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SUCCESSFUL HOUSES

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CHARLES E. WHITE JR

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SUCCESSFUL HOUSES
AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO
DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED

LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.

TORONTO

THE ENTRANCE TO ONE'S OWN HOME.

SUCCESSFUL HOUSES
AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

BY
CHARLES E. WHITE, JR., M.A.I.A.

HOR OF "SOME WESTERN HOUSES," "SATISFACTORY TY

OF GARAGES," " WHEN YOU BUILD A LITTLE HOUSE,"

"HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE"

DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1912

Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1912.

Nortoooti

J. 8. Cushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

CONTENTS *

CHAPTER PAGB

I. WHY BUILD A HOME ........ 1

II. CHOOSING THE SITE ..... .... 9

III. HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES .... 25

IV. THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT ..... 45
V. OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 67

VI. PLANNING THE ROOMS . ... . . . .91

VII. SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED ..... . 131

VIII. A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS ..... 145

IX. EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS ...... 161

X. ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE ...... 179

XI. EXTERIOR FINISH ......... 197

XII. HOUSES OF MASONRY .213

XIII. How TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE 237

XIV. CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK ...... 259

XV. THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD ROOF ..... 273

XVI. PLUMBING THAT is SANITARY ; WATER AND SEWER PIPES . 285

XVII. LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES 307

XVIII. LITTLE DETAILS OF GOOD PLUMBING 333

XIX. SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE COUNTRY . . . . . 343

XX. EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS ...... 351

XXI. PLASTERING ; INSIDE AND OUTSIDE . . . . . . 379

XXII. FINISHING TOUCHES ; PAINTING AND GLAZING . . . 389

XXIII. USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES 401

VI CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XXIV. GAS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING 426

XXV. PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE .... 437

XXVI. HANDY HOUSE DEVICES ....... 455

XXVII. REMODELING ; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW . . . 465

XXVIII. SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES .... 481

XXIX. GARAGES AND GARAGE APPARATUS 497

INDEX 509

SUCCESSFUL HOUSES
AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW
TO BUILD THEM

CHAPTER I

WHY BUILD A HOME?

AN inherent desire seems to be born in every one to have a
home of one's own, to possess a little place, however small,
to be one's own lord and master. This desire is natural. It
betokens a healthy mind, a worthy ambition, a lofty ideal.

There are many reasons why it is not to one's best interests to
rent. Recall the most responsible men and women of any town
and you will find theyuare the -property owners. The man who
does not own his home is looked upon by others as an underling or
weakling. He is regarded in the eyes of his neighbors as lacking
in initiative, in the eyes of his family he is considered unfor-
tunate, in his own mind he realizes that he has never quite
achieved success.

Look about and see the men on small salaries who own their
homes. They have toiled no harder than others, but rigid
economy has made it possible to squeeze out a few dollars a
month to apply to their house contract, and in after years they
have something to show for the money expended.

Why should we help to support our landlord? If a small
amount of capital invested each month by those who have not
the ready cash to pay for a house and lot will in the end provide
a home, why not use these sums in that way instead of handing
them to the landlord, enriching him at our own expense ?

2 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

To be sure, the houseowner has a load on his shoulders, one
that may keep him toiling, grinding, to provide payments for
his house, but this discipline is usually a benefit. Many a dollar
which would otherwise go into unnecessary things is swallowed
up in the house-building project, and the result is, in later years
the houseowner has something substantial to show for his hard
work, not merely a collection of rent receipts.

The houseowner is independent. He is not obliged to move
from pillar to post at the will of his landlord, nor is he constrained
to adjust his mode of life to the pattern of a rented house. The
houseowner has stability which the renter does not have. He
occupies a stronger position in the community. His social
status is higher. His family is more important. The house-
owner can take more interest in life because he has gone through
that most important of life's experiences, the building of a
home. He enjoys his rest and recreation because he feels that
he has a roof over his head, a shelter for himself and his family,
one that it has been his glorious privilege to build and remains
his to maintain.

Many plan to build their own home but are deterred because
they are afraid to make the start. They fear the plunge as they
would a cold-water bath, forgetting that contemplation is the
cruelest part of cold water, the bath itself being much less ter-
rible. Many live right up to their incomes, when a slight amount
of pinching might secure a sum sufficient to build the house.
And so, when old age claims them, many are still living the
lives of transients, drifting about from block to block, town to
town.

Generally speaking, there are two kinds of building invest-
ments ; one, building to own, and the other, building to rent or
sell. Both are very different, and no prospective houseowner
should make the mistake of supposing that a house built for one's
home and one built to rent or sell are the same. Optimistic real-
estate dealers sometimes work out wonderful results on paper,

WHY BUILD A HOME? 3

but in all truth it should be said that investing in a home does
not usually yield such profits as investing in a house to be sold
or rented.

When a house is built to sell or rent it is not, as a rule, so well
built as the house built for one's own home. Construction is
lighter throughout, trim is more simple, arrangement of
rooms less ideal, least costly. On the other hand, the man who
starts out to build a house for himself is not satisfied to build
along stereotyped, real-estate lines. He has notions of his own,
ideas which he is bound to express in the new building; conse-
quently the new home is more expensive than a house built solely
for investment. Houseowners should realize this point ;
they should not look upon the building of a home in the same
way they look upon an investment, for the chances are, the same
sum invested in a home will bring less returns than a like amount
invested in property for sale or rent. If the increased comfort
and pleasure in owning one's home are not taken into considera-
tion, the home as a mere money-maker is not a success. Con-
sidering the lifelong advantage of living in one's own house,
however, the home becomes an investment, one that will give
returns beyond the utmost expectations of the most sanguine
owner.

The man who has amassed sufficient fortune to build a house,
paying cash for it, is greatly to be envied. By far the majority
of houseowners build on borrowed money, and it frequently
takes years before the property passes entirely into their hands,
but in the meantime, while they have been paying for their
houses, they have been living in them. They have been rear-
ing families in their own homes, and by this example they have
planted the seeds of thrift so that their children may reap some
of the benefit.

To build on borrowed money is comparatively easy for the
business man or salaried employee who has been thrifty
enough to save, say, $250 to $500 to start with. On favorable

4 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

terms building loan associations (or individuals) take this first
payment and proceed to erect the building, the prospective
owner having signed a contract to pay a certain sum per month
until the value of the house, lot, and interest has been paid.
For instance, on a small cottage and lot worth $3600 (including
interest) the owner starts with a payment varying from $250 to
$500, after which he pays $30 a month until the debt is cleared.
Thus, in less than ten years his indebtedness is paid off and he
owns the property, clear.

On the other hand, see how an owner comes out if he rents
his home. Assuming that his rent is $30 per month he will
have paid out $3600 in ten years, or nearly enough to have
paid for the property. Quite likely at the end of that time
he is obliged to move, losing what has been a home for him-
self and family so long that it seems to them to be actually
theirs.

Frequently, instead of entering into a building contract with
a loan company the prospective owner purchases a lot outright,
after which he borrows money from a bank, the bank securing
itself by a mortgage upon the property. The cost per year of
a $5000 property wlren the owner is able to pay $2000 to start
with, is about as follows :

Taxes ($22 on $1000), assessed valuation, $4500 .... $ 99.
Fire Insurance, 40 cents per hundred, 3 years (80% of valua-
tion per year, on house costing $4000) 4.27

Repairs (approximate) 70.

Interest on Borrowed Money, 6% on $3000 180.

Interest on Capital of $2000 (3%, savings bank rates) . . 60.
(Water, Gas and Electric Light not included)

Per Year $413.27

Per Month 34.44

This is, in effect, paying rent, but the result is different, for in
the end the houseowner has the property, clear. In the mean-

WHY BUILD A HOME? 5

time he has had the use of it ; so long as he keeps up payments
the property is in effect his own and after the payments are
completed it is his very own, to dispose of or retain, as he desires.
In fact, even before payments have been entirely completed he
can sell the property, subject to the mortgage upon it, frequently
getting his money back with profit, besides.

Buying property on installments is a boon for the poor man
and often a great convenience for the well-to-do, the man
who dislikes to take capital away from his business to build
a house. Buying property in this way teaches every man
to save systematically. It inspires him to apply his surplus
earnings in a permanent investment instead of wasting it as
he goes along, and he has the additional satisfaction that
comes with the knowledge that he is doing what is best for his
family.

A man who owns his home is usually able to save more money
than the man who rents, because he has an incentive to do so ;
it is a great satisfaction to him and to his family ; it is a great
convenience, especially when children are considered. Owning
one's home is conducive to better health. It increases the
stability and dignity of the family, and after the new property
advances in value (as most properties do) the owner reaps the
benefit not the landlord.

Owners usually take better care of their own property than
renters do of the landlord's. Every one knows that deprecia-
tion on property occupied by the owner is much less than when
occupied by tenants. Lawns and gardens on a place occupied
by the owner are usually kept in better condition, for the owner
feels more pride in a place of his own, and he realizes that the
w>rk done to improve the property will not be lost to him,
later.

The following renting table is of interest, as it shows the
value of sums paid to a landlord for rent during a period of
years :

SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

RENT TABLE (PAID TO THE LANDLORD), 6% INTEREST, COMPOUNDED

ANNUALLY

PER MONTH

IN 10 YEARS

IN 15 YEARS

IN 20 YEARS

$ 8

$1265

$2234

$ 3531

1581

2793

4414

1898

3351

5297

2372

4189

6621

3163

5586

8828

3954

6982

11,035

4730

8358

12,251

When placed in a savings bank the rapid increase of even small
sums is startling when one realizes it for the first time. For
instance, the small sum of $2 saved each week and banked
at 4% interest, reaches in ten years the quite respectable
sum of $593.52. Beginning with such an amount, gradually
saved by laying away a small sum each week, and invest-
ing it in one's own home is undoubtedly a very wise thing
to do.

The houseowner is a broader-minded individual than the
tenant. His credit is better; he has more importance in the
eyes of the world. The houseowner makes a better citizen, for
he abides more strictly by the law ; he is temperate in all things
because of his added responsibility. He is more frugal, more
thrifty, more likely to seize an opportunity when it comes his
way, because he knows from experience the value and power of
money. It requires greater exertion to build and maintain* a
home than to rent one, so the houseowner is not so prodigal or
extravagant as the tenant.

The following table shows the amounts resulting from small
sums, placed in a bank at 3% interest :

WHY BUILD A HOME?

SAVINGS TABLE, BANK INTEREST 3%, COMPOUNDED SEMI-ANNUALLY

PER WEEK

IN 5 YEARS

IN 10 YEARS

IN 15 YEARS

$ 278.24

$ 595.09

$ 909.94

554.79

1208.38

1968.79

1396.87

3019.22

4919.28

HOUSE OF THE ENGLISH TYPE ON A WOODED SITE.

CHAPTER II

CHOOSING THE SITE

OF not less importance than building the house is selection of
the building site. By careless, immature consideration of loca-
tion an unfortunately large proportion of house-building projects
are spoiled before ever the house is built. Through igno-
rance or indifference owners frequently omit appreciative con-
sideration of this most important matter, in many cases looking
about them and hastily selecting a site in some locality in which
they wish to dwell, with but one idea in view, price and general
appearance of the property. Countless times owners have made
this mistake, choosing their building site without considering it
from every point of view.

Before a lot is bought, one should decide to take as much land
as one can afford. Even if the house is made smaller to make up
for the added expenditure, it is wise to get as large a lot as pos-
sible. Many otherwise beautiful suburban communities have
been ruined by building large houses on small lots. Row after
row of them, with only a few feet between each house, their
appearance is very unattractive. Many houseowners solve
the problem of more land by striking farther out into the country
where land is cheap. They find it is possible to get 100 to 150
feet at the price of 40 or 50 feet nearer town. Room to breathe
is what every houseowner wants ; space in which his wife and
children may thrive. You cannot get all there is in out-door life
when the house covers the entire lot.

Selecting a site requires care, not a little skill, and much pa-
tience. It is rarely wise to invest hastily in any piece of prop-
erty unless one has been familiar with it for some time.

10 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW' TO BUILD THEM

Before deciding to build in a certain town one should walk
about from street to street in all districts and make a minute
inspection of the character of every neighborhood. It is prob-
able that the choice will be largely determined by proximity of
friends or relatives, or at least acquaintances, and it will be well
to get from them facts relating to the different sections of the
town, with advice as to the advisability of living in any partic-
ular district.

Information concerning the town itself is extremely desirable
if the prospective buyer is not already familiar with it, -
information concerning the character of its government, as
judged by the laws passed. Sound, stable, just laws usually
lead to a healthy, constructive, progressive growth of the town,
but unjust, destructive ordinances, or local laws favoring vicious
or unscrupulous elements, bring about the reverse.

Of .course price will play its part in the selection of the de-
sired location. Property in the choicest parts of town may be
beyond one's means, and it may be necessary to choose a less
desirable site, for that reason, but in the majority of cases good
building lots can be purchased somewhere in any town for the
price one desires to pay. If cost of land near the center of town
is too high, it is always possible to. go to the outskirts where
property has not been so extensively developed, and a lot can be
purchased at a less price than in more settled districts.

Buying building property on the edge of town, however, is
sometimes more or less of a lottery, as it is impossible to deter-
mine in advance just what the future development of such a
property will be. This uncertainty is somewhat of a problem,
and the judgment of even the most expert is often at fault.
It sometimes happens that a section which has every indication
of desirability, and which every one expects will be built up
with houses of the best class occupied by people of standing,
sometimes goes very much the other way. Thus it seems im-
possible to form a very accurate opinion in advance of the actual

CHOOSING THE SITE

growth of such property. However, common sense is more
often right than wrong, and slow, calm, unbiased consideration
of the problem will usually lead to a correct estimate.

All things being equal, the character of the first houses built
on a new property stamp it for all time to come, and nothing
means more to its future development than tasteful houses of

EXTENSIVE PLACE A FEW MILES PROM TOWN WHERE PROPERTY is COMPARA-
TIVELY CHEAP.

good design. On the other hand, cheap-looking houses or houses
in poor taste will do more to curtail healthy development than
anything else. Frequently after purchasing a lot in a new sec-
tion one's own is the first house built. This gives an opportunity
to start the growth of the place in the right way, and it will
probably insure the upbuilding of a high-grade residence dis-
trict if the first house is properly designed.

After general consideration of the section of town in which
you desire to live, next examine its natural advantages, such as

12 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

location of schools and churches and distance from railway or
trolley lines. Any or all of these conditions should have their
influence when there is under consideration an investment which
represents so much capital tied up, possibly for a lifetime.
Such an ordinary circumstance as unpleasant neighbors might
make the difference between happiness and discomfort. Pleas-
ant neighbors are above all else desirable, and one should find
out as carefully as possible just who one's neighbors are and
how they stand in town.

Good roads are necessary to the proper growth of any section,
and the wise owner always considers this point. If the street
on which your lot is situated presents a bad appearance find out
when it is to be put in condition. Will the new owner be called
upon to pay an assessment for this work? The owner should
find out these points, as it may make considerable difference to
him if he is to be called upon at some future time to pay for
street improvements. If this is part of his contract to pay
such assessments the purchase price of the building lot should
be correspondingly less.

When a well-improved street does not already exist in front of
the property it should be the aim of an owner to have street
improvements made as soon as possible, for poorly built streets
are a great detriment to any locality. Streets in outlying dis-
tricts near the new property should also be examined to see if
the general trend of that section is healthy.

In many cities and towns of the middle west it is a custom to
improve streets before the property is placed on the market, put-
ting in sewer, water and gas pipes and building sidewalks and
curbs. Of course a proportionate share of such improvements
is charged to each lot and included in the purchase price. The
general effect of this method is good, and almost any owner is
glad to pay the increased price for his lot in order to have all
the improvements, rather than bother with them, himself. If
gas pipes, water and sewer pipes are not already laid in the street

CHOOSING THE SITE 13

the owner should know it on the start. Before he can definitely
decide upon the desirability of that site, he must know whether
or not he will be called upon to make these improvements.

Examine also into the matter of fire and police protection.
Is the district well policed? Is the fire department efficient?
Insurance rates are directly affected by the latter, and the one
fact of a poorly organized fire department might well cause a
prospective owner to hesitate before he makes an investment in
such a town. Building restrictions will, of course, be looked up
before the owner pays down his money. In a residence dis-
trict there should be a restriction against flat buildings, other-
wise his property might be depreciated by the erection of an
apartment building next door. Restrictions should also exist
regarding distance of building line from the street (such and
such a number of feet from sidewalk to the front wall of the
house) . All property owners being under the same restrictions,
one man is prevented from shutting off his neighbor's view by
building his house closer to the street than another.

In a residence district, it is customary to have restrictions
regarding stores and other business blocks not ordinarily con-
sidered desirable there. Often, there are also restrictions re-
garding the locating of barns and garages, placing fences, and
not infrequently districts are restricted as to the cost of houses,
none being allowed which cost less than a certain amount. All
these restrictions, though they may seem arbitrary to the pro-
spective owner, will in the long run work out to his benefit, for
they insure the future development of property along the lines
he most desires. Of course, some of the restrictions may not
work out with his own plans, in which case it will be necessary
for the buyer to purchase his building site elsewhere. Restric-
tions are sometimes inserted in the contract made between the
owner of the property and the buyer, and often they are noted
directly in the deed. They remain binding upon the buyer
and his successors, whoever they may be.

14 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

In considering schoolhouses and churches do not allow their
location to influence you too strongly. For instance, one might
prefer to locate near a school for the convenience of the children,
or it might seem practical to buy a lot near a church where the
walking distance is not too great. You should remember, how-

wWfff

SHOWING LACK OF TREES ; A NEW HOUSE WHICH WILL BE GREATLY IMPROVED
WHEN TREES ARE PLANTED.

ever, that a few blocks more or less do not greatly influence the
time it takes to go to school or church, and so many other con-
siderations are more important it is not well to allow lesser ones
to interfere.

In judging the appearance of surrounding property the pro-
spective owner should consider the condition of the lawns,
grounds, and buildings of his neighbors, for this will inform him
without further inquiry whether it is a progressive neighbor-

CHOOSING THE SITE 15

hood or not. Well-kept lawns, carefully preserved trees, taste-
fully displayed flowers and shrubs of neighboring places do much
toward keeping up the valuation of the property. Houses ill
kept and in bad repair are a detriment to any neighborhood,
undoubtedly tending to depreciate real estate in the entire dis-
trict. Looking " run down at the heels," such a section is bound
to have a downward trend, new owners preferring to invest in
some other locality where conditions are better.

Trees along the street undoubtedly help the general effect
of property, while lack of trees may be considered as lowering
its tone. Well-matured trees increase the purchase price of the
building lot, but this is more than worth while to the buyer,
not only to enhance the beauty of his house and grounds,
but as a guarantee of the future desirability of his property,
which almost always follows when the streets surrounding it
are shady and attractive.

The future development of the district and consequent in-
crease or decrease in the value of his property should not be
overlooked by the prospective buyer. Though he may not be
building for an investment, the wise man considers carefully
the financial end of the problem. No one wishes to load upon
his family after he is gone the burden of an undesirable piece of
property. On the contrary, it should be the aim of every owner
to buy property that will grow in value so that, upon emergency,
it may be sold at a good profit.

Cost of the prospective house should also figure in the build-
ing-site transaction, for it will not do to build an expensive house
on a cheap lot, nor, on the other hand, is it well to build an in-
expensive house on a costly lot. Every owner should realize
that something may happen to him in course of time, business
reverses, sickness, or disability, which may make it necessary
for him to sell his place and move elsewhere. It is very difficult
to dispose of a cheap lot when there is a somewhat pretentious
house upon it, for the reason that a buyer who can afford such

16 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

a house most certainly desires a better location and larger lot.
For the same reason a small, cheap house built upon a large, ex-
pensive lot is also difficult to dispose of because the buyer who
desires a small house usually requires one at a moderate price ;
an expensive lot in connection with a small house would prove
too expensive for most small house buyers.

By examining houses already built in town the owner can
determine what size is generally built on a lot of standard
proportions. He is then in a better position to judge the size
and price of the building lot most practical for his own house.
Such practices may seem unduly conservative to the prospective
buyer, but later on in life when conditions have changed he will
be glad that his business acumen led him to invest money. wisely,
even in his own home.

The size of lot chosen by the owner is largely determined
by the price he wishes to pay. In good sections of some towns
ordinary lots with frontage of 50 feet cost as high as $5000. Of
course this means in the residence districts of moderate-sized
towns, for land in large cities is more dear, even, than this. The
purchaser must carefully consider the price he wishes to pay and
invest his money where he will get the most good from it. It
woujd be absurd for the ma*n who wants to buy a lot for $1000
to expect to get it in a location where land is two or three times
as high. For him, the most desirable pieces of property are
where land is cheaper, away from the center of town. Some
owners make the mistake of preferring a small lot in the choicest
section of town to a large lot on the outskirts. This is usually
unwise, for a lot too small can never be really enjoyed, while, on
the other hand, a larger lot in the outskirts gives greater pleasure
and may some day prove as desirable a location as any in town.

The 50-foot lot in town or country, though it is a size
frequently sold, is too small for most purposes. Property with a
frontage of 75 feet is better; a frontage of not less than 150 feet
is ideal. Many are just beginning to realize this fact, and new

CHOOSING THE SITE 17

houses are going up in localities out in the fields where land is
cheap. This does not mean that a house on a 50-foot lot cannot
be comfortable and attractive, nor do we intend to imply that
even 40 feet is too small for a pretty house. We would simply
call attention to the fact that a narrow lot greatly adds to the
complexity of the problem; a problem already sufficiently
encumbered with difficulty to make it desirable to simplify as
much as possible.

After you have tentatively selected the section of town in
which you wish to live, having viewed the problem from every
side, you are in a position to give further consideration to the
actual lot best for your house. On this score you must remem-
ber that there is not always a great deal of choice between two
or more pieces of property, and it may not be easy to make a
decision. Points of compass, location of trees, grade (whether
the property is high or low, wet or dry), position of neighboring
houses, and many other conditions affect the desirability of a
building lot. Some decision will have to be made as to whether
a corner lot or an inside lot is most desirable. The character of
the soil is also quite important.

Many buyers prefer a lot with a west frontage. Others claim
an east frontage is best, to catch the morning sun in the front
of the house. There is some truth in the latter idea, for
if the house faces due east, the morning sun will come in at the
front windows during the coolest time of day, while the
afternoon sun, entering the front windows of a house facing
west, is sometimes disagreeably warm in hot weather. This
is straining the point very fine, of course, for on the other
hand, the hot afternoon sun is unwelcome shining in the
kitchen windows of a house with an east front. It is
only a matter of determining which one prefers, sun in front or
in back, and the houseowner must settle this point himself.
As a matter of fact, many successful houses are located with
frontage to the east, and many with frontage to the west. The

IS SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

same holds true as to north and south fronts. Either may be
successful, if a house is arranged to make the most of it ; so the
owner need not worry too much about this point, though he
should give it some study before buying his lot.

If the house is to be built somewhere near the center of a lot,
trees at this point will require thinning out to make room for

VALUE OF TREES NEAR A HOUSE.

the house. For this reason, trees on the edge of a lot and along
the sidewalk are best. Not a tree should be cut down until the
house is started, however, and then only enough to provide
room for the building. After *the house is entirely completed
and one has lived in it awhile, it is easier to determine what trees
should be sacrificed to let sun into dark rooms or make pretty
vistas from the windows.

CHOOSING THE SITE 19

How many houseowners make mistakes when it comes to
grading ? A large proportion, without doubt ; and yet it is easy
to use good judgment in considering this important point. A
little thought will convince any one that a low lot, not much more
than a hole in the ground, will be expensive to level up suffi-
ciently to provide proper drainage. The finished, graded sur-
face of any lot must have enough slope to carry water away from
the building and prevent its soaking through into the cellar,
and this fact must be borne in mind when the lot is bought. A
site requiring too much filling is less desirable than one that is
already high and dry. At the same time, a lot on a hillside may
require expensive retaining walls to hold the banks, in addition
to steps which might be needed to reach one level from another,
work which tends to make the finished premises more pictur-
esque and attractive but adds greatly to the expenditure.

The position of neighboring houses should influence your de-
cision in buying a lot, for if they are located too near your line,
it might be impossible to arrange the house as you wish, with-
out getting too close to your neighbors. Then, too, the char-
acter of neighboring houses may add to or detract from the ap-
pearance of your property. Good-looking places near by should
help, but ugly houses, or houses in vulgar taste certainly will
not improve the appearance of your own property. Even more
undesirable than ugly houses are houses in poor repair, which
always detract from the appearance of an entire neighbor-
hood.

There are many advantages in an inside lot and others equally
as important (or greater) in a corner lot. The inside lot usually
costs less than a corner lot, and it costs less to improve the former,
as a general rule. In addition to these advantages, inside lots
require but one sidewalk, whereas corner lots require two,
one on each street, another advantage in favor of the inside
lot. There is also less lawn to build and keep up, fewer trees
to set out in the parkway and, in most cases, less shrubbery.

20 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

On the other hand, a corner lot is usually more sightly than
an inside lot, and there will be a better view from the windows
of the house. At the same time, more view of house and grounds
may be had from the two streets bounding a corner lot.

Some knowledge of soils, their characteristics and the treat-
ment required for lawns, flowers, trees, and shrubs is useful when
hunting for a building lot. You cannot have a good lawn when
the soil is imperfectly drained, nor can you have a dry base-
ment under the new house if the foundations stand in a mud-
hole. It is surprising what little thought some buyers give to
many of these little things, frequently ignoring them entirely.
They seem to think their duty is done and a successful result
assured when they have selected a site within their means, in a
desirable location, and they are not inclined to go much into
details. Many years of most discouraging work might be
avoided by a little careful consideration of drainage, for it is
very hard to correct poor natural conditions.

Sand is excellent to build a house upon, providing the excava-
tion is shored up with planks to prevent it from caving in while
the wall is being laid. Sand, or sandy loam, consisting of sand
interspersed with clay, makes a good foundation, and such lots
artMisually well drained besides having the natural advantage of
a soil ordinarily rich enough to make grass, flowers, and shrubs
grow luxuriantly.

Clay soil is less desirable, though it will do very well when
well drained. Poorly drained clay soil gets muddy in wet
weather. In dry weather, clay under the lawn bakes very hard,
making it almost impossible to get a good growth of grass.
Sometimes such lawns crack open in hot weather. Of course
all these faults can be remedied by laying a good subsoil, but
such practices are expensive, and the owner should understand
what he is getting into beforehand.

Lots situated on a hillside are very desirable, if too much
grading is not required to make them habitable. As a matter

CHOOSING THE SITE

of fact, hillside lots or lots on the edge of a bluff invariably have
a beautiful effect -when the building is completed. Such sizes
as these gladden the heart of the architect, who can get 'a pic-
turesque result with the houses built upon them. Lots of irregu-
lar shape are frequently desirable for the same reason. They
enable the skillful architect to erect houses somewhat out of the

A HILLSIDE SITE WITH GREAT POSSIBILITIES.

ordinary. Plain, rectangular lots can be treated only in a some-
what conventional way though they are, of course, not unde-
sirable. It is true that the greater proportion of building sites
are rectangular and level, or nearly so, and any architect who is
really skillful can get good results from them.

The legal side in purchasing a lot should be understood by
the buyer before he embarks in his enterprise. In the first

22 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

place, he should demand evidence of a " clear title," that is,
the abstract which will be handed to him to examine before the
sale is made should contain a complete history of the property
from its first owners down to the present. Every transaction
in which the property was involved should be therein recorded ;
every lien that was ever placed on the property should be
inscribed and a note made of the manner of disposing of such
liens.

There is a difference between a deed and an abstract. The
former merely records one transaction in which the seller con-
veys the property to its new owner. The latter contains a com-
plete history of the lot. To the layman, the abstract is a piece
of paper difficult to read understandingly, couched as it is in
legal terms. It is an excellent idea to have a lawyer examine this
paper, looking up the various legal processes through which
the property may have passed with a view to assuring the new
owner that -the title is clear. Another excellent custom is to
secure what is known as a " warranty deed" in which a warrant
for the title is given to the new owner, agreeing to refund the
price of any liens or claims that might come up in the future.
Thus the buyer is guaranteed that his title to the property is
perfect, the seller being willing to indemnify him for any loss he
might be put to through any imperfection in the title. A per-
centage on the purchase price is usually charged for a warranty
deed, but the additional insurance giveri the owner that his prop-
erty will stand is well worth the price of the deed.

In addition to the deed, the warranty deed and an abstract
of the lot, another precaution is sometimes well taken by the
owner. He should examine the city, town, or county records
to see if all taxes have been paid to date. Otherwise, an un-
scrupulous seller might deed to the buyer property on which
taxes are due. It is better to require that the seller shall de-
liver property free from all incumbrances, though oftentimes
the buyer is willing to assume these obligations. There is no

CHOOSING THE SITE 23

reason why the new owner should not take on these liabilities
so long as he knows beforehand what the incumbrances are, and
what expenditure will be required to clear them off. Most
property owners require from a seller his tax and assessment
receipts as proof that all liabilities are paid.

THE CHARM OF ROUGH BROWN SIDING AND GRAY PLASTER.
Tallmadge and Watson, Architects.

CHAPTER III

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

''DESIGN" is that subtle quality which makes your house a
misdemeanor or an architectural triumph. Correctly speaking,
the term " design" includes the practical side of house build-
ing construction, as well as the aesthetic side for when
we say ''such a man is a clever house designer," we should
mean he is a good construct ionist as well as an artist.
But the word "design" has come to have a popular meaning
well understood by most people. Used in this way, "design"
refers merely to the aesthetic side of the problem, and according
to this popular interpretation of the word, when we say "that
is a good design," we mean merely that it is artistic.

Since primitive cave men first hollowed out their dwellings
and then went to the extra labor of embellishing them by smooth-
ing the walls, hanging skins of wild animals here and there,
the craving for "design," as indicated by treatment of exterior
and interior wall surfaces, has been incorporated in the life of
mankind the world over. An innate desire to beautify seems
to cling to the entire human race, and most men, not content
with mere comfort, require in their dwellings something more.
Probably early attempts at decoration were combined with a
desire to secure greater comfort. Skins were at first thrown up-
on the floor to furnish convenient resting places, and the crude
lintel over a doorway was molded, primarily, to drip the water
off. However this may be, man has always instinctively ap-
preciated pleasing composition in form and color, and his modern
habitations are merely more skillful applications of the prin-
ciples handed down from his primitive ancestors.

26 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Of course, many modern houses fall short in what we term
" design." Many attempts to beautify result in chaos, and
many buildings, spoiled by the unrestrained efforts of immature
designers to get an effect, would be more pleasing, architec-
turally, if no such attempts had been made. Ugly houses fail,
usually, in the very qualities their designers labored so hard to
get.

The best way to obtain some knowledge of design is to study
houses already built. Select houses known to be in good taste,
and analyze them. Try and discover what features in the
exterior produced the successful result, and you will be sur-
prised to see how quickly one begins to understand the prin-
ciples of design.

Man is more imitative than he is imaginative, and for this
reason the most satisfactory ideas in house design are the pro-
cess of years of evolution rather than spontaneous. accomplish-
ment. Architects, when they work on a composition, rarely
start with an absolutely new idea such as inventing, in fact, an
entirely different type of building. They are more or less in-
fluenced by houses already built which they, with natural in-
stinct, appreciate and understand. This has brought about a
condition in architectural design which practically divides the
entire field of house building into schools or styles. Styles or
types in house design which have been in vogue at different
times, are quite marked. For instance, when we study any
period of history and examine the style of architecture then in
vogue we find that most houses of that period are similar in de-
sign. Of course the individuality of each designer was stamped
more or less on every building, but in the main, all houses of the
same period are very much alike. Then, gradually, such types
began to change. One designer, more clever than his colleagues,
may have introduced a new idea, possibly nothing more than a
change in the outlines of a cornice ; or some new building
material may have been introduced into the country, changing

ItOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES 27

conditions so that old forms were no longer practical; or
some fad or fancy from a foreign land may have crept into the
work, until gradually, the architectural forms changed and a new
style was evolved.

Style is not a mere external covering, a something to be
applied outside. Style is vital, structural, as well as orna-
mental. The designer needs to have the style he proposes to
use well in mind from the beginning, otherwise he will be apt to
produce a disjointed, unrelated result.

But right at the start let it be said that " style" is not neces-
sarily a copy of any fashion that has gone before. You don't
have to design your building in English, Dutch, Colonial, or
Spanish Renaissance to give it style, unless you wish to. A
character or style of your own can be given to it if you choose,
"style" in this case being merely the individual characteristics
your design has.

The problem in any house is to get up a design that shall be
simple enough to come within the appropriation, but individual
enough to make the design attractive. These are the almost
impossible elements to reconcile, yet this is done successfully
every day by skillful designers.

Style is not of chief importance in a design, for a building may
be in any style and appear beautiful or ugly according to the
efficiency of the designer. Most styles are beautiful when well
done. Some buildings of no particular style are artistic suc-
cesses. There are few designs, however, which do not show
some influence of a previous style, most of them reflecting the
mannerisms or fashions of some former period. " Nothing is
new under the sun" is as true of architecture as any other art or
science, and the cleverest designer in the world cannot hope to
do more than stamp his own strong individuality upon work
which undoubtedly borrows something from the architecture of
all ages.

In this chapter we will not attempt to go into architectural

28 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

history, nor will we take up valuable space in discussing the
many interesting points showing how one architectural style
melted into another, or how sudden reversions from the fashions
of one period gave birth to a new style. We will simply note

piiiiiiiiiiiiiiinimn.il

OLD COLONIAL HOUSE AT SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS.

a few of the most beautiful and useful styles in house design,
as employed in modern times.

Everybody is interested in the so-called " Colonial" style,
brought to America by early colonists from England. Nothing
proves man's imitative nature better than this example of archi-
tectural ideas from the fatherland, brought to the new world
and applied hit-or-miss to new conditions. Considering, first,
that period when the colonists had reached a position of afflu-

HOW .TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

ence (beyond the pioneer, log-cabin period) when they could
build houses architecturally adorned, the structures were al-
most identical in style with houses in old England. Indeed,
portions of houses were brought bodily in ships ; mantelpieces,
doors, windows, and sometimes large sections of wall paneling
purchased abroad
were built into the
new houses of the
colonists, and
American towns re-
sembled modified
forms of English
towns.

House styles usu-
ally grow slowly,
modified by chang-
ing conditions.
Even to-day, Colo-
nial houses strongly
resemble their pro-
totypes, though there are now many points of difference.
Changed customs of life, with new and more modern methods
of construction, have modified the architecture of the colonists,
though many little details of design are still adhered to.

Modern architectural design in the Colonial style is a sort of
free adaptation of the old houses of New England, New York,
Pennsylvania, and the South. Usually these houses are broad,
with a hall in the center and rooms on both sides, such as make
the best appearance on lots not less than 100 feet wide. Some-
times a narrow, corner lot with 50-foot frontage on one street
,and more on a side street, is large enough for a good Colonial
design, when the house is placed with its long frontage on the
side street. Of course, small Colonial cottages are frequently
built on very small building sites, but cottages are usually more

HISTORIC OLD HOUSE IN THE SOUTH.
(Formerly owned by Henry Clay.)

30 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

successful when free and picturesque, not following the more
stereotyped forms of the real Colonial style. Care should be
taken, however, to keep the design so simple in outline that it
will not depart too much from the established lines of old Colo-
nial houses.

MODERN ADAPTATION OF OLD COLONIAL HOUSE.
Lionel Moses, II, Architect.

Modern Colonial work is often handled in a delightfully fresh
and original way, but it takes a real artist to do this. House-
owners should insist that their Colonial designs be sensible and
quite plain. Quaint and refined as Colonial houses are, they
should not be distorted to fit building lots of peculiar shape or
take care of unusual requirements of plan. If the site will not
permit of a rather long building with central entrance, on a

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

fairly level space, you had better choose for your house some
style other than Colonial.

The Colonial style in its strictest form demands more or less
set conditions, but there are many adaptations of Colonial that
can be used for sites of peculiar shape and grade, or where the con-

HOUSE SOMEWHAT COLONIAL IN TYPE.

ditions of the problem require unusual treatment of the design.
When using Colonial cornices, Colonial porches, balustrades,
and windows (the latter set symmetrically, one over the other)
such a design can be made very successful. A house like this
may not be "Colonial," in that it may not resemble the staid
old house of the colonists, but in modern parlance it is known as
" Colonial" and may reasonably be called so. In plan, such a
house can be arranged with a hall in the center or in an entirely

32 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

different way, depending upon the characteristics of the building
site and requirements of the owner.

It is instructive to observe how our cousins, the English, in-
heriting from our common ancestors precisely the same types of
houses we inherited, have developed theirs along lines best
adapted for England. American conditions of life have evolved
the American type of design, and English methods of living
have evolved their own modern English type. Nowhere in
the wide world will you find more beautiful houses than in Eng-
land. In no other land will you find houses situated in the midst
of such beautiful grounds or designed in greater harmony with
their surroundings. English country houses seem to blend into
the landscape. They have the appearance of being indigenous
to the soil, as all houses should, and in gazing upon them one
feels they are entirely successful. Every prospective house-
owner should study the characteristics of the quaint English
houses nestling down in the midst of trees and flowers, that he
may secure some of their charm for his own home.

Starting with English houses in the Elizabethan period, which
origii}#ted long before the Georgian style (foundation of our
" Colonial") it is interesting to note the character of design
used to meet the conditions then prevailing in England. Tim-
ber, while not extremely plentiful, was nevertheless the cheapest
and most adaptable material, so timber was largely employed
for the framework of every house. Elizabethan builders used
no clapboards or shingles to cover the exterior surfaces of their
houses but built brick walls between the skeleton framework of
wood, allowing the timbers of the skeleton to appear in the
design. This gave rise to the quaint patterns of timberwork
so delightful to see, built so well they have endured for cen-
turies. Modern houses in the Elizabethan style are still built
in England though they are so changed in plan that they pre-
sent quite a different appearance.

Modern building laws in England are excellent, requiring

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

in most towns structures of solid masonry. Besides this, lum-
ber is now expensive because of its scarcity, and these modern
conditions have evolved an architecture of brick and stone quite,
as attractive as houses of older periods. In modern English
work the old timberwork style has been largely superseded by

ENGLISH " TIMBER-WORK " HOUSE AS BUILT IN AMERICA.

brick and stone houses. Most often, houses of brick are covered
on the outside with stucco. Sometimes timberwork is used
sparingly on porches and gables, but in most modern English
work an entirely different type has been evolved.

The English type is entirely practical for American houses,
though American conditions, decidedly different from those in
England, greatly modify them. English servants work for

34 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

very much lower wages than Americans, hence the servant prob-
lem is much less of a problem in England than it is in America.
Lower wages in England make it possible to employ more
servants, and houses are not designed along such rigid
lines to secure convenience. English houseowners of even
moderate incomes usually employ from two to four servants.
Thus, it is not necessary to strive particularly to reduce dis-
tance from room to room
and provide a convenient
arrangement based upon the
most scientific easy house-
keeping requirements.

All these conditions are
changed in America, making
it impossible for the Ameri-
can to build his house with
more than the barest re-
semblance to the houses of
England. Nor does he wish
to, for it is better that
American conditions should produce modes of building typically
American.

English designs are noted for their picturesque effect. Roofs,
usually broken by gables, frequently slope more on one side
than another, sometimes quite down to the ground. Very
rarely do English houses have a basement under the entire
house, as the country is so well drained cellars can be omitted.
Storerooms are usually built in little wings on the ground floor,
connected with the house by walls and frequently housed under
the main roof. All this produces a delightfully rambling, quaint
look, decidedly pleasing.

English designs adapted for America can still have much
of the charm of houses in England, though they will look quite
different, American houses requiring cellars, which makes it nee-

AMERICANIZED ENGLISH TYPE.
Lawrence Buck, Architect.

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

essary to set the buildings higher from the ground. Houses in
this country must be conserved in size and arrangement to meet
the complex conditions of American housekeeping and, as Ameri-
can materials are different, we have produced a distinct, Ameri-
can type founded upon English lines. The Elizabethan style

ENGLISH TYPE OF BRICK HOUSE AS BUILT IN AMERICA.

when modified is entirely practical for American country
places, though most American adaptations of the Elizabethan
style are ordinary frame houses, covered with lath and plaster
and ornamented with imitation timberwork (thin boards nailed
to the framework of the house).

Originally imported from Holland, there is a development
of the modern Dutch style in America. It is a sort of combina-
tion of Old Dutch and new American Colonial and is very practi-

36 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

cal and attractive for suburban houses. Modern Dutch houses
are usually quite prim and symmetrical in appearance, fre-
quently placed with a central entrance broadside to the street.
Porch columns are large in diameter, with very simple caps and
bases. Most houses of this style are of the low cottage type
and bedrooms on the second story, cut by the sloping roof lines,

AMERICAN HOUSE ALONG ENGLISH LINES.

are lighted by dormer windows. Latticework is effectively used
in modern Dutch houses, and flowers and flowering vines form
integral parts of the composition.

California produced the American-Spanish type of building,
which has been handed down to us in what is known as the
" Mission" style. Here again, methods of building prevalent
in Mexico, and later in California, coupled with the architec-

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

tural influence of Spain, have evolved a distinct American
style showing Spanish influences plainly. The Mission style
is austere in character and for that reason is more successful
when contrasted with the picturesque mountains and hills of
California than it is on the plains of the middle west. It does
not reach its maximum attractiveness on a small lot, for the

QUAINT MEXICAN DWELLINGS.

Mission style seems to demand a large amount of land around
the- building, preferably rolling land. Mission " flavor" in
an ordinary stucco house situated on an ordinary building lot
is rarely successful. One should be careful that the building site
is adapted to a house of this style. The nearer a lot approaches
the character of a California landscape, the more successful
will the house be. Cement plaster is the best material to use
for the exterior covering, as cement more closely approximates
the characteristics of the old adobe buildings. It is a style

38 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

which seems to demand large, plain wall surfaces such as can be
obtained in modern buildings only by using cement. Houses
in the Mission style require special treatment as to window
grouping. Bright color is needed on the window frames and
cornices to enliven what might otherwise be a design severely
uninteresting and cold. Quite lavish use of trellises, with flow-
ers and shrubbery
greatly relieves the
severe monotony of
the style.

In Germany,
house designers are
evolving from old
styles a practical
type of house most
interesting in char-
acter. German de-
signers have been

CEMENT HOUSE SOMEWHAT OF THE MEXICAN TYPE. ver y c l ever m secur-
ing effects fitting for

theif^own country, and modified forms of this modern German
style are used successfully in America. As a rule, however,
German houses are not entirely suitable for our own country, being
frequently somewhat complex even in their simplicity. Roofs
extend in broken lines. Windows, though well grouped, are not
placed in symmetrical fashion the way they are in English and
American houses, and the result is an irregularity that seems
to be suitable for Germany but is less attractive in America.
You need only examine the little toy houses made in Germany
for sale in American shops, to understand the principles of Ger-
man design. Indeed, these toys are quite faithful miniatures of
actual German houses.

Medieval houses and castles nestling in valleys or perched on
the edge of rugged cliffs have greatly influenced modern German

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

work. German houses reflect in more conservative form the
towers and turrets of ancient German buildings, but there are
few places in America where such a style can be used unless
it be greatly modified, certainly not on the average small
American building lot. In a mountainous section, or on an ex-

AMERICAN HOUSE SHOWING GERMAN INFLUENCE.
Perkins and Hamilton, Architects.

tensive country site the German style is perfectly practical,
though even under these conditions it should be greatly Ameri-
canized.

France has a somewhat indigenous type of house different
from other countries, though many French designs are not greatly
unlike the English. Here again, different building methods
and local building materials have evolved the typical French

40 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

house for town and country. L'Art Nouveau (the "new
art") really started in Germany, but it came quickly into
vogue in France a few years ago. It is not to be recommended
as a style suitable for American houses. Based on floral forms,
it is not ideal for architectural use, as the long, flowing lines of

STONE HOUSE OP MODERN GERMAN TYPE.

this style give houses a sort of theatrical appearance. L'Art
Nouveau is a rather naive type of design in which the building
is treated in a decorative manner, representing a tree (with
roots, trunk, branches, and blossoms). Often in this style the
walls start at a base, extending toward the cornice with slightly
battered surfaces. Around door and window openings decora-
tive forms are frequently cast in cement or carved out of wood
to suggest root, branch, and flower. Cornices are often molded
in like fashion.

HOW TO KNOW THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

There is great difference between the natural growth of a
tree (as in nature) and the growth of a building constructed
laboriously, unit by unit, by means of hard work and brains.
Buildings resemble nature only by suggestion. The actual
reproduction of floral forms in the structure of a building is

AMERICAN HOUSE SHOWING JAPANESE TENDENCIES.
Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect.

far-fetched, and the result is rarely pleasing. L'Art Nouveau is
not a successful building type for houses, and the houseowner
will do well to avoid this style.

Even Japan, strange as its buildings look to our eyes, has
contributed to the development of house design in Arherica by
influencing American architects, who see much to admire in
Japanese houses. Japan is the home of virile religious ideals,
and Japanese art is strongly influenced by the hardy, poetic,
philosophic life led by the Japanese people. Japanese houses

42 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

indicate a style developed to the extreme of simplicity, and for
that reason they offer many suggestions to the American house-
owner.

Of course Japanese houses are not adaptable to American
conditions without a great many changes in design and con-
struction. American ideals will not permit one to use more
than the barest suggestion of the Japanese, such as low, plain
roof lines and other little details practical for American houses.
Clever designers who understand all the intricacies of archi-
tectural design frequently get good results without paying
attention to any particular style, depending more upon the fun-
damental principles of their art than on ideas gained from any
building already built. In the Middle West a characteristic
type of house design has been developed, which, although
slightly reflecting the influence of earlier types in America and

other countries, is
so well defined that
it is worthy of a
place as a distinct
type. Great indi-
viduality has been
developed in this
section of the coun-
try, with the result
that many of the
new ideas are de-
lightfully fresh, be-
ing quite free from
the influence of
precedent. These
tendencies have led many to think that America, at last, is to
develop a strictly American type, more pronounced than any
American styles that have gone before.

EXAMPLE SHOWING MODERN ADAPTATION OF THE
ITALIAN STYLE.

AN ENTRANCE WITH FLORAL ADORNMENTS.
George Maher, Architect.

CHAPTER IV

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

NOWHERE is the style (or school) to which a house belongs
more in evidence than in the details of exterior and interior trim.
Moldings, doors, windows, porch columns or posts, and other
accessories of this sort usually stamp the house unmistakably
as belonging to this or that style. Of course other character-
istics count, such as shape and inclination of the roof and amount
of overhang at the eaves, position and character of bay windows
and grouping of windows, all of which, intelligently worked out
according to any particular style, help to make the building a
definite example of it.

Every house contains utilities such as doors, windows, cor-
nices, gutters, water table, and molded casings around doors
and windows. These, combined with plain wall surfaces, are
all the materials the designer has with which to get his archi-
tectural effect. Color, in the shape of paint applied after a
building is completed, as well as trees, flowers, and shrubs, are of
great assistance in getting the desired effect, but in the main the
designer's composition is made up of nothing more than doors,
windows, moldings, and wall surfaces. He must skillfully em-
ploy them to produce the sensation of beauty.
v Ugly designs have the same number of parts as beautiful de-
signs, but doors, windows, moldings, and wall surfaces in this
case produce an ugly effect instead of a beautiful one, the line
between ugliness and beauty sometimes being very slight. De-
signing a house is much like mixing a cake ; slight variation in
the ingredients causes failure. The difference between an ugly
house and a beautiful one is caused entirely by the form, ar-

46 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

rangement, proportion, and color of the detailed parts of the
house. Thus, this design which one considers charming, has
refinement in its details ; that house which strikes one unpleas-
antly, is poor in proportion and arrangement of doors, windows,

molded work, and
wall surfaces.

Choice of style is
not so important an
element in the house
design as character
is in each little
detail. There are
atrocious examples
of every style of
house (no matter
how quaint and
charming such a
style may be when
well carried out) as
the result of mal-
practice by poor
designers. On the
other hand, there
are countless houses
not representative
of any school or
style, which may be
considered as marked examples of all that is beautiful in de-
sign. They seem to have an indescribable charm which carries
them beyond the realm of the commonplace, up to the heights
of the noble. After the style of one's house has been deter-
mined upon, it will be well to examine some of the character-
istics of that style, for it is impossible to make a sensible and
satisfactory design without having some knowledge of the
details which go to make up its integral parts.

COLONIAL DOORWAY ON AN OLD SALEM HOUSE.

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

Usually the first part of a house to be noticed by the casual
observer is the entrance door, and here is a great opportunity
to produce an artistic effect. The entrance door is usually a
key to the taste of the houseowner. Without examination of
any other part of the building, one may see here at a glance just

VERANDA ON END OF HOUSE.

what to expect inside the house. An entrance way simple and
refined speaks for something worth while and true within.

Old Colonial doorways usually have a quaint charm that is
irresistible. They seem to invite one to enter, and they make
one feel the charm of hospitality upon first glance. In old houses
(except old southern houses with their two-story verandas)
it was rarely the case that a large veranda encumbered the front,
which is one reason why front entrances in old houses are so

48 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

attractive. As a usual thing, a veranda extending across the
front of a house is not the most desirable arrangement. Fre-
quently, it is better to place the veranda at one end so as to
leave the view of the front entrance unobstructed. There are
other reasons why the veranda should not be on the front, as

is explained in an-
other chapter.

Though the prin-
cipal veranda need
not be in the fore
part of the house,
a small entrance
porch is desirable,
and the examples of
old Colonial houses
are excellent to fol-
low in this regard.
Frequently, old
Colonial entrance
ways consisted
merely of a flight
of steps with a small
landing at the top,
covered by a roof
supported on Greek
columns. Some-
times, as in many
Salem houses, a bay window on the second story projected
above the roof of the entrance porch. In other old houses, par-
ticularly in the West, where Colonial architecture is more free in
treatment than it is in the East (and less pure, it must be ad-
mitted), the entrance occurs in a bay window, covered by a flat
roof surmounted by a light balustrade. All these old types are
worthy of emulation, and they may be combined with modern

SIMPLE DOORWAY FOR A SMALL HOUSE.

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT 49

Colonial details to bring about most charming compositions.
Some modern adaptations of old entrance ways are quite as
beautiful as the originals from which they were taken.

Another practical type of entrance way is one slightly re-
cessed in the front fagade of the building. It can be treated in
a Colonial way with Greek columns and a Greek entablature
above, or it may have details to harmonize with any other
style. Cement steps and platforms at the front entrance are
frequently used in Colonial work, but red brick set in cement
mortar seems particularly suitable, especially if a little red
brick walk leads from the sidewalk to the steps. Tile is also
practical for the top surface of the platform, usually red
quarry tile, with wide, black joints.

A Colonial entrance way should be kept as close to the ground
as possible, indeed, any entrance Colonial or not is prettier
without a long flight of steps leading to it. In American houses
where the first floor must be several feet above ground to s*ecur,e
good light in the cellar the entrance can be especially arranged,
a few outside steps extending up to the doorway and the re-
mainder being placed in the vestibule.

The details of the front entrance door, itself, are capable of
very different interpretations, depending upon the ideas of the
designer. Remember, your entrance door is a sign of the
environment you create for your family; the badge of your
taste. Let it, then, be simple in design. A large panel of plain
plate glass is attractive in an oak door, and this style is suitable
for many houses. The woodwork may be finished light or dark
to bring out the beautiful grain of the wood, and it will resist
weather successfully if four or five coats of spar varnish are
applied, rubbed to a dull gloss. In Colonial work six or eight
smaller panes of glass should be substituted for the single large
panel. Such a design is especially adapted for pine doors, most
attractive when painted white. There is a "sweet, neat look to
a white door, perhaps impossible to get in any other. Elaborate,

50 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

over-ornamented entrance doors are, of course, eschewed by
people of refined taste.

Nothing can be prettier than the entrance doors of old houses
containing six or eight wooden panels with leaded glass sides and
transom lights. In olden times the fact that the door itself
contained no glass brought about the necessity for side lights

to properly light the
hall, incidentally
making it possible
to get a charming
effect by the judi-
cious use of leaded
glass. In modern
adaptations of old
entrance ways good
effects are obtained
by glazing the en-
trance door itself,
using side lights or
not.

An entrance door should be sheltered in some manner, either
by a hood extending over, or by recessing the door in the walls
of the building to prevent rain from beating in. Green trellises
can be used with excellent effect at an entrance way to add a
touch of pleasant color to the design, and flowers in flower boxes
placed near the entrance add much to its attractiveness. Some-
times a little balcony takes the place of hood or recess, providing
shelter from the elements and making a pretty effect from the
stair landing above. Considering the problem from all sides,
no part of the house is more important that the entrance way.
A doorway must be attractive in appearance, not forbidding,
and at the same time it should be practical in construction, for
there is much wear here.

Next in importance to the entrance door, are windows, singly

ENTRANCE PROTECTED BY A SIMPLE ROOF.

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

or in groups, which do much to make or mar the appearance
of the house. Whatever its style, a house with poorly propor-
tioned windows, or windows badly grouped, makes a poor ap-
pearance. Neither ingenuity in plan nor care in proportioning
the parts of the exterior design can overcome the disaster caused
by ugly windows.
Though primarily
intended to illumi-
nate the interior of
the house, windows
are important ele-
ments in the design,
giving a touch to
the composition
that will be good

or bad, according
to one's taste in us-
ing good windows
or bad. Plain win-
dows with small
lights above and a
single large light
below are always
practical. The up-
per sash can be di-
vided into six or
eight equal lights,
with small lights at the side and larger lights in the center.
Sometimes, especially in Colonial work, it is desirable to extend
the small lights to the lower sash as well.

Ornamental glass can be used, here and there, with good
effect if the designs are simple and the colors harmonious. Or-
namental glass in the best taste is designed after simple geo-
metrical patterns. Various arrangements of straight lines and

ORNAMENTAL GLASS OF GEOMETRICAL PATTERN.

52 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

graceful curves are much better than pretentious, elaborate
floral or pictorial designs. There should be nothing in the
house which is not sensible. Patterns using straight lines are
particularly adaptable for designs in metal bar, as the latter
material is not so easily bent into curves as the more flexible
lead bars. Spots of iridescent glass, or pretty opal bits in
just the right places are wonderfully effective. Glass designs
employing ridiculous scrolls and brilliant shades of red, green,
and yellow glass detract from any house. They look bad from
outside as well as inside.

Without doubt it is harder to keep small lights clean than
large surfaces of glass. In little panes, crevices up next to the
muntins are difficult to wipe out, but in spite of this it is rarely
wise to use large sheets of glass, solely. Large lights look like
store windows, destroying the charm of the design and making
the fa$ade look cold and unattractive. The additional labor
of washing small lights is little, and it is more than offset by the
increased attractiveness of the design.

In almost all Colonial houses windows are placed one over
the/)ther in perfect symmetry. This is a safe way to treat them,
as it always produces a dignified effect, and if the rooms are care-
fully arranged the windows will be quite as useful one way as
another. In planning a house the designer, of course, arranges
his windows where they will light the rooms best, but in doing
so he should always consider their exterior appearance. Fre-
quently, in the kitchen, where an extra amount of light and air
is required, it is good practice to have a group of three windows
with narrow wood mullions between, thus giving a greater area
of light to a room which needs all the light and air' it can get.
In such an arrangement it is a good idea to center the group
under the bedroom window above, so that, even though the
windows below do not correspond with those above, they bal-
ance with them.

In many modern houses the stairs extend up over the front

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

entrance way; that is, the front entrance is under the main
stair landing. This makes possible an engaging composition
on the exterior by permitting the use of a pretty stair window on
the landing, over the front door. A little balcony is often in-
corporated in the ar-
rangement, and the
effect is frequently
charming.

Bay windows
should be used judi-
ciously. They may
be effective in the
design, or they may
greatly mar it, ac-
cording to the skill
of the designer. The
interior aspect of
bay windows is by
no means the only
consideration, for by
reason of their shape
and projection they
become chief fea-
tures in the exte-
rior design. Whether
one wishes it or not,

bay windows always attract attention. For that reason they
must be carefully proportioned and attractively detailed. In
many houses otherwise well designed, the effect has been spoiled
by injudicious use of bay windows, situated, perhaps, where they
are useful, but with an appearance detracting from the general
effect. Treated with understanding, bay windows can be made
to help out greatly in the design.

Single-story bay windows are easiest of all to handle satis-

BALCONY OVER A MAIN ENTRANCE.

54 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

factorily. Such a bay can be simply a little projection extend-
ing to the window sill line, or it may reach down to the floor.
In the former case, the bay requires no foundations, as it is merely
hung out from the wall of the building, but in the latter case a
foundation is required. The trick to accomplish in a bay win-
dow is to make it look properly attached to the building ; that

is, a successful bay
looks as if it grew
there, while the un-
successful one has
a detached appear-
ance, much as if
built at some later
period. One of the
best ways to make
the bay window
seem an integral

WELL DESIGNED BAY WINDOW. P art of the building

is to build it of the

sam# material as the fagade from which it springs. If the house
is covered with clapboards painted white, have your bay window
white also ; if shingles compose the exterior finish of the house,
use a shingled bay ; nothing is better for a plaster-covered house
than a plaster-covered bay. Of course the clever designer often
varies his materials and follows no definite rules in this regard.
Frequently white wooden bays look most attractive on a plaster
house, but it requires considerable skill to handle them in this
way.

Some bays are square and others are three sided. It makes
no great difference in the design which kind is selected, though
in some styles square bays are more frequently used than three-
sided bays. In the English style little square bays, extending
down to the window sill height are frequently used with good
effect. They seem to be particularly suitable for casement win-

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT 55

dows, which prevail in English houses. In other styles a bay
window the full size of the room projects from the building in
the form of a large wing. This is frequently the case in a din-
ing room, where a bay the full width of the room makes an attrac-
tive appearance outside as well as in. In such a case the bay
usually contains a continuous row of windows.

Two-story bay windows are hard to treat so as to avoid a
detached appearance, but it can be done satisfactorily by ex-
tending the main roof out over the bay. Thus the horizontal
band formed by the cornice seems to dominate the perpendicular
bay, attaching it to the building. This perpendicular, tower-
like effect of a two-story bay is unattractive as a rule, and that
is what makes it difficult to manage. Some two-story bays are
successful when covered by gables projecting from the main
roof; others are so slight in projection and hug the fagade so
closely that they do not look detached.

In the Middle West a clever substitute for bay windows .has
been found in grouping windows at the corner of a room. Thus,
the interior of such a room presents somewhat the appearance
of a bay, and the exterior effect is good when corner groups are
properly designed. For this type of window the actual corner
of the building should be made wider and heavier than the mul-
lions between windows, in order to get a good exterior effect ;
otherwise the corner would look weak, much as though it could
not support the weight of wall and roof above.

There is considerable difference between casement windows
and ordinary windows (double-hung, as the latter are called).
This difference is largely brought about by the practical re-
quirements of each. Ordinary windows can be made as wide
as desired. Unless unreasonably wide (and the window does
not contain too large glass) , an ordinary window operates without
great exertion and stays in fairly good repair. This has made
it possible to use those broad, low windows now so frequently
seen, and which are of such satisfactory proportions. Case-

56 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

ment windows, on the other hand, whether they open out or in,
must be narrow, so as not to prove too heavy for the hinges by
which they are attached. This has given rise to the grouping
of casements into three or more, with narrow wooden mullions
between; thus where one wide, ordinary window will light a
room efficiently, it takes two or three of the narrow casements
to do the same work. This is not a detriment, however, for a
group of casements is very attractive.

Usually casements are cut up into small lights by wooden
muntins, or by leaded glass or metal bars. Most American
windows are based somewhat upon those used in England, where
casements are universal. Different conditions in America,
however, such as the necessity for screens (a condition less an-
noying in England), have changed the design and construction
of American casement windows, as is explained in detail in
another chapter.

Inside, windows should be as attractive as outside, and this
must be borne in mind when designing them. Broad, low,
ordinary windows are always attractive inside or out ; they
adti greatly to the homelike appearance of the rooms, a qual-
ity which most of the unsuccessful houses lack. Casements in
pairs, containing small leaded lights with a horizontal transom
above are always pretty, viewed from inside. They can be
made especially attractive outside if the little leaded bars are
painted white, to bring out the design. Groups of long, narrow
windows with horizontal transoms are attractive inside as well
as out, if they are of good proportions.

In addition to outside doors and windows, designers must
pay particular attention to window and door casings, for here
is another opportunity to get a pretty effect. As a general
thing, casings should be very plain, though they can be molded
just enough to catch the light and shade, making a little richer
appearance than smooth bands of wood. Modern thought in
design is to have everything as plain as possible, but that doesn't

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

mean plain until it borders on eccentricity. Casings need not
be heavy and clumsy to be plain, nor should exterior cornices be
moldless to be simple. Slightly molded surfaces are usually
prettier than flat surfaces, and they are just as practical,
equally as cleanly when not too elaborately molded. Fashion
has swung back again from
the odd, clumsy woodwork
of the past few years, for
it has been found that, be-
yond a certain air of unique
freshness, heavy, plain
bands of wood are not par-
ticularly attractive.

Do not, in your effort to
reduce the ornamental parts
of the house to their lowest
terms, eliminate curves en-
tirely. f Puritanical lack of
ornament is all right for a
factory, but it proves dis-
tasteful for the house.
Cornices on old Colonial
work are excellent models
to follow, and cornices on
new Colonial work may be
very satisfactory. The cor-
nice is a sort of last touch

to the exterior design. It crowns the composition and is, per-
haps, of more importance than any other part of the fagade.
Cornices can be of extreme simplicity, consisting merely of a
straight hanging metal gutter, or they may have the more com-
plex details of molded cornices. In every case it is entirely
a matter of good taste, a well-designed cornice doing much toward
increasing the attractiveness of what might otherwise be a dull

CORNICES ADAPTED FROM OLD COLONIAL
HOUSES.

58 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

design. Besides the ordinary hanging cornice there are cornices
formed or built into the roof, some of the most attractive of
which are finished with plain boards, simply paneled. Of
course the simpler cornices are inexpensive and they may be
quite as attractive, though molded cornices are not necessarily
expensive. It is the amount of material in a cornice, rather
than its shape, which determines its cost, for molded work can
be run almost as cheaply through the mill as plain work.

The amount of cornice overhang is quite important. In
some styles, like Colonial and English, cornices overhang very
little and types of moldings used on such cornices seem to look
best that way. On the other hand, plain cornices seem to
present the most attractive appearance when they project
boldly beyond the wall of the building. Houses with steep
roofs should never have unusually wide eaves, as they are too
heavy in appearance when a roof is steep. Roofs with slight
pitch look well with a boldly projecting overhang, and the edge
of such a roof (cornice) should be just the right thickness
to look well in the design. Even an inch, too thick or too
thkt, spoils its proportions, greatly marring the effect of the
design.

On houses with cement-plastered exteriors, plaster has proved
an excellent material with which to cover the underside of over-
hanging cornices (eaves). There is something very pleasing in
the simplicity of a plaster surface extending right up under the
eaves with no change in material. On frame houses covered
with clapboards or shingles, eaves are boarded or sheathed
underneath with good effect.

When an overhanging cornice is used, the exact amount of
projection depends upon the style of the building and its pro-
portions. One must avoid excessive overhangs which cut too
much light from bedroom windows. If the underside of the
cornice is plastered, or if it is of wood, painted white, reflected
light greatly assists in lighting the bedrooms. The maximum

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT 59

overhang to be practical may be set at 4 feet. Most projections
are not greater than 3 feet or 3 feet 6 inches.

First-story cornices on porch roofs, bay windows, and single-
story wings are usually lighter and more dainty than main
roof cornices. As single-story cornices are nearer the level of
the eye, they are usually smaller, so as not to appear too coarse.
This is a good point to remember, for many houses otherwise
refined in detail are hurt by the gross size of cornices used on
parts near the ground. First-story cornices should be similar
in pattern to the main cornices. Nothing is in poorer taste
than a house in which one kind of molding is used for the main
roof and another, entirely unrelated, for first-story roofs. In
much better taste are houses in which all the cornices are closely
related, though of course they need not be identical in pattern ;
frequently there are more moldings in the main cornice than
in first-story cornices, all being of similar pattern.

The water table gives another opportunity to the designer
to add to the attractiveness of his design. Whether molded,
or a plain board at the level of the first floor, it is capable of
treatment which greatly adds to the charm of the design.
Porch trimmings are also important, and they should be studied
very carefully. Porches and verandas are for comfort, first of
all, but that does not prevent them from assisting in the design.
They can be of great assistance when used discriminatingly.
Rarely is it wise to extend a covered porch entirely across the
front of the house, as houses seem to look best with the principal
veranda on one end. More about the advantages of end and
rear porches is contained in another chapter.

Porch columns can be made a means of making the design
attractive. Many types of columns are pretty and many are
practical, but none more so than well-designed Greek columns.
Formerly it was necessary for architects to carefully design porch
columns of Greek style in order to have them well proportioned,
for columns carried in stock by mills throughout the country

60 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

were in very poor taste. Now, however, many mills in different
sections make excellent ready-made porch posts patterned along
the best Greek lines. Such columns can be ordered with the
assurance that they will be correct in proportion, like those used
in ancient Greek and Roman buildings.

Greek Doric and Tuscan columns are espe-
cially good for houses, as they are the plainest
of the Greek styles, and the simple, round
capitals may be turned out of the solid wood,
whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian styles,
more ornate capitals (on posts of moderate
cost) must be made of papier-mache or com-
position.

Queer posts with little ridges and spool-like
turnings are always ugly. They are the prod-
uct of an unintelligent mind and a revolving
lathe. Even posts along Greek lines are ugly
when not correctly designed. With ornamen-
tal " neckties" around their necks, and thin,
flat bases, they pretend to smack of the noble,
but are really vulgar.

Entrance porches have already been spoken
of. They should be small, and quiet in de-
sign. Carriage porches are not so easily dis-
posed of, though they are not usually required on any but
the largest houses. A little hood projecting out from a side
door is frequently sufficient for the average house. Where a
large carriage porch is required care should be taken to avoid
a "patched-on" appearance. On English houses carriage
porches are frequently made attractive by building the entire
porch of wood, harmonizing with the bands of wood in the tim-
berwork. Practical arrangements of porches, on lower and
upper story, are explained in another chapter.

Flower boxes are now generally recognized parts of the design

ATTRACTIVE PORCH

COLUMN OF STOCK

DESIGN.

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

for producing pretty effects. Nothing can be more charming in
summer than architecturally designed boxes filled with flowers ;
indeed, some house-
owners have the
benefit of them the
year round by hav-
ing them filled in
winter with low-
growing, Japanese
evergreens. Flower
boxes can be sim-
ple little receptacles
hung under the win-
dow, or they may
be built" up from
the ground. Often,
flower boxes built
of brick or concrete are located at the sides of the front
entrance steps. Frequently little wooden boxes are used with

FLOWER Box BUILT UNDER A GROUP or WINDOWS.

THE DECORATIVE VALUE OF AWNINGS.

62 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

good effect on second-story balconies or under second-story
windows.

Trellises add charm to a house, and they are most frequently
attached to the outside wall near the front entrance. All such

SINGLE-PANEL DOOR OF OAK. BOOK WITHOUT PANELS.

accessories, simple and inexpensive as they are, add much to
the attractiveness of the design, and they should be carefully
considered. Even awnings do much to add a pretty touch of
color to houses in the summer time. With green and white
stripes (or brown and white) they add quite a festive appearance
and are, besides, useful in making rooms cooler during hot days.

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT

SMOOTH NON-PANEL DOOR.

Inside the house the importance of refined details should be
recognised as well as outside. Very plain inside doors do as
much as anything toward contributing
a feeling of good taste to the interior.
Doors were not originally intended to be
ornamental. They were first made for
the purely utilitarian purpose of shutting
up or locking one room from another.

It remained for designers of later times VENEtLRED PANELLED DOOR
to make the inside of the house hideous

with ornate, heavy patterns of peculiar paneling and turned,
fretted, and molded work. But manufacturers have been quick
to appreciate the refined taste of a more enlightened generation,

ATTRACTIVE STAIRCASE, RAIL, AND NEWEL,

64 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

and you will have no difficulty in finding excellent ready-made
patterns in all kinds of woods. Two-paneled doors of oak,
mahogany, and birch are usually attractive, and wear well.
There is a feeling of substance about them ; a look of fine sim-
plicity. Single-paneled doors are in the best possible taste,

OAK WAINSCOT ON A STAIRCASE.

especially when built of pine or birch, painted dull white. In-
side doors with a multiplicity of panels never look so well as
doors with fewer panels. Coarse, deeply grooved extraneous
moldings and heavily beveled panels are very hard to keep
clean. They are also much more expensive than simple designs
and very much less attractive.

The staircase newel post is the easiest thing in the world
to treat tastily, when properly considered. First of all, its
main purpose is to support one end of the hand rail. Thus this

THE LITTLE DETAILS THAT ATTRACT 65

humble utility deserves to be treated in a dignified manner. A
plain, square post with slightly tapering sides usually looks well.
It doesn't seem to thrust itself on one's notice like so many of
its ornate brothers and sisters, and plain posts of this sort are
especially pretty in oak, mahogany, and all woods finished with
stain. For a painted newel post the plain cylinder with dainty
cap and base is very attractive. When painted white, with
round, white stair balusters and a mahogany hand rail, the result
is very engaging. A newel post which is vulgarly ostentatious
should never find a place in any house.

1 All paneling should be of utmost simplicity. It makes no
difference whether in the hall, library, or dining room, a modest
design of plain panels is best. So many hardwood wainscots
are used now it is not necessary to have panels elaborately
molded to produce an artistic effect. The grain of the wood
is sufficient when left in natural color or when stained some
harmonious tone. White paneling, which makes an excellent
background for mahogany furniture, should have as little mold-
ing as possible ; just a simple cap and base are best. Probably
more money has been wasted on extravagant paneling than on
any other part of the interior finish.

ARCHITECT'S SKETCH AND THE FINISHED HOUSE.
P>ank Lloyd Wright, Architect.

CHAPTER V

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR

FOR years you have been dreaming about the new house, and
at last the time has come when you may hope to have the reali-
zation of your dreams. You have, during your many years of
observation (it is to be hoped), come in contact with new houses
built in your neighborhood. By this time you should be toler-
ably familiar with the general styles of modern houses ; Colonial,
English, German, Italian, and the various modifications of each.
That is, it is to be expected you can tell at a glance a house
with Colonial tendencies, or one which is somewhat along
the lines of Italian Renaissance, and so on. It isn't necessary
to be familiar with the different styles used most frequently in
house design, but study of the historic styles is very interesting,
a pastime that requires but little effort on the part of the
observer and one which will bring a great deal of enjoyment,
proving useful, later, when one's own house is contemplated.

Now you are up to the plan stage, we will say, and your chief
concern is what architect to employ. You need not employ an
architect, of course, but it is wise to have an architect, if you
wish to get the utmost in plan and design, thus avoiding con-
siderable annoyance.

There are builders in every town who are reliable, honest
men; contractors who can be depended upon to build a
house, using the very best of materials and employing the
most skilled workmen. You could, undoubtedly, by dealing
with such a builder, get a house as thoroughly built as if it
were constructed under the most careful supervision of a con-
scientious architect. Many builders draw quite a number of

68 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

plans during the course of a year, and many people wishing to
build, simply go to such a builder, have plans drawn (by the
builder) to suit themselves, and contract for the building at an
agreed upon price. This is a good way to get just what you
want, but it is a question if it is the best method of procedure.
In the first place, how many know just what they want?
How many are sure the ideas they have in mind are practical?

The builder is a very busy man. He has, in most cases, come
up through the various grades of apprentice, carpenter, fore-
man, until finally deciding to go into business. Thus, after
working eight or nine hours a day for several years as an employee
of some other contractor he finally ends up in business for him-
self. With the many details of contracting on his hands
the average builder finds his time all taken up trying to
get work, and endeavoring to execute work after he has got it.
It is unreasonable to expect such a man to have any very com-
plete architectural education, for his opportunities to study
are, as a rule, extremely limited. Most often the builder is
too busy to get much more than a common school education
and many have not had so much as that. The architectural
knowledge such a builder has is usually limited to experi-
ence, common sense, and a few facts he has picked up from ob-
serving the work of others. He may have made the most of
the time at his command, but his time has been limited.

The architect, on the other hand, devotes many years
of his life to his architectural training. Most often an archi-
tectural student pursues a university course of four years (some-
times followed by a post graduate course of two years), after
which he travels a year or more abroad, making a study of old-
world architecture. Then the young architect enters the office
of a practicing architect where he works as draftsman from
two to three or more years before beginning his independent
career. Thus the average architect has been at least six to
ten years or more actively employed in the minute study of the

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 69

different branches of his profession. He is, by reason of the
varied amount of learning he has received, acutely prepared to
cope with almost any architectural problem which may arise.
Even architects who have not had the advantages of university
training usually acquire much experience working for years
under competent architects, coming in daily contact with actual
problems in design and construction.

The architect might be compared to a physician, and the
builder to a druggist; the druggist being competent to com-
pound prescriptions which the physician, by his superior train-
ing and experience, is qualified to suggest. An architect is
trained more particularly to create ideas, while a builder is
most proficient in carrying out the ideas created by an
architect.

The best houses designed by ordinary builders are usually
well-built examples of commonplace design. The peculiar
environment in which an ordinary builder lives does not give
him very much imagination. His sense of the aesthetic is not,
as a rule, so keenly developed as the architect's, and he cannot
hope to do more than reproduce a stereotyped design. Indeed,
most builders who draw their own plans merely accept the re-
quests of the owner, designing the house as ordered to do with
no great thought as to what is best; they do not consider
whether such plans are adaptable to the site on which the
owner is to build, or whether that particular type of house
is best suited for the owner's family or will fit the owner's
pocketbook.

The building of a house involves the expenditure of several
thousands of dollars. It is, therefore, what might be termed
a " vital" proposition. No man wishes to spend money fool-
ishly, nor does any houseowner care to risk the expenditure of
such a large sum without feeling sure that it is applied with
skill so that he will get the most for his money. No matter how
much building experience an owner has had, he is most often a

70 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

business man, whose time is too much taken up with his own
business affairs to permit him more than a cursory familiarity
with the great art, Architecture. He may have excellent
ideas and he may be tolerably sure of just what he wants
in a house, but usually, the prospective houseowner is in need
of expert services when it comes to making working plans. It

FROM AN ARCHITECT'S SKETCH.

is more sensible to have this expert service rendered by a man
trained for the work than by one whose life work is to build, -
not to plan.

Many owners have excellent ideas about building, and every
architect is glad to acknowledge that he learns much from his
clients. Two heads are better than one ; three heads are fre-
quently better than two, though sometimes too many ideas
ruin the design. However, many of the best ideas in houses

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR

FIRST FLOOR SKETCH OF HOUSE SHOWN
ON PAGE 70.

have been contributed by owners, but it is doubtful if these
ideas could have been successfully worked out without the
expert services of an archi-
tect.

Any one who has given
considerable study to plans
of houses built throughout
the United States, coming
in contact with houses
planned entirely by builders,
others planned entirely by
owners, and many planned
by architects, will usually
note a difference between

these houses. As a rule, houses designed entirely by owners
are better than those planned by builders. Many houseowners,
their wives and daughters, have very clever ideas about build-
ing, and houses designed by owners are frequently charming.
Builders' designs, however, are usually somewhat dull in ap-
pearance. The average builder is so much more familiar with
construction than he is with design that his houses show lack

of knowledge of the aesthetic
side of the problem.

Houses designed by archi-
tects stand out in a class by
themselves. It is truly re-
markable what some clever
experts have done in the
way of house design, even
in small houses where the ex-
penditure was so slight one
wonders how so much could

be got with so little. The fact is, a skillful designer can get a
pleasing architectural effect by spending very modest sums.

itcoriD BEoeoon

BCMtOQM

PI05T bCDBOOM

SECOND FLOOR SKETCH.

72 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Every house must have a roof, doors, windows, and porches.
These can be arranged with skill to produce a pleasing result,
or, as is sometimes the case with an unskillful designer, they
produce an ugly result. In each case the expenditure is the
same. It doesn't cost any more to build an attractive house
than an ugly one, and that is the reason highly trained designers
are able to get such good results at the same cost. It is all a
matter of skill, and skill can be expected only of the
skillful.

The accuracy of a set of working drawings is not the only
quality about plans that is desirable. More than the actual
draftsmanship of plans (which is mere mechanical work and
the easiest part of the architects' profession) are the ideas con-
tained in the plans. An owner who thinks he merely pays for
a set of plans to build from is mistaken. He is really paying
for years of study on the part of his architect, who has in most
instances kept in touch with the best of the architectural work,
not only in this country but abroad as well. One will
see many sets of working drawings so poorly drawn (as
far as neatness of drafting is concerned) that they are
positively depressing to look upon. Nevertheless, these plans
have that vital spark called "ideas." They contain mature
thought, evidence of genius-like ability to conceive a real
masterpiece, and for that reason they are priceless, far above
many drawings mechanically better.

It isn't drawings the owner buys but a complete house,
and if the working drawings are somewhat indifferently drawn
it makes little difference so long as the completed house built
from these plans is a success. Some of the world's greatest
poems were published from manuscript covered with blots and
scratches, and some of the most beautiful American houses have
been built from plans untidy and ill made.

Most architects, however, are very particular about the
draftsmanship of their plans. It is the constant effort of all

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 73

conscientious designers to have drawings , neatly made, with
absolute accuracy. Any one who will examine drawings from
the offices of architects in every section of the country will be
much impressed with the care with which these drawings are
made. As a matter of fact, architectural drawings are fre-
quently more complete than need be, and the profession is to be
congratulated upon the excellence of the drawings turned out in
most architects' offices.

You will, then, probably employ an architect, for it is cer-
tainly to your best interests to do so ; not merely to get from
him a set of plans by which to build the house, but to secure the
benefit of many meetings, at which you will discuss the various
elements of your problem and get from your architect the un-
biased advice that only a wise, conscientious, loyal counsellor
can give. This is what the architect really is, a sensible, ex-
perienced, educated advisor who prescribes for your needs much
as your family physician or your lawyer.

The architect in his advisory capacity is of greatest benefit.
It is so unsatisfactory to merely purchase plans and then at-
tempt to build the house, yourself, for then you take on your
own shoulders all the cares of supervision, the petty annoyance
of deciding the thousand and one little points that come up day
by day while the house is in process of building. You are
loaded down with a large amount of detailed work which can
be more sensibly handled by an expert, usually with more
profit to yourself.

" What shall I expect of my architect," is so frequently asked
it will be well to explain here the relations of architect and owner.
So often, houseowners do not realize just what they should ex-
pect from an architect. Sometimes an owner is unreasonable
in the demands he puts upon him. At other times he does not
secure from his architect the full value of his services.

Regarding duties, the architect is, first of all, to receive
your instructions concerning the little details, that you wish

74 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

incorporated in the plans. Most houseowners have more or
less definite ideas about the arrangement of rooms and other
matters pertaining to the problem, frequently going to their
architect with sketch plans of the house as they wish it
arranged. All this helps the architect to form an opinion con-
cerning the likes and dislikes of his client, but the owner should
be very careful not to insist upon any of his ideas being carried
out if they prove impractical. Remember, most architects
have had much more experience than their clients, and many
of the desires of the owner are not suitable for the house. The
client should go to his architect with a determination to consult
him upon the points he has in mind, but without insisting that
they be carried out. Adopting this method the owner will get
from the architect his unbiased opinion a very valuable
acquisition from a reliable house designer. Let the architect,
then, be the Court of Last Appeal ; let him be your best
friend, the friend who is professionally bound to solve your
problem in the best way. Remember, however, he is not the
builder, and beyond a reasonable amount of supervision, you
cannot expect him to be responsible for everything in the
building.

You will usually find that the ideas you have in mind can be
incorporated in the plans. Sometimes, however, it is impos-
sible to carry them out, and when the architect has shown this
to your satisfaction (as he ought to be able to do) you had bet-
ter abandon them.

It is very desirable before selecting an architect to look about
and examine different houses in your vicinity, bearing in
mind that you can never completely judge an architect by his
executed work. The reason for this is that sometimes an archi-
tect is forced by an unruly client to do a piece of work not quite
up to the mark, a client who, perhaps, demanding a char-
acter of plan and design not suitable, bore down so hard on his
architect that he wore him out, securing from him a design which

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 75

the architect's better nature would not have sanctioned. There-
fore, when a prospective owner views a house which he thinks
not altogether attractive he should ask himself, " how much of
the fault was caused by the architect and how much by the
client?"

In looking over houses with a view to selecting an architect,
you should never be prejudiced by " style," as some owners are
who are prone to form an opinion based upon their own pref-
erences. For instance, one man looks over a Colonial house
and pronounces it bad because it happens he does not enjoy
Colonial designs. Another, who greatly enjoys the modern
English style, will not enthuse over the pretty plaster houses of
the Middle West, different from English houses but quite
as attractive in their way. In examining a design, make your
criticism on the merits of the design itself, no matter what its
style and regardless of your particular preferences. Ask yourself,
" is the problem well solved ? Did this architect give good serv-
ice to his client ? Was he wise in planning and designing, and
was the construction skillfully handled?" These, and many
other points will help you to form an opinion concerning the
ability of the architect in question.

Every building project is^more or less of a compromise. Very
rarely is it possible for the owner to have all his wants gratified,
especially when he must keep within the limits of a definite
sum. The useful things must be taken care of first, then the
aesthetic part of the problem can be considered. When it comes
to supervision, remember that the architect is not merely a
critic engaged to examine quality of materials and inspect work-
manship. Drawings frequently need interpreting to the builder,
who does not always understand the plans correctly, and this
is part of the architect's duties, a very useful part. Draw-
ings, to the architect, are merely symbols or memoranda show-
ing how the house is to be built. The completed structure is
clear to his mind, but to convey this picture to the mind of the

76 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

builder drawings are necessary. These drawings need to be
explained to the builder, and the best interpreter, of course, is
he who made them. In supervision do not expect your archi-
tect to spend all his time at the building, though enough atten-
tion should be given by him to properly inspect the job.

Cost is the great reef on which some houseowners are wrecked.
It is very hard to determine beforehand the exact cost of the
house-to-be, but a little investigation will help greatly to fix it.
Of course, prices fluctuate. Materials cost more one year than
another, and labor conditions are not at all constant. How-
ever, a practical builder can estimate the difference in cost quite
accurately, and he usually knows the percentage of increase or
decrease one year over another, without going too definitely into
the details of building. Consultation with such a builder or
with a good architect may save disappointment.

Many houseowners do not understand just how the con-
tractor makes up his estimate. They think he looks over the
plans, sizes up the building, and makes a sort of guess what it
will cost. The actual facts are that the contractor carefully
measures up the plans and finds out just how much lumber is
required, how ma'ny brick, how much stone and other mate-
rial. He computes quite accurately just how much labor
will be required to build the house and then adds his percentage
of profit, varying from 5 to 15 percent. In this way every
square inch of house is accounted for. You cannot say, as so
many inexperienced houseowners do, " We will make the living
room one foot bigger it will cost no more," for that extra
foot adds its quota to the amount of the lumber bill, the
plastering bill, painting, labor, and so on.

Those wishing to keep within the limits of a fixed sum will
do well to determine beforehand the approximate number of
square feet or cubic feet that can be built for the sum desired.
This price varies in every town, but it can be readily ascertained
by computing the square-foot price of a house of similar quality

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 77

recently built in the same town. For instance, before you go
into the details of building, inquire of some neighbor who has
recently built, what his house cost. If the price was $4500 and
the house contains 900 square feet of first-floor area, you may
know that the cost per square foot was $5, and you may feel
fairly safe in assuming that you can build a good house for the
same price. Most moderate-cost houses nowadays are trimmed
and finished in about the same way, with oak or wood of
equal cost in living room, dining room, and hall, and soft wood,
painted, on the second floor, so the square-foot price holding in
your town may be usually taken as a safe average, except in
large houses, where conditions may be different. If your idea
is to include a great deal of built-in furniture, however, and
beams or paneling, you must add something to the square-foot
price.

As an example of the difference in prices consult the
following :

TABLE OF COMPARATIVE COSTS

Birmingham, Alabama 12 cents per cu. ft.

Portland, Maine 15 cents per cu. ft.

Philadelphia 18j cents per cu. ft.

Boston 21| cents per cu. ft.

Minneapolis 16| cents per cu. ft.

New York 22 cents per cu. ft.

Colorado Springs 15 cents per cu. ft.

Chicago . . ' 21f cents per cu. ft.

After determining the cubic-foot or square-foot price, you
know the total size that can be built in your town for a certain
sum. Then you can intelligently consider your plans with
little fear that the house will overrun your appropriation
that is, if you hold it down tight and keep carefully within
limits. In your $4500 house with 900-foot area, allowing $5
per square foot, the first floor may be 45 by 20 feet or 35J by

78 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

25J feet. The exact shape of the house makes no great dif-
ference in cost, so long as the building is rectangular, with not
too many projecting wings or bays.

When you have, through observation or acquaintance, se-
lected the architect you wish to do your work, call upon him
and lay before him the sketches, drawings, or notes which you
may have been collecting for years. Open your heart and tell
him everything about the new house and your ideas concerning
its planning and design. Naturally, at this first interview you
will touch upon the amount of the architect's fee, so it might
be well to say a few words here about architects' charges. As
most people know, architects' fees are based upon a percentage
of the cost of the building. For instance, if a house costs
$10,000 the architect's fee would be a certain percentage of that
cost, such as 7 or 10 per cent. Years ago charges made by archi-
tects were at a much lower rate than they are to-day ; sometimes
as low as 3 to 5 per cent of the cost of the building. Thus, in
those days one could sometimes get plans, specifications, and
supervision on a $10,000 house for 3 per cent, or $300. A few
years later the majority of reputable architects charged 5 per
cejjt for the same service, an allowance of $500 for a $10,000
house.

The present increase in architects' fees is owing partly to the
increased cost of living, which obliges the architect to pay his
employees higher salaries (besides costing him more for his own
living expenses), and partly to the increased amount of work
now demanded of an architect. He is more highly trained than
his predecessors of twenty-five or thirty years ago. Modern
methods of building are more complicated, houses are more
scientific, and more time must be spent by the architect in mak-
ing drawings and in supervising the work.

The present rate charged by most architects varies somewhat
according to the section of the country in which they practice,
but the American Institute of Architects (the leading organiza-

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 79

tion of architects in the United States), recommends a rate
which is accepted by most architects and owners as fair and
just. This rate consists of a minimum charge of 6 per cent for
complete service on houses costing upwards of $10,000 (which
includes sketches, drawings, specifications, and supervision) ;
for houses costing less than $10,000 the charge is usually 10 per
cent. This is the minimum rate most often charged by repu-
table architects. As a matter of fact, many architects in or
near large cities charge a minimum of 10 per cent on all houses,
regardless of size or cost.

It is more difficult to design small houses costing less than
$10,000, than houses costing more, for there is so little money
to spend on a small house (and this expenditure must cover so
many necessary requirements) it takes a great amount of skill
to produce a successful small house. Consequently, architects
usually spend more time (proportionate to the amount received)
on small house designs than they do on larger houses, and thus
a higher rate of commission is charged.

Nothing requires greater skill on the part of an architect
than house planning and supervision. Countless details not
found in factory work, apartment buildings, stores, and other
structures, are required in house building, and for this reason
architects' charges on house work are usually more than they
are for other buildings.

When you have consulted with your architect, discussing
your views with him and arranging satisfactorily the amount
you are to pay for his services, it is time for him to begin a set
of sketches showing the arrangement of rooms and his sugges-
tions for the exterior. Before proceeding with sketches, you
should tell the architect frankly the amount you wish to spend
for the house, complete, so that he can consider the cost in the
preliminary steps of his design. It is very hard to determine
the exact cost of a projected house, but experienced architects
who have been in touch with conditions for many years, knowing

80 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

what houses have cost, can estimate quite accurately. As
corroboration of this estimated cost the architect can usually
get a builder to make an estimate from sketches, before working
drawings are made. In this way, if the preliminary estimate
on a house indicates that it will cost more than the owner cares
to spend, the owner knows it before the working drawings are
made, and he can decide what is best to do, either cutting down
the size of the house or increasing his building allowance.

A set of sketches usually consists of first and second-floor
plans drawn to scale and an exterior perspective. Sometimes
a sketch or two showing portions of the interior are included.
It is not usually necessary to work out basement and attic plans
on -the preliminary sketches. After the owner receives the
sketches, he takes them home and looks them over carefully, not-
ing the arrangement of rooms. It is up to him to make a care-
ful study of the plans to determine whether they suit him or not.
Then he may have conferences with the architect, discussing
certain changes which he believes necessary. If these changes
are practical and it is mutually agreed that they are for the best,
a revised set of sketches is prepared incorporating the new ideas.
One or two more sets of sketches may be necessary before archi-
tetft and owner are completely satisfied with the arrangement
of rooms and the design of fagades. Then it is time to get a pre-
liminary estimate from the builder to determine the approxi-
mate cost of the house. Some builders will not make up a
detailed preliminary estimate unless they are paid for it, which
is quite reasonable, after all, as it is considerable of a job, re-
quiring several days' time. You can usually get this service
from a builder for from $10 up, and it is well worth any reason-
able price, as information of this kind is of utmost value to an
owner who wishes to know in advance something about the cost
of his house.

When the sketches have been approved by the owner, and the
estimate is received from a builder, decision can be made whether

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR

to proceed with the working drawings according to the sketches,
or to add to or deduct from the size of the house. Then the archi-
tect begins his working drawings and specifications, getting them
ready for the final bids. During this process of making the
working drawings and specifications, numerous conferences will

FIRST FLOOR PLAN FROM THE ARCHITECT'S WORKING DRAWINGS.
Charles E. White, Jr., Architect.

be necessary between client and architect to determine the kind
of finish wanted in different rooms, details of plumbing and heat-
ing, and other matters pertaining to the completed dwelling.
The owner should follow the process of plan-making closely
enough so that he will understand all the details of his house.
Nothing is more disappointing to an architect than to hear the
owner exclaim after the house is built, " Why, I don't like that,

82 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

I thought it was to be different." Usually the architect has
a very complete idea about the finished building even before
the first shovelful of earth is dug. Good working drawings
contain details for every part of the building carried out with
great care, and the owner should study drawings carefully be-
fore contracts are let, so that he will understand every part of

S^ITTifj

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

This

the house and know just as much about it as his architect.
will save disappointment later.

Let all changes be made before the contracts are let, and
then stick to the plans. This is much the more practical way ;
better than making repeated changes as the work proceeds, at
the risk of spoiling the design and causing greater expenditure
of money for " extras."

A set of working drawings usually consists of basement plan,

OWNER, AJRCHITECTj AND CONTRACTOR

first floor plan, second floor plan, attic plan, four elevations, one
or two interior sections (showing interior design and construc-
tion), and enough details to inform the contractor just how the
house is to be built. Sometimes these details are drawn to a
large scale (or full size) and sometimes to a small scale, the idea
being to give sufficient information to contractors to enable
them to make intelligent bids. Incidentally, these details also

fGOhT ELEVATION.

SCAU '/*' I FOOT

help the houseowner to understand just what kind of a house he
may expect. He should examine all drawings carefully to make
sure they are in accordance with his wishes.

Any reputable architect is competent to design every part
of the house without conference with the owner, but if the owner
wisnes to have the house entirely satisfactory to himself it is
up to him to watch the details and see that they are according
to his own ideas. Of course, the architect should be the tech-
nical advisor.

84 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

The details accompanying working drawings usually show
pantry cases, dining room paneling, living room beamed ceil-
ings, built-in furniture, main staircase, cupboards, outside cor-
nices, and other parts of the house not easy to describe in the
specifications. Usually these details are drawn to a small scale

CROSS SECTION SHOWING INTERIOR.

at first, more to show the idea to competing bidders than to
provide drawings to build from. Later, after the contracts
are let, the details are elaborated into larger drawings for the
workmen to follow in building.

The number of these drawings required is usually determined

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR

by the architect. If reliable, he will be only too willing to make
all the details required for the execution of the work. Most
architects dislike impractical or ugly interior and exterior finish,
and they take every means to prevent such by making accurate
details of every part of the work.

SCALE >"< I FOO

SHEET OF DETAILS.

Before he starts sketches, the architect is expected to visit
the building site, if it is anywhere within reach of his office.
Laying out the floor plan does not consist merely in putting
together a certain sequence of rooms according to the ideas of
the owner. It consists, rather, in making a complete study of
the conditions, designing the building in such a way as to prop-
erly fulfill them.

86 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Frequently owners make the mistake of working out the
exact arrangement of rooms themselves, then taking these
sketches to an architect with the admonition, "This is what
we want. Put an exterior on it." That is not the wisest way
to proceed if the owner wishes to get the best service out of his
architect. Such a procedure is akin to going to a family physi-
cian with the statement, " Doctor, I have a little touch of malaria;
give me some quinine pills." You expect your physician to
diagnose your condition and then prescribe what his judgment
and experience lead him to think are best for your particular
case. The architect really acts in the same capacity ; he studies
your problem from all sides and then is able to form some opin-
ion as to the best method of treatment which, in the case of a
house, consists of the proper arrangement of rooms and the
best design for the exterior. It is part of his problem to make
something which you like, of course, but it is very foolish for
an owner to demand a certain arrangement of rooms unless the
architect, after proper consideration, decides that it is best.
His knowledge is usually better than the owner's, so it is wiser
to be guided by what he recommends.

When it comes to selecting a builder the same care must be
taken that is used hi selecting an architect, for one must not
expect an architect to get good results with poor tools. No
matter how carefully the building may be inspected, an unscru-
pulous contractor can always slip inferior work through, -
somewhere, sometime, work that may escape the most
vigilant inspection of the owner and architect.

The time to practice wisdom in selecting a builder is at the
start, when contractors are invited to submit bids, by inviting
only reliable men to bid on the job. If only high-grade builders
are invited, the job can be safely let to any one of them, with
every assurance that the contract will be properly carried out.
The lowest bid is not necessarily the one to accept ; but if the low-
est bid is from a reliable party, it saves complications to accept

OWNER, ARCHITECT, AND CONTRACTOR 87

that bid. Contractors sometimes take exceptions if an owner
lets his contract to a bidder whose tender is not the lowest,
and this is not strange when you realize the amount of time used
by contractors in good faith. Unless there is a weighty reason
why the lowest bidder should not get the job, his bid ought to
be accepted.

Whether to let a general contract for the entire building or
let separate contracts for each branch of the work is largely a
matter of policy to be decided on each job. Taking separate
sub-bids frequently lessens the cost of the building to the owner,
but on the other hand this method requires more care in keeping
track of the job, involving as it does so many separate contracts.
Before the contract is let to a builder, the owner should be sure
that the contractor is financially able to carry on the work, for
in the event of a builder not paying his bills the owner may be-
come liable for the amount of all material and labor used on his
house. Liens can be put on the property by creditors of the
builder, and the owner would have to settle before he could get
a clear title to his property. In order to transfer this responsi-
bility to the shoulders of others it is a good idea for the owner to
require the contractor to furnish a bond. Bonds are usually
procured by the contractor, himself, from some reliable bonding
company. The price paid is approximately J of 1 per cent,
and the price of the bond is charged to the amount of the build-
ing contract, thus eventually being paid by the owner. Bonds
are sometimes made at 80 per cent of the value of the building
contract, or frequently for the entire value, depending upon the
reliability of the contractor and his financial standing. As an
example, if the general contract for a house is let at $5000 the
contractor would be required to furnish a bond for $4000 (80
per cent) or for the entire amount of $5000. This bond would
cost the contractor about $20 to $25, and such amount would
be added to the contract price to reimburse the contractor for
the price of the bond.

88 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

The chief value of a bond is that it transfers responsibility
for faithful execution of the contract from the shoulders of the
owner to the bonding company. The latter is compelled to
look up a contractor's reliability before they issue a bond to
him, and this bond guarantees the owner that his agreement
with the contractor will be properly carried out to completion,
regardless of the financial condition of the builder.

After the house is completed, remember, you cannot expect
to move in and feel immediately at home. The new house will
seem strange at first, different as it is from the house in which
you have been living. You must adjust yourself to these new
conditions. You must not expect the new house to adjust it-
self to you, and entering the new home in this spirit you will
doubtless find it a success in every way.

SMALL HOUSE WITH LARUE PORCH ON ONE CORNER.

CHAPTER VI

PLANNING THE ROOMS

NOTWITHSTANDING the homage paid to old-fashioned houses,
it is true that skillful planning will produce an arrangement of
rooms much superior. Modern housekeeping is on such dif-
ferent lines from housekeeping of even a few years ago that the
problem of planning is on an entirely different footing. In a
general way, of course, the arrangement of rooms is not dissimi-
lar. For instance, many houses are built with a hall in the center
and rooms on both sides, just as they were in olden times, and
this arrangement is as practical to-day as it was yesterday, but
there are many other arrangements now that would not have
been practical years ago. Much has been done in these days of
quickened public taste and improved building methods to per-
fect plan and design, in spite of the fact that houses cost more
than formerly.

In planning a house, one of the first considerations is cost
for cost will largely determine size, shape, and style of
the building. Cost of houses will be found to vary in every
town. For instance, in some places where brick kilns are near
at hand, brick is low in cost. Lumber varies in cost several
dollars per thousand feet in different sections of the country,
and all other materials entering into the construction of a house
differ as much. Labor cost varies in each locality, being from
$3 per day to $5 or more. All these facts must enter into the
calculations of the designer. He must bear in mind cost of the
detailed parts of the house before he can attack the problem
scientifically.

92 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

After the first $3000 set aside for the new house, values in-
crease very fast. In these days of high-priced material and
labor $3000 will not build a very large house and build it well.
But the next $1000 or $1500 makes quite a difference in the size
it is possible to get for the money. An ideal minimum price
for a moderate-sized, comfortable house is $4500 to $6000, such
prices usually allowing three or four bedrooms. Houses of less
cost are frequently as successful, though they must be smaller.

In comparing the higher cost of building to-day with the lower
cost of building yesterday, one should remember that present-
day houses are more convenient than houses of long ago.
Quaint and charming as they were, old-fashioned houses lacked
many things to make life comfortable. . Planning was not so
well understood. Scientific housekeeping had not been de-
veloped to such an extent, and the housewife took many un-
necessary steps in performing her daily tasks. Consider the
typical house of to-day, with its labor-saving devices, modern
methods for -heating, vacuum cleaner, and ever ready hot water
for the bath, and it will be found to be very much in advance of
houses of even fifteen or twenty years ago ; improved in kitchen
ancKpantry arrangements and the little conveniences so highly
prized by housekeepers.

Modern houses of the best class are marvels of skillful design
and clever planning. Every inch costs something to build, so
when the houseowner considers his expenditure in advance of
building he must be careful to apply his money where it will do
the most good. In planning a $3500 house, do not apply to it
some of the features you have noticed in a $15,000 house. The
former is necessarily of a different type from the latter, though
it may easily be as attractive.

"Save space" is the watchword for a successful house plan,
large or small. Owners should study the plans over and over
again. After the rooms are sketched out, go over them carefully
and see if you can eliminate any waste space. Remember, a

PLANNING THE ROOMS

FIRST FLOOR PLAN ; COMPACT ARRANGEMENT.

good arrangement of rooms depends more upon ingenuity than
it does on expenditure. Dollars will not take the place of brains,
and for that reason
the successful small
house often con-
tains more features
really livable and
enjoyable than
houses of thrice the
cost.

The shape of a
house has rnuch to
do with its possi-
bilities of plan, rec-
tangular houses permitting a better arrangement of rooms than
square houses, though owners have been told for years that
" square houses are best." The most economical arrangement
is a hall in the center with living rooms on two sides, on the
first story, and one bedroom in each corner on the second story.
Thus, with the hall in the center, you have a rectangle instead

of a square, and
this is not only the
most economical
shape but the most
pleasing, as well.

Floor plans also
depend upon the
shape of the lot
and location of the
house upon it.
With a frontage of
60 to 75 feet it is

an excellent plan to place a house broadside to the street, and by
clever planning this can frequently be accomplished, even on

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SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

94 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the 50-foot lot. Broadside houses look larger and give a greater
amount of space exposed toward the front and rear of the
lot; usually the desirable thing to do. In a broad-side-to-
the-front house a popular plan is to arrange the dining
room on one side of the central hall with living room on the
other. Such an arrangement is practical and usually attrac-
tive, but it is interesting to see that all designers do not treat
their houses the same.

Under some conditions it is practical to have the dining room
on the front of the house, but in other houses such a plan would
be quite impossible. For such as these the dining room can
be placed at the rear of the house reached by a broad opening
from the living room. Formerly wide openings were closed
by sliding doors, until it was found that sliding doors were al-
most never closed.
Then designers be-
gan leaving out the
doors, and they
have been omitted
ever since, a dis-
tinct improvement.
Many houses are
spoiled by having
a porch extend en-
tirely across the
front, where it is
almost certain to
darken the living
room and rarely
ever adds to the attractiveness of the house. A newer and more
practical idea is to put the porch at one end, plunging it boldly
out from the building to the required distance. Built thus, it
makes a pleasing feature outside as well as inside and keeps no
light from the living room.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN ; GOOD ARRANGEMENT FOR A
NARROW LOT.

PLANNING THE ROOMS

To get the best results, an arrangement of rooms should not
be according to any house the owner may have seen. The most
practical floor plans are entirely the product of conditions, such
as characteristics of building site, amount of money to be spent,
size of owner's fam-
ily, and general type
or style of building.
Instead of the latter,
perhaps it would be
more correct to say
that the style of the
proposed building
should be more or
less influenced by
the floor plans as
well as the char-
acteristics of the

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.
building site. For

instance, on a wild, irregular site on the edge of a cliff, one
might find that a house in the Colonial style would be out
of place, not being in harmony with its surroundings. A more
picturesque style, such as modern English, might be very much
better. That is why plans deliberately copied from a house
built on another site are rarely successful. An architect who
has built a house on one spot rarely finds that it could be
reproduced elsewhere, unless the conditions at the new site
are precisely the same as they were on the old ; a most un-
usual condition, surely. Although preconceived notions about
the new house on the part of the owner may suggest what style
of architecture and arrangement of rooms to use, these facts
should be nothing more than a starting point to the designer.
Many a houseowner, during the period of dreaming over his
house plans, makes the mistake of fixing his ideas about an
arrangement of rooms which he has seen in some other

96 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

house, without determining whether it is adaptable to his
own lot.

An inside lot requires a very different house from a corner
lot. In the first place, if it is not greater than 50 feet wide (and
many are not) the inside lot has less light on the sides than a

EXCELLENT TYPE FOR A SMALL LOT.
Claude F. Bragdon, Architect.

corner lot. This means a narrower house with more windows
in each room, taking care to provide sufficient space between
the new house and its neighbors to give good light and air.
Remember that the view from the windows of a house on an
inside lot is more restricted. This brings about quite a number
of complications not occurring in a corner house where the front
and one side (along the two streets) permit an unobstructed view

PLANNING THE ROOMS

from the windows. For instance, consider the living room of a
house on an inside lot. Living room windows should be placed
to permit a clear view outside, for it is in the living room that
members of the fam-
ily sit most often.
Then the living
room will probably
be on the front of
the house with low
front windows look-
ing out on the street.
At the side of such
a living room high
windows can be
used, if the house
stands close to its
neighbors. High
windows let in light,
but they prevent an
unattractive view of
some neighboring
wall which may well
be shut out.

On an inside lot,
with the living room
placed in this man-
ner, the correct location for the front entrance and porch should
be a matter of careful consideration. For a 50-foot inside lot a
house with entrance hall in the middle is frequently not desir-
able. On the other hand, having a living room across the front,
one would be obliged to walk right through it to enter the
house. Sometimes a more practical arrangement is to put the
entrance hall at one corner, conveniently near the staircase.
Such a plan gives the maximum of living room on the front,
with unobstructed front windows.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN OF HOUSE
PAGE 96.

ILLUSTRATED ON

98 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Some houses are built on lots 40 feet wide, but it is rare that
such a narrow site successfully accommodates the average
modern house. Much better is a 50-foot lot, and twice that

width is greatly to
be preferred.

In planning your
house for an inside
lot, the principal
bedroom should be
over the living
room. With an
east or west front,
it is well to build
the house well to-
ward the north
line, so as to have
as wide a yard at
the south side of
the house as pos-

sible. Then on
this south side lo-
cate the living room and bedrooms you care most about. In-
side lots require careful consideration to get the utmost of value
from them, and it is quite wonderful what success one may
have by skillful planning. Some houses facing east or west are
placed as close as 4 feet from the north line. This leaves ample
space for a walk to the back entrance. If your neighbor's house
is also close up to his north line, a wide strip of open yard at
the south of his house will light the north side of your house,
so you really get the benefit of his land. Of course if your
neighbor puts his house close to his south line, you must locate
yours a corresponding distance from your north line to get the
correct distance between both houses.

The next step in planning is to consider the size of the family.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

PLANNING THE ROOMS

How many bedrooms are required? Bedrooms determine the
size of a house as much as anything. With only three prin-
cipal rooms downstairs, living room, dining room, and kit-
chen (as is customary now in most houses) , a house may be larger
or smaller without affecting the downstairs arrangement par-

FIRST FLOOR PLAN SHOWING LIVING ROOM OF UNUSUAL SIZE.

ticularly. But the second story is not so easily disposed of. A
certain number of bedrooms are required, and the house must be
large enough to get them in. Five bedrooms require a larger
house than three bedrooms, so it is well to consider the number
needed even before the first story is planned; then the first
story can be made to conform to the required size of the second.
Naturally, in designing a house the exterior should be con-
sidered as well as the interior. It will not do to work out floor
plans and then try to fit an exterior to them. While the floor

100 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

plans are developing in your mind, the exterior appearance of
the house should be well thought out. Then your house will
be a success, aesthetically, as well as scientifically.

The modern living room is usually a large room. In a house
costing $4000 or $5000 the living room is seldom less than 14

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

feet by 18 feet, and it is frequently larger. If the house is broad-
side to the street the living room. will naturally be placed on one
end of the house, toward the south, perhaps, as the south sun
is desirable at all times of the year. There should be plenty of
windows in a living room, and when there is no library or re-
ception room it is well to provide an alcove to contain the library
table and bookcases. In many of the most successful houses an
alcove is also provided for the piano, frequently arranged with
glass doors which can be closed while the piano is being used, but

PLANNING THE ROOMS 101

may be left open at other times. Another practical idea is to
use the alcove as a sort of reception room where one may receive
guests who drop in for a little while.

Bay windows are very practical in the living room, and there
are many ways to treat them. It is possible to use high win-
dows with bookcases underneath, or the bay may be large enough
and windows low enough so one can sit there and get a good
view down the street.

Special consideration for the women of the family makes
necessary a place somewhere in the living room where they may
settle down for little tasks after the morning work is done.
Sewing, darning, embroidery, and other handwork may be done
in the living room, as well as the clerical work- of the house, so
the room must be for work as well as play ; it should be just the
sort of cheerful, cozy, sunny, restful place you will be glad to
turn to whenever the occasion arises.

In some cases the living room table is well placed with one
end against the wall. Determine its location by the purely
utilitarian fact of greatest convenience. Across the corner is the
least desirable place. Furniture rectangular in shape, like
tables, pianos, settles, or benches, always looks best when placed
with one side parallel with the wall of the room. Rugs are bet-
ter the same way, not scattered hit or miss over the floor.
Chairs may be placed promiscuously, but other pieces should
be arranged in an orderly manner. Books neatly stacked upon
the table with bindings all the same way and parallel with the
table edge look strikingly attractive. Never pile them up criss-
cross, with edges facing different directions. If you will ex-
periment with your living room and arrange it once in the
manner suggested, you will never change back to the old helter-
skelter method.

To further carry out the idea of spaciousness, living rooms in
modern houses frequently open broadly through wide openings
into the hall and dining room. Since omitting sliding doors the

102 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

tendency in many houses has been to make openings between
rooms even larger than usual, frequently eight feet wide or more.
In other cases, where it is desired to close off the dining room or
hall at times, glass doors are hung in the openings. Ordinarily
these stand open, but they can be closed at any time, and closed
or open the effect is very pretty.

From the living room a porch or large veranda should be di-
rectly accessible, for in these days of outdoor living the veranda
is one of the most important parts of the house. It is made
large and roomy in houses of best design, more like an out-
door room than an ordinary veranda.

Dining rooms are similar to those in old-fashioned houses,
though modern rooms are more scientifically planned, being fre-
quently smaller than former dining rooms, though equally as
efficient. It is the present-day custom of the most skillful archi-
tects to build a dining room around the dining table. In other
words, the architect in planning the room considers, first, the
size of the table, then the necessary number of chairs and
amount of space required for them. Added to this, he reckons
the amount of space necessary for serving, and the result gives
the minimum size of the room. To this net result he adds as
much space as he desires for architectural effect, more in
large houses or less in small houses. All modern planning is
scientifically done in this way, and for this reason modern houses
are much more practical than old-fashioned houses, in which
space was not so conservatively utilized.

In planning a dining room one should consider, first, in
what part of the house such a room will be most practical, re-
membering that the dining room is usually considered more of a
night room than a day room and need not, therefore, occupy
the choicest spot in the house. It is desirable, of course, to
place it on the east side of the house, where it will get the morn-
ing sun (for nothing is prettier than a cheery morning dining
room), but one should not sacrifice the living room in order to

PLANNING THE ROOMS

103

bring this about. A north or south dining room can be made
very satisfactory. Least desirable of all locations is the west
side, where the late afternoon sun in summer always makes a
hot room, proving particularly unpleasant for the dinner at
night (although this annoyance can sometimes be overcome by
using a porch to screen the west windows, or by the judicious
use of awnings).

A large dining room is not at all necessary. Some dining
rooms are as narrow as 12 feet, indeed, many fairly good
rooms are as narrow as 10 feet at one point where a sideboard
projects. Often a narrow dining room can be made more spa-
cious by adding a small bay window at one side. The sideboard
can be put in this bay so that it will not project into the room.

The dining room is not considered as important regarding
light and view as the living room. As it is really used but a
surprisingly short time each day, during meals, the outlook from
the room need not be of the best. However, a pleasant view
into the garden is
always delightful,
and this is the ideal
to aim for.

If a round table
is to be used, the
dining room may
be made nearly
square, though it
should be 18 niches
to 2 feet longer on

the side where the r^r 72<*7*j#

sideboard is to SQUARE DININQ ROQM

stand. To get the

minimum size of the room, measure the table you intend to use,
including chairs, placed at the positions they would occupy
around the table. Add to this space about two feet behind the

104 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

chairs for serving, and you will have the net result. In testing
the size in this way, you will find that a room 12 feet square is
the least size desirable for an ordinary round table 6 feet in

diameter, accom-
modating six peo-
ple. Of course it
is desirable to
make the room
larger when pos-
sible. Dining
rooms VI' 6" by
14' are quite satis-
factory for small
houses. Long
dining rooms are
particularly effec-
A room 17 or 18 feet by 20 or

A GOOD FOUR-BEDROOM PLAN.

tive in houses of large size.
22 feet is in good proportion.

Fireplaces are practical in the dining room, more for ventila-
tion and architectural effect, we are free to confess, than be-
cause they are really useful. Unless a room be quite large, even
a small fire in the grate is apt to make the room too warm. If
you are planning to build but one fireplace in the house, put it
in the living room, by all means, not in the dining room or
hall. A dining room fireplace may sometimes be desirable, but
it certainly is not necessary.

If you build a bay window in the dining room, do not put a
window seat in it. A little reflection will convince any one that
a dining room window seat is used very little, only, perhaps,
while serving refreshments during a reception. The balance of
time it uselessly occupies valuable space under the window. As
a matter of fact, window seats are rarely comfortable, since it is
almost impossible to provide a good back for them, without
pushing the windows up so high they are spoiled so far as light-

PLANNING THE ROOMS 105

ing the room is concerned. Then, cold air blows down one's
neck, making window seats uncomfortable in winter. They do
look cozy, though even this pretty effect is usually more theatri-
cal than is strictly consistent in a sensible house.

Sometimes a little window seat is built in to cover the radia-
tor, which might otherwise mar the appearance of the paneled
wall of the dining room. For this purpose, perhaps, seats are
permissible, but it should be remembered that radiators covered
in this way are less efficient and must be made much larger. In
many successful dining rooms sideboard and china closets are
built in. Frequently the sideboard is built into the bay win-
dow or alcove. A growing prevalence, however, is for omission
of a built-in sideboard, many preferring to buy one ready-made.

Generally speaking, a sideboard looks best when it is at one
side of the dining room in the center of the wall. A little care-
ful planning usually makes this possible. If there is a pretty
garden visible from the dining room, it is well to have a wide
group of three or four windows looking out upon it. Windows
like this make the room seem larger.

Two doors are usually placed between kitchen and' dining
room by means of a little corridor, serving room, or pantry be-
tween the two rooms. These two doors are not absolutely
necessary, however, notwithstanding popular opinion, for it has
been discovered that often the second door (in the kitchen)
stands open constantly, and yet odors from cooking are not ap-
parent in other rooms. In houses where a gas range is ventilated
by means of a hood connected with the kitchen chimney, one
door between kitchen and dining room has been found to be
practical. In many cases, much space can be saved by a single
door arrangement, and for this reason it is frequently desirable
for small houses. Two doors should be employed when pos-
sible, however, more particularly on account of noise in the
kitchen, which sometimes penetrates the house unpleasantly
when only one door is used.

106 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Modern ideas concerning the hall are very different from old
notions. Formerly, even up to within eight or ten years ago,
the hall was large, frequently so much space being devoted to
it that other rooms were slighted. This tendency has been,
happily, corrected, and in many houses halls are now reduced to

DINING ROOM OPENING ON AN INCLOSED PORCH.

the minimum. In a hall-in-the-center house, if the hall is 20
to 25 feet long it can be 8 to 10 feet wide in order to preserve
good proportions, but in small houses halls are frequently less in
length, in which case they may be narrower. Wide doorways
from the living room make a hall look larger, so that, treated in
this way, even a small hall can be made to present an attractive
appearance.

Many times in a small house it is practical to omit the hall,

PLANNING THE ROOMS 107

extending the stairs up directly from the living room. Stairs
placed in this way should be conveniently near the front en-
trance in order that one may pass to the second floor without
taking too many steps. Even more important is the distance
from kitchen to main staircase. This should be as short as

HALL IN A COLONIAL HOUSE.

possible. Rarely is it practical to have a separate, rear stair-
case in small houses, as the valuable space such an arrangement
calls for cannot be spared ; nor is the second staircase necessary
or even desirable. In a little house, it is perfectly practical to
depend upon a single one. For larger houses, a combination
staircase, in which stairs from the kitchen join the main stairs
halfway up, is desirable. Large houses should be provided
with separate front and rear stairs from first to second stories,

108 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

one staircase being sufficient, usually, for basement and attic.
If there is a billiard room in the attic or basement, however, a
separate staircase is frequently desirable, one more attrac-
tive, architecturally, than ordinary " back stairs."

In sketching out his first ideas for a staircase, the owner should
bear in mind that just so much space is required for each riser
and tread, and sufficient head room must be provided.

In large houses, where the hall is to be treated in an important
way, allow plenty of space for chairs and tables, and provide
wall space for pictures. Fireplaces add to the attractiveness of
halls, though they are not considered necessary. Modern ten-
dencies trend toward reducing the number of fireplaces, too
many being found wasteful of space and somewhat of a burden
to keep clean. Many practical houses have a large fireplace
merely in the living room, with perhaps a smaller one in one
bedroom.

A reception room is used chiefly at night, and then rather
infrequently. Thus, the reception room should be located on
the north side (or least desirable side of the house), in order to
preserve more favorable locations for more important rooms.
In designing this room, one should remember that a reception
room is provided to make a place for casual callers, in order to
reserve the living room for the more private family group. Do
not make the mistake of placing it far from the entrance door.
A reception room misses its function entirely unless it is located
where callers can enter without disturbing persons seated in the
living room or dining room. To get this result it is often lo-
cated adjacent to the entrance hall or vestibule, and a clever
arrangement is to place the reception room so that it can be
opened into the hall or living room when a large reception is
given, but closed off at other times. This can be accomplished
by hanging glass doors in the broad opening to hall or living
room, kept closed ordinarily, but easily opened when the occa-
sion arises.

PLANNING THE ROOMS

109

Another practical way to provide for a reception room is to
build a sort of alcove off the hall or living room, partially
screened by plaster partitions extending up about 6 feet but
left open at the top, or filled with open balusters. Thus, the
little reception room is not unpleasantly disconnected from the
rest of the house, though it is quite private: In many houses
the reception room is combined with a music room containing
the piano and music cabinet, in which case the designer must
be careful to make it large enough, or music will not sound well.

Where possible it is good practice to have a separate music
room, permitting the family to break up into little groups and
making it possible to use the piano without annoying others.
Any one who has ever tried to read when young people are sing-
ing at the piano will appreciate a separate music room. The
following table, showing sizes of pianos, can be used in deter-
mining space required :

APPROXIMATE SIZES OF STANDARD PIANOS

HEIGHT

LENGTH

WIDTH

Upright
Small or Baby Grand .
Parlor Grand ....

about 4 ft. 5 in.
about 3 ft. 1 in.
about 3 ft. 4 in.

5 ft. 2 in.
6 ft. in.
7 ft. 8 in.

2 ft. 4 in.
4 ft. 9 in.
5 ft. in.

The library is designed for many different purposes. Some
libraries are of considerable size, required to hold a thousand
volumes, others are small and cozy, more in the nature of a den.
Here, again, we may consider the library as chiefly a " night
room" and place it in the least desirable location. With the
exception of Sunday, at few times in the day is a library occu-
pied, at least, that is the case in 'most houses. A library
should open from the hall, if possible, to be of convenient access,
and it should be well ventilated by having plenty of windows, as

110 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

it is most frequently used as a smoking room. Fireplaces are

excellent ventilators. In several cleverly designed small houses

ventilators have been built in to carry away the smoke. Often

' library ls placed in a little, single-story wing, and in such

cases the ventilator can be placed in the roof, directly above the

The library should be, above all eke, a quiet room It

LIVING ROOM WITH ALCOVE DEN.

is designed primarily for readers, and for this reason a library
should be closed off from other rooms by means of doors When
convenient, it is good practice to have two doors between the
library and other parts of the house, an arrangement made pos-

ble by having the entrance to the room through a little lobby
with doors hung both sides.

For a den one may have the smallest room imaginable, and

PLANNING THE ROOMS 111

it will be perfectly practical, if well arranged. A good loca-
tion for the den is under the landing of the main stairs. To
get head room you may go down a few steps from the main hall.
A little bay window will help to make the room larger, and
sufficient light and air will be provided. Especially when
there is no library is it extremely desirable to include a den

INCLOSED VERANDA.

or office in the house where the business man may have his
desk and shut himself and his work away from the family living
room, a quiet, restful place where any member of the family
may go.

Verandas and porches are very important, and the houseowner
should consider them carefully. The most useful veranda is
situated, not on the front of the house where privacy is dif-

112 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

ficult to secure, but on one side or at the rear. French win-
dows opening from the living room or hall make an excellent
means of entrance from house to veranda. If the latter is to
be screened in, it is not a good plan to have steps leading from
the veranda to the ground, it being more practical to have a
porch entirely private, entered only from the house. Verandas
of this sort should be wide enough to admit of a row of chairs
and plenty of space for passage in front, say 10 feet as a mini-
mum extreme width, though 12 feet is much better. Many ve-
randas of this type are screened in summer and glazed in winter,

sometimes, even, radiators
being installed so that the
porch can be used all winter
as a "sun room."

Porches other than the
main veranda can be much
smaller, and they may be
roofed or left open like a ter-
race. Somewhere outside
the house it is a good plan
to have an open terrace on
which one may step from the
house, for on fine nights in
summer it is delightful to sit
out of doors directly under
the sky. An additional ad-
vantage of the terrace over
a covered veranda is that it
shuts no light from the liv-
ing rooms.

The sleeping porch has become a necessary part of the house.
Frequently it is located on top of the principal veranda, thus
being, in fact, the second story of a " double-decked " porch.
When this is the case, it is best to extend the main roof of the

MAIN VERANDA BELOW, SLEEPING
PORCH ABOVE.

PLANNING THE ROOMS 113

house right out over the sleeping porch wing, otherwise the
double-decked porch might look detached. The minimum
width of a sleeping porch is 7 feet, but 8 feet is better, its size,
of course, being determined by the number of persons who are
to sleep there. Cot beds are used mostly, though folding beds
are particularly desirable, as they may be closed up out of the
way in daytime. Folding beds for this purpose are built into
the wall, with ventilators provided at the sides. If windows
are to be used in connection with the sleeping porch, casement
windows will be found to be best, in groups, hinged at the
sides and opening out. Thus the maximum of air is secured
when windows are opened, and the purpose of the sleeping porch
is not diverted. In some porches double doors (French win-
dows) open from the principal bedroom, through which an ordi-
nary double bed can be pushed. In this way it is possible to
keep the bed in the bedroom during the day, pushing it out on
the porch at night.

The sun room may be treated as a sort of glazed-in veranda,
or it can be built like any other room, adding plenty of windows
opening down to the floor. A sun room is very attractive and
will be found quite useful located where one can step directly into
it from the living room. It is frequently the custom to open a
conservatory off one end of the sun room, and often the sun room
floor is a step or two down from the living room floor. Tile
floors are excellent for porches and sun rooms, especially red
quarry tile laid with wide black joints. Tile should be oiled
after it is laid, to bring out the color.

The most important room in the house is the kitchen, for here
the housekeeper finds her work a joy when the kitchen is prop-
erly designed. Cross draft, by means of windows and doors
on two sides, must be had by all means. Reduce complexities
by providing the simplest of kitchen arrangements, with short-
est distances between points, not a cupboard too many, but
just enough to exactly accommodate kitchen dishes and kitchen

114 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

tools. Every unnecessary inch of space in the kitchen makes
that much more work. Analyze your needs before the working
plans are made, and provide for your actual requirements, adding
as much extra provision for the future as your common sense
dictates.

Tile walls are excellent for kitchens, sometimes tile floors,
though the latter are very hard underfoot. Maple floors are
practical, with or without a covering of linoleum. In lieu of
tile walls, hard plaster can be used. Modern kitchen design
has almost revolutionized housekeeping methods. Old style
kitchens were largely space-wasters, difficult to keep clean,
inconveniently planned. Designers apparently paid no atten-
tion to the elimination of unnecessary distance between fixtures.
Modern kitchens are smaller, even in large houses, as the small

kitchen well arranged has
been found to accommodate
as large a family as a large
kitchen poorly planned, and
at the same time work is
much easier.

In planning the kitchen,
when you think it is reduced
to the smallest area possible,
take off a few feet more, for
most often the kitchen is
made too large. To make a
small kitchen practical, how-
ever, you must carefully ar-
range for every fixture and
piece of furniture. The sink
should be near the range and

both should be where light is good ; then, there are cupboards, a
table or dresser, and one or two chairs to be provided for. Furni-
ture really requires little room, if the kitchen is thought out

5TW

MALL

JENTRY I KITCHEN PORCH

ICC VEKT)

BUFFET
KITCHELN

DINING ROO/A

SMALL BUFFET KITCHEN.

PLANNING THE ROOMS

115

scientifically. To do this intelligently, find out the size of fur-
niture and sketch each piece on the plans.

In imagination, the housekeeper should go through the various
housekeeping operations to be performed in the kitchen and see
if they can be properly and comfortably accomplished in the
given space. Is the pantry near? Are closets and cupboards
convenient ? Will windows and outside doors give cross draft
in hot weather? Is the kitchen just the sort of workroom in
which one would choose to pass many hours each day? For
the house will lack in its most essential spot, if the kitchen is not
practical.

In a small house the kitchen may be as small as 10 by 12 feet,
or even less, if it be well planned, for gas ranges have made small
kitchens practical. When a coal range is used, the kitchen
should be larger, so that the room may be as cool as possible.
Have plenty of windows, and place the tops high up near the
ceiling, so hot air will go out readily. If impossible to get win-
dows on two sides of the room, place the rear entrance door on
the side opposite the windows. Thus, when the door is opened,
cross draft is provided.

Built-in kitchen cupboards are useful and attractive. Use
them plentifully, but with the under-
standing that it is possible to have too
many cupboards, wasting money use-
lessly and causing unnecessary work for-
ever after. The most practical way to
determine how many cupboards are
needed is to consider carefully every
article requiring storage space, and make
provision for it. One of the new ideas

is to omit the pantry and have food

KITCHEN DRESSER.
cupboards built around the walls of the

kitchen, an ice box, built in (with outside icing door), providing
storage for perishable food. Other convenient cupboards are at

FOOD

116 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the side of the sink, frequently a chest of drawers being on one
side, with a cupboard at the other, both topped with a flat wood
or marble slab, forming a table. For cleanliness the space under-
neath the sink is left open. One wall cupboard of good size is
ample to contain kitchen dishes, and another will hold packages
of food supplies, flour, and like materials. With perishable
goods in the ice box summer and winter and cupboards for other

DRAWER PULL\

x/ntD LINES snow

JIN OPEN

LH1N6C5

TILTING FLOUR BIN.

supplies, no pantry is necessary, and one more care-requiring
accessory is eliminated.

It may be laid down as a fact that most pantries are larger
than needs be. The tendency is to devote so much space for
this purpose that housekeeping is made harder instead of easier.
Large pantries require much labor to keep them spotlessly
clean, floors must be washed and shelves scrubbed, to say
nothing of the packages and utensils containing food which re-
quire constant inspection. It is much better to consider a food
pantry as space for storing supplies for immediate use and not

PLANNING THE ROOMS 117

try to keep there the abundance of stores more properly placed
in the basement. Canned goods, fruit, and vegetables are
better down cellar, in a dark, cool storeroom. Flour in barrels
is frequently stored in the pantry, with sugar, salt, breakfast
foods, meal, and like supplies.

Many housekeepers prefer to buy flour in paper sacks, in
which case one or two flour bins are required in the pantry. The
pattern most used consists of zinc-lined boxes swung beneath
a broad ledge. If pivots are applied to the sides of the boxes,
the bins can be easily lifted out for cleaning. A simpler form
of bin is merely hinged on the bottom with ordinary butts,
tilted forward when flour is required by taking hold of a drawer
pull at the top. Flour bins should always tilt forward in this
manner without disturbing the bread board above. The old-
fashioned way was to place a barrel of flour under the ledge,
lifting up a cover above to get at the flour. This was awkward
when a batch of dough was on the bread board.

The best material for the walls and floors of a pantry is tile.
Nothing could be cleaner than this dense, moisture-resisting
material, but maple will do very well for floors, with southern
pine for shelves and cupboards. Where tile is not used the walls
should be covered with hard plaster, painted with several coats
of good enamel paint. Linoleum is an excellent covering for
a pantry floor.

There is one department of the house which has cheated
more owners out of hard-earned dollars and vexed more weary
housewives than all the others combined. This usually incon-
venient and frequently ill-designed part of the house is called
the "butler's pantry." As every one knows, most families
do not require a butler, nevertheless, perhaps ninety-nine out
of a hundred sets of building plans have the words "butler's
pantry" indelibly stamped upon them. Now, a room prop-
erly arranged for the butler must be large enough for the vari-
ous functions performed by that dignitary. Such a department,

118 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

necessary as it is for families which do a great deal of entertain-
ing, must be large enough for serving elaborate dinners of many
courses, providing space for the cleaning and shelving of the
generous supply of china and silver necessary for such an es-
tablishment. There can be no economy of space, every-
thing is on a scale commensurate with the elaborate service
required. Here is where the builder of a small house is fleeced,
and the housekeeper adds furrows to her brow. Most every
houseowner has seen one or two of these elaborately arranged
rooms, and with his mind filled with the picture he forgets his
more simple problem and schemes for a similar department in
his own house, thinking his home will not be complete unless it
has some such luxurious arrangement. As a result, money is

spent for the " butler's pan-

SCRVANTS SITTING- Rcm try/' frequently causing re-
stricted expenditure in some
other place in the house, and
another housekeeping diffi-
culty has been added to the
everyday life of the mistress.
The right way to ap-
proach the serving pantry
(butler's pantry) problem is
to estimate the amount of
shelf room actually needed.
Add to this somewhat for
future requirements, includ-
ing the few conveniences
needed ; allow an aisle for
passage and you will have

KITCHEN, PANTRY, AND CHINA PANTRY. .

a serving pantry sufficient

for all but the largest families. This serving pantry is usually
the connecting passageway between kitchen and dining room.
China cases are set up about 16 inches above the drawers and

PLANNING THE ROOMS

119

lockers below, allowing the broad ledge to be used as a serving
table. It is a good idea to install a plate warmer in one of the
lockers.

Of course, there are houses where the simplified form of serv-
ing pantry could not be used; large houses in which owners
frequently entertain and where a staff of servants is constantly
maintained should have serving facilities more extensive. But
even in these instances, one should not fail to carefully study

SHELM

METAL BRACKET ?

^OPEJM

OPEN

PRACTICABLE SERVING ROOM CASES.

the problem, and proportion the space scientifically for the work
to be done there. In a serving pantry of liberal size "tandem"
pantry sinks are often provided. Two sinks are very convenient
for washing dishes, one being filled with water for washing and
the other with rinsing water, quite as convenient as having a
battery of two or three wash tubs in the laundry, and such an
arrangement greatly facilitates dish washing. A cupboard for
table leaves, consisting of a grooved rack to hold the leaves
(with a door in front) will be found very convenient in a serving
pantry.

A billiard room, to be of utmost utility, should be located on

120 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the first story off the hall or dining room. In most houses it
is placed in the basement or the attic, and it has been found in
practice that when a billiard room is up or down a flight or two
of stairs it is rarely used. In other words, people do not like
to climb up and down stairs to visit a billiard room and the re-
sult is, after the novelty has worn off, most basement and attic
billiard rooms are deserted. Of the two places, basement or
attic, undoubtedly the former is the better place for the billiard
room ; under the living room is the best location, and a toilet
room should be adjacent to it containing a wash bowl and water-
closet. Good light must be provided ; if ordinary cellar win-,
dows will not do, area windows should be used, opening well
down to the floor. A fireplace is also very desirable. Billiard
rooms should be of sizes indicated in the following table :

CORRECT SIZES FOR BILLIARD ROOMS

(Add 9 feet to total size of table, for small tables; add 10 feet to
total size of table, for large tables.)

Table 3'6" X 7' Room 12'6" X 16'

Table 4' X 8' Room 13' X 17'

Table 4'6" X 9' . . '. Room 14' X 18'6"

Table 5' X 10' Room 15' X 20'

Table 5'6" X 11' Room 15'6" X 21'

Table 6' X 12' Room 16' X 22'

Bedrooms need not be so large as one would expect when they
are properly arranged, with windows and doors placed so as to
leave wall space and floor space for furniture. In fact, bed-
rooms as small as 9'6" by 11' 6" are frequently perfectly practical.
Beds, dressers, and other pieces of furniture should be sketched
on the plans, selecting the best locations and allowing proper
space around each. A dressing case placed with its back to the
wall should have ample space in front ; otherwise one may not
be able to look in the mirror.

PLANNING THE ROOMS

121

Bedrooms should be carefully planned to have windows on
two sides of each room, if possible. This makes them much
cooler in summer, and if awnings are added over the south win-
dows the rooms will be quite comfortable even in hottest
weather. Many modern houses have overhanging eaves which
do practically what the awnings do, that is, they keep out

BEDROOM WITH WINDOWS ON Two SIDES.

the direct rays of the hot noon sun, and such rooms are not de-
prived of too much light if the surface under the eaves is fin-
ished white, as light colors reflect daylight into the rooms.

Don't reserve the best bedroom in the house for occasional
guests; take it for your own. This room, usually called
" owner's room," should be larger than any of the others. In
fact, all other rooms might be made a bit smaller to contribute
to the size of the owner's room, which is customarily used as an
upstairs sitting room.

Off the principal bedroom a dressing room will be found very

122 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

useful. In many houses a private bathroom is also installed,
opening from the dressing room or bedroom. In a well arranged
dressing room you will find several wardrobes built in against
the walls with generous floor space left between. There is a
window (usually at one end), and a dresser (built-in, or not)
stands against one wall. On one of the wardrobe doors it is a
good plan to have a full-length mirror. For houses of moderate
size a dressing room 7 by 8 feet is usually sufficient.

The ideal bathroom is neither too large nor too small. A
minimum size for small bath rooms is, 5 '6" wide by 7'0" long.
An excessively large bathroom is much more difficult to keep
clean than a smaller one, if the latter is well arranged. That is
the key to first-class bathroom design let it be "well ar-
ranged." Each fixture should be carefully drawn out to a scale
on the floor plan, allowing just space enough about each fixture
for the proper accommodation of the user, and no more.

It is safe to say that one bathroom will not comfortably care
for more than four grown people. A much better apportion-
ment would be one bathroom for three grown people, as it is
better to err on the side of providing too many than too few.
Bathroom facilities are greatly increased when separate lava-
tories are provided in each bedroom, or say, one lavatory in
each dressing room. Lavatories need not be visible as they
can be inclosed with doors.

Of the many house-building maxims that have been handed
down by word of mouth, none is more antiquated than the one
"always build the bathroom over the kitchen." Years ago,
before modern, scientific building laws had been enacted, it was
customary to have one stack of soil pipe extend from basement
to roof, as an outlet and vent pipe for laundry tubs, kitchen
sink, and bathroom fixtures. With such conditions it is not
strange that the bathroom was placed directly over the kitchen.
Plumbing laws now require in most cases a separate stack from
kitchen sink and laundry tubs, extending from the basement

PLANNING THE ROOMS 123

nearly to the roof, so it is no longer of any particular advantage
to place the bathroom directly over the kitchen. As a general
proposition, of course, it may be said that the shorter the dis-
tance from bathroom to kitchen, the more economical a plumb-
ing system is, but it certainly is not wise to disarrange one's
floor plan to get such a result.

The bathroom window should be higher from the floor than
ordinary windows. If you wish to secure good ventilation, make
the bathroom window larger than usual. Two windows in each
bathroom, especially if on opposite sides, are a great improve-
ment.

The best material in the world for a bathroom floor is tile,
either of glass or the more ordinary white tile. White tile should
be unglazed for floors, to prevent slipping. On walls, white
tiles are glazed. A new enameled metal wall covering which
looks like tile is in the market, and it will be found a gO9d ma-
terial for bathroom walls, at a somewhat less cost than tile.
Above the tile dado, walls should be of hard plaster, finished
smooth. This can be painted three or four coats of enamel
paint.

Scientifically arranged cupboards do as much toward light-
ening the load of housekeeping as any other house fixtures.
Impractical closets are failures, for you cannot keep a house
tidy if there is not space of just the right size in which to store
every article brought into it. Large closets are sometimes worse
than small ones, since they make just so much more space to
clean and take up room needed for other things. This is es-
pecially true in small houses, which are like ships, material
of a certain amount has to be stored in a limited number of
places, space must be utilized without waste.

If your house is well planned, there will be no left-over spots.
Every square inch of floor and wall space should be accounted
for in the working plans. Locate carefully every closet, ward-
robe, chest, or cupboard. Leave nothing to chance. Plan for

124 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

HAT5

the scientific storage of all supplies before beginning building,
and your house will be comfortable and serviceable.

In considering closets and cupboards the most practicable
way is to take an inventory of everything to be stored.
Next to size, the exact location of every cupboard is the
most important thing to consider. Place each where it will
be nearest to the articles to be stored. Have your dining room
china either directly in the dining room or conveniently near.
Place the cupboard for kitchen dishware near the sink, and have
the cupboard for pots and pans as close to the range as it is pos-
sible to get it. Directions like these seem almost trite, and yet
it is surprising how easy it is to forget the practical side of closet
planning. One should never depend upon left-over spaces for
closets. Closets and cupboards should always be incorporated
in the house plans from the beginning.

Xv Large, old-fashioned | closets

are wasteful because garments
cannot be hung in the stand-
ing place, the space is ex-
travagant compared with the
number of garments accom-
modated. Wardrobe closets
are storage places on a new
principle, to put away the
most garments in the least
space is the idea. Such closets
are only two feet deep and
from three to four feet long.
You need not stand in a ward-
robe closet, for double doors
reveal the entire space to your

view, and you can readily reach in and remove garments hung
on forms without disturbing others. In a wardrobe closet of
ordinary size, 35 garments can be hung without effort. A shelf

DBAWEl

SCIENTIFIC BUILT-IN WARDROBE.

PLANNING THE ROOMS

125

for hat boxes can be built above, with a drawer or shelf below

for shoes and rubbers. An ingenious hanger for utilizing waste

space in the upper part of an ordinary closet can be fashioned

from a handle about three feet long with

an ordinary wire coat hanger screwed to

the top. In the upper part of such a

closet, place a curtain pole on which to

hang the garments. By this method

you will be able to reach up and hang

suits in the high space usually wasted.

Large hats for women require much
clever planning. Where will you put
them? One good way is to have a
tight, cedar box under the bed. The
box is on casters so it may be easily
trundled out when needed, and the
cover shuts down tight to keep out
dust. If your closet is deep enough, UTILIZING
you may keep hats in ordinary paste-
board boxes on the upper shelf.

Some women, blessed with a number of hats, have a closet
made expressly for them. Such a closet is bujlt with double
doors like a wardrobe closet, but the space is filled with shelves.
If the doors are tight, hats may lie on the shelves, otherwise,
each should be inclosed in a separate box. Wardrobe cabinets,
useful for men and women, can be built into any bedroom.
They are handy, practical, little space savers, and do not cost
overmuch. In cabinets for men, garments should be supported
on hangers, and there are trays for shirts and lockers for col-
lars, cuffs, and ties. Cabinets for women have trays for skirts,
which can be laid full length without folding.

A medicine cupboard built into the bathroom wall is a practi-
cal necessity. It is used for soap, tooth brushes, bottles, and
towels, and one of the best patterns is of enameled metal.

THE UPPER
SPACE IN AN ORDINARY
CLOSET.

126 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

BATHROOM CUP-
BOARD.

Shelves should be adjustable, and a toilet mirror is usually se-
cured to the door. In this case, place the cabinet over the wash
bowl.

The ideal linen closet has no drawers to bind or rattle.
Drawers are inconvenient for the storage of linen as the depth
necessary to hold linen satisfactorily makes
them very heavy. In addition, is the an-
noyance of pulling a drawer forward and
taking out all the linen on top to get at
that below. Use open shelves in your linen
closet and hang double doors like a ward-
robe closet. Have the shelves adjustable,
so you may lift them up or down at will.
For a house on a dusty street have outer
and inner doors on the linen closet. A good
storeroom for linen usually has an aisle in
the middle, with cupboards on both sides.
No drawers, always shelves. Bookcases (which are really
cupboards) can be provided of just the right size to hold your
library, with generous provision for its future enlargement.

la large houses a coat room should be provided, on the first
story near the front entrance, and it is an excellent idea to build
the coat room large enough to contain a toilet room as well,
with washbowl and water-closet. A coat room about 6 by 8
feet, with a toilet room off, about 4 by 5 feet, is large enough for
most houses, and the convenience of such an arrangement is at
once apparent. Tile floors and walls are very practical for both
coat room and toilet room. For those who do not care to have
a separate coat room, a coat closet arranged like an ordinary
wardrobe can be built in off the entrance hall. On the door
place a full-length mirror and you will have a very convenient
outfit.

In the basement several departments must be provided for.
The laundry is, of course, the most important room, and it is

PLANNING THE ROOMS 127

ordinarily placed under the kitchen, in one corner, with win-
dows on two sides to insure cool, cross ventilation. Latest
practice is to place laundry tubs out on the floor instead of
against a wall. They are very convenient thus, for then the
washing machine and clothes basket can be placed adjacent to
the tubs on any side. Where center tubs are desired, one should
order tubs without backs and have the water-supply pipes drop
down to each from the ceiling, or extend up from the floor. The
faucets are secured to the pipe risers: A small wooden grating
placed on the concrete floor in front of the tubs will be appre-
ciated by most washwomen, as it is pleasanter to stand upon
than the hard concrete. The coolest laundries are those in
which a gas stove is used to heat irons and warm the water.
Locate the ironing table near a window where light is best, and
put a wooden grating here also, for the laundress to stand upon.

Dust-proof coal bins are ideal in every way. Build them
with double-boarded partitions, placing good, thick sheathing
paper, well lapped, between the layers of boards. Another
good way requiring less lumber is to use one thickness of tongued
and grooved boards and paint the joints with white lead before
they are put together. This makes a tight partition. One
should be careful that the carpenter fits partitions closely at
floor and ceiling, and a tight door should be hung in front of the
ordinary slide boards.

Pay particular attention to the cool cellar for vegetables.
Build it on the shady side, in the coolest corner, and provide
it with an outside window for ventilation. If you wish to have
your vegetables keep the longest possible time, remove them
from the crates or barrels and spread them out on racks or bins
provided for that purpose. Do not keep your preserves in the
ordinary cool cellar. Build a separate closet for them, in a
dark, cool corner, without outside light. Use artificial light
Instead, as strong light from out of doors spoils preserves.

In most houses a toilet is provided hi the basement for ser-

128 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

vants. If the new house is in a poorly drained locality where
the sewer is liable to back up into the house, a " back-water
valve" must be installed to keep the contents of the sewer from
flowing into the cellar by way of the cellar water-closet (as is
explained in another chapter). It is best to provide a bathtub
and washbowl for servants elsewhere than in the cellar.

A tool room with lock and key is usually a great convenience
in the basement. Place it somewhere near the stairs which
lead to the yard. If a place is provided for every tool, one can
tell at a glance just what is missing and take the steps to find it.
It is now quite customary to provide for a basement workshop
where father and the boys can putter around with tools. Choose
a corner for this, if possible, where windows are on two sides, in
order to get the maximum of light and air. Install a workbench
of oak or maple. As there is considerable dust around a work-
bench, the cellar should be plastered overhead, or thick paper
can be tacked to the under side of the floor joists in order to
prevent dust rising to the floors above.

When there is no attic in a house (and sometimes when there
is), the best place to store empty trunks is in the basement.
Placed on the cellar floor, trunks soon grow musty, but set upon
an open rack where air circulates on all sides, they will keep
sweet and clean indefinitely.

CHAPTER VII

SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED

VIEWED by the layman, a set of specifications is a ponderous
and often misunderstood legal instrument devised by the archi-
tect to instruct a contractor how to build the greater portion of
the new house. The ba^nce of the house that part which
through some error the architect (so the layman supposes) has
forgotten to specify must be built as an "extra," and the dis-
appointed owner has to pay the bills because there is nothing
else to do.

Such, in brief, is the process as it exists in the eyes of the lay-
man, who, in truth, is often right in his opinion. Many houses
are built by means of incomplete plans and specifications, in-
volving much trouble for owner, architect, and contractor,
causing the owner to pay extra for work which should have been
specified in the first place. It is not fair, however, to presume
that all house-building projects are carried out in the same way.
Countless houses all over the country have been built from plans
and specifications so complete that not one dollar has been spent
for " extras." In many other houses, every dollar for " extras"
was spent, not for work omitted from the original contract
through error, but for changes in the original scheme, additions
made to it by the owner, not in any way the fault of archi-
tect or contractor.

A set of specifications is really a typewritten or printed letter
of instructions from the owner (through his agent, the archi-
tect) to the contractor. Just as a business man writes a letter
of instructions to his agent in a distant city, so the architect on
behalf of the owner writes a letter of instructions to the con-

131

132 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

tractor, informing him just how the house is to be built, what
materials are to be employed, and what kind of workmanship is
required. The only difference between a set of specifications
and a business letter is that the former is couched in legal
phrases and is a much more lengthy document than the latter.

The method usually pursued by an architect in writing a set
of specifications for a house is to take from his files specifica-
tions for a similar house designed at some previous period, fol-
lowing it as a model for the new specifications.

As an illustration: It may be the architect has specifica-
tions for a frame house built the year before at a cost of $5000.
The new house for which he is about to write specifications is to
be a frame house, also, somewhere near the same size. Then
the architect takes his former specifications, goes over them
carefully, marking each item that is to be different in the new
house. If the former house has stone foundations and the new
one is to have concrete, he changes this portion of the old speci-
fications to include concrete instead of stone ; if different plumb-
ing fixtures are to be used, he makes the necessary changes here,
and so on, through the entire set.

It^is practical to use an old set of specifications for a model in
this way because two houses of similar size and cost are similar
as to specifications. Both houses have a certain amount of
mason work, carpenter work, plumbing, heating, painting,
plastering, and other kinds of work, and though materials may
vary in a general way, one set of specifications is very much like
another. The task of composing an entirely new set of specifi-
cations for each new house would not only be a very difficult
one, but it would be almost impossible to do this without for-
getting some important clause. Just a slight omission here
and there might work great harm. When an old set is used, a
model that has been built from many times and found correct,
the chance of error is very small.

A complete set of specifications ought to be a very inter-

SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED 133

esting document to the prospective houseowner, for it tells him
in detail just how his house is to be built, with what kind of
materials. Some owners are inclined to omit careful considera-
tion of specifications. They devote all their spare time to
studying the plans, taking but the merest general interest in
specifications. This is a great mistake, for specifications tell as
much about the vital things in the construction of the house as
the plans do. Much future annoyance and not a little real
trouble can be saved by familiarizing yourself with the entire
set of specifications from start to finish. They should be gone
over carefully, clause by clause. Every word and sentence not
clear to you should be explained by the architect, so that in the
end you will know as much about your house as he does.

Owners are frequently surprised to find after, the new house
is begun that it does not come out just as they expected. " Why,
I thought the bedrooms were to have oak floors," they say, or,
" Doesn't the kitchen have a porcelain sink?" In most cases
this is the fault of the owner, not the architect, who is not a
mind reader and cannot foresee that his client will not under-
stand what he is getting. If honorable and efficient, honestly
looking out for the interests of his client, the architect has speci-
fied in detail just how he thinks the house should be built to
give best results. If the owner hasn't carefully checked over
the specifications to see that they represent what he wants, it is
not the architect's fault when they contain methods and mate-
rials at odds with his requirements.

When there is trouble during the building of a house, it is
often on account of a misunderstanding between owner, archi-
tect, and contractor. Nothing contributes more often to this
trouble than a misunderstanding on the part of the owner as to
the kind of workmanship called for in the specifications. As an
example, take a prospective houseowner who decides to build,
let us say, a $5000 house. The new houses with which he is
most familiar are expensive houses, costing from $15,000 to

134 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

$20,000. He has examined them carefully, admiring the splendid
workmanship, and he is enamored of the beautiful way in which
the wood is finished. When his own $5000 house is built, he is
surprised to find that it is not as highly finished as the more
expensive houses. In his own house the trim is much plainer.
It is not so richly finished, and the owner asks the architect why
this is so.

"You have one coat of stain and two coats of varnish on
your woodwork," replies the architect, "and the other house
has a coat of filler, one coat of stain and three coats of varnish,
two coats more than there is in your house."

"But why didn't you specify the same kind of a job you did
in the other house?"

"Because your house is less costly," says the architect. "If
I had used such expensive finishes throughout your house, it
would have cost you considerably more. It seemed to me wiser
to spend this money where it would do more good."

Difficulties of this sort can be avoided by reading the speci-
fications carefully, understanding just what kind of work is
called for. Although a $5000 house should be just as honestly
builj, as a $15,000 house, it would not be wise to spend so much
money in finishing up the former as the latter. A $5000
house, built more elaborately and finished better than the
usual $5000 house might cost $6000 or $7000, and very few
owners would be satisfied to pay so much more for it. Reading
the specifications and fixing in his mind the kind of work called
for makes it possible for the owner to control the finishing of
his house and have it the way he wants it before the contract
is let.

In building a house of moderate cost, another frequent dis-
appointment to the owner is the workmanship on interior trim.
In an ordinary $5000 house it is not usual to have what is known
as "cabinet" work. That is, in putting interior trim in place,
every joint is not made in cabinet-work fashion, with doweled

SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED 135

and glued joints (like a piece of furniture). Good work and
good work only is required, of course, but not necessarily " extra
good" work, or " super-extra " work, such as might be expected
in an expensive house. Frequently an owner who has noticed
the " cabinet finish" in expensive houses is surprised to find
that his own little home is on a somewhat cheaper plane. Here
again, he is at fault in not being familiar with his specifications.
He should have understood,, after consultation with his architect,
just what the latter intended to specify and then, if "cabinet
finish" was what he wanted, the proper description might have
been inserted in the specifications.

In writing specifications it is customary in the offices of most
architects to write separate specifications for each branch of
the work. Thus there are mason's specifications, carpenter's
specifications, plumbing specifications, and so on. Even when
a general contract is to be let for the entire work, the general
contractor usually sublets portions of the work, such as plumb-
ing, heating, and so on, and it is a great convenience for him to
have separate specifications for the different branches. Thus
he hands the plumbing specifications to the plumber and the
painting specifications to the painter, instead of giving them
a set of specifications for the entire building.

Although each of the branch specifications is written sepa-
rately, when one contract for the whole job is let the separate
specifications are bound together into one and the contract with
the general contractor is made for the complete building.

Many of the separate specifications contain more than one
branch of the work. For instance, the specifications for masonry
usually include excavation, cement floors, structural steel, and
so on. The mason who takes your contract frequently does not
do the excavating himself, nor does he erect the structural steel
or lay the cement floors, for these branches of his work he sub-
lets to other contractors. He does, however, take the entire
contract for masonry, including the work of the sub-contractors,

136 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

and he is responsible for the entire masonry contract. Sub-
contracts so closely allied with mason work as excavating and
structural steel are included in the mason's contract so as to
save the annoyance of making so many separate contracts. The
carpenter's specifications usually contain tin work, roofing,
mill work, lumber, and the like, work that is sublet by the
carpenter to various subcontractors but is included in the
carpenter's specifications to avoid the necessity of making so
many separate contracts; the painting specifications contain
glazing; and the plumbing specifications include gas fitting.

When the architect uses specifications of a previously built
house as a guide for the new specifications, it is excellent practice
for the owner to borrow from the architect the specification
which it is proposed to follow as a model. Thus, in advance of
the actual writing of the new specifications an owner can look
over the model and decide whether, in a general way, they em-
body the kind of work he expects to get in his own house. .

Some portions of the work are impractical to specify, by rea-
son of the large amount of detailed description required. This
applies particularly to hard ware, as it is frequently impossible at
the time specifications are made to determine just what kind of
haraware the owner desires. Items of this kind can be handled
by inserting an allowance in the specifications. Such a clause
referring to hardware, would read about as follows :

Hardware Allowance

Allow and pay the owner the sum of One Hundred
and Twenty-Five Dollars ($125) for all finish-
ing hardware used in the building. This sum to
be expended by the owner in any way he shall
see fit.

When an allowance clause like this is used, the contractor,
in making his bid, includes in it the sum of $ 125. Later, when

SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED 137

the owner goes to a dealer to select his hardware he is entitled
to enough goods to come up to the value of the allowance, and
the contractor is liable for this amount. If the hardware costs
less than the amount of the allowance, the owner saves the
difference; if it costs more, he must pay the contractor for the
increased amount. Tilework (for mantels and hearths) is fre-
quently put into the specification in the form of an allowance (by
specifying an allowed price of so much per square foot) . Electric
light fixtures, furniture, and other things difficult to specifically
describe, are also frequently inserted in the form of allowances.
Every set of specifications is preceded by a page or two of
General Conditions (considered as part of the specifications).
A short list of general conditions such as is frequently used in
house specifications follows:

REQUIREMENTS. The Contractor shall furnish all
material, labor, transportation, scaffold-
ing, utensils, etc., of every description
required for the full performance of the
work herein specified, except as may be
otherwise specifically mentioned.

He shall lay out his work and be respon-
sible for its correctness, shall keep a com-
petent foreman on the premises, shall obtain
all necessary permits to carry on the work,
paying all lawful fees therefor, shall give
to the proper authorities all requisite no-
tices relating to the work in his charge,
shall afford the Architect or other Inspec-
tor every facility for inspection, shall be
responsible for any violation of law or dam-
age to property caused by him or his em-
ployees, and shall properly protect his work
during progress.

138 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

WORK AND MATERIAL. All materials shall be of
the best of their several kinds in quality,
as herein specified. All labor shall be
performed in the best manner by skilled
workmen and both shall be subject to the
approval of the Architect or other In-
spector.

All work and material must conform to the
laws, rules, and regulations in force in the
locality in which the building is to stand,
anything herein specified to the contrary
notwithstanding.

STORED MATERIAL. All materials delivered on
the premises which are to form a part of the
works, are to be considered the property of
the owners, and are not to "be removed with-
out their consent, but the Contractor shall
have the right to remove all his surplus
material after completion.

^
CARTING. The Contractor shall provide and pay

all charges for the delivery of all material
used upon the building, whether furnished
by himself, or furnished to himself by the
Owner .

CUTTING-. Such cutting and repairing as is

necessary, in either the masonry or carpen-
try, for the proper installation of the
heating and plumbing systems (the latter of
which is here understood to include the gas
piping and the "rain-water conductors) shall
be done by the general building contractor.

SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED 139

The workmen of the several crafts are to
serve each other where necessary for the
proper accomplishment of their respective
dut i e s .

OBSTRUCTIONS AND REPAIRS. At any time, upon
the request of the Architect or Inspector,
the Contractor shall clear out all rubbish
and surplus material left by him, shall re-
pair any damage to his work, no matter by
whom caused (loss or damage by fire ex-
cepted) , and leave the premises broom clean
and in perfect working order so far as his
work is concerned.

CARE OF BUILDING. The Contractor shall provide
all necessary railings, guards, and night
lights while the building is in his care.

WARMING OF BUILDING. The Contractor shall pro-
vide such temporary heat in proper apparatus
as may be necessary for the continuance of
the work in all weather.

INSURANCE. The Owners shall insure the building
and the material in and about the premises,
covering their own and the Contractor's in-
terests therein against loss or damage by
fire, such policies being made payable to
the Owners or Contractor as their interests
may appear.

DRAWINGS. The drawings referred to in this

specification, besides detail drawings, con-
sist of

No. 1_.

140 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

" 5.

" 8.

" 9

" 10.

11.

" 12.

tt 14

" 15

The drawings mentioned will be supple-
mented by detail drawings as the work pro-
gresses. All of these drawings are intended
to cooperate with and form a part of this
specification and the accompanying con-
tract .

Where figures are given, they are to be
followed rather than measurement by scale ;
and actual dimensions of the premises in
preference to either, and the accuracy of
such figures as are given are to be verified
by the Contractor before work shall proceed,
in order that any errors or apparent dis-
crepancies, should such be found to exist,
may be reported to the Architect for his
correction, and it shall be the duty of the
Contractor to so report them, otherwise he
shall make good at his own expense, any er-
rors in the work occasioned thereby.

SPECIFICATIONS EXPLAINED 141

INTERPRETATION. Anything set forth in either
the drawings or the specifications respec-
tively, and not in both, shall be furnished
or performed the same as if specially set
forth in both; likewise also, such material
or labor as is reasonably implied, though not
set forth in either. When mention is made
in either instrument of a single case of
which duplicates exist, the reference shall
apply equally to all. This refers equally
to work and material of varying amounts and
sizes and to forms performing corresponding
services in various parts of the building,
although not specially indicated in each
particular case.

In order that the Contractor may make suit-
able provision in his bid for covering the
entire cost of the work proposed, he shall
inform himself on any points which in his
opinion the drawings or specifications do
not set forth with sufficient clearness,
since he shall be held responsible for an
entire and correct understanding of the va-
rious instruments thereafter.

Should errors be found to exist in either
instrument they shall be reported to the
Architect for adjustment before the contract
is signed; otherwise, thereafter the Con-
tractor shall take the Architect's decision
as final and perform the work in question in
accordance therewith.

PROPERTY. The drawings and specifications for
this work are to be considered instruments

142 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

of service ; are to be used for this building
only; are the property of the Architect, and
are to be returned to him upon the comple-
tion of the work set forth therein.

AWARD OF CONTRACT. The owners reserve the right
to accept any, or to reject any or all, pro-
posals presented.

CHAPTER VIII

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS

THE legal side of the building problem is somewhat compli-
cated in the eyes of the inexperienced. Papers couched in
legal phraseology appear to be somewhat vague, and the owner
does not always quite understand all the documents to which he
is asked to affix his signature.

Proposals, contracts, bonds, and all other legal papers ordi-
narily used in a building project are really very simple. The
owner can easily familiarize himself with their uses, for, thanks
to the American Institute of Architects, these legal forms have
been largely standardized.

In connection with this it should be said that the American
Institute, which is the leading body of practicing architects in
the United States, has had a committee working for some time
on what are known as " Standard Documents/' with the idea
of improving all legal forms commonly used in building contracts.
As a result, an excellent set of documents has been devised, con-
sisting of Bond, Agreement (Contract), Invitation to Submit a
Proposal, Form of Proposal, and General Conditions of Contract.

The contract, itself, is about the first legal paper the owner
is called upon to sign. After the bids come in and the owner
and his architect have decided to whom the job is to be given,
the building contract must be signed by owner and contractor,
before work can be started.

A contract between two or more parties is nothing more

than an agreement between them, in which one party agrees

to perform certain work and the other party agrees to pay him

such and such sums for that work. Building Contracts might

L 145

146 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

be verbal instead of written, and they would still hold good,
if made before reliable witnesses. For instance, Contractor

Standard font* of Hgreement of
tl* Hmerican Institute of Hrcbitects

CMs form fa to be uecd only wttb the Standard General Conditions of the Contract. In it
Owner, Contractor and Hrchitcct art treated aa of the singular number and masculine gcwU*

CbisHgrccmcnt

made the _ _ day of

:_ in the year Nineteen Hundred and , _ _

by and between

dnafter called the Contractor and

hereinafter called the Owner

\ClltTIC89Ctn, that the Contractor and the Owner for the considerations
hereinafter named agree as follows:

/IftlClC 1 , The Contractor agrees to provide all the materials and to perform all
the work shown on the Drawings and described in the Specifications entitled

(fWit fm<rt tlM upturn dncriptfw of th. work u ux4 In H prapoMl, 8tx.iric.rtcm.. Coml ConMHow and uiwn fte Dnw(nh)

prepared by

,.,__-.^ acting as, and in these ,

Contract = Documents entitled the Architect, and to do to the satisfaction of the
Afthhect everything required by the Drawings, Specifications and General Conditions..

first Standard edition, form B.

EXCELLENT TYPE OF CONTRACT FORM.
(Continued on pages 147, 148 and 149.)

Smith and 'Owner Jones might meet in the presence of two or
three men and orally agree to a building contract. This pro-
cedure would be quite legal, and such a contract might hold as
well as a written contract. But written contracts are of course

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS 147

the best, as there is less liability of error. Everything being
concisely written down, neither party to the contract is liable
to misunderstand it.

Hrt iclc 1, The Contractor agrees to complete the work by and at the following
time or times, to wit:

and to pay or allow the Owner as liquidated damages, the sum of

_ ................. ____________________________________ ($..- .................. - ..... ) for each day there-

after, Sundays and legal holidays not included, that the work remains uncompleted.

3* The Owner agrees to pay the Contractor in current finds for the
performance of the Contract

,_..($! ) subject

to additions and deductions as provided in the General Conditions of the Contract

HrtlClC 4 The Owner agrees to make payments on account of this Contract on
the certificate of the Architect, as follows :

In no case, however, shall the Contractor be entitled to a payment which, in the judg-
ment of the Architect, will leave the balance withheld insufficient to complete the work.

Taking the Standard Form of Agreement (which is the form
of contract recommended by the American Institute of Archi-
tects) and analyzing it, one finds that there are several general
provisions which every good form of contract should contain.
Such a document usually starts with the date, followed by the

148 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

names of the contractor and the owner. Next comes a clause
stating the extent of the work to be done by the contractor, with
mention of the architect whose plans are to be followed and

5. The Contractor and the Owner agree that the Drawings with all
notes now thereon, the Specifications and the General Conditions of the Contract are,
together with this Agreement, the Documents forming the Contract, and that the said
Drawings, Specifications and General Conditions are as fully a part of the Contract as
if hereto attached or herein repeated; and that should the Contractor and the Owner fail
to sign them the identification of them by the Architect shall be binding on both parties.

under whose supervision the work is to be performed. After
this follows a clause stating the date when the work is to be com-
pleted, stipulating the damages which the contractor is to pay
the owner for every day the work remains uncompleted.

The next clause states the amount the owner is to pay the

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS 149

contractor for the work, noting the amount of each payment on
account and the time when it will fall due (for the owner usually
pays for his building from time to time as the work progresses,

The Contractor and the Owner for themselves, their successors, executors,
administrators and assigns, hereby agree that they will in all ways be bound by the
Documents forming the Contract, and that they will abide by and will promptly
and fully carry out all decisions given thereunder, and that they will fully perform
all of the convcnants and agreements therein contained, in witness whereof they
have hereunto set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written.

In prtMtttt of

[ (8aJ)

(Seal)

CM* Hgrctment is not intended to diminish the us* of the Uniform Contract, the publication of
which is continued by the Hmcrican Institute of Hrchittcts and the National Hssoeiation of Builders.
Chis Hgreement is issued in two styles, identical in wording: One, Style H, is intended for carbon
duplication, the other, Style B, is intended for reproduction by blue printing. Chis is Style IV.
Chis form copyrighted 191 1 by the Hmerican Institute of Architects, Che Octagon, Olashington, D. C.
Sole Licensee for publication, 6. O. SoUmamt, Drawing Materials, i JJ-HO W. 9 th 8t, New To*.

not in one sum after the building is completed). Next follow
final clauses binding both parties, " their successors, executors,
administrators, and assigns," followed by a space in which the
owner and contractor sign their names, witnessed by from two
to four witnesses. It is customary to place a seal after the
owner's and contractor's signatures.

150 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

The Standard Form of Agreement is an excellent type of
contract reduced to its simplest form. It should be employed
only when a complete set of general conditions is used in con-
nection with the specifications, otherwise, many important
clauses covering Insurance, Inspection, Condemned Materials,
Delays, and Character of Work, which are not mentioned in the
Standard Forms but can be mentioned in the specifications,
would not be covered.

Another good form of contract is what is known as the "Uni-
form Contract," a document prepared by the American In-
stitute of Architects and the National Association of Builders.
This is a more lengthy document than the Standard Form, as it
contains the general clauses covering Insurance, Inspection,
Condemned Materials, etc., just mentioned and which need not,
therefore, be included in the specifications.

Many legal interpretations are put upon a contract, some of
which are not generally known. Owners and contractors have
taken their differences to the courts, and this practice has pro-
duced a large number of legal opinions. Though these differ
somewhat, in each state, the following will be found to hold in
mo^st localities :

A signature or a mark made by either party is binding, when
made properly by a duly authorized party and witnessed.

When a "mark" is made, it must be done by the indi-
vidual himself; it cannot be made by the other party for
him.

One signature binds the party so signing, whether the other
party has signed the contract or not.

Ordinarily, every contract must include compensation for
services rendered, for if there is no remuneration the contract
will not hold. If, however, a seal is affixed to the signature of
the owner and the signature of the contractor, the contract holds
irrespective of remuneration and no opportunity is left for dis-
pute. Therefore, it is a good custom to affix seals, as it tends

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS 151

to make a contract more binding upon both parties, less
liable to be altered in the courts.

The contract must be signed by the owner himself. If the
architect signs for the owner, he, the architect, becomes
personally liable for the amount of the contract.

One copy of a contract is invalid, there should always be
two copies.

After a contract is signed, amendments can be made by mu-
tual agreement, becoming as binding as the original contract.
If the original signatures were "sealed" (by placing seals after
them), the new signatures should be likewise sealed.

The owner should read his contract carefully before signing,
noting carefully any insertions of script in the printed docu-
ment, for written insertions always take preference over printed
clauses, and where there is inconsistency, the written portions
control. The statement "I did not notice that clause" is never
accepted as a valid excuse in a court of law ; both parties are
bound by the conditions of their signed contract whether the
conditions have been read carefully or not.

The courts sometimes hold that certain conditions hi a con-
tract are "implied," whether they are specifically stated or not.
For this reason the owner should make sure that the general
spirit of the contract is faithfully set forth.

The "forfeiture price " (the amount the contractor is to pay per
day for every day the building is incompleted beyond the speci-
fied time) will not stand in court unless it is a reasonable price.

These are some of the general characteristics of a building
contract as interpreted by the courts in many states, and al-
though the law concerning building contracts varies more or
less in different sections, general court practice will be found
very much alike. Of course, in the eyes of the courts the whole
idea of a contract is that it binds both parties impartially.
Therefore the courts always try to find out the true intent and
meaning of the document.

152 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

If, during the erection of a building, extra work is done by
the contractor, and the owner has observed this extra work
(thereby virtually accepting it), even though the contract spe-
cifically states, "the contractor is to have a written order for all
extra work/' the courts hold that the owner is liable for a rea-
sonable price for the work. It is best practice, however, to
give a written order for all extra work, and then there is less
chance for dispute.

The clause stating responsibility for safety of workmen and
pedestrians is usually put in the name of the contractor. The
Employers' Liability Act recently passed in many states makes
it desirable for the owner to carry liability insurance, to protect
himself from possible suits when workmen are injured on the
building. Insurance on the new building is usually carried by
the Owner in the names of the contractor and himself, so that if
there is a fire before the contractor has turned over the building
to the owner, the contractor gets his share of the insurance.

When plans and specifications are ready for bids, many archi-
tects send an Invitation for Proposal to the various contractors
whom it is deemed advisable to invite. Each contractor is
giyjen a Standard Proposal Form on which to enter his bid and
return to the architect. One should remember that a proposal
which is accepted immediately without change, is binding.
Thus, if you receive a bid from Contractor Smith to build your
house for $5000 and accept it immediately, Smith will have to
assume the contract at that price regardless of whether he finds,
a day or two later, that he has made a mistake in his figures
and is charging a thousand dollars too little. But if you do not
accept the bid immediately, or if you make any changes in it,
the contractor is released from his proposal if he so wishes.

When a large house is built, it is frequently the custom to put
the contractor under bond, requiring him to furnish a bond
signed by responsible parties assuring that he will faithfully
carry out the agreement. The best forms of bond start out with

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS 153

a clause containing the name of the contractor (Principal)
with his address, followed by the name and address of the party
or parties who stand back of him (Surety or Sureties). Then

Standard form of Bond of the
Htmrican Institute of Hrcbitccta

Know all JMen by tbcae presents: That we

hereinafter called the Princfeal, and

_ and

hereinafter catiedte

hereinafter called the Owner, in the .

- - ($ )

for the payment whereof the Principal and the Surety or Sureties bind themselves,
their heirs, executors, administrators, successors and assigns, jointly and severally,
firmly, by these presents.

OJfxreao, the Principal has, by means of a written Agreement, dated

- entered into a contract with the Owner for

a copy of which Agreement is hereto annexed;

tfrot Standard edition.

A MODEL FORM OF BOND.
(Continued on page 154.)

follows the amount of the bond (frequently 80% of the contract
price) with a notation of the date of the building contract and
name of owner. The various conditions of the bond follow,

154 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

and at the end of the document are the date, with the " sealed"
and witnessed signatures of the contractor (Principal) and his
Sureties. In effect, the bond states that if the contractor faith-

Jfow, therefore, the Condition of this Obligation is such that if the Principal
shall faithfully perform the Contract on his part, and satisfy all claims and demands
incurred for the same, and fully indemnify and save harmless the Owner from all
cost and damage which he may suffer by reason of failure so to do, and shall fully
reimburse and repay the Owner all outlay and expense which the Owner may
incur in making good any such default, then this obligation shall be null and void;
otherwise it shall remain in full force and effect.

provided, however, that no suit, action or proceeding by reason of any default

shall be brought on this Bond after months from the day on which

the final payment under the Contract is made ; and that service of writ or process
commencing any such suit, action or proceeding shall not be made after such date.

Hnd provided, that any alterations which may be made in the terms of the
Contract, or in the work to be done under it, or the giving by the Owner of any
extension of time for the performance of the Contract, or any other forbearance on
the part of either the Owner or the Principal to the other shall not in any way
release the Principal and the Surety or Sureties, or either or any of them, their heirs,
executors, administrators, successors or assigns from their liability hereunder, notice
to the Surety or Sureties of any such alteration, extension or forbearance being
hereby waived.

Signed and Sealed this day of 19.__~

In presence of

^ ___ g<ai

- - Stal

Seal

- Seal

CMs form eopyrfcMwl 19 1 1 by HM Hmmean XnsHtutt of HrtMttrt* Ch Octagon, Washington, D. C.
8oU UctnMt for publication, 6. 6. SoUnutm, Drawing Materials. is4-H W. *9tb 9t, J1f Twh.

fully carries out his agreement with the owner, then the bond
becomes null and void. If, however, the contractor does not
carry out his agreement, then he and his sureties are liable for
the amount of bond or such proportion as is necessary to make
good the incompleted part of the work.

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS 155

After the contract for the new house is let and the contractor
is ready to proceed with the work, it is necessary to take out a
Building Permit. If the contract is let to a general contractor
it is his duty to take out this permit, otherwise the mason con-
tractor usually pays for and obtains it from the proper town or
city officials. The permit states in a general way the character
of the work and cost of the building, the fee required for the
document being, usually, a certain percentage of the cost of
the house. Special permits for remodeling an old house must
also be obtained in most towns. Other permits frequently re-
quired are the plumbing permit and electric permit. In large
cities many more are required, such as permits for light and
ventilation, obstructions of street and sidewalk, opening street
for pipes, tapping sewer and water pipes, and many others.

In asking for a general building permit the contractor is
usually required to file a set of plans and specifications with
the Building Department and these are carefully examined by
one of the officials before a permit is granted. The entire sys-
tem of permits is intended to be a check upon bad building
methods and the fees required for such permits are to pay for
the service of clerks and experts in the various departments.

In many places the mere issuing of a permit does not con-
stitute the entire supervision given the new house by town offi-
cials. Frequently a Building Inspection Department is main-
tained, and inspectors visit all new buildings several times during
erection, to examine plumbing, sewerage, gas and electric wir-
ing, and see if these phases of the work are properly executed.
After such work is completed according to the standards re-
quired by the Building Department, certificates are usually
issued to the contractor or owner, stating that all conditions
have been complied with.

When payments are made to a contractor from time to time
as the work goes on, it is usually required that he give the owner
a "waiver of lien" from himself and all other firms who have

156 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

been furnishing material to him. This document states that
the undersigned waives all right to put a "lien" on the build-
ing. Without such a waiver of lien the owner would be liable
for the amount owed any parties by the contractor for work and

FORM NO. 364. ..<>. ce...

State of Illinois,

Count?

Co all OTOom tt map Concern:

.theundersigned,

halfibeen empl

for the building . known as Number .5..

City of QtdL?**r~*~..c-...3....>). situated on Lot

in Section .^^ Township Range

County of ^I^sx- ^.r^r^.^ State of Illinois...

J!30to, tberefOte, fenofo PC, That. .^L^*^^:. the undersigned,

for and in consideration of the sum of- CC J . . a Dollars,

and other good and valuable considerations, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, do ...-hereby mi ire
and release any and all lien, or claim or right to lien on said above described building and premises
under the Statutes of the State of Illinois relating to Mechanics' Liens, on account of labor or materials,

or botbrfurnishedup to this date by the undersigned to or on account of the said-

ZM^.Lji. I^^^s^^^^r^, :.a .for said building or premises.

(Stticn under .J^k^r hand. and seal t

day of. ^Jk^^seJj^xz A. D. 19 LL

ALWAYS MAKE AND RETAIN AN EXACT COPY

WAIVER OF LIEN.

materials furnished on the new building. Thus if the contrac-
tor has taken his payments from the owner but has not paid
his lumber bill, let us say, the lumber company to protect itself
might put a lien on the house, thus preventing the owner from
entering into complete ownership until the lumber company's bill
is paid. Now, if the contractor hasn't money enough to pay off
the amount of this lien, the owner will have to pay it out of his

A CHAPTER ON LEGAL DOCUMENTS 157

own pocket if he wants to own the building, clear. A "waiver of
lien" from a contractor (received by the owner before he issues
a check) protects the owner from the annoyance of any liens.

When a contractor has performed enough work to entitle
him to a payment (according to the terms of the contract) he is
not usually paid by the owner, direct. Instead, the architect

Certificate No Amount of Payrqent.

Tnis is to certify tqat according to agreerqent bearing date of 19

entitled to receive_^_# of

si Dollars,

i7~j cr w>nicn is tne value incorporated, since tn.e last

flrnount of contract

U tl

Q a; Amount of paynqent

LU " Hrnount previously paid

I tc Total arnount paid to date

rS X Balance due

rr u

r; flrcl\ttect
$ 19

Received frnrg

tlie anr\ount of payment a

Signature

ARCHITECT'S CERTIFICATE OF PAYMENT DUE CONTRACTOR.

makes out a certificate stating that the contractor is entitled to
such a sum, and when this certificate is presented to the owner
he issues a check to the contractor for the required amount.
Thus, the certificate issued by the architect is really a requisi-
tion upon the owner for the required amount, and the document
remaining in the hands of the owner, is a receipt for the money
expended, with a detailed statement of what the money was
paid for.

158 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Some architects make a private contract with the owner
before they enter into an arrangement to make plans and speci-
fications for a building. This is signed by both parties and the
document sets forth the compensation the architect is to re-
ceive, stating the work he is to perform and the amount of vari-

DWELL1NG HOUSE FORM

and Additions adjoining and communicating, including Foundations, Plumbing and stationary Heating
Apparatus, Plate, Stained and Ornamental Glass, Fresco Work, Wall Decorations, Gas and Electric Light
Fixtures and Wiring, Electric Bell Apparatus, fixed Mirrors, Book Cases, Sideboards, and all furniture set
or built in walls ; Porches, Verandas, Window, and Door Screens, Shades, Awnings, Storm Doors and
Windows, and all other permanent fixtures attached thereto and a part of said premises, or contained
therein, including fences and sidewalks, situate

to nomplfitg. TM R pnlip.y nnvavR p..1 1
lals used in the construction of saicU "building co
ed therein or adjacent thereto. _ .

Permission for other insurance, and to make additions, alterations and repairs, same being covered under this policy.

Permission given to use kerosene, gas and electricity for fuel and lighting purposes, and to remain vacant and
unoccupied pending rental and tenancy changes and during absence of assured or tenants.

Permission is hereby given for the use of GASOLINE OR VAPOR STOVES in the building described in this policy, but
only under the following restrictions and conditions, to be observed by the assured, viz.: That at no time shall there be to
exceed one gallon of NAPHTHA, GASOLINE OR BENZINE for each occupant (except that in the stove reservoir within said
building or additions), and that kept in an approved metal safety can, free from leak and away from artificial liyht or heat.
The stove reservoir to be filled and the Gasoline (or fluid under whatever name) handled by daylight only, and not in the
same room or room adjoining (having open communication) where, or while any fire, blaze or artificial light or llame of any
kind is burning.

Permission is hereby given for the use of Kerosene Oil and for the keeping of not to exceed one barrel of Kerosene
Oil on the premises.

This policy shall cover any direct loss or damage caused by Lightning (meaning thereby the commonly accepted use of
the term/Lightning, and in no case to include loss or damage by cyclone, tornado or windstorm), and not exceeding the sum
insurecCnor the interest of the insured in the property, and subject in all other respects to the te, 's and conditions of this
policy. Provided, however, if there shall be any other fire insurance on said property this Company shall be liable only
pro rata with such other insurance for any direct loss by Lightning, whether such other insurance be against direct loss by
Lightning or not.

It is understood that the word noon in the commencement and expiration of this policy means the noon of "Central
Standard Time."

Attached to and forming part of Policy No ---

MARSH & MCLENNAN,
INSURANCE,

CHICAGO.

INSURANCE FORM FOR DWELLING HOUSE.

ous payments due him (as most architects collect portions of
their fee from time to time as the work progresses). The chief
value of a contract between architect and owner is that it avoids
any possible misunderstandings and for that reason it is to be
recommended .

During the erection of the building the owner usually takes
care of insurance, the ordinary " builders' risk " being the most
used form of policy.

CHAPTER IX

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS

YOUR contract is let, we will say, and the contractor has
ordered his materials delivered at the building site. In the
meantime the owner and his architect must consider the exact
location of the building on the lot, so that the contractor can
proceed with the excavation. As has been noted in a previous
chapter, the location of the building should be largely determined
before the plans are made. The mistake, so common, of de-
signing floor plans first and considering the location of the
building afterwards, will surely bring complications later, when
it will most likely be found that the house does not fit well, not
allowing use of the ground to the best advantage. Have a com-
plete scheme hi your mind before plans are made, and make the
house plans fit the building site. Then, when you get to the
point of locating the house on the lot, you will find, if you have
chosen wisely, that the result will be successful.

When you go with architect and builder to stake out the
house, roughly mark out its size and shape by measuring the
outside walls as they are drawn on the floor plans, setting little
stakes in the ground at the four corners. Then stand off a
short distance and view the proposed location to see if it meets
with your approval. Your architect should discuss with you
the various phases of grade and drainage which enter promi-
nently into the problem, facts which must be considered care-
fully. Locate the building high enough above the lowest grade
of the lot so that water will drain away from it, then your base-
ment will be dry when cellars of less carefully located houses
are wet.

M 161

162 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Batter boards (used as guides during building operations)
are placed by the contractor under the direction of the archi-
tect. They should be located carefully, measurements being
checked up afterwards to make sure they are correct, as it is
very easy at this stage of proceedings to make an error in read-
ing dimensions from the drawings or in measuring along the
ground with a tapeline.

Batter boards are really the means of transferring dimensions
from the plans to the ground. They usually consist of horizon-
tal boards 4 to 6 feet long, set at the
corners outside the area of excavation.
When lines are stretched across from
mark to mark on the batter boards, the
exact outline of the building is shown,
so that the contractor has a guide in

EXCAVATION STAKED OUT. ...... ., , ,. . .,

building the foundation walls. After

locating the building temporarily by means of small stakes set
in the ground at the four corners (the owner being satisfied
with the result), these permanent batter boards are erected a
few feet outside the area of excavation, so that in excavating
the-' corner stakes will not be dug away. For batter boards,
stout stakes are driven deep into the ground about 4 feet apart,
and to these a horizontal board is nailed, on which to notch the
lines. Cord is stretched tightly from notch to notch, forming
an accurate outline of the building. Masons plumb down from
these lines in laying foundations and, as the batter boards re-
main as long as needed, it is always possible to check up the meas-
urements. Batter boards should be placed far enough back from
the excavation so that horses used to drag scrapers will not
strike and knock them down.

After locating the building accurately and checking up the
dimensions by measuring from notch to notch on the batter
boards, it is a good idea to measure the diagonals to see if the
building is square. If square, the diagonals will be equal in length.

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 163

Contractors usually ask the owner or his architect where
dirt taken from the excavation is to be dumped, and it is well
to give careful consideration to this point, stacking dirt where
it will be handy to use in finished grading. Finished grading
is not customarily in the contract, in most cases it being taken
care of by the owner after the building is completed. This is
why contractors are frequently indifferent to the careful stack-
ing of dirt from the excavation. They are in a hurry to com-
plete the job and are apt to dump it as near the building as
possible, to save a long haul. Loam or black dirt (the top layer
about 8 or 9 inches thick) should be scraped off carefully and
stacked some distance from the excavation, where it is less
liable to be tramped upon by the workmen. Have the piles
of dirt put where they will not be disturbed later in digging
trenches for plumbing pipes. To grow grass and flowers, this
black dirt must be replaced around the building after building
operations are finished, so it is too precious to waste by allow-
ing it to fall carelessly into trenches and get mixed with the
common clay or undersoil. Any sod fit to be saved should be
cut, then rolled up and stored in a safe place ; all trees requiring
protection should be fenced off.

In staking out the building, a grade stake is usually driven
into the ground near the excavation, to show the level of the
top of the foundation wall. This stake should be carefully
preserved to use as* data at any time. The depth of the cellar
or depth of excavation will be largely determined by the depth
of the sewer to which the property drains, and amount of head
room required in the cellar. In most cases it is desirable to
have the finished basement floors at least 18 inches or 2 feet
above the sewer in the street so that the basement water-closet
and laundry tubs may drain with a good slope to the sewer.
At the same time, foundations should extend deep enough be-
low ground to prevent frost from penetrating to the bottom of
the footings and heaving the walls out of position (which will

164 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

certainly happen if frost gets under the footings). In most
localities, 4 feet below ground is considered sufficient for founda-
tion walls, though it is sometimes necessary in exceptionally
cold climates to extend them deeper. In determining the depth
of basement after first settling the grade for the cellar floor
(by locating the cellar bottom 18 inches or 2 feet above the sewer
level), one must understand that it is not necessary to dig any
particular distance below the present grade of the lot, but all
computations should be made from the finished grade. In
other words, the present grade of the lot can be raised to any
point desired by filling in around the walls in the form of a
bank or terrace, after the building is completed. Thus, when a
lot is low and damp it is advisable to raise the grade, having the
finished grade much higher than the original grade. If this
finished grade is settled at 2 feet above the original grade, it will
be necessary to dig only 2 feet into the ground, which would
bring the footings 4 feet below the new grade.

In determining the location of the cellar bottom one must also
be governed by the character of the subsoil. If it is soft, not
sufficiently dense to carry the weight of the building (as is fre-
quently the case), the excavation must be carried deeper to
strike hardpan.

The different kinds of soil upon which the foundations of the
house may rest, determine the width of footings necessary to
support the weight of the building. The following table, showing
the bearing power of soils, will be found useful :

BEAKING POWER OF SOILS

Rock, 15 to 300 tons per square foot.

Clay, dry, 4 tons per square foot.

Clay, soft or wet, 1 ton per square foot.

Gravel and Coarse Sand, confined, 8 tons per square foot. *

Sand, compact and well confined, 4 tons per square foot. .

Quicksand, l /% ton per square foot.

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 165

It will be seen by reference to this table that rock is perfectly
safe to rest a building upon. When the foundations rest on
rock, however, care should be taken to level off a shelf on which
to build. Otherwise, if foundations are started on a sloping
surface of rock, the weight of the building might cause them to"
slip. Rock is not considered so ideal for footings as clay, sand,
or gravel, for surface water following down to the level of the
rock is apt to penetrate into the cellar through the joint be-
tween foundation and bedrock, a place very difficult to make
tight.

Gravel and sand are excellent for supporting the weight of a
house, when compact and firm. Quicksand, of course, is partic-
ularly undesirable. Sand and gravel should be well tamped
around the finished foundation walls, in order to prevent wash-
outs by water. Dry clay makes a firm foundation, but one must
be careful that it does not soften when wet ; care must be taken
to dram all water away from the building.

Some building sites which have been filled with rubbish or
soft soil are very undesirable for building purposes. On such a
piece of property it is usually necessary to dig down through
the filling until hardpan is reached, though in some cases filling
can be " puddled" by soaking it with water until it becomes
firm.

The footings of a building make it possible to build upon
soils of different bearing power. Thus, footings act as a
sort of raft, supporting the weight of the house. Naturally, a
raft supporting a given weight on hard, firm clay could be
smaller in area than a raft supporting the same weight on
soft clay, and it is on this principle that house footings are
designed.

Footings are usually composed of concrete, large flat stones,
or stepped-up brick. The following table shows sizes of various,
footings suitable for good, firm soil : -

166 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES 'AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SIZES OF FOOTINGS
(Required on firm soil)

16-inch brick foundation wall requires concrete footings, 24 inches
wide, 8 to 12 inches thick.

Or 16-inch brick foundation wall requires stepped brick footings, 7
courses high, If inches per course.

Or 16-inch brick foundation wall requires 3 stepped courses of wide,
thick, flat stones.

20-inch stone foundation wall requires 1 course of flat, thick stones,
24 to 30 inches wide.

Or 20-inch stone foundation wall requires concrete footing, 24 to 30
inches wide, 8 to 12 inches thick.

This table is only approximate and cannot be considered as
applying in all cases. Under ordinary circumstances, however,
it conforms to best practice.

When concrete is used for footings, a trench should be dug
just the right width for the concrete and in this the material is
tamped in layers 6 to 8 inches thick. In place of tamping, it is
sometimes more convenient to mix the concrete quite wet, pour-
ingjt in place. If the soil is wet, concrete can be laid for footings
by lining the trenches with oiled cotton, which keeps moisture
out until the cement is set. When building on loose sand
trenches should be shored up with heavy planks to prevent
caving in.

Flat stones used for footings should never be less than 8
inches thick and they must be as large in area as possible, laid
with broken joints and thoroughly bedded in plenty of cement
mortar. Never allow part of the footings to rest on stone and
part on gravel and sand. When one corner of a building rests
on solid stone, the balance resting on gravel, concrete footings
should be used on the gravel to approximate the conditions of
the stone, and equalize the settlement. The idea should be to
equalize loads on all parts of the bearing soil, and footings should

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS

167

BRICK PIER.

be carefully designed to carry out this purpose. On sloping
ground, footings should be stepped in level sections, thoroughly
bonded at the stepping intersections.

Such portions of the house as are to be built without a cellar
can stand on posts or piers of stone, brick,
or concrete. A wing of the main house,
however, even though there is to be no cellar
underneath, is always better on solid foun-
dation walls like the balance of the house.
Piers should rest on wide, square footings of
stone or concrete.

Foundation walls for an ordinary two-
story house are usually from 16 to 20 inches
thick when of concrete. On some cheap
jobs foundation walls are built of brick, 8 inches thick, and brick
piers for strengthening the wall are inserted every 15 or 20 feet.
This is not the best practice, however, for you should remember
that foundation walls not only support the weight of the building,
but act as retaining walls as well, to keep the surrounding ground
from caving into the cellar. For this reason foundation walls
are rarely less than 12 inches thick.

Girders employed in the floor construction
of the first floor can be supported on solid
walls in the basement, or they may be car-
ried by brick, stone, or concrete piers, iron
columns, or wooden posts. No construction
for supporting floors is better than solid
walls under the girders, though solid walls
take up considerable space in the basement.
When brick piers are used to support girders
they are usually 12" by 12" ; concrete piers can be 8" by 8" to
12" by 12" ; stone piers are customarily 16" by 16", because it
is difficult to lay stonework in piers of less size.

Cement-filled wrought iron columns are excellent to support

CONCRETE BASE-
MENT POST.

168 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

,-4-GAS PIPP FILLED
WITH

-COMCBETE FLOOB
FOOTinO

IRON PIPE FILLED
WITH CONCRETE.

basement girders. Such are, in fact, of ordinary wrought iron

pipe, filled with cement to increase their stability. They can

be bought, ready-made, with cast iron caps and bases, and they
come in a great many different lengths.
The sizes most used for houses are 3-inch
and 4-inch columns.

Footings of liberal size made of stone or
concrete should be used under all basement
piers. In most cases footings 18" by 18"
up to 24" by 24" will be found of sufficient
size to maintain the load put upon them.
Wooden posts are frequently used in the
basement. Cedar posts (or locust) are best
for this purpose, and posts 6 or 8 inches in

diameter are about the right size. Ordinary timber, 6" by 6"

or 8" by 8", is also frequently used for basement posts.

Piers of hollow tile are strong and light, and for this reason

are widely used in houses of all sizes.

Area walls around outside basement steps or windows are

usually 12 inches thick, for they, also, act as retaining walls.

Su/ch walls should be capped with stone nagging or concrete

coping to prevent moisture from penetrating

and disintegrating the wall. All walls should

be started deep enough to be well below frost.
Architects, before working drawings are

made, usually visit the building site and

determine with the owner the height of

foundation walls required above ground, to

allow cellar windows of the correct size to

light the basement properly. If the house

stands on the side of a hill, the foundation

wall may be higher on one side than on another. With extra

large cellar windows placed on the highest side it may not be

necessary to put cellar windows on the low side. All these

6"x 8"

WOOD POST

ORDINARY WOODEN
POST FOR FLOOR
SUPPORT.

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 169

details are shown on the working drawings, and the owner
should study them carefully to make sure he understands them.
In best built houses it is customary to dig the basement care-
fully to just the right depth for the cellar floor. This prevents
the necessity of filling up later for the cement floor. Filling is
bad under any floor, for it is liable to
cause a settlement, cracking the ce- VITRI^ED
ment. Most basements are 7 feet
high in the clear. That is to say, at
the lowest point under a girder the
head room is 7 feet from finished
cement floor to underside of girder.
This gives ample space over one's
head for steam or water pipes to

, ^ T 111 i i CELLAR POST OF HOLLOW

extend. You should remember, how- TlLE

ever, that heating mains in the base-
ment are sloped to allow them to drain back to the boiler,
so an extra allowance of height may be necessary in large
houses where pipe lines are long, in order to secure head room
under them. On the other hand, in small houses, 7 feet is
frequently decreased to 6 feet or 6 feet 6 inches in the clear,
under girders. Do not make the mistake of getting basement
head room too low, however, for it is a great annoyance to walk
about the cellar in constant danger of bumping one's head on a
girder or pipe. Furnace pipes require a greater depth of cellar
than hot water and steam pipes.

Cellar windows should be ample in height and width. The
tendency in modern houses is to place the first floor as close to
the ground as possible, in order to diminish the number of steps
between grade and first floor. This is excellent in effect, as
will be noticed in so many of the charming little houses which,
placed close to the ground, seem to fit the landscape so much
better than houses standing boldly up in the air. Each cellar
window can be made as small as 12 inches in height, if plenty of

170 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

them are used. Short windows can be made wider, or they can
be placed in groups of two or three, with the result that there is
the same total area of glass as with fewer windows, extra large.
For a house of ordinary size, cellar windows are most frequently
about 16 or 18 inches high, which admits of glass about 12 to
14 inches high. Windows can be placed directly under floor
joists, as the weight of the floor above can be kept off them by
using headers. It is best to keep the first floor as near the grade
as is practical.

After the cellar is dug and before the foundations are started,
some problem of drainage may be necessary to solve. If the
ground is clay and water runs into the excavation, it may be
necessary to make some provision for permanently draining the
subsoil in order to keep the finished cellar dry. In best practice
it is customary to lay a line of agricultural tile or broken stone,
cinders, or gravel around outside the cellar wall. The idea is
that water on the surface of the ground strikes the outside of
the cellar wall and runs down to the bottom. Any little crevices
in the wall permit this moisture to penetrate the wall, making
the cellar damp. With a well-built wall, water is not apt to
wtJrk its way through, but it often runs down outside the wall
until it strikes the projecting footing, where it seeps through into
the joint immediately above the footing course, or it runs under
the wall and seeps up through the cellar floor.

To catch outside surface water before it can get through the
wall, lay a line of 3-inch or 4-inch agricultural tile just above the
footing course, outside the wall. These should be graded to
slope slightly to a low point, from which they lead into the
sewer or into a pit filled with broken stone (called "dry well")-
Thus, during a heavy rain, water outside the foundations runs
down until it reaches the open joints of the tile conduit, which
it penetrates, draining to the low point and thence into the
sewer or dry well. Another good way to provide subsoil
drainage is to dig the trenches for the foundations about 8 inches

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 171

deeper than required for the footings, filling the bottom with
broken stone. These trenches can be graded to a low point,
from which the water is led away to the sewer or dry well.
Cinders or broken stone filled in outside foundations for a
thickness of 4 to 8 inches often proves sufficient to carrf away
surface water, preventing it from entering the cellar. Where
soil is composed of sand or gravel (or a porous mixture of clay
and sand capable of draining water away quickly) often it is
not necessary to provide for subsoil drainage. Water outside
the foundation walls in such a case usually drains quickly away
before it can enter the cellar.

One should remember that ordinary cement cellar floors
are not waterproof, and water or moisture which gets under the
footings is apt to rise up through the cellar floor. In a wet
location it is sometimes necessary to waterproof the basement
wall and cellar floor by using a waterproofing compound in the
cement (when the foundations are of concrete), or by a tarred
felt lining, mopped to the masonry like a composition roof.
If compound is used, select a brand that is manufactured by a
reliable firm, as many waterproofing compounds are not desir-
able. The best compounds are mixed with the cement when the
concrete is mixed.

The most successful waterproofing of all is composed of good,
thick, tarred felt similar to that used in composition roofs.
After the footing course is built a thickness of this felt is laid
below the level of the future finished basement floor. This
strip of felt is left projecting temporarily on both sides for
attaching the felt which is to cover the outside of the wall to
that which lies under the basement floor. Later, when the
basement floor is laid, a groundwork of cement concrete about
3 inches thick is placed over the entire cellar bottom. On
top of this a water-tight sheet of tar felt mopped with pitch like
a composition roof is attached to the strip left sticking in the
footings. Then the layer of tarred felt applied to the outside

172 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

walls is attached, thus producing a waterproof skin, covering
foundation walls and cellar floor, making, in fact, a great water-

STONE FOUNDATION WALL
Two PRACTICAL METHODS OF WATERPROOFING THE BASEMENT.

proof bowl. On top of the waterproofing, a finished cement
floor is laid two or three inches thick.

Concrete foundations are excellent when the cement concrete
is properly made. Contrary to popular opinion, concrete is
not cheaper than stone, however, except in localities where the
latter is difficult to obtain. The greatest cost in concrete foun-
dations is the wooden forms. Cost of lumber and price of labor
irL/most communities usually brings the cost of concrete founda-
tions up to the price of stone. Concrete is the best material
for footings (the undermost part of the
foundations, made slightly wider than
the main wall) because it fills compactly
the slight variations of surface apt to
exist at the bottom of the trenches. In
addition, concrete footings (being in one
mass) spread the weight of a building
better than footings composed of many
units like stone footings.

For that portion of the foundation

walls which extends above the footings, concrete is no better
than good, sound stone. Concrete is more porous than stone

BEST CONCRETE FOUN-
DATION ; WOOD FORM
BOTH SIDES.

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 173

and water, or dampness is more liable to penetrate in the former
than in the latter. In fact, it is rarely safe to build concrete
foundation walls unless waterproofing is resorted to.

Concrete for foundation walls should be mixed quite wet so
that the material, flowing readily to all parts of the forms, can
be spaded or rammed into place. When too little water is
used a wall becomes spongy, as all the
voids are not properly filled with material ;
a spongy wall is easily penetrated by
dampness. Use small-sized crushed stone
or gravel in your concrete foundations,
and after the forms are removed plaster
both sides of the wall with cement mortar,
applied firmly with a trowel and smoothed
sufficiently to close the grain of the cement CHEAP CONCRETE FOUN-
and sand. Concrete should be put into ATI * ; FoRM ON NE

SIDE, ONLY.

the forms in layers not more than 12

inches thick, for it is impossible to pack material down tightly

when it is too thick.

There is no better material for foundations than good, sound
stone, and it will be found as cheap in most localities as any
other material. Stone is so dense that when joints are properly
cemented the wall is quite waterproof. Except when soil is
unusually wet it will not be necessary to waterproof the outside
of such a wall, but tile or broken stone subsoil drains can be
used to prevent the excess of water from rising up through the
basement floor. Hard stone makes the best foundations, and
all stonework should be pointed both sides with cement mor-
tar. For this purpose excavations are always made at least 8
inches larger than the cellar, so that workmen can get down
into the trenches and point up all the joints. Walls should be
as smooth outside as they are inside, for irregular, jagged pro-
jections on the exterior catch against the bank, leading water
into the cellar. Besides this, projecting stones are heaved by

174 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

WELL-BUILT STONE
FOUNDATION.

the frost, causing a building to move slightly, cracking the
plastering.

Stone should be trimmed so there are no thin edges; good
stone masons knock off all weak angles, leav-
ing the blocks fairly square, and these blocks
are laid in the wall with cement mortar thick
enough so that the material flows into all the
irregularities of the stone, filling up the cavi-
ties. Of course all blocks of stone are not
the same size, but a large proportion should
be " through stones," that is, extending en-
tirely through the wall from front to back. Smaller stones,
when they are sound, can be used to fill in between the large
blocks, but chips should be used very spar-
ingly and then only when slushed up solidly
with mortar. In a poor job of stonework
the tendency is to use a few large blocks set
loosely, and filled in between with small
stones and chips. A little mortar troweled
over the top of these filled spaces covers up
the' voids and then another larger block is
laid on top. Such a wall, containing/ as it does, a number
of hollow spaces, is liable to settle or give way after it is built.
A well-built wall is solidly built with stone-
work. Prodding the joints of such a wall
with a stiff piece of wire, one finds it impos-
sible to penetrate very far. In a poor job a
wire will sometimes penetrate through the
entire wall. It is poor policy to skimp on
foundations of a building. Spend enough
money here, at least, to get a first-class job,
even if it is necessary to curtail elsewhere.
That portion of foundation walls extending below ground
should always be laid in cement mortar, consisting of 1 part

POORLY BUILT STONE-
WORK.

I6-3TOME WALL

STONE FOUNDATION
ON STONE FOOT-
INGS.

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 175

of good Portland cement to 3 parts of clean, coarse sand.
Above ground lime mortar can be used, but a small portion of
Portland cement should be added to the mortar to make it
stiffer, 1 part cement, 1 part lime, and 3 parts of sand make a
good mixture.

All lime used for mortar should be fresh, and it must be kept
in a dry place to prevent air-slaking. Cement should also be
fresh, carefully stored away, free from danger of any possible
dampness. Sand should be sharp and clean (no loam or clay
mixed with it). Sand dug from a hillside is usually best, for
lake or river sand, though clean, is apt to be too smooth ; rough,
coarse sand is preferable, as it offers the best bond with cement
or lime. Sand from the sea is not suitable for mortar.

In mixing lime mortar, the proper way is to spread a bed of
sand in the mortar box, on which is then laid evenly a layer of
lime (carefully measured out). Water is then poured on, after
which the lime is covered with a layer of sand, to retain the
vapor which quickly begins to rise from the moistened lime.
The proportion of sand to lime is usually 1 to 3, or 1 to 4. Lime
is customarily slaked in this way in large quantities, as it takes
several days for it to cool sufficiently to be used.

In mixing cement mortar, 1 part of cement to 3 or 4 parts of
sand are used, thoroughly mixed dry. Then sufficient water is
added to make a thick paste, after which the cement mortar is
ready. Unlike lime mortar, cement mortar does not require to
stand; indeed, cement mortar more than one day old should
never be used. In using lime mortar to which cement is to be
added, the ready-mixed lime mortar is simply "tempered'- with
a small proportion of cement. Mortar can be colored by mixing
mineral pigment, dry or in paste form. Lime mortar should be
slaked at least 24 hours before color is added, and one should
remember that mortar color dries a lighter shade than the
natural color, therefore a shade darker than the desired tint
should be used.

176 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

After completion of the foundations, joints on the outside
should be gone over again and pointed up with cement mortar,
for during the building of the wall it is customary to merely
bed the stones in mortar without pointing the joints. All joints
should be completely filled with mortar, pushed in with a point-
ing tool, and joints should have a tendency to dip downward so
that moisture will drip off instead of being carried down into
the stone. Walls built carefully in this fashion are not cheap,
to be sure, but they are solid and durable. As a matter of fact,
the cost of good work over and above poor work is not great and
the difference in price is usually worth while.

Brick is not an ideal material for foundations below ground,
for the reason that bricks (made of clay) are inclined to grow
soft in a wet soil after a few years. This doesn't necessarily
mean that a house is insecurely supported when on brick foun-
dations, for brick, even when slightly soft, would probably carry
the load. But soft brickwork is easily penetrated by dampness,

and after a few years brick walls are
apt to let moisture into the cellar.

In some sections of the country,
however, brick is cheap, stone or
concrete being high, so the former
is naturally used. It will prove a
practical material if used under-
standingly. Get the hardest brick,
only, selecting those which come
from points in the brick kiln nearest
the fire. These are easily recog-
nized, as' they are usually much

darker than ordinary brick. Such brick laid up in good cement
mortar can be depended upon. If the soil is wet, it is well to
waterproof brick foundations on the outside. Concrete footings
can be used, or brick footings, composed of several courses of
brick on edge.

12" BRICK WALl

DRAIN
TILE

FOOTING

BRICK FOOTINGS AND FOUNDA-
TION ; AGRICULTURAL TILE,
OUTSIDE.

EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATIONS 111

Hollow tile is a good material to use for fountain walls, pro-
viding it is vitrified or salt glazed. Ordinary tile may prove
too soft. Hollow concrete blocks can be used with safety,
providing they are made of the best of materials, properly cured,
a very difficult grade to get, by the way, as a large number
of concrete blocks are poorly made, some of them being so
porous they soak water like a sponge. Concrete blocks, clay
bricks, and hollow tile can be readily tested for density by
sprinkling them with water. If water soaks rapidly into the
material one may know that it is not sufficiently dense to make
good foundation walls.

CHAPTER X

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE

MORE frame houses are built than any other kind, and it
isn't strange when one reflects that America is really a lumber
country. Though lumber is fast disappearing to give way to
more permanent materials, timber is still the cheapest, most
easily worked material for building houses, and it continues to
be used for that purpose in enormous quantities in spite of the
introduction of the more ideal fireproof construction. Properly
built frame structures are economical, strong, and reasonably
weather-resisting. Thcugh not so durable as stone, brick, or
other masonry materials frame houses wear fairly well and are
easily kept hi repair when properly constructed in the first-
place.

The evolution of framework for houses is interesting, show-
ing as it does man's inventive genius and his mastery over
problems of all sorts. Every section of the country has its
own type of frame construction, worked out especially to take
care of the conditions of labor and material in that partic-
ular section. This has given rise to many ingenious types of
construction.

Reviewing briefly the history of timber as used along the
Atlantic coast where early settlers first established their homes,
it is interesting to note the evolution of house construction from
early log houses, built hastily but thoroughly from rough-hewn
logs laid horizontally, to the admirably built frame houses of
the present day. There was no need of conservation of tim-
ber in the early days, or at least early settlers did not see the

179

180 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

need of it, so they felled trees lavishly, using for their houses
twice or thrice as much timber as was necessary or even
desirable.

First using roughly hewn logs, it quickly became the custom
to hew logs smooth in order to secure a better fit. Some
early settlers, it is said, lost their scalps by wild animals
reaching their muzzles through open chinks while the family
slept. Finally logs were fittec^ closer and better until the
house evolved into a strongly constructed building that would
withstand the ravages of the weather and siege of a hostile
foe.

But naturally, as settlers prospered and had more time to
devote to planning and building houses, they began to build
more in the manner of the countries oversea where they had
formerly lived. Settlers hailing from England began to build
somewhat along English lines, Dutch settlers built houses
showing Dutch influence, and settlers from France copied as
nearly as they could the pretty types with which they were most
familiar.

Forms of construction in America are not the less American,
however, nor were they so from the start, for settlers found
conditions in this country very different from conditions in the
mother countries, where skilled labor had developed types of
construction not practical for new America. For this reason,
though American houses somewhat resembled in exterior ap-
pearance their European prototypes, they were really quite
different in structure. Brick was used largely in European
houses ; either brick alone or brick in combination with heavy
timbers. But brick was rarely used in the earliest houses of
New England, Pennsylvania, and the South, timber throughout
being the typical construction.

Early timber houses in this country were built with heavy
frames consisting of large, square-hewn timbers at the corners,
8 by 8 inches or larger, frequently of oak or similar hard wood.

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE 181

Sills were equally heavy and roofs were framed with heavy
purlins (much as churches are framed nowadays) supporting
rafters of large size. The framework of timbers was securely
braced by diagonal pieces, all being thoroughly tied together
by mortise and tenon joints pinned with wooden pins. Such
frames were marvels of strength and durability, and it is no
wonder that so many of the old houses are still standing as
sound as when first built.

It was the cheapness and convenience of timber that caused
these early American houses to be so heavily built. Forests
were plentiful, near at hand in most cases, and there was
no need to economize in the use of material. Steel and iron
nails had not come into the market, and large timbers were neces-
sary in a construction requiring wooden pins. All these con-
ditions made for somewhat wasteful use of timber.

After timber became more scarce and consequently rose in
price, builders began to make the framework of their houses
smaller. Timbers of large size were too costly to be used so
lavishly and constructors began to conserve material, working
out a system of construction more practical than in earlier
houses. Modern methods of sawing timber instead of hewing
it made it possible to get more sticks from each log. Timbers
for inside partitions were reduced to 4 inches thick, and 4 by
8-inch corner posts were substituted for those of larger size.
Finally, when it came to the roof, it was discovered that timbers
could be thin and deep, instead of square, Tso rafters were
made 2 by 6 inches and 2 by 8 inches, extending across wider spans
and leaving out the heavy purlins.

Present-day frame construction in Eastern States is the result
of this evolution, and methods of framing are excellent. A sill,
usually 4X6 inches or 4 X 8 inches, is laid on top of the under-
pinning, its corners halved together and pinned with wooden
pins or spiked with heavy spikes. At each corner of the build-
ing a 4 X 8-inch post is set up, extending in one piece to the plate.

182 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

These corner posts are mortised into sill and plate. At fre-
quent intervals along the sides of the building similar 4 X 8-inch
posts are set up to strengthen the wall, and between these posts
ordinary 2 X 4-inch studs are spiked in place, supporting the

girt to which the second-floor joists
are secured. These girts (which
are really girders) extend horizon-
tally around the walls of the build-
ing just under the second-floor
joists which they support. They
are framed into the corner posts
with mortise and tenon joints,
pinned with wooden pins or spiked.
To further brace the frame, wind
braces (as they are called) are cut
in diagonally from sill to post and
from girt, to post, and framed into
each. The result is a skeleton
framework of utmost strength,
though each timber is compara-
tively light. Floor joists are cut
out to rest on the sills, the heels of
the joists resting on the underpin-
ning and the toes on the sill, to
which they are strongly spiked. In
addition, it is customary to have
as many joists as possible applied directly at the sides of studs,
to which they are spiked. It would be hard to imagine a
stronger frame for a house than is provided by this excellent
method of framing, and houses built in this way are undoubt-
edly as strong as old-time houses, in which frequently the amount
of timber used exceeded by 30% the amount used to-day.

The following table shows stock sizes of lumber used in house
construction :

THE STURDY NEW ENGLAND
FRAME.

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE

183

STOCK SIZES OF LUMBER

SIZE IN INCHES

LENGTH IN FEET

2X4

2X6

2X8

2 X 10

2 X 12

3X4

3X6

18 ,

3X8

3 X 10

3 X 12

4X4

4X6

4X8

4 X 10

4 X 12

6X6

6X8

6 X 10

6 X 12

Able designers of house construction to-day are as eager to
save in the amount of material used as they are to excel in dura-
bility and safety of construction. No house can be considered
good in design unless it is economical as well as sound.. High
cost of labor and material makes it necessary to conserve ma-
terials, and skillful designing produces this result without
damaging the construction.

In the West, another type of house construction is used, cut-
ting down the amount of, labor and material required even be-
yond results obtained in Eastern States. This type is called
" balloon frame" construction, and it is claimed by western

184 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

builders to be as strong as "pinned and framed" construction.

These are the two leading types of house construction, the

eastern " framed" type and the western " balloon frame" type.

Of course there are various modifications of each used in dif-
ferent sections of the
country.

Notwithstanding
claims made by western
builders, it is doubtful if
"balloon frame" con-
struction is as strong as
' ' frame ' ' construction .
The former when prop-
erly built is sound and
durable, but a house
built in that way vi-
brates more in the wind,
as it is not so securely
braced. A further dis-
advantage of the former
method is that the
strength of the skeleton
depends largely upon
the holding power of
the spikes, as all tim-
bers are secured with
spikes instead of being
mortised and tenoned.

Nevertheless, balloon frames are perfectly practical, and there

need be no hesitancy in using them.

Balloon framing of the better class consists of a sill, usually

a single 4 X 6-inch piece (though frequently two 2 X 6-inch

pieces are spiked together) set on top of the underpinning.

Ordinary 2 X 4-inch studs are set upon the sill and spiked to it.

WESTERN "BALLOON" FRAME ON CONCRETE
FOUNDATION.

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE 185

These studs usually extend in one piece to the plate and they
are notched out just below the level of the second floor to re-
ceive a 1 X 4-inch ledger, which supports the second-floor joists.
At the corners of the building two 2 X 4-inch studs are spiked
together, making a substitute for a 4 X 4-inch post. On many
houses with " balloon frame" not a timber is used thicker than
2 inches. Thus, the 4 X 6-inch sill consists of two 2 X 6-inch
pieces spiked together ; a 4 X 4-inch post is built up from two
2 X 4-inch pieces, and so on. Girders for supporting the first-
floor joists are made up from three 2 X 8-inch pieces, making in
effect a 6 X 8-inch girder. Theoretically, timbers built of sev-
eral pieces are as strong as a solid timber, providing they are so
strongly put together as to make in effect a single solid stick
of timber. Actually, however, it is almost impossible (with
ordinary care) to build a large timber out of smaller pieces
which will be as strong as a single large piece ; spikes may give
slightly, with the result that the built-up girder is not quite so
efficient as a single large piece.

The balloon frame is usually strong enough for most houses,
and there is no objection to using this type when it is properly
built ; that is, when the pieces are thoroughly spiked together
in the most workmanlike way. If a ledger is used to support
the second-floor joists, it is necessary that the joists be applied to
strike the sides of studs so that they may be spiked together.
Joists are also frequently notched on to the ledger, a further
precaution to prevent them from pulling away. First-floor
joists rest on the sill, with heels on the underpinning, as in ordk
nary frame construction.

A new type of frame house has come into vogue in the Middle
West, in which the underpinning is practically eliminated. In
houses like this the foundatibn wall extends just above ground
and is surmounted with a concrete, stone, or brick base. The
wooden sill is laid on top of this base, the studs extending from
't up to the plate. Thus, the first-floor joists are supported on

186 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

a ledger precisely like second-floor joists ; cellar window frames
are set in the wooden wall of the building like first and second-
story window frames. The idea is to eliminate the under-
pinning, not only for the slight saving in cost which it involves
but also to obtain a pleasingly simple effect. With a house
built in this way, however, care should be taken to have the
inside of the wooden outside wall in the cellar plastered, in order
to make the cellar warm. An ordinary masonry underpinning
12 inches or more thick makes a sufficiently warm cellar, but
when for this masonry wall there is substituted a wooden wall
only 4" thick, it is necessary to line the latter with plaster to
make it warm. This plaster should extend between the joists
up to the under-side of the flooring at the first-floor level.

One of the chief requisites in good house construction is free-
dom from lumber shrinkage ; or more correctly, freedom from
excessive shrinkage of lumber, for no matter how dry it is, lumber
is bound to shrink somewhat. Timbers do not shrink length-
wise so much as they shrink crosswise. In other words, after
the house is built, every timber in it shrinks slightly as, month
after month, the lumber dries out and its fibers contract. Be-
ginning at the sill and first-floor girders, which carry the greatest
weight (as they are the bottommost timbers), sills and girders
contract slightly, allowing the building to settle, though it may
be ever so little. Every floor joist also contracts slightly ; led-
gers or girts shrink a bit, allowing further settling of the build-
ing, and plates supporting rafters, as well as the rafters them-
selves, shrink slightly, adding to the general contraction and
consequent settling of the upright walls of the building. The
result is that the sum of all this shrinkage of timber may equal
as much as an inch or two, sometimes more. When this
occurs, the plaster on inside and outside walls begins to crack,
for plaster is not elastic enough to stand even slight displace-
ment without cracking.

It is apparent that as every horizontal timber shrinks (for

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE 187

vertical timbers alter so slightly that their shrinkage may be
considered negligible), the less amount of horizontal timbers
there are the less will be the shrinkage. Clever constructors
have taken advantage of this well-known fact to design frame-
work for buildings with a minimum amount of horizontal tim-
ber. For example, instead of using girders in the basement with
the first-floor joists laid on top of them, first-floor joists are
framed into girders, flush, so that (assuming a girder is 10 inches
deep and the floor joists also 10 inches deep) the total timber
for shrinkage is only 10 inches. In the ordinary method of
construction when floor joists are merely placed on top of gir-
ders, there would be 20 inches of timber for shrinkage, that is,
10 inches for girder and 10 inches for joists. To cause less
shrinkage of timber many skillful builders use only one plate
for inside partitions instead of (as is so frequently the custom)
using two, thus saving 2 inches of shrinkable timber.

There are many modifications of flush joist and girder con-
struction. One method frequently used is to cut out the joists
sufficiently to allow them to extend as little as possible above
the girders, spiking a 2 X 4-inch strip to the sides of the girders
below the heel of the joists for their further support. This allows
several inches less shrinkage

than by the method of
having the entire depth of
joists above the girders, and
it will be found a practi-
cal substitute for the more

expensive flush framing.
. . , ., ,. FLOOR JOISTS FRAMED FOR MINIMUM

Aside from the expense of SHRINKAGE.

flush framing by reason of

the additional thickness of girder required (to admit of so much
being cut away in framing without impairing its strength), an
additional disadvantage in flush framing is that it is frequently
inconvenient to extend plumbing and heating pipes horizontally

188 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

across the basement ceiling. Such pipes usually extend be-
tween the joists, but every time a flush-framed girder is to be
passed it is necessary to cut holes to permit pipes to pass through,
greatly weakening the girder. When joists extend slightly
above girders, pipes can be easily extended through the space
thus left between flooring and girder, a great saving of labor.
In flush framing, therefore, careful consideration should be given
to the running of pipes ; frequently they can be extended en-
tirely under the basement ceiling, or else, with a little care, they
can be run mostly on the wall, where they will not interfere in
any way with girders.

When beamed ceilings are desired in various rooms, it is a
good idea to frame timbers in the floor to take care of the beams.
In other words, real beams are better than imitation beams (such
as thin shells planted on the ceiling after the floors are laid).
Beamed ceilings are often considered as merely decorations,
like a paneled wainscott on the wall, but it is in much better
taste to consider beams as structural, as they were, indeed,
in houses built in times gone by, in which beamed ceilings orig-
inated.

IVJethods for building inside partitions vary in different com-
munities, though good construction is always founded on the
same principles. There are in general two ways to build inside
partitions. In one method the first-floor joists are laid over
the entire floor which is then boarded over with flooring. On top
of this flooring is placed a partition base for each partition con-
sisting of a 2 X 4-inch strip, laid flatwise. On each base or sill is
erected the upright studs. The objection to this method is
that the weight of the partitions comes upon the joists them-
selves so that when they shrink (as they are bound to do) the
inside partitions go down with them, causing cracks in the plas-
tering. A better way is to build inside partitions directly on
the more solid basement girders, by resting them on the girders
instead of on top of the flooring. Where a partition extends

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE

189

over a girder this is easy to do. When a partition extends at
right angles to a girder, two joists are spiked together, forming a
stout beam on which the partition rests.

All these little points about framing are more important than
they seem, and the house-
owner who wishes to have
best possible construction
should carefully consider
them. Even slight careless-
ness in building the frame-
work of a house almost
always causes trouble later
on, cracks appearing in the
plaster walls, sags in floors,
or slight deviations from the
level in cornices and door
casings.

Most walls, both inside
and outside, are built of
2 X 4-inch studding, though
frequently outside walls
which are to be plastered
on the exterior are built of
2 X 6-inch studding. The
latter are excellent to use
as they are stiffer than the
more ordinary 2 X 4-inch
studs. Bathroom partitions
should be of 2 X 6-inch studs

in order to provide sufficient room for the soil pipe without
making a jog in the room.

To avoid cutting into girders when flush framing of floor
joists is used, many architects and builders install steel hangers
for supporting joists and holding them next to the girders.

ISK- PLATE- OF
YELLOW PINE

-STUDDING

^-CONCRETE
FOOTING

GOOD METHOD OF BUILDING INTERIOR

PARTITIONS.

190 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Where one girder comes against another at right angles to it, the
same kind of hangers can be used to good advantage ; the point
of intersection should always come directly above (or very
nearly) a supporting basement post. Framing is largely a mat-
ter of common sense. Once a houseowner knows the best gen-
eral types of construction it is comparatively easy to apply his
knowledge in checking up the work in his own house. The
general results to be sought after are : first, minimum of lum-
ber shrinkage ; second, max-
imum of lumber size to
prevent sagging.

Across wide spans, such
as where a bedroom parti-
tion comes over a large
room below, it is necessary
FLOOR JOISTS HUNG ON IRON HANGERS, to truss the beam which

supports the bedroom parti-
tion. This can be easily done by spiking two of the joists to-
gether, with two V-shaped boards between. The tendency hi
such a beam is for weight to compress the V-shaped boards,
and'the resistance these offer to compression helps to carry the
weight. Another way to take some of the weight of a bedroom
partition off the floor below is to truss the partition by putting
diagonal timbers at the ends

The framework of a house is often materially helped by the
outside boarding, which contributes to the stability of the
structure when it is good material well applied. Tongued and
grooved boarding applied diagonally is excellent, as diagonal
boarding tends to hold the structural members of the framework
more rigidly than horizontal boarding. Horizontal boarding,
however, is most often used, for it is a little easier to put on
and answers very well when thoroughly nailed to a well-built
frame. In many sections of the country ship-lap laid hori-
zontally or diagonally is used in place of tongued and grooved

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE

191

boarding. It has the advantage of requiring less labor to
apply it.

The best method for laying underfloors is to use tongued and
grooved boards laid diagonally. In this way the diagonal
boards help to tie the structural timbers together (like diagonal
boarding on the side walls), and it is very convenient to lay
finished flooring on top of diagonal underflooring. The finished
floor boards are always laid across the underfloor, not parallel
to it. Thus, with diagonal underflooring the finished floor boards
may be laid in any direction, either lengthwise of the room or cross-
wise, and in every case the boards will extend crosswise (or nearly
so) of the underfloor. This will be found a great convenience when
a house is being finished, as one can then have the finished floor
extend in any direction, uninfluenced by the direction of the
underfloor. Finished flooring usually extends lengthwise of a
room, for it is considered
that it looks best that way.

An excellent floor con-
struction consists of | X
2-inch strips on the under-
floor, nailing the finished
floor to them. The idea
is to provide an air space
between underfloor and fin-
ished floor, which is good
insulation against cold and
sound. Always lay heavy
building paper between the
two floors, whether strips

are used or not, as this layer of felt keeps out cold and acts as a
sound deadener. Another advantage of a stripped floor is
that it provides an excellent place between the two floors for
running gas pipes or electric conduits.

Insulation is a very important part of house construction.

WOOD STRIPPING

FINISHED FLOOD

LIMOFELT

LINOFELT

STRIPS BETWEEN ROUGH AND FINISHED
FLOORS.

192. SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Cold houses are annoying, and the additional cost of some good
system of insulation is well worth while. Various kinds of
insulating materials are excellent for the purposes for which
they are sold. Hair felt, linofelt, sea-weed % quilt, and other like
products, consisting of insulating material pressed between
two layers of heavy building paper, can be used with good
effect, and they will be found to make any house warmer and

STUDDING

BR.ICK

VERMIN

STOP

PLASTER
(FINISHED FLOOR

CONCRETE

FOUNDATION

BEST KIND OF VERMIN STOP.

drier. Insulating felts and papers are used on outside walls
and between floors. Another good method of insulation
(suitable for outside walls only) is back plastering, in which
rough plaster is cast against the inside boarding of a house
before the finished lath and plaster is applied.

Timber not used for inside finish but ordinarily used for
other buildng purposes is most often of the " Evergreen" class.
In this class are white pine, Carolina pine (quite free from pitch),
Georgia pine (containing much pitch), spruce, Norway spruce,

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE

193

BUILDING PAPEB

hemlock, white cedar (used for shingles), red cedar, cypress
(used also for inside trim), and redwood (California giant trees
resembling pine in texture). One of the chief troubles with
frame houses to-day is the constant deterioration of lumber.
A few years ago spruce and pine were used almost exclusively
for the framework of houses. This was very good material
to stand the strains to which
it was subjected in house con-
struction, but pine and spruce
are now practically out of the
market, and hemlock, Norway
pine, tamarack, and Southern
pine have been substituted ;
all inferior to white pine and
spruce. In some sections of
the country it is very hard to SHEATHING

get lumber properly seasoned,
as timber owners have been
unable to cut their lumber
fast enough to supply the
heavy demand for building.
As a consequence, dealers do not have time to hold lumber
long enough after cutting to dry it out properly, and it is fre-
quently sent to buildings quite green. Dry, well-seasoned
lumber should be demanded at all hazards, as green lumber is
bound to shrink after it has been used in a house, causing cracks
in the plastering and settlements in the building itself. Hem-
lock is particularly susceptible to shrinkage. Sometimes a
bonus offered to the lumber dealer will cause him to send material
that is properly seasoned, and the additional cost is usually well
worth while. Seasoned lumber is lumber which has been
stacked in open sheds for at least six months; year-old lum-
ber is even better. Framing lumber is never kiln-dried like
inside finish.

5IDING

BACK PLASTERING " TO KEEP OUT
COLD.

194 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Present grades of hemlock, Norway pine, tamarack, and South-
ern pine do very well for house construction when thoroughly
seasoned, if free from " shaky" places and excessive or loose
knots. In other words, hemlock, Norway pine, or Southern pine
is fit to use when it is of the best quality. The following table
of lumber grades may be found helpful :

GRADING OF PINE OR HEMLOCK TIMBER

No.L

Must be good and sound.

Defects not impairing strength are permitted.

Wane on one edge, \" deep for half the length, is permitted.

Wane on two edges, of a proportionate amount for shorter distance,

is permitted.

Shall present good nailing surface on at least one side and two edges.
A few wormholes are permitted.
Stained sap is permitted.
20% of No. 1 tamarack is permitted.

No. 2.

Large, coarse knots are permitted (not necessarily sound).

Considerable wane is permitted.

Shake, wormholes, and red streaks are permitted.

Crooked or other defective pieces, not fit for No. 1, are permitted.

Any amount of No. 2 tamarack is permitted.

No. 3.

All imperfections in Nos. 1 and 2, but to a greater degree, are per-
mitted.

Considerable rot is permitted.
Any amount of No. 3 tamarack is permitted.

Southern pine timber is used principally for heavy timbers,
such as girders or joists which are to be placed over extra wide
spans. North Carolina Southern pine is better for house
construction than Georgia pine, as the former is a softer wood
to work and is sufficiently strong. Georgia pine is used mostly
for factories and mills, where loads are excessive. It is a very

wm.

ADVANTAGES OF A FRAME HOUSE 195

hard, tough wood to work and therefore not desirable for house
construction.

After lumber of first-class grade is obtained, care must be
taken to have it piled in the right way on the building site, for
many a load of good lumber has been injured by improper
stacking. Lumber should be dry and well seasoned, first of all.
Then when it is delivered from the yard it should be piled up in
straight piles and covered with boards to protect it from the
weather. If lumber is carelessly piled, helter skelter, it
is apt to warp and twist. Every stick of it should be perfectly
straight and true when it is put into the building, so in order to
keep the lumber in good shape before it is used, pile it carefully
and protect it from the weather.

CHAPTER XI

EXTERIOR FINISH

AFTER the framework of the house is constructed, that
skeleton on which so much depends (which must be so care-
fully wrought if the house is to stand for the long lifetime one
ought to expect), comes the outside boarding, and after the
outside boarding comes the exterior finish. Unlike the framer

NARROW SIDING WITH CORNER BOARDS.

work this exterior covering is visible. Thus it is really part of
the design and produces a good or bad effect according to the
taste with which it is chosen.

The most common covering for frame houses is what is
termed " siding," consisting of ordinary sawed and lapped clap-

197

198 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

boards, ship-lap or other siding material. Clapboards come in
several widths, varying somewhat in different sections of the coun-
try. In the West, narrow siding is largely used and the effect
when laid is quite different from the wide siding of the East.
In old-fashioned houses siding was quite wide. Facilities
for sawing boards were inadequate, and boards of considerable

SIDING WITH MITERED CORNERS.
.Claude F. Bragdon, Architect.

width were used to reduce the number required for the exterior
of a house. The effect of these wide pieces is very quaint when
mitered at the corners (no corner boards), though in old houses
corner boards were used almost entirely.

In addition to clapboards (thicker at the bottom than at
the top), there are various other patterns of boarding, narrow
and. wide. Ship-lap is much used for siding, with excellent
effect. It can be applied either with or without corner boards.

EXTERIOR FINISH

199

When corner boards are omitted and siding is "mitered" it is
better to butt one board against another at corners, planing
off the rough edges. The effect is the same as with a mitered
joint, but this method is much more durable.

Some houses are covered with smooth, matched boards, and
the effect is very pleasing. This is done successfully with

OLD-FASHIONED WIDE SIDING ON MODERN HOUSE.
Lionel Moses, II, Architect.

narrow, matched sheathing f or f inch thick and not more
than 4 inches wide. The joints should be painted as each board
is laid with white lead mixed with boiled linseed oil, so that
when all is completed there will be no danger of future decay
from moisture entering the joints. Sheathing like this should
be thoroughly "blind" nailed to hold it securely and prevent
buckling after it is laid. That is, nails should be driven diago-

200 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

nally through the groove of each board before the tongue of the
next board is placed in the groove. A diagonal slant is given
to the nails so they will drive one board tightly against the next
one. Nails applied in this way bury themselves in the grooves
and are not visible.

Boards and battens, either horizontal or vertical, are often
tastefully used for the exterior covering of a house. In the

MATCHED SIDING
-BUILDING PAPER
-5TO D D m G

5IDlhG

SMOOTH SHEATHING AND
SHIP-LAP.

STUDDING

5IDIISG

B ATT Eh 5-

BOARDS AND BATTENS ; VERTI-
CAL AND HORIZONTAL.

best work of this kind, battens are specially made with tongues
to fit tightly to grooves formed in the boards. Vertical boards
and battens are more durable than horizontal, as it is less possible
for moisture to enter the joints and cause decay. Horizontal
boards and battens, however, make the best appearance and
they will be found to be quite durable when battens are grooved
into the boards, the former projecting slightly over the latter
to cause rain to drip off instead of penetrating the joints. All

EXTERIOR FINISH

201

such joints should be painted with white lead and oil before
the boards are applied.

Shingles are excellent for covering the outside walls of a
building and they will doubtless continue to be used more 'or
less, regardless of changing fashions. The ordinary way to

THE CHARM OF SHINGLES.
Claude F. Bragdon, Architect.

apply shingles on wall surfaces is to lap them so that the dis-
tance from the butt of one shingle to the butt of the next is
about 4J/<2 to 6 inches. This is called laying them "4J^ inches to
the weather," or 6 inches. Shingles should be coursed before
they are laid by spacing them out equally so the rows will line
up properly with window and door frames.

When shingles are used, corner boards can be applied at the
corners, or mitered corners can be used (no corner boards).

202 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

In the latter method one shingle is brought up against another
at the corner and trimmed off. Thus one shingle really laps
against another instead of being mitered to it, though the effect
is " mitered."

There is something cottage-like about shingles, and they are
quite durable for siding if the best grade of red or white cedar or

SHINGLES APPLIED WITH ALTERNATE WIDE AND NARROW COURSES.
Tallmadge and Watson, Architects.

California redwood is used. White pine shingles such as were
in the market twenty years ago are excellent, but they are prac-
tically out of the market now. Another good material for
shingles is cypress, a very enduring wood and one which takes
stain artistically. Some of the best of the cypress shingles are
hand made. That is, they are split out by hand instead of
being sawed by machine and are thicker than machine-made

EXTERIOR FINISH 203

shingles, with pleasing irregularities on the butts. Hand-made
cypress shingles are said to be everlasting and they require
neither stain nor paint, as the natural color of the cypress takes
on a pretty tint with age.

The exterior covering of the house must not only protect a
building from the weather, making it warm within, but it also
has a strong effect on the design. For this reason, the designer
should carefully consider what material he will use, that it may
not merely wear well, but look well also. The underboarding
of a house should be entirely covered with good, stout sheathing
paper before the outside finish is put on. It is this layer of
paper which adds greatly to the warmth of the building, for no
matter how carefully siding is applied, if the paper underneath
is not tight, cold winds blow through, making the house cold.
Sheathing paper should be carefully fitted around all windows
and door frames, and one sheet should lap over another at
least two or three inches.

Brick-veneered houses are really frame houses, covered with
a thin, outside skin of brick, so this method of house building
will be treated in this chapter. Just as outside siding covers the
boarded framework of a house, protecting it from the weather
and improving the design, so brick veneer keeps out the cold
and contributes to the finished appearance of the building.
Houses which are brick veneered are built precisely like any
other frame houses. The skeleton is erected, boarded on the
outside, and papered, after which it is ready for the exterior
surface of brick. Brickwork, a single thickness (4 inches), is
laid against the underboarding, and the appearance when com-
pleted is precisely like an ordinary solid brick house, except that
there are no headers in the wall, all bricks being laid the 8-
inch way (" stretchers").

Brick veneer will not support itself, so the brickwork is
secured to the wooden framework of the house by driving
spikes into the boarding every few courses of brick. Masons

204 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

lay up a few courses ; then they drive a row of spikes Into the
frame of the house just touching the brick, after which they go
on and lay up a few more courses and then drive more spikes.
Mortar slushed on the rows containing the spikes soon
hardens around them, binding the brickwork fast to the frame.
To take the place of spikes one can use metal anchors specially
designed to attach brick veneering to the frame. Some of
these are flat bands of galvanized iron spiked to the boarding
and built into the brickwork. Others are similar, but sharp-
ened at one end to be driven into the
framework.

Brick veneer is not, as damp-proof as
wooden siding, for the latter, painted
after completion, absorbs no water. For
this reason brick- veneered houses should
be covered with waterproof felt applied
underneath the brick. " This does not
mean that brick veneer is not desirable.

BRICK VENEER. . .

On the contrary, brick veneer is an excel-
lent way to build ; it is warmer than solid brick walls and,
wKen damp-proof felt is used underneath, it makes a drier
building.

Contrary to popular opinion, brick veneer is not much cheaper
than solid brick walls. In both cases the price is about the
same, with possibly a slight advantage in favor of brick veneer.
Joints in a brick-veneered wall should be slushed full of mortar,
carefully pointed up in pure cement mortar after completion.
The fact that the brickwork is only 4 inches thick makes this
doubly necessary, for poor mortar soon drops out of the joints,
allowing bricks to come loose.

Cement plaster is one of the most important materials now
used for the exterior covering of houses. Within a few years
it has forged to the front until its use is well-nigh universal,
and we can do no better than devote the remaining pages of

EXTERIOR FINISH

205

this chapter to a description of some of the characteristics of
cement.

Most cement-plastered houses are frame houses with lath
and plaster on the exterior. Thus they usually come in the
frame-house class. Framework used for plaster houses is built

HOUSE OF CEMENT PLASTER.
Perkins and Hamilton, Architects.

precisely like any other framework, but after the underboarding
is applied, the construction is somewhat different. In the first
place waterproof felt must be used next to the underboarding,
for ordinary cement plaster is not waterproof. Even when
"waterproofed," some dampness is apt to penetrate the outside
plaster and go through the wall in spots.

In good cement plaster construction vertical cleats are

206 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

applied on top of the waterproof felt about 12 inches apart.
To these the outside wood or metal lathing is secured. Such
cleats (called "furring strips") may be \ inch thick and 2
inches wide, or they may be as thick as f inch. Experts dis-

FURRIMG STRIPS
INTERIOR PLASTER-

STUDDING

WATERPROOF
FELT

HALF TIMBER
WORK

BEVEL LED TO PITCH
EXTERIOR PLASTER

WOOD LATMS

CEMENT PLASTER ON WOOD LATHS WITH TRIMMINGS OF
"HALF TIMBER."

agree as to which is best thin furring or thick furring
exponents of thick furring claiming that thick cleats are stronger,
and exponents of thin furring claiming that with f-inch strips,
mortar, as it is pushed through between the laths, strikes the
boarding underneath, flowing sidewise around the laths, burying
each in mortar and providing a better "key." More thick

EXTERIOR FINISH 207

furring is used than thin furring, however, though there are
plenty of good jobs in each class.

The various advantages and disadvantages of wood laths
and metal lathing are taken up in another chapter. Both
methods are good when lathing is properly applied, neither
affecting the finished appearance of the plastering. Details
of applying exterior plaster will also be found in another chapter.

In considering cement plaster for the exterior covering of a
house, one should remember that cement is prettiest when com-
bined with some other material. Cement borrows borrows
heavily from other materials, as even the stanchest friends
of cement are ready to acknowledge. Taken entirely by itself,
cement is rarely successful when used for the exteriors of houses.
To reach its point of highest usefulness from the standpoint of
design, it must be combined with other materials, and this fact
should be understood by all designers and builders of cement
houses.

In England, where designers use cement extensively, houses are
frequently constructed of brick, plastered on the outside with
cement plaster. Nestling down in some beautiful garden spot,
each building composes well with the landscape, the neutral
gray of the cement acting as a foil to brilliant flowers and foliage.
Our English cousins know how to take advantage of every
characteristic of this material to bring out its charms, adding
just the right touch of harmony to the composition. English
landscape gardeners are the best in the world, and cement is the
medium, which comes most naturally to hand. Cement steps,
terraces, walls, and pools extend down many a vista, opening up
avenues hedged in by lofty elms or gnarled oaks, with here and
there gleams of high light where the cement is fascinatingly
flashed by sunlight.

Cement plaster has no color. It is toneless and lifeless like a
gravel roadway or the palest gray sky over the western plains
unflicked by clouds. A desert has color in the gold of its sand ;

208 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the dreariest prairie abounds in green, brown, and yellow, but
a surface of natural cement is entirely colorless. No other
building material is quite so dull and uninteresting.

Another drawback to cement plaster is lack of texture, -
that other requisite of all useful materials. Stone may be had
in any texture, rough-sawed, smooth-rubbed, rock-faced, ledge-
grained, it comes in every variety of form and surface.
Blocks can be used just as they are, rough-hewed from the
quarry with undulations of grain and seam laid to the outside,
or they can be tooled to any degree of smoothness. Brick also
can be of any degree of texture, rough or smooth, but this
quality, so necessary to the artistic architectural expression of
every building, is almost lacking in cement. To be sure, cement
may be troweled rough or smooth, or all the varying degrees
between, but it is, nevertheless, merely plaster, and that is why
cement texture is less interesting than stone texture or brick
texture. There are no joints to show the pleasing irregularities
of the units as in a stone or brick wall. Cement plaster, whether
applied with trowel or cast (as in " rough cast")? is a flowing
material, joint less and consequently shadowless. Taken by
itself it is monotonous, yes, even dreary in appearance.

If this is the case, if cement is neither pleasing in color nor
interesting in texture, how can one account for the thousands
of attractive cement houses scattered over the entire country?

Analyze the charm of cement houses and you will find that it
is the combining of cement with other materials which makes the
designs most effective. Gray cement makes an excellent back-
ground for painted window frames and sash. Like the plain
setting for a jewel, cement serves as a foil to bring out the
beauties of more decorative materials. And this is the true
field for cement. Used in this way, the result is good from an
architectural standpoint as well as structurally.

To get best results, cement should always be trimmed with
some materials having more color and texture values. Never

EXTERIOR FINISH 209

paint your cement house cement color. Paint it instead some
contrasting tint that will give life to the design and bring out the
pretty points of the composition. For this reason, white trim-
mings, contrasting very little with plaster, are rarely effective
unless there are green blinds or window shades of some warm,
cheerful color. White trimmings on a cement house with no
color on the roof give a disagreeably cold, bare effect, which
can be easily counteracted by hanging green blinds at the
windows. Immediately, the entire composition takes on new
interest. The monotonous gray is changed into a warm, sunny,
delightful tone.

These are the subtle points which make or mar cement houses.
Understood and properly used, cement is ideal, but used unin-
telligently the effect is far from satisfactory. An entire street
may easily be harmed by one ugly cement house, while a suc-
cession of poor designs will do more toward depreciating the
aesthetic value of the entire town than anything that could be
done, perhaps. Cement plaster makes a house so conspicuous,
even when weathered by years of wear, that ugly designs are
bound to assert themselves and create a bad impression.

Rough-cast cement plaster trimmed with material of pleasing
color is perhaps the most practical method, for the texture is a
little more pleasing than with smooth plaster, and it wears better.
Broken stone used in rough cast gives a strong wearing surface
to the plaster, not unlike stone itself. Each piece of stone
embedded in hard cement contributes to what is really a veneer
of crushed stone, most useful in protecting a building from the
elements.

Another interesting characteristic of cement and one which
should be recognized when using it for building is that cement
reflects the color of materials combined with it. If a cement
house is trimmed with green blinds, curiously enough, the cement
seems to be slightly green in tone. When the trimmings of a
house are brown, the plaster takes on a brownish hue. Designers

210 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

take advantage of this fact to produce many beautiful effects
in their cement designs.

Brick veneer and cement are two materials which will stand
the closest possible relations. When combined, the architectural
effect is most pleasing. Brick, brown in tone, laid with very
wide mortar joints to produce a wall of rough texture, are usually
particularly engaging.

Cement plaster rightly used is a most desirable addition to
the building family. Cement may be colored, of course, but
treated thus it is rarely so satisfactory as when used in its
natural state, with dependence upon the color of surroundings
to give it a pleasing tone. Cement can be given a pleasing tex-
ture of varying degrees of roughness, but this alone will not
ordinarily produce an effect equal to that obtained by the dis-
criminating use of other material for the purpose. Cement
plaster is best when used merely as a foil to reflect shadows.
Do not expect too much of it. Borrow elsewhere those qualities
which cement does not possess and your house will be an archi-
tectural success.

There are other materials to be used for exterior siding besides
woollen siding, brick veneer, and cement plaster. Of these, a
form of heavy prepared felt roofing covered with gravel has
been used quite successfully on houses where it is desired to get
the effect of cement plaster at less cost. This roofing, coming
in rolls ready to lay, consists of several layers of felt, asphalted
or tarred, with an outside coating of fine crushed stone or gravel.
The latter is stuck to the felt by means of plastic composition.
When used for siding, this material is usually applied horizontally,
but as it is only about 30 inches to 32 inches wide, cleats or
battens of wood must be nailed over each joint. Thus a house
sided with gravel roofing takes on, somewhat, the appearance
of a plaster-covered exterior marked off into squares by outside
casings of wood. Upon close inspection, siding of this sort
does not look exactly like a plastered exterior ; however, it makes

EXTERIOR FINISH 211

quite an attractive appearance and will be found durable when
properly applied. The way in which felt gravel-covered siding
is most frequently used is as a frieze up under the eaves of a
house, with some other material below. Felt siding must be
well secured to the boarding, as it is apt to dry out in the sun,
in which case its elasticity is impaired and it stretches and falls
slightly away from the. building. Plenty of wooden cleats or
battens will usually prevent this.

CHAPTER XII

HOUSES OF MASONRY

HOUSES of masonry have a much longer life than even the
best frame houses of most careful construction. Materials
of wood are not so enduring as materials of stone, clay, or con-
crete, and it is largely for this reason that so many masonry
houses are built. Add to this increased efficiency and durability
of masonry materials their increased attractiveness, and you
have multiplied the desirability of building a house of masonry.

In some places, of -course, where stone, brick, or cement is not
easily obtained at fair prices, no one would consider it practical
to build anything but a frame house. In other sections, where
lumber is not close at hand or where masonry materials are
particularly cheap, one should use the latter by all means.

In spite of much that has been said in favor of masonry
houses, it is not generally true that they cost no more than frame
houses. Except in certain sections where lumber is rare, and
stone, brick, or cement is plentiful, houses built of masonry cost
more than houses built of frame. These sections should not
be taken as typical. Conditions vary, of course, but America
is typically a lumber country. In spite of high price of lumber,
it is still the cheapest material for buildings and promises to be
so for many years to come.

Masonry houses usually pay, however, pay in increased
durability and attractiveness. For what could be more durable
than well-made brick laid up carefully in cement mortar;
what could be more attractive than good, sound stone; what
more substantial than thoroughly mixed concrete ?

213

214 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Well-designed houses of masonry are always good looking and
they remain so as years roll on. Brick, stone, and cement
are materials particularly susceptible to soft, pretty tones
produced by wind and weather. Another advantage the
masonry house has over a frame house is lack of paint. Frame

HOUSE BUILT OF BROWN BRICK.
Spencer and Powers, Architects.

houses must be painted outside at least once in three years if
they are to be kept in good condition; the masonry house
escapes this requirement. Window frames, cornices, and doors
must be painted, of course, but that is a small item compared
with the wooden sides of a frame house, in which the cost of
painting (averaging from $150 to $300 or $400) would in a
short time pay for the additional cost of masonry construction.

HOUSES OF MASONRY 215

Brick houses are variously built in different sections of the
country. In this chapter we will consider several of the best
systems for building brick walls (not including brick veneer,
which is treated of in another chapter).

Most two-story brick houses are built with solid walls, 12
inches thick on the first story and 8 inches thick on the second.
Face brick are used for the outside of the wall, with common
brick inside, except in Eastern States where clay burns to a
pretty shade of red, and the same kind of brick are frequently
used inside as well as outside. In this case it is customary to
select from the piles the best looking brick for outside ; that is,
the straightest, most perfect brick, most dense in texture.

The following table indicates the kinds of brick which come
from the kilns, graded according to their desirableness :

GRADES OF BRICK
(Grades according to layers, the outside being No. 1.)

(1) Outside brick, farthest from the fire, are not desirable as they are
too soft.

(2) Next layer, called "pale" or "salmon" brick, are also under-
burned and consequently soft.

(3) Third layer, produces "hard-burned" brick, which are the most
suitable for general building purposes.

(4) The inner layer, just over the flues, are overburnt and conse-
quently very hard and brittle. They are usually distorted and cracked,
but as they are practically vitrified, owing to the great heat to which
they have been subjected, they make good paving brick.

Merchantable brick are divided into two classes: common
brick (used chiefly for the back of the wall), and pressed brick
or "face" brick (used for the outside of the wall). Common
brick are divided into three grades, "arch" or "hard"
brick (suitable for paving brick), "well burned" (the most
desirable), and "soft" or "salmon" brick (not suitable for
building purposes).

Face brick may be "dry-pressed" or "re-pressed," according

216 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

MOLDED BRICK ARCH OVER AN
ENTRANCE.

INTERIOR. PLA.STER

to the process employed
in their manufacture. In
either case they should be
very hard and smooth,
with sharp angles and true
sides. Face brick cost from
two to five times as much
as common brick.

Special or molded brick
are often used for house
trimmings, such as mold-
ings, architraves, and the

like. For arches over windows, brick are frequently ground

with oblique sides to fit the radius

of the arch. On the corners of bay

windows it is well to use "hexa-
gon" bricks. These transfer the

vertical joints from the corners,

thus making them stronger and

mp/e attractive, a very much bct-

tef'practice than clipping bricks at

the angles, using a long, vertical

joint liable to disintegrate after a

time. Over window and door open-
ings arches may be turned with

ordinary bricks, or when flat arches

are used it may be necessary to

have bricks of the arch ground to

fit the radius. In many of the

most attractive brick houses 4-inch

angle irons are laid across Open- WINDOW FRAME WITH STEEL

ings to support the face brick, ANGLE T0 SUPPORT BRICK-

which are then laid across on top

of the angle precisely as they are laid elsewhere in the wall.

HOUSES OF MASONRY

217

Paving bricks are becoming popular for the exterior walls of
houses and they make an excellent wall, sound, waterproof,
and enduring. In cost, paving bricks are economical, as they
are usually less expensive than face brick, though they cost
more than common brick.

HOUSE FACED WITH PAVING BRICK.
Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect.

Contrary to popular opinion, brick are not, as a rule, damp-
proof. Clay, even after it is baked in a kiln, is not usually
sufficiently dense to be entirely nonabsorbent. To be sure,
some varieties of brick of the natural chemical consistency
to burn into an unusually dense clinker-like material are
practically waterproof, comparatively nonabsorbent, but
most brick take up an amount of dampness, however slight.
For this reason it is customary to fur and lath the inside of a

218 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

brick house instead of plastering directly upon the inside of
the brick walls. Plaster would adhere very well to the inside of
a brick wall, but dampness, almost certain to come through, would
stain wall paper or tint on the inside. Furring a brick wall
inside with X 2-inch cleats attached to strips built into the

brickwork (after-

BRICK WALL-. __,_,,

plastered like ordi-
nary wooden studs)
produces a small
air space between
the brickwork and
inside plaster which
effectually prevents
dampness from
reaching the inte-
rior of rooms. It is
excellent practice
to waterproof tjie
inside of a brick
wall by painting
it with one of the
chemical prepara-
tions made for this
purpose. Waterproofing, however, is not strictly necessary if
ordinary, first-class, hard-burned brick are used, laid up in a
good grade of mortar.

When waterproofing is applied to the inside of a brick wall, it
is possible to plaster directly on the brickwork. This is doubtful
practice, however, as wooden furring strips cost but little and
they will be found very convenient for nailing up casings, base,
and other inside trim. When walls are to be plastered directly
on the brickwork, wood strips should be built into the wall,
carefully choosing the places where inside trim is to be nailed.

LATh

FURRIMG

METHOD OF APPLYING PLASTER IN A BRICK
HOUSE.

HOUSES OF M AS ON tt Y

219

In the West and in many other parts of the country, common
brick are yellow in tone, as the clay burns yellow instead of
red. These yellow brick can sometimes be used effectively
even in the face of the wall by picking out the best looking ones
for the outside and laying them up in colored mortar, no-
tably, brown. After the building is completed if the wall is

GRAY BRICK is ATTRACTIVE WHEN WHITE TRIMMINGS ARE USED.

washed down with acid or cleaned with a wire brush, it looks
quite attractive, especially when the window frames and other
wood trimmings of the building are painted some pretty color
(like brown or green) to give life to the design. As a rule,
however, yellow brick are undesirable for the outside of a
house, as they make a somewhat depressing appearance. On
the contrary, brick in shades of red and brown are always

220 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

attractive, the older they get the better they look, and this
is one reason why brownish and reddish brick are so frequently
used.

Of course, no general rules concerning color can be laid down,
some yellow brick being attractive and others not, depending
upon the shade. It is usually safe to use reddish or brownish
brick, however, so when in doubt it is a good idea to select brick
of these shades. Brick of purple tones are frequently pretty
when quite dark. Gray brick are apt to be depressing, as gray
is a depressing color, though it is sometimes skillfully combined
with pleasing color applied to the outside trim and cornices

to make the design an attrac-
tive one. Color is entirely a
matter of taste. Artists get
good effects using almost any
color of brick, by means of
colored mortar or painted
trimmings. Amateurs fre-
quently spoil brick of a pretty
tone, by poor taste used in
the color of the trim.

Modern tendency in brick-
work is to use face brick of a
rough texture instead of brick
of a smooth texture, and this
tendency is not a mere fad
but is the result of years of
experimenting in textures and
colors. Rough brick should

WHEN ATTRACTIVE ROUGH BRICK ARE .

UsED be used in preference to

smooth brick, in most cases,

-first, because they are less expensive, and second, because
they usually produce more artistic effects. Smooth-faced brick,
to be perfect in outline and of even color, must be composed of

HOUSES OF MASONRY 221

materials most carefully mixed (sometimes artificially colored).
After they have been cut into shape they must be re-pressed
in molds to make them smooth on all faces. This makes them
expensive, frequently costing from $10 to $25 per thousand more
than the rougher brick. As a matter of fact, this additional care
only makes such brick less attractive, for a perfectly smooth brick
wall formed of bricks every one the same shade is not usually
pleasing. The very effort to make smooth brick more attrac-
tive only defeats the purpose of the makers, as a wall built of
rough-faced brick is infinitely more beautiful than a smooth
wall. Brickwork to be effective must have a play of light and
shade, one brick being darker than another.

The joints of brickwork need not be absolutely level and
plumb, a variation (" texture," it is called) being more delight-
ful. Such a wall is not so perfect that, it looks artificial, re-
sembling painted bricks, as it were.

Rough brick are made by running a stream of well-mixed clay
through a machine which cuts them off the right size and shape
with a piece of wire, much as a grocer cuts butter by drawing
a piece of wire through the cone. Wire drawn through clay
does not cut smoothly as it does in butter, however. It tears
its way through, making brick slightly rough on the surface.

Some of the most modern brick are purposely made even
rougher by tearing them more than ordinary brick. These,
when baked in a kiln, take on beautiful tones difficult to get in
any other form of brick, making a most attractive wall when
laid. The history of one of these brands of brick is interesting.
A brick with very rough surface which now comes in many pleas-
ing shades of reddish tones was originally made in one shade
only. Quite by accident the manufacturer discovered that the
clay would J)urn with pleasing variations in color. The bricks
were brought to the attention of architects and they are now
used extensively in houses of all grades, inexpensive as well as
costly.

222 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

"Tapestry" brick are among the most beautiful of the rough-
faced brick, and very attractive effects can be obtained with
them. They are cheap in price, their durability is unques-
tioned and the effects obtained can be got in no other way.
These brick come in many shades of red, brown, gray, and yel-
low. Even yellow and gray shades, unpleasant in almost every

other kind of face brick, are
i..-i_teL^J^J--- I k..-..l_l pleading in tapestry brick.

Of smooth, re-pressed
brick, the best are those
which are mottled in color.
Though practically yellow
in tone, they have a brown-
ish appearance caused by
iron mixed in the clay, which
burns with brown spots on
the surface.

Enameled brick are used
with good effect inside a

in kitchen or bathrooms, but they are not usually effective
on the exterior. Outside brick should be soft in color, not
hard and individually conspicuous. One must use the same good
taste in selecting colors that is used in selecting tints in interior
decorating, that is, choose quiet tones that will harmonize
with surroundings, not clash with them.

In laying up face brick, there are many ways for forming
joints. Ordinary bond consists of several rows of brick stretch-
ing lengthwise (usually six or seven rows) called stretchers, and
then a row of brick laid with ends toward the outside, called
headers. As most walls are thicker than one brick in width,
the face bricks on the outside of the wall must be tied (bonded,
it is called) to the bricks in the back of the wall by this row of
headers, laid across from face brick to back brick. Thus, in
ordinary bond, the six rows of stretchers are not really bonded

TAPESTRY BRICK LAID WITH WIDE, DEEP
MORTAR JOINTS.

HOUSES OF MASONRY

223

BRICKWORK LAID IN ENGLISH BOND.

with the bricks behind, though the joint between is slushed up

with mortar. But each row of headers ties the face and back

of the wall together, and a

wall is considered to be

well built when it is thus

tied every six or seven

courses.

In England, where houses
are more carefully con-
structed than in America,
often a course of headers
is laid on top of every
course of stretchers. Thus,
every course of stretchers alternating with a course of headers,
the front and back of the wall are securely bonded every other
course. This makes the strongest possible work.

In ordinary American house building, however, such extreme
care is hardly possible, for price of labor and material is about
twice what it is in England. Ordinary bond well done, when
plenty of good mortar is slushed into joints (filling them com-
pletely) will be found quite
good enough for any house.
Flemish bond is frequently
used on account of its pleas-
ing appearance as well as
structural durability. It
consists of a stretcher, fol-
lowed by a header, laid side
by side in the same course.
When brick are laid Flemish
fashion, it is frequently the
custom to use headers of
darker shade so that the pattern of the bond, pleasingly regular
as it is, becomes apparent in the wall. Double Flemish bond

FLEMISH BOND WITH DARK HEADERS.

224 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

is a pleasing variation of ordinary Flemish bond. It consists
of two stretchers and one header laid side by side in the same

course, bringing the headers
directly over the vertical
joints of the stretchers.

Sometimes the face of a
wall consists entirely of
stretchers, these being se-
cured to the common brick
backing by metal wall ties
laid into the joints of the
brickwork every five or six

DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND.

courses. This method is
somewhat saving in labor,

as it is easier to lay up a wall composed entirely of stretchers.
Some wall ties are of wire, with loops formed on the ends to
bed into the mortar and become fast in the wall ; others are
flat strips of corrugated, galvanized iron or steel.

Brick comes in a variety of sizes and shapes though, broadly
sneaking, there are only three or four general shapes. First,
there are ordinary brick approximately 8 inches long, 4 inches
wide, and 2 inches thick. These are called " standard" shape,
though the size varies somewhat in different sections. Clay
shrinks slightly in the burning and this shrinkage varies accord-
ing to the consistency of the clay
used, therefore some "standard"
brick are 7J inches long, 3f inches
wide, and If inches thick ; others are
slightly smaller or larger, according
to the size they are originally cut and
the amount of shrinkage in the kiln.

Long, thin brick called "Roman"
brick are frequently used, this designation referring to the
shape, not to the brand. "Roman length, standard thick-

<( )!)) I

METAL TIES FOB
FACE BRICK TO
WALL.

SECURING
BACK OF

HOUSES OF MASONRY

225

ness" are long, thick brick, combining the length of "Roman"
brick with the thickness of standard. Brick called "half stand-
ard" are of standard length, but half the standard thickness.

Such are, briefly, the most used sizes and shapes to be found
in the market. Slight variations occur in every section of the
country, but sizes and shapes are now generally standard.

THE" DIGNITY OF ROMAN BRICK WITH LIMESTONE TRIMMINGS.

The following table shows the stock sizes of common and
face brick holding in most sections of the country :

STOCK SIZES OF COMMON BRICK

SIZE OF WALL (INCHES)

New England States 11" x 3f" X 2|" 8 12 16 20

New York and New Jersey ... 8" X 4" X 2|" 8 12 16 20

Western States ....... 8" X 4|" X 2|" 9 13 18 22

226 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

STOCK SIZES OF FACE BRICK

Standard, practically throughout country, 8f " X 4|" X 2f "
Roman, 12" X 4" X 1|"

The exact size and pattern of brick to use in the face of a wall
is largely a matter of taste. Some designs look best carried out

in " Roman" brick, others
attractive in
Standard sizes

EXTERIOR PLA5TC

INTERIOR PLASTCR
PICTURE MOULD

EIGHT-INCH MASONRY WALL WITH EX-
TERIOR CEMENT PLASTER.

'BRICK OR HOLLOW TUB

are more

''standard."

are less expensive than

Roman and are therefor

used more often. Rough

brick look quite as well in

standard sizes as they do in

Roman, but smooth brick

usually look best in Roman

sizes.

Mortar joints in brick-
work have as much effect
-^ in the appearance of the

wall as anything else and are frequently made a means of
greatly improving the result. There are the ordinary mortar
joints about J inch in thickness in which mortar is used with-
out color, and there are the wide mortar joints sometimes as
large as f inch or even f inch, using natural, uncolored mortar,
or sometimes mortar slightly whitened by the addition of marble
dust. The effect of wide joints is quite striking, but this method
should be employed judiciously, preferably by an expert.

Rough, ordinary red brick are frequently attractive laid with
wide joints, whereas smooth, slick brickwork is usually dis-
appointing laid that way. In the latter case, bricks closely re-
semble a painted wall, presenting an artificial appearance quite
unattractive.

Mortar joints are frequently colored brown or black. When

HOUSES OF MASONRY 227

rough-faced brick are used, mortar joints can be colored about
the same shade as the brick with good effect, but it should be
remembered that mortar color fades, so it must be mixed darker
than desired, as it invariably dries out lighter in tone. Mineral
colors are usually employed for coloring mortar. These can be
bought, ready to mix with the mortar, and are known as "mor-
tar colors" or " mortar stains."

In addition to the color in mortar joints, brickwork can be
helped or marred by the way in which the joints are formed.
Tight joints, that is, joints which are as narrow as J inch (about
the smallest joint possible) are usually struck flush with the
outside of the wall. After a few minutes, when they have "set"
sufficiently hard, the joints are "pointed" by means of a piece of
telephone wire or with a tool having a wire-like edge. Pointing
forces mortar tightly into the joint and at the same time gives a
smooth, finished appearance, slightly concave. Wide joints
are frequently raked out so that the mortar is incised J inch
or more, allowing the upper and lower edges of each brick to
show, giving a rugged appearance to the wall which is quite
attractive. When bricks are not too rough, this is a good
joint to use, but if very rough brick are used, they are apt to have
such uneven edges that they do not look well with wide joints.
When joints are to be raked out, bricks are laid in a full bed of
mortar, then the loose part that squeezes out when each brick
is bedded can be struck off with a trowel flush with the face of
the wall. Afterwards, a hook-like tool is used to rake out the
mortar to the depth desired. After raking, it is the usual cus-
tom to use another pointing tool in the joints to put a hard,
firm finish on the outside of the mortar. Pointing in this way
makes joints much more weatherproof than ordinary struck
joints, as the pores of the mortar are closed. Struck joints are
joints in which the excess of mortar is merely chopped or struck
off with the trowel. After striking, joints are pointed by draw-
ing the point of the trowel over them.

228 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Your brick wall is only as strong as the mortar joints, no matter
how firm the bricks themselves may be. For this reason it is
necessary to have mortar properly mixed, using only the best
grade of lime, cement, and sand, and pointing joints carefully
to make them hard and weather resisting. Sometimes mortar
for brickwork is mixed entirely of Portland cement and sand,
using equal amounts, but more frequently a good, stiff mortar
composed of well-slaked lime and sand is used, slightly tem-
pered or stiffened, with the addition of a small amount of Port-
land cement. Mortar composed entirely of Portland cement
and sand, with no lime, sets so quickly it is very difficult to use
it in laying brick, for it is very apt to harden slightly before it
can be carried from the mortar tray to the wall, making it very
difficult for masons to spread it properly. On the contrary,
lime mortar sets quite slowly so that it is easily worked with
the trowel, and when stiffened slightly with Portland cement it
makes very good mortar.

Most brick houses are built with a 12-inch wall on the first
story and 8-inch on the. second story. When an 8-inch wall is
tfsed, the brick must be carefully laid, or the wall will not be suf-
ficiently strong to withstand the thrust of the rafters at the roof.
Mortar acts in a triple capacity, to unite the brick units into
one homogeneous mass, to fill all interstices and keep out
moisture, and to form a cushion under each course of brick,
filling all irregularities and distributing pressure evenly. The
first object is accomplished by thoroughly flushing the joints
with mortar, the second depends upon the strength of the
mortar, and the third is affected chiefly by the thickness of
the joints, which vary slightly, according to the varying thick-
ness of each brick.

The proper way to lay brickwork is to set the outside and in-
side courses, then prepare a full bed of mortar for the bricks
which come between, placing each in position with a firm
"shove" into place. After this is done, all joints not entirely

HOUSES OF MASONRY

229

filled with mortar should be slushed with a trowel until they

are full. Another method is to lay the bricks dry, after which

joints are slushed or " grouted" with thin

mortar; but the former method is most

generally used. In order to get straight

joints, a straightedge should be frequently

applied to the wall.

A good piece of brickwork is always per-
fectly plumb at the corners and level on
every course. The front of the wall is
thoroughly bonded to the back, one vertical
joint being directly over another.

In hot weather, brick should be thoroughly
wet before laying, using the hose on them as
fast as they dry out. If this is not done, brick,
which are more or less absorptive, suck all
the moisture out of the mortar as they are
laid, leaving it dry, lifeless, and crumbling.

The following table indicates the ordinary tests as applied to
common brick :

BRICK TESTS

Strength. Should be free from cracks or flaws, holes or
humps.

Size. Should be very nearly uniform in size.

Compactness. Should be well burned. Upon striking two
together, the bricks should ring true.

Absorption. Should not absorb more than T V their weight
in water after soaking 24 hours.

Shape. Slight twists and distortions are acceptable, but
excessively misshapen brick should be rejected.

Most bricks are made of clay, hard burned in a kiln, but there
are other types made in other ways. Sand-lime bricks are made
by combining lime and sand. When properly made, they are

UPPER : WESTERN
METHOD OF LAY-
ING BRICK.

LOWER : EASTERN
METHOD.

230 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

excellent, but the chief objection to them is in point of color,
for in their natural state they are dead and lifeless, making
them unfit for the face of a wall, though they do very well for
backing. In most sections, however, sand-lime bricks are as
costly, or more costly, than clay bricks, so there is no induce-
ment to use them, as they are no better than first-class clay
bricks. Cement bricks are satisfactory when properly made,
though not every brand is fit to use. Here, again, color is
against them. The natural color of cement is monotonous,
and when bricks are artificially colored they do not make as
pleasing an appearance as clay, for each brick being exactly
the same shade, the wall has an artificial, painted appearance.
One of the chief beauties of clay bricks is their variable color, one
being lighter and another darker. This effect is lost when ce-
ment bricks, artificially colored, are used. Sand-lime and cement
bricks are at best only substitutes for clay bricks. Except in
sections of the country where clay is rare and sand-lime or ce-
ment bricks are cheaper, it is not advisable to use them.

Through the inside of a
masonry house, partitions
are built as they are in a
frame house, that is, gird-
ers resting on brick piers,
cast iron or wooden posts
hi the basement, support
partitions consisting of
2X4 or 2 X 6-inch stud-
ding. At the wall end of
the joists it is customary to
bevel the timbers. When
building, the masonry walls

are laid up to the level required for the joists. Then carpenters
place the girders and set the joists on top with the beveled ends
resting on the wall. After this, masons build the walls around
the ends of the joists.

GOOD WAY TO SECURE PLATE TO BRICK
WALL.

HOUSES OF MASONRY

231

FURRING STRIP
INTERIOR PLASTER

FINISHED FLOOR
PAPER.
ROUGH
FLOOR.

To tie the walls of the building securely it is ,a good plan to
build in anchors, consisting of wrought-iron rods, sharpened at
one end and driven into about every sixth joist, with the other end
built into the masonry. Thus the floors and walls are securely
united, contributing much
to the stability of the build-
ing. The plate supporting
the rafters is secured to the
masonry by bolts built into
the walls.

The underflooring on a
masonry house is laid diag-
onally or not, just as it is in
a frame house. The under-
flooring should never be
fitted too tightly to a ma-
sonry wall, however, for in
course of construction it
is almost sure to become

STONE WALL FURRED ON INSIDE.

damp, when it is liable to

swell, pushing against the walls and often causing them to lean

slightly from the perpendicular.

A green wall, that is, a wall freshly built, in which the mortar
has not completely set, is very easy to disturb, a comparatively
slight pressure sometimes producing a deviation from the per-
pendicular. For this reason it is a good plan to brace green
walls longer than twenty-five or thirty feet with timbers set se-
curely against them, which can be removed after the mortar
has set. This is not usually required, however, as floor joists
are most often laid soon after a section of wall is built, and these,
tied as they are to the wall by means of anchors, hold it suf-
ficiently.

Stone houses are not infrequently built, and stone is an
excellent material to use when the walls are furred on

Ij4r EARTH

232 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the inside. Otherwise a stone house would not prove a dry
house. Local ledge stone can be obtained in most localities
and its cost is frequently no more than brick, though labor on a
stone house is usually higher than on a brick house, as so much
cutting and fitting is necessary.

The following tests for stone will be found useful :

TESTS FOR STONE

Compactness. When dense and strong, stone rings with a
clear metallic sound if struck a blow with a hammer.

Absorption. A sample cube of stone, after being immersed
in water for 24 hours, should not increase in weight more
than 5%.

Solubility. Crush a sample and place the pieces in a glass of
water for J hour. If of good building consistency, the water
will remain clear. If the stone contains much earthy matter,
the water will become muddy.

Stone used for houses can be finished in a variety of ways.
The following being frequently employed :

FINISH FOR STONE

Rock-faced or " pitch-faced" is stone left in the rough but
with the edges pitched off to a line. Hard limestone and granite
is often finished in this way and a wall built of it is rough look-
ing and artistic.

Margined finish, is rock-face with a straight draft line tooled
around the edges.

Broached Work. Continuous grooves all over the surface.
Usually with draft lines at the edges.

Pointed Work. Rough faces pointed down all over. May
be either rough or fine-pointed.

Tooth Chiseled. One of the cheapest methods. Resembles
pointed work, but is not quite so smooth.

HOUSES OF MASONRY 233

Tooled Work. A chisel 3 to 4J inches wide is used to make
continuous lines across the width of the stone. Especially suit-
able for sandstone or limestone.

Crandalled Work. Tooled lines run diagonally across the
stone, one way or both ways. Good finish for sandstone.

Rubbed Work. - Rubbed by hand or machine with soft
stone, water, and sand until smooth. Suitable for sandstone or
limestone.

Bush-hammered. Surface full of fine points. Good for
hard sandstone or limestone, but not suitable for soft stone.

Patent-hammered. Stone is first pointed, then finished
with a patent hammer, leaving the stone with a coarse or fine
finish, according to the number of blades used in the tool. The
finish most frequently used is 8 to 10 cuts to the inch. This is
a good finish for hard limestone or granite.

Houses are frequently built of what is known as "rubble-
work/' or sometimes of " ashlar." Rubble is the ordinary
rough work where local stone is used, and it proves satisfactory
when the work is properly done. In good rubble work there is
a bond stone (large stone extending through the wall) at least
every 4 or 5 feet of wall in length ; the largest and soundest
stones are placed at the bottom of the wall, and every angle in
it is formed with alternate headers and stretchers. Weak edges
on each stone should be broken off before the stone is laid.
While a few spawls (small chips) are permissible on the inside
of the wall, they should be carefully slushed up with cement
mortar.

Field stones are frequently used in rubble work, as the effect
is picturesque and pleasing. Small boulders and field stones
from old stone walls in the country are excellent for this purpose,
especially those which are weather beaten (often covered with
beautiful green moss). Rubble stone is sometimes coursed,
in which case it is called " coursed rubble." In this type of

234 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SPLIT

BOULDER.
WOftK

BOULDER
WOR.K

GOUR.5ED

ASHLAR.

(UNEQUAL
HEIGHTS)

COURTED

ASHLAR.

(EQ.UAL

HEIGHTS)

RANDOM
RANGE

HANNtLED
JOINT l

COUR.SES

VARIOUS TYPES OF STONEWORK.

work every stone is trimmed and
squared up, though each is of
different size.

Ashlar is cut stone on the face
of a wall, backed up with common
stone or brick. Usually the ashlar
is from 4 to 8 inches thick, and
when of brick the backing is most
often 8 inches thick. In every 10
square feet of wall surface (at
least) one of the facing stones
should go through the wall for
bonding purposes. When marble
or limestone ashlar is used, it may
be as thin as 2 to 4 inches, bonded
to the rough backing with iron
clamps (at least one clamp to each
piece). When metal clamps are
used, they should be dipped in
asphalt before applying, to pre-
vent rusting.

Cut stone quoins are often used
at the corners of a stone house,
as well as at jambs of window and
door openings. Cut stone sills and
copings are used, and sometimes
stone cornices and moldings. Cut
stone pieces should be thoroughly
secured to the wall by means of
metal clamps wherever necessary.

In pointing stonework, the
pointing material should be com-
posed of equal parts of cement
and sand, extending into the wall

HOUSES OF MASONRY 235

from \ to 1 inch. This work should be done in moderate
weather (to prevent freezing), and the joints should be cleaned
and moistened before the cement is applied. After stonework
is completed, it should be cleaned down by vigorous brushing,
using weak acid and water. Although a stiff, wire brush can
be used safely on hard stone, a brush with bristles is preferable
for soft stone, which might be injured by wire bristles.

When inspecting a piece of stonework, examine all parts
carefully in search of weak, cracked stones which should never
be permitted to remain in the wall. Before the stones are laid
it is easy to test them by sounding with a hammer, a dull
sound indicating a hidden crack. In sandstone, every piece
which contains holes should be rejected, and all stones should be
of uniform color.

Patching (where a broken stone is mended by inserting a
patch) should never be permitted in any stonework, for no mat-
ter how skillfully it is done, it is almost certain to become dis-
placed later. In molded work one must be careful to see that
all the cuts in each section of stone match perfectly, otherwise,
when the moldings are completed they will appear wavy in
outline.

Concrete blocks have been quite extensively used for houses
throughout the country, and walls made of good, sound con-
crete blocks are very enduring. It cannot be said that they
are attractive in appearance, however, for there is a deadly
monotony to concrete block houses, owing to the exact similarity
of each block in color and shape. In stone houses, one stone is
not precisely like another ; color varies, and this makes a pleas-
ing irregularity in the appearance of the wall. When concrete
blocks are used, however, walls are artificially regular in ap-
pearance, which detracts from their sightliness. Concrete
blocks, as a general thing, are most useful when covered with
some other material, like cement plaster. Rock-faced concrete
blocks made in imitation of rock-faced stone are unattractive.

HOUSES IN A FIREPROOF COMMUNITY NEAR NEW YORK.
Mann and MacNeille, Architects.

CHAPTER XIII

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

FIREPROOF houses are of masonry, but they are so different
in construction from ordinary masonry houses that they are

AN ATTRACTIVE FIREPROOF HOUSE.
Mann and MacNeille, Architects.

described here in a separate chapter. No development in house
design and construction more ideal than modern fireproof houses
could be conceived, and no method of building could be more
practical or more useful to mankind.

237

238 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

An era of sensible building is rapidly evolving. Thousands
believe in it, and are planning to take advantage of the oppor-
tunity offered by new methods of fireproof construction.

Fireproof construction of the better class is permanent.
Walls do not crack nor do floors sag, and the owner is protected
from excessive repairs on his property because there is nothing

FIREPROOF HOUSES IN A NEW YORK SUBURB.

to wear out. Window frames and doors are made of wood,
but in addition to the trim, these are the only parts of a fire-
proof house now built out of wood.

As a matter of fact, even furniture, trim, and doors can be
made fireproof. Steel is already used for this purpose in office
buildings, but it will be a long time before it will replace wood
in house construction. Wood, as years go on and lumber be-
comes more scarce, will be conserved and used merely for trim,
frames, and doors.

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE 239

Two powerful forces are always at work improving house
building. One is the tendency to build less expensively to
economize and the other is to improve construction and
build better. Every manufacturer who brings out a piece of
machinery and puts it upon the market strives to make it as
perfect as possible. Even after the most correct model he can
devise has been put on sale, he continues to study it in the light
of the added experience which comes to him when he has mar-
keted his product, in order to bring it to a higher state of per-
fection.

Housebuilding is precisely the same; the house is a manu-
factured article built to order. Every reputable architect and
contractor is earnestly and loyally trying to improve his work
and bring out better finished product. They carefully watch
new methods advocated, keeping in touch with the results of
experiments constantly carried on by building material experts,
so that they may incorporate the ideas in their own work as
soon as they are assured successes.

These two tendencies economy in first cost and improve-
ment in quality are evolving better buildings. Brilliant
minds have produced brilliant results, and houses of the class
worth considering at all the honest class are built better
than ever before. There is hardly a person in the smallest vil-
lage who has not some expert knowledge of good building.
Construction is tolerably familiar to every man or woman who
has ever seen a new house go up in the neighborhood, and this
great public eye, keenly observing, always watchful, helps along
the good work of better building.

Fireproof construction is not really fireproof, paradox as
this statement may seem. That is, houses said to be " fire-
proof" (as the term is usually employed) are not strictly
unburnable. ' Some inflammable material is to be found in the
ordinary house of fireproof construction ; doors, door frames, win-
dows, and cornices are of wood and (on most fireproof houses)

240 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the roof is of wood, though frequently covered with non-inflam-
mable material, such as slate or tile. Thus the term " fireproof "
is really a misnomer. Such houses are not entirely fireproof,
and in a severe conflagration they might be greatly injured, if
not entirely destroyed. But the term " fireproof" has come to
mean a type of construction which, while not strictly fireproof
in the sense that it is unburnable, is truly fire-resisting. Very
few houses with fireproof walls and floors will ever burn by
reason of the wooden doors, windows, and cornices. Fireproof
to a large extent, they are practically entirely fireproof, and a
town or city with residence districts built in this way would
undoubtedly be found practically fireproof. With roofs cov-
ered with non-inflammable material (slate or tile) and exterior
walls of fireproof material it is quite likely that houses attacked
by fire on the outside would resist successfully. Fire on the
inside of such a house could hardly get sufficient headway to
destroy the building, if floors and walls were fireproof.

To make houses completely fireproof it would be necessary
to build them like fireproof office buildings, that is, using
fireproof walls and floors, with wire glass windows and metal
doors. This would hardly be practical for houses, and it is
doubtful if such construction will ever be generally adopted.
Houses with fireproof walls and floors are considered sufficiently
fireproof for all practical purposes, this method making ideal,
fire-resisting, weather-resisting, wear-and-tear-resisting con-
struction adaptable to all houses. This is undoubtedly the
type of construction toward which all house building is slowly
but surely trending.

Strange to say, it isn't the fireproof quality that appeals first
to the builder of a fireproof house. It is permanency of construc-
tion evident in a fireproof type that makes so many owners turn
from lumber to fireproof construction. Lumber shrinks, twists,
turns, swells, and cracks ; fireproof construction is enduring.
That means freedom from repairs, permanency in construction.

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

241

In making designs for a fireproof house one should not merely
take the plans of a frame house and try to adjust them to the
requirements of fireproof design. Lumber may be sawed off at
any length. It can be planed and trimmed to fit ; you can bend
it and split it. Materials in a fireproof house, however, are not so
elastic. To build such a house economically, you must be famil-
iar with the various types of fireproof construction. This does
not mean that fireproof methods are difficult. On the contrary,
they require no more skill in building than frame construction.

Stone, brick, concrete blocks, and terra cotta hollow tile are
all good materials for fireproof houses, but of these four, terra
cotta hollow tile is by far the most practical, as up to the pres-
ent time it is the only material which has been particularly
developed for fireproof houses and put upon the market in large
quantities. Cement
tiles suitable for fire-
proof houses have
been made, but up
to the present time
they have not been
manufactured to
large extent.

Terra cotta hol-
low tile and Port-
land cement are the
great materials
which have opened
up new possibilities
in ideal construc-
tion. The ideal suburban community, the dream-city of the
future, will be largely composed of these two fundamental
materials, both coming right from the earth where all good things
come from. Clay is present somewhere in almost every square
mile of the habitable parts of the earth, and minerals which form

HOLLOW TILE STACKED READY FOR USE IN A
FIREPROOF HOUSE.

242 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Portland cement are as readily found. For this reason there is
no limit to the growth of these materials, which are supplanting
more perishable wood.

Mud, molded into hollow blocks and baked hard in the fire,
is what terra cotta hollow tile really is. If every houseowner
had a clay bank in his back yard, he might make his own hollow
tile, though probably he could not produce it as cheaply or of
such good quality as the manufacturers.

After a terra cotta hollow tile structure is built, Portland ce-
ment comes into play in the shape of plaster for outside and in-
side, applied directly to the hollow tile. No lathing need be
used. To perfect this rapidly increasing class of houses (plas-
ter exteriors on terra cotta hollow tile) manufacturers now make
tile especially for house use. This is " deep-scored " tile,
that is, on all four sides of each tile deep grooves are cast in the
tile. When plaster is applied, it flows into the grooves, sets hard,
and sticks. Plastering well done on a good brand of terra cotta
hollow tile virtually becomes part of the wall. It is more like

a plating than a coating,
and will endure as long as
the wall.

Terra cotta hollow tile
blocks come in several sizes,
that most frequently used
for outside walls being 8
inches thick (from outside
to inside), 12 inches high

FIREPROOF PARTITIONS OF HOLLOW TILE.

(from top to bottom), and

12 inches wide. Thus a single block fills a square foot of wall,
8 inches thick. When fireproof houses first began to be built it
was the custom to have a 12-inch wall on the first story (using
blocks 12 inches thick) with an 8-inch wall on the second story,
but it has since been found more convenient to build outside
walls 8 inches thick throughout. Inside partitions are usually

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

243

built 3 or 4 inches thick, using blocks 3" X 12" X 12" instead of
8" X 12" X 12", as is customary for outside walls.

The following table, prepared by the National Fire Proofing
Company, shows load-carrying capacity for tile used in exterior
and interior partitions :

LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY OF DENSE HARD-BURNED NATCO HOLLOW

TILE

SIZE OP TILE

WIDTH OF
WALL
1 TILE THICK

ULTIMATE LOAD
PER LINEAL FOOT
OF WALL IN
POUNDS

WIDTH OF
WALL 2
TILES THICK

ULTIMATE LOAD
PER LINEAL FOOT
OF WALL IN
POUNDS

4"X 12

"X 12"

114,201

228,402

6"X 12

"X 12"

142,862

12"

285,724

8"X 12

"X 12"

202,131

16"

404,262

10" X 12

"X 12"

10"

228,226

20"

456,452

12" X 12

"X 12"

12"

259,300

24"

518,600

In another type of hollow tile construc-
tion special interlocking blocks are provided,
laid horizontally instead of vertically. It
is claimed for them that they produce a
stronger wall ; however, it is doubtful if
horizontal blocks will ever take the place
of vertical blocks, as the latter are more
universally employed.

A more expensive type of vertical block
construction consists of special terra cotta
hollow tiles set on edge with reenforced
concrete placed between each tile, forming
a vertical strut from base to roof. This is
excellent construction, though it will hardly
be widely adopted for houses, owing to its
greater complications over ordinary hollow

UNUSUAL METHOD OF
FIREPROOF CON-
STRUCTION.

244 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

r2"xS" PLANK PLATE

SLATE OR
SHIN6LE TILE

EARTH-
CEMENT FLOOR- 7 \^ x v X 1 - CONCRETE FOOTING

GOOD SYSTEM OF FIREPROOF HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

tile construction, -
greater cost and
longer time required
in building.

Below ground, con-
crete or stone founda-
tion walls can be laid
as in ordinary con-
struction, or one may
use vitrified hollow
tile. The regular
grooved 8" X 12" X
12" tile start at the
grade and continue
up to the plate which
supports the rafters
precisely as in a brick
house. When the
wall is up to the
proper height for the
fireproof floor a flat
tile is laid on the
floor-supporting shelf.
Then a wooden scaf-
fold is built to hold
the floor temporarily.

For a practical and
economical fireproof
floor lay rows of 4" X
12" X 12" tile about
4" apart, and after
laying steel reenforc-
ing rods in the chan-
nels between the rows

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

245

of tile, fill them with cement concrete. The result is a succes-
sion of reenforced concrete beams with hollow tile fillers be-
tween, temporarily supported by the wooden scaffolding. No
expensive forms to mold the different parts of the floor con-
struction are required, a great saving of expense over most
fireproof floors.

FIREPROOF HOUSE WITH CEMENT-PLASTERED EXTERIOR.

The precise thickness of a fireproof floor for houses is easily
determined when the span and load are known, by referring to
construction tables furnished by manufacturers of terra cotta
hollow tile. The thickness varies from 4 inches to 6 or 15 inches
according to load and span.

The following table, prepared by the National Fire Proofing
Company, shows safe live loads for a fireproof floor composed
of hollow tile and reenforced concrete, with concrete finish at
top 2 inches thick :

246 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SIZE OF TILE

SPAN

4 IN.

5 IN.

6 IN.

7 IN.

8 IN.

9 IN.

10 IN.

12 IN.

15 IN.

5'-0"

665

6'-0"

446

660

7'-0"

314

470

655

8'-Q"

229

347

487

650

9'-0"

170

263

372

490

645

lO'-O"

128

202

290

392

509

640

11M)"

157

229

313

408

515

635

12'-0"

123

183

252

332

421

521

13'-0"

147

205

272

348

432

625

14'-0"

118

168

225

289

361

526

15'-0"

138

187

242

304

447

16'-0"

113

156

204

258

381

610

17'-0"

130

172

220

328

527

18'-0"

108

145

187

283

459

19'-0"

123

159

245

402

20'-0"

103

136

212

352

21'-0"

116

184

310

22'-0"

159

272

-2 2,r-o"

138

240

24'-0"

119

212

Reenforced
Steel

I" sq.

13" sq.

f'sq.

it" sq.

1" sq.

IS" sq.

H-sq.

UV'sq.

If'sq.

Wt. of Floor
Per Square
Foot

50 Ib.

55 Ib.

60 Ib.

65 Ib.

70 Ib.

75 Ib.

80 Ib.

90 Ib.

105 Ib.

Above table is figured for continuous span with the following
stresses which are very conservative :

500 Ib. per square inch, extreme fiber composition in concrete.

16,000 Ib. per square inch, tension in steel (to be medium open hearth).

The end sheave and longitudinal sheave should be investigated, and
sheave reinforcement provided when necessary.

NOTE. Designs made in accordance with the above table of
loads will conform with the building laws of most large cities. How-
ever, a more economical design may often be obtained where building
laws permit higher stresses.

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

247

Safe live loads for a similar floor, but with the top coating of
concrete omitted, are indicated in the following table :

SIZE OF TILE

SPAN

10"

12"

15"

5'-0"

1G2

262

388

540

6'-0"

103

170

257

360

482

7'-0"

115

177

252

340

438

8'-0"

125

181

248

322

499

9'-0"

133

185

242

380

lO'-O"

140

185

295

506

ll'-O"

106

143

232

404

12'-0"

110

184

326

13'-0"

146

266

14'-0"

117

218

15'-0"

179

16'-0"

148

i7'-o"

121

18'-0"

19'-0"

20'-0"

Reenforced
Steel in
Each Rib

1" sq.

I" sq.
30 Ib.

TB" sq.

\" sq.

rsq.

fe" sq-

re" sq.

F'sq.

f'sq.

Wt. of Floo
Per Square
Foot

26 Ib.

38 Ib.

43 Ib.

48 Ib.

52 Ib.

58 Ib.

68 Ib.

82 Ib.

Above tables are figured for continuous spans with the following
stresses, which are very conservative :

500 Ib. per square inch extreme fiber composition in concrete.

16,000 Ib. per square inch tension in steel (to be medium open
hearth).

248 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

On top of the tile work composing a fireproof floor, gas and
water pipes and electric wires are laid. Then these pipes are
covered in by a coating 2 inches thick of concrete, spread over
the area of the floor. Embedded in the concrete are beveled
strips to which the wooden, finished floor boards are nailed.

AN ATTRACTIVE COTTAGE OF FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION.
Squires and Wynkoop, Architects.

The under side of a fireproof floor is plastered directly on the
materials, no lathing or furring being used. There is no vi-
bration in a fireproof floor of correct thickness. Such a floor
is as solid as a wall, as indestructible as the very foundations,
and equally fireproof. There are no sags to crack the plaster
nor spaces for vermin. In addition, hollow tile floors and parti-
tions are soundproof.

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

249

When the first floor is laid, you may proceed with the exterior
walls up to the level of the
second floor, which is laid
precisely like the first floor.
A scaffolding is built tem-
porarily of 2" X 4" uprights
with common boards on top,
on which the rows of tile are
laid out, the channels being
filled with concrete, reen-
forced by steel rods. Over
the tops of windows, lintels
are made of reenforced con-
crete slabs, or a number of
hollow tile units can be laid
in a row, stuffed with con-
crete reenforced by steel
rods, and lifted up into place
over a window. Wide in-
terior doorways are covered
the same way, though nar-
row doorways, where the load above is not too heavy, do
not require a special lintel.

Terra cotta hollow tile may be cut to fit,
like brick or stone. If a course is being laid
and an aperture is left too small to be filled
by an entire tile the mason scores a tile with
his chisel, a sharp blow of his hammer break-
ing it off.

Hollow tile blocks are made of clay, molded
with interior hollow spaces called " cells," and
they look like little boxes with cavities inside.
Partitions forming the tile "webs" are about
Tile are strongest when set on edge, and this is

CORRECT WAY TO LAY HOLLOW TILE.

METAL WALL PLUG
TO WHICH TRIM is
NAILED.

1 inch thick.

250 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

PLASTEH

2'x4' WOOD FURRING
METAL LATH

WHITC6LAZEO TILE

DEEP GROOVED FOR PLASTEft

METHOD OF RUNNING BATHROOM PIPES.

the proper way to build walls for a house, though when laid on

their side tiles are amply strong for all ordinary loads as found

in most houses. It is very
much better to set them on
edge, however, for the ver-
tical bond is better this way
and the cells being vertical,
slots for pipes and electric
wires can be readily cut in
the wall by breaking through
the rear webs of the tiles.

Terra cotta hollow tile are
laid much the same way as

brick. That is, a block is picked up by the mason and " but-
tered" on the edges with mortar. Then the tile is shoved down

on the wall and the excess of mortar flowing out on the edges is

" struck " off with the trowel.

Although there is only a thin

filament of mortar between

-each tile owing to the fact

that tile are hollow instead

of solid, this has been found

sufficient to make a strong,

durable wall, ideal for house

construction. Clay (terra

cotta) blocks might be made

solid like bricks, but blocks

of large size warp, twist, and

crack so in the kilns when

burned, they are not prac-
tical. Besides, the cellular

construction of hollow tile

provides excellent insulation against heat and cold, keeping out

the warm air of summer and cold air of winter.

SOIL
PIPE-

*- VENT
PIPfc

VERTICAL PIPES IN A HOLLOW TILE
WALL.

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

251

The air space is the best known means of insulation. Many
refrigerators are built on the air-space method, providing sev-
eral layers of dead-air space, interposed between the outside
and inside. Vacuum water bottles are notable examples of the
efficiency of air-space insulation, the little hollow walls sealed
into the bottles being the only method of insulation. It is the
same with a hollow tile wall, which when entirely built contains
an air space about
6 inches wide from
top to bottom.

Another advan-
tage of hollow wall
construction is free-
dom from damp-
ness. Few materials
except pitch or paint
are entirely water-
proof. The hard-
est brick or stone,
unless artificially

damp-proofed, will TlLE HousE IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION.

not keep out mois-
ture. Hard-burned hollow tile are as damp-proof as any ma-
terial can be, and when moisture of even the most infinitesimal
amount enters the outer wall (as it might do in a long, hard
rain) the interior air space conducts the moisture to the bottom
of the wall instead of allowing it to penetrate through to the
inside of the rooms. Brick and stone walls have to be furred
inside with wood, or else they are painted inside with water-
proof paint in order to keep out moisture, but a hollow tile
wall can be depended upon to prove damp-proof when the tile
are hard burned as they ought to be.

The best hollow tile blocks are vitrified. They are even more
dense and hard than the glazed sewer pipe with which we are

252

SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

all so familiar. This does not mean that they are glazed on
the outside like sewer pipe, for they do not have the appearance
of being glazed, but when a small quantity of water is poured
on the outside of a piece of hollow tile it will not soak in, proving
that the material is exceedingly dense. Hard-burned hollow
tile are not necessarily red nor do they look burned on the out-

STEEL FRAMEWORK FOR FIREPROOF HOUSE.

side. Made in many sections of the country from clays of dif-
ferent chemical composition, they are sometimes red and often
yellow, depending upon the location of the factory where the
tile is made. Red tile are no harder burned than yellow tile.
Owing to the difference in clay in different sections, the exterior
appearance of hollow tile blocks is also quite different. In
Ohio, and some parts of the East, tile comes out slick and

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

253

smooth, each groove being as perfect as though modeled by
hand. In Illinois, tile blocks are rougher and the grooves are
slightly warped. In other parts of the country, tile vary in
smoothness according to the consistency of the local clay and
the consequent mechanical difficulties to overcome in manu-
facture. The degree of roughness or smoothness has nothing

STEEL FRAME HOUSE COMPLETED.

to do with the durability of tile. Rough, slightly twisted pieces
are quite as good as straight, slick tile, the only requisite being
that they shall be hard burned and dense. When picked up in the
hand and rapped sharply with a hammer, each block should ring
true like a bell. A dull, soggy sound means that the tile are
soft, and such should be rejected.

Hollow tile go into the wa.ll more rapidly than brick because

254 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

one tile, filling a space a foot square, is more quickly laid than
the several brick necessary to fill a space of like size. For this
reason brick fireproof houses are frequently built with face
brick backed up by hollow tile, instead of building a solid wall
of brick. The former method is better than a solid wall, owing
to the celular construction of the hollow tile backing, which is
more waterproof than a solid brick wall. When face brick are
backed with hollow tile in this way the former are usually an-
chored to the backing by metal wall ties ; or sometimes a row
of brick headers every few courses is laid back into the tile wall.
Very few blocks of special shape are required in hollow tile
house construction. The entire building may be built of ordinary
blocks, but it has been found convenient to use special jamb
blocks at window openings. These have a rabbit (rebate) molded
in them to receive the window frame, making an excellent
weatherproof joint between wall and frame. Where special jamb
blocks are not used a good method is to set the face casing of each
frame into a groove in the tiles, thus allowing no gap between
DEEP SCORED frame and wall. When the

^"2&&$B^ exterior of the house is to be

TILE -U^lf ^illU^ plastered, this plaster coat

is made to stop against the
frame, giving additional
protection. Any method of
building window frames can
be used. Ordinary tiles
may be simply plastered up

FI.OOR. JOISTS j . .T,

under sills with smooth ce-
ment to form a wash, or

HOLLOW TILE WALLS, WOODEN FLOOR.

stone or cast cement sills

can be used as in any brick building. Sometimes wooden sills
on window frames are made extra wide to extend out over the
tile wall, in which case no other sills are required.

How can flooring and trim be applied in a hollow tile house

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

255

RIOR PLASTeOIMG
DIRECTLY' ON TILE

BRICK VENEER

when there is no wooden framework to nail to ? As has already
been explained, the wooden finished flooring is nailed to wood
cleats embedded in concrete, and this provides a space under-
neath for the horizontal gas, water, and heating pipes. On the
walls, corrugated
metal wall plugs
are driven into the
joints of the tile at
points where trim
is to be afterwards
applied. Just be-
fore the building is
ready for plastering,
wooden grounds are
nailed to these wall
plugs by driving
nails through until
they are gripped by
the corrugations of
the metal. Then
the building is plas-
tered up to the
grounds, and trim
is afterwards nailed
through to them.
Another good way
is to build laths

into the wall every few courses precisely as is done in a brick
house. To these laths wooden grounds for trim are secured.

One of the first questions asked a fireproof expert is "how do
you run bathroom pipes in a hollow tile partition ?" The easi-
est way is to fur out the wall inside, with ordinary 2" X 4" studs
nailed to the tile partition. In this space you can run all the
horizontal and vertical pipes necessary for bathroom fixtures.

CONCRETE FOOTING

BRICK VENEER ON HOLLOW TILE.

256 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

In a tiled bathroom apply the tile to this furred-out partition.
On the floor, apply the tile directly to the concrete.

The best roofing materials for a fireproof house are tile or
slate, though of course shingles can be used when desired.

A new method of construction for fireproof houses has recently
been put upon the market consisting of a skeleton framework
of concrete-filled steel pipe (ordinary 3 or 4-inch pipe, usually).
Vertical struts from 6 to 10 feet apart are formed by the verti-
cal pipes, and these are tied horizontally by horizontal pipes. A
like pipe skeleton forms the structure for floors. Webs of wire
.are used for walls and floor slabs, covered with metal lathing.
Thus, outside walls as well as floors are of reenforced concrete.
Many houses are built with hollow tile exterior walls and ordi-
nary frame inside walls and floor joists. Though not so ideal
as fireproof house construction this is an excellent way to build,
as hollow tile exterior walls are easily arranged to carry the

wooden joists. Houses are
built in this way precisely
like brick or stone houses,
the joists resting on the
walls and tile being built
around the ends.

As an indication regard-
ing the cost of standard
hollow tile construction as
compared with other meth-
ods of construction, consult the following table (courtesy of the
National Fire Proofing Company) :

CEMENT
MORTAR

TfTRQ^-COTTA
HOLLOW TILE SPLITS
RED DIRECTLY

STONE HOUSE LINED WITH TILE.

HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF COSTS

Comparative building costs of different systems of building, based
upon an average frame dwelling costing $10,000, complete, located in
the vicinity of New York :

HOW TO BUILD A FIREPROOF HOUSE

257

(a) $10,000 Frame.

(6) $11,000 Brick outside walls, wooden inside.

(d) $10,250 Stucco on expanded metal, wooden inside.

(e) $10,500 Hollow tile, stuccoed, wooden inside.

(/) $12,000 Hollow tile stuccoed, fireproof throughout except roof.

(g) $14,000 Hollow tile walls faced with brick, fireproof floors and
roof.

(ti) $15,000 Brick walls fireproof floors and roof.

The above figures are based on an average taken from two architects
and two builders, who have had experience with the methods of con-
struction designated.

FIREPROOF HOUSE OF CONCRETE.

CHAPTER XIV

CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK

ONE of the most important branches of work in connection
with the building of a house is carpentry, for whether the build-
ing is of masonry or frame construction, carpenter work is bound
to be more or less extensive, consisting of floors, roof, inside
trim, outside and inside millwork in the former, and the entire
framework of the building (including its finish) in the latter.

Different methods of building the framework of the house are
described in another chapter. During construction the owner
should watch the work carefully, for his house will only prove
as strong as the framework. Errors in the latter are hard to
correct after the building is completed.

It is'part of the carpenter's job to temporarily inclose a build-
ing during its construction with doors and barricades. As
soon as the roof is on, window openings should be barricaded
and stout temporary doors should be hung, permitting the build-
ing to be locked up at night.

Mechanics who are proficient in building the rough framework
of a building are rarely good men to employ on inside finish.
For this reason most carpenter contractors employ two kinds of
men, one kind for rough framing and another kind for inside
finishing. It is always a good plan for the owner and his archi-
tect to keep an eye on each man employed on the inside finish,
for frequently a new workman gets on the job, a man who is
not inclined to do high-grade work. If his deficiencies are dis-
covered in time, the contractor (who is usually just as anxious
to do a good job as the owner is to have him) can be informed, and
the man may be set at less important work.

259

262 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SHEATHING^
SIDING
FLASHING

EXTERIOR
TRIM

FRAMING

INTERIOR PLA5TER

INTEPIOB
TRIM

OLA55

the two. In other houses, the underfloors are stripped with
I" X 2" cleats, and to these the finished floors are laid. Thus a
space an inch thick is provided between underfloor and finished
floor, and when a good brand of deafening felt is used between
the two this air space serves as a deafener. Deafening materials

are usually about
J inch to f inch
thick, being com-
posed of two layers
of heavy building
paper stuffed be-
tween with hair
felt, tow, or sea-
weed. The latter
is coarse grass from
the sea, such as is
cast upon the beach
by the waves. The
grass is dried and
then woven into a
heavy fabric, excel-
lent for deafening,
and good, also, for
insulation.

Finished flooring
comes in several

widths and thicknesses, from f X li inches up to J X 3J inches.
A good size to use is f X 2^ inches. Oak flooring is most fre-
quently used for all rooms except kitchens and other rooms in
the service portion of the house, for it is but little more expen-
sive than cheaper woods and has the advantage of being partic-
ularly durable. Thin, f inch flooring is most often used for
remodeling houses, as it can be nailed down over the old floors.
Flooring customarily used for ordinary work is inch in thick-

SILL

FRAMING

5TOOL
APPON

INTERIOR WINDOW TRIM.

ft
CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK 263

ness, tongued and grooved on the ends as well as the edges. Thus,
when the joints are driven up right (as they should be) an excel-
lent job is the result. Nails are driven through in the grooves
(called "blind nailing") so that they are invisible after the floor
is completed. When such a floor is finished it should be scraped
carefully over its entire surface, using machine or hand scrapers.

The grades of flooring are so variable and they change so
much from season to season, it is impossible to give specific in-
formation concerning them. Good flooring is not difficult to
procure if you insist upon getting the best. As a general thing,
the description "best, prime, clear, selected," will procure the
best grade of flooring.

Maple flooring is usually preferred for kitchens and servants'
quarters, as it is a more dense wood than oak and will stand
more wear. Southern pine flooring is also frequently used in
servants' quarters. It is the cheapest flooring on the market,
but will not stand as hard usage as oak or maple.

Flooring comes straight-sawed or quarter-sawed, the latter
costing more than straight-sawed flooring and is the best for
wear. All flooring for inside use should be strictly kiln-dried,
and it must be stored in a dry place. A better way is not to
allow finished flooring to be delivered until the building has been
plastered and is thoroughly dried out. Fir is an excellent wood
for outside porch floors, 1^ X 3| inches being the size most
used for this purpose. Such flooring can be tongued and grooved
or it may be square-edged; in the latter case the boards
should be laid from \ inch to J inch apart. All porch flooring
should be painted on the under side and on the joints before
laying, as this will greatly prolong its life.

Tile floors are sometimes specified in the carpenter's speci-
fications and sometimes in the mason's specifications. In any
event, all tile floors should be mentioned hi the carpenter's
specifications so that the carpenter will be warned to prepare
the underflooring for receiving the tile. ..

262 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

5MEATttm
AIDING
FLASHING

EXTEBIOB
TRIM

FRAMING

IhTERIOR PLA5TE&

INTERIOR
TRIM

GLA55

the two. In other houses, the underfloors are stripped with
1" X 2" cleats, and to these the finished floors are laid. Thus a
space an inch thick is provided between underfloor and finished
floor, and when a good brand of deafening felt is used between
the two this air space serves as a deafener. Deafening materials

Finished flooring
comes in several

widths and thicknesses, from f X li inches up to X 3J inches.
A good size to use is | X 2^ inches. Oak flooring is most fre-
quently used for all rooms except kitchens and other rooms in
the service portion of the house, for it is but little more expen-
sive than cheaper woods and has the advantage of being partic-
ularly durable. Thin, f inch flooring is most often used for
remodeling houses, as it can be nailed down over the old floors.
Flooring customarily used for ordinary work is f inch in thick-

SILL

FRAMING

STOOL
APPON

INTERIOR WINDOW TRIM.

CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK 263

ness, tongued and grooved on the ends as well as the edges. Thus,
when the joints are driven up right (as they should be) an excel-
lent job is the result. Nails are driven through in the grooves
(called " blind nailing") so that they are invisible after the floor
is completed. When such a floor is finished it should be scraped
carefully over its entire surface, using machine or hand scrapers.

Flooring comes straight-sawed or quarter-sawed, the latter
costing more than straight-sawed flooring and is the best for
wear. All flooring for inside use should be strictly kiln-dried,
and it must be stored in a dry place. A better way is not to
allow finished flooring to be delivered until the building has been
plastered and is thoroughly dried out. Fir is an excellent wood
for outside porch floors, 1^ X 3J inches being the size most
used for this purpose. Such flooring can be tongued and grooved
or it may be square-edged; in the latter case the boards
should be laid from f inch to J inch apart. All porch flooring
should be painted on the under side and on the joints before
laying, as this will greatly prolong its life.

Tile floors are sometimes specified in the carpenter's speci-
fications and sometimes in the mason's specifications. In any
event, all tile floors should be mentioned in the carpenter's
specifications so that the carpenter will be warned to prepare
the underflooring for receiving the tile.

vi '
264 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Tile floors are excellent for bathrooms, porches, vestibules,
and halls. Tile is also used a great deal for fireplace hearths .
The tile can be laid on a wooden floor if a layer of concrete 2
to 3 inches thick is laid on top of the underflooring ; tile is then
laid on this concrete base, bedded in cement mortar. For
porches and vestibules use ordinary red quarry tile, 6X6 inches
or 9 X 9 inches with wide mortar joints, natural or black. The
tile are spaced out on the concrete base first, after which thin
cement mortar is poured into the joints.

Floors of rubber tile are excellent for halls and kitchens,
especially for the latter. Rubber tiling is more expensive than
ordinary tiling, but it is so soft it wears practically forever.
Such tiling is cut with dies, one tile interlocking with another.

Linoleum is the most used material for covering kitchen and
pantry floors. After the wooden floor is built and before the
quarter-round has been applied linoleum can be laid, after
which the quarter-round is applied as usual. Thus, the joint
between linoleum and baseboard is covered.

Tile facing for mantels and tile walls in bathrooms are laid
by, smearing mortar on the walls and sticking the tile thereon.
One tile is laid closely to another, and after all are in position,
thin cement mortar is brushed into all the joints, after which
the walls are washed down, leaving the work complete. On
bathroom walls it is necessary to provide metal lathing attached
to the studding, to which the mortar groundwork is applied.
On mantel facings the mortar groundwork sticks directly to the
rough brickwork of the fireplace and chimney breast. Tile
fireplace facings are finished on the edge with iron or brass
angles, or in some cases, "bullnose" tile can be used in place of
metal edges.

Do not permit any inside trim to be delivered at the building
until the rooms are entirely dry. More trim is spoiled by apply-
ing it in a damp house than in any other way. All trim should
be thoroughly kiln-dried. That is, it should be placed in a kiln

CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK 265

at a temperature of about 140 degrees F. and kept there for at
least 48 hours, permitting air to circulate for the purpose of re-
moving all moisture from the lumber. Kiln-dried lumber is so
dry it will soak water like a sponge, and this is why it is neces-
sary to keep it away from any possible dampness, however
slight.

In first-class work it is expected that carpenters, when trim
is applied, will finish the joints by hand, correcting any irregu-
larities of surface. It may even be necessary to .sandpaper the
trim all over in order to get a first-class job, but if this grade
of work is to be required it should be mentioned in the speci-
fications. Otherwise, on ordinary work it is not customary to
scrape or sandpaper trim except at the joints.

There is a difference between ordinary workmanship and
" cabinet" workmanship, the latter being expected only on the
most expensive houses. Good, thorough work should be ex-
pected, of course, but one cannot expect ''cabinetwork" unless
it is so mentioned in the specifications. In ordinary work,
joints of the trim are mitered neatly and carefully nailed together.
Joints in cabinet work are "splined" (fastened with pegs or
metal ties much as a good picture frame is fastened at the
joints). Ordinary joints wear very well if the wood is dry and
the workmen are skillful. Joints made " cabinet work" fashion
are practically indestructible.

Inside door frames are not made at the mill. Thin boards
of the right size and shape are sent to the building, and these
are sawed up and fitted on the job by the carpenters. Base-
boards should be carefully fitted at all angles, and the crack left
between floor and baseboard should be concealed by applying
" quarter-round " or similar molding. The latter should be
nailed to the floor (not to the wall), so that the flooring when it
settles slightly away from the baseboard (as most floors do) will
carry the quarter-round down with it and not disturb the base-
board; the quarter-round hides the joint. In kitchens it is

266 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

TUDDIMQ

PLA5TER

customary to use a baseboard narrower than that used in other
rooms.

At all inside and outside doors the carpenters should nail
wooden blocks between the studding and the door frames, in
order to strengthen the latter so they will not jar when a door

is slammed. Many little points
like this should be carefully
watched. Carpenters are in-
clined to do good work as a rule,
but one cannot expect them to
go out of their way and use ex-
traordinary care of their own
volition, so it remains for the
owner and his architect to check
up little things and see that
they are properly done.

The underflooring should be
carefully fitted against all out-
side walls so as to permit no
cold air to enter at these points.
An excellent way is to run the
underflooring tight against the
outside boarding of the outside
wall, thus stopping that gap
into the cellar which so often
exists. Another the best way

of all is to lay two or three courses of brick between the studs
on top of the underflooring, forming an effectual fire, cold, and
vermin stop from the basement.

Before any inside and outside doors are hung the owner should
visit the building and carefully note where each is to swing,
making a chalk mark on the side on which he desires it to be
placed. This should be done whether the doors are located
on the plans or not, as it is much easier to judge of the proper

BASE
PLINTH
INSIDE DOOR FRAME AND CASING.

CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK 267

swing of doors at the building, and the owner may desire to
change many from the positions shown on the plan. See that
all doors are swung high enough from the floor to clear any rugs
placed there. In locating the swing of doors be careful to choose
positions which will not permit one door to jam another;
prevent doors from striking lighting fixtures, radiators, or
registers. As a general thing doors swing into the rooms in
which they are placed. For instance, kitchen doors open into
the kitchen ; bedroom doors open into bedrooms (not into the
hall) ; bathroom doors open into the bathroom.

In a bedroom it is good practice when possible to hang the
door so that the bed will not be visible when the door is partly
open. In a bathroom it is customary to swing the door against
a water-closet, so the latter will not be conspicuous when the
door stands open. Closet doors should always be swung away
from a window so that light will enter the closet when the door
is open. Mirrors of full length are frequently applied to bed-
room, bathroom, or dressing room doors. When this is done,
care should be taken to hang doors in such places that one may
back off far enough from the mirror to permit a good view.

Inside and outside trim should be^^ainted on the back before
it is put in place. Moldings or horizontal members should
never be spliced other than in a corner where the splicing will not
be visible. Long, mitered joints should always be reenforcecl
by " splines," or some other method should be used to prevent
joints from opening after the job is completed. When trim-
ming the interior of a house in damp weather it is an excellent
idea to have a fire in the furnace or boiler, maintaining the same
degree of heat that the rooms will be subject to after the house
is completed. Thus, any dampness in the wood will show up
immediately and can be remedied before the carpenters leave the
job. Many houses trimmed when the weather is damp begin
to show defects after completion when fires are started.

Stair building is a distinct trade in itself and the carpenter

268 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

contractor usually prefers to sublet his stair work. When the
rough hatchway for future finished stairs is framed, it is a good
idea to check up the size and see if it will be amply large to
contain the stairs. Usually the finished staircase is not built
until the building is nearly completed ; often, when carpenters
come to put in the stairs they find that, through some error,

fclttfc

\\ >V^N.^

STAIR CONSTRUCTION.

sufficient space has not been left for them, with the result that the
staircase has to be squeezed in, a condition very detrimental
to the stairs. Pay especial attention to head room, insisting
that the contractor arrange the stairs so there will be plenty.
Stairs should be thoroughly wedged underneath and glued, so
as to prevent "squeaking." No other part of the house gets so
much wear as the stairs, and they should be properly made, to

CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK

269

stand the strain. As soon as they are finished, stairs should
be carefully covered with heavy paper, held in place with cleats
to protect them until the building is completed. The painter
should "fill" the woodwork of stairs as soon as they are ready.
Windows (sash, as they are called) are made at the mill, of

GREEN SHUTTERS ON A WHITE HOUSE.

the right size to fit the window frames. Upon arriving at the
building these sash are fitted by the carpenters who plane off
the edges until they fit the frames properly. Then the painter
takes them to his shop where he gives them a heavy coat of
oil (taking the place of the priming coat of paint) after which he
glazes them and sends them back to the building. When sash
are first put in place they frequently stick. Though carefully
fitted, a slight swelling often takes place in new sash, making

270 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

them bind slightly. Owners annoyed by binding sash often order
them to be planed off, but this is usually a mistake, for later
when the sashes have become seasoned they may shrink, and if
they have been fitted too loosely in the first place shrinkage
causes them to rattle in their frames. This also applies to new
doors, which should not be fitted too loosely.

Outside blinds are used in a large number of houses, and they
accomplish two purposes, making the appearance of the house
more attractive, and providing means of shutting out the sun
in summer. Blinds are often made with pivoted slats in the
lower half, but as these soon work loose it is more practical to
use fixed slats throughout. In place of blinds, paneled shutters
are frequently employed, and the exterior effect of these is very
pleasing. Shutters are useful during periods when the house
is not occupied, as they may then be closed, affording some
protection to the windows. Inside blinds, called
" Venetian blinds," will be found useful in some
cases. These are built of wooden slats through
which vertical cords extend, allowing the blinds to
roll up like a curtain. Old-fashioned inside blinds,
hinged at the side, are rarely used now.

Beams for ceilings are sometimes built up, being
in fact hollow boxes attached to the ceiling. Inside
posts are built up of thin stock in the same way.
Stair newels are usually hollow, and the stair rail
is composed of several moldings skillfully joined.
This multiplicity of pieces composing inside mill-
work is not altogether on account of reducing ex-
pense by using lumber of smaller size, but it is
chiefly done to make the work more durable, as it
has been found that posts or molded work built up of small
pieces, are less liable to crack open from shrinkage.

Paneling on walls or ceilings is built up of several layers of
wood (3-ply or 5-ply as the case may be). Door panels are

WALL PAN-
ELLING.

CARPENTRY AND CABINET WORK

.271

made in the same way. Even the stiles and rails of doors and
wainscots are now frequently built up of many small pieces
of wood, glued together, as such work has been found to stand
better than solid wood. Panels in doors or wainscots should be
fitted loosely into the stiles and rails so as to permit them to
swell and shrink (with the changes of heat and cold to which
they are subjected) without causing panels to warp or split.

GBOUNDS

BLASTER

BACK BAND

CEILING PANELS.

Occasionally a new door becoming damp in some way, shows
signs of twisting or warping. Such a door can be straightened
by sending it back to the mill, where it is steamed and pressed
out, making it as good as new.

After the house is lathed inside ready for the finished plaster,
measurements are taken (usually by a workman from the mill)
for all built-in furniture such as sideboards, china closets, kitchen
cupboards, and similar pieces. This furniture is then made at
the mill, after which it is brought to the building and put in
place by the carpenters.

BRICK AND PLASTER HOUSE WITH A SLATE ROOF.
Wm. G. Purcell, Architect.

CHAPTER XV

THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD ROOF

CARPENTERS lay the shingles for a shingle roof, but slate are
laid by the roofing or metalwork contractor. The following
table will be useful in determining how many shingles are
required for a roof :

SHINGLE ROOF WITH HANGING METAL GUTTER.

SHINGLES FOR A ROOF. NUMBER REQUIRED PER SQUARE
(100 SQUARE FEET)

Laid 4| inches to the weather 800

Laid 5 inches to the weather 720

Laid 5^ inches to the weather 655

Laid 6 inches to the weather 600

(Standard method is 4 inches to the weather.)
T 273

274 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Shingles will last longer if they are laid on an open roof, that
is, a roof on which the roof boards are laid about 2 inches apart
to allow air to reach the under side of the shingles, which pre-
vents them from rotting. Wrought-iron cut nails are the most
enduring.

Hemlock shingles are fairly durable in dry climates. Red
cedar lasts well and is excellent for shingles. White pine is

6M1MGLE5

PLATE

CTOD5

^GALVANIZED
STEEL GUTTER

EXTERIOR

LATH
FORCING
SHINGLES LAID ON AN OPEN ROOF.

VsHEATMIhG

very good, but is rarely used on account of its scarcity. Prob-
ably the best woods for shingles are cypress and white cedar.
Many grades are in the market, and the owner should
remember that it always pays to get the best-. In applying
shingles it is well to lay the edges loosely, which permits them to
dry properly after they are laid, and prevents swelling and
curling.

Generally speaking, there are three kinds of slate : ordinary
dark blue or black slate, green slate, and brown slate. The
former comes largely from Pennsylvania; green slate comes
from Vermont, New York, and Pennsylvania; and brown slate

THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD ROOF 275

comes from New York. Blue or black slate and green slate
are the most used, the former being the cheaper.

When slate are used the roof boarding is composed of matched
boards, laid tightly with smooth side up, covered with water-
proof felt. The three lower courses of slate (next the eaves)
should be bedded in slater's cement, which prevents moisture
from penetrating when snow backs up from the gutters. Hips
and ridges should also be laid in slater's cement.

The following table giving useful information about slate
will be found of assistance :

SIZES OF SLATE, AND NUMBER

PER SQUARE REQUIRED (100 SQUARE

FEET)

SIZE IN INCHES

NUMBER OF PIECES REQUIRED

6 X 12

535

7 X 12

455

8 X 12

400

9 X 12

358

7 X 14

375

8 X 14

330

9 X 14

295

10 X 14

265

8 X 16

280

9 X 16

250

10 X 16

220

9 X 18

215

10 X 18

195

12 X 18

163

(Larger sizes are in stock, but are rarely used for houses.)

Slate have to be punched or drilled either by hand or machine,
with two holes in each slate for the nails. Machine-drilled
holes are better than machine or hand-punched holes, as the
latter frequently chip around the holes, weakening the slate.
Nails are galvanized, solid copper, or copper-clad. Galvanized

276 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

nails rust out after a few years. For this reason solid copper
or copper-clad are to be recommended. The latter are excellent,
for they are as permanent as solid copper, but much stronger
and less costly.

Asbestos shingles are made, generally, in three colors,
natural (gray), green, and red. They cost more than wood
shingles, being approximately the price of slate. Asbestos
shingles are applied on a tightly boarded roof, like slate.

BUILDING PAPER.
SLATE

OOF BOAR.DS

ATE

EXTERIOR, PLASTER.
FUR.R.ING-

METHOD OF LAYING SLATE.

SHEATHING

Tin is frequently used for the flat roofs of a house, such as
porch roofs, roofs over dormer windows, and similar places.
It is also used for lining gutters at the eaves, and is most fre-
quently used for flashing.

Roofing tin or terne plate is made by applying as a coating an
alloy of tin and lead to sheets of iron or steel. The black sheets
(or black plate) are rolled from thin, flat bars of soft steel or
iron, known as "tin bars" or "sheet bars." This step in the
process is known as "hot rolling" and the stands of rolls, the
"hot mills."

THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD ROOF 277

Coming from the hot rolls the unfinished black plates are
sheared to size, and are then pickled in dilute sulphuric acid
to remove any scale or dirt, being held loosely in racks or cradles
so that the acid in the pickling vats may penetrate between the
sheets. The black plates are then washed with water (swilled)
in tanks to remove all traces of acid, and are then annealed,
being placed in covered iron boxes to exclude the air, heated hi
a furnace to 1400 degrees to 1600 degrees F. for sixteen to
twenty hours.

They are then allowed to cool gradually and are "cold rolled,"
to produce a perfectly smooth surface. As this makes them
somewhat stiff they are then reannealed ("white annealing"
or "second annealing") at a temperature higher than before.

The amount of cold rolling, pickling, and annealing depends
upon the character of the finished tinplate for which the sheets
are intended.

Before tinning the sheets are resquared, again pickled, known
as the "white pickling" or second pickling, are thoroughly
washed to remove all traces of acid, and kept under water until
they are taken out to be run through the tinning process.

The common modern method of coating the sheets is per-
formed in one operation by passing them through a pot of
molten metal, between driven rollers arranged in pairs, the last
set squeezing off the surplus metal. These mechanical tinning
pots are sometimes called "patent stacks." There are several
varieties in this country. All are modifications of the early
method of tinning, which was done by hand and was more
complicated.

Tin for roofing is applied in many different ways. There is
the flat-seam method in which the edges of the sheets are turned
one-half inch, locked and thoroughly soldered, the sheets being
fastened to the roof by means of cleats spaced about 8 inches
apart ; these cleats are locked in the seams and fastened to the
roof with two one-inch barbed wire nails. Then there is the

278 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

TIN ROOF WITH FLAT SEAMS.

standing-seam method in which sheets are put together in long
lengths at the shop, assembled at the building and attached with

cleats. Valleys and gutters are
usually formed from sheets laid
by the flat-seam method.

Tin used for any purpose
should be of some well-known
brand. It pays to use only the
best. For roofs of low pitch the
flat-seam method is to be pre-
ferred, and it is better to use
sheets not larger than 14 X 20 inches, so as to have the greatest
number of seams and consequently a stiffer, more durable roof.
On steep roofs sheets 20 X 8 inches should be used, and the
standing seam method should be employed.

The light 1C plates are always to be preferred to the heavier
IX plates, as the latter suffer more from expansion and con-
traction. All the best grades of tin are "double dipped" or
''extra coated." When sheets are soldered together nothing
but resin should be used, as the acid sometimes employed is
injurious to tin.

The roof boards under a tin roof should be covered with a
gopd grade of building paper before the tin is laid, and the
sheets should be painted on the
under side before they are sol-
dered, to prevent moisture of
condensation (or injurious fumes
rising from rooms below) attack-
ing the tin. After a roof is fin-
ished it must be entirely cleaned
off, carefully removing excess of
resin, and then painted two coats,
repainting every 3 to 5 years.

A copper roof is practically indestructible and nothing is

STANDING-SEAIVI TIN ROOF.

Tin roofs usually require

THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD ROOF 279

against the use of copper for flat roofs except its cost. Sheet
copper is also excellent for flashing and gutters, the 16-ounce
weight being the kind most often used. Copper roofs are laid
in a similar manner to tin roofs.

Composition or gravel roofs are sometimes used for flat roofs.
The standard specifications for a first-class gravel roof are as
follows :

SPECIFICATIONS FOR
GRAVEL ROOFING.

First lay five (5) thicknesses of No. 2 wool
roofing felt weighing not less than fourteen
(14) pounds (single thickness) to the square of
one hundred (100) feet. This felt to be
smoothly and evenly laid and well cemented to-
gether, mopping not less than twenty (20) inches
between each layer, with best roofing cement,
using not less than one hundred and twenty (120)
pounds of roofing cement to the square of one
hundred (100) feet. All joinings along the
walls and around the openings to be carefully
made. Then cover the entire surface with a
coating of roofing cement and screened gravel,
using not less than one-sixth (1/6) of a cubic
yard of gravel to the square of one hundred
(100) feet. The gravel to be what will pass
through not larger than a 5/8-inch mesh screen
and to be free from sand and loam.

This roof shall be guaranteed for a period of
five (5) years.

N. B. Over open board construction and all
buildings not plastered, use one (1) thickness
of rosin sized sheathing paper.

280 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM +

Tile roofs are used a great deal on houses, as tile has been
found to be an excellent material for roofs. Spanish tile (quar-
ter-round, half-round or molded in various forms) and shingle
tile (flat, like shingles or slate) are the two principal patterns
used. The latter make the best appearance on most houses.

BUILT-IN GUTTERS LINED WITH COPPER.

They are laid precisely like slate, using galvanized, solid cop-
per, or copper-clad nails. Tile ridge rolls and hips are made
to fit the slope of any roof. Tile for roofs come in two gen-
eral colors red and green. All tile should be hard burned
(" vitrified")? as soft tile grow softer upon exposure to the
weather. The natural color of tile is red, green is obtained
by glazing.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD ROOF

281

SHIMGLED HOOF

The most important work on any roof is the flashing. " Flash-
ing" is accomplished by metal (tin or copper) strips applied
where the roof comes in contact with the chimney or other
masonry, or where valleys are formed, or ridges.

Metal gutters and conductors (rain-water down-spouts) can
be applied hi many different ways. Galvanized iron gutters
formed in the cornice, or hang-
ing independently below it, are
practical when properly made.
On wooden cornices made at
the mill and built in at the
building, copper, lead, zinc, or
tin is used for a lining.

A very practical " hanging
gutter" consists of a half-round
gutter composed of galvanized
iron, hung below the wooden
cornice by means of metal sup-
ports attached to the roof. The
chief advantage of such a gutter is that it can be easily renewed
without tearing up the roof.

Conductors (down-spouts, as they are sometimes called) can
be had of galvanized iron or copper, square shape or round. In
every case they should be of corrugated metal so that in case
they freeze in winter the pressure of ice inside will not destroy
the conductors. Being of corrugated metal, they will have
elasticity enough to withstand the pressure.

When a gas range is used in the kitchen instead of a coal
range, the kitchen chimney is frequently omitted. In this case
a metal tube can be inserted in the partition, connected with the
gas range and extending up through the roof, to carry away the
products of combustion. A line of ordinary 4-inch galvanized
iron (or copper) conductor pipe is excellent for this purpose. It
should be carefully wrapped with asbestos paper, attached by

iUTTEfc
AMD

CONDUCTOR
OP GALVANIZED
1BOM

HANGING GUTTER OF GALVANIZED
IRON.

282 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

means of wire. Heat from a gas range is so little there is small
danger of fire.

GALVANIZED IRON GUTTER AND CORNICE.

CHAPTER XVI

PLUMBING THAT IS SANITARY; WATER AND SEWER PIPES

NOTHING about the building is more '^important than the
plumbing system, for a house will be an utter failure if the
plumbing is not perfectly sanitary, a properly arranged,
noiseless, convenient system. A modern plumbing system is
so different from old-style plumbing there is little comparison
between them. Formerly fixtures were cumbersome and
inconvenient, in most cases boxed in with wood paneling.
To-day more advanced methods prevail and plumbing is exposed
as much as possible. The idea in a modern plumbing system
is to place the skeleton of pipes and the fixtures in such a way
that adjacent space can be kept perfectly clean, and every part
of the system can be reached for repairs. This has been made
possible to a large extent by nickel-plated piping and modern
enameled iron, porcelain, and vitrified fixtures.

Though not himself an expert, any houseowner can easily
acquire enough general knowledge about plumbing to enable
him to know a good job from a bad one. Let the owner under-
stand in the first place that plumbing should be done only by
experts, mechanics who desire to do a first-class job and are
capable of it. Watch particularly when the piping is installed
that the plumbers do not cut too deeply into floor and wall
timbers. Pipes, of course, are not installed until the framework
of the building is . up, and frequently timbers must be cut to
allow pipes to pass. Some plumbers are not careful about this
cutting of timbers, and when they get through, a house is greatly
weakened. All cuts in floor joists should be close to the end,

285

286 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

so as not to weaken the timber. A little skillful planning of the
plumbing system will reduce cutting of timbers to the minimum
and any cuts necessary can be made where they will do no harm.
Every system of piping is divided into three parts : pipes for
water supply, for sewage, and for ventilation. The former
conduct water from the main in the street or from a well to the
house and thence to the various fixtures. Pipes for sewage
carry off the waste from fixtures, discharging into the sewer
in the street, or into a cesspool or septic-tank system. Ven-
tilating pipes admit fresh air to the sewage system ; each branch
of the work should be built economically and durably. Every
length of pipe and every fitting should be air- and water-tight,
put together so it can be readily taken apart for cleaning or for
repairs, resulting in a system of plumbing that will carry on
the work automatically for years without renewals.

Let us consider, first, the water-supply system usually extend-
ing from the water main in the street. It is included in the
plumber's contract that he shall dig the ditch out through the
street and connect the supply pipe with the water main, run-
ning the pipe from that point into the basement of the house.
In most towns a fee is charged by the town for the privilege of
tapping the water main in the street. Frequently another fee
is charged for the privilege of digging up the street, though
this fee is ordinarily returned after the
street has been restored satisfactorily to its
original condition. All such fees should be
-STREET MAIM stipulated in the specifications, " to be paid

by the plumbing contractor."
FLEXIBLE CONNEC- In most towns and cities a J" tap into

the street main is the lar S est that wil1 be
allowed by the water company. This is

sufficient for a house not too large in size, but where consumption
of water is large, a f " tap might not be sufficient. To increase
the supply of water in such cases, two or more f " taps can be

,COR,POR.ATION COCK

SANITARY PLUMBING; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 287

made, these branch f" pipes finally being gathered into a
larger pipe extending to the house. In some towns where
streets have been improved and sidewalks laid in advance of
building the houses, a supply pipe is often extended to the curb
line when the street is improved. In this case the plumbing
contractor needs but to connect the water supply with the pipe
already extended to the curb.

The water-supply pipe to the house is of lead or galvanized
iron, usually f inch or 1 inch in size, depending upon the water
pressure. Advantages are claimed for both lead and iron pipes.
Lead pipe, under ordinary conditions, lasts longer than iron pipe,
even when the latter is galvanized, and for that reason lead pipe
is used by many architects in spite of its greater cost. Lead pipe
for drinking-water supply is not advisable, however, as water
of certain chemical consistency will dissolve lead, holding it in
suspension in the water. Even so small a fraction as 0.5 part of
lead is considered poisonous. When lead pipe is used, it should
be " tin-lined," which combines the durability of lead with the
purity of tin. In /joining one tin-lined length of lead pipe to
another, care should be taken to screw the lengths together in
such a way as to make a tight joint between tin and tin so that
the water will not touch lead at any point in the pipes. Special
tin-lined fittings are furnished for this purpose.

While the life of galvanized iron pipe is limited, it continues
to be used more than any other kind for water-supply work.
Cheap, clean, and quickly laid, it is perfectly practical and can
be recommended for all but the most expensive work where
funds permit the use of tin-lined lead pipe. Inside the house
tin-lined lead pipe, galvanized iron pipe, or white metal pipe
can be used for cold water or hot water. Brass tubing is also
used for hot-water pipes, plain and nickel-plated. White metal
tubing, sometimes called by the trade names " Benedict metal"
or "durometal," is made of an alloy of nickel and brass not
unlike German silver, and it is excellent for hot or cold-water

288 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

TENSION
5CR.EW

SPRING

lines, though this is the most expensive piping made. In
exposed work white metal is particularly desirable because its
finish never wears off like nickel-plated tubing.

In some places where the town water pressure is excessive
it must be reduced by placing a pressure regulator on the water-
supply pipe just inside the cellar wall. This
is necessary in some cases because a house
plumbing system will not stand high pressure
liable to put too much strain upon it. Water
enters the pressure regulator under high pres-
sure and flows out the other end under
reduced pressure, the reduction being accom-
plished by a system of springs and levers in-
F fil ^vR s ^ e ^ e regulator. These can be regulated

L ul| sM-1 by adjustments to deliver water at any num-

ber of pounds pressure, from 40 down to 12
or 14 pounds.

When the water-supply pipe has been run
to the cellar it is extended on walls or ceiling
to the various basement fixtures, then up through floors and
partitions to the first and second stories. For the main pipe,
J inch is the size generally used, with J-inch or f-inch branches
to -the various fixtures (excepting a shower bath, which may
need a larger pipe, usually f inch) . The principal result de-
sired in the supply pipe is that it shall be large enough to bring
water freely to every fixture at all times, even when several
fixtures are in use at the same time. There is not much use
in having branch supply pipes larger than \ inch because the
waterways in faucets are rarely larger than this.

Various shut-offs should be arranged in the basement on the
different branches of water-supply pipe, so that one branch may
be shut down for repairs without disturbing the supply of water
to other branches. All pipes must pitch back to these.

One main valve should be provided just inside the cellar wall

PRESSURE REGU-
LATOR.

SANITARY PLUMBING ; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 289

to shut off the entire supply. It is a good idea to have a shut-
off for the laundry tubs, another for the kitchen sink, and a
separate one for each bathroom. These valves should be
arranged conveniently in the basement, each one tagged with a
durable metal tag labeled " bathroom" or " kitchen," so that in
emergency one can go to the cellar and quickly shut off any
line. After closing a shut-off valve, water contained in the
pipe should drain off. This is usually made possible by what
is known as a "stop and waste." When the lever handle of
the valve is turned, it shuts off the supply of water and at the
same time a little valve is automatically opened, allowing all
water contained in that pipe line to drain out through a little
hole in the side. For this reason it is necessary to place a pail
under the valve to contain the water as it drains out, and
prevent it from flooding the basement floor.

Where there is danger of frost and consequent freezing, water
pipes should always be protected by pipe covering consisting
of felt at least J inch thick, wrapped securely around the pipe
and wired in place. Ordinary sectional pipe covering or asbes-
tos-covered felt or cork is excellent for this purpose. In other
places pipes can be boxed in and the space filled with cork
shavings, cinders, or other insulating material. Below ground all
such insulation must be protected by an outer casing of planks.

The pipe extending from the street should be at least 4 feet
deep in the ground, or more in sections where frost goes to a
greater depth. In some localities it is customary to have
the main water-supply shut-off at the curb line in a " street
box," as it is called. The valve, operated by a square-shoul-
dered rod extending up to the sidewalk, is turned by means of
a wrench. It is usual for the water company to charge a fee
for installing this street box ; in fact, the owner will find before
his house is completed that many fees are charged for various
branches of the work, though fees are usually quite moderate in
amount.

290 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Not only does cold water extend to the various fixtures, but
hot water must be provided for as well, requiring an independent
system of piping. Sometimes a third pipe line
is required when hard water and soft water
are furnished to fixtures independently. When
this is the case, the soft-water line should be
valved in the basement so that hard water can
be connected if, for some reason, soft water
gives out.

A branch from the cold-water supply extends
to the hot- water boiler in the basement .or
kitchen where the water is warmed, flowing to
the several fixtures. One cannot think of an ideal
plumbing system without hot water supplied
plentifully to every fixture. Yet, with all the
HOT- WATER TANK modern apparatus on the market to warm and
circulate hot water to every tap, many are in-
adequate. After the expenditure of a consider-
able sum, the owner sometimes finds that after
all he hasn't a sufficient supply of hot water, or that it arrives
cold at the fixtures. This trouble lies largely in the manner of
piping. Hot water can be delivered almost instantly
at ^ny fixture, no matter how far away from the
range boiler, if what is known as a "circulating sys-
tem" is employed, consisting of a small pipe returned
from the highest part of the hot-water riser back to
the boiler. Thus a loop for circulation is established
through which warm water circulates constantly from
boiler back to boiler, regardless of whether water is ELECTRI-
drawn at the fixtures or not. The circulating pipe CALLY
maintains hot water right at the fixtures at all times,
but when there is no circulating pipe, water in the
pipes quickly cools off when none is being drawn from the
fixtures.

HEATED BY FuR-

NACE AND KITCH-
EN RANGE.

SANITARY PLUMBING; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 291

Boilers can be connected up so that water at the top is heated
first. This is an advantage when hot water is wanted periodi-
cally, and gas is lighted to heat it only as wanted. When piped
in this way a small body of water at the top (enough for one
bath, let us say) can be warmed, and then the boiler may be shut
down. Thus a small amount of hot water can be obtained
without warming the entire contents of the tank.

There are many ways for heating water for bathing pur-
poses. The boiler can be connected to the water back in a coal
or gas range in the kitchen, or it may be heated by a separate
gas or coal heater installed in the basement, or (in winter)
by a coil in the furnace or boiler. One of the best methods is
to install a range boiler in the basement, connected to the fur-
nace as well as to a separate coal or gas heater. Piping is
arranged so that in the summer, by turning a valve, the furnace
can be disconnected and the separate coal or gas heater used
for warming the water. In winter the operation is reversed,
the water being warmed by a coil in the fire pot of the furnace.
Thus independent means for warming water is necessary only
in summer, though it should be borne in mind that a larger
amount of coal will be burned in the furnace when it contains
a water coil. Coils in the furnace for heating are of several
different styles, circular and horizontal. Sometimes they con-
sist merely of a coil of 2-inch or 3-inch pipe extending around
the fire pot, inside, just above the fuel. Others are hollow
iron castings of various shapes, and these are best, as they last
longest. Steel from which pipe is made quickly corrodes in
furnace gases and must be frequently renewed.

When water is to be warmed by a separate coal heater located
in the basement, there are many types to choose from. Heaters
containing a small fire pot surrounded by hollow cast-iron
sections through which the water flows, are very practical,
usually consuming not more than a hod of coal per day to
maintain hot water constantly. Many of these have a "maga-

292 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

zine feed" which is filled with fuel (usually pea coal) once each
day, and that is sufficient for twenty-four hours. Some laundry
stoves are made with cast-iron jackets for heating water so that
irons may be heated by the same heater that furnishes the
supply of warm water for the house. A late development of the
water heater is the " garbage burner," which uses garbage as a
fuel in addition to coal, and converts it into useful heat for warm-
ing water, a great convenience in any house, and especially
desirable from the standpoint of cleanliness.

Supply of hot water throughout the house is
frequently furnished by gas heaters, of which
there are many styles, some operated periodi-
cally and others maintaining a constant supply
of warm water. Various types of gas water-
heating apparatus are described in detail in
another chapter. There are systems of heating
MAGAZINE COAL water by injection of live steam from a steam
boiler, but these are used chiefly in large apart-
ments and office buildings. Other steam sys-
tems warm the water by means of coils in the range boilers
supplied with live or exhaust steam, but rarely are such sys-
tems used in ordinary housework.

EL^nge boilers are of copper, and plain or galvanized steel, in
all sizes from 18 to 200 gallons' capacity. The sizes most fre-
quently used for houses are 30, 40, and 60 gallons, the 30-gallon
boiler being sufficient for houses of moderate size and the 60-gallon
boiler furnishing sufficient capacity for houses of considerable
size. Galvanized boilers are, perhaps, most frequently used, as
they cost less than copper. Galvanized boilers should be
"extra heavy double riveted, guaranteed tested 250 pounds,"
as lighter boilers are not safe. Other boilers may be cold-welded
(plain, painted, or galvanized), in which case there are no -rivets.
Boilers of this class should be "extra heavy" or "double extra
heavy, cold- weld guaranteed tested 250 to 300 pounds."

SANITARY PLUMBING; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 293

ril

Most copper boilers are polished on the outside and tinned on
the inside. They are only used where pressure is light, not
more than 20 pounds per square inch. "Safety copper boilers"
are the best to use, as they are reenforced on the inside with brass
ribs running spirally around the boiler, making them non-
collapsible. Such copper boilers should be specified " guaran-
teed tested 150 pounds" or " guaranteed tested 200 pounds,"
as the case may be. One slight disadvantage of copper boilers
is that they radiate heat more than galvanized boilers (tending
to make the kitchen uncomfortable in summer) and require
polishing to keep bright.

All range boilers should be piped with a " circulating pipe,"
and all should be equipped with a mud drum and blow-off
cock at the bottom. When the blow-off cock is occasionally
opened, sediment collected at the bottom
of the boiler can be blown out, thus insur-
ing delivery of pure water at the fixtures.

Range boilers can be set vertically on iron
supports, or horizontal tanks may be hung
from the ceiling, depending upon location.
Vertical tanks are most often used when
the boiler stands directly in the kitchen, and
horizontal tanks are frequently used for base-
ment boilers. Hot- water pipes are of cop-
per, brass, white metal, or iron. Lead pipe
should never be used for hot-water work, as
lead will not stand the fluctuations of heat
and cold which prevail in a hot-water line.
Large pipe should be used for connecting the
water back with the boiler (not less than f inches), and the best
method of connecting up the boiler is to run the vertical hot-
water pipe from the water back to the top of the boiler, instead
of connecting it at the side. Good circulation is established by
this long vertical pipe, whereas a short pipe connected at the

TOP CONNECTION TO
HOT-WATER TANK.

294 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

side is a poor circulator. The cold-water supply pipe should
extend well down into the boiler.

Branches of pipe extend from the hot-water boiler to the
various fixtures, and these lines should never be nearer than six
inches to a cold-water pipe, for cold water might greatly lower
its temperature. Sometimes on long runs
it is well to insulate a hot-water pipe with
felt pipe covering to facilitate retaining
heat in the water.

The drainage system of a house consists
of a complete water- and air-tight system
of pipes to carry waste from the various
fixtures to the sewer in the street, or to
the cesspool or septic tank toward which
it pitches. Thus the drainage system is
the reverse of a water-supply system, the
former running from the street to the house,
and the latter extending from the house to
the street. From the top of the house,
where the cast-iron line of the drainage sys-
tem ends with a length of pipe extending
up through the roof, the stack (called " soil-
pipe riser") runs down through the bath-
room partition to the cellar, where it
connects with a horizontal pipe (also of
cast iron) extending across the basement
floor or hung to the ceiling. This pipe is extended to a point
about a foot beyond the outside face of the cellar wall. From
that point a length of tile pipe extends to the sewer in the
street, or to the septic tank or cesspool. Thus it will be seen
that all pipes of the drainage system inside the house are of
heavy cast iron. Each length is from 4' to 8' long, and one
length is attached to the next by placing the small end of one
section (spigot) into the large end of another (bell) and pouring

PLUMBING STACK.

SANITARY PLUMBING ; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 295

molten lead into the joint which has been previously prepared
by calking in a little oakum. Outside the house, drainpipes
are of tile.

At the roof, in order to prevent rain or snow from following
down the crack between soil-pipe riser and the roof boards, a
sheet of lead is tacked to the roof boarding (under the shingles
or slate) and brought up over the top of the soil pipe, turned
down inside and soldered, thus making a water-proof apron
around the stack. At the bottom of the stack it is well to have a
small brick pier to hold up the weight of T o 50 , L o&
the pipe without settlement. One of the MACK
best ways is to use a " duck's foot ell"
or elbow at the base of the stack where
the vertical pipe turns to join the hori- ' |L -^CLCAM-OUT PLUG
zontal run under the basement floor, sup- SUPPOBTI^Q EATING FOR
porting this elbow securely on a brick

pier or a large flat stone. Any settlement of the soil-pipe riser
is apt to dislocate some of the joints between two sections of
pipe, a dangerous condition, for it must be borne in mind
that pipe in a drainage system must be air-tight as well as
water-tight to prevent sewer gas from getting into the house.
A minute leak allowing water to ooze out in small amounts
might not be serious, if water alone was concerned, but sewer
gas, invisible and frequently odorless, will flow through the
smallest apertures, menacing the health of the occupants of
the house.

The soil-pipe riser should be placed in the bathroom as close
to the water-closet as possible, to which it is joined by means
of a short length of lead pipe of the same diameter as the soil-
pipe stack (usually 4 inches), connected by means of a Y fitting.
Other fixtures are connected in like manner, but much smaller
pipe (not usually larger than 1J inches) is used for tubs, wash-
bowls, and sinks. All branches attaching to the soil-pipe riser
are connected by means of Y fittings instead of sharp, right-

296 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

angle T fittings, so that sewage will flow as readily as possible
through the system. If there is more than one bathroom and
they are separated by a distance of more than 8 to 10 feet, a
separate riser must be installed for each.

From a point above the highest fixture, beyond the attic
bathroom if there is one (or above the second-story bathroom
when there is none in the attic) , it will be seen that the soil-pipe
stack is nothing but a ventilator. So far as drainage is con-
cerned, the riser might be stopped at this point, but it is extended
up through the roof to the outside air for ventilating purposes.
Thus a constant current of pure, fresh
a i r i s maintained inside the riser, and
this pipe, combined with branches for
ventilating the traps (described later),
constitutes the ventilating system.
Y FITTINGS. To prevent sewer gas from entering

rooms by means of the soil-pipe riser

and branches connecting fixtures, traps are inserted between
the branch and the fixture. These traps are frequently little
pieces of pipe bent into the form of the letter S or letter P,
or sometimes they are of metal cast in the shape of a bottle,
containing partitions extending down below the water line.
The idea in a trap is to provide a hollow in the pipe to hold
water, and this water contained in the trap is an effective seal
for the sewer gas on the other side of it. Thus sewer gas per-
meates the soil-pipe riser until it reaches a washbowl, we
will say; at this point it strikes the crook in the pipe (trap)
full of water, which it cannot pass. When the washbowl is
emptied, its contents flow down through the trap into the
soil pipe, but a portion is retained by the trap, which is,
therefore, always full of water. For this reason, in emptying
a washbowl one should always allow fresh water from the
faucet to follow up the waste water, thus thoroughly washing
out the trap. Traps have occasioned much thought, and many

SANITARY PLUMBING ; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 297

ingenious patterns are the result, the most useful of which are
described in detail in another chapter.

After the house is " roughed in" (as it is called when the soil-
pipe stack and horizontal basement run are installed), the owner
should examine the piping, tracing out its arrangement to see
that it extends straight from roof to cellar with no unneces-
sary turns or crooks to stop the sewage. He should make
sure that it is properly supported, to prevent settlement.

Never allow a soil-pipe riser to be supported by resting its
weight on wooden floor beams, for .they are bound to shrink,
and settlement (however slight) may be sufficient to break the
lead joints between two sections of pipe. Like a chimney, the
riser should stand up securely on a firm base. Supports, where
the stack runs through a partition, are merely to keep the line
vertical, and they should never carry any of the actual weight of
the pipe line.

A soil-pipe drainage system is liable to become stopped up
even when carried straight and true from beginning to end, and
for this reason there should be some way to clean it out without
taking the pipes apart. This is accomplished by means of
" cleanouts." It is impossible to build a drainage system without
some turns in it, but these will do no harm if the turns are not
too sharp and a cleanout is placed at every turn. A cleanout
consists of a cast-iron fitting not unlike an elbow, containing
a cap screwed on at the side. When this cap is unscrewed and
taken off, a long, flexible cleaning rod may be pushed through to
reach the part of the system immediately adjacent to that par-
ticular cleanout. In case of stoppage, "rodding" is the best
method of removing obstructions, so the owner will do well
to see that every change in direction of the soil pipe is pro-
vided with a cleanout so that the cleaning rod can penetrate
every inch of pipe. At the bottom of each vertical riser an-
other cleanout should be. placed to permit cleaning all vertical
runs.

298 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

It is the tendency of some plumbers to make the soil pipe
too large in diameter, and this is a fault, because a pipe too large
in diameter is not flushed clean by the sewage as it passes through.
Smaller pipes cause a scouring action in sewage, preventing
deposits on the sides of the pipe. In most cases 4-inch pipe
is sufficient.

All cast-iron pipe should be what is known as " extra heavy, "
and every section should be examined to make sure it is free

EASTERN METHOD, RUNNING TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET.

splits or sand holes. Any piece of cast-iron pipe can be
tested by hitting it a sharp blow with a hammer ; it should give
out a true, bell-like sound indicating that it is free from flaws.
Flaws in tile pipe can be readily seen, and any pieces that are
cracked, or sections which are not hard burned and properly
glazed, should be rejected. Cast-iron soil pipe coated with
asphalt outside and inside makes excellent, smooth pipe, with
maximum of cleanliness and durability, though it costs more
than plain pipe. All drainpipes hung from walls or ceilings
should be supported on first-class hangers made for that purpose ;
not straps or other makeshifts, which might allow pipes to sag,
in time obstructing the flow of sewage.

SANITARY PLUMBING; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 299

The method of connecting tile drains outside the house, with
the cast-iron soil-pipe system inside the house, varies in different
places. In Eastern cities it is required that there shall be a
" running trap" at this point, the function of which is to cut off
sewer gas from the main sewer and prevent it from penetrating
the soil pipe of the house. When a running trap is used it

PLUMBING STACKS EXTENDING ABOVE ROOF.

should have a vent connected to the side of the pipe line, extend-
ing up into an inconspicuous place in the yard (at least 20 feet
away from any window), so that fresh air can circulate freely
by means of this vent and the open end of the soil pipe at the
roof. In most Western cities a running trap is not allowed, the
pipe line of each house being required to be left open to the
street sewer, in order that the main sewer may be ventilated by

300 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD . THEM

fresh air entering from the house lines. Manholes in the
street, with perforated covers, assist this ventilation.

"Roughing in" is usually done as soon as the building is
roofed and the side walls are boarded. Then the drainpipes
stand until the interior of the house is finished and the floors are
laid, when the building is ready for the placing of sinks, wash-
bowls, tubs, and water-closets. Immediately after the soil
pipe is completed it should be tested to see if every joint is tight,
by filling the entire line full of water until it reaches the top of
the roof. To do this the plumber plugs the bottom of the line
where it extends through the basement wall, inserting caps mi
all openings left for future connection of the fixtures. Then
water is turned on (the plumber having previously connected
the pipe with the water supply by means of a pipe or hose)
until it reaches the extreme top above the roof. This water
is allowed to stand hi the pipe for a day or two, and in the
meantime every joint should be examined to see if there are
any leaks (readily noticeable by the appearance of moisture at
the points of leakage). Most leaks appear at a joint between
two sections of pipe, caused usually by a split in the seam on
account of too violent blows of the hammer in calking. Some-
times leaks are caused by the joints having been imperfectly
filled with lead. Occasionally a leak will be found to be a sand
hote somewhere in the length of pipe, elsewhere than at a joint.
Most leaks are readily discovered, however, by means of the
"water test," and such a test should be demanded by the
owner.

An old-fashioned way of testing pipe was to pour a two-
ounce vial of oil of peppermint into the riser, followed by a
gallon of boiling water, after having stopped all apertures. Then
the plumber and architect went "smelling around" at every
joint, any odors of peppermint apparent along the line indicat-
ing a leak. This is a very poor way to test pipe, because even
when a leak is detected, it is almost impossible to find the exact

SANITARY PLUMBING; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 301

location. On the other hand, in the "water test" a stream of
water (however small) gives visible evidence of the exact loca-
tion of the leak, which can then be calked tight until water
stops spurting. When testing with water, care must be taken
not to fill the pipe hi very cold weather, as the water might
freeze and burst the pipe. In cold weather some heat should
be on in the house when the pipe is tested, at least sufficient
to prevent freezing.

Although the peppermint test is not so good as the water
test for testing the soil pipe, it is often employed on extra fine
jobs as a second test. The water test having been previously
applied when the soil pipe was roughed in, the peppermint
test is used after all fixtures are connected and the plumb-
ing is completed. Another good test at this stage is the
Asmoke test," in which a smoke machine (which makes dense
black smoke) is connected to the system, and the smoke is
pumped through the pipes, quickly indicating any leaks there
may be.

On cheap work the horizontal run of pipe under a basement
floor is sometimes made of tile pipe instead of the more costly
cast iron. This should never be permitted, however, as tile
pipe is liable to break, and a broken sewer pipe inside the house,
even if only in the basement, is dangerous to health. To be
sure, tile sewer pipe outside the house is liable to break also, but
such breakage is not very serious when it occurs outside.
For this reason cast-iron pipe is rarely used outside the building,
tile pipe being usually considered quite good enough for that
purpose, though cast-iron pipe with leaded joints would be, of
course, ideal.

Tile pipe comes in lengths from 2 to 4 feet long. In laying
it, the small end (spigot) of one piece is inserted into the large
end (bell) of another, just as is done with iron pipe. But
cement mortar, instead of molten lead, is used to make the joints
tight, though on more expensive work the joints are calked with

302 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

oakum and filled with asphalt (the best possible practice).
Too often the tendency in laying tile drainpipe is to do it care-
lessly, and workmen should be watched to see that they per-
form the work properly. In the first place, the ditch should
be dug deep enough to bring the bottom below frost ; it should
be wide enough to allow a man to stand in it with space
enough to work. The bottom should be properly sloped so
the pipe will pitch from the house to the sewer, septic tank, or
cesspool.

When the trench is ready, several lengths of pipe are laid on
the bottom of it in a straight line, with spigots thrust into the
bells. Just under each bell a slight hollow should be made, to
admit of the increased thickness of the pipe at this point,
allowing the body of each tile to rest on the firm ground. If
this is not done, the bells alone would touch on the bottom of
the trench, the remainder of the conical pipe being slightly off
ground with no support (liable to break when the trench is
refilled with earth).

After a few sections of tile are properly laid, the joints are filled
thoroughly with cement mortar, pointed smooth on the outside
with a little trowel. Then a scraper, consisting of a rod with
a piece of steel on the end, should be inserted at one end of the
lirxe, and any little pieces of mortar left inside, scraped out.
Otherwise these bits might harden, forming obstructions in the
pipe.

A tile drainpipe should be even smoother inside than outside,
though some workmen are inclined to be extremely careless on
this point unless cautioned. When the trenches are refilled,
dirt should be carefully tamped around the tile to hold each
section firmly in place.

Water from the roof drainage should always be connected
with the sewer instead of discharging on the ground, except
when a soft-water cistern is provided to contain the roof water.
To carry off this water from the down-spouts, tile drains are

SANITARY PLUMBING ; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 303

connected with tile branches outside the building, extending
underground to a point under each down-spout, turning up
and extending just above the ground ready to receive the
spout. At the bottom of each of these branches, place a
trap to prevent sewer gas from entering the line above that
point.

In many locations where a building site -is on low ground
and the surroundings are liable to be wet in spring and fall
(seasons when there is always an unusual amount of moisture
in the ground), the sewer in the street might fill up to a point
higher than usual. In fact, the main sewer sometimes over-
flows and backs up into the house drain as far as the basement.
Thus, when there is a basement water-closet, the contents of
the sewer might overflow through the base-
ment closet. To prevent such an accident, BACK
a " backwater" trap should be placed where
the tile pipe joins the cast-iron pipe, just
outside the cellar wall. Such a trap allows
sewage to pass through from the house, but
closes before sewage can back up the other PREVENTS SEWAGE

T,, , FROM ENTERING

way. There are many patterns, but among CELLAR.
the best is a trap containing a ball which
rests over the inlet. Sewage passing from the house causes
the ball to be displaced sufficiently to allow sewage to pass, but
sewage backing up from the street wedges the ball more tightly
over the inlet, forming an effective gate against it. Even the
best of these backwater traps get out of order occasionally,
and for that reason none should be used unless absolutely nec-
essary. To admit of ready repairs it is a good idea to locate
such a trap in a brick or concrete box with an iron cover, so
that it may be easily uncovered when occasion arises. It
should always be vented, and a gate valve should be placed in
the line to shut off the entire system.

Unlike a bathroom lavatory, the waste from kitchen sink,

304 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

pantry, and laundry tubs contains extremely soapy water, and
this excess of grease, soluble while the waste water is hot,
attaches to the cold sides of the drainpipe when it has cooled
off. Successive accumulations of grease deposited inside the
pipe grow larger and larger, until, frequently, the pipe is stopped
up. There are two ways to prevent this, one, by placing a
grease trap at each of these fixtures, and the other, by dis-
charging waste from kitchen and pantry sinks and laundry
tubs into a separate catch basin outside the house, this basin
finally overflowing into the drainage system. Grease traps are
described in another chapter.

A catch basin is usually made of brick or concrete (in the
former case plastered with cement mortar on the inside) about
3 feet in diameter and 3 feet 6 inches deep below where
the drainpipe from the fixtures enters it. The catch basin dis-
charges through its own trap into the main drainpipe, and it is
located usually just outside the house, near the kitchen. An
iron cover is provided at the top. There is no odor from it,
though the waste water deposits its grease against the sides of
the basin, the clearer waste passing off into the main drain-
pipe. This is the best method of taking care of grease, for it
is done automatically, requiring no care. When grease traps
am/used, they must be periodically cleaned out, while the catch
basin is so large it will last for years without cleaning.

In localities where the town or city water supply is taken
from artesian wells, water is usually too hard for bathing and
laundry purposes, and it may be necessary to install a soft-water
cistern. Such cisterns are constructed, usually, by excavating
a square or circular hole in the yard at the rear of the house,
lining it with a concrete or brick wall. Brick cisterns must
be lined inside with cement plaster to make them water-
tight.

A wooden cistern may be used instead of brick or concrete,
one built of staves like a huge tub, and tarred on the outside

SANITARY PLUMBING; WATER AND SEWER PIPES 305

to prevent it from rotting in the ground. Tile pipes from the
down-spouts supply the cisterns with rain water and an over-
flow empties into the sewer. Down-spouts should have a valve
at the ends to divert water from the cistern when the latter is
full. Pumps, such as are customarily used in connection with
cisterns, are described in another chapter.

ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE OF WHITE PAINT AND RED BRICK.
Aymar Embury, II, Architect.

CHAPTER XVII

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

WE will now imagine that your plumbing system is ready
for the fixtures. That is, the cast-iron soil pipe has been in-
stalled from roof down to cellar floor, and across the bottom of
the basement to the outside wall, where it connects with the
tile pipe extending to the street, and this pipe has been
tested by means of the water test, and all leaks have been
stopped tight. Besides this, the plumber has laid in the lead
or iron branches from the soil pipe to the location of the various
fixtures in bathrooms, kitchen, and basement, the open ends of
these pipes having been temporarily stopped with plugs to
prevent dirt, chips, or small scraps of plaster from getting inside
the pipe during occupation of the building by other mechanics.

These waste pipes from the soil pipe to the various fixtures,
and water pipes from the water-supply system, should be accu-
rately placed so that after the building is completed the sinks,
washbowls, tubs, and water-closets will fit.

The selection of fixtures for the house is largely a matter of
size and price. Inexpensive fixtures are quite as sanitary as
expensive ones when they are made by a reliable manufacturer.
All the best lines of fixtures are now practically standard. That
is, every first-class concern makes much the same patterns,
except in a few instances where some dealers specialize with
special patterns.

Five general materials are used for modern plumbing fixtures,
porcelain, enameled iron, vitreous ware, marble, and soap-
stone. Porcelain is the most expensive and is suitable for all

307

308 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

plumbing fixtures. Enameled iron comes next in cost and can
be had also for all fixtures. Vitreous ware is used for lavatories,
water-closets, sinks, and laundry tubs, but it is not possible to
use it for pieces so large as a bathtub. Marble and soapstone
are now used only for sinks and laundry tubs.

Porcelain is an excellent material for plumbing fixtures, and
it is much used on fine jobs where expensive work is the rule.
Porcelain is a hard, impervious material of attractive appear-
ance, and porcelain fixtures come in three grades, A, B, and
C. The grade required should be carefully specified. Fixtures
of A grade are as perfect as any clay material can be, no small
imperfections of glaze or color. B grade fixtures (the grade
most used for houses) may have slight imperfections in the
glaze such as pinholes or very slight discolorations not sufficient
to hurt the durability of the fixture or impair its attractiveness.
Fixtures with more imperfections than will be admitted in the
B grade are placed in grade C, such as crazings and warped or
twisted edges. This grade is used chiefly for hospital and
school work. . The expense of porcelain fixtures is according
to the grade, A costing most, and C the least.

Enameled iron fixtures are made of cast iron, enameled on
one or both sides. This ware is sometimes called by the trade
name ''porcelain enamel," but house owners should understand
that it is really enameled iron, not porcelain. Enameled iron
has come to be used more than any other material for plumbing
fixtures, as it is durable, attractive, and of lower cost than por-
celain. Many excellent designs are made by manufacturers, and
one will have no difficulty in choosing from such a large variety
of excellent patterns. There were formerly two grades in enam-
eled iron ware, but the best manufactures now provide only
one grade, the best preferring to discard all inferior fixtures.
"Firstgrade" enameled iron does not mean fixtures absolutely
perfect, free from flaws of every kind. On the contrary, there
may be slight imperfections such as slightly warped edges or sur-

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES 309

faces. Manufacturers, however, now guarantee their enameled
ware to be first class, and one may usually expect good, mer-
chantable fixtures.

Vitreous ware is not unlike porcelain, though it is more on
the " crockery" order. Water-closets have been made of this
ware for many years. Sometimes it goes under the name of
"vitreous earthenware" or "monument ware." It is a coarser
material than porcelain and of a slightly whiter tint and many
think it prettier, claiming that it wears without crazing (some-
thing that porcelain often will not do). By "crazing" is meant
the tiny hair lines that may finally appear in enameled iron
and porcelain, though frequently crazing never happens. Vit-
reous ware for lavatories is a newer material than porcelain
and enameled iron. It is about the same price as B grade
porcelain and is an excellent material for all fixtures except
bathtubs, which as yet, owing to difficulties in manufacture,
have not been made in vitreous ware. Vitreous ware comes
only in one grade.

Marble was formerly used in fine residences for kitchen and
pantry sinks and bathroom lavatories, but now this material
has been largely crowded out by others. Soapstone is still used
in some cases for kitchen sinks (though not so much as formerly) .
It is a good material for wear and is now used chiefly for laundry
tubs. As all fixtures built of soapstone are made of slabs
cemented together, only the best grade should be used. In-
ferior tubs, poorly constructed, are very liable to leak at the
seams.

The greatest assurance a houseowner can have on his plumb-
ing fixtures is the name of the manufacturer. For that reason
he should buy only standard makes, insisting that the manu-
facturer's name be attached to every piece on a label showing
the grade. Then, in case of error, he will always be able to
get satisfaction from the manufacturer, who is bound to main-
tain the standard of his goods. In selecting from a plumbing

310 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

catalog, the owner should remember that list prices are always
very much more than net prices, in some places almost
twice as much. While a plumbing catalog is very helpful
and should be studied carefully by the owner, he should under-
stand that it is much easier to select fixtures after inspection
of the actual pieces by visiting the stock rooms of the nearest
dealer.

Kitchen sinks of enameled iron are most commonly used
and the best ones are cast "integral," with back and sink in one
piece. Others are cast with separate back which is secured
in place after the sink is set. The latter are not so desirable
as the former, owing to the joint between sink and back, which
is bound to allow more or less moisture from splashing faucets
to pass through to the wall behind. Although a sink with a
back is preferred by most housekeepers, there is really no need
of the back in a kitchen where the walls are tiled. Several very
good patterns of kitchen sink consist of sink and back cast in
one piece, with a roll rim in front and an enameled drip board
at one end or both ends. Other excellent designs have the drip
board at one end, with a back behind it as well as behind the
sink. Some patterns are hung from the wall on strong brackets
and others have enameled iron legs. All sinks should be pro-
-vided with strainers to prevent bits of food from entering the
waste pipe. When enameled iron drip boards are used, rubber
mats should be provided to stand the dishes on, otherwise
they are liable to break when set hastily on the enameled sur-
face. Wooden drain boards require no rubber mats.

A sink can be placed on an outside wall under the window
if supply and waste pipes are placed inside the room instead of
outside in the partition. This is an excellent location, but
many owners think pipes in an outside wall will freeze. Placing
them inside the room obviates this danger. Windows over a
sink should be placed high enough to allow the sink back to ex-
tend up below the window sill. Most sink backs are 12" high,

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

311

so windows must be placed at least this distance higher
than usual. As a matter of fact, high windows in a kitchen
are ideal.

Sinks for special locations may be found in great variety.
Corner sinks have a returned enameled end to go against the
wall. Sinks placed in a niche have returns on both ends, but
the standard sink is one which goes up against the wall with
space at both ends, and

this will be found the most I

convenient in most cases.
One very clever sink com-
bination has a little re-
volving seat attached, on
which one may sit com-
fortably while washing the
dishes.

Porcelain sinks are used
in expensive work and
many patterns of sinks can
be found in Italian marble,
soapstone, and vitreous
ware. Old-fashioned iron

sinks are still made and sometimes used on cheap work but
as the cost of an enameled sink is not much greater than one
of ordinary iron, the former is well worth while. Sinks
enameled inside but not on the outside are quite inexpensive,
though they must be painted outside in order to. look neat.
Three or four coats, the last two of enamel paint, are sufficient
to make an attractive and durable fixture. The standard
height for setting a sink is 30 inches from the floor. This
is too low for all but short people, however, so in many
places a sink should be placed 32 to 34 inches from the floor.
Adjustable legs are furnished with some patterns, so that the
sink can be set high or low, to suit the owner. Of course,

ENAMELED IRON KITCHEN SINK WITH
STOOL.

312 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

METAL-COVERED PANTRY SINK AND DRIP
BOARDS.

once the faucets are attached, it is impossible to change its
height.

The size of sink most often used is 20 X 30 inches, though

there are many others
in stock, larger and
smaller. A very prac-
tical size is 20 X 36
inches when there is
sufficient space in the
kitchen, as it gives 6
inches greater length
than the 30-inch sink,
an additional space
which will be found
very convenient.

Pantry sinks are quite
different from kitchen sinks because they answer a quite differ-
ent purpose. The pantry sink in most cases is really a large
dish pan and supposed to be used by placing the dishes directly
in it instead of using an ordinary dish pan. For this reason it
is most frequently made of
metal instead of stone, enam-
eled iron or porcelain. Metal
pantry sinks are of copper or
German silver and the latter
is by far the most practical
material, as it does not change
color nor require polishing like
a copper sink. Drip boards

at the Side are of Wood fre- METAL- LI NED PANTRY SINK WITH
, . . , RECESSED OVERFLOW.

quently covered with the same

metal as the sink. A good size for the pantry sink is 16 X 24
inches, though many come larger and smaller. Square-shaped
sinks are more convenient than oval ; in the latter, dishes have

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

313

a tendency to slide down in a heap towards the center. Many
metal pantry sinks are really wooden boxes lined with metal,
and they are perfectly water-tight and durable. Some sinks
are divided in the center by a partition, thus being virtually
two sinks, one for washing and the other for rinsing.

Most manufacturers carry, besides metal sinks, porcelain and
enameled iron pantry sinks, which are often used in large houses
in the same manner as a kitchen sink, a dish pan being placed
inside. Most pantry sinks are of metal, however, and the most
convenient of the square
ones have a recessed overflow
so that the standpipe plug
(which allows the sink to be
filled with water) is out of
the way of the dishes.

Other sinks are sometimes
used on the first or second
floor, particularly a slop sink,
usually consisting of a porce-
lain or enameled iron fix-
ture flushed by a tank like
a water-closet or with ordi-
nary faucets. In very large
houses a cook's sink is some-
times provided in the kitchen
(also known as .vegetable
sink) for preparing food be-
fore it is cooked.

Kitchen sink and washtub
combinations are convenient

in apartments where clothes must be washed in the kitchen.
They are usually of enameled iron or soapstone with a sink at
one end and washtub at the other. The wooden cover of the
wash tub forms a drip board for the sink. Another combination

COMBINATION KITCHEN SINK AND WASH
TUB OF ENAMELED IRON.

314 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

recently brought out for use in small cottages and workingmen's
houses is a combination sink, bathtub, washtub. At the
bottom is a bathtub, and the sink and washtub are placed
at the top, hinged up out of the way when the bathtub is to be
used. Of course such an arrangement is not practical for the

A WELL ARRANGED BATH ROOM ; WATER CLOSET IN A SEPARATE COMPART-
MENT.

ordinary house where the bathtub is placed in a bathroom as it
should be.

Lavatories are made in every conceivable size and shape,
with oval and round washbowls in every degree of simplicity
or luxury. Marble, enameled iron, porcelain, and vitreous
ware are the materials employed, and some patterns are sup-
ported on brackets or " concealed" wall hangers, others having

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

315

PORCELAIN PEDES-
TAL LAVATORY.

legs or pedestals. A bowl 13 X 17 inches is very convenient,
though some of them run as large as 15 X 21 inches (size of the
bowl alone). The area of the entire lavatory is from 24 niches
wide and 36 inches long down to 21 X 26 inches
and even smaller. A good average size of lava-
tory, complete, is 20 inches wide and 24 inches
long, containing an oval bowl 12 X 15 inches.

Pedestal lavatories are among the most at-
tractive patterns. These consist of an enam-
eled iron or porcelain (as the case may be)
round, hexagonal, or oval pedestal, supporting
an oval or square slab containing the oval
washbowl. Usually they come without backs,
as most bathrooms have a tiled wainscot,
rendering a back unnecessary. These lavatories are usually
placed a slight distance from the wall so they may be easily
wiped off entirely around the rim with a cloth. Other at-
tractive lavatories have integral back, slab, and front apron
(cast in one piece), and are supported on enameled iron legs
or brackets. Faucets, traps, and wastes are described elsewhere.
Dental lavatories have recently been
introduced in houses. Originally designed
for Pullman cars they proved so practical
that they are now used *as house fixtures
also. In the best patterns the smaller,
separate dental lavatory is cast integral
with the regular lavatory, though it is
supplied with separate faucets.

Bathtubs are made in such profusion
the owner who does not find what he
wants in an enameled iron or porcelain tub
is hard to please, indeed. Broadly speaking, tubs are divided
into three classes, tubs with feet (open underneath), tubs
with base (closed underneath), and built-in tubs. Ordinary

PEDESTAL LAVATORY OF
ENAMELED IRON.

316 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

I I I

tubs stand on feet of porcelain or enameled iron, which raise
the fixture up a few inches, allowing the floor underneath to be
washed. . Tubs with a base are also set above the floor, but a
base fills the gap between floor and tub making it unnecessary
to wash under the tub, a very great convenience, 'and the cost
of a base tub is not much more than an ordinary tub. Built-in

tubs are built into a
niche or set in one
corner, and the tub
itself in faced with
tile, or in some cases
an enameled iron
slab is furnished to
cover the front.

Most tubs are
made in several
styles, sloping on
one end and straight

at the other (as in ordinary tubs having end supply and
waste) or they are " Roman" shape (sloping at both ends)
with supply and waste in the center at the back. Tubs with a
rather steep slope at the sloping end are more saving of space
thaji others. All enameled iron tubs have roll rims varying in
width from 1J inches to 5 inches, the 3-inch or 3j-inch roll
rim being popular shapes, as rims of this width make a very
pleasing appearance and do not .waste much space. Narrow
rims are not so attractive, though they should be used where
space is contracted and a saving is necessary. Pretty nearly
every style of bathtub comes in lengths 4 feet 6 inches, 5 feet,
and 5 feet 6 inches, and most come also in lengths 4 feet, and
6 feet, in each case the length being of the tub itself, outside,
not counting piping. For moderate-sized houses tubs 4 feet
6 inches long are most used, though the 5-foot length is always
to be preferred when space permits. Difference in price be-

ALCOVE TUB.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

317

tween one length and another is very slight. Tubs only 4 feet
are too short for comfort, but where space is limited it is some-
times necessary to use a short tub. The height of a bathtub
is usually 23 inches from floor to top of rim. Tubs are in all
widths from the narrow 25-inch to the luxuriously wide 36-inch,

ROMAN TUB WITH SHOWEK BATH ; ENAMELED IRON WATER-CLOSET TANK.

the most-used width being about 30 inches, from outside to
outside.

When the bathroom is first considered, each fixture should be
sketched out on the plan, drawn to scale at its correct size so
as to make sure of a proper arrangement, with the necessary
amount of room around each fixture. You must bear in mind
that the space for a tub must be larger than the size of the tub
itself, to allow room for supply and waste pipes which ordinarily

318 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

take up at least 3 inches or 4 inches and frequently 6 inches to
8 inches or more, depending upon the pattern used. With
niche tubs and with many corner tubs, supply and waste pipes
are placed in the wall at one end of the tub, a wood panel being
set in the wall to give access to the pipes. To prevent the un-
sightly appearance of this wood panel (which is visible in the
room next to the bathroom) it is a good idea to have a closet,
cupboard, or wardrobe at this point, hiding the panel, or a piece
of furniture may be placed against it to keep the panel from
sight.

Solid porcelain tubs cost about $25 extra when glazed out-
side, or $15 extra if finished with enamel paint, though the tubs
are made of the same material throughout. Enameled iron
tubs can be enameled on the inside only. Thus an ordinary
enameled iron tub shows the rough cast iron on the outside.
If such a tub is built into a niche and the front is covered with
tile or with an enameled iron plate no other finish for the front
and ends of the tub is necessary, but if the tub is set with out-
side exposed it is necessary to finish it in some manner. On
many small houses the tub, outside, is simply painted three or
four coats of paint (enamel preferred) which makes a fairly
good job, but the best method is to order in the first place from
the^ dealer what is commonly known as "No. 1 Zinc White
Finish." The same finish is used on unglazed porcelain tubs.
In making this finish, manufacturers buff off the exterior of tubs
until they are perfectly smooth, after which seven coats of enamel
paint are applied one at a time, each coat baked on and smoothed
off before the next one is put on. The result is a hard, firm,
durable white finish almost like glazed enameling. Many
owners see these tubs and think they are really enameled both
sides. The cost of such finish is usually about $15 over and
above the original price of the tub. No. 2 finish, with less coats
of paint (consequently a little less perfect looking) costs about
$10 extra.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMS ING FIXTURES

319

SEAT BATH.

Bathtubs for infants (called " Infants' Baths") are very con-
venient, being about 20 X 30 inches in size and 12 inches deep,
set upon legs to bring them
to a convenient height from
the floor. Other convenient
bath fixtures for the bath- LIF1
room are seat and foot
baths. The seat (some-
times called "sitz") bath is
a low fixture about 20 X 30
inches, though they come in
several sizes, furnished with or without the douche supply. The
seat bath can be used also as a foot bath, and it makes a very
good infants' bath, too, though not at so convenient a height
from the floor as the regular infants' bath. Seat baths are distin-
guishable from special foot baths because the former have high
backs, whereas foot baths are boxlike little tubs about 24 X 24
inches, containing a shelf to sit upon (in the best models) . The
foot bath also makes a convenient bath for infants.

Shower baths are rapidly coming into general use in bath-
rooms where space permits and where the funds of the owner

are sufficient. The least expensive
shower bath and the pattern taking
up no extra space is the tub bath.
Hot- and cold-water supply pipes are
connected at the wall above the tub
at which point the nickel-plated pip-
ing of the shower bath begins. A
nickel-plated ring holds the rubber
or duck curtain used to keep water
from splashing on the floor, the tub
taking the place of a shower recep-
tacle. When a tub shower is not used, a separate shower
bath can be installed in one corner of the bathroom, or it can

BIDET

BIDET (DOUCHE) ATTACHED TO
A SEAT BATH

320 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

be built into the wall. Generally speaking, built-in showers are
about 36 X 36 inches (though many are larger), surrounded
by marble, tile, or glass partitions, or when a receptacle is used
standing out on the bathroom floor, curtains of rubber or duck
are supplied, supported by rings. Receptacles or "receptors"
(as they are usually called) are basins of porcelain or enameled
iron (about 3 feet 6 inches X 3 feet 6 inches) in which the
bather stands, surrounded by a framework of nickel-plated
pipes at sides and back.

Shower stalls are built of tile, marble, slate, or glass. The
latter is one of the best materials for lining a built-in bath.
Each partition of the stall consists of one sheet of glass (usually
milk-white, something like marble in appearance), one side being
united with another by means of clamps and cement to make
joints water-tight. Marble and slate slabs put together in the
same way are sanitary and attractive, though slate is so dark in
color it is seldom used in house work. Built-in shower baths
sometimes leak at the joints, so an owner should caution the
plumber to make these joints water-proof, and he should require
a guarantee from his plumber that they will be tight, testing
them carefully as soon as the job is finished. One frequent
cause of trouble is the shrinking or sagging of the wooden joists
jmder the bathroom floor, sometimes causing the shower to
settle slightly and opening up joints in the shower partitions.
For this reason, great care should be taken to provide joists
sufficiently large to prevent sagging under the enormous weight
of the bathroom floor (by far the heaviest floor load in the entire
building), using extra well-seasoned lumber at this point. If
joints do open sometime after the house is finished, they can be
cemented again and made tight before damage is done, provided
the leak is discovered in time. Floor slabs for built-in showers
are usually of marble, in one piece, slightly dished out to drain
toward the center, at which point is a floor drain. Cast-iron
pipe is better for this than lead, as it is stronger. The drain

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES 321

should be extra large (at least 3 inches in diameter) to take the
water away quickly. The supply pipe for a shower bath should
be of j-inch or 1-inch pipe instead of J-inch (as used for other
fixtures), for a shower bath requires plenty of water delivered
at good pressure. If an extra large pipe like this is used, it is
probable that other fixtures (when the shower is operated) will
have a weak pressure, but this is considered but a slight annoy-
ance, as the shower is used only a few minutes at a time.

Pipes for a shower bath (whether tub bath or built-in bath)
are ingenious arrangements of nickel-plated loops at sides, top,
and back, each spray or stream manipulated separately by a
faucet or chain pull, admitting hot water, cold water, or a mix-
ture of both, of any temperature. The owner will do well to
consider the various streams and sprays before ordering his
fixture, so that he may have an apparatus exactly suited to his
needs, bearing in mind that elaborate outfits cost more than
simple ones. He can secure a shower-bath outfit containing
needle, shower and bidet sprays, liver sprays and shampoo
sprays, or he may choose one having a head spray merely, with
perforated pipes below at sides and back. It is a good idea to
have the head spray operate independently of side and back
sprays, as many women like to use the latter without the former.
Several clever patterns of tub shower are now made to fold back
against the wall when not in use.

In some houses the shower bath has been made to answer
every purpose of the bath, a tub being eliminated. It is doubt-
ful whether this is practical for most people, however, as many
(especially women) prefer a tub bath; indeed,. some constitu-
tions cannot stand the rigors of shower bathing, a practice
which should be resorted to only under the advice of a physician.
For those who prefer to take their shower bath sitting, enameled
seats are provided, attached to the wall. Portable shower
baths consisting of a rubber hose attached to the mixing faucet
of a bathtub, with head and side showers, and ring with inex-

322 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

pensive curtain, are fairly good substitutes for the regular tub
shower.

Curtains for shower baths are of rubber or duck. The former
are of course water-proof, and they look well at first, but, harden-
ing with age like other rubber goods, they soon crack, making
it necessary to have new ones. Duck curtains answer every
purpose, costing less than rubber, and they wear longer and
make quite as good an appearance. An excellent little fixture
for the shower bath is a nickel-plated sponge basin attached to

the wall, inside. It is also
convenient to have a nickel-
plated soap dish fastened
near at hand.

Drinking fountains are not
ordinarily considered neces-
sities in the average house-
plumbing system, but they
are sometimes installed, and
usually prove very conven-
ient. For this purpose, an
extra jet or faucet for drinking water can be attached to the
bathroom lavatory, or a separate fixture for drinking purposes
-is sometimes located in bathrooms and not infrequently in the
dining room, or in a rear or side hall on the first story. The
new bubble fountains are by all means the most sanitary,' making
unnecessary the use of a drinking cup. Pressure on the self-clos-
ing valve allows water to escape in a fountain-like bubble from
a little pipe with bubble attachment, and one's lips do not
touch the fixture. Pedestal bubble fountains are the most con-
venient, though wall fountains are entirely practical. In old
houses, new piping can be put in, converting any fixture into a
modern bubble fountain.

When it , comes to water-closets, there is opportunity . on the
part of the owner to exercise more than a little sagacity, for no

BUBBLING DRINKING FOUNTAINS.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

323

FLUSHING RIM

WASHOUT CLOSET.

fixtures in the entire plumbing catalogue are made in more styles,
patterns, or shapes. Every one of the models set out on the
floor of a plumbing supply display
room may look like every other one
to the layman, but, be assured, one
is very different from another.

In the first place, there are three
general types of closet, the wash-
out, the washdown, and the syphon.
These are the -three general princi-
ples upon which water-closets are
designed and built, washout, wash-
down, syphon, though there are,
of course, many modifications of
each style. Taking up consideration of the least sanitary style
first, it can be said that a washout closet (now considered old-
fashioned and rarely used even on cheap work) is a poor closet
in every way, and no owner who desires to have even a moder-
ate amount of convenience and comfort in his home should
allow a washout closet to be installed. The emptying of a wash-
out closet depends entirely upon the force of water injected in
the bowl, and no closet of this class can keep itself clean, automati-
cally, the body of water contained in the fixture being too shallow.

The washdown type of closet is
an improvement, and many patterns
are excellent, except that they are
inclined to be noisy in operation.
In this pattern a large body of water
is contained in the bowl, and its
contents are easily discharged into
the drain, resulting in a clean fixture.
Noise, however, should be elimi-
nated as much as possible ; and a noiseless closet is much to
be preferred. For this and various other reasons the syphon

WASHDOWN CLOSET.

324 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

FUtfH HIM

tt-WATEH-

EJECTINQJET
t=OUTLET

SYPHON JET CLOSET.

closet is made on a slightly different principle from washdown
closet. In the latter all water from city supply enters at the

rim above the bowl, and the force
of this water (helped by the proper
design of waterways) empties the
closet. But in a syphon closet the
water supply is divided, part enter-
ing the rim above the bowl and part
entering at the bottom of the bowl
in the form of a small, high-pressure
jet. The result is, that when a closet is flushed, sudden en-
trance of a stream of water in the bottom of the bowl (called
" syphon jet") starts the closet emptying by syphonic action
(suction). Thus, with water pulling below and pushing above,
a closet is quickly emptied, the bowl being filled again by the
afterwash from tank or flush valve. No closets are absolutely
noiseless, but many syphon patterns can be heard only in the
room in which they are placed ; and ,

this is the standard to demand, that
a closet shall be so quiet in action, no
noise can be heard outside the bath-
room.

-^ There is another pattern of closet
sometimes used, called " Hopper
Closet," but it is for cold places, only,
where closets containing water in the
bowl are liable to freeze. Hopper
Closets are dry closets; that is, no
supply of water is maintained in the
bowl. For this reason they are not
sanitary, requiring frequent clean-
ing. Such closets are sometimes nec-
essary in the country, however, as they are frost-proof, the
trap (which contains water) and water-supply valve being

FLUSHING E.IM

FLUSHING CHAIN

WATEB. SUPPLY

FROST-PHOOF DRY HOPPER
CLOSET.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

325

deep in the ground, removed from all danger of freezing.
The valve is operated by a long chain pull.
Now that we have considered, briefly, various
general types of closet, let us examine in detail
some of the characteristics of well-designed pat-
terns, and accessories for no branch of the
plumbing is more important. Some models are
of enameled iron, others of vitreous earthenware,
and both materials are practical and sanitary.
The exact shape of a closet varies with each
manufacturer, but in a general way all standard
fixtures are of similar shape.

Water-closet tanks are now made in two pat-
terns, high tanks and low. The latter are
improvements upon the former, as they are
much less noisy on account of a less distance for
the water to travel. In houses, high tanks are
now used chiefly for cheap installations such as
basement and attic, almost every one preferring
the more compact low-tank type in which the tank is located
close to the closet. Water-closet tanks can be had in birch,
solid mahogany, oak, enameled iron, and
vitreous ware. The wooden tanks are lined
with sheet copper, and in the case of birch
tanks the woodwork is usually stained ma-
hogany. Tanks of iron, enameled both sides,
are clean and very attractive in appearance,
resembling in this way vitreous ware (both
ideal materials for water-closet tanks). The
valve on a tank is the principal part of the
mechanism, and one should be sure to get
a valve made by a reliable manufacturer,
one that is mechanically correct and will work noiselessly,
wearing well and operating economically without leakage.

HIGH-TANK
CLOSET.

LOW-TANK CLOSET.

326 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Ball cocks for water-closet tanks are made on the compression
principle, operated automatically by pressure of the water in
the tank exerted on a copper ball float. When the tank is full,

the ball floats at the top
and closes the valve ; when
a closet is flushed, the tank
automatically empties it-
self, there being enough
water contained inside to
properly flush the closet and
refill the bowl (forming a
water seal). In the mean-
time, the copper ball drops
to the bottom of the tank,
at the same time opening
the valve admitting water
to fill the tank once more.
The water contained in the
bowls of washdown and syphon closets is what seals the fixture
from sewer gas contained in the sewerage system. Sewer gas
may fill the pipe as far as the water contained in the closet
bowls, but beyond this point it cannot penetrate.
^ The connection of water-closet to waste pipe is one of the
most vital points in a plumbing system, and
the houseowner should insist upon best
workmanship at this point. The length of
pipe connecting the water-closet with the
cast-iron soil-pipe stack should always be
made up of flexible piping and bends, so
that when the building settles, as all build-
ings are certain to do to a greater or lesser
extent, the connecting bends will be flexible enough to stretch
slightly without breaking or pulling apart. The flange which
connects a closet with the waste pipe should be what is known

WATER-CLOSET TANK (SIDE REMOVED TO
SHOW INTERIOR).

METAL FLANGE FOR
CONNECTING WATER-
CLOSET TO FLOOR.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

327

Q=HOLLOW5TEM

CHAMBER,
O VALVE SEAT
d*ECCENTfclC

fcELlEF VALVC

VALVE HANDLE

as a "metal-to-metal" floor flange, as this makes a permanent
gas- and water-tight connection. Ordinarily, putty joints are
made by placing putty or rubber gaskets at the joints of a metal
floor flange. Such are not permanent connections, as putty
soon loosens and drops out, or rubber gaskets rot away, leaving
a crevice for leakage.

In the best patterns of water-closet there are four bolt holes
for connecting the fixture at the floor, two bolts for connect-
ing the metal-to-metal floor flange,
and two bolts to screw into the
floor itself. Flush pipes should be
connected to the closet with flexible
rubber or metal slip joints, for sud-
den jars to which closets are liable
may break them when non-flexible
joints are used.

One of the latest types of water-
closet flushing apparatus is the flush
valve or "flushometer," with which
no tank is necessary. This is an
excellent way, though a flush valve
requires a somewhat different system of piping to secure high
pressure, a separate one-inch supply pipe being required for it.
Flush valves do away with the tank entirely, which is certainly
a step in the right direction, eliminating apparatus and making
the plumbing system as simple as possible. The flush valve is
operated by pushing a lever which releases a measured flow of
water (usually 6 to 12 gallons), discharging it in a few second's
time with but little noise. After releasing the lever, the valve
automatically closes itself, ready for another flushing.

Water-closet seats have been greatly improved, and are now
made so durable they last for years. Wood is chiefly used,
either solid mahogany, oak, or birch (stained mahogany in the
case of the latter), made up in sections locked together with

FLUSHING-VALVE FOR TANKLESS
WATER-CLOSET.

328 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

bolts. Much study has been given to the exact shape of the seat
and modern patterns are sanitary and practical. Enameled
iron seats have been tried, but are found to be uncomfortable,
though, from the standpoint of sanitation, they are, of course,
excellent. Wooden seats are also made in white enamel, though
they do not wear very well, as white soon turns yellow and the
enamel is apt to wear off. Perhaps the best seat is birch,

| stained mahogany,

which makes a
good appearance
and is very durable.
To harmonize with
a seat of mahogany
one can use a birch-
stained mahogany
tank, or an enam-
eled or vitreous-
ware tank. Oak
seats and tanks are
used chiefly in attic
or basement instal-
lations where apparatus is subject to unusually hard usuage.
-iCost of water-closets varies according to the patterns and ma-
terial used, but generally speaking syphon closets are the most
expensive, with washdown closets next and washout and hopper
closets least. This does not mean, however, that the best
grades of syphonic closets are too expensive for houses of mod-
erate size. On the contrary, syphon closets are quite practical
for even small cottages, practical in cost as well as operation,
for many excellent patterns can be bought at moderate prices.
Ordinarily, enameled iron or vitreous tanks are more expensive
than wooden tanks, solid mahogany costing more than birch or
oak, and low tanks costing more than high tanks. It is excellent
practice to have a local shut-off valve on the water supply to a

SEAT OF GOOD MODEL.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES

329

-VEMTI LATINO FLUE

water-closet, so that water can be shut off in case of repairs,
without stopping the supply of water to any of the other fixtures.

Water-closet ventilation has always been a problem. Some
closets are fitted with what is called a " local vent," connecting
the space directly under the closet seat with a ventilating flue
(sometimes a chimney flue is used) . It has been found, however,
that local vents are not of much assistance, for rarely do they
produce (what is intended) a current of fresh air in the water-
closet. A better way is to have a
ventilating flue with a register in
the bathroom directly back of the
water-closet, but such a flue will be
of no account unless heat is applied
at the bottom to cause a circula-
tion of air. Heat can be applied
by burning a gas jet at the bot-
tom, or if the flue is placed next
to the furnace flue a circulation
could be maintained in that way.

Most best equipped, modern bathrooms contain, in addition
to the various fixtures, articles of furniture such as a dressing
table and chair, bath stool, bathtub seat, and a medicine closet.
In addition to these are many useful devices for the toilet,
brush and comb holders, tooth-brush holders, soap and sponge
containers, and towel racks of every conceivable pattern, and
hooks of various kinds for holding the bath robe.

All bathroom fittings which are of metal should be nickle-
plated, but many fittings may be obtained in enameled steel,
glass, porcelain, and china, and these are always to be recom-
mended in place of nickle-plated metal. Nickle plating soon
wears off or grows dull. Of course many articles must of neces-
sity be metallic, but one should choose something else when
possible.

When it comes to fixtures for the laundry, one will find the

CORRECT VENTILATION FOB
WATER-CLOSET.

330 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

same large number of excellent patterns to choose from as in
all other lines of plumbing fixtures. Soapstone is an ideal
material for laundry tubs ; others are enameled iron and vitre-
ous ware. These are the
principal materials used
for modern laundry tubs,
though many manufactur-
ers use special trade names
such as " monument ware,"
"duroware, " and the like.
No better material than

ENAMELED IRON LAUNDRY TUBS STAND- . ,. ,

ING AGAINST WALL. soapstone can be found for

laundry tubs. Soapstone is

durable and sanitary, besides being moderate in cost. The chief
objection to a soapstone tub is that it must be made up in
separate slabs, joined together with bolts and cement. For this
reason a poorly built soapstone tub is very apt to leak at the
joints. However, tubs of the best grade are sound and tight,
and, of course, it is assumed that the owner will buy only those
made by reliable concerns.

Cement tubs are made in large quantities, and some of them
have given satisfaction. As a rule, however, they are not so
desirable as soapstone tubs, being frequently rough on the in-
side and having a tendency to disintegrate around faucets and
waste plugs. Besides this, cement tubs
are usually quite as expensive as soapstone.

Vitreous-ware tubs are excellent. Made
in one piece as they are, there are no joints
to leak or become foul, and they are heavy
enough to stand the hard knocks usual in
every laundry. Some vitreous ware is white, and other ware
is yellow (not unlike a kitchen pudding dish). Soapstone, vit-
reous ware, enameled iron and cement tubs are mounted on
galvanized or painted iron legs.

TONGUE AND GROOVED
JOINT FOR LAUNDRY
TUBS.

LATEST TYPES OF PLUMBING FIXTURES 331

Enameled iron tubs are not quite so durable as soapstone or
vitreous ware, as the hard usuage tubs get in a laundry is apt
to chip off the enamel. They are often used, however, espe-
cially in combination with a kitchen sink in the kitchens of apart-
ment houses (where there is no laundry) . When the best grade
is bought, enameled iron usually proves satisfactory. Wooden
laundry tubs have been practically done away with. Wood is
so absorptive it is not sanitary, and soon wears out.

Whether to have a two-part or three-part laundry tray is
largely a matter for the housekeeper to decide. Installations
in houses costing downwards from $6000 are usually two-part,
while three-part trays are usually installed in larger houses.
The third tub is very convenient for blueing or additional rinsing
water, and the additional cost is not a large amount.

Vitreous-ware tubs are the most expensive. Less expensive
are enameled iron tubs (about the same price as soapstone) , and
least expensive are cement tubs, though costing very nearly as
much as soapstone.

CHAPTER XVIII

LITTLE DETAILS OF GOOD PLUMBING

Now that we have considered the principal parts of the plumb-
ing system, it will be well to look into some of the details of
smaller but not less important apparatus, such as traps, faucets,
and wastes. Traps are the little plumbing appliances which
prevent sewer gas contained in the drains from entering the
house through the fixtures. They are to guard at ajl times these
gateways which admit drainage from the fixtures to the sewage
system, but prevent entrance of gas. Sewer gas is often odor-
less, and much harm might be done by its entrance, undetected,
into a home. Consequently traps are very important and should
be intelligently selected and efficiently installed, using the right
pattern at the right place.

The principle of every trap is that it shall contain a pool of
water entirely closing the ingress between drainpipes and house.
One of the simplest patterns is the S trap, merely a piece of
pipe bent into the form of a letter S (usually placed at or near
the fixture), the loop in the pipe

retaining water every time the ,SUP ^|?| OUTLET^

pipe is flushed. Thus, when a
faucet is turned (say, at the
kitchen sink), water runs down
through the grating in the bot-

P,TRAP AND BOTTLE TRAP.

torn of the sink, through the S

trap underneath into the drainpipe. When the faucet is turned

off it will be found that the loop in the S trap has retained

enough water to form an effectual water seal between drains and

house.

333

334 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

In a water-closet an S-shaped trap is molded right into the fix-
ture. After a closet is flushed the valve admitting water from
the tank or flushometer allows an after amount sufficient to
fill the trap with pure water. Of course no connection between
fixture and soil pipe can be made below any trap. Always the
trap must intervene between fixture and soil pipe, though in old-
fashioned plumbing one sometimes sees the overflow from a
washbowl connected to the waste pipe below the trap, thus al-
lowing sewer gas to pass into a room through the overflow pas-
sage, though the waste from the bowl is properly trapped.

There are many forms of trap besides the S trap. Traps
called "P traps" are used most frequently for lavatories (shaped
like the letter P). Bottle traps (much used
for bathtubs and kitchen sinks) are bottle-
shaped vessels made to hold water and pro-
vide a water seal. Laundry tubs and kitch-
GREISE TRAP. en or Pantry sinks, unless they empty into
a catch basin separate from the main drain-
pipes, are often provided with grease traps to catch grease (so
prevalent in those fixtures) and not allow it to foul the main
drainpipes. Grease traps are large receptacles, with covers for
the purpose of removing grease from time to time. As some
odpr is almost sure to result when a grease trap is opened,
all such traps should be placed in the basement.

Every trap is subject to syphonic action, that is, the sud-
den pull as water rushes through is liable to empty the trap,
taking the entire contents along to the drains, which leaves the
trap dry. Thus, the water seal is lost, and sewer gas has free
access to the house. To prevent this, traps are made in two
ways, syphon traps and non-syphon traps, the latter
being used principally in large buildings and the former in houses.
Syphon traps must be vented at the top by an air pipe attached
at this point and connected to the main soil pipe above where
the highest fixture enters. Air admitted to the top of the trap

LITTLE DETAILS OF GOOD PLUMBING 335

breaks any tendency to syphon, so that the contents of a trap
will run through when fixtures are flushed, but leave behind
enough liquid to seal the trap. Non-syphon traps are ingen-
iously constructed to carry such a deep pool of water that the
syphonic "pull" will carry only a portion of it away, leaving
sufficient behind to seal the trap. They are usually shaped like
a bottle trap and they do not require vent pipes like non-syphon
traps, thus being especially desirable in office buildings, hotels,
and like buildings where there are many fixtures.

Every trap, whatever pattern it may be, IB AIR CHAM8Ea
should be provided with a clean-out cover, usu-
ally screwed in tightly below the water line of
the trap so that any leak will be indicated im-
mediately by the leakage of water. Clean-outs
above the water line might leak for years with

,,.,., ,. NON-SYPHON

no one the wiser, and the very purpose for TRAP

which traps are installed (to safeguard the house
from sewer gas) would be thwarted. Traps are made of many
different metals suitable for fixtures with which they are used.
Lead is used largely when a trap is concealed in a floor or parti-
tion. In cheap work (not necessarily inferior work) lead traps
are also used for kitchen sinks, painted two or three coats to
make them a little neater in appearance. Brass, nickel-plated,
is the material usually preferred for visible traps in kitchen or
bathroom. Laundry tubs in the basement can be provided with
lead traps, and traps in the basement floor are ordinarily of
cast iron.

In connection with the waste pipe for a refrigerator it is not
good practice to run a pipe directly to the drain, as any direct
connection between refrigerator and sewer pipe is inadvisable,
even when the pipe is trapped. The best way is to attach a
refrigerator trap on the waste pipe just under the refrigerator,
allowing this to drip through a waste pipe discharging over a
P trap in the cellar floor. Thus there is no direct connection

336 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

with the sewer, the P trap sealing the pipe at that point, and
the refrigerator trap preventing all basement odors from enter-
ing the refrigerator. A refrigerator waste pipe should be kept
clean by flushing it out about once a week, pouring hot water
down the drainpipe from the ice chamber.

Every faucet in the house is really a machine, an appliance
to hold back the water when not wanted, delivering it as re-
quired, efficiently, at right pres-
sure, by a quick turn of the wrist.
No part of the plumbing system
is more subject to wear than fau-
cets, and they should be chosen
with this idea wholly in view,
durability. Brass is the chief
metal used for faucets, nickel-
plated in some work and plain
brass in others. On most expen-
sive work white metal is used in
place of brass, and its chief ad-
vantage is that it remains bright,
requiring no rubbing. At the kitchen sink solid brass faucets
are usually preferred (unless white metal is used), for constant
nibbing at these points soon wears off even the heaviest nickel
plate, allowing brass to show through. Except in kitchen and
laundry, it is good practice to use nickel-plated faucets.

Faucets are of many different patterns, specially devised for
all kinds of work. The pattern practical for a kitchen sink is
not suitable for a lavatory or bathtub, each pattern being de-
signed for the sort of work it has to do. The simplest form of
faucet or cock is the " ground key bibb," in which a lever handle
turned one quarter around brings a slot in the plug opposite
the waterway in the bibb. The plug (cast in one piece with
lever handle) is simply ground to fit tight. This pattern is
used in basement work where faucets are not opened frequently.

REFRIGERATOR TRAP.

LITTLE DETAILS OF GOOD PLUMBING

337

EVER.

GROUND-KEY BIBB.

A similar cock called "stop and waste cock" is used on water-
supply pipes for turning the supply off and on. When the lever
handle is turned, the supply is cut off and at the same time all
water contained in the pipes drains out
through a little hole in the side of the
cock, thus leaving the pipe line dry and
in no danger of freezing.

The majority of faucets in a house job
are "compression" faucets and "Fuller"
faucets. These are the two principal
patterns and their difference lies in the
interior mechanism. Compression fau-
cets include a core (threaded), operated by a handle at one end,
containing a composition or metal disk at the other. This disk
(closing against the water pressure) is seated against the water-
way, shutting off the water. Several turns of the handle are
required to do this, so a compression faucet is not what is known
as "quick closing." Every well-designed compression cock is
fitted with an auxiliary "stuffing box" to reenforce the packing
usually placed around the core and prevent water leakage at
this point. The disk is removable for
renewal when it has become worn.

Compression cocks are made for every
purpose, including kitchen and pantry
sinks, laundry tubs, lavatories, and bath-
tubs, and when properly made of heavy
metal and correct pattern they are very
satisfactory.

The Fuller cock is an improvement over
the compression cock because it is quick
opening. The core is connected with a

valve stem which opens wide in about a quarter turn, whereas
in a compression cock the handle must be turned entirely around
one or more times to open the faucet wide. Fuller cocks are

PACKING

COMPRESSION FAUCET.

338 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

(EUBBEE. PACKING

not advisable where water pressure is too great, however, for
the sudden release of water under high pressure by a quick-
opening cock causes "water hammer,"
and puts too much strain on the pipes.
Most houses have water supplies under
low pressure, and Fuller faucets can be

^*H i^SJlDC usec ^ w ^ perfect safety, though each
f ^LJL/"!^^^ faucet must be fitted with an air cham-
(J ber (an air cushion) to give elasticity to

FULLER FAUCET. the P 1 ? 6 line - Quick-opening Fuller fau-
cets are usually fitted with lever handles,

and slow-opening compression cocks are most frequently sup-
plied with T handles.

In house practice, compression faucets are often used for
kitchen and pantry sinks and laundry tubs, Fuller faucets being
applied to lavatories and bathtubs. Where the water pres-
sure is high, however, compression work is used throughout,
for no matter how carefully air chambers are provided at each
faucet, water hammer is liable to result, and nothing is more
annoying than the snapping and humming of pipes every time
a faucet is opened. Many architects use compression faucets
on lavatories instead of Fuller faucets,
for this fixture (used so frequently) is
more liable to cause water hammer than
others.

Another pattern of faucet is the
"self-closing" faucet, but this type is
rarely used on. house work. Self-closing
faucets contain a spring which forces
the faucet closed when the hand is
removed from the handle.

All faucets, whether compression or
Fuller, come in many different patterns. Those for the kitchen
sink are usually lever or T-handled, plain bibbs entering through

SELF-CLOSING FAUCET.

LITTLE DETAILS OF GOOD PLUMBING 339

the back of the sink, with or without threading on the end for
a filter. In the best patterns, the nozzle is made small to pre-
vent splashing. Pantry cocks extend vertically some distance
above the top of the sink, to be out of the way of the hands
when washing dishes. Sinks can be supplied with two separate
faucets (hot and cold) or with one combination double-mixing
faucet (both hot and cold).

Faucets, for laundry tubs are similar to those used for a
kitchen sink, but shorter, so they will not interfere with free use
of the tubs. Some of the best patterns are close to the back of
the tub, with very little projection. Lavatory faucets are made
in bewildering variety of single and double (mixing) faucets,
with T and lever handles. Frequently the handles are tipped
with white china, and a jewel-cup is attached for holding rings
when using the lavatory. The most practical faucets are those
which project but little over the bowl.

Bathtub faucets usually extend through one end or the center
of the tub, and they are either single or double, whichever
desired. In best patterns the faucets project but little, and
china handles are largely used in the best work.

Hose cocks for attaching garden hose at the outside of the
house come with wheel handles or loose lever handles. The
latter are desirable when there is reason to believe small boys
in the neighborhood may play the ancient prank of " turning
on the water." Loose keys are a nuisance, however, for they
are liable to get misplaced. A stop and waste cock must be
placed in every line supplying water to a hose cock, locating it
just inside the wall so that water can be shut off from the cock in
winter, or when the family is away.

Waste connections for all kinds of fixtures are made in great
variety of pattern, from the simple strainer of nickel-plated
brass in the bottom of a kitchen sink to the more complex
" supply-and- waste " combinations for bathtubs. In a sink,
the strainer through which waste water passes may be at one

340 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

end or in the center. End wastes are considered especially
practical for ordinary sinks, as a center waste would be covered
by the dish pan and thus might be less convenient. Sink
strainers are usually made detachable, either loose or held
in place by two or three screws so they may be removed to clean
the drainpipe.

Many pantry sink wastes are placed in the center of the sink
like a washbowl, and fitted with a plug and chain. Others
have a " standing waste," consisting of a long tube of nickel-
plated brass, open on top and set into the waste opening like a
plug. Thus, with the standpipe in place a sink can be filled
with water up to the top of the pipe, but any excess above this
point passes away through the open end of the tube. Stand-
pipes are located at one end of the sink or in a niche at the back
("recessed overflow").

Lavatory wastes may be simple " plug-and-chain " wastes
in the center or rear of the bowl, or there are several other pat-
terns that can be used, in which the plug and chain is eliminated,
substituting a metal plug operated by a handle or lever. For
bathtubs there are plug-and-chain wastes, and combination
" supply-and-waste " connections in which one nickel-plated
brass fitting is used containing supply, waste, and overflow.

CHAPTER XIX

SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE COUNTRY

No branch of sanitation has improved more in the last ten
years then plumbing systems for country places. With a sewer
in the street, as is the case in cities and towns, the problem of
sewage disposal is comparatively simple, merely requiring a
connecting line of drainpipe between the house and the trunk
line in the street. But in the country districts where there are
no sewers, evidently some special method of sewage disposal
must be divised in order that dwellers in country houses may
have all the conveniences of modern plumbing, as well as city
people.

Inside the country house, plumbing pipes are installed pre-
cisely the same way they are in the city. Soil-pipe risers
extend from cellar to roof, branch lines taking waste from the
various fixtures to these vertical lines and carrying it through
the cellar wall toward the sewer.

At the end of the drainage line is where a change in the country
system occurs, causing the country sewage-disposal system to be
different from that employed in town. A cesspool may be built
to receive the sewage, or a scientific septic tank may be in-
stalled (both taking the place of the city trunk line), but the
septic tank is the only scientific and really sanitary way to
dispose of sewage.

There are many drawbacks to cesspools. A cesspool built
to hold sewage for an indefinite period must be periodically
emptied and the contents carted away. In the meantime,
seepage from a cesspool leeching through surrounding ground

343

344 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

is quite likely to find its way to the well or spring supplying
the place, contaminating the drinking-water supply and ren-
dering it unfit for use. Worst of all, this contamination many
times is not apparent, and the harm is done and sickness appears
before members of the family are aware of the cause. Cess-
pools have been used for years, they had to be installed, for
formerly there was no other way to handle sewage disposal in
the country, but now there is no excuse for the cesspool, since
sanitary engineers have devised septic systems, which are really
more sanitary than the trunk-line sewage systems used in towns
and cities.

The septic system is not a makeshift designed to reproduce
so far as possible the superior sewage-disposal systems of a city.
It is, on the contrary, a step beyond the city system, more
scientifically correct. A septic system consists, roughly, of a
tank or series of tanks for holding sewage temporarily for the
purpose of chemically transforming it into harmless elements,
and all through a natural, automatic, chemical process.

With a little expert planning, the septic system may be
designed for any number of people from five to fifty. Skilled
workmen can be brought from town to do the work or it may
be done by amateurs, but at least the design should be made
by^an expert, for conditions vary in each locality, and the
proper working of a septic system depends largely upon local
conditions. It is thus a problem requiring wide experience and
understanding. Once properly installed, there is nothing about
a sewage-disposal plant requiring undue care or knowledge in

operating, nearly every part of the
L^-JL 7i:--..77..-.;Jga^JJ> S y S tem being automatic. When

DRAIN TILE LAID WITH OPEN prO p e rly designed, nothing is apt to
JOINTS. ,. ,

get out oi order.

The principle of modern practical sewage disposal is this:
the upper layer of earth contains air, and when dead organic
matter is brought into contact with it a transformation takes

SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE COUNTRY

345

[yWf}y$W'7W$fffiJFWfo

' // <6PEt1 JOINTED TILE^

GOOD WAY TO LAY
DRAIN TILE IN NI-
TRIFICATION BED.

place. By reason of the oxygen and nitrogen contained there,
organic matter is turned into harmless mineral forms. Under
proper conditions nitro-organisms multiply
and bring about the change.

All that is necessary is to provide a re-
ceptacle or flush tank to collect and hold
sewage temporarily, afterward discharging
the overflow into a subsurface irrigation
system of open-joint pipes near the surface
of the ground, where natural process of oxidation and nitrifica-
tion take place. For this purpose use 3-inch agricultural drain
tile, laid with open joints, 8 to 12 inches below the surface of the
ground. This tile subsurface irrigation system may be placed
any distance from the house, each piece laid nearly level, with
not more pitch than 2 inches in 100 feet, so that liquids will
run very slowly through the tile and discharge into the ground
through the open joints. Porous soil is best, or sandy loam,

fcOKEN
5TOME

4" TILE

NITRIFICATION BED IN CLAY SOIL.

and it facilitates the absorptive quality of soil to surround the
tile with crushed stone or gravel, In clay soil the bottom of

346 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

I--FRE5H
~\ Alt VEMT

SETTLING
O) CHAMBER

FLUSH TANK

*-GATE VALVE

JOINTED TIL

each trench should be drained with 4-inch tile to take away

superfluous moisture.

In order not to overload the drains with a constant supply of
sewage the subsurface irrigation sys-
tem is divided into two or three groups
of pipes, connected with the main line
from the flush tank by a gate valve,
allowing sewage to be diverted from
any group. By this means any group
may be given complete rest for a week,
until the soil around it becomes en-
tirely revivified by air in the upper
surface of the ground.

To help the soil in its work of con-
verting liquid sewage into harmless
minerals, a flush tank (into which all
sewage from the house first discharges)
is made to empty into the subsurface
irrigation drains not constantly but
periodically. Thus the open-joint
drains have an opportunity to recover
after each discharge from the flush

tank. By means of a syphon the contents of the flush tank are

held for about twenty-four hours, until the level of liquid rises

to a certain point,

HOUSE DRAIN

when the syphon
discharges the en-
tire contents into
the drains. The liq-
uid flows through,
discharging into the
ground by means of

the open joints of the entire system. In the meantime the
flush tank, as soon as it has discharged, begins collecting again,

SEPTIC SYSTEM LAID OUT FOR
HOUSE OF MODERATE SIZE.

OPEN
JOINTED TILE

A HOME-MADE CONCRETE SETTLING AND FLUSH
TANK.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE COUNTRY

347

and holds its contents for another twenty-four hours, thus allow-
ing the drains to rest during the interval.

In a subsurface irrigation system laid out for a family of ten,
the storage receptacles or flush tanks need not be more than
15 feet from the house, and they are not unpleasant, as nothing
is visible but two cast-iron covers.

A simple form of flush tank recommended by the United
States Department of Agriculture can be built of stone, brick, or
concrete. A tank like this for a family of six should contain

/WIRE BASKET
J r COVER-

5YPHON

WASTE TO OPEN-
JOINTED
TILE

A SMALL SEPTIC TANK OF CONCRETE.

48 cubic feet, and it solves the plumbing problem in a perfectly
satisfactory way. When built of concrete, the material costs
approximately $23.

Build such a tank at any point in the yard, near the house or
at a distance, for there are no odors. Extend the house drain
to the tank, discharging about halfway up its height. Over
the end of the inlet place a wire basket to interrupt undissolv-
able material, such as scrap from the kitchen sink or bits of
paper.

Tanks with single chambers are effective, but septic tanks
with two chambers arranged so that bacterial processes take
place are the most scientific and best of all, as they not only
retain their contents for periodical discharge, but convert solids
Into liquids, so that the discharge is practically in liquid form.

348 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

In the first chamber of a two-chamber tank, the heavier con-
tents sink to the bottom, while the liquid flows to the second
chamber. The solids in the first chamber are broken up, dis-
solved, and converted into liquids by
bacterial action. Thus the septic tank
converts solids into liquids in the stor-
age tank, periodically discharging liquids
into the subsurface irrigation drains,
where they are transformed into harm-
less minerals by contact with air in the
soil.

One of these systems, properly de-
signed, is far more sanitary than town
sewers. Compared with ordinary cess-
pools, so often used on country places,
flush-tank systems are ideal beyond

COMPLETE SEPTIC SEWAGE SYSTEM.

belief. Cesspools are dangerous. Nothing more unscientific
or unsanitary could be devised for permanent use.

Septic tanks may be bought, ready-made, built of steel plates
riveted together like a boiler. The interior of each tank is

SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE COUNTRY 349

arranged with settling chambers and syphons of the size and
pattern necessary. All that is needed to complete the system is
to connect the tanks with open-joint tile drains.

Subsurface irrigation sewage systems should always be de-
signed by experts. The exact size of tank is very important.
If a tank is too large, the bacterial process is hampered ; and
if undersized, tanks cannot adequately
handle the material.

Subsoil characteristics, slope of ground,
climate, size of family, and distance of
drains from house, all enter into the prob-
lem, which requires experience and knowl-

' , . , VALVE FOR DIVERTING

edge for a correct solution. It isn t a SEWAGE.

problem for an amateur, though the ama-
teur may undoubtedly solve it by study and common sense, for
the principles of subsurface irrigation of sewage are so simple that
any one can readily understand them. The cost of scientific
plants is not excessive.

The interior of a septic tank is very simple; nothing costly
enters into its construction, and manufacturers of septic tanks
furnish all the data required. As their profit is made on tanks,
it is practically the universal custom to make no charge for
information.

CHAPTER XX

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

MANY changes in old, established heating customs have
occurred in the last quarter century. Some ideas which pre-
vailed years ago are now obsolete. Methods then clung to
With persistency have been entirely revolutionized, and present-
day heating is quite different from what it was even ten years
ago. Probably no country in the world has developed scien-
tific heating to such a degree as America. American heating
engineers are known the world over, and American methods are
largely followed in England, France, and Germany, though
European countries have been slow to adopt any advance upon
primitive methods in vogue for years.

It was the invention of cast-iron radiators that gave such an
impulse to heating methods. The first radiators were made of
ordinary pipe, cut off at the right length and made into coils.
Thus, in those days, each radiator was a stack of vertical pipes,
screwed to a hollow cast-iron base, unsightly and inefficient.

With the invention of cast-iron radiators, heating engineers,
recognizing their importance, gave attention to developing
steam and hot-water heating systems to the highest point of
efficiency. To-day, heating apparatus for hot-water and steam
systems is largely standard, all manufacturers using similar
models. Like plumbing fixtures, most radiators and boilers
now made are designed along similar lines, though of course
each manufacturer claims points of superiority in patterns of
his own manufacture.

In selecting heating apparatus the most important point
for the houseowner to remember is that he should deal only

351

352 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

ELECTRIC REGISTER.

with reputable firms, concerns who stand back of their goods,
constantly maintaining them at a high point. After installa-
tion of a heating system in his house,
the owner wants to be assured that it
will do the work properly and wear well,
and he wants to feel certain that in the
event of apparatus not working well he
can fall back on the manufacturer to
make it good.

A house is usually warmed by one of
four different methods: stoves, hot-air

furnace, hot-water (gravity), or steam heater. High pressure
hot-water systems are rarely used for houses. There are other
methods also, such as warming by fireplaces, and by electric
and gas radiators, but the former are rarely used as the only
means of heating a house, and electric and gas radiators are
not yet practical for warming an entire house, though they are
excellent as auxiliary heaters.

When hot-water and steam heaters first came into the market
in the shape of efficient ap-
paratus it was predicted that
the hot-air furnace would be
q-uickly displaced by them.
So different has been the re-
sult that, as an actual fact,

hot-air furnaces are used
quite as much as formerly.
Manufacturers of hot-air
furnaces, driven by sharp
competition of hot-water
and steam apparatus manu-
facturers, were obliged to

improve their product. Present-day hot-air furnaces of the
best models are excellent for warming, being especially practical

PAN

BRICK-SET HOT-AIR FURNACE.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

353

for small houses where the cost of hot-water or steam apparatus
is prohibitive.

It is not the amount of coal you burn that gives warmth
to your living rooms. Tons of coal may only succeed in lining
your chimney with soot, and the coal man's pocketbook with
your money. A badly arranged heating apparatus eats up
coal almost faster than you can shovel it in, and a large part of
the heat goes up the chimney.

There are many points in favor of the hot-air furnace, the
principal one being that a
hot-air system, when fresh,
cold air is brought in from
outside, circulates pure air
and you can give this air,
just the right degree of
humidity or moisture by
keeping the water pan filled
with water.

The chief drawback to a
hot-air furnace is in windy
weather. On the windy
side of a house, the warm

air is driven back and the circulation impaired. This may be
greatly obviated by locating a furnace nearer the side of pre-
vailing winds. In other words, do not put your furnace in the
center of the basement, but place it toward the windy side.
Select a furnace with an absolutely air-tight casing either of
brick or galvanized steel. Then you will not be drawing in
foul cellar air and discharging it to rooms above. Arrange the
cold-air box so you can get cold air from outdoors in mild
weather, and from inside in freezing, windy weather. Keep the
water pan filled with clean water.

The owner will not be able to lay out the system of pip-
ing himself unless he has made a study of hot-air warming.

HOT-AIR FURNACE WITH GALVANIZED
IRON CASING.

354 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

CONVENIENT TYPE OF
WALL REGISTER.

The man he employs, if he is skillful, will have all warm-air
pipes as close to the furnace as possible, with no long horizontal
runs. For upper rooms it pays to use
double-jacketed pipes, for much heat radi-
ating in partitions when single pipes are
used, goes to waste.

In a furnace the best firepots have cor-
rugated sides. This greatly adds to the
strength and life of the metal. The best
furnaces are made of tight steel sections or
drums thoroughly fastened together with
air-tight joints, and the whole covered with
an air-tight casing of galvanized steel or brick. A large fire-
pot is more economical of fuel consumption than a small one.
A furnace larger than actually required is better than one too
small, because a slow fire in a large heater
is more economical than a forced fire in a
small one.

All interior parts of the furnace should
be large and smooth. Even a slight
roughness of surface will catch carbon
from the fire and foul the fire ways. On
tfeg first story use floor registers of simple
pattern ; wall registers are best for bed-
rooms.

Combination hot-air and hot-water
heaters are really furnaces containing a
hot- water coil in the firepot. The latter
is connected with a few radiators on up-
per floors, the balance of the house being
warmed by hot-air pipes.

Hot-water systems of heating are eco-
nomical because water is so sensitive when heat is applied that
a low fire causes a circulation of warm water through the rooms

VERTICAL SECTIONAL
STEAM BOILER.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

355

and the air is quickly raised in temperature. Then, too, on
spring days and cool evenings in the fall, when a fire so low
that it scarcely burns at all makes the house comfortable, hot-
water heat is particularly desirable.

TABLE SHOWING SIZES OF VERTICAL SECTIONAL BOILERS

STEAM

Height (to
top outlet)
Inches

Nom.
Diam.
Grate
Inches

Grate
Area
Sq. Ft.

Average
Firepot
Sq. Ft.

Height
Water Line
Inches

Outlets and
Inlets Size
Inches

Smoke
Pipe
Inches

Ratings

1.21

.06

40^

175

1.21

.06*

44|

200

1.21

.06

48|

225

471

1.76

.53

43i

275

1.76

.53

47|

300

56|

1.76

.53

51|

325

2.40

2.18

44|

400

2.40

2.18

425

2.40

2.18

531

450

62^

2.40

2.18

58|

475

3.14

2.82

45*

525

55^

3.14

2.82

50|

575

3.14

2.82

625

64|f

3.14

2.82

59 T %

650

3.90

3.83

46|

750

56 T V

3.90

3.83

51 T 5 *

800

61|

3.90

3.83

56|

850

66A

3.90

3.83

61 T 3 *

900

356 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

TABLE SHOWING SIZES OF VERTICAL SECTIONAL BOILERS

HOT WATER

Height (to
top outlet)
Inches

Nom.
Diam.
Grate
Inches

Grate
Area
Sq. Ft.

Average
Firepot
Sq. Ft.

Outlets
and Inlets
Size
Inches

Smoke
Pipe
Inches

Ratings

1.21

.06

300

1.21

.06

325

1.21

.06

350

42^

1.76

.53

450

1.76

1.53

500

1.76

1.53

550

2.40

2.18

600

2.40

2.18

650 '

2.40

2.18

700

57A

2.40

2.18

750

3.14

2.82

875

3.14

2.82

950

3.14

2.82

1025

59is

3.14

2.82

1075

3.90

3.83

1250

501!

3.90

3.83

1325

551

3.90

3.83

1400

60H

3.90

3.83

1475

Hot-water boilers can be bought with
either vertical or horizontal sections,
that is, with sections piled one on top
of the other, or with sections side by side
like a radiator. The former are usually
best for a house of moderate size. Select
a boiler with ample flue ways, easy to keep
clean. For soft coal use a boiler with extra

large flues. Magazine boilers are labor
HORIZONTAL SEC- . , , , , , ,

TIONAL BOILER FOR saving, for they need to be loaded but

HOT-WATER HEAT. once a day.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

357

TABLE SHOWING SIZES OF HORIZONTAL SECTIONAL BOILERS

STEAM

Length
Total
Inches

Crate
Area
Sq. Ft.

Average
Firepot
Sq. Ft.

Outlets
Inches

Ash Pit (Inside) Inches

Ratings

40f

1.95

2.47

2-3

201f X 21f

300

471

2.60

3.30

2-3

20H X 271f

425

53|

3.25

4.10

2-3

201f X 34

550

52f

3.32

4.00

2-3

20 X 29B

600

58f

4.15

5.00

2-3

20 X 36|

750

4.98

6.00

3-3

20 X 43A

900

531

4.08

4.84

2-4

231 X 31H

800

60!

5.10

6.05

2-4

23f X 381

1000

67!

6.12

7.26

3-4

23f X 45H

1200

59!

5.44

6.48

2-4

28 X 35r 3 <r

1100

661 '

6.80

8.10

2-4

28 X 421

1350

74|

8.16

9.72

3-4

28 X 50 T 9 *

1600

82!

9.52

11.34

3-4

28 X 58!

1850

6.24

7.33

2-4

30f X 351

1300

7.80

9.16

2-4

30f X 431

1625

9.36

10.99

3-4

30f X 511

1950

10.92

12.83

3-4

30f X 591

2275

69f

9.12

10.40

2-5

381f X 40f

2100

781

11.40

13.00

2-5

3811 X 491

2625

13.68

15.60

3-5

381f X 59

3150

97|

15.96

18.20

3-5

381f X 681

3675

106|

18.24

20.80

4-5

3811 X 77!

4200

18.00

18.75

2-6

52 X55

4750

102f

21.60

22.50

2-6

52 X66

5700

114

25.20

26.25

3-6

52 X77

6650

124|

28.8a

30.00

3-6

52 X88

7600

135

32.40

33.75

3-6

52 X99

8550

358 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

TABLE SHOWING SIZES OF HORIZONTAL SECTIONAL BOILERS

HOT WATER

Length
Total
Inches

Grate
Area

Sq. Ft.

Average
Firepot
Sq. Ft.

Outlets
Inches

Ash-Pit (Inside) Inches

Ratings

401

1.95

2.47

2-3

20{| X 21f

500

47|

2.60

3.30

2-3

2011 X 2711

700

53|

3.25

4.10

2-3

20H X 34

900

52f

3.32

4.00

2-3

20 X 2911

1000

58f

4.15

5.00

2-3

20 X 36|

1250

4.98

6.00

3-3

20 X 43^

1500

53|

4.08

4.84

2-4

231- X 3111

1300

601

5.10

6.05

2-4

231 X 381

1650

. 67|

6.12

7.26

3-4

231 X 451! .

2000

591

5.44

6.48

2-4

28 X 35 r 3 6

1825

661

6.80

8.10

2-4

28 X 421

2225

74|

8.16

9.72

3-4

28 X 50 T 9 6 -

2650

821

9.52

11.34

3-4

28 X 581

3050

6.24

7.33

2-4

30f X 35^

2150

7.80

9.16

2-4

30-i- X 43|

2675

_ 76

9.36

10.99

3-4

30f X 51J

3200

10.92

12.83

3-4

30-1 X 59!

3725

69f

9.12

10.40

2-5

38H X 40|

3450

781

11.40

13.00

2-5

381^ X 491

4325

13.68

15.60

3-5

3811 X 59

5200

971

15.96

18.20

3-5

3811 X 68-1

6050

1061

18.24

20.80

4-5

3811 X 77i

0925

18.00

18.75

2-6

52 X 55

7825

102f

21.60

22.50

2-6

52 X 66

9400

114

25.20

26.25

3-6

52 X 77

10975

1241

28.80

30.00

3-6

52 X88

12550

135

32.40

33.75

3-6

52 X 99

14125

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

359

You must buy a boiler at least half as large again as is required
by the amount of radiation. If your house requires five hun-
dred feet of radiation get a seven hundred and fifty foot boiler,
for a boiler too small will have to be forced in cold weather,

BRICK-SET STEEL BOILER FOR STEAM HEAT.

and that eats up fuel. The following formula can be used to
determine the amount of radiation required to properly warm
a house :

FORMULA FOR SIZE OF RADIATORS

Find the cubic feet of air in room. Find the exposed wall
surface in square feet less glass. Find the square feet of glass

360 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

surface. Divide the wall surface by 10, which gives you glass
equivalent. Add this quotient to the glass surface, multiply
this sum by 75 and add this product to the cubic feet of air in
room. Multiply this sum by .0092 for hot water or by .0055 for
steam.

After determining amount of radiation required in each room,
add the results together to determine amount of radiation required
for entire house.

Example :

Room 30' X 30' X 10' = 9000 cubic feet of air. Exposed on
two sides = 480 square feet of wall surface. Four windows,
5' X 6' = 120 square feet of glass surface.

480 divided by 10 equals 48.

48 plus 120 equals 168.

168 multiplied by 75 equals 12,600.

12,600 plus 9000 equals 21,600.

21,600 multiplied by .0055 equals 118.8 square feet of radia-
tion necessary to heat said room by steam.

Or 21,600 multiplied by .0092 equals 197.72 square feet, the
amount necessary to heat the same room by hot water.

Weather zero.

Steam 1 Ib. pressure.
^Water in boiler 165 degrees F.

Your boiler should be equipped with a thermometer to in-
dicate the temperature of the water, and with an altitude gauge
to show the height of water in the system. The entire system
is filled with water up to the expansion tank in the attic. This
latter is open to the atmosphere and acts as a safety valve.

It pays to cover a boiler with asbestos cement or some other
insulating material, and it pays to use pipe covering on the
basement piping. In this way you prevent much heat from
wasting. The owner can buy cement and pipe covering and
do the job easily himself if he is so minded.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

361

An automatic circulator is worth while for the hot-water
system. This consists of a column of mercury in a tube, con-
nected with the piping system. The mercury causes a pres-
sure in the system which increased the circulation about five
times, thus saving considerable coal.

Steam heating is not used much for small houses. Steam is
frequently advisable in a country house when the boiler is lo-
cated in a shed instead of in
the basement. If the boiler
is in the shed, it must stand
in a pit well below the level
of the lowest radiator, in
order to allow wet, con-
densed steam to flow back
to the boiler after it has
done its work in the radi-
ators. The circulation in a
heating system is similar to
the circulation of blood in
the human body, the boiler
taking the place of the heart.

A steam boiler is similar to
a hot-water boiler, but it has

in addition a large dome at the top to allow steam to rise from
the boiling water and collect. In an ordinary hot-water boiler
there is no pressure or very little as the water does not
need to boil. To make steam, however, water must be boiled,
resulting in pressure in a steam system. This requires a safety
valve which will pop and relieve the system when the pressure
gets too high.

A steam system is a little cheaper than hot water because it
requires but one pipe to the radiators, whereas the hot-water
system usually requires two ; steam radiators are smaller than
hot-water radiators, as steam is hotter than hot water.

BOILER COVERED WITH ASBESTOS
CEMENT.

362 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

A popular objection to steam heating is the snapping and
thumping of pipes. This is unnecessary ; a steam system may

COMPLETE VACUUM STEAM SYSTEM.

be as quiet in operation as any other, if pipes are laid with a
slope to drain back to the boiler, and if allowance is made for
sufficient expansion of joints to allow pipes to expand and con-
tract when alternately hot or cold.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

363

IDC

Vacuum-heating systems are really steam-heating systems,
but a vacuum is maintained in the pipes by means of a vacuum
pump located in the basement. This form of house heating
is now being used quite exten-
sively, though it is more prac- [
tical for large houses than for
small, by reason of its greater
first cost. A vacuum system
consists of the ordinary single-
pipe layout for the house, con-
necting each radiator with the P ROP ER TOOLS FOR HEATING PLANT.
boiler in the basement, but

instead of ordinary air valves special automatic air valves are
used. These are connected by means of a small pipe, with a
pump and condenser in the basement. The vacuum system
operates as follows : when the vacuum pump in the basement
is started, air is sucked out of the entire
system by means of a small pipe connected
with the air valves, thus producing a vac-
uum in each radiator. Then when steam
is turned on it rushes instantly to each
radiator. The entire process is automatic,
for the vacuum pump is operated by water
pressure from the town water supply sys-
tem or by an electric motor, automatically
controlled by the pressure in the system.
In connection with the vacuum pump is a
condenser into which the moisture-laden
air from the radiators is pumped and con-
densed, thus reaching the vacuum pump
in a dry state. It is claimed for vacuum
systems that they are more efficient than ordinary steam sys-
tems, requiring less fuel and consequently costing less to
operate.

3-CoLUMN CAST-IRON
RADIATOR.

364 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM
SINGLE-COLUMN RADIATORS FOR STEAM AND WATER

No. of

Sections

Length
per Sec.

HEATING SURFACE SQUARE FEET

38-in.
Height
3 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

32-in.
Height
2^ Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

26-in.
Height
2 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

23-in.
Height
If Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

20-in.
Height
li Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

12}

12!

17}

ii!

10!

13^

22}

22!

13!

16!

27!

18!

16!

30~

32!

21!

19!

23!

37!

ti~n

26!

42|

42!

28!

25!

47!

31!

28!

-30

33!

52!

52}

31!

36!

57!

38!

34!

62}

62!

41!

37!

43!

67!

67}

40!

46!

72!

72|

48!

43!

77!

77|

51!

46!

53!

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

365

TWO-COLUMN RADIATORS FOR STEAM AND WATER

No. of
Sec-
tions

Length
2^ In.
per Sec.

HEATING SURFACE SQUARE FEET

45-in.
Height
5Sq.
Ft. per
Sec.

38-in.
Height
4Sq.
Ft. per
Sec.

32-in.
Height
31 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

26-in.
Height
2f Sq. Ft.
per Sec 4

23-in.
Height
21 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

20-in.
Height
2Sq.
Ft. per
Sec.

15-in.
Height
11 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

' 3

13!

10!

16!

13!

17?

23!

18!

16!

26!

21!

18!

131

33!

26!

23!

27i

36!

29!

25!

321

43!

34!

30!

19|

46!

37!

32!

371

22i

53!

42!

37!

42|

56!

45!

39!

25f

63!

50!

44!

28J

100

66!

53!

46!

52^

105

31J

110

73!

58!

51!

57|

115

76!

61!

53!

341

120

125

100

83!

66!

58!

37i

130

104

CA 2
ot>3

69!

60!

67i

135

108

401

140

112

93!

74!

65!

145

116

96!

77!

67!

150

120

100

77i

155

124

103!

82!

72i

46-|

160

128

106!

85!

74!

366 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

THREE-COLUMN RADIATORS FOR STEAM AND WATER

No. of
Sec-
tions

Length
2iln.
per Sec.

HEATING SURFACE SQUARE FEET

45-in.
Height
6 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

38-in.
Height
5 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

32-in.
Height
4} Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

26-in.
Height
3| Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

22-in.
Height
3Sq.
Ft. per
Sec.

18-in
Height
2i Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

13J

12|

22i

18f

22i

13|

17J

31J

26i

15}

22|

40|

33f

20!

37|

22J

27|

49|

411

24}

32|

58*

48f

29!

52^

31|

37^

67^

56|

33}

42^

102

76i

63f

38!

108

67^

40|

114

85|

42}

120

100

52i

126

105

78}

47!

132

110

82i

49|

57^

138

115

103J

86!

51}

144

120

108

62i

150

125

H2J

93|

56!

156

130

117

97|

58|

67|

162

135

121-1

101!

60}

168

140

126

105

72|

174

145

130|

108}

65!

180

150

135

112J

67|

77i

186

155

139|

116!

69}

192

160

144

120

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

367

FOUR-COLUMN RADIATORS FOR STEAM OR WATER

No. of

Sec-
tions

Length
3 In.
per Sec.

HEATING SURFACE SQUARE FEET

45-in.
Height
10 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

38-in.
Height
8 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

32-in.
Height
6i Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

26-in.
Height
5 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

22-in.
Height
4Sq.
Ft. per
Sec.

18-in.
Height
3 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

19!

32!

45!

58|

100

110

71*

120

130

104

84!

140

112

150

120

97!

160

128

104

170

136

110!

180

144

117

190

152

123|

200

160

130

100

210

168

136!

105

220

176

143

110

230

184

149!

115

240

192

156

120

250

200

162!

125

100

260

208

169

130

104

270

216

175!

135

108

280

224

182

140

112

290

232

188!

145

116

300

240

195

150

120

310

248

201!

155

124

320

256

208

160

128

368 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO+BUILD THEM

4-CoLUMN CAST-IRON
WINDOW RADIATOR.

Hot-water radiators are like steam radiators except that
sections are joined together at the top as well as bottom with
nipples. In steam radiators the tops of the sections are not
connected. Radiators are chiefly of cast
iron, though pressed-steel radiators are now
to be obtained. Hot-water radiators should
always be at least three eighths larger than
steam radiators. The preceding tables show
sizes of standard radiators.

Do not make your radiators conspicuous
by painting them with gold or silver paint.
If the walls of your rooms are tinted, paint
the radiators the same shade. If you are
using wall paper, tint the radiators the tone of the prevailing
color in the paper. Special radiator paints without oil (oil
would never dry out) can be obtained in all shades.

You can find radiators of all kinds, suitable for every purpose.
In the pantry use a plate-warming radiator, or you may use
for the same purpose a hot closet in the dining-room radiator.
If the space where a radiator is to stand is short, use a short,
wide, four-column radiator. If the space is
long and narrow, a single-column or two-
cekimn radiator is best. For very narrow
spaces you can get wall radiators which are
the thinnest models made. Where space is
ample, the pattern of radiator most used
is the three-column.

Radiators are least in the way and more
efficient under windows. Thus, they do not
take up space needed for furniture, and the
cold air from the window is warmed as fast
as it comes in. A ventilating radiator is ideal for freshening
the air. By means of a little register cut through the outside
wall behind each radiator, fresh air is admitted to the base of

RADIATOR FOR WARM-
ING PLATES.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

369

the radiator, where it is warmed and passed into the room. The
amount of cold air may be regulated by a shutter worked from
the front of the radiator.

LOW (WINDOW) RADIATORS FOR STEAM OR WATER

No. of
Sections

Length
3 In.
per Sec.

HEATING SURFACE SQUARE FOOT

1 20-in.
Height
6 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

18-in.
Height
5k Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

16-in.
Height
4f Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

14-in.
Height
4 Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

13-in.
Height
3| Sq. Ft.
per Sec.

10f

21|

18f

14!

26f

23^

18|

32|.

25f

53f

37^

53^

46f

36f

58|

51|

40i

Pressed-steel radiators are much smaller and lighter than
cast iron, and these are the principal advantages claimed for
them. Frequently it is desirable, in small rooms or contracted
spaces, to use radiators as small as possible. Pressed-steel radi-
ators are good for that purpose as they furnish the same amount
of heat in radiators of smaller sizes. The additional advantage
they have in weighing less than cast-iron radiators is frequently
desirable where floor loads are required to be lessened.

Indirect radiation by means of hollow pin radiators is another
excellent way to heat the house. Such radiators are placed
in boxes in the basement, connected by ducts with the outside
2 B

370 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

air. Cool, fresh air after it is warmed is distributed to the rooms
by hot-air pipes and registers. This is an expensive way but
it gives excellent results.

The best radiator valves for steam
and hot water are plain quick-opening,
nickel-plated valves. For steam, the
disk in the valve screws entirely down to
shut off the radiator, but for hot water
the disk is pierced with a little hole, so
that water circulates slightly after the
valve is closed. This is necessary to
prevent freezing.

A "union L" is used for the outgo-
ing side of a hot-water radiator. This
is nickel plated to match the valve and
it allows a radiator to be disconnected
for repairs. A new combination valve
for hot water admits of both pipes being
brought to one end of the radiator, which works well with this
valve. In some systems an angle valve is used with satisfactory
results.

Loose-key air valves are best for hot-water radiators as they
prevent accidental opening of the valves, which would allow
water to escape and ruin floors and ceilings. It is only neces-
sary to let the air out once each year when
the apparatus is first started in the autumn.
For steam, use ordinary wheel air valves,
or automatic valves. Be sure your auto-
matic valves are of the best pattern, for if a
single valve does not work properly, escaping
steam may do much damage. Use nickel-
plated floor and ceiling plates at the top
and bottom of all exposed heating pipes. Where pipes pass
through floors and ceilings, holes should be slightly larger than

PRESSED STEEL RADIATOR.

CAST-IRON RADIATOR
FOR INDIRECT HEAT-
ING.

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

371

the pipes to allow for expansion. Floor and ceiling plates con-
ceal these holes, and metal tubes are frequently placed at such
points for the pipes to extend through.

A thermostat is desirable for the hot-air furnace as well as
hot-water and steam boilers, as this ingenious little device auto-

AUTOMATIC AIR VALVE
FOR STEAM.

QUICK-OPENING VALVE FOR
HOT-WATER RADIATOR.

IMPROVED VALVE FOR
STEAM RADIATOR.

matically controls the fire in the furnace by opening and closing
drafts. The best thermostats consist of a little fixture attached
to the wall in the living room or any room in which the average
temperature of the house is maintained. In some forms of
thermostats the expansion and contraction of a metal blade
(caused by varying temperature in the room) makes an electri-
cal connection with a clockwork motor in the basement, op-
erating the direct draft and check draft of the furnace. The
apparatus may be set at the exact temperature wanted say 70
degrees. If the temperature of the room
rises slightly above 70 degrees the metal blade
expands, touches a metallic point, making an
electrical connection which trips the clock-
work motor. Then this motor, by means of
a lever and chain, closes the direct draft of
the furnace and opens the check draft. Of
course the fire immediately slows down and the temperature
falls. When the temperature falls below 70 degrees, the pro-
cess is reversed, the motor opening the direct draft and closing

UNION L FOR HOT-
WATER RADIATOR.

372 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

VALVE FOR SINGLE
PIPE HOT-WATER
SYSTEMS.

the check draft, thus causing the fire to burn more freely. As
an auxiliary to the thermostat a clock may be used, which can
be set to cause the draft to be opened at any hour. Thus, one
may turn down the thermostat to- carry a
slow fire upon going to bed at night, set-
ting the clock to operate at six o'clock in
the morning, at which hour the thermostat
promptly opens the draft, making the house
warm by getting-up time. Clockwork mo-
tors must be wound about once a week. A
battery furnishes the current for operating
the electrical part of the apparatus.

Other thermostats operate without a clockwork motor, by
means of compressed air. The expansion and contraction of
the metal sides of a small drum hung on the wall of the living
room transmit energy through a tube to the
damper regulator at the furnace, no electric
current being necessary. Of the newest of
these devices is one in which the expansion
and contraction of a bellows-like metal com-
partment transmits energy to the damper
regulator by means of a volatile chemical.
-^Thermostats of the best pattern are so sensitive that the
opening of a window in a room causes them to operate. They
undoubtedly save cost of fuel and are of the greatest convenience.

Their cost is so slight compared
with the work they do that a
thermostat is undoubtedly worth
while in any house.

Chains are sometimes con-
nected with the direct draft

and check draft of a furnace, extending up to the first floor by
means of pulleys. Thus one can operate the drafts from the
first floor by pulling the chains. This will be found a great
convenience, though not so convenient as a thermostat.

KEY AIR VALVE FOR
HOT-WATER RADI-
ATORS.

SECTIONAL

FLOOR AND
PLATES.

CEILING

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

373

The principles of heating are easily understood if one will
give a little thought to them. Remember, heat travels easiest
uphill. With a hot-water system your attic rooms may be
warmer than those on the first floor, for water circulates more
rapidly through the upright attic pipes than through the hori-
zontal first-floor pipes. For this reason, favor the first-floor radi-
ators by having the horizontal pipes as short as possible. Give
them a generous slope, with few crooks and bends. Decrease
the tendency of attic radiators to draw more than their share
of hot water by having attic pipes smaller then first-floor pipes.

The success of tfie heating system lies largely with the per-
son who runs it. Even the best fuel fails when used unintelli-
gently. On the other hand, by efficient stoking one may get a
wonderful lot of heat out of poor fuel. Keep the fire pot clean
by punching out clinkers with a clinker bar and not by roughly
shaking the grate, which loosens the entire bed of coals, admitting
too much air, burning and wasting fuel and making dust.
A mild shaking morning and night will remove loose ashes.
The ideal fire from the standpoint of health as well as economy
is slow and easy burning.

Chimneys should properly be ranked part of the heating
system quite the most important part, in fact, for no heating
apparatus can be expected to work well if the chimney is not
properly designed. The following table for determining size
of chimney flues will answer in most cases :

CORRECT SIZES FOR CHIMNEY FLUES (FOR DIRECT RADIATION)

STEAM

SQUARE FLUE (INCHES)

HOT WATER

250

8 X8

400

600

8 X 12

1000

900

12 X 12

1500

1000

12 X 12

1700

1300

12 X 16

2200

374 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

A flue for the heating apparatus should be smooth inside, pref-
erably lined with tile flue lining, though it may be plastered smooth
inside, instead. When flue lining is used the last section of tile
should extend an inch or more above the top of the chimney to
prevent wind from blowing down chimney. The thimble for
the furnace, to which the furnace or heater smoke pipe is con-
nected, should not be less than 8 inches in diameter, and the
smoke pipe itself should be as short as possible. It is good
practice not to extend the chimney flue much below where the
smoke pipe enters, as the body of air contained in a flue below
where the smoke pipe enters sometimes acts as a check on the
draft.

One ring of brick (4 inches) is frequently considered sufficient
for a chimney when tile flue lining is used, and the entire chim-
ney should stand free from the framework of the house. It is
not good practice to allow any wooden studding or floor beams
to stand closer than 1 inch from any chimney. Every chimney
should have a cement chimney cap at the top, slightly dished,
to cause wind to be deflected instead of blowing down the
chimney.

Flues for kitchen stoves are ordinarily 8X8 inches and 8X12
inches ; for a fireplace, 12 X 12 inches. Fireplace flues are fre-
quently made as small as 8 X 12 inches, but it is better practice
to" make them larger. The flue for the heating apparatus (size
of which can be obtained from the table) should be entirely
independent from cellar to roof. The flue for the kitchen
range may also receive the smoke pipe from the laundry stove.
Each fireplace should have an entirely independent flue.

Chimneys smoke from many causes. In some cases they are
not high enough, extending as they do below the highest point
of the roof. Other faulty flues are found to have obstructions
in them, left through carelessness of masons who did not clean
out the flues when the house was completed. Smoke has been
known to be caused by a smoke pipe being pushed too far into

EFFICIENT HEATING METHODS

375

CA p

TERQA GOTTA

WOOD 5MELF

TILE FACIMG

^COMMON BRICK

the flue ; other troubles come from the flue being too small, or
leaking air through cracks of imperfectly built brick work.

Faults in flues can usually be corrected by masons expert
enough to understand them. Frequently a flue is made to work
perfectly by merely
adding a chimney
pot at the top,
which often im-
proves the draft.

It is always a
good idea to place
chimneys near the
ridge of the roof.
This leaves only the
top of the chimney
exposed, and the
roof, sloping away
from the chimney
instead of towards
it (as it might when
the chimney is lower
down on the roof),
causes water to
drain away with- JN^

f 1 COMCRETE FLOO&^

out danger of leaks.
Pay particular at-
tention to the way
flashing is applied

at chimneys. Workmen sometimes flash by merely laying strips
of tin on top of the shingles, with one edge turned into the
brickwork. This is all right so far as it goes, but another strip
of tin should be jointed into the brickwork lapping down over
the first tin so as to cause water running down the side of the
chimney to drip oft 7 . This is called counter flashing and it is
always demanded in first-class work.

FLOOR
JOISTS- 1

CORRECT DESIGN FOR A SMOKELESS FIREPLACE.

376 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Fireplaces, which may be considered as auxiliary means of
warming the house, have caused as much trouble in new houses
as almost any other thing. The proportion of fireplaces that
smoke is unfortunately large, though every mason claims to
have a pattern of fireplace " guaranteed smokeless." It has
been the experience of most architects that the average mason
knows very little about fireplace design, and most of the de-
velopments in smokeless fireplaces have come from the archi-
tects, themselves.

Fireplace design is really very simple. In the first place, to
secure a smokeless fireplace the throat should be carefully pro-
portioned to the size of the fireplace opening. In other words,
since a certain amount of air enters the fireplace opening, the
throat must be proportioned to draw this air through as well as
the smoke. Narrow throats have been found to draw better
than wide throats, and the rule accepted by most fireplace de-
signers is as follows :

RULE FOR SMOKELESS FIREPLACE

The throat should be T V the area of the fireplace opening.

Example. Fireplace opening, 3'X2 / 6 // = 1080 square inches.
T V of 1080 square inches = 90 square inches (required area of
throat), or 3" X 30".

Next, after the size of the throat is determined, the fireplace
should be built with a flat shelf or ledge above the throat in-
stead of the customary sloping wall. With the latter, wind
blowing down chimney drives directly into the fireplace, causing
the fire to smoke. When a flat ledge is built, wind blowing
down chimney is deflected before it can reach the fire. With a
fireplace built along these lines there should be no trouble from
smoking. Make the smoke chamber above the throat of good
size and have the flue as straight as possible. Your fireplace
should then be a success.

CHAPTER XXI
PLASTERING; INSIDE AND OUTSIDE

PLASTERING is the most difficult operation in the house when
it comes to getting a good job. There is no reason why it should
be harder to get good plastering than to get a good job of paint-
ing or plumbing, but the fact remains that plastering is more
often bad than good. Great care should be used in selecting the
plastering contractor. Price should not count in this work,
for many a house has been spoiled by the poor work done by a
plastering contractor who took the job too low, skimping on
his work to make up.

It is necessary to watch plasterers in order to get level ceilings
and true walls. Workmen should be compelled to use long
straight-edges, applied frequently to walls and ceilings to see if
the latter are true. Nothing is more discouraging than to find
walls uneven and ceilings "wavy" after the house is completed,
when it is too late to improve them.

Laths are used to form a firm skeleton to which plaster will
cling by flowing into the interstices between laths and then
clinching. This clinch is called the "key" and it is the most
important part of the work, for when the key is weak plaster
soon drops off.

On ceilings, lathing is frequently applied directly to the un-
der side of the ceiling joists and there is no fault in this method,
though sometimes when ceiling joists are not uniformly of
the same width (one being below another), it is better to cross-
fur the ceiling, thus permitting it to be leveled up properly to
receive the laths. Cross-furring also prevents trouble when
joists warp (which they frequently do).

379

380 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

LATH READY
FOB. PLASTER,.

LATHS PROPERLY APPLIED.

Old-fashioned laths were of hard wood. They are now usually
of pine, spruce, or hemlock, and the regular size for interior work

is J inch thick, 1J inches wide,
and 4 feet long. Studs should
be properly spaced so they will
come in the right place for nail-
ing the laths. Use only the best
laths, with straight grain to pre-
vent warping. They should be
well seasoned, free from sap or

rot, and they will be found much stronger if free from knots
or knot holes. "Live" knots or resinous pockets may cause
discoloration of the plaster, so laths should be carefully selected,
rejecting those which do not come up to the required standard.
In applying laths they should be nailed about J inch apart,
the end of one lath coming against the end of another. A con-
tinuous panel of laths about 18 inches wide should be formed,
after which the joints should be broken to avoid a continuous
joint from floor to ceiling (likely to cause a crack). Nails
should be large-headed, cut
or wire nails If inches long,
driven well into the studding.
As a substitute for laths
a material called "sheathing
laths" is sometimes used,

r BUILDING PAPEQ

SIDING -*

5HEATHINO-
2X45TUD5^

PLA5TER,
BOARD J

1
1

STUDDIPO I6"OC

consisting of % X 8-inch
boards grooved to receive
the plaster. This is claimed
to be an advantageous
method, as it makes a firmer
body than laths, permitting
nails to be driven into the
wall anywhere, after the plastering is completed, without loos-
ening the plaster. "Plaster board" is also frequently used;

PLASTER BOARD USED IN PLACE OF LATHS.

PLASTERING; INSIDE AND OUT

381

51 D I NO

f inch to Y mc h thick, 16 inches wide and 4 feet long, con-
sisting of fiber embedded in plaster of Paris. Both sheathing
laths and plaster board are nailed directly to the studding and
plaster is applied to them as it is ordinarily applied to laths.
Plaster board and sheathing laths can be readily sawed to" fit,
like ordinary lumber.

Metal lathing is excellent for outside or inside work, as it is
considered reasonably fireproof and will not expand nor contract
in extremes of heat and cold. Metal
lathing should not be applied directly
to joists or studs, as the latter, after
the plastering is completed, frequently
show through in streaks. A better
way is to apply furring strips of metal
to the studs and on these fasten the
metal lathing. More plaster is re-
quired for metal lathing than for wood
laths, as there is a greater area of
laths in the latter (consequently less
plaster) than in the former. To be
fireproof, metal lathing should be en-
tirely embedded in the mortar (on back
as well as front), but it is very diffi-
cult to get plasterers to work carefully enough to bring this about.

Wood laths are satisfactory for exterior plaster if they are
"half seasoned" (not too dry) and are not more than one inch
wide. They should be laid at least f inch apart. Metal
lathing should always be of heaviest metal, galvanized or dipped
in mineral paint to avoid future rusting. Both metal and wood
laths are 'applied on wood furring strips nailed to the boarding
of the house. Waterproof felt must be applied to the board-
ing underneath the lath and plaster to prevent moisture from
entering through the walls, as cement plaster is not in itself
waterproof unless made so by some special process.

PAPER.

METAL
LATH

INTERIOR.
PLASTER.

-SHEATHING 1
PLASTERING ON METAL
LATHING.

382 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

" Ingot iron" metal lathing is good for outside work, but as
an additional precaution against rusting it is a good thing to
have it galvanized or paint-dipped.

Ordinary plaster for inside work is composed of lime, water,
sana, hair (or fiber), and plaster of Paris. All lime should be

STUDDING

EXTEBIO..
PLA5TE

5TUDDING

SHEATH IMG

EXTERIOR PLASTERING ON WOOD LATHS.

well slaked, being mixed with water and allowed to stand from
24 hours to one week until it is thoroughly "cold." Blisters
which sometimes appear in plastering, weeks after it is finished,
are generally caused by lack of slaking, the lime "popping"
after it has been applied to the wall.

PLASTERING; INSIDE AND OUT

383

STUDDING

METAL LATh

Sand used in plaster should be medium fine, clean, and sharp.
That is, it should not be too coarse, and it should be free from
loam or other foreign matter so that upon rubbing a handful
between the hands, no dirt is evident. Sand taken from the
bed of a lake or river is sometimes too smooth (not " sharp"
enough), thus not offering sufficient bond with the lime. The
best sand is screened, washed, and then dried.

To strengthen plaster, cattle hair or Manila fiber is mixed
into it, or sometimes
asbestos is used.
Goat hair is better
than cattle hair as it
is of greater length.

There are several
brands of " patent"
plaster on the mar-
ket, and most of
them are excellent
when hard walls are
required. Keen's
cement is used for
ornamental plaster

moldings and other work which is required to be extremely
hard. Once set, it is almost as hard as stone.

In preparing plaster for inside use about 1 part of lime paste
(previously slaked lime) is used to 2 parts of sand. It is cus-
tomary to mix the hair or fiber with the lime paste, first,
then add sand. The material is stacked up until wanted, after
which water is added to each batch as it is needed, and the plas-
ter is applied to walls and ceilings.

Before applying any plaster in the building, walls and ceilings
should be examined to see if they are level and true in every
particular. Grounds, usually | X | inch, are applied around
all door and window openings and similar places, and the plas-

WATEPPBOOF
FELT

ShEATMlhG

EXTECIOB PLASTER
FURRING STRIP

EXTERIOR PLASTERING ON METAL LATHING.

384 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

tering is brought up to those grounds. Grounds of this size
allow for f inch of plaster on top of the lathing. Plaster is
usually applied in three coats, consisting of the first (" scratch"
coat), the second (" brown" coat), and the third ("skim" or
" white" coat). The scratch coat consists of ordinary plaster
applied to the laths in a layer about \ inch thick. As this is
the coat which clings directly to the laths, the plaster must be
firmly pushed against them so that much of it will flow between
laths, forming a "key." The scratch coat is roughened or
"scratched" with metal combs to provide a good bonding sur-
face for the next coat. It hardens in about 2 to 4 days and
should be nearly dry before applying the next. If too dry,
the scratch coat should be dampened before the next plaster is
applied.

The brown coat is of finer grained material than that used
for the first coat. A little hair is sometimes added to it, and it
is applied in a layer \ to f inch thick. The exterior surface of
this second coat should be floated to a true, even surface in
order that it may be smooth enough to receive the final coat.
At the time this coat is applied, it is customary to stick up any
molded plaster work, all heavy projections of which should be
thoroughly reenforced.

_JThe final coat in 3-coat work may consist of smooth, rough
sand, or hard finish, whichever is preferred. Smooth finish
is troweled hard to the surface of the brown coat, and it must
be kept moist with water during its application. When rough
sand finish is desired, the material composing the final coat is
mixed with rough sand, and this is floated on the wall by means
of a "carpet float" (block covered with a bit of carpet) which
has the effect of tearing the surface of the plaster, slightly, giv-
ing it a rough sand finish.

When the final coat is to be "hard finish," plaster of Paris is
used. It must be used quickly after mixing, as the material
hardens very soon after it is applied to the wall.

PLASTERING; INSIDE AND OUT 385

Patent plaster is used a great deal for kitchens, servants'
rooms, halls, and pantries. Most of it is bought ready mixed,
including sand and fiber, so that all that is needed is water. It
is more in the nature of cement than lime, and must be mixed
fresh every hour, as it quickly sets when water is added. Laths
should be thoroughly wet before patent plaster is applied. One
of the best things about this material is that it is machine-
mixed, and for this reason it is always the same, never varying
in proportions in any particular. It also makes a much harder
and firmer wall than ordinary plaster, and as but little water
is used it dries out more quickly.

Plaster for the outside of houses is very different from inside
plaster, composed as it is of lime, Portland cement, and sand in
varying proportions.

Houses with cement-plastered exteriors though frequently of
frame construction are practically masonry houses so far as
exterior covering is concerned. Cement plaster hardens on the
outside, producing an enduring, plastic outer covering that i s
wind proof, storm and cold proof ; an overcoat that will prove
dry, warm, and at the same time pleasing in.appearance. With
the exception of brick or stone, cement plaster properly applied
is the most durable finish for the outside. A cement exterior
applied to frame construction or hollow tile makes a warmer,
drier house than brick or stone, as cement plaster is more imper-
vious to moisture than both. Cement plaster and stucco have
come to mean the same thing, so when one speaks of "stucco,"
cement plaster is usually meant. There is only one right way to
cover the outside of a house with cement, and that is by apply-
ing cement plaster consisting of Portland cement, sand, hair
(or fiber), and frequently on the last coat, crushed stone.

Cement plaster may be finished roughcast, or it Gan be given

a pretty rough sand finish. The former is most durable.

Roughcast properly put on hardens into a firm outer covering

practically like stone. It is very enduring, and little checks

386 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

(fine cracks) which may come later from shrinkage of the mortar
are not visible in roughcast. Rough sand finish is made of
cement and sand. Before the material sets hard it is roughed
up slightly by the rotary motion of a "wood float" in the hands
of the plasterer. This tears the surface and gives it a pretty,
granular appearance. But cracks show quite badly in sand
finish, as the grain of the plaster is not rough enough to conceal
them. Owners building cement-plastered houses should know
in advance that some fine cracks will certainly appear in the
plaster after a few weeks. These are caused by the shrinkage
of mortar while it dries. Such cracks in a well-plastered house
are merely surface cracks. They do not impair the durability
of the material, as they extend merely through the outer sur-
face of the plaster skin.

A quite smooth surface is obtained by using stone crushed
finer than usual. Coarser stone is used for a coarser surface.

Roughcast is usually applied in three coats. First, a scratch
coat of cement, sand, and hair (or fiber). After this is dry a
second coat of similar material is put on, and then a last
coat of sand, cement, and crushed stone is put on as a finish.
This last is "cast" on by throwing the mortar against the plaster
previously applied. Many of the best kinds of roughcast come
mixed ready for use when water has been added. Ready mixed
cement plaster is particularly good because the ingredients are
machine-mixed at the factory in careful proportions.

Smooth or sand finish is usually applied also in three coats,
the final one being of coarse sand and cement instead of crushed
stone.

CHAPTER XXII
FINISHING TOUCHES; PAINTING AND GLAZING

PAINT on the exterior of a house is for two purposes, pro-
tection and appearance. The most successful paint accom-
plishes both, but often paint only accomplishes one purpose, in

IVORY-WHITE PAINTED TRIMMINGS ON A RED BRICK HOUSE.

many instances affording ample protection to the wood but
producing an ugly result. In other cases paint is attractive
to the eye, but is poor as a wood preservative.

389

390 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

The best paint for the outside of a house is composed of pure
white lead (basic carbonate of lead) and raw, cold-pressed lin-
seed oil. Several new paint combinations have been placed on
the market, and some manufacturers have made great claims
for their products, composed in many cases of ingredients other
than white lead and linseed oil. As yet, however, nothing has

BROWN TRIMMINGS, GRAY PLASTER, WHITE SASH.

been found for exterior use to take the place of old-fashioned
paint composed of lead and oil.

White lead is not pure white in color, as it has a slightly yel-
lowish cast. It is better to use lead just as it comes from the
keg, however, for all attempts to make paint look more white by
mixing Prussian Blue with it are usually detrimental to the
paint. Some painters mix zinc white with lead for exterior use,

FINISHING TOUCHES; PAINTING AND GLAZING 391

but this combination is rarely practical, as zinc white has a ten-
dency to crack unless an unusual amount of linseed oil is used
with it and it is applied with extraordinary care, rather be-
yond the skill of the average painter.

Outside paint frequently fails for several reasons. First,
- pure lead and oil are not used, frequently cheaper substitutes

GREEN STAIN ON SHINGLES AND ROUGH-SAWED TRIM.

being mixed into the paint to save on the cost of material and
labor. Second, the paint is not properly applied, painters
slighting the work in order to finish it as quickly as possible.
Third, the woodwork is not dry enough to receive the paint.
The best safeguard in securing the right kind of paint is to
use only some well-known brand of white lead, employing a
painter who, using the best grade of cold pressed linseed oil, will

392 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

mix the material faithfully. Many painters do not use enough
oil with their paint. From 5 to 7 gallons of oil should be used
to every 100 pounds of lead. Lead and oil should be thoroughly
mixed, and after mixing, the paint should be allowed to stand
for 24 hours, after which it should be strained. A small quantity
of drier (Japan) may be used to hasten the drying of the paint,
but too much of the latter spoils it; only a slight proportion
should be permitted.

In applying paint to the exterior surfaces of a house it should
not be laid on. too thick. Thick paint soon dries out, when it
will begin to scale and crack. Four thin coats are much better
than two thick coats, and every coat should be well brushed
out into the wood instead of applying it in thick layers. Three
coats are usually provided for new houses.

Hard, glossy paint is not durable, for it soon cracks and scales.
It is much preferable that paint shall become chalky as it grows
old, instead of becoming glossy and brittle, for when new paint
is applied to old chalky paint the new permeates the old, going
right through it to the wood itself, thus binding new and old
into one enduring film of paint. This is the effect desired
when painting an old house. When the original paint on the
house has become hard and glossy, new paint applied merely
forms a plating on the outside of the old paint, and the latter,
as it scales or chips off, carries the new paint with it.

Outside paint should be applied in dry weather, only. Even
a moderate amount of dampness in woodwork will prevent
paint from entering the pores. Undoubtedly the best time
is during the pleasant days of early spring when the weather is
mildly warm and sunny (before the insects come) ; or in the
fall, after insects have disappeared again. Dust, insects, and
rain are three things to contend with.

All outside work on the house should be primed immediately
after it is put in place, choosing dry weather in which to do the
work. Any knots appearing should be shellaced before the

FINISHING TOUCHES; PAINTING AND GLAZING 393

woodwork is primed, to prevent pitch from staining through the
paint, later.

In applying the first (priming) coat of paint to new wood-
work, the brush should be drawn parallel to the grain of the
wood. On the final coat, paint should be drawn along with
the brush from corner to corner or window to window, no spots
being allowed to dry until brushed into the next wet paint, so
each day's work will be finished at a corner. This is necessary
to prevent streaks showing where the paint applied one day has
dried before the next section applied on a subsequent day has
been painted.

In applying paint the painter should pick out all loose hairs
left by his brush as he goes along. Any grains of dust, or in-
sects, should be scraped off with the putty knife.

Mineral paint is considered better for metal work than lead
and oil paint. What is known as "red lead" is chiefly used for
this purpose (on the first coat only), after which subsequent coats
are of lead and oil like that applied to woodwork. On a tin
roof the tin should always be painted one coat on the under side
before it is applied to the roof. The upper surface of the tin
roof should be carefully cleaned of all rosin spots, dirt, etc., and
immediately painted. It should be bone-dry when the paint
is applied.

The approved paints for tin are metallic brown, Venetian
red, red oxide, and red lead mixed with pure linseed oil. Slow-
drying paint is desirable, so little or no patent drier or turpen-
tine should be used. All coats of paint should be applied with
a hand brush and well rubbed on. Apply the second coat two
weeks after the first. The third coat should be applied one
year later. The roof can then go for four or five years or more
before further painting is necessary. If the roof is steep, so
that the surface is washed clean with every rain, painting will
be necessary only at long intervals.

All nail holes in exterior woodwork should be puttied after

394 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the priming coat of paint has been applied. Putty applied to
bare woodwork quickly dries out and drops off. All sawdust
or dirt left on new woodwork should be carefully brushed off by
the painters before paint is applied.

Colors for exterior paint are largely a matter of taste. In
light, sunny locations darker, heavier colors can be used, and
in dark locations colors should be more bright and cheery. The
architectural style of a house also frequently influences its color.
For instance, Colonial houses are usually white or light yellow,
with bronze-green blinds ; houses with English timber work are
often golden brown or bronze green, and so on.

Houses with plaster exteriors are not usually painted, that
is, the plaster itself is not painted. Some owners prefer to
paint their outside plastering, however, and when this is done
ordinary lead and oil paint should not be used, as it does not
adhere properly to the cement, soon peeling off.

Paint for outside plaster walls must be of peculiar consistency.
It should have enough oil to bind it and make a durable surface,
keeping out dampness. At the same time such paint must
allow dampness (always present in a plaster wall) to work out
from inside. This seems almost an impossibility, but it has been
made possible by several brands of paint made specially for
plaster houses.

"Shingles on side walls or roof may be painted or stained, the
latter being the most practical. Stain, applied to rough-sawed
surfaces like shingles, soaks into the wood instead of forming a
skin on the outside, greatly increasing its life. The best shingle
stains come ready-made, and only well-known, reliable brands
should be used.

The best shingle stains contain a large amount of preserva-
tive, such as creosote or other oil, to which is added the right
proportion of finely ground colors, with the proper amount of
fixative oil to make the colors durable.

Artistic effects can be obtained by the use of stain, effects

FINISHING TOUCHES; PAINTING AND GLAZING 395

impossible to get in any other way, for stain permeates the
grain of the wood in a way not possible with paint, producing
a varying degree of light and shade very attractive. The
material is applied with a brush, after the shingles are laid,
or shingles can be dipped before they are laid, the latter making
the shingles more durable. The following table, showing the
amount of stain required, will be found of use :

AMOUNT OF STAIN REQUIRED (FOR BRUSH COATING SAWED
CEDAR SHINGLES)

NUMBER OF COATS

SQUARE FEET OF SURFACE

AMOUNT (IN GALLONS)

1 Brush Coat
2 Brush Coats

150
100

1 ,
1

FOR DIPPING (f LENGTH OF EACH SHINGLE)

2 to 3 gallons of stain required per 1000 shingles.

Add i gallon for brush coat applied after dipped shingles are laid.

Frequently the exterior wooden trimmings of a house are
stained instead of painted. When this is desired, the trimmings
should be rough-sawed instead of smooth, as smooth wood does
not take the stain so well as rough wood.

Inside the house, hardwood trim and floors should be filled as
soon as the woodwork is in place. Interior work which is to be
painted (not stained, shellaced, or varnished) should be primed
immediately after it is put up.

Paint for inside woodwork should be composed of pure
white lead and linseed oil, but a percentage of zinc white
mixed with it gives that agreeable white shade so desirable
in white paint. Zinc white is very enduring when used for
inside work.

The most practical white paint for inside woodwork is white
enamel paint. An inexpensive and fairly good job can be ob-

396 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

tained with one coat of white oil paint followed by two more
coats of enamel paint. This will leave the wood with a moder-
ate luster. The best enamel jobs require two coats of white
oil paint, finished with two to five more coats of enamel. This
produces paint almost as hard as tile and quite as durable. Of
course each coat should be thoroughly dry, rubbed before the

GOLDEN-BROWN SHINGLE STAIN WITH WHITE TRIMMINGS.

next coat is applied, and only reliable brands should be used.
If it is desired to have the final coat dull finish instead of glossy,
"egg-shell" finish should be used.

Hardwood which is to be stained or left " natural" is gener-
ally " filled" first, then stained, shellaced, waxed, or varnished.
On oak a pretty effect can be obtained by leaving out the filler,
using merely a coat of stain followed by wax, shellac, or varnish.

FINISHING TOUCHES; PAINTING AND GLAZING 397

Oak floors, however, should always be filled in order to pre-
vent dirt from entering the pores of the wood.

One coat of stain and two coats of shellac, rubbed between
coats, make a very good finish, though an extra coat of shellac
will produce a more permanent finish. Instead of shellac, var-
nish can be used in the same way.

BROWN-FACE BRICK, ORANGE-YELLOW TINTED CEILIHG, NUT-BROWN OAK

WOODWORK.

When varnish is used, get only a well known brand made by
a reliable manufacturer; employ only skilled men in applying
varnish, for poor work is certain to be the result if inferior var-
nish is used or if the material is not correctly applied.

Paint used for interior plaster walls is usually what is known as
"kalsomine." Many .efficient brands of ready prepared paint

398 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

WOOD FRAME

PUTTY

OLAS5

GLASS SET IN PUTTY,

FOR SASH.

WOOD FCAM

for plaster work are on the market, and almost any shade can
be obtained. Most paints for plaster contain a proportion of
glue mixed with the color. Any painter can mix his own kal-
somine. Glue should always be used as a binder.

Plaster walls are frequently covered with canvas (a coarse
material something like cheesecloth), glued to the wall like
wall paper. This makes an excellent sur-
face for the ordinary oil paints used.
Three coats are usually required to cover
canvas, though plaster, tinted directly,
requires but one coat of kalsomine. When
kalsomine is used, however, it is a good
idea to cover the plaster with a preliminary
coat of oil or glue sizing, which fills the
pores of the plaster and prevents the kal-
somine from sinking into the wall in spots.
Walls covered with canvas, painted, are
more durable than walls covered merely
with kalsomine.

Color is an important part of the inside
painting problem, and great care should be
used in selecting the shade for inside trim.
Light, fumed finishes are always attractive
for oak. This process seems to bring out
the grain, and it takes on a beautiful, soft
half tone. A deeper shade of brown is attractive, also.

Probably the least pleasing colors of all are dark brown,
blackish, and greenish finishes, colors which are apt to appear
gloomy, whereas lighter finishes give a cheerful cast to any room.
In a living room or dining room it is better to have each piece
of furniture finished alike ; when the trim is finished to match
the furniture (or vice versa) the utmost in beautiful effect is
obtained. A living room in which furniture and trim are the
same color has a restful, peaceful air, always a delight to every

GLASS

SET WITH

STOPS, FOR

DOORS.

FINISHING TOUCHES; PAINTING AND GLAZING 399

one lucky enough to live there. It is well to note, however,
that mahogany furniture is charming with white trim.

Glazing is usually part of the painting contract. The fol-
lowing schedule, showing the various kinds of glass, will be use-
ful :-

SCHEDULE OF GLASS

Sheet Glass. Ordinary blown glass in which the glass during manu-
facture is blown out in cylinders, after which the cylinders are cut and
flattened out. Such glass breaks easily, and shows imperfections, but
it is used for small lights where inexpensive glass is desired.

Double-strength Glass. Hand-made or machine-made, used for large
lights where something cheaper than plate glass is desired. The hand-
made glass contains a less number of defects, and costs more than
machine-made.

" A " Grade Sheet Glass. Is the grade most used for houses when
plate glass is not used. It has, however, many imperfections of a
minor nature.

" B " Grade Sheet Glass. Is an inferior grade used only for factories
and greenhouses.

Plate Glass. May be " cast " or " rolled." Unlike sheet glass, plate
glass is poured out on a flat surface when in a molten state, and rolled
to a uniform thickness. It is free from defects, and is, consequently,
to be preferred, though it is much more expensive than sheet glass.

Polished Plate Glass. Is plate glass put through a further process
by which it is polished to a true surface. This grade is used largely
for mirrors.

CHAPTER XXIII

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

THIS chapter is devoted to special apparatus of all kinds, for
making housekeeping easier. The modern house involves a
somewhat complex system of processes, and when one considers
the many departments to be accommodated it is not surprising
to find a large number of details entering into the construction
and operation of even the smallest houses. Americans demand
every device which makes for more convenient housekeeping,
and that is one reason why the various details of plumbing,
heating, ventilating, and mechanical cleaning have been devel-
oped to such a high state of efficiency. The American idea is
to make each house as automatically complete as possible, and
that is a very worthy ideal to strive for.

Some of the apparatus described in this chapter is adaptable
only for the largest houses where funds permit a more generous
expenditure than is usually the case in small houses, though there
are many little mechanical devices desirable for the latter as
well. The houseowner should remember, however, that it will
be well for him to consider carefully, not to say cautiously, his
mechanical needs before he invests in, for instance, an auto-
matic gas water-warming apparatus, or before he decides to
buy an electric soft-water compression tank, for modern ap-
paratus of efficiency is certainly not cheap. Before he knows
it the owner of a house might have a considerable financial load
upon his shoulders. Nevertheless, there are many clever de-
vices that are necessities in large houses and by no means mere
luxuries in small houses, and the houseowner will do well to
inform himself about them.

2o 401

402 SUCCESSFUL SOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Compression Tanks. Of the most necessary apparatus for
a country house where there is no city water supply can be
mentioned the compression tank, which is largely taking the
place of windmill and high tank. The latter continues in use
chiefly on farms, though farmers themselves are also installing
the more modern compression tank systems.

On the country place or farm the ordinary windmill water-
supply installation consists of a wood or steel tower with wind-
mill at the top, erected above a well from which water is pumped
into a tank located in the tower or on the top floor of the house
or other building. Water flows from the tank by gravity to
the various fixtures. Of course, windmills are efficient and
cheap means of forcing water into the house, but an objection
to them is that the tower is unsightly, and when the tank is
located in a tower, water freezes in cold weather.

An improvement over the windmill is the modern compres-
sion tank, consisting of a cylindrical tank composed of steel
plates riveted together, with a hand or power pump attached.
When such a system is used, no tank is required in the attic, as
the one compression tank is all that is necessary, water flowing
from it under pressure to the various fixtures even to the upper
floors. The way this is brought about is as follows: A hand
puap or power pump (electric or gas engine) draws water from
the well and forces it into the air-tight tank. Continued pump-
ing of water into the tank compresses the air at one end so that
considerable pressure is obtained. Pipes extend from the tank
to fixtures throughout the house, and opening a faucet releases
a stream of water of high pressure (when the tank is well filled)
or low pressure when the tank is less full.

With a hand pump the process of pumping water into the
compression tank is not, of course, automatic, for some one must
pump the tank full periodically to maintain the pressure. This
becomes necessary once each day or every two or three days,
according to the capacity of the tank and amount of water con-

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES 403

sumption. Hand pumps are made in patterns which will se-
cure maximum suction at minimum exertion, so the process of
filling the tank is not unduly wearying.

With, a power pump connected to the pressure tank (by far
the wisest procedure in most cases) an installation more or less
automatic is secured. When there is electric current to be had
an electric pump will be found the most convenient, auto-
matically controlled by a switch which, starts the pump when
pressure in the tank falls below a certain point, and stops it
when pressure rises above a certain point. This pressure point
is fixed at any rate desired. Thus, with an electric pump in-
stallation, constant pressure is automatically maintained and
water is on tap at all fixtures, as in city houses.

When a gas engine is used for power, the process is not auto-
matic, for no method to automatically start a gas engine has yet
been devised. Gas engines are used a great deal in the country
for pressure tank installations, however, and they are found to
be very convenient. With a large-sized tank it is only neces-
sary to run the engine a few hours every two or three days,
not at all an inconvenience.

Most compression tanks and connecting pumps are installed
in the basement of the house, though in the country many are
placed in outbuildings. Not too far from the well is the best
location, whether in the basement or in a separate building, and
it is excellent practice to have the pump so low down (as when
in the basement) that water can flow by gravity from well to
pump instead of requiring the pump to lift the water up to its
level. All compression tanks of the best pattern have an auto-
matic air-intake valve which admits air as well as water, so as
to maintain an "air cushion" within the tank and provide suf-
ficient pressure. When water is not drawn from a tank for
some days, the compressed air inside is apt to lower in pressure
by reason of water taking up some of it, and it is to obviate this
trouble that an air-intake valve is installed.

404 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Air Compressor. Since the compression water tank system
was invented, another system has been evolved which does away
with the combination air-water tank altogether. In this system
an air compressor is located in the basement of the house or in
an outbuilding, and the pumping apparatus is located right at
the well. Thus water is forced as wanted, directly from the
well to fixtures instead of being stored in a compression tank.
The air compressor in these systems is usually operated by power

(electric or gas engine), air
being compressed until high
pressure is obtained, and
this compressed air being
forced through a pipe to
the apparatus in the weir.
At the well is a sort of
hydraulic ram or injector
which, so long as the air
pressure is sufficient, deliv-
ers water under satisfactory
pressure to the house fix-
tures. When an electric
air compressor is used the
entire process is automatic, but when a gas engine is used the
process is voluntary, the engine being run for a few hours sev-
eral times a week, according to the capacity of the outfit and
amount of water required.

Instantaneous Gas Heaters. Automatic water-warming ap-
paratus for delivering hot water to the various fixtures has
recently been developed, and it will be well for us to examine
some of the different methods of heating water, voluntarily
and automatically. In another chapter the ordinary coal
heater used for warming water is described, and all matter
pertaining to the range boiler is discussed in detail. In this
chapter we will devote a little space to a brief description of
water-heating apparatus in which gas is used as fuel.

COMPLETE PNEUMATIC WATER-SUPPLY
SYSTEM.

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

405

A = GAS VALVE
B- WATER. VALVE
-PILOT
= BOBNEE5
-BUCNEB.R.ING
= DtP B.ING
= HEATING tUBE

Of gas water-heating apparatus, the "instantaneous heater"
was one of the first devices, and it continues to be used in many
houses throughout the country.

In an instantaneous heater cold water flows slowly through a
coil of pipe (usually of brass, bronze, copper, or other conductive
metal) which comes in contact with a gas .flame. After cold
water is turned on and the gas burner is lighted, hot water flows
almost instantly from the heater. Thus cold water entering
one end of the coil, comes out hot at the other end. A very
practical place to put the instantaneous
heater is in the bathroom against the
wall, arranged so that one end of the hot-
water flow pipe extends over bathtub and
washbowl. To operate this type of heater
a pilot light at the side is lighted, and by
means of a handle is swung into position
over the burner which it ignites. Water
is not maintained hot constantly, but is
heated only when wanted. When a gas
apparatus of this sort is used in the

bathroom (or any other room, in fact) a flue should be con-
nected with the combustion chamber to conduct poisonous
vapors from the gas flame to the outside air. Persons have
been asphyxiated by shutting themselves up in a small room
in which an unventilated gas apparatus was burning. Ventila-
tion is easily accomplished by extending a small galvanized iron
or nickel-plated tube from the gas combustion chamber to a
chimney. If there is no chimney, ordinary galvanized iron
spouting such as is used to carry water from the roof to the
ground, can extend up through a partition, and project above
the roof. There is very little heat from a gas flame after
it has been used for heating water in a coil, the only thing
necessary being to carry off poisonous gases. However, it is
customary to wrap such a ventilating pipe, when it extends

INSTANTANEOUS GAS
HOT-WATER HEATER.

406 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SMALL GAS HEATER
ATTACHED TO THE
RANGE BOILER.

through a partition, with asbestos paper, and all joints should
be soldered tight.

Ordinary Gas Heaters. For maintaining hot water con-
stantly or periodically, whichever desired, there are many pat-
terns of gas heaters. Some are designed to
be directly connected to the range boiler, in
which case the boiler has a hollow chamber,
to hold pipe coil and gas burner. Other forms
of heater are located in the basement inde-
pendently of the range boiler. With the lat-
ter, a gas flame of moderate size burning all
the time will maintain a constant supply of
hot water, and where gas rates are not too
high it will be found that the cost of fuel is
frequently less than the cost of coal in a coal
heater. For those who prefer to heat water
only as wanted, the same apparatus can be
recommended, the flame being lighted only when water is needed.
When the boiler is piped as recommended in the chapter describ-
ing " range boilers,' 7 water is heated at the top of the tank first,
and it is not necessary to warm the entire
tankful to get water for a bath.

^Automatic Gas Heaters. Latest types of
gas" water-warming apparatus are clever,
automatic devices for maintaining a con-
stant supply of hot water without burning a
full head of gas at all times. They are really
a development of the instantaneous heater,
with an automatic device added for lighting
the burners, so that the mere opening of
a faucet at any one of the fixtures turns on
gas and heats the water. Automatic gas heaters are usually
located in the basement or kitchen. The apparatus consists
of a coil of pipe through which water enters cold at one end

AUTOMATIC GAS
HEATER FOR 24-
HOUR HOT-WATER
SERVICE.

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

407

and comes out hot at the other, flowing through pipes to
the different fixtures. Under the pipe coil are gas burners,
automatically turned off when no hot water is being used.
When a faucet say at the kitchen sink is opened, however,
the release of pressure at that point opens the gas valve, admit-
ting gas to the burners which are ignited by the ever burning
pilot light, instantly blazing up to full power, heating water of
any amount wanted. When the faucet is closed again, the gas
valve automatically shuts off, and only the pilot light is left
burning.

Automatic apparatus of this kind is a great convenience,
though it will be found expensive to operate, unless reasonable
care is exercised in the use of hot water. Before installing one
it is well to get some sort of approximate estimate as to the
amount of gas consumed per month, by estimating the amount
of hot water required. Of course, an automatic gas heater will
prove economical when gas rates are not too high, if hot water
is not used extravagantly. The tendency, however, is to use
hot water lavishly when it is always on tap, so owners who install
an automatic heater should caution
members of their family against waste-
ful use of hot water.

Soft-water System. In many cities
and towns where artesian well water is
used for the city water supply instead of
river, reservoir, or lake water, it is some-
times necessary to install a separate soft-
water system for laundry and bath, the
artesian water being too hard for these purposes. The ordinary
method is to install a steel, galvanized iron, or wooden tank in the
attic to which soft water is pumped by a hand or power pump.
This necessity for a soft- water supply in the house has occasioned
many clever devices, more or less automatic. In the first place,
there are the hand pumps used (without the attic tank) when

RELIEF PIPE, PUMP

ATTIC STORAGE TANK.

408 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

ORDINARY SUCTION
PUMP.

soft water is wanted merely at the laundry tubs in the basement.
The most simple of these is the ordinary cast-iron pump at-
tached to the side of one of the tubs, and
by means of which soft water can be pumped
into the tubs as wanted. An improvement
over this ordinary pump is the " double-lift "
pump which delivers more water at faster
speed than the old-fashioned suction pump.
In all hand installations it is a good plan to
locate the soft-water cistern (usually in the
ground, outside the house) high enough so
that water will flow to the suction pipe of
the pump by force of gravity, thus eliminating much of the
"pull" on the pump.

For elevating soft water from a cistern to fixtures on the
upper floors of the house, an ordinary compression tank system
can be used, precisely like that used for a main w^ter supply, or
if preferred, an attic tank system may be used, in which water
is pumped by hand or power up to a tank in the attic, from which
it flows by gravity to the different fixtures. When an attic
tank is used it should have an overflow piped back into the soft-
water cistern, so that when the tank is
too full, excess of water will run back to
the cistern. Most pumps used to ele-
vate water to the attic are power pumps,
operated by water power from the city
mains, or by an electric or gas engine.

Pumps operated by water power have
been brought to a high state of efficiency
and can be made to operate on almost
any pressure, from 20 pounds to 60
pounds or more. Such pumps work
automatically ; when soft water is drawn from a fixture the re-
lease of pressure turns city water into the pump, causing it to

IMPROVED SUCTION AND
LIFT PUMP.

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

409

WATER FORCED INTO COMPRESSION TANK
BY CITY PRESSURE.

operate. Thus a constant supply of soft water is maintained,
the attic tank being replenished as fast as water is used.

As an auxiliary to the
attic tank some systems use
a compression tank, water
being forced by the pump
into the compression tank,
from which it flows to the
attic tank. In other sys-
tems the attic tank is omit-
ted, a pressure tank being
arranged to discharge di-
rectly into the supply pipes
as in any other compression
system, excepting that the

pump is operated by the city water supply instead of electricity
or a gas engine. Systems having a pressure tank are usually
more economical than systems pumping into an attic tank, for

in the former compressed
air does some of the work,
and less city water is nec-
essary. When one's city
supply is "metered," as
it is in most cities and
towns, water rates are fre-
quently too high tc oper-
ate a water lift economi-

cally, and the compression
system, either entire or as
auxiliary to an ordinary sys-
tem, is desirable to decrease
expense.

Laundry Clothes Drier. For the laundry there are many
desirable devices to reduce labor and turn out work at less cost.

3-CoMPARTMENT LAUNDRY CLOTHES
DRIER.

410 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Laundry clothes driers are used in many houses, for house-
keepers are coming to see their many advantages. With a
laundry drier, one is not dependent upon the weather, for every
wash day is sure to be a good " drying day," rain or shine.
The drier may be briefly described as a group of narrow gal-
vanized iron compartments (each about 7 feet long and 7 feet
high) hung to tracks overhead, so that one compartment may
be drawn out independently of any other. Inside these com-
partments are rods for hanging clothes. When the compart-
ments are all in place a complete, air-tight cabinet is the result.
Heat for drying the clothes is furnished by a stove placed beside
the drier, from which flues cause hot fresh air to circulate through
the drier. Fuel is usually coal, wood, or gas (sometimes
electricity is used), and the same stove is used also for heating
irons and for other laundry purposes.

Laundry Mangle. In families where a comparatively large
amount of "flat work" is to be ironed, it is a good plan to install
a mangle (ironing machine), bearing in mind that it will iron

only flat pieces such as
tablecloths, sheets, pillow-
cases, towels, and napkins.
Machines cannot be used
for any starched articles.
Small ironers, using hand
or electric power, may be
had, and they can be recom-
mended for those families
where the best obtainable
laundry equipment is de-
sired. The cost is not
great, and it is offset by the saving in time and consequent
decrease in the amount paid to a laundress.

Laundry Washing Machine. If a washing machine is merely
a luxury, why install one in the house ? The answer is : a

FEED BOARD

PADDED ROLLER
IRONING 5HOE

ELECTRIC IRONING MACHINE.

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

411

WRINGER

CLOTHES
CHUTE

washing machine is no longer considered a luxury where true
economy is practiced economy of wear and tear, time and
labor. As a matter of fact, the washing machine, which may
cost no more than a sewing machine, is quite as useful. It will
minimize labor expenditure
and maximize convenience.
Some washing machines are
hand machines, especially
designed to be easily oper-
ated and to wash the clothes
clean in the shortest time.
Hand scrubbing cannot com-
pete with a good pattern of
hand machine.

Power machines are most
convenient of all, and they
are economical in operation.
To run these, some use water
power by means of a little
water motor attached to
the faucet. Others use elec-
tric motors. Of electric ma-
chines the " oscillating" type

is one of the best, in which clothes are washed by the violent
rocking, back and forth, of the tub. A wringer is attached to
the shaft. Two cents' worth of power is all that is required to
do the washing of a family of ten, and the time consumed is just
half a day. Everything that can be washed by hand can be
washed by machine, with less labor and, quite often, with very
much better results.

Vacuum Cleaner. Vacuum cleaners have done as much to
simplify housekeeping as anything ever introduced. Brooms,
dusters, mops, and pails seem relics of olden times, for it is
really true that vacuum cleaners actually clean, though a

ELECTRIC WASHING AND WRINGING

MACHINE.

412 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

glance at the simple machine makes it appear almost im-
possible.

The vacuum cleaning idea is this: first, it is better to take
all the dirt out of the rooms than merely to dislodge it from one

ELECTRIC VACUUM CLEANER INSTALLED IN BASEMENT.

place to another ; second, once you have got the dirt out of your
house it is easier to keep it out than it is to allow it to accumulate.
Make up your mind it will be hard work the first time the house
is cleaned with a vacuum cleaner. If it has never been cleaned
this way before, the chances are, no matter how carefully the

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

413

-HANDLE

house has been kept, it has never before been thoroughly cleaned.
No amount of sweeping and dusting can do the work of vacuum
cleaning, so during this first vacuum crusade you will be gather-
ing up the dust of ages from little corners never noticed before.
This takes time, and is no easy job, but once the house is
cleaned it can be kept so with a minimum of effort.

Many new houses are now equipped with vacuum cleaners
in the basement quite as a matter of course. The apparatus is
included in the building contract just as the heater is, and
the laundry wash trays. Even if one does not intend to put
a permanent cleaning installation in when the house is first
built, it is well to pipe for it. This only costs from ten to
fifteen dollars.

It is easier to clean with the tools of a basement-installed
cleaner than with a portable vacuum cleaner, for one does not
have to drag a machine around from
room to room and up over the stairs.
You simply connect the hose to the valve
on one of two or three locations on each
floor, turn the switch, and clean. The
apparatus in the basement can be run
by electric power or a gasoline engine.
Even in a large house you need use the
apparatus but once a week; in a small
house once in two weeks may do.

Portable vacuum cleaners are remark-
ably efficient and not too heavy to pre-
clude their successful manipulation.
The better designs have handles to carry
them by, and long electric cables to be
attached to the ordinary light sockets in any room. When
buying an electric-driven portable cleaner, one should find out
from the local electric company whether the current is alternat-
ing or direct, for on the best machines motors are not universal ;

PORTABLE ELECTRIC VAC-
UUM CLEANER.

414 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

-HANDLE:

MOTOR
AUCTION

MALL ELECTRIC CLEANER.

an alternating current motor cannot be used on direct current,

and vice versa.

Some of the successful portable machines consist of a cylindri-
cal metal case about the size of a five-
gallon can. The machine is on casters
so it may be easily trundled over the
floor, or it may be carried by the
handles provided for that purpose.
In this type of machine the motor and
rotary pump is at the bottom of the
case, with the dust bag at the top.
When a switch is turned the motor
operates the pump, which creates a
strong suction, and the dirt from your
carpet is sucked into the dust bag.
After the bag becomes filled with dirt,
it is emptied and replaced. Another
good model looks like a carpet-sweeper

and has a rotary brush in addition to the suction apparatus.

All vacuum cleaners are plentifully supplied with tools for

every purpose imaginable.

House Electric Plants. Separate plants for generating elec-
tricity for light, heat, and

power have now come so

prominently into the house

equipment field that it will

be well to note some of the

details of these plants here.

Electric lights throughout

the house and on the

, ., , . ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANT FOR

grounds are now possible in THE HousE>

any section of the country.

Manufacturers of electrical apparatus have combined the various
units of machinery required for simple, easily installed, economi-
cally operated country lighting plants.

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

415

FRYING

BROILEfc-

5WITCHE5

The first cost is not excessive, and the expense of operating
one's own electric plant is little. Your house, grounds, and out-
buildings may be efficiently lighted whether you live in town
or not.

The storage battery has greatly forwarded house-lighting
plants. A battery of a few cells, with a small engine, dynamo,
and switchboard constitute
the entire machinery of the
producing plant, and wiring
and lamps are located wher-
ever light is wanted. You
may place the machinery
anywhere, down cellar, in
the barn or garage, or in a
separate little building at any
convenient distance from the
house. A dry place should
be chosen, of course, and a
window or two must be put
in for light and ventilation.
All wiring throughout house

and grounds can be concealed by running it in conduits,
waterproof for outside work, ordinary for inside work.

Three types of engine are used for driving the dynamo,
gasoline, kerosene, and hot-air engines.

Of gasoline engines, you can have an air-cooled engine or
one water-cooled. Two cycle and four cycle types are used,
varying from 1 to 4 horse power according to the extent of the
system. Every automobile owner is familiar with these, and
any man will find them easy to operate. With a good system
properly installed, troubles are practically eliminated.

Small electric light plants will furnish current for 50 lights,
operating day and night if wanted. With gasoline at 16 cents
per gallon and a consumption of 1} pints per horse power

ELECTRIC KITCHEN RANGE.

416 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

hour, cost of a 16-candle-power 20- watt Tungsten lamp is about
T V of a cent an hour. At this rate it costs 5 cents an hour for
fifty lights. Of course one would rarely burn more than half
or quarter of that number at one time.

House-lighting plants are low voltage plants, and that is the
secret of low cost of production. Voltage on a 15-light plant
runs only about 13 volts, and a 50-light plant requires not more
than 30 volts. Economy is secured because the engine need
be operated but part of the time, feeding current from the
dynamo into a storage battery which collects and afterwards
gives out the energy. Plants are arranged in several ways
according to the desire of the houseowner. For instance, you
can feed current into the battery and afterwards get light and
power entirely from the battery, or you can have light and
power from both the battery and the dynamo at the same
time. The entire operation is automatic.

Any reliable engine will run the home electric plant, but some
are better fitted than others. All dealers in electric apparatus
know the best engine to use for any particular place. Your
choice of engines should be influenced by cost of fuel in your
locality, and desirability of any particular type for the work
required.

--House Gas Plants. The gas-lighting system is all very easy
to plan when your house is in town where the municipal gas
system can be connected, but what of a house built in the
country, far away from town conveniences? Country house
gas lighting is entirely practical. Small individual plants
can be installed on the country place at moderate cost,
furnishing gas all over the house, and excellent gas, too, at
even lower rates than it costs in town. So there is no reason
why the country houseowner and his family should be deprived
of this lighting and heating medium any more than the city
dweller.

When you first mention gas plants to houseowners, so many

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

417

of them ask, "Are they safe ?" This is a very natural question,
for almost every one has heard of at least one instance where an
individual gas plant exploded, causing damage to life and
property. To any one who will take time to investigate various
types of modern gas machines, however, it is apparent that
modern apparatus of the best type is convenient, economical,
and perfectly safe when operated intelligently. Old-fashioned
machines have been wonderfully improved upon. Machines of

ACETYLENE GAS PLANT.

the latest and best type are heavily built to stand the wear re-
quired, and every precaution has been taken to make them safe,

and safe they are when under the care of persons of even
ordinary intelligence.

No person not on suicide bent would think of turning on gas
in a room tightly closed, allowing it to collect for a number of
hours, and then suddenly enter that room with a lighted candle,

-but this and similar incidents have happened with a gas
machine, and most accidents can be traced back to gross care-
lessness, ignoring the most simple and explicit rules sent with

418 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

every gas machine. For instance, one man opened up his gas
machine and thrust a candle down inside to see how it was
working. He found out but it cost him more than the infor-
mation was worth. Another man found the water seal of the
gas holder frozen and undertook to thaw it out with a red-hot
poker. Think of it a man of intelligence! He might just as
well have dropped the poker into a powder barrel.

Generally speaking, there are three systems of gas supply for
country places (acetylene gas, gasoline gas, and " bottled " gas),
and manufacturers have brought their apparatus up to a high
state of efficiency. Acetylene gas machines in many cases
consist of a generator and a gas holder, the latter containing
gas after it is generated. The generator is a steel tank holding
water into which carbide crystals are dropped slowly and auto-
matically, piece by piece. When' carbide drops into the water,
gas. is generated which rises to the top of the gas chamber and
then flows through pipes into the gas holder, where it is purified.
Every process in the best gas machine is automatic save only
that the hopper must be filled with carbide (about once a month)
at which time the clockwork mechanism is wound (operating
the feeding device) and the residue is cleaned out an amount
of work consuming about a half hour of time. Old-fashioned
machines fed carbide regulated by gas pressure, but such methods
are dangerous. On latest machines the carbide feed is regulated
by a clockwork motor entirely independent of the pressure of
the gas. To relieve machines of excessive pressure, a safety
blow-off valve allows any excess of gas to escape automatically
to the outside air through a blow-off pipe. The gas-making
process is entirely automatic, a machine stopping when burners
are turned off and starting up again when a jet is lighted, making
just enough gas to supply the number of burners in operation.
Carbide costing about $4 per hundredweight can be purchased
at any agency, of which there are hundreds scattered throughout
the United States, and the average lighting cost for a house is

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

419

$12 per year. Acetylene gas is excellent for lighting purposes,
and by means of an improved burner it is now practical for
cooking ; the entire acetylene apparatus can be placed in the
basement or in a separate outbuilding.

Another gas-making process which has been brought to a
high state of efficiency is gasoline gas, an economical gas,
excellent for heating and lighting. Gasoline gas is generated
in a carburetor usually placed underground at some distance
from the house. The carburetor is a tank containing the gaso-

fTOR.

IN CELLAR.

'/!![

OUTSIDE HOUSE
APPARATUS FOR GENERATING GASOLINE GAS.

line supply, and this is the reason why it is located away from
the house, as all supplies of gasoline should be. In one of these
systems air under pressure (furnished by an air compressor
worked by water pressure, windmill, hand pump, or gasoline
engine) enters the carburetor, where it becomes impregnated
with gasoline, thus forming gasoline gas. From the carburetor,
gas passes to the governor in the basement of the house, where
the pressure is automatically regulated so that gas is made and
supplied just sufficient for the number of burners in operation.
Operators of this form of gas machine need only occasionally fill
the carburetor with gasoline when the supply gets low. Other
forms of gasoline gas machines are built on the same principle,
but the air pressure is maintained by a revolving drum (a

420 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

pump, in effect) operated by weights which are wound up about
once in 24 hours. Neglect to wind the machine does no harm ;
simply, the lights gradually grow dimmer, until finally they go
out unless the machine is wound up. Of course, once a machine
has run down, care must be taken that all jets are closed before
the machine is started again.

Other types of gasoline gas machines suitable for cottages
and small houses require such a small supply of gasoline that the
entire apparatus is placed in the cellar or in the kitchen.

With acetylene* gas a special gas
burner is used, and ordinary gas
jets will not do, but with gasoline
gas ordinary burners are used with
mantles, for illumination. Piping
for gasoline as well as acetylene gas
is the same as for ordinary gas.

One other kind of gas available
for the country house is "blau-
gas," which is bottled under high
pressure at the factory in steel bot-
tles. From the factory it is shipped
to any part of the country, a bottle
being connected up to the gas sys-
tem of the house and, when used,
a new bottle added. Blaugas will
not freeze, so the little steel lock-
ers containing the supply can be
placed outdoors at the rear of the
house.

House Refrigerating System.
Refrigerating systems for houses
have been put on a practical basis. The refrigerating plant
will be found to be a great convenience, especially in country
houses, and it can be run economically, competing with the

COMPLETE REFRIGERATING
PLANT.

USEFUL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES

421

cost of ice, if ice has to be shipped in. Of course, when there
is a lake or pond near, from which ice may be cut and stored
in one's own ice house, ice is cheaper than the cost of main-
taining an artificial ice plant.

Plants of small size, suitable for homes, include a refrigerator
containing a refrigerating chamber piped for brine. The brine
is forced through pipes by a small refrigerating machine con-
tained in a compartment of the refrigerator, or located in the
basement. Ammonia brine circulating through the pipes of
the refrigerating chamber (much like heating pipes) lowers the
temperature. No ice is required, a heavy deposit of frost
soon appearing on the outside of the pipes. As artificial ice
is needed for table use, however, a small compartment for
making ice is frequently attached to the refrigerator. Water
contained in metal cans is here converted
into ice. The ice machine is run by an
electric motor or gas engine, and the en-
tire process is reasonably automatic, re-
quiring less attention, even, than a heating
plant. The best refrigerators are lined
with glass, porcelain, or tile, or some other
material impervious to moisture and
odors. A refrigerator ought to be built
so it can be as easily inspected as a
bathtub, and it should be kept as spot-
lessly clean.

Rubbish Crematory. The crematory,
for burning garbage and rubbish, may well
be considered as indispensable apparatus.
A special crematory furnace can be in-
stalled, or a crematory can be devised by
tapping one of the chimney flues in the basement, placing an
iron door a foot or two from the floor, with a few bars of iron
built into the flue below, and a damper at the floor level. With

INCINERATOR FOR BURN-
ING GARBAGE.

422 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the damper open, rubbish thrown on the grate by way of the
iron door is quickly consumed.

House Telephone System. House telephones have been
reduced to the extreme of simplicity. They are moderate in
cost, and each system requires, in addi-
tion to the instruments themselves,
nothing more than wire and batteries.
The most complete systems are "inter-
communicating," with an instrument in
every part of the house ; usually one in
the kitchen, laundry, first-story hall,
second-story hall, servants' rooms, and
owner's bedroom. The garage or barn is
of course connected to the same system.
Modern telephone systems of this class
are arranged with any number of instru-
ments, from four to ten or twelve. Each
instrument has a button for every room,
and when the right button is pressed a

bell rings in the 'corresponding room (but in no other). For
convenience in operating, each button has a label holder beside
it on which the number or name of the room is lettered.

HOUSE TELEPHONE.

CHAPTER XXIV

GAS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING

WHILE the new house is being built, you will need to give
attention to artificial illumination. Remember, lighting fixtures
are chiefly for light ; for ornament also, of course, but primarily
you buy them for reasons of actual utility. Poorly lighted
rooms or rooms expensive to light by reason of impracticable
methods give poor returns for the money, no matter how well
the fixtures look. A living room, dining room, or even a bed-
room in which the artificial light is not well distributed is a con-
stant source of annoyance.

Choose fixtures that will give the necessary degree of light
at minimum cost ; locate them thoughtfully, and see that they
are kept in the condition necessary for efficient lighting. Attend
to these essentials and your lighting troubles will be little.

Select gas fixtures with care, to do the work required at least
expense. That is, a form of burner must be used that will
convert the least gas into the most light. All burners should
be handy to manipulate and so simple in their parts they may
be readily repaired. Of course, they must be made of the
most durable materials.

First cost is not the prime consideration in a gas burner, as
there are plenty of cheap burners that eat up their saving
many times over. On the other hand, some low-priced burners
are extremely efficient when of good mechanical design.

The incandescent system of gas lighting has made possible
a perfection of illumination never before achieved with gas,
though some improvements have been made since the first
mantle lights.

425

426 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

z. ORDINARY GAS

MANTLE.
MANTLE FOR IN-
VERTED LIGHTS.

The mantle itself has been greatly strengthened by a new

method of weaving the threads. Best mantles are double
woven, that is, the fabric composing the
mantle is woven with an inner and outer
thread. You will know these mantles when
you see them by their unusual thickness.
Also, the threads of high-grade mantles are
larger size, and the weaving is more close.
You will also recognize the best by the price.
They cost more, but as they wear longer it
pays to buy them. Mantles of this sort
stand more hard usage; it is the shock
caused when a match is first applied, that
breaks down the mantle.
For gas lighting use inverted gas lights as much as possible,

for they are far ahead of ordinary upright lights, having greater

efficiency. A chandelier containing inverted lights looks very

much like an electric chandelier. Mantles for inverted lights

are small bags of thread, double woven in the better

makes.

In connection with inverted lights or any other it is usually

convenient to have a pilot-lighting attachment. Thus, with a

pull of the chain you may light any burner

without a match. The pilot consists of a

very small tube attached to each burner, in

which the gas is burning day and night. By

means of a chain pull the main supply to the

burner is turned on and ignited by the pilot

flame. To shut off the light, pull down the

chain again, which cuts off the supply from

the burner but not from the little pilot tube.

This continues to burn with a pinhead flame ready for lighting

at any time.

In other words, the pilot is a burning match, but one extremely

INVERTED GAS FIX-
TURE.

GAS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING 427

cheap to operate, as the cost of a pilot, lighted all the time, is
only a few cents a month.

It is customary to have a pilot attachment on one or two
burners only, the lights most often used. A pilot adds to the
life of the mantle, as it reduces shocks.

Consider the gas burner, as your duty does not end with the
selection of a good mantle. Those gas burners are best which
allow correct regulation of the mixture of gas and air, for you
must not forget that air is as necessary as gas.

You can easily test a good burner by lighting it and watching
the color of the flame. After adjusting the air
supply by manipulation of the key at the side,
see that the flame is blue. If it has streaks of
red or yellow and you cannot improve it by
changing the mixture of air, discard that burner ;
it will use too much gas and produce light of
poor quality, light that will cost you more
money and be less efficient. O

A gas burner of good design is made in as

MI f j.1. i L PILOT AND PULI.

few pieces as possible, for the less parts, least CHAIN.

repairs. It is easy to get practical burners,

though it may take a little investigation on the part of the

houseowner.

One great advantage incandescent electric lights have over
any other form of illumination is that they do not burn oxygen,
You will remember that gas lights consume oxygen from the air.
but incandescent electric lamps, with the illuminating filament
sealed in a glass-bound vacuum, use no air. This is a distinct
advantage when we come to consider ventilation.

Another advantage of the electric light is the ease with which
it is extended through the rooms of a house. A few feet of well-
insulated copper wire with a number of sockets and lamps make
a complete lighting system, ideal in every way.

Electric wiring is of vital importance in the house. More

428 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

-BC.U5H
BBA55

fires are caused every year by imperfect wiring than any other
cause, so it is necessary for the owner to get an electrical con-
tractor of known integrity, one who will do the work right.

Two methods of wiring a house for electric lights are employed,
what is known as "knob and tube" work, and conduits.

The former consists of stringing
insulated copper wire through
the building in the space occu-
pied by the studding. Where
wires pass through timbers a
porcelain tube is inserted in
the hole, forming a fireproof
sleeve through which the wire
passes. This is the cheapest
method, and it will prove sat-
isfactory in cheap work if the
wiring is properly done by an
expert. The conduit method
is by far the safest and best.
Metal tubes are extended
throughout the house much
like gas pipe, and insulated
copper wire is drawn through
these tubes (conduit). Thus
the wire is protected by its
insulation, and in addition it is protected by the metal tube
in which all wires are placed, making a perfect safeguard
against fire.

Slight carelessness in extending wire by the knob and tube
method may cause fire at any time. For instance, after wires
are extended, if a carpenter or other mechanic happens to saw
or cut unknowingly through the insulation on any wire, it may
come in contact with timber and start a fire. Another fre-
quent cause of fire is carelessness in soldering the joints. Wire

CANDLE FIXTURE FOR GAS.

GAS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING

429

is not continuous. In many places two pieces must be soldered
together to make a complete unit, and if this work is not per-
fectly done solder may melt at these joints when the current is
turned on, with the result that sparking occurs and a fire is
started.

After the wiring is completed it should be rigidly inspected
before the plastering is started, so that one may be sure the wir-
ing is in good shape before it is covered up. All joints should
be, not merely sol-
dered, but wrapped
with tape as well,
forming a complete,
insulated copper-
wire system for the
current. Do not
allow electricians to
cover the joints with
tape until every
joint has been in-
spected. Examine
every inch of the
wire to see that por-
celain tubes are used wherever wire passes through timber.

Instead of using conduit, through which insulated wires are
drawn after the conduit is installed, it is good practice on some
jobs to use flexible metallic cable. This is heavily insulated
cable which may be extended through the house like wire of
ordinary insulation. It is as safe to use as conduit, and fre-
quently more convenient.

Where wires are applied on masonry walls, conduit or flexible
cable should always be used. Knob and tube work at such
places is particularly unsafe. on account of danger from short-
circuiting in damp weather.

Wires from the Electric Light Company's feeder usually

DOME LIGHT AT ENTRANCE.

430 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

enter at the rear of the house, and just inside the wall a main
cut-out box is placed, consisting of a wooden or metal box lined
with asbestos (or a slate box). The main "jackknife" switch
contained in this box turns current on or off. From the cut-
out box, wires extend to the different fixtures, arranged in cir-
cuits with not over twelve
lights on a circuit. Each
circuit is "fused." That is,
current flowing through each
circuit must somewhere in
its length pass through a wire
fuse which acts like a safety
valve, if too much current
is passing (such as s might
cause copper wire to melt),
the piece of fuse wire melts
from the heat, thus auto-
matically stopping the cur-
rent. The most convenient
way to arrange fuses is to
place them all in a main,
fuse box, located at some
convenient point in the
house. With each fuse
marked, one can easily re-
new fuse plugs when they
burn out.

Only the best grade of wire should be used in an electric
light system. All switches should be of approved quality, and
all workmanship should be of the best! Once concealed, the
electric system becomes an item of danger when the work is not
properly done. The Board of Fire Underwriters has prepared
a rigid set of requirements for electric wiring; and if an owner
will specify for his house, "all wiring to be according to the Code

PENDANT FOR DINING ROOM.

GAS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING

431

-DARK

AMTIOUt

6RA53.

of the Board of Fire Underwriters," he will have required the
best possible grade of work.

Contrary to popular opinion, electric lighting is not expensive.
In most towns the current is moderate in cost.
So many excellent gas and electric light fix-
tures are manufactured nowadays it is not diffi-
cult to select the types most useful and attractive
for each room in the house. Of course there is
chance to display taste just as in any other deco-
rative part of the house equipment. Fixtures
come in all kinds of finishes, solid and plated,
and in every variety of design solid fixtures wear
better than plated ones. In the dining room a
pendant chain supporting a shade or dome of
simple pattern is usually best, dropped down
over the dining table. Some are in wrought iron
with plain ground glass, and others have brass
frames and ornamental glass.

Modern designers of fixtures for ceiling lights
are getting away from the stiff " gas-pipe" pendants which pre-
vailed years ago. One of the prettiest of the new styles is a
" shower" of four lights with copper frame and shades.

Indirect electric lighting is accomplished by attractive fix-
tures made for the purpose, but it must
be borne in mind that this method, as at-
tractive as it is, uses more current than
is the case with direct lighting. For in-
direct lighting, ceilings should be painted
very light in tone in order to reflect light
downward. Indirect lighting is very pleas-
ant for the eyes.
Pendant lights and dome lights are good types for a living
room. Small fixtures will not give sufficient light if ordinary
16-candle-power lamps are used, but the more efficient Tungsten

PENDANT FOR
HALL OR DIN-
ING ROOM.

DOME.

432 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

FIXTURE FOB INDI
RECT LIGHTING.

lamps can be supplied. Wall brackets for living room, dining
room, and library, as well as bedrooms, are very practical, whether
ceiling lights are added or not. Bracket lights can be used
when the larger ceiling light is not turned
on, and they have a very pretty effect at all
times. A bracket light is also generally
preferred for the front entrance, often in
the shape of a lantern made in brass, green
finish, with colored glass.

Lamps are important factors in lighting
systems. The most practical lamp is the
new Tungsten lamp, which gives out three
times the light of ordinary incandescent
lamps with the same current consumption.
In other words, this lamp gives three times
the light for the same money. For outdoor lighting, lamps
incased in wire frames are particularly useful, as they are not
easily broken.

For the house burning gas exclusively, fixtures are made in
great variety with ordinary jets or burners and mantles. Of
the former, one may use a simple
2-light gas bracket. Chandeliers
oL^the same pattern can be used
for ceiling lights. Of the com-
bination gas and electric fixtures
simple patterns consisting of two
electric lights and one gas light
are best, the latter being a "can-
dlelight/' For the kitchen ceil-
ing an inverted gas light is very
practical, finished in dull black.

Both gas and electric fixtures should be made of the best ma-
terials. Do not use inferior goods for this purpose, for it doesn't
pay. Some fixtures are of cast metal and others spun from thin

WALL BRACKET.

GAS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING

433

sheets. When of pleasing design and sound construction, the
latter are quite as good as the former, and much less expensive.

Like hardware, gas and electric fixtures come in many fin-
ishes. Have your lighting fixtures and hardware finished alike.
When this is done, the effect is very pleasing.

Light lemon, or brush-brass in the
dull finish, dark antique brass or
bronze as well as dull black, are
equally appropriate for a house. To
prevent brass fixtures from tarnish-
ing, have them covered with trans-
parent lacquer before they are
delivered at the house. All factories
are equipped for this finish which
adds but little to the cost and saves
work later. Lacquered surfaces must
not be polished vigorously when
cleaning, however, or the lacquer will
peel off.

Globes and shades are made in
every form and color. Use judg-
ment and taste in selecting them.
Plain patterns are best, especially
those made on the lines of Greek
vases. Elaborately blown and etched
designs not only reduce the light value of burners, but also
stan4 as monuments to your poor taste.

Prism globes and shades are useful. Ribs or prisms increase
the power of the light rays, and (according to the angle and
depth of the corrugations) send them just where most wanted.
Prism shades are made for lighting up, down, or sidewise in any
direction. They are very attractive in appearance.

Kerosene lamps are excellent for reading. The kind known as
"students" lamps are very satisfactory. Select a plain mode]

SHOWER FIXTURE.

434 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

SILK SHADE ON
WIRE FORM.

finished in antique brass, and you have a durable, attractive
lamp, easy to keep clean. Do not entirely fill the reservoir of
a lamp; leave a slight air space at the top. A lamp is like

a fountain pen in
this regard, it
works best when
not overfull.

Kerosene is the
fluid most used for
lamps, but alcohol
lamps are very sat-
isfactory as well.
In these denatured
alcohol is converted
into gas, and the
lamps are really gas
lamps. There are
kerosene gas lamps,
also, and they pro-
duce an excellent
light.

Ordinary incan-
descent gas lamps
and electric lamps

are useful for tables. Select plain designs and use simple silk
or paper shades instead of elaborate ornamental glass.

Candlesticks with plain white wax candles are charming on
the dining table. They are practical, too, and the cost is trifling.
There is something cozy about candlelight. The glow is warm,
like sunshine. It gladdens the heart.

ELECTRIC TABLE LAMP.

CHAPTER XXV

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE

HARDWARE is the most generally misunderstood material used
in the house. "All hardware looks alike" to the average owner,
and this is not strange when we realize the almost numberless
variations in grades of hardware, variations which are so
slight in some cases that even an expert is puzzled to tell the
difference between them.

When the owner selects his hardware he is usually satisfied
to make a more or less cursory examination of it, preferring to
depend upon the expert knowledge of his architect or the hon-
esty of the hardware merchant to see that he gets the stuff he
pays for. It is a good plan, however, for an owner to under-
stand hardware, so that he may make a wise selection. He
should give as much attention to this as he does to any other
detail of house building.

Price cuts considerable figure with the average owner, who
cannot see why one dealer should charge $100 for a bill of hard-
ware when another charges but $75 for the same goods (as the
owner thinks). As a matter of fact, prices made and main-
tained by all hardware manufacturers are now practically stand-
ard. Hardware manufacturing has been systemized. In stand-
ard styles locks, keys, and knobs are of about the same pattern,
and they sell for. the same price.

If all hardware is standard, costing about the same price, why
is it that prices between dealers fluctuate so much ?

Prices do not fluctuate on the same grade of goods as much
as owners think. When all the retailers bidding on a bill of

437

438 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

hardware figure on the same grade of goods, prices quoted by
them are nearly alike, varying slightly, perhaps, because one
dealer might be willing to cut his profit in order to get
the job, whereas another charges the regular price. The dif-
ference between prices is almost insignificant, for hardware is
sold by dealers on a very small margin. Great variation in
price is really caused by one dealer, in his zeal to get the job,
substituting grades of hardware lower than the standard.

In many instances this substitution is an entirely honest
transaction, done with the sanction of the inexperienced owner.
For instance, an owner goes to a dealer, makes a selection of
high-grade goods, and is quoted a price of $110. He visits an-
other dealer who shows him a slightly inferior line of goods,
made perhaps by the same manufacturers (for all manufacturers
make several different grades), quoting a price of $85. To the
owner both lines of samples look precisely the same. Locks
appear alike, knobs are the same pattern, escutcheons the
same style. But there is considerable variation in price. If
the owner asks the last dealer why prices vary, he will in most
cases *be frankly told that the first line of goods is more expen-
sive, but "you don't need such heavy escutcheons and knobs
as the first man was going to give you," very likely the hard-
"ware dealer will explain, "single-tumbler locks for bedrooms
are plenty good enough for anybody, and the other dealer is
charging you for three-tumbler locks ; his cupboard turns are
solid brass, mine are plated. All this is unnecessary ex-
pense. It makes his bid higher and does you no good."

An unscrupulous dealer would go beyond this, solemnly affirm-
ing to the owner that his goods are precisely like the other
dealer's, who being a "high-priced man consequently charges a
higher price."

There is, of course, a possibility of buying hardware which is
"too good" for the house. In actual practice, however, a large
proportion of owners buy hardware which is not good enough.

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE

439

In their eagerness to save money they frequently buy hardware
which is too cheap and which will cause them annoyance later.

In selecting hardware for a house, the owner should proceed
much as he does when picking out his plumbing fixtures, dealing
only with a concern of known reliability. The owner should
insist upon learning all there is to know about the different
grades, styles, and patterns before he goes too much into the
matter of price. He should examine the interior mechanism of
different locks. He should investigate the various weights of
plates and knobs. He should familiarize himself with the many
finishes for hardware. Then, when he understands the merits
of different kinds, he can intelligently decide which is best for
his own house.

The lock is the most important piece of hardware. Its prin-
cipal parts are bolt, key, and key protection (the latter being
the obstacle to be removed by the key
before it can operate the bolt).

There are many types of key protec-
tion, from the simple " wards" (used on
cheap locks) to " tumblers" contained in
the better grades. In well-known brands
each type of lock has been developed to
its highest efficiency. Each has its place,
and intelligent hardware dealers know
where each should be used, though the
owner often doesn't. This is the chief
reason for buying goods of a reliable
concern, --to assure the inexperienced
owner [that he will be well advised and
get the right hard ware for the right place.

Locks with tumblers (called " lever-tumbler " locks) are
right for inside doors, and they vary in security and durability
according to the number of tumblers, single-tumbler locks
being inferior to three-tumbler locks. The latter are best

MORTISE INSIDE DOOR
LOCK.

440 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

for first-class work, as they are well built and afford the greatest
security possible in a tumbler lock. From 200 to 500 key
changes are possible in a good three-tumbler lock, as against
12 to 24 changes in cheap locks, so 'that the possibility of inter-
change of keys in the former case is inconsequential.

Tumblers in a lock are levers, which must be moved by the
proper key before the key can operate on the bolt. They are,

therefore, "key protectors." A
single tumbler in a lock is virtually
no protection at all.

Cylinder locks (used for "outside
doors) are the most perfect of all,
affording every protection by means
of five pin tumblers (in the best
grade of cylinder locks), making
possible a large number of key
changes.

The mechanism of the lock itself
is not the only thing to consider as
regards protection. Many locked
doors can be opened from without,
by means of a thin, steel tool pushed
into the crack between door and

jamb, making it possible to reach and operate the bolt. To
prevent this use a " protected strike" on all outside doors.
That is, the plate on the jamb of the door which receives the
bolt should be L shaped instead of flat, so that a tool thrust
through from outside could not reach the bolt.

Keys are of four general types, the round key (as com-
monly used for inside door locks), the barrel key (sometimes
used for cupboard locks), the flat key (used for a better grade
of cupboard locks), and the cylinder lock key (the highest grade,
most perfect key of all).

For cylinder locks there are four types of key, flat, grooved,

MORTISE CYLINDER LOCK FOR
OUTSIDE DOOR.

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE

441

BOX .STRIKE

corrugated, and paracentric. Of these types the last is the
most perfect. Ordinary flat keys are used only on the cheap-
est cylinder locks.
Grooved or corru-
gated keys, as their
name implies, are
flat keys wrought
with grooves or cor-
rugations on the
sides corresponding
with grooves at the
sides of the key-
way. The para-
centric key and lock
marks a great ad-
vance in key and
lock design, for the
interlocking bar-
riers at the edge of the keyway extend deeper into the key (by
reason of the paracentric groove in the latter, which is deeper

than an ordinary groove) . Thus,
the paracentric lock is much
more difficult to pick.

Incidentally, it ought to be
stated that any lock can be
picked by an expert equipped
with delicate tools for the pur-
pose. The best grade of cylinder
locks, however, are practically
pick-proof; certainly pick-proof
so far as ordinary thieves are
concerned.

Pin tumblers in cylinder locks are operated by pins, which
are permitted to drop down into the corrugations on the edge

PROTECTED
STRIKt

PHOTtCTEO
BOX STRlKt

fLAT COHRUGATfD PARACENTRIC
KtYWAY KEY WAY KEY WAY

KEYWAYS AND TUMBLERS FOR CYL-
INDER LOCK.

442 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

CYLINDER RIM LOCK.

of the key when it is inserted in the lock. Thus, cylinder locks
have double protection, that offered by the keyway (which
permits only the right key to enter), and that offered by the
pins operating the levers (only keys with the right corrugations

will allow the pins to drop suffi-
ciently to operate the tumblers) .
Cylinder locks are used chiefly
for outside doors and elsewhere,
when it is desired to have more
security than is afforded with
ordinary lever-tumbler locks.

The best locks are made
of wrought metal throughout.
Cheap locks are made partly
of wrought metal and partly of
cast metal. Very cheap locks
are made entirely of cast metal.

Thus, with these different methods there is great variation in
cost of manufacture. Take off the cap of two or three ordi-
nary inside door locks, and the case, bolts, and levers may look
very much alike, though there will be considerable variation
in price, occasioned by inferior material and workmanship in
trie- cheapest superior material and workmanship in the best.
Wrought metal is vastly superior to cast iron, as the latter is
easily broken and less susceptible to a high grade of finish. In
a high-grade lock the case and cap (the shell of the lock) should
be of cold-rolled steel. The front of the lock (the edge which
shows on the edge of the door) should be of wrought steel ; the
bolt (or bolts) should be ribbed or corrugated to give additional
stiffness. Keys for high-grade locks should be of solid steel,
cold-forged from open-hearth metal, with the "bit" tapered at
the outer edge to give better wearing surface and smoother ac-
tion on tumblers and bolt.

The mechanical devices by means of which the levers operate

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE

443

the bolts vary from the crude system employed in cheap
locks to the perfect arrangement contained in locks of a better
class. Here, again, is chance for a wide diversity of price, and
the owner will do well to investigate the interior mechanism of
locks, removing the cap and studying the arrangement of levers.
An ideal lock has a perfectly " easy-spring " action, caused by a
careful arrangement of levers.

Another point to look for in a lock is the system by which
the knobs are attached to it. A metal rod called " spindle,"
long enough to pass through
the door and attach the knob
at each side, is generally used
for this purpose. On cheap
locks an ordinary square
spindle is used, containing
holes at each end to which
the knobs are screwed.
When this method is used,
knobs soon work loose, and
the screws by which the
knobs are attached to the
spindle have to be frequently
tightened up. A much bet-
ter way is to use a spindle
consisting of three wedge-

IM5IDE DOOR.

OUT5IDE DOOR

shaped pieces of metal, which
combined form a square rod.
To this, knobs are attached
by screws, and when tight-
ened the spindle is wedged
in contact with the knobs,
holding them securely. On front doors where it is desired to
make the outside knob operative or not (independent of the
inside knob) the spindle should be of the swivel pattern. Spin-

LfTTER. 5LOT PLATE
WROUGHT BRONZE HARDWARE.

444 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

dies should not be smaller than f inch, though they frequently
come smaller on cheap work.

When it comes to the finish of hardware there are a great
many finishes to choose from. The owner should become ac-
quainted with the different metals employed for escutcheons
and knobs, and understand the different processes by which
they are finished so that he can intelligently consider his hard-
ware estimates. The following are the metals chiefly used :

METALS SUITABLE FOR HARDWARE

Cast Iron is frequently used, and this metal is particularly
suitable for special decorative patterns of escutcheons.

Wrought Iron is used for designs where greater strength is
needed than will be possible with cast iron.

Malleable Iron consists of cast iron
treated in a special furnace which con-
verts it into a sort of semi-steel. It
is little used for anything but cheap
keys.

Wrought Steel is largely used for lock
trim. It is the base of all cheap, plated
finishes and is a durable metal for inside
use, though, of course, finishes plated on
a wrought metal base are always inferior
to solid goods (unplated).

Copper is never used for lock trim ex-
cept as an electroplate, it being too soft
a metal to employ.

Cast Bronze and Brass are without
doubt the best metals for finished hard-
ware.

Wrought Bronze and Brass are of the same material as cast
bronze or brass, but made of thinner sheets, stamped out with
dies instead of cast (and therefore much cheaper than cast

INSIDE
DOOR.

OUTSIDE
DOO&

CAST BRONZE HARDWARE.

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE 445

bronze or brass). For inexpensive work of a good grade,
wrought bronze or brass is perfectly satisfactory.

After becoming acquainted with the different metals used for
finished hardware in the house, the owner will do well to exam-
ine the different ways of finishing these metals by means of
"electroplating." The following finishes are suitable for hard-
ware :

FINISHES SUITABLE FOR HARDWARE

Copper Plating is most satisfactory when done on brass,
chough on cheap work wrought steel is sometimes plated with
copper. The owner should remember that wrought steel once
it is plated with copper, looks precisely the same as brass, plated
with copper, but the latter is by far the most durable, and costs
more. Here is a chance for wide variation of price, and the
owner should assure himself that his hardware with copper
finish has a base of solid brass instead of wrought steel. On
the latter, the plating soon wears off, exposing the steel under-
neath.

Bronze and Brass Plating on iron and steel is suitable for
kitchens and attics, but should not be used in the more decora-
tive parts of the house. Bronze-plated steel hinges, however,
are suitable for all inside doors, as hinges are not conspicuous,
and they are not subject to very great wear.

Nickel Plating on brass is frequently used for bathrooms,
though architects are inclining against this practice, as they have
found that nickel plate soon grows dull and after a time wears
off, showing the brass underneath.

Silver Plating is used on expensive work, and it makes a beauti-
ful appearance, but silver tarnishes and cannot be recommended
unless it is to be kept constantly bright.

Gold Plating is often used on high-grade work, and it has a
very attractive appearance.

446 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Naturally, on plated work there are some portions of the hard-
ware which are subject to greater wear than others, thus re-
quiring a heavier plating of metal. Single plate should be used
only on escutcheons and lock fronts (subject to but little wear).
Double plate should be used for articles subject to moderate
wear such as bolts, sash fasts, and drawer pulls. Triple plate
is used on all high-grade goods for knobs, handles, keys, and
other articles liable to much handling. The owner will readily

KEYHOLt
f5COTCHfOn

IM5IDE
DOO&

OUTSIDE DOOB.
PULL HAM DLt

OOT5I&E
DOOfc

BLACK BOWER-BARFF FINISH.

understand that the amount of plating greatly influences price,
so if there is a wide fluctuation in his hardware bids it may be
well to find out from the various dealers just what grade of
plating is on their goods.

" Bower-BarfT " finish is not exactly a plating, since it is a
process by which iron or steel is treated in a special furnace
until it turns lustrous black in color. This finish is not
durable on outdoor work, but inside it makes an attractive,
practical finish. In considering dull black for a finish, the owner
should ascertain whether he is getting the real Bower-Barff finish
or a cheap imitation. Patents on the former have run out, so that

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE 447

any manufacturer can produce this finish, but some do not take
sufficient care in the work to produce finish of a good quality.

When it comes to color in finishes, many beautiful tints are
obtained by means of the different processes employed. The
following are among the colors usually employed for house
hardware :

COLORS FOR HARDWARE
Brass Metal :

Finished natural color, polished or dull.

Plated, " Verde Antique" (shades of green).

Plated, " Lemon Brass" (sometimes called " brush brass").

Plated, "Antique," polished or dull.

Plated with silver, polished or dull.

Plated with gold, polished or dull.
Bronze Metal :

Furnished in several different shades, among others " Statu-
ary Bronze."
Steel or Iron :

Plated in many combinations of copper, bronze, brass, gold,
and silver.

Bower-Barff process, dull black.

There are many other types of finish, but these are the
standard finishes most frequently used. Many of these look
precisely alike, but all are not equally durable, nor are they of
the same cost. The owner, therefore, should give considerable
attention to the various finishes, inquiring about their cost and
the advantages of each. If he deals with a reliable concern, he
will have no difficulty in getting the goods he wishes, at the right
price.

The most important hardware is, of course, the front door set.
In most cases such a set consists of a cylinder lock with fairly
large escutcheons and a large knob outside with a smaller knob
inside. The best front door locks are arranged so that when

448 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

the door is locked the outside knob is fixed ; when the door is
unlocked the outside knob turns and allows the latch to operate.
A separate thumb bolt is also frequently included. One pat-
tern of outside door set, called "Unit lock," has the key mechan-
ism and keyhole contained in the knob. The back' door should

be as securely fastened as the
front door, and for this reason
a cylinder lock should be used
here, also.

Inside doors are usually pro-
vided with a lever-tumbler lock
(three-tumbler, preferred), an
escutcheon of moderate size, and
knobs both sides. Closet doors
should also have knobs both
sides, though they are some-
times finished blank on the in-
side. The latter is not the best
practice, however, for children
might become fastened in a
closet, and they could not get
out unless an inside knob is on the door.

Inside doors look well when the escutcheon is entirely elimi-
nated and the knob is simply trimmed with a collar ("shank"),
and a little rim of metal is provided for the keyhole ("rose").

There are many patterns of knobs suitable for houses, and
the owner will have no difficulty in selecting patterns which he
likes best, remembering that knobs are subject to the hardest
wear. The following are the materials employed for knobs :

DOOR KNOBS
Pottery Knobs :

These are of three kinds, mineral (brown), jet (black), and
porcelain (white). They are seldom used now, except on
the cheapest work, such as basement or attic.

msioe

THE UNIT LOCK.

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE 449

Wood Knobs :

Made of various kinds of wood finished in their natural colors.
Used chiefly on cheap work, though they are sometimes
considered suitable for bedrooms.
Cast-iron Knobs :

Quite satisfactory when used with " Bower-Barff " finish;

otherwise cast-iron knobs are cheap appearing.
Composite Knobs :

Made of steel or iron underneath, veneered with brass or
bronze. When honestly made, composite knobs are dur-
able and attractive, but many of them are imperfectly made,
the veneer being too thin to wear well.
Bronze and Brass Knobs :

All the best grade of metal knobs are of this class. Solid
knobs are the best and most expensive. Seamless wrought
knobs are quite satisfactory w r hen made of thick metal,
properly built. The latter have the appearance of solid
knobs, but are really wrought from sheets of metal in two
halves, put together and brazed. Cheap wrought knobs
are never satisfactory.
Glass Knobs:

These are very attractive and quite durable. They come in
pressed glass (moderate in cost), and cut glass (the latter
being quite expensive).

When it comes to hinges, which are called in technical par-
lance "butts." there are many patterns to choose from, and
the owner in considering his hardware bids should inform him-
self just what kind of butts it is proposed to use in his house.
The following are the materials used for butts :

BUTTS

Cast-iron Butts:

These are the cheapest kind, and they cannot be recommended
for good work. They come plated in many varieties of
2c

450 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

finish, such as brass and bronze. Sometimes owners really

get cast-iron bronze-plated butts when they think they are

getting solid bronze, as the appearance is the same.
Wrought Steel Butts:

These are excellent for inside work. They come plated with

brass or bronze, or can be had finished by the Bower-Barff

process.
Cast Brass or Bronze Butts:

These are of the highest grade and should always be used on

outside work. On expensive houses they are also used for

inside work.

Hinges for inside doors may be plated, but hinges for outside
doors should always be of solid brass or bronze, as plated hinges
soon rust out when exposed to the weather.

For inside doors, two butts are all that
are usually required, though three butts
are necessary on glass doors, owing to
the weight of the latter. Outside doors
should be furnished with three butts.

Inside door butts can
be furnished in " loose
joint" butts (easily
slipped apart for remov-
ing the door at any time)
or " loose pin" butts.
The latter are the most
convenient, as they are
reversible (can be used
either way). The best
loose pin butts have five

Two PATTERNS or IN-
SIDE, DOOR BUTTS.

INVISIBLE HINGE.

" knuckles * (loops of metal through which the pin passes) in
order to provide two bearings for the weight of the door. Four
knuckles only provide one bearing for the door.

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE

451

A new hinge sometimes used for inside doors is the " invisible
hinge," which is mortised into the edge of the door, where it is
concealed from view.

Ordinary bolts, cupboard turns, drawer pulls, sash fasts,
sash lifts, and other pieces
of hardware used throughout
the house are usually well
understood by houseowners,
but it will be well to mention
several forms of casement
window hardware, for case-
ment windows sometimes
require special treatment.

One pattern of casement
" adjuster" suitable for case-
ments opening out (which is
the proper way to open
them), is installed in the
space between the outside
window and inside screen,
part of the fixture extending
down through the sill. By
means of a rod grasped in
the hand and pushed side-
wise, the window opens and
closes without the necessity
of opening the screen to oper-
ate it. Another pattern is similar in operation, but it is placed
directly on the window stool (between screen and window), the
bottom rail of the screen being cut out to fit down closely over
the swivel. A rod on the room side of the screen opens and
closes the window without opening the screen.

There are other types of adjuster suitable for casements
opening in or out, but in most cases (with outside-opening

lMPRO% r ED CASEMENT WINDOW ADJUSTER
(OBVIATES OPENING SCREEN TO OPEN
WINDOWS).

452 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

casements) it is necessary to
open the screen to operate
the window.

Butts for casement win-
dows (when the windows
open out) should be of gal-
vanized steel with brass pins,
as steel pins soon rust out.

Outside blinds or shutters
can be opened from the in-
side by using one of the
forms of shutter hardware

WITH THIS OUTSIDE-OPENING CASEMENT operated from inside the
WINDOW ADJUSTER IT is NOT NECES- room. In the best types
SARY TO OPEN SCREEN. the ghutter ig operated by

turning a handle, which communicates motion to the shutter
by means of a rod extending
through the window casing.

Several forms of hardware
are furnished for self-closing
doors, such as the double-
swing door between dining
room and serving room.
With the best patterns it is
possible to hold the door
open when desire4, by touch-
ing a pin or lever with the
foot. "Push plates" should
always be screwed to the
face of double-swing doors to
prevent the door from wear-
ing badly at this point.

One form of sash lock now EXCELLENT PATTERN OF CASEMENT

frequently installed is the WINDOW FASTENER.

PRACTICAL HARDWARE FOR THE HOUSE

453

11 burglar sash fast." This is attached at the side of a win-
dow, permitting the
lower or upper sash
to be opened a few
inches for ventilation,
but making it impos-
sible to open the sash
wider. When it is
desired to have the
windows wide open, a
pin at the side is re-
leased, permitting the windows to

HINGE FOR DOUBLE-
ACTING DINING
ROOM DOOR.

opened full width.

One of the latest forms of transom lift
(when transoms are placed over bedroom
doors, for ventilation) is what is known as

the "concealed transom lift," in which the mechanism is placed

behind the door casing.

BURGLAR-PROOF VEN-
TILATING SASH FAS-
TENER.

CHAPTER XXVI

HANDY HOUSE DEVICES

THERE are many useful little devices that can be installed
in and about the house to make housekeeping easier. Many
of these have to do with the furnace or
boiler, handy arrangements for admitting
coal and taking out ashes. Others apply
to the thousand and one little details of
everyday life.

Coal Chute. A coal window of metal will
be found a great convenience, and it is not
unsightly, consisting as it does of a. metal
frame with a swing cover, usually set in the COMBINATION CELLAR-

f J WINDOW COAL CHUTE.

underpinning of a house at the coal bin.
When the cover is opened an inside hopper is pushed forward,
thus making a chute through which coal can be discharged
into the bin. Frequently the cover is glazed like a window so,
even when closed, the chute lets in light
like an ordinary cellar window. An in-
genious clamp locks the cover firmly,
inside.

Ash Receiver. For storing ashes in
the basement after they are removed
from the furnace there is the rotary ash
receiver, consisting; of a group of 6 or 12

ROTARY ASH RECEIVER.

galvanized iron cans (holding 8 to 12

weeks' accumulation), wedge-shaped, so they fit within the area
of a circle.

455

456 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

ASH SIFTER.

To install this contrivance a circular pit is excavated in the
cellar bottom in front of and projecting somewhat under the
furnace. This receives the steel receptacle which holds the
series of specially constructed galvanized
iron cans (of the capacity of the ordinary
ash can), arranged to revolve on a central
perpendicular shaft by means of a lever, in
such a manner as to bring one can at a time
directly beneath the ash pit of the furnace.
The whole device is covered by stationary
top plates on a level with the basement floor,
provision being made to receive the ashes
through an opening in the floor of the furnace ash pit. One
of the floor plates, being removable, permits of the cans being
lifted out when filled.

The cans should be filled consecutively, beginning with No. 1.
When all of them are filled, the drayman is instructed to remove
them as follows : He first lifts the cover plate to one side and,
grasping the handles of the can beneath, lifts it out. With the
lever he rotates the mechanism sufficiently to bring the next can
into position for removal, and so on until the entire lot has
been taken out. After being carried
on4. and emptied, the cans and cover
plates are replaced in position as
before.

Ash Sifter. When ordinary gal-
vanized iron ash barrels are used for
the storage of ashes, it will be found
convenient to . have one of them
fitted with an ash sifter mounted in
the cover. One of the best of these
consists of a tight galvanized iron cover fitted with a hopper and
sifting drum, with a crank to turn it. Ashes are poured into the
hopper, and a few turns of the crank operating the sifting drum

CRANE FOR LIFTING ASH
BARRELS.

HANDY HOUSE DEVICES

457

IRON

removes the ashes, discharging the larger lumps of unconsumed

coal at the other end.

Ash Barrel Crane. When ash barrels are stored in the cellar

through the winter season, the best way

to get them into the yard in the spring

is to use a lifting crane. This is nothing

but a heavy bracket of timber, bolted

to the side of the house above the cellar

entrance. It is pivoted to swing a bar-

rel sidewise to the ground, the barrel

being supported by an ordinary block

and tackle.

Dumb Waiter. Some houses are

planned with the kitchen on the base-

ment level and the dining room above,

making a dumb waiter necessary. This

arrangement is specially frequent in city

houses. Other houses are sometimes

equipped with a dumb waiter extending

from kitchen to cellar, as it has been

found a great convenience, preventing

carrying many articles up over the stairs.

In country houses where ice is difficult

to get, a dumb waiter may be installed

extending from the kitchen down into a shaft in the basement,
where food supplies can be kept as cold as in a
refrigerator.

Sanitary Garbage Can. Storage of garbage is
quite a problem, and several ingenious devices
are made for this purpose. The ordinary method
o f us hig a galvanized iron bucket placed near the
rear door is not sanitary and should not be resorted

to unless a tight cover is provided on the bucket. An improve-

ment on the ordinary garbage pail consists of a galvanized iron

LIFT

CELLAR

DUMB WAITER FROM
KITCHEN TO CELLAR.

HANDY GARBAGE

458 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

FOOT LEVER.

UNDERGROUND GARBAGE
RECEIVER.

can, set upon four iron legs. The cover is hinged so that it
cannot become displaced, and it is opened by pressing the foot

on a lever. A better system of gar-
bage disposal consists of a steel recep-
tacle with cover, let into the ground.
Inside, the garbage pail is kept. The
cover is level with the surface of the
ground so it looks like a coal-hole
cover. To put garbage in, press the
lever with your foot, which raises the
small cover. To empty garbage out
at the end of the week the large cover
is raised and the interior pail is re-
moved and emptied.

A garbage receptacle should be
tight. If it stands outdoors, it should be painted outside and
inside, not merely for appearance, but to preserve it from rust.
Galvanizing helps, but it is not sufficient.

Wire Rubbish Burner. In many houses garbage is burned in
a crematory or garbage-burning heater placed in the base-
ment (described in another chapter). The crematory or heater
is also used for burning waste paper and rubbish, so much of
wMch accumulates about
every house. A cheap sub-
stitute for the crematory
for burning waste paper
consists of a barrel-shaped
receptacle made of gal-
vanized iron wire, with a
cover. Paper or rubbish
placed inside can be

burned with no danger that it will blow about the yard.

Clothes Posts and Lawn Driers. Clothes posts in the yard

are now often made of concrete. These can frequently be

LAWN CLOTHES REEL.

HANDY HOUSE DEVICES

459

CLOTHES DRIER FOR
BALCONY.

bought ready-made like wooden posts, or they may be cast at
the building and set up in place. Many housekeepers prefer
rotary lawn clothes driers instead of posts set up in the yard,
and lawn driers have the advantage of being
taken down when not in use. Lawn driers
come ready-made, consisting of a wooden
post to which is secured a rotary reel con-
taining arms and clothesline. The yard-
arms and supporting post are collapsible and
may be lifted out of the socket (sunk into
the ground) and carried down into the base-
ment. Lawn driers come in several sizes, to hold as many pieces
of clothes as the ordinary fixed posts and clothesline system.

With a lawn drier only one path is necessary to maintain in
winter (a great saving of snow-shoveling), for one stands in
the same spot in hanging or gathering the clothes, and the drier
revolves, bringing every article within reach. A little iron cover
protects the receptacle when not in use.

A balcony drier is like a lawn drier, but it is attached to
the porch. In this way one is not obliged to shovel a path
through the snow, as all the articles may be hung and gathered

from the porch.

Outside Milk Cup-
board. A useful
outside cupboard
for milk bottles con-
sists of a galvanized
iron box, open on

OUT5IDE DOQR< I
OP MOUSE N k

METAL '

LOCKH

EMPTY; WILL NOT
LOCK.

I I I
FILLED; OUTSIDE

BOX IN PLACE
AGAINST DOOB

5ECUBELY LOCKED
SELF-LOCKING Box FOR MILK BOTTLES.

one side and closed
by a cover on the
other. This box is

screwed to the door frame of the rear entrance door, with the
open side tight against the door. When the milkman makes his
rounds early in the morning, he places the full bottles inside the

460 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

PANTRY WINDOW
REFRIGERATOR.

5POMCE3 X FILLIMG

GALVANIZED
IROM

box and slams the cover, which locks. To remove bottles you
must open the house door. This is a theft-proof, weather-proof
device of considerable usefulness. The box
ought to be painted to match the door frame,
for appearance as well as durability, as gal-
vanized iron will rust when unpainted.

Window Refrigerator. For winter storage
of food a galvanized window refrigerator will
be found of great utility. This stands in the
pantry window and is large enough to contain
food for a family of considerable size. The box has a double
metal door, frost-proof and dustless. It should be kept neatly
painted. In order to let cold air enter the refrigerator (but
not the pantry), have two
boards made, one for each
side, to fill up the space
between the side of the win-
dow frame and the refrig-
erator. Thus when the
window is open to cool the

refrigerator, these side boards prevent cold air from entering the
pantry.

^elf-watering Flower Box. Flowers and flower boxes are
now so frequently a part of the house equip-
ment, many clever arrangements 'have been
made for the purpose. Ordinary flower boxes
may be built of wood, lined with galvanized
iron or copper, or ready-made " self-water-
ing" boxes can be found made of galvanized
iron in several sizes. These contain false
bottoms, below ; water is kept in the compart-
ment under the false bottom by pouring in a supply every few
days through the filling tube connected with the compartment.
Sponges in the false bottom keep the earth moist at all times.

WATER. RESERVOIR <*

SELF-WATERING FLOWER Box.

WINDOW VENTI-
LATOR.

HANDY HOUSE DEVICES

461

WALL VENTILATOR.

Window Ventilators. Ventilators attached to windows will
do much toward keeping a
house plentifully supplied
with fresh air during the
winter months, when win-
dows are frequently tightly
closed. One type of window
ventilator consists of a per-
forated metal shelf with a
metal plate in front, designed
to be used at the sill. By
opening the window slightly

at the bottom, fresh air enters upward through the perforated
shelf, thus causing no draft. The entire device
is collapsible and detachable.

Another type of window ventilator consists
of a small metal frame with hinged cover, in-
serted in a slot cut in the bottom rail of the
window. The cover placed on the inside of the
window is hinged at the bottom, causing the
fresh air to rise, thus preventing drafts.

A ventilator can be placed directly in the
outside wall of any room by cutting a hole of
the proper size and fitting it with a metal ventilator. Venti-
lators of this pattern usually consist of
two metal frames, one for the outside of
the wall (containing a grating), and one
for the inside, with a cover hinged at the
bottom.

Silver Safes and Wall Safes. A fire-
proof safe is a useful part of the house
equipment. Safes come in many differ-
ent sizes. Most frequently the safe for
silver is located in the serving room or pantry, often being con-

CONCEALED HOUSE
SAFE.

PLA5TER

SECRET WALL SAFE
JEWELRY.

462 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

METAL WEATHER STRIPS FOR
WINDOWS.

cealed behind a movable panel. In other cases a safe is built

into a piece of furniture. Smaller safes (called "wall safes")

for the storage of jewelry can be
placed in the walls of bedrooms.
They are little cast-iron boxes about
12 inches long and 8 inches high, with
a door closed by a steel disk controlled
by a combination lock. It is the
usual custom to hang a picture over
a wall safe, concealing it from view.

Weather Strips. Weather strips
are frequently used in place of storm

windows on all outside doors and windows in the house.

Weather strips made of copper are best, as they are practically

"indestructible. Many patterns are in the market, and it is

possible to get weather strips for any size or style of windows,

including casement windows.
Window Screens. Metal-

framed insect screens can be

used in place of screens with

wooden frames. There have

been many improvements

mitde in window and door

screens in the last few years,

modern screens being more

durable and convenient than

old-fashioned screens.

Screens with metal frames

are made with a groove into

which the screen wire is in-

serted, and wedged in place

.,.

with a metal collar. The

best patterns of wooden screens are made in somewhat the same

way, with a molding of wood to hold the screen wire in place.

SECTION Of

DOOR

5HOWIhG A MEW
WAY TO ATTACH

A MtAT AMD DUR-
ABLE 'WlhDOW
SCREtM
5ECTION

WOOD SCREEN AND METAL SCREEN.

HANDY HOUSE DEVICES 463

Copper screen wire is the most durable, but galvanized iron
wire will be found quite satisfactory when a reliable brand is
used. Ordinary black wire is not practical for screens, as it
soon rusts through.

CHAPTER XXVII

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW

MANY people do not care to build a new house, frequently
possessing an old house that has been in the family for many
years, and which can be made quite comfortable by modernizing.
Others prefer to buy an old house in some good location than
to build new; they determine to reconstruct the old building
to meet their requirements. For such, this chapter is written,
with the hope that it will help some to carry out their purpose
of providing new homes from old houses, homes that will be
convenient, practical, and attractive.

Remodeling may be a success financially and artistically, or
it may not, depending upon various phases of the problem.
Many old houses are not capable of successful remodeling at
any price. Constructed along peculiar lines in the first place,
the attempt to remodel can only end in failure or else the
building must be entirely wrecked and a new one built all over
again. Then, too, some old houses are in such wretched repair
that it will not pay to reconstruct them. Money spent mod-
ernizing a house is not sensibly spent when the old framework
is badly decayed and repairing necessitates such extensive tear-
ing out of walls and partitions that the entire building is practi-
cally rebuilt.

On the other hand, many old houses built along simple lines
in the first place, and kept in good condition by careful main-
tenance, are excellent for remodeling. Hardly a city, town, or
suburban community exists in which there are not many such
fine old places waiting for the hand of some one with taste to
make them into modern, well-arranged, attractive houses.
2n 465

466 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Fortunate is the owner who recognizes the right kind of old
house before he buys it for remodeling purposes, and doubly
fortunate is the owner who knows what to do with the old place
after it has come into his possession, for there are two great
factors in remodeling: first, to secure a house with possibil-

PLAIN HOUSE REMODELED.

ities; second, to arrange interior and exterior with accom-
panying plumbing, heating, and lighting, in an effective way
without excessive cost or unnecessary tearing down or destroy-
ing. These results are all easy to accomplish after a little
study, and every owner who contemplates remodeling should
give consideration to the problem before he buys a place, in order
to begin right by having the right kind of house to start with.

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW 467

In remodeling, every step should be well planned in advance
in order to prevent false steps and save the money lost in experi-
mental building and tearing down again.

Frequently the mere elimination of false ornamental trim-
mings on an old house will accomplish results quite surprising.
Some of the old-time builders who nourished at a later period
than the really good designers of Colonial times, were wont
to nail ornamental
boards and fancy
shingles on the gable
ends of their houses,
producing a result
not popular to-day.

What does it cost
to remodel ? This is
usually the first ques-
tion asked by the
average owner, and
a very live question
it is, and one very
difficult to answer.
What does it cost to

run an automobile? How much coal will a furnace burn?
How many miles from Boston to New York ? These are ques-
tions to which a like answer may be given, it depends de-
pends upon conditions. If you go to Boston from New York
by way of the sea, it is one distance, and another if you go
by rail. A furnace will burn as much coal as you are willing
to shovel into it, sometimes more, though scientific stoking
greatly cuts down the amount needed to warm a house comfort-
ably. Some men run an automobile on $25 a month, and others
hardly squeeze along on $100, depending upon the size and make
of car, amount of service, and ability of the man who runs it.

When it comes to remodeling aa old house, no two owners

NEW PORCH ON AN OLD HOUSE.

468 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

have quite the same experience. One man modernizes in a
simple way at a cost of $1000, while another spends $5000, and
wishes he had more in order to get what he thinks he wants.
But some idea of cost can be obtained of course, and no owner
should embark in a remodeling project until he knows some-
where near what the price will be. It is difficult to make a
definite estimate on alterations, certainly, but some idea can be
gathered by consulting with an expert, one who is familiar with
building costs in your neighborhood and therefore qualified to
give good advice. But you should remember that the expert
can give no information until he knows how extensive the work
is to be; so here is where you, Mr. Owner, must give study to
the problem, yourself.

In a remodeling project the first thing to do is to examine
the old building and determine just what repairs are needed to
put the house in good condition, for it is never wise to spend
money on remodeling unless the entire building is to be put
in good repair at the same time. Rearranged rooms, installa-
tion of plumbing, heating, and lighting, and repainting or
decorating are thrown away if the balance of the house is not
put in just as good condition as the new part. Otherwise, you
would be repairing, every year, spots in the house \fhich should
have been put in good condition in the first place.

Next, you should draw on a sheet of paper the two floor plans
showing the arrangement of rooms as they exist. Make some-
thing more than a rough sketch, if possible, for this diagram
is to be the groundwork which you or your architect will study
for a solution of your problem. On this account the best way
is to measure up each room and locate it, carefully drawn to
scale (one quarter of an inch to the foot is the most used scale),
on your diagram, showing every window, door, and closet.
If you have choice pieces of furniture and wish to use them in
the remodeled house, show them on your sketch plan so that you
may provide space for them in the new scheme.

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW 469

OLD-FASHIONED HOUSE MODERNIZED.

No matter how familiar with the old house you may be,
it is difficult to grasp an arrangement of rooms. Walk from
room to room as
much as you will,
trying to determine
how to modernize the
house, and you will
have but a confused
idea about the ar-
rangement. But if
you make an accu-
rate sketch plan, a
plan which can be
afterwards examined
and studied at leisure,
you will have taken
the wisest step possible, and your sketch plan will likely lead
to a correct solution of the problem. Take this plan, study it,

and determine what
is necessary to be
done to get the ar-
rangement of rooms
desired, bearing in
mind, however, that
when you remove
one partition be-
tween two rooms
on the first floor for
a larger living room,
the second-story
partition overhead
Two OLD ROOMS MADE INTO ONE. cannot be depended

upon to hold itself in place. Beams or some such structural
members must be built in to support the second story.

470 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

Take care that the new arrangement will not wreck the old
building. Modify your desires to suit the character of the old
building, instead of arbitrarily demanding that rooms shall be
precisely this way or that. The style of the new structure
should be determined largely by the style of the old. Plain,
old houses are usually more easily remodeled along Colonial
lines than any other style.

LITTLE BRICK HOUSE WITH NEW PORCH AND PERGOLA.

When remodeling, a first-class system of heating may be
installed in any house without making a shaving on the floor
or a scratch on the wall. Careful workmen can put in the
system, connect it up, and take away their tools again without
annoyance to any one in the house. Hot-water and steam heat
are easiest to install in an old house, though furnace heat may
be put in with no great inconvenience. Most hot-water and
steam pipes are not larger than If inches ; rarely do they exceed
2 inches in diameter. That is why they are so easily put in,

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW 471

for upright pipes, or "risers," as they are called, may be slipped
from the basement into old partitions.

Modern hot-air furnaces are excellent for old houses, with
the advantage that they cost less than hot-water or steam
heaters. It is more difficult to get hot-air risers up to the

OLD HOUSE TRANSFORMED INTO A STUDIO.
Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect.

second floor through the old rooms below. However, one can
usually find a way by placing them in closets or out-of-the-way
corners.

A new plumbing system is almost as easily installed in an
old house as in a new. Two vertical stacks are usually required,
one for the kitchen sink and laundry trays, and one for the bath-

472 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

room. Two bathrooms are always desirable, sometimes three.
You can hardly have too many.

Locate the bathrooms as near together as possible so that you
may use one vertical stack for both. If they are widely sepa-
rated, however, you must use a separate stack for each.

CHARMING BEDROOM IN AN OLD NEW ENGLAND HOUSE.

The new vertical plumbing pipes may be placed in a corner,
neatly cased up, or you may be able to slip them into an old
partition by sawing a narrow slot through the plastering. A
break in the plaster is easily patched up again, and wall paper
or burlap will hide the patch. In the basement, run new pipes
on the cellar wall to prevent breaking into the old cement floor.

Most piping in the new bathroom installation will be under

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW 473

each bathroom floor. Here the horizontal pipes necessary
are frequently difficult to build in. Careful planning, however,
will usually provide a way of
locating fixtures close to the NEW BRICK d
vertical stack so that very
little cutting of the old floor
timbers is necessary. At the
most, a small section of floor
can be rebuilt at slight ex-
pense.

Kitchen fixtures are easi-
est of all to install in the old
house. One small stack up
through the roof connected
at the bottom with a line of
pipe to the sewer is sufficient.
Run the kitchen waste inside
the room right down through
the floor. The ventilating
stack above may also be run inside the kitchen, as it can be
cased up neatly.

Before starting any of the work, have plumbing and heating

BRICK VENEER APPLIED ON AN OLD
FRAME HOUSE.

OLD WINDOWS

CHANGED INTO NEW CASEMENTS.

contractors make estimates. In a remodeling job, it may not
be possible for them to tell you exactly what the work will

474 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

NEW PLA5TtB-

PAPER.

NlrW LATH

OLD SIDING

SHtATHIMQ

5TUDDING

MEW

PLASTER EXTERIOR ON WOOD
LATHS APPLIED TO OLD
HOUSE.

cost, but they should be able to estimate within 10 per cent of
the total amount.

The best time to install new heating and plumbing is in

warm weather. Consider the prob-
lem carefully through the winter
months, and begin actual operations
during good building weather in the
spring. This will give you ample
time to complete the work so that
another winter will find you and
your family enjoying the comforts
of modern heating and plumbing.

One type of old house frequently
successfully remodeled is the farm-
house, which may be made habitable
for summer only, or for all the year.

Old farmhouses are usually well built. A good grade of
lumber, thoroughly hard-burned brick, and sound stone are
invariably to be found knit into the structure of a farmhouse
built years ago before there was depreciation in the quality and
quantity of lumber, and 'before
higher prices made builders skimp
thie work. As a rule, however, old
farmhouses do not have good cellars.
When remodeling a farmhouse
whether for summer or year-round
occupancy, arrange first to put a
good cellar and foundation under
the entire building, for sound foun-
dations will prevent repairs. Use
stone, if stone is plentiful in your

neighborhood. On many old farms enough stone can be found
in an uncleared field or in old stone walls to build the founda-
tions entire.

MEW
PLASTER

NEW PLASTER ON METAL
LATHING.

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW 475

With weather-beaten faces green with old moss and brown
or gray from long exposure, old stone makes the most attractive
building material for farmhouses. For this reason it is better
to save old stone walls for work above ground, using more ordi-
nary ledge stone for below ground. In regions where stone is
scarce, concrete foundations will prove cheaper than stone.

OLD HOUSE BEFORE REMODELING.
(See Page 476.)

To put a new foundation under an old building, tear out a
small portion of the old wall. Dig new trenches down to the
required depth (5 or 6 feet in most cases) and lay in new stone
or concrete. After sufficient new wall is built up to underpin
the sills of the building above, you may tear out the remaining
portions of the old wall and rebuild with new material, bonding
it well to the first work.

476 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

In building foundations of concrete, trenches are dug down
to the required depth (about 12 inches below the cellar bottom) .
Inside of the wall a "form" of rough boards is built, far enough
back from the bank to give the necessary thickness to the wall
(10 or 12 inches in most cases). The bottom board of the

As REMODELED.

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect.
(See Page 475.)

form is left about 6 inches above the cellar bottom, and the
trench is made 8 inches wider at this point. Cement concrete,
dumped into the space between form and bank, flows out on
the bottom, filling the extra-wide trench and forming a broad
footing of concrete, as shown. The remainder of the foundation
space is then filled with concrete to the under side of the building.

REMODELING; MAKING AN OLD HOUSE NEW 477

Ivory-white is a good color for the outside weather boarding
of an old house. Put just enough yellow in with the white
to give it an ivory tone. In requesting a painter to mix up
ivory-white, however, caution him to get it mostly white.
Some painters think " ivory" means deep cream, whereas it is
really white, slightly on the ivory shade. With the house
painted white, green blinds are almost a necessity.

BEFORE ALTERATIONS.
(See Page 478.)

On an old shingled house where it is necessary to renew the
shingles merely in spots, the fresh patches can be stained to
match the old weather-beaten shingles, or, if preferred, the entire
building may be stained with shingle stain. To secure with
new shingles the pretty weathered effect of old shingles, use
"bleaching oil." Ivory-white cornices and green blinds are
very attractive against a background of bleached shingles.

Cement plaster is a boon for remodeling, as it quickly makes
a decided change in the appearance of an old house. Cement
plaster makes a sound, durable, warm overcoat for any house.

478 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

On most buildings it produces a modern effect without more
extensive alterations being required.

Select a reliable plasterer to do the work. There is nothing
which demands more careful work than plastering. No opera-
tion can be so easily slighted, as is explained in another chapter.

For an ordinary house 30 X 40 feet, it costs about $350 to
$500 to lath and plaster the exterior, using wood laths. At

->_ AFTER ALTERATIONS.

J. K. Cady, Architect.
(See Page 477.)

these prices one saves the cost of the plaster overcoat in a few
years by the lessened cost of painting, alone.

To covercoat a house with plaster on wood laths, nail 1-inch
by 2-inch furring strips vertically upon the old siding. These
strips should be about 12 inches apart, and wood laths are applied
horizontally in the usual way.

Metal lathing costs more than wood laths, but it is econom-
ical for an old house, as furring strips are not necessary. You
may apply metal lathing directly to the wood siding and save
the cost of furring strips. The details of lathing and plastering
are described in another chapter.

CHAPTER XXVIII

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES

AMERICAN houses are the most scientifically planned of
those in any country. In the best American designs, proper
consideration is given to the beautiful as well as the practical,
but constructipn is never sacrificed for architectural effect,
nor is mere appearance allowed to take the place of actual
convenience.

Not a little of the success of well-planned American houses
is due to the clear-sightedness of American housekeepers,
women skilled in managing the machinery of the house so that
it runs easily, smoothly, and with least effort. The shortening
of steps, the convenient arrangement of cupboards and closets,
the elimination of much that is unnecessary, and the incorpora-
tion of everything needful is largely through the efforts of these
women. Most architects are glad to acknowledge their in-
debtedness to their women clients.

Bungalows, many of them .ingenious and pretty, others
ugly and ill arranged, are built everywhere. The bungalow
idea (that is, the house-on-one-floor) is excellent so far as house-
keeping convenience is concerned, and bungalows designed
by the skillful are very attractive. A bungalow should be
something more than a one-story flat building and something
less than a palace, though both types are unfortunately very
much in evidence. A long, low, "rakish" building is perhaps
the best description of what a bungalow should be.

As a rule, bungalows look best perched upon the side of a hill
(as they are so frequently in California) with plenty of ground
2 1 481

482 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

BUNGALOW FOR Two.

VCBAMDA

PLAN OF BUNGALOW FOR Two.

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES 483

A LITTLE BUNGALOW OF SHINGLES.

PLAN OF SHINGLED BUNGALOW.

484 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

FIRST FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

CEMENT-PLASTERED BUNGALOW.

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES

485

on all sides. On lots of moderate size, tightly squeezed into
rows, bungalows are not so attractive.

The bungalow is not cheap. Comparing the amount of space
in a bungalow with the same space in a two-story or one-and-one-
half' story cottage, it will be found that the latter cost less,

SWINGING PARTITION BETWEEN LIVING ROOM AND KITCHEN.
(See floor plan on preceding page.)

owing to the greater amount of cellar and roof in the former, and
consequent greater cost.

Next in cost (per cubic foot) to the single-story bungalow is
the one-and-one-half story cottage, and next to that comes the
two-story cottage in which the second story is of full height
(not cut off by the sloping roof). Cottages of the latter type
are less expensive than buildings with a steeper roof.

486 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

LITTLE SUBURBAN HOUSE.
Spencer and Powers, Architects.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES 487

CEMENT-PLASTERED HOUSE OF MODERATE
COST.

Charles E. White, Jr., Architect. -

FIRST FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

488 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO 13UILD THEM

COUNTRY HOUSE NEAR NEW YORK.
Aymar Embury II, Architect.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES 489

BRICK AND PLASTER HOUSE IN SEATTLE.
"Wilson and Loveless, Architects.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN,

490 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

BRICK HOUSE WITH FRAME KITCHEN WING.
Aymar Embury II, Architect.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN.

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES

491

To reduce the cost of a house to the lowest practical point
and at the same time have all the necessities, an attic can well
be eliminated. Another space saver (consequently, a money
saver) is the buffet kitchen, in which food and dishes are kept in
kitchen cupboards. Thus, with no food or china pantry, con-
siderable space is saved, and at the same time housekeeping is
made easier.

American suburban houses, when there is room to do so, are

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

frequently stretched out in a long building, comparatively nar-
row. This is an excellent type of house when handled with skill,
as it makes a charming appearance and is at the same time
conveniently arranged. On a smaller building site, however,
the house must be smaller and more compact.

The hall-in-the-middle type of so many Eastern houses is
always attractive and usually practical. If a vote was to be
taken on what is the most popular style of house, undoubtedly
this type would win, for Colonial and "Near-Colonial" houses
are much admired. Another popular style and justly so

492 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

BRICK HOUSE IN CHICAGO SUBURB.
J. K. Cady, Architect.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

SENSIBLE TYPES OF AMERICAN HOUSES 493

BRICK COUNTRY HOUSE NEAR BOSTON.
Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN.

\/-\7
SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

494 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

is the modern English; very much Americanized, of course.
The freedom possible in this style is quite remarkable, in many
cases the Americanized version of the English style being so
different from its prototype as to be hardly recognizable, though
something of the spirit of the latter remains, it is to be hoped.

FIRST FLOOR PLAN OP HOUSE ON PAGE 480.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

CHAPTER XXIX

GARAGES AND GARAGE APPARATUS

KEEPING pace with automobile growth, modern garages are
very convenient, and garage apparatus is up to a very high stand-
ard of practical utility. There isn't much room left for improve-
ment, though possibly the future will bring out some new ideas.
Every conceivable kind of plan and every form of construction
has been tried out, so that now garage design is more or less
standardized. A man can buy motor cars which cost as much
as a house, or he may content himself with a five-hundred-dollar

SMALL GARAGE FOR SUBURBAN HOUSE.

runabout, with the assurance that in any event he can build a
garage in keeping with his car and at a cost to fit. his pocket-
book.

2K 497

498 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

For a small but practical building at lowest cost, one may use
a. portable garage, built at the factory and shipped in sections.
These little buildings come in all sizes and in many designs,
with doors and windows arranged to suit any case. It is easy
to put the sections together, and most portable garages are
quite attractive in appearance, though one must use intelligence
in selecting.

For a more pretentious garage it is probably better to build
in the ordinary way, using the many good materials for this
purpose. Lumber, cement, metal lath, hollow tile, brick,
and stone are most frequently used. On large country places
a garage is often combined with the stable, for many country
dwellers (and city, too, for that matter) keep horses as well as
motor cars.

The idea that the garage should be in the same style as the
house is most important. Nothing is more unattractive than

a place where the
house is of one style
and garage another.
When a garage is
combined with the
stable, it is neces-
sary to keep the
former entirely sepa-
rate from the latter.
Otherwise, ammonia
coming from the
stable will tarnish
the metal work of
the cars. The best plan is to have a building in two wings,
L-shaped or otherwise, with horses in one wing and cars in an-
other. No doorways should connect the two.

Where no stable is desired in combination with the garage, it
is an excellent plan to attach the latter to the house by means

STABLE AND GARAGE COMBINED.

GARAGES AND GARAGE APPARATUS

499

GARAGE ATTACHED TO HOUSE.

PLAN.

500 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

of a wall, pergola, or fence. The cost of the connecting link,
whether wall or fence, is slight, considering the attractive effect
obtained in that way. On a corner lot the garage may be built
on the side street, attached to the house by a covered pergola.
The owner drives into his garage directly from the street, thus
making unnecessary a driveway. With two or three doors on

STORY-AND-HALF GARAGE.

the street (one sliding by another), any car may be taken out
without disturbing another.

The ideal garages are, of course, fireproof, and many useful
methods of building garages at moderate cost have been devel-
oped. Cement plaster is an excellent material to use in this way.
One of the best systems for building fireproof where cement
plaster is used is by means of expanded metal lathing in which
is incorporated, every few inches, a steel rib to act as a stiffener.
Such a wall requires but few steel uprights to which metal

GARAGES AND G AH AGE APPARATUS

501

fabric is fixed, so it is exceedingly economical to use on walls
and roof. In building such a garage, it is only necessary to
provide a concrete floor on cinders directly on the ground, side-
walk fashion. At proper intervals steel angle uprights are
set into the concrete floor, and the ribbed metal fabric is fastened
to these. Cement plaster is afterwards coated inside and out.

METAL FRAME PLASTERED GARAGE.

So many garages are being built with sliding doors that much
study has been given by architects to the proper design for the
large doors. Sliding doors are greatly to be preferred to swing-
ing doors in a garage, for swing doors (opening out to save
space) cannot be opened when snow becomes banked against
them in winter. The great value of sliding doors is that no
wall space is required to slide them on. One door slides behind

502 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

METAL FRAMEWORK.

the other. Of course,
both cannot be opened
at the same time, but
that is rarely necessary.
Much of the new aD-

GOOD METHOD FOR SLIDING DOORS.

paratus for garages is
very useful, but none more so than a
turntable, the installation of which
makes it possible to utilize every inch
of space in the building, no matter
what shape it is. One doorway for cars
is all that is necessary when there is a
turntable, as each car can be run on to
the turntable, turned, and run off in any AUTOMOBILE TURNTABLE.

GARAGES AND GARAGE APPARATUS

503

CEMENT TRACKS FOR AUTOMOBILES.

GARAGE IN BASEMENT OF HOUSE.

504 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

GARAGE ATTACHED TO HOUSE.

direction to its location on the floor. Some turntables are in-
stalled in a little pit built
Oth-

in the concrete floor,
ers are bolted on top of the
floor, no pit being required.
For access to the garage
you may have a cinder drive-
way, gravel drive, or one
of concrete. The latter is
most practical, as it requires
no repairs, but oftentimes
a concrete drive makes an
unsightly streak across the
grounds. Another objec-
tion to it is that the cement
surface often becomes greasy
from engine drippings. A
better method is to build a concrete track with a strip of

GARAGES AND GARAGE APPARATUS

505

GOOD SMALL OUTFIT FOR GASOLINE STORAGE.

grass in the center. Grease falls on the grass, where it will not
be noticeable.

Cottages or small houses may have a garage built underneath.
To prevent the necessity of backing out, a pitless turntable is

installed in order that the

CEILJNG PLATE

car may be turned before it
comes out. In places like
this, a turntable is a special
convenience.

Other garages are attached
to the house. In attaching
a garage in this way, great
care must be taken to make

REVOLVING
JOINT

WATER.
SUPPLY
INLET

ARM

HOSE CONNECTION
SWINGING CEILING HOSE WASHER.

506 SUCCESSFUL HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

LARGE BRICK GARAGE,

For fireproof construction,
excellent, producing a safe
garage in which one can
keep the most expensive
cars and apparatus. Ce-
ment plaster applied to
the outside sinks into the
grooves in the tile and
clings tenaciously, making
a strong, warm, attractive
wall. The inside of the
wall can be plastered, or it
may be simply whitewashed
or painted.

Gasoline should always be
kept underground. Mod-
ern apparatus for gasoline
storage is efficient, safe, and
clean, the general idea in
best apparatus being an

a tight entrance be-
tween garage and
house. Otherwise,
gasoline fumes may
penetrate the latter
much to the annoy-
ance of those who live
there, to say nothing of
fire risk. A fireproof
door is always desir-
able in such a place.
The supply of gaso-
line should be kept
outside, underground,
terra cotta hollow tile blocks are

CONVENIENT PLAN FOR CHAUFFEUR'S
QUARTERS ON SECOND FLOOR OF A
GARAGE.

GARAGES AND GARAGE APPARATUS 507

underground steel storage tank from which gasoline is pumped
as wanted. Another useful device rapidly coming into general
use is an overhead washing apparatus consisting of a pipe arm
swiveled to the supply pipe in the ceiling, for attaching the
hose when washing a car. You can thus reach any part of
the car without dragging the hose all about the floor.

INDEX

agreement standard form of, 150.

air-cpmpresser, 404.

allowance, hardware, 136.

allowance clauses, 136.

American Institute of Architects, 78.

anchors, 231.

architect's duties, 73.

fees, 78.

sketches, 80.
area walls, 165.
ash barrel crane, 457.
ash receiver, rotary, 455.
ash sifter, 456.
awnings, 62.

balcony, 53.
barricades, 259.
baseboard, kitchen, 265.
basement, depth of, 164.

height of, 169.

waterproof, 172.
basement closets, 128.
basement tool room, 128.
basement trunk rack, 128.
basement work shop, 128.
bath, seat douche, 319.

seat bidet, 319.
bathroom, private, 122.

size of, 122.

capacity of, 122.

location of, 122.
bathroom fittings, 329.
bathroom floors, 123.
bathroom walls, 123.
bathroom windows, 123.
baths, seat, 319.

sitz, 319.

foot, 319.

shower, 319.

bathtubs, 315.

with feet, 315.

with base, 315.

built-in, 315.

niche, 316.

Roman, 316.

sizes of, 316.

height of, 317.

width of, 317.

piping, space for, 318.

concealed piping, 318.

porcelain, 318.

enamelled, 318.

zinc white finish, 318.

finished cost of, 318.

infants, 319,

size of, 319.
batter boards, 162.
beam, trussed, 190.
beams, ceiling, 270.
bedroom, owner's, 121.
bedrooms, 99, 120.

size of, 120.

windows, 121.
bibbs, ground key, 337.
bids, 86.

sub-, 87.
billiard room, 120.

size of, 120.
blind-nailing, 199.
blinds, outside, 270.

inside, 270.

Venetian, 270.
boarding, 274.

diagonal, 190.

horizontal, 190.
boards and battens, 200.

matched, 199.
boiler hot water, connecting of, 291,

range, 292.
boiler covering, 360.
509

510

INDEX

boiler insulation, 360.
boilers, vertical sectional, steam (table) ,
355.

vertical sectional, hot water, 356.

soft coal, 356.

magazine feed, 356.

horizontal sectional, steam (table),
357.

horizontal sectional, hot water (table),
358.

size of, 359.

equipment for, 360.
bonds, 87.
bookcases, 126.
bracing masonry walls, 231.
brick, soft, 176.

hard, 176.

grade of (table), 215.

merchantable, 215.

common, 215.

face, 216-222.

molded, 216.

hexagon, 216.

paving, 217.

yellow, 219.

red, 220.

brown, 220.

purple, 220.

gray, 220.

rough texture, 220.

manufacture of, 221.

re-pressed, 222.

tapestry, 222.

Smooth, 222.

mottled, 222.

enamelled, 222.

bonding, 222.

ordinary bond, 223.

English bond, 223.

Flemish bond, 223.

double Flemish bond, 223.
brick stretchers, 224.

sizes of, common, 225.
Roman, 226.
standard, 226.

sand lime, 229.

cement, 230.
brick tests, 229.
brick veneer, 204.
brickwork, 215.

methods for laying, 229.

building, to own, 3.

to rent, 3.

contract, 146.

inspection, 155.

paper, 199.
building loans, 4.
building lots, 9.

skillful buying of, 10.

details of buying, 13.

value of schoolhouses and churches,
14.

size, 16.

inside, 17.

west frontage, 17.

corner, 19.

neighboring houses, 19.

hillside, 20.

irregular, 21.

rectangular, 21.

clear title to, 22.

abstracts, 22.

deeds, 22.

warranty deeds, 22.
bungalows, 481.

cost of, 485.
butler's pantry, 117.
butts, 449.

cabinets, 125.
cabinet work, 259.
cabinet workmanship, 265.
candlesticks, 434.
canvas, 398.

painting on, 398.
carpentry, 259.
casings, exterior, 260.
catch basin, 304.
ceiling plates, 371.
cement, Keene's, 383.
cesspool, disadvantage of, 343.

contamination from, 344.
chimney, faulty, 374.

flashing, 375.
chimney flues, correct sizes of (table),

373.

china cases, 118.
circulating system, 290.
irculator, automatic, 361.
cistern, soft water, 304.

INDEX

511

cistern, brick, 304.

wood, 304.
clapboards, 198.
closet, coat, 126.
closets, 123.
closets, hat, 125.

linen, 126.

preserve, 127.

basement, 128.
coal bin, 127.

dust proof, 127.
coal cellar, 127.
coal chute, 455.
coat closet, 126.
coat room, 126.

size of, 126.
cocks, corporation, 286.

stop and waste, 289.

street, 289.

ball, 326.

pantry, 339.

double-mixing, 339.

hose, 339.

loose key, 339.
columns, porch, 59.

Greek, 60.

Doric, 60.

Tuscan, 60.

Ionic, 60.

Corinthian, 60.

ugly, 60.

compression tanks, 402.
concrete blocks, 177-235.
conductors, 281.
contract, building, 146.

uniform, 150.

signatures, 150.

compensation, 150.

seal, 150.

amendments, 151.

implied conditions, 151.

forfeiture price, 151.

extra work, 152.

written orders, 152.

responsibility, 152.
contracts, general, 87.

employers' liability act, 152.

insurance, 152.

architects and owners, 152,
cornices, 57.

overhanging, 58.

ornices, first-story, 59.

;ost of nouses, comparative, 77.

cubic-foot, 77.
cottages, cost of, 485.
;rematory, rubbish, 421.
3ross-furring, 379.
cupboard, table leaves, 119.

milk, outside, 459.
cupboards, kitchen, 115.

damper chains, 372.
deafening, 262.
den, 110.
design, 25.

history of building, 26.
dining room, 102.
dining table, 103.
dirt, stacking of, 162.
documents, legal, 145.
door casings, 56.
door frames, 260-2C5.
doors, entrance, 49.

inside, 63.

handles, 64.

swing of, 266.

mirror, 267.

doorways, old Colonial, 47.
down-spouts, 281, 302.
drainage system, 294.
drain board mats, 310.
drain boards, 310.
drains, subsoil, 17-0.

trenches, 171.
drawings, working, 72-82.

sketches, 80.

details, 84.
dressing room, 122.

size of, 122.
drinking fountains, 322.

bubbling, 322.
driers, lawn, 458.

balcony, 459.
dumb waiter, 457.

eaves, 58.
plaster, 58.
sheathed, 58.

512

INDEX

electric conduits, 428.
electric fixtures, 431.

finishes for, 433.
electric flexible cable, 429.
electric lamps, 432.
electric lighting, indirect, 432.
electric lights, incandescent, 427.

main, cut-out box for, 430.

fuses for, 430.

fuse box for, 430.
electric mangles, 410.
electric plants, house, 414.

location of, 415.

electric storage battery, house, 414.
electric vacuum cleaners, basement,
413.

portable, 413.

electric washing machines, 411.
electric wiring, 428.

inspection of, 429.
engines for lighting plants, 415.
escutcheons, 448.
excavation, 161.
expansion tank, 360.

faucets, 336.

brass, 336.

white metal, 336.

nickel plated, 336.

compression, 337.

Fuller, 338.
~>quick opening, 338.

self closing, 338.

for laundry tubs, 339.

bathtubs, 339.
felt, gravel covered, 210.
fireplaces, 104.

smokeless (rule for), 376.
fireproof ceilings, plaster on, 248.
fireproof floors, 249.

safe loads for (table), 246-247.

pipes in, 248.
fireproof houses, 237.
fireproof lintels, 249. '
fireproof materials, 241.
fittings, Y, 295.
flashing, 281.

tin, 281.

copper, 281.

floor, cellar, 169.

cement, 169.

flooring, finished, 191-262.
floor plates, 371.
floors, tile, 113.

under, 191.

stripped, 191-262.

scraping, 263.

maple, 263.

Southern pine, 263.

straight sawed, 263.

quarter sawed, 263.

fir, 263.

painted joints in, 263.

tile, 264.

rubber tile, 264. '

linoleum, 264.
flour bin, 116.

flower box, self -watering, 460.
flower boxes, 50-61.
footings, 166.

concrete, 166.

brick, 166.

stone, 166.
foundations, 161.

concrete, 172.

stone, 173.

brick, 176.

hollow tile, 177.
framing, Eastern method, 182.

Western method, 183.

balloon, 184.

flush, 187.
frontage, 93.
furnace coils, 291.
furnaces, hot air, 352.
furniture, living room, 101.

dining table, 103.

sleeping porch beds, 113.

built-in, measurements for, 271
furring, for brick walls, 218.
furring strips, 206.

garage and stable, combination, 500.
garage doors, 503.
garage driveways, 506,
garages, 499.

portable, 500.

fireproof, 502,

INDEX

513

garages, basement, 507.

gasoline storage, 508.

washing apparatus, 509.
garage turntables, 504.
garbage burner, 292.
garbage cans, sanitary, 457.
garbage receiver, underground, 458.
gas, gasoline, 419.

bottled, 420.
gas burners, 427.
gas fixtures, 432.
gas heaters, instantaneous, 404.

automatic, 406.

ordinary, 406.

gas lighting, incandescent, 425.
gas lights, inverted, 426.

pilot, 426.
gas mantles, 426.
gas plants, house, 416.

safety of, 417.

acetylene, 418.
girders, 167.

flush, 187.
glass, ornamental, 51.

.small panes, 52.

schedule of (table), 399.
glazing, 399.
globes and shades, 433.
grading, 19.

finished, 163.
gutters, galvanized iron, 281.

hanging, 281.

hair felt, 192.
hall, 106.
hardware, 437.

price of, 437.

selecting, 439.

metals for, 444.

finishes for, 445.

colors for, 447.

casement window, 451.

for double-acting doors, 452.
hardware allowance, 136.
hardwood, 261.
hat box, 125.

heaters, combination hot-air and hot-
water, 354.
heating, electric, 352.

heating, hot-air furnace, 352.

hot water, 354.

steam, 361.

vacuum, 363.

plant, tools for, 363.

principles of, 373.
hinges, invisible, 451.
hoods, 60.

hot-air furnace, 352.
hot-air registers, 354.
hot-water heating, 364.
hot-water system, 290.
houses, square, 93.

rectangular, 93.

American, types of, 481.

incinerator, garbage, 421.
installments, buying on, o
insulation, 192.

hair felt, 192.

linofelt, 192.

seaweed quilt, 192.

wind-proof paper, 203.

sheathing paper, 203.

joints, leaded, 199.

mortar, 176, 226.

colored mortar, 226.

raked, 227.

struck, 227.

pointed, 227.

joist cutting for pipes, 275.
joist hangers, metal, 190.
joists in masonry houses, 230.

kalsomine, 397.
Keene's cement, 383.
kitchen, 113.

old style, 114.

modern, 114.

small, 114.
kitchen cupboards, 115.

size of, 115.
kitchen doors, 115.
kitchen sinks, 310.

location of, 310.

514

INDEX

kitchen sinks, window at, 310.

painting of, 311.

height of, 311.

adjustable legs for, 311.

sizes of, 312.
kitchen windows, 115.
knobs, 448.

lamps, kerosene, 433.

gas, 434.
lathing, 379.

sheathing, 380.

metal, 381.
laths, exterior wood, 207.

wood, 380.
laundry, 127.
laundry clothes drier, 409.
laundry fixtures, 330.
laundry mangle, 410.
laundry tubs, soapstone, 330.

enamelled iron, 330.

.vitreous ware, 330.

cement, 330.

wood, 331.

laundry washing machines, 410.
lavatories, 314:

wall, 314.

marble, 314.

enamelled iron, 314.

porcelain, 314.

vitreous ware, 314.
""-pedestal, 315.

sizes of, 315.

dental, 315.
lawns, value of, 15.
lead, white, 390.
ledger, 185.
legal documents, 145!

invitations for proposal, 152.

standard proposal form, 152.

proposal, 152.

bids, 152,

bonds, 153.

building permit, 155.

plumbing permit, 155.

electric permit, 155.

waiver of lien, 156.

architect's certificate, 157.

insurance form, 158.

legal documents, builder's risk, 158.

library, 109.

liens, mechanics, 87.

lighting .plants, cost per hour, 416.

voltage of, 416.
linen closet, 126.
linofelt, 192.
linoleum, 117, 264.
lintels, window, 216.
living room, 100.
living room furniture, 101.
loam, 163.
loans, building, 4.
locks, 439.

lever tumbler, 439.

cylinder, 440.

pin tumblers for, 441.

strikes for, 440.

keys for, 440.

materials in, 442.

spindles for, 443.

unit, 448.
logs, 180.
lot, inside, 16-17.

size of, 16.

west frontage, 17.

corner, 19.

hillside, 20.

irregular, 21.

rectangular, 21.
lumber, 179.

size of, 183.

skrinkage of, 186.

seasoned, 193.

piling of, 195.

kiln-dried, 265.

masonry, 213.

medicine cupboards, 126.

mortar, cement, 175.

colored, 175.

lime, 175.

mixing, 175.

sand for, 175.
music room, 109.

overflows, recessed, 340.

INDEX

515

paint, exterior, 390-394.

failure of, 391.

success of, 391.

application of, 392.

priming coat, 393.

final coat, 393.

mineral, 393,

for tin work, 393.

puttying, 393.

colors, 394.

for plaster, 394.

interior, 395.

white enamel, 395.

for canvas roofs, 398.
painting, color, inside, 398.
paneling, 65, 270.
panels, ceiling, 271.
pantry, 116.

butler's, 117.

serving, 118.

wastes for, 340.
pantry floors, 117.
pantry sinks, 119, 312.
pantry walls, 117.
paper, building, 191.
partitions, 230.

inside, 188.

bathroom, 189.
permit, building, 155.

plumber's, 155.

electric, 155.
pianos, size of, 109.
piers, 167.
pipe, water service, 286.

lead, 287.

galvanized iron, 287.

tin-lined lead, 287.

white metal, 287.

brass tubing, 287.

Benedict metal, 287.

durometal, 287.

hot water, 287.

size of, 288.

tags for, 289.

water, depth of, 289.
insulation of, 289.

soft water, 290.

circulating, 290.

tile, 294.

pipe, cast iron, 298.
teeting of, 298.
coated, 298.

hanging of, 298.

plumbing, testing of, 300.
pipe covering, 360.
pipe insulation, 360.
pipes, for water supply, 286.

for sewage, 286.

for ventilation, 286.
piping system, 286.
plaster, hard, 114,

cement, 205.

texture, 208.

rough coat, 209.

patent, 385.

preparation of, inside, 383.

grounds for, 383.

scratch coat, 384.

brown coat, 384.

finished coat, 384.

smooth finish, 384.

sand finish, 384.

hard finish, 384.

exterior finish, 385.

rough cast, 386.

crushed stone for, 386.
plaster board, 380.
plastering, back, 192.

inside, 382.

sand tor, 383.

fiber for, 383.

hair for, 383.
plumbing, rodding, 297.
plumbing clean-outs, 297.
plumbing fixtures, porcelain, 308.

enamelled iron, 308.

vitreous ware, 309.

marble, 309.

soapstone, 309.
plumbing stack, 294.

support of, 297.
pointing, 176.
porch, carriage, 60.

sleeping, 112.

double-deck, 112.
porch columns, 59.
porch entrance, 48.
porches, 94-112.
porch trimmings, 59.
post, newel, 64.

516

INDEX

posts, 167-168.

iron, 168.

wooden, 168.

hollow tile, 169.

clothes, 458.
preserve closet, 127.
pressure regulator, 288.
pump, hand, 402.
pumps, electric, 403.

gas engine, 403.

hand suction, 408.
and lift, 408.

water power, 408.

quarter round, 265.
quilt, seaweed, 192.

radiation, rule for determining, 359.
radiators, cast iron (tables), 364-368.

size of (table), 359.

hot water, 368.

painting, 368.

plate warming, 368.

ventilating, 368.

indirect, 369.

pressed-steel, 369.

window, 369.

valves, 370.
range boilers, 292.
w copper, 292.
*** galvanized, 292.

size of, 292.

vertical, 293.

horizontal, 293.

connecting of, 293.
reception room, 108.
refrigerating systems, house, 420.
refrigerator, 115.

window, 460.
refrigerators, house, 421.
registers, hot air, 354.
remodeling, 465.

cost of, 467.

plans for, 468.

style, 470.

heating, 470.

plumbing, 471.

farm houses, 474.

remodeling, foundations, 475.
painting, 477.
cement exterior, 477.
renting table, 6.
roofing, tin, process of manufacture,

276.

copper, 278.
composition, 279.
gravel, 279.
tile, 280.

color of, 280.
nails for, 280.
ridge rolls for, 281.
Spanish tile, 280.
shingle tile, 280.
roofs, 273.

shingled, boarding for, 274.
slate, boarding for, 275.
tin, 276.

flat seam, 277.
boarding for, 278.
cleaning of, 278.
painting of, 278.
standing seam, 278.
rubber tile, 264.
rubbish burners, wire, 458.
rugs, 101.

safes, silver, 461.

wall, 462.
sash, 269.

sash fasteners, burglar-proof ventilat-
ing, 453.
sash fitting, 270.
savings table, 7.
screens, window, 462.
seats, window, 105.
septic sewage systems, 344.

drain tile for, 344.

soil for, 345.

for houses, 346.

flush tanks for, 346.

syphons for, 346.

cost of. 347.

diverting valves for, 349.
septic tanks, 348.

concrete, 347.

steel, 348.
serving room, 118.

INDEX

517

sewage, pipes for, 286.
sewage systems, septic, 344.
sheathing, 199.
shellac, 397.
shingles, 201.

hand made, 202.

required number of (table), 273.

nails for, 274.

hemlock, 274.

red cedar, 274.

white cedar, 274.

white pine, 274.

cypress, 274.

laying, 274.

asbestos, 276.
shiplap, 198.
shower baths, 319.

supply pipes for, 319.

tub, 319.

built-in, 320.

sizes of, 320.

receptors for, 320.

stalls for, 320.

tile, 320.

marble, 320.

slate, 320.

glass, 320.

construction of, 320.

floor slabs for, 320.

piping for, 321.

sprays, 321.

portable, 321.

curtains for, 322.
sideboard, 105.
siding, 197.

sink and wash tub combinations, 313.
sink backs, 310.
sinks, kitchen, 310.

corner, 311.

niche, 311.

revolving stools for, 311.

iron, 311.

pantry, 312.
tandem, 119.
metal, 312.
copper, 312.
German silver, 312.
drip boards, 312.
size of, 312.
square, 312.
oval, 312.

sinks, pantry, double, 313.

recessed overflow for, 313.
stand pipe for, 313.

slop, 313.

cooks', 313.

vegetable, 313.
sink strainers, 340.
slate, 274.

blue or black, 274.

green, 274.

brown, 274.

hips, 275.

ridges, 275.

required number of (table), 275.

machine drilled, 275.

hand punched, 275.

nails for, 275.
sleeping porch, 112.

beds for, 113.
sleeping porch doors, 113.
slaeping porch windows, 113.
soft water systems, 407.
soft woods, 261.
soil, 164.

rock, 165.

clay, 20, 165.

gravel, 165.

sand, 20, 165.

quicksand, 165.
soil pipe riser, 295.
specifications., 131.

methods, 132.

general conditions, 136.

requirements, 137.

work and material, 138.

stored material, 138.

carting, 138.

obstructions, cutting and repairs, 139.

care of building, 139.

warming building, 139.

insurance, 139.

drawings, 140.

interpretation of, 141.

property, 142,

award of contract, 142.
spouts, 281.
stain, shingle, 394.

amount required (table), 395.

interior, 396.
stairs, 53-107.
Standard Form of Agreement, 150.

518

INDEX

steam heating, 361.

steel framework for houses, 256.

steps, entrance, 48.

cement, 49.

brick, 49.
stone, tests for, 232.

finish for, 233.

rubble, 233.

field, 233.

bowlders, 233.

coursed rubble, 233.

ashlar, 234.

clamps for, 234.
stone copings, 234.
stone cornices, 234.
stone houses, 231.
stone inspecting, 235.
stone moldings, 234.
stone patching, 235
stone pointing, 234.
stone quoins, 234.
stone sills, 234.
stonework, good, 174.

.poor, 174

storage tanks, attic, 407. '
strips, weather, 462.
stucco, 385.
studding, 189.
style, 27

old Colonial, 28.

modern Colonial, 30.

old English, 32.

Elizabethan, 32.
"""^modern English, 33.

American-English, 34.

Dutch, 36.

American-Spanish, 36.

Mission, 36.

German, 38.

French, 39.

L'art Nouveau, 40.

American-Japanese, 41.

Middle Western, 42.
suburban houses, 493.
sun room, 113.
supply and waste connections, 339.

Table, renting, 6.
savings, 7.

tanks, compression, 402.

attic, storage, 407.
telephone systems, house, 422.
terraces, 112.
tests, plumbing, 300.

water, 300.

peppermint, 300.

smoke, 301.
thermostats, 371.
tile, agricultural, 170.

cement, 241.

terra cotta, hollow, 241.
manufacture of, 249.

deep-scored, 242.

hollow, size of, 242.

for inside partitions, 242.

safe loads for (table), 243.

interlocking,. 243.

walls, with vertical struts, 243.
method of laying, 249.
sills for, 254.

floors, 249.

hollow, insulation, 250.

vitrified, hollow, 251.

red, 252.

yellow, 252.

hollow, backing, 254.

special blocks, 254.

jamb blocks, 254.

flooring and trim for, 254.

partitions, pipes in, 255.
quarry, 49.

hollow, cost of (table), 256.

mantels, 264.

bathroom, 264.

Spanish, roofing, 280.

shingle, 280.

ridge rolls, 280.

hips, 280.

red, 280.

green, 280.
tile floors, 114.
tile walls, 114.
timber, history of, 179.

framing, 192.

white pine, 192.

spruce, 192.

Norway spruce, 192.

hemlock, 193.

white cedar, 193.

red cedar, 193.

INDEX

519

timber, cypress, 193.

redwood, 193.

tamarack, 193.

Southern pine, 194.

North Carolina pine, 194.

Georgia pine, 194.
tin, valleys, 278.

gutters, 278.

sizes of, 278.
tool room, 128.
transom lift, concealed, 453.
traps, 333.

running, 299.

S, 333.

P, 334.

bottle, 334.

grease, 334.

syphon. 334.

non-syphon, 335.

clean-outs for, 335.

for laundry tubs, 335.

refrigerator, 336.
trees, value of, 55.
trellises, 50-62.
trim, 134.
trunk rack, 128.
tumblers, lever, 440.

underflooring, 231-261.
Uniform Contract, 150.
union L, 370.

vacuum cleaners, 41.
vacuum heating, 363.
valves, shut-off, 288.

back water, 303.

combination, for hot water heating,
370

air, 370.
varnish, 397.

ventilation, pipes for, 286.
ventilators, smoke, 110.

window, 4*61.

wall, 461.

vents, gas range, 281.
verandas, 48, 111, 102.
vermin stop, 266.

wainscoting, 65.

walks, brick, 49.

wall plate, 231

wall plugs, metal, 249.

walls, area, 168.

wall ties, metal, 224.

wardrobes, 124.

wash bowls, 314.

waste connections, 339.

wastes, for pantry sinks, 340.

standing, 340.

lavatory, 340.
water-closets, 323.

wash out, 323.

wash down, 323.

syphon jet, 324.

frost-proof, 324.

hopper, 324.

enamelled iron, 324.

earthenware, 324.

tanks, 325.
high, 325.
low, 325.
birch, 325.

solid mahogany, 325.
oak, 325.

enamelled iron, 325.
vitreous ware, 325.

water seal for, 326.

connecting of, 326.

metal flange' for, 326.

putty joints for, 326.

flush pipes for, 327.

flushometers for, 327.

seats for, 327.

shut-off valves for, 328.

ventilation of, 329.
water heaters, coal, 291.

magazine feed, 292.
waterproofing, brick walls, 218.
water supply, pipes for, 286.
water supply systems, 286.
water table, 59.
wells, dry, 170.
white lead, 390.
windmills, 402.
window frames, 260.

for masonry, 261.
windows, 51-269.

520

INDEX

windows, bay, 53-101.

corner, 55.

double hung, 55.

casement, 56.

casings, 56.

cellar, 169.
window seats, 105.
wood, inside finish, 261.

outside finish, 261.

wood, hard, 261.

soft, 261.

working drawings, 72-82.
workmanship, 134.
workshop, 128.

zinc, white, 390.

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AS books will teach, the knowledge necessary to erect safely any building. First
comes an introductory chapter on the Strength of Materials. This chapter gives
the value of, and explains briefly, the different terms used, such as stress, strain,
factor of safety, centre of gravity, neutral axis, moment of inertia, etc. Then fol-
lows a series of chapters, each dealing with some part of a building, giving prac-
tical advice and numerous calculations of strength ; for instance, chapters on
foundations, walls and piers, columns, beams, roof and other trusses, spires,
masonry, girders, inverted and floor arches, sidewalks, stairs, chimneys, etc.

These papers are the work of a practising architect, and not of a mere book-
maker or theorist. Mr. Berg, aiming to make his work of the greatest value to
the largest number, has confined himself in his mathematical demonstrations to
the use of arithmetic, algebra, and plane geometry. In short, these papers are
in the highest sense practical and valuable.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

>sX. Strength of Materials.
II. Foundations.

III. Cellar and Retaining Walls.

IV. Walls and Piers.
V. Arches.

VI. Floor-beams and Girders.
VII. Graphical Analysis of Transverse
Strains.

CHAPTER

VIII. The Nature and Uses of Iron

and Steel.

IX. Rivets, Riveting, and Pins.
X. Plate and Box Girders.
XI. Graphical Analysis of Strains in

Trusses.

XII. Wooden and Iron Trusses.
XIII. Columns.

Tables.

Index.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

Modern Perspective

A Treatise upon the Principles and Practice of Plane and
Cylindrical Perspective

BY WILLIAM R. WARE

Professor of Architecture in the School of Mines, Columbia College

Fifth edition. In one volume, square 8vo, 321 pp., with 27 Plates in a Portfolio.

Price, $4.00 net

This is by far the most exhaustive of modern works on the subjects relating to
perspective, plane and panoramic, and of great value to ail architects and artists,
and others interested in the problems of art. The scientific and pictorial aspects
of these investigations are carefully and thoroughly considered, both indepen-
dently and in their connection with drawing; and the propositions of the author
are illustrated by plates of architectural objects and perspective plans. An invalu-
able book for artists, architects, draughtsmen, and civil engineers.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

I. The Phenomena of Perspective on Nature.
II. The Phenomena relating to the Picture.

III. Sketching in Perspective. The Perspective Plan. The Division of Lines

by Diagonals.

IV. The Division of Lines by Triangles.

V. On the Exact Determination of the Direction and Magnitude of Perspec-
tive Lines.
VI. The Position of the Picture. The Object at 45. Measurement of

Obliquely Inclined Lines.
VII. Parallel Perspective. Change of Scale.
VIII. Oblique or Three-point Perspective.
IX. The Perspective of Shadows.
X. The Perspective of Reflections.
XI. The Perspective of Circles.

XIII. Cylindrical, Curvilinear, or Panoramic Perspective.

XIV. Divergent and Convergent Lines. Shadows by Artificial Light.
XV. Other Systems and Methods.

XVI. The Inverse Process.
XVII. Summary. Principles.
XVIII. Geometrical Problems.
XIX. The Practical Problem.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

Architect, Owner, and Builder
Before the Law

BY T. M. CLARK

Fellow of the American Institute of Architects, Author of
" Building Superintendence," etc.

Square 8vo, $3.00 net

This book is the work of a layman, whose experience in business, and as expert
before the courts, has convinced him that the conduct of building cases, and the
management of building affairs, might be assisted by a collection of modern prec-
edents, looked at from the point of view of the building expert, rather than that
of the lawyer. Lawyers generally dislike building cases, as they often turn on
technical points, which their training has not fully qualified them to appreciate,
and the author hopes that a book in which these points are particularly considered
may be useful even to persons whose legal knowledge is far superior to his own.
Recognizing his lack of qualifications for treating of strictly legal questions, he
has avoided, as far as possible, any statement of the law on his own authority,
quoting, in preference, the exact words of the judges in the highest courts; or,
where these were not available, the summaries of the decisions as given by the
official Reporters. In order to do this efficiently, he has undertaken a large
amount of labor. In very few instances is anything stated on the authority of
Digests, the actual cases being carefully studied, and the Reports of nearly every
State in the Union searched for cases not cited, under heads relating to building
matters, in the Digests. In consequence of this the book contains hundreds of
references, particularly to modern cases, which are not given in any other work
on the subject with which he is acquainted; and, in a selection of those involving
the most important technical points, the exposition of those points by the Court
has4>een quoted at considerable length, in order to present the subject in a way
to avoid all possible misapprehension.

For reasons stated in the book, no attempt has been made to give a synopsis
of the constantly varying mechanics' lien laws of the States, or a model form of
specification, applicable to all buildings; but a chapter on Contracts is added,
which contains three forms, suitable for different circumstances, with notes, which,
it is hoped, will enable any intelligent person, by judicious selection, to draw a
satisfactory building contract for any conditions.

Three indexes are appended: one of subjects; one of cases cited, arranged in
alphabetical order; and one of States, in which the cases cited are. arranged
under the heads of the States to which they belong.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York