/ation, use in preserving

food, 32

I'uMriiri/.er made of wasli boiler, 100
1'asteuri/ing fruit juices, 100
Payment - for canned goods, man-
agement. 313
I'l-.n-li Imtter, recipe and directions,

168

jam, recipe and directions, 167
pre-er\e-. recipe and directions,

15(1, i:>7

roll or leather, directions. 172
Peaches, canned, grading, 307
canning directions, 126, 127
drying, directions, 240, 241
peeling, lye method, 126
sweet pickled, recipes and di-
rections, 225
Peanut Imtter, recipe and directions,

168, 169
Pear preserves, reeipe and directions,

157

Pears, canning, directions, 128
drying, directions. 241
.-pieed, recipe and directions,

225, 22ii
Peas, canned, annual consumption,

report, 1916, 11
canning, directions, 139, 140
dried, storage, 254
green, drying, directions, 243
sterilization, intermittent, for

control of bacteria. 22. 23
Pectin developed by heat, 175

essential in jelly making, 175
testing in fruit juice, 178-180
orange, preparation, 186, 187

Pectin sources, 118, 175
Peeling fruits and vegetables, 61, 62
1'enicillium, injurious fungus, 17
Pepper mango, stuffed, directions,

207, 208

relish, directions, 205
sauce, directions, 212
sweet, chow-chow, 206
Peppers and cucumbers, sweet pi < •!.]••

1!)9, 200

canning, directions, 140
drying, directions, 245-249
Perennial gardens, for advanced club

workers, 290

Picking herbs for drying, 248
Pickle, preservation by acids in-
jurious to bacteria, 29, 31
Pickles, recipes and directions, 196-

209
Pickling, directions, 189-227

meat, formula for small pieces,

260

Pigs' feet, pickled, directions, 265
Pimiento ketchup, recipe and direc-
tions, 211

Pimiento canning, directions, 140
Pineapple canning, Hawaii, develop-
ment and improvement, 7, 8
preserves, recipe and directions,

160

syrup, formula, 108
Pits, outdoor, for keeping root vege-
tables, 251, 252
Plum conserve, recipe and directions,

169, 170

preserves, directions, 157
Plums, canning, directions, 12S. 129
drying, directions, 241
use as mock olives, directions,

220
Pork brining, 260, 264

curing, smoking, and keeping,
general directions, 261-268

INDEX

Pork, cutting and trimming, direc-
tions, 261, 262

preserving, directions, 261-268
sausage, directions, 266, 267
Portable canner, description, 43, 49
Portland, Maine, early canning ex-
periments of Isaac Winslow, 5
Poster for canning-club products, 302
Poultry clubs, Oklahoma, outlined

program, 320
demonstration work, results,

296
products, demonstration work,

value, 296
Prescott, S. C., investigations of

canning technic, 6

Preparation and equipment for can-
ning, 36-58
Preservation of foods, methods. 29-

of meats, 256-274
Preservatives, harmless, use in foods,

30
Preserves, 148-162

cooling and packing. 150. 151
grading, 307
sealing, 151
score card, 342
Preserving powders, use. detrimental

to health, 31
vegetables by fermentation, 215-

220
Press, fruit, homemade, 94-97

lever, for fruit juice, construc-
tion and use, 95-97
Prices of canned products, 1916-

1917, 310, 311
Prize winners, stories of work and

use of money, 2! '4
Prizes for exhibits, 343, 344
Processing at high temperature. 87-
92

Processing, directions, 66, 74. 77-86
methods, advantages, 9, 10
olives, directions, 219
Processors, descriptions, 9, 10, 39
Program, girls' club meetings, sug-
gestions, 290, 291
Protein, sources in foods, 275, 276
Publications, United States Govern-
ment, usefulness, 12
See also Bibliography
Pumpkin drying, directions, 245

preserves, directions, 158
Pumpkins, canning, directions, 140-

142

Punch, fruit, recipes, 120
Putrefaction, causes, 4, 5, 15, 20-
28

Questions for use in teaching, 12,
13, 33, 34,. 57. 70, 76, 83, 92, 121,
122. 132, 147, 162, 173,' 188, 226,
254, 274, 280, 315
Quince cheese, directions, 171

pectin content, and need of acid
to develop. 175

Rahn. Otto, experiments with brine.
191

Rapidity in canning, importance,
61-64

Raspberry ice and float, recipe, 120

Raspberries, drying, illustration and
directions, 232, 238

Records, canning suggestions, 315

Reflector drier, directions for mak-
ing, 234, 235

Reheating fruit juice, 99

Relishes, definition, recipes and di-
rections, 190, 204-206
score card, 343

Retorts, steam, for processing, types,
87, 90, 91

INDEX

36^

Rhubarb canning, directions, 126,

1 »2

con-er\ e, direct ions, Hi!»
spiced, recipe, -J2 1
syrup, dirci-t ions, 10S
Kin.us. rnblirr. adjusting and precau-
tions. .">7, 7 1

Koot vegetables, storage, 251, 252
Knots, medicinal, 2.~>0
Rubbers, adjusting and precautions,

57, 74

Rummage pickle, recipe and direc-
tions, 200

Kussell, II. L., application of bac-
teriology In canning, 5

Saccbarotneter. description and use,

38, 1 •_".». i:{2, 152, 179
Sadding. ^ir., introduction of can-
ning into England, 3
Safety-\al\e seal jar, description, 51
Sage drying, directions, 249
Sales, demonstrations by canning

club girls, 303

direct to institutions, etc., 303
Salmon canning, location, 0
Salomcter, description and use, 191,

192
Salt, addition to water bath to raise

temperature, 9
percentage scale use in testing

brine, 38

use in preserving food, 30, 31
Salting hams, shoulders, and bacon,

262

Saltpetre, use in smoking meats, dis-
cussion, -2.")u. 257
Sanitary cans, description, 40
Saprophytes, relation to canned

products, 1 5
S;i-safras leaves, drying and use as

herb, 24 <i

Sauces, definition, recipes and direc-
tions, 190, 211-213 '

Saner kraut, directions, 21 I

preservation by acids injurious

to bacteria, 29
Sausage making, direction^, 2iii! 2t'.s

mixed, directions, 207
Savory drying, directions, 249
Sawmills, as market for canned

goods, 301
Scalding, fruits and vegetables, til.

62
Scales, necessity for accurate work.

Scholarships, won by club girls, 290
School gardens, 324
Score cards for judging products,

use, 339-34:!

Scrapple, directions, 204, 265
Screening houses, results of demon

stration work, 297
Screens, to protect food while dry-
ing, 233

Screw-top jars, description, ."» I
Scum yeast in brine, prevention. I HI
Scuppernong grape juice, directions

for making, 118
Seal, importance in canning, 2'8

testing, 28, 29
Sealing, frnit juices, 101

glass jars, directions, 74-76

various devices, 53-57
jellies, directions, 185
sanitary cans, machine, 49-51
preserves, 157
wax, homemade recipe, 101
Seals and sealers, firms, address list,

349

Seasoning for canned vegetables, 133

Second-year canning club course, 319

work for girls canning clubs,

290

Seeds useful in medicine, 250
Self-fermentation, use as preserva-
tion method, 31
Serving, work of club girls, 286-290

INDEX

Sheep casings, 268

Shipping canned products, 313

Shoulders, cutting, salting, and

smoking, 201-iiii::
Shrub, berry, directions for making,

119

Skimming jelly, directions, 182, 183
Slicing apples for drying, 237
Smith-Lexer i:\tension Act, 283
Smoke, control in smokehouse, 271,

272

liquid, formula and method, 257
Smoked meats, keeping, 272, 273
Smokehouse, description, construc-
tion, and use, 268-272
Smoking meats, general directions,

256, 257
meats in smokehouse, directions,

270-272
pork, 263
Sodium chloride, use in preserving

food, 30, 31
Soup mixture, canned, grading, 307

canning, directions, 145
vegetables, drying for use of

soldiers during war, 230
Sour orange marmalade, recipe and

directions, 165, 166
preserves, directions, 155
Southern States, home work of girls

and women, 335, 33<i
Spatula use in fanning, 38
Specifications and plans for conveni-
ences, demonstrations, 297
fur constructing smokehouse,

269, 270
spiced cucumber mango, directions,

209
salad recipe and directions,

199

pickles, directions, 196
damson plums and cherries, di-
rections, 225

Spiced fruits, recipes, 222-226
green tomatoes, recipe, 221
pears, formula and directions,

225, 226

rhubarb, recipe, 221
vinegar, recipe, 208
Spices for canned pumpkin, direc-
tions, 141

use in preserving food, 30
Spinach canning, directions, 142, 143
Spoilage cucumber pickles caused by

bacteria, 194

food, theories of early canners,
1 *~> 6

1, _, U

cause, discovery, 4, 5
Spores, mold, growth and spread, 17
yeast, distribution and control,

Square tin cans, 48
Squash canning, directions, 143

drying, directions, 245.
Standardizing canned goods, 301
Standards in canning, 306, 307
State agents, home demonstrations,

work, results, 285, 286
Starter, addition in vinegar mak-
ing, 113-116
Steam canners, small, for home use,

87-90
gauge on canner regulation, 89,

90
retorts, types, description, 87-

Steamers, companies, address, 349
Steam- jacketed kettle, description

and illustration, 101
^team-pressure outfit for home can-
ning, illustration, 89
Steel and copper cleaning, direc-
tions, 59, 60

and tipping copper for sealing
cans, 50, 51

INDEX

369

Stcrili/ation by heat, use in food

preservation, 32, 33
intermittent method, 22', 23
Sterilizing containers before pack-
ing, 63, 64, 71

Storage, cold, use in food preserva-
tion, 33

of dried fruit, 241
of dried vegetables, 246, 247
of vegetables, 250-254
Storing bottled fruit juices, 103
canned products, 70
jellies, directions, 185
Stove for heating tools, 82
Stoves, kerosene and gasoline, for

canning, 82-90
Straining fruit juice for jelly, 175-

178
Straughn, Doctor, invention of jell-

ometer, 180
Strawberry ice, recipe, 120

jelly with orange pectin, direc-
tions, 187
preserves, recipe and directions,

154, 155
String beans, canning, directions,

134, 135
Stuffed pepper mango, directions,

207, 208

Stuffing sausages, directions, 206. 267
Suli-tances supplied by diet, 275-

280

Sugar, addition to fruit juice, de-
pendent on pectin content,
173-180

addition to juice in jelly mak-
ing, isi, 182'
hydrometer. See Saccharom-

eter
in apples, relation to vinegar,

111, 112
proportions for fruit syrups, 108

for preserves, 153, 154
quantity for jelly, table, 170

Sugar syrup table, 132

use in preserving food, 30
Sulfur, use in drying fruits, 230,

231, 237
Summer shorl^courses in canning,

suggestions, 317, 318
Sun drying of foods, 231, 232, 237
Sun-cooked preserves, directions, 155
Supplies for small laboratory, list,

333-335

Sweet bay leaves, drying, 249
pickles, directions, 222-226
fruits suitable for, 189
potatoes, canning, directions,

143

storage, 253, 254
" Swells," cause, 26-65
Syrup, apple, directions for making,

104, 105

density for canning various
fruits, 124, 125, 126-128,
129
for preserves, 148, 150, 154,

158, 159, 162
making, directions, 71
testing, 152

Syrups, fruit, directions for making,
103-108

Table for testing apple juice, etc.,

for pectin, 179
Tables, arrangement for outdoor

canning, 40, 43, 45
time, for processing fruits and

vegetables, 83, 84, 85, !M
Tarragon vinegar, recipe, 220
Tartaric acid crystals in jelly, pre-
vention, 100
Teacher, cooperation with home and

club work, 292

Teaching canning and related ac-
tivities, 316-345

370

INDEX

Temperature, raising, various de-
\ ices used in open- kettle method,
9

Testing canned goods by grocery-
men, 303

fruit juice, for pectin, 178-180
jelly, directions, 183
seal of can, 68
syrup, 152

Texas, Denton State Industrial Col-
lege, garden work, 333
Thermometer, use in drying food,

242

use in preserving and jelly mak-
ing, 38, 152, 164, 182, 183
Third-year canning club courses, 319
Thyme drying, directions, 249
'1'ii ne-table for processing by steam,

91
Time-tables, hot-water process, 83-

85
Tin, canning in, 59-70

cans, early types and develop-
ment of manufacture, 3, 4
manufacturing, changes in

apparatus, 3
shapes, sizes, and styles, 44,

testing the seals, 28, 29
container for preserving foods,

development, 3, 4
utensils, objections, 38, 130
Tipping cans, directions, 65, 66

copper and steel, description

and cleaning, 50, 51, 59, 60

Tomato canning, location of industry

and supply, 7
green, mince-meat, recipe and

directions, 172, 173
green pickle, recipe and direc-
tions, 201
ketchup, recipe and directions,

209, 210
paste, recipe and directions, 212

Tomato puree canning, directions,

145

relish, uncooked, recipe and di-
rections, 205

Tomatoes, canned, annual consump-
tion, report, 1916, 11
grading, 307

canning, directions, 143-143
green, spiced, recipe, 221
liability to molds, 17, 18
yellow, preserves, recipe and di-
rections, 159
Tongue, cured, recipe and directions,

260
Tools for sealing cans, 50, 52, 59, 60

heating, suggestions, 82, 85
Turnips, canning, directions, 145
Tyndall discoveries in bacteriology,
importance, 4, 5

Underwood, W. L., investigations of
canning technic, 6

Underwood, William, early work in
commercial canning, 5

Uniformity in size and quality of
products desirable, 61

Uniforms, canning-club girls', de-
scription, 286-288

Utensils for preparing and canning

fruits and vegetables, 36-38
for pickle making, 189

Vacant lot gardening, 322
Vacuum driers, use in drying foods,

230
Van Tapscott, Bettie, canning work,

304

Vegetable driers or evaporators, de-
scription and use, 233-238
soup mixtures, drying, direc-
tions, 245
Vegetables and fruits, use in the

diet, 275-281
canneries, location, 6, 7

INDIA

;;; i

jetables, canning, direct inn-. |.",:;

147

time-table, hot-water proc-
ess, 83, ^.'.
time-table, processing by

-Irani, '.'1
ilricd. preparation for tlie table.

217
-\\eating, reheating and

-toring, 240, 247
drying, directions, 242-247

in evaporators for use of

-oldiers, 230
I'm- canning. l:i.'i-l 17
green. .Irving by pressure,

French method, 230
linine -torage, 250-254
importance in diet, 12
[lacking in glass jars for can-
ning, 71
preparation for canning, 01-63

for drying, 242
preserving by fermentation,

215-220
processing by steam, time-table,

91
prompt canning, importance to

success, 25, 61, 151
selection, sorting, and grading,

CO, 61
washing, peeling, etc., utensils,

36, 37

\ ' m ilators, smokehouse, descrip-
tion and need, 270, 271
Vinegar, good, requirements, 115-

117

law requirements, 109, 115
making. clieniUt ry of, I in. Ill

directions, 108-1 I 7
pour, causes, 115
sixty-grain, equivalent in acetic

acid, 200

-piccil, recipes, 208, 217
u-e in preserving food, 30

\ inegar-,, ilasored. recipes, iJ-J
\irginia, normal-scli' » 'I garden

work, 330, 331
outdoor canning, deiinni-ti a

tions, 40, 47

\ itamins supplied by fruits ami
vegetables, 279

Washington, salmon canning, 6
Water-bath, original canning

methods, 1, 2, 9

Watermelon rind, gingered, rccip,
and directions, 158, l.v.i
pickles, directions, 222
preserves, recipe and direc-
tions, 158
Watts family, fine record in canning

work, 305

Wax, sealing, homemade recipe, 101
Willard School Farm, gardens and

canning work, 324-326, 328
Winslow, Isaac, work in canning, 5
Winter garden demonstrations, 2!n;
Wire basket with steam canner, de-
scription and use, 9
baskets for blanching fruits, 9,

38
Women county agents and funds

available, 1914-1917, 284
farm, extension work, 282, -2'.

298
Women's clubs, organization, 2!'i;

Yeast germs, action in fermentation,

112

nature, growth, and reproduc-
tion, 19, 20, 21
scum, prevention in pickling

brine, 194

Yellow wash for meat cama-. recipe.
273

Zinc tops for jars, objections. ."• ;

THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY
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