Sufism Its Saints And Shrines

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Hadrat Bu 'All Shah Qalandar.

SUFISM

ITS SAINTS AND SHRINES.

An Introduction to the Study of Suftsm with
Special Reference to India

BY
JOHN A. SUB.MAN, B.A., B.D.

or THB

MKTHOPIST EPISCOPAL CHUVCH

LCTU

TH HCNHY MAIITTN SCHOOL or ISLAMICS, LAMOCE
or 'TH QAOABI OBDVR

LUCKNOW

iHINO *IF

To
WILLIAM PATON

AND

MURRAY TITUS

IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION OF THE FACT THAT IT

WAS THROUGH THEIR INSTRUMENTALITY THAT

I UNDERTOOK THE SPECIAL WORK IN WHICH

I AM NOW ENGAGED.

PREFACE

At the very outset I desire to acknowledge with
deep gratitude the invaluable assistance given to me
by my revered friend and counsellor, Rev. L. Bevan
Jones, Principal of the Henry Martyn School of Islam-
ics, Lahore, in the composition of this book in proper
English. He has helped unstintingly by going over the
whole manuscript, sentence by sentence, correcting
and improving its language and thus making its publi-
cation possible. Without his help and encouragement
this book would, probably never have seen the light.
I am also deeply indebted to my friend and colleague,
Rev. J. W. Sweetman, for kindly re-writing Ch. II, and
translating into English the original passages quoted in
this book, and also for his generous help in Proofs
reading.

I also desire to express my great indebtedness to
Dr. L. E. Browne, my former colleague and to my friend
and benefactor Dr. M. T. Titus for thir most valu-
able criticism and helpful suggestions most of which
have found their way into this book.

I am conscious that the subject here dealt with has
not received adequate treatment. But in view of the
fact that the resources for our knowledge of such parts
of it as, the history of the Religious Orders and details
of the Saints, are so obscure and at times so unacces-
sible, readers who are in a position to see the book's

ii PREFACE

shortcomings will kindly forgive the deficiencies and
favour me with their criticisms.

The book claims no originality and no great re-
search. It is an effort to place before English readers
in systematic form, the varied and extensive, though
often hidden, material on the subject of Mysticism and
Saint worship in Islam, available in Urdu and Persian
literature.

A word must be added on the system of translitera-
tion adopted in this book. While it has not been poss-
ible to give an exact idea of the pronunciation of
Arabic and Persian words, the following method has
been adopted.

The elision of alif is indicated by an apostrophe ('),
e.g., 'Allu'l-Hujwiri. The cases where apostrophe is
used for hamza or for the elision of alif can easily be
determined by persons acquainted with Arabic and
Persian. The Arabic 'ayn is represented by an inverted
apostrophe O e. g. Shara\

The long vowels are represented by a short hori-
zontal overline, a, I, u, and have approximately the sound
of the vowels in the following words: father, seen,
loot. ,

Diacritical points or lines appear under h, s, z,t, o,
th, kh, gh, to represent certain Arabic values. Some
few words, however, such as current proper names, are
spelled according to usage, e. g., Muhammad, Quran,
Islam. In footnotes and headings Arabic or Sanskrit
words are spelled in Roman without any diacritical
points.

PREFACE iii

Lastly, I offer my thanks to my wife for the sym-
pathy, encouragement and wise counsel that I have
received from her in writing of this book, which other-
wise because of the peculiar nature of its subject and
being my first effort to write for English readers would
not have been an easy task.

Lahore, India. J. A. S.

March, 1938.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter-
Introduction ... ... 1

I. The early History of ufism ... 6

The derivation of the word ufl The
beginning of ufism The earliest
form of ufism.

II. Later Development of ufism ... 17

Speculative elements in ufism ufism
wins recognition in Islam The classic
period of ufism Farldu'd-Dln,
4 Attar Jalalu'd-Dm Ruml Sa'dl
Later ufl peots Shabistari Hafig
Jami.

III. The ufl Gnostic System ... 52
ufl speculative concerning God

Tanazzuldt, the descent of the Abso-
lute The Haqlqatul-Muhammad-
diyya The Latd'if, the organs of
spiritual apprehension.

IV. The Path ... ... 67

The Stages of the Path The Divine

Effulgence and mystic Illumination
Fand, Annihilation.

vi CONTENTS

V. The Path (Continued) ... 87

Devotion to the plr ufi devotions
General acts of devotions Special
acts of devotions.

VI. Notable f eatutes of ufl Practice . . . 102
Veneration of Saints The hierarchy of
the Saints Visitation to a Shrine-
Miracle Sama\ musical festivals
Khidr and Ilyas.

VII. The Introduction of ufism into India 118
Baba Ratan Bibl Pakdamanan Sayyid
Salar Mas'ud Ghazi 'Allu'l-Hujwiri.

VIII. The Relation of uf ism to Indian Thought 1 32
The ufi attitude towards Hinduism
The ufl plr and Hindu guru ufl
speculative concerning God compared
with the teachings of Hindu Philo-
sophy Wahdatul-WujUdiyya and
Advaita Philosophy Shuhudiyya and
Vishistadvaita LatcCif and Chakras
Fand and Nirvana or Moksa.

IX. The Origin of Religious Orders ... 159

Hasan of Basra The Zaydiyya The
Hablbiyya.

X. The Four Main Orders ... 174

The Chishtl Order The Qadiri Order
The Suhrawardll Order The Naqsh-
bandl Order.

CONTENTS vii

XL The Chishti Order ... ... 193

Khwaja Mu 4 inu'd-Din Chishti.

XII. The Chishti Order after the death of

Mu'inu'd-Din ... ... 209

Khwaja Qutbu'd-Din M u s i c in the
Chishti Order Faridu'd-Din Shafkar-
ganj.

XIII. The Nizami and abiri Section of the

Chishti Order ... ... 220

The Nizami S e c t i o n Hisamiyya

Hamza Shahi
The Sabiri Section of the Chishti

Order.

XIV. The Suhrawardl Order. . . ... 228

Baha'u'd-Dm Zakariya - Sadru'd-Din

Shaykh Ahmad Ma 4 shuq Sub-sections
of the Suhrawardl Order.

XV. The Sub-divisions of the Suhrawardl

Order ... ... 236

Bd-Sara Sections The Jalali Section
The Makhdumi S e c t i o n The
Ismail Shahi Section-The Dawla
Shahl Section Be-Shara Sections
Lai Shahbaziyya and the Rasul Shahi
sections.

XVI. The Qadirl Order ... ... 253

Some early Saints of the Order The
Qumesiyya The Bahlul Shahi Section

viii CONTENTS

The Muqlm Shahl Section The
Nawshahl Section,

XVII. The Qadirl Order (Continued) ... 265

The Husayn Shahl and Miyao Khel Sec-
tions.

XVIII. The Naqshbandl Order ... 275

The early Saints of the Naqshbandl
Order in India Ahmad FaruqlMuj-
addadiyya-Naqshbandiyya.

XIX. The Naqshbandl Order ... 285

The doctrine or Qayyumiyat The four
Qayyums.

XX. Some Minor Orders ... ... 299

The Uwaysi Orders Tha Madari Order
The Shattarl Order-The Qalandari
Order The Malamati Order.

Epilogue. ... 319

APPENDICES

A. A List of the Principal Saints of

Indian Sufism ... 331

B. The Principal Anniversaries of the

Saints in India. ... 369

INDEX. ... 377

INTRODUCTION.

ON THURSDAY NIGHT.

TONIGHT is Thursday night, the night which is
specially sacred to the ufl. Come, let us visit some
shrines and see for ourselves what strange religious rite5
are practised almost at our very doors.

We enter a dimly-lighted room where a number of
men are gathered. As we do so a signal is given by a
man who appears to be the leader of the assembly and
the doors are shut. There is a hush as twelve men
form into two parallel lines in the centre of the room.
The glimmer of a solitary hurricane lamp falls on dark
faces in which only the eyes seem to live. The rest of
us fall back to the sides of the room. The dhikr is
about to begin.

With a startling clap of the hands the leader starts
swaying from right to left. Very slowly he begins and
the men fall into the rhythm of his swaying. Every
time they sway to the left, they call "Hu !" in chorus,
tl Hu....Hu...Hu..." So the monotonous chant proceeds
with at first hardly any perceptible increase in tempo.
But gradually the movement of their bodies becomes
more rapid and the sound of "Hu ! Hu ! Hu!" comes
faster and faster and with a crescendo corresponding
with the quicker time. At last the excitement becomes
so intense that a man there, and a boy here, slip to
their knees, still swaying in unison with the others till

2 INTRODUCTION

finally they fall in collapse on the floor. One man goes
forward and looks at the faces of these two and leaves
them where they lie. Thus course after course of this
chanting and swaying beginning from the slower and
proceeding to the wild orgy of motion and shouting,
according to the leader's direction, who brings the
whole course to its end by a loud shout of "Huf ' and a
wild jerk to the left. Then dead silence prevails,
succeeded by the low undertone of prayer in which all
who have not fallen unconscious join.

We leave the room as the unconscious begin to
revive, in order that we may witness a more extraordi-
nary performance in a neighbouring shrine. Wending
our way through the narrow lanes, we eventually reach
our destination. We pass the threshold and enter a
maze of rooms in the dark, till we find ourselves in a
gloomy hall. Against the end wall, five men sit facing
us. The middle one is the leader, but the other four
are also elders. Upon the wall to the right of the
leader, knives, cutlasses and other pointed instruments
of iron are suspended. In the front of him a group of
some twenty men are seated forming a semi-circle.
Here the performance seems to have been in progress
already for some time. The leader is repeating some-
thing and swaying his body from right to left. The
rest in unison with him sway in the accustomed manner
from side to side and shout in chorus, "Allah!" Sudden-
ly in the midst of the performance one man on the right
of the leader begins to chant a prayer ; all change the
movement of their bodies and begin to sway backwards

INTRODUCTION 3

and forwards, continuing the chorus of "Allah." Thus
they proceed for about an hour when all rise up, and
the two elders on each side of the leader begin an
antiphonic chant, responding alternately. The rest with
a rising and falling movement from the hips, now shout
in chorus 44 Ya Hu! Ya HU!" and at the same time is
heard a mingled sound of sob, sigh and cry. Soon they
become more excited; rising to their feet they form into
a circle and begin to stamp their feet on the floor, ac-
cording to the rhythm of the singing elders. Then at a
measured pace they make the circuit of the hall. At
the point when their strength seems to be exhausted,
the scene takes a new turn. Some of the men take
down the sharp weapons and heat them in the fire
which has all the time been burning in the corner.
When these are red-hot they are taken to the leader
and he breathes on them. The men, filled with fresh
energy and with a frenzy almost amounting to madness,
rush to the leader and take these red-hot irons from
him, snatching them, licking them, holding them be-
tween the teeth. Those who cannot get irons, take
hold of the knives and cutlasses still hanging on the
wall, and with indescribable fury stick them into their
sides, legs and arms. It does not take long for them to
lose their strength, and one after another they stagger
and fall on the floor. They utter no word of complaint
and do not show any sign of pain. All is quiet : the
yells and shrieks have given way to a fearful silence, a
strange contrast to the pandemonium only a little while
before. The riotous scene has changed into a horrible

4 INTRODUCTION

spectacle of wounded men lying all over the floor. The
leader now walks round the hall, examines each person
and applies his saliva to their wounds. As we turn to
leave the hall, one of the elders comes up to us and in
quite a confident tone assures us that in twenty-four
hours they will be perfectly healed and not even a scar
of their wounds will be left.

It is now past midnight and we shall visit one more
shrine where the dhihr continues all night long. We
leave the city and come to a place which appears like
a village. In an open space with a small shrine in the
background we find a large number of people gathered
and a musical festival in progress. People are sitting
close to one another and a large crowd of spectators is
standing all round. The entire gathering strikes us by
its disorderliness. One man in a corner is shrieking
"Hu !", another is raving like a madman, a third is
whirling round and round, and yet a fourth is lying un-
conscious, while all the time the musicians, paying no
heed to the behaviour of these men who are in frenzy
or, as they would say, in a state of religious ecstasy -
go on with their singing and keep on playing their in-
struments. Then certain men, apparently appointed to-
do this* come forward and seize the men far gone in
ecstasy, carry them off to some nearby trees and hang
them up by their heels. In the dim light of oil-lamps
burning here and there, we had not noticed that there
were already some suspended in this way. Some of
these are now recovering their senses and they are
loosed. They go back and join the crowd to listen to

INTRODUCTION 5

the music. We are told that this treatment meted out
to men in a state of ecstasy is a part of their mystic
rites.

The following pages will throw some light on the
history of the ufis, ^and an attempt will be made to set
forth some of their mystical doctrines which have in
some instances degenerated into these strange spectacles
and orgies of emotion.

CHAPTER I.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SUFISM.

ufism is that mode of the religious life in Islam in
which the emphasis is placed, not on the performances
of external ritual, but on the activities of the inner-self
in other words it signifies Islamic mysticism. This
term has been popularised by Western writers, but the
one in common use among Muslims is Tasawwuf, while
its cognate, ufi, is used for the mystic.

THE DERIVATION OF 'SUFF.

A variety of opinions exists among scholars as to
the meaning and derivation of the word ufi. Some of
the ufis themselves associate it with the Arabic safa
(purity). Others again see in it an historical allusion
to Ajhdbu's-safd, or the people of the bench. They
spent their time in worship, imitation of the Prophet
and searching the Quran and Hadlth- They did not
engage in any worldly business; men who married were
expelled from their company; they wore little dress and
were devoted to poverty; for a living they gathered
sticks and they often fed on fallen dates; Muhammad
fed them and commanded his companions to do like-
wise.* The porch of the temple (i. e. where they
used to assemble on the benches) became their man-

*Bukhari, Sahih Book 8Ch. 58; Book 9Ch. 41; Ibn Sa'ad,
Vol. I.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SUFISM 7

sions, and hence they obtained their name. But the
word, however, can be traced with greater certainty to
$uf, wool, inasmuch as we know that in the early days
of Islam woollen garments were frequently worn by
ascetics, not only as their distinctive garb, but also as a
symbol of their voluntary poverty, and renunciation of
the world and all its pleasures.

According to QushayrI (988 A. D.) and Shihabu'd-
Din Suhrawardi (1234 A. D.) the term ufi first came
into use at the end of the second century after Hijra
(815 A. D.), and their claim receives further support
from the fact that the word does not find a place either
in the Sittah compiled in the 9th and 10th century
A. D. or even in the Qamus, the standard Arabic Dic-
tionary compiled in 1414 A. D.

THE BEGINNINGS OF SUFISM.

It is asserted by M uslims that ufism had its rise in
Muhammad himself, and that all the religious orders
trace their lines of succession back to him. "He is said
to have been the recipient of a two-fold revelation, the
one embodied in the contents of the Quran, the other
within his heart. The former was meant for all and is
binding on all; the latter was to be transmitted to the
chosen few through these lines of succession. Hence
it is that Muhammad's knowledge is described as being
'ilm-i-safina, book knowledge, and 'ilm-i-sina, heart
knowledge. The former is incorporated in the doctrinal

* t. e. The Six Correct Boobs of Traditions.

8 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

teaching of the 'Ulama; the latter is strictly esoteric,
the mystical teaching of the Sufis." :

As a matter of fact ufism passed through several
phases in the process of its development. From certain
passages in the Quran it would appear that its germ did
exist in Muhammad himself, for that book is propably
best understood as reflecting his own mind. In it are
to be found also justification and support for the my-
stical tendencies so strongly manifested by some of
Muhammad's companions and friends, tendencies which
inevitably resulted in a life of detachment, poverty and
mortification. So that one may say that the companions
of Muhammad and their successors were, in a sense,
forerunners of the ufis.

THE EARLIEST FORM OF SUFISM
The ufism of these early Muslims was characterised
by the renunciation of worldly pleasures and an intense
fear of Allah and His judgments. It was not till some
three hundred years after the death of Muhammad,
that pantheism and idealism came to be outstanding
features of ufism. In other words the early ufis were
strictly speaking ascetics, with poverty as the ideal of
their religious life.

Ibn Khaldun (1406 A. D.) has express**! a somewhat
similar view in the Prolegomena to his great historical
work: "The way of the ufis was regarded by the
ancient Muslims and their illustrous men the Com-
panions of the Prophet (ds-$ahaba)i the Successors

*Bevan Jones. The People of the Mosque, p. 265.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SUFISM 9

n), and the generation that came after them
as the way of Truth and Salvation. To be assiduous in
piety, to give up all else for God's sake, to turn away
from worldly gauds and vanities, to renounce pleasure,
wealth and power, which are the general objects of
human ambition, to abandon society and to lead in
seclusion a life devoted to the service of God these
are the fundamental principles of ufism which prevail-
ed among the companions and Muslims of the old
time.' 1M)

ASCETICISM, RESULTING FROM THE
ISLAMIC CONCEPTION OF ALLAH.

It thus becomes evident that the earliest phase of
ufism was a form of asceticism, and this was a product
of Islam itself, since it arose as one of the direct
consequences of the Islamic conception of Allah. That
conception, as commonly held, has, from the beginning
of Islam, been such as "produce fear and servility, also
listlessness and formality in life and practice. Allah is
one to be feared rather than loved. Islam would
propound as the greatest commandment of all, Thou
shalt fear the Lord thy God/ " (2)

The Traditions provide us with striking illustrations
of what has just been said, in the lives of certain
companions of the Prophet and their successors who
had an exaggerated consciousness of the sin of dis-
obedience and extreme dread of Divine punishment.

(1) Muqaddima (Beyrut, 1900), p. 467.

(2) Be van Jones. ov. cit. p. 265.

10 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Thus we read that Tamlmu'd-Dri, one of the Prophet's
companions, who was formerly a Christian, passed the
whole night until daybreak, repeating a single verse of
the Quran (Ch. 45:20) "Do those who commit evil
deeds count that we will make them like those who
believe and work righteous deeds, equal in their life
and in their death? Ill do they judge! 11 (1) Abu'd-Dards,
another of the companions, used to say: "If ye knew
what ye shall see after death, ye would not eat food
nor drink water with any relish; as for myself I wish
that I were a tree which is lopped and then
devoured/ M2) Another tradition to the same effect is
recorded by Ibn Sa'ad and Ibn Hanbal that one
day 'Uthman b. Maz'un said to Muhammad: "O
Apostle of God, my heart urges me to become a
devotee; to go to the mountains and adopt the monastic
life; that I should take to wandering on the face of the
earth and get rid of all my wealth; that I should divorce
my wife, Khawla, eat no meat and abstain from the use
of perfumes.* 1 (8)

A further reason for the adoption of a life of
asceticism is to be found in the political condition of
the period immediately following the reigns of the first
four khalifas. For there were many pious Muslims
who, becoming disgusted with the tyrannical and
impious rule of the Umayyad Khalifas, withdrew from
the world to seek peace of soul in a life of seclusion.

(1) Sha'rani, Lawaqihul-Anwar (Cairo 1299 A. D.), p. 31.

(2) Ibid.

(3) Ibn Sa'ad, Tabaqat Vol. III. Part I. p. 287. (Lcyden
1904-8) Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, Vol. I. 176 and 183 (Cairo 1313 A. H.)

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SUFISM 11

The outstanding figure in this early ascetic
movement was Hasan of Basra (728 A. D.). It is sauj
that the fear of God seized him so mightily that, in the
words of his biographer, "it seemed as though hell-fire
had been created for him alone." It is said that "one
day a friend saw him weeping and asked him the cause.
"I weep/* he replied, "for fear that I have done some-
thing unintentionally, or committed some fault, or
spoken some word which is unpleasing to God, then
He may have said, "Begone, for thou hast no more
favour with me."*

Towards the end of the first century A. H. there
arose a class of people who were not merely ascetics but
something more. In them the life of seclusion led on to
contemplation, and contemplation to vision and ecstasy.
At this stage renunciation and poverty were regarded
by the asceties not as meritorious works in themsleves,
but as expressions of one's selfless devotion to God. In
the earlier days of Islam renunciation and its rewards
were conceived of in a material sense. To have as few
goods as possible was believed to be the surest means
of gaining paradise. The following illustration will serve
the purpose of showing the ideal of poverty as held by
the ascetics of those days. It is said that a certain man
dreamed that he saw Malik b. Wasi* being led into
paradise. Malik was admitted before his companion.
The dreamer cried out in astonishment, for he had always
thought that Muhammad b. Wasi* had the superior

*Faridu'd-Din 'Attar, Tadhkiritul-Awliya, (Lahore) p. 28
Translated by Prof. Nicholson, Part I, p. 37.

12 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

claim. A voice explained: "Yes, but Muhammad
b. Wasi' possessed two shirts and Malik only one. 1 '

But to the ascetics of this later period the ideal of
poverty meant not merely lack of wealth, but lack of
the very desire for it, As their phrase had it, it signified
the empty heart as well as the empty hand. Perhaps
nothing marks the development in the outlook of the
later ufis more than this change in their conception of
true poverty. It came very close to the Christian
conception of it as defined by a modern writer in the
following words: "By poverty the mystic means an
utter self-stripping, the casting off of immaterial as well
as material wealth, a complete detachment from all
finite things." :

These early ufis, however, were orthodox Muslims
in regard to their beliefs and practices. They laid
great emphasis on certain points in the teachings of the
Quran and Traditions. They had not yet begun to
indulge in pantheistic and theosophical speculations, but
confined their thoughts to matters bearing on practical
theology. The distinctive features of their creed
consisted in self-abandonment, self-mortification, fer-
vent piety, and quietism carried to the extreme.

The outstanding figures during this period were
Ibrahim b. Adham (d. 783 A. D.), Fudayl b. l lyad
(d. 801 A. D.), Rabi'a al-'Adwiyya (d. 802 A. D.)

Ibrahim b. Adham is described by the ufi bio-
graphers to have been the king of Balkfa. His royal
dignity is indicated by the fact that when he walked

'Underbill, Mysticism; p. 205.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SUFISM 13

abroad forty golden scimitars and forty golden maces
were borne in front of him and behind. One day, while
hunting, he was warned by an unseen voice which
cried, "Awake! wert thou created for this?" Therefore
he renounced his throne and all the world's pleasures
for a life of ascetism and piety. One of his sayings is
reported as follows: "O God, Thou knowest that in
mine eyes the eight paradises weigh no more than the
wing of a gnat compared with that honour which Thou
hast shown me in giving me Thy love, or that
familiarity which Thou hast given to me by the
commemoration of Thy name, or that freedom from all
else which Thou hast vouchsafed to me when I meditate
on the greatness of Thy glory" (1)

Fudayl b. lyad, before he became an ascetic, was a
captain of banditti. It is said that one night when he
was determined to gratify a lawless passion, he heard
some pious person reciting the following verse of the
Quran, "Is it not high time for those who believe to
open their hearts to compunction?" These words
pricked him to the heart and produced in him profound
contrition. "Yea, Lord/ 1 he exclaimed, "it is indeed
high time." Thus broken in spirit by sense of his sin,
he passed the night in solemn meditation. The next
morning he renounced all his possessions and became a
disciple of 4 Abdu'l-Wahid b. Zayd, a successor of
Hasan of Basra. (2) In time he became widely cele-

(1) cp. Prof. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs t
p. 232.

(2) 'Attar; op, cit. p. 69.

14 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

brated for his sanctity, and was appointed a vice-gerent
and successor by his master. Fudayl gave a rule of life
to his disciples, which is believed to be the original
monastic institute of Islam.

Rabi*a belonged to the tribe of Qays b. *Adi from
which she was known as al-'Adawiyya or al-Qaysiyya,
but she is most commonly spoken of as Basari (al-
Basariyya), from Basra, her birth place. Faridu'd-Din
4 Aftar, the author of the Memoirs of the Saints, speaks
of her in the following words: "She the secluded one
was clothed with the clothing of purity, and was on
fire with love and longing, and was enamoured of the
desire to approach her Lord and be consumed in His
glory. She was a second Mary and a spotless
woman."*

She was born in the poorest of homes, and her
father and mother died when she was only a little girl.
She was fourth of a family of sisters, as her name
indicates, They were all scattered by a famine and she
was sold as a slave for six dirhams. Her master made
her work hard. She, however, continually fasted in
the daytime and carried out her appointed tasks. One
night her master happened to look down through a
window of the house and saw Rabi'a absorbed in prayer,
and he heard her praying: "O my Lord, Thou knowest
that the desire of my heart is to obey Thee, and that
the light of my eyes is in the service of Thy court. If
the matter rested with me, I should not cease for one
hour from Thy service, but Thou hast made me subject

*'Attar; op, cit. p. 54.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SUFISM 15

to a creature and much of my time is spent in his
service/' While she was still in prayer, he saw a lamp
above her head suspended without a chain, and the
whole house was illuminated by its light. The master,
greatly afraid at the sight, set her free at the dawn of
the day. Thenceforth she devoted herself to the love
of God, living a life of extreme poverty.

As an ascetic, Rabi'a followed all her life the path of
tawakhul, the resignation and dependence on God, with
unwavering step to the end. Again and again she was
offered assistance by her friends but she as often
declined it and her customary reply to those who
desired to help her was: "Verily, I should be ashamed
to ask for worldly things from Him to whom world
belongs; how, then should I ask for them from those to
whom it does not belong. 11 Another story to the same
effect tells how one day when Hasan of Basra came to
visit her he saw a wealthy man of Basra at the door of
RibiVs cell with a purse of gold, weeping. Hasan
asked him why was he weeping. He replied: "On
account of the ascetic of this age; if it was not for her
blessings, mankind would have perished. I have
brought something for her and my fear is that she may
refuse it. If you plead for me, she may accept it."
Hasan went in and gave the message to Rabi'a, who
looked at him out of the corner of her eye and said,
"Shall He who provides for those who revile Him, not
provide for those who love Him? He does not refuse
sustenance to one who speaks unworthily of Him, how
then should He refuse sustenance to one whose soul is

16 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

overflowing with love to Him? Ever since I have
known Him, I have turned my back upon mankind."

RabiVs great contribution to the Islamic mysticism
was the conception of prayer as free and intimate
intercourse with God. Prayer, even the prescribed
namdz and other religious observances were not
regarded by her as meritorious acts, or as means of
avoiding hell and of gaining paradise, but they were to
her the means of gaining access to God's presence. Hers
is an outsanding figure in Islamic hagiology as of one
who held communion with God, and gave utterance to
prayers which were the spontaneous outpouring of her
heart to God. Among her prayers are the following:

"O my Lord, whatever share of this world thou dost
bestow on me, bestow on Thine enemies, and whatever
share of the next world Thou dost give me, give it to
Thy friends. Thou art enough for me." Another runs
as follow:

"O my Lord, if I worship Thee from fear of
Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship Thee from hope
of Paradise, exclude me thence, but if I worship Thee
for Thine own sake then withhold not from me Thine
Eternal Beauty/'"

* For RabiVs life s*e Tadhkiratu 'l-Awl\ya, Professor Nicholson's
Translation and Margaret Smiths* Rain' a the Mystic.

CHAPTER II
Later Developments.

(a) Speculative Elements in $ufism.

While ufism was thus gaining ground and attracting
the pious by its promise of escape from formalism and
its encouragement of ideals of personal devotion, it was
soon subjected to a further modification, the beginnings
of which may be traced to the time of Ma'mun in the
eighth century. That was an age of speculation.
Ma'mun encouraged the discussion of religion by repre-
sentatives of various creeds and in this manner
speculative elements were soon assimilated into ufism.
Now the ascetic, while not losing altogether his
ascetic ideal, tends more and more to centre his
attention in Gnosis and the Zdhid becomes the 'Arif
(Gnostic). As Professor Macdonald says, "We pass
over the boundary between Thomas a Kerapis and St.
Francis to Eckhart and Suso."* Neo-Platonism played
its part in this change but not exclusively. Persian,
Indian, and Buddhistic thought each had its share,
and also Christian speculative mysticism after the
type of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Bar
Sudhaili the Syrian. It would be a mistake to conclude
that ufism in its speculative form was derived solely
from one source or that it contains no original

*D. B. Macdonald, Muslim Theology, p. 180.

18 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

elements. It would be equally a mistake to regard it
as a unity, although some unifying principles can be
discerned in it and, of course, Islam lent it a superficial
unity. But it is not within the scope of the purpose
of this book to go at all deeply into such matters.

It is sufficient to remark here that towards the end
of the eighth century of the Christian era, there
appeared in ufism a new phase of its development.
The old asceticism and quietism, described in the
previous chapter, were subordinated to theosophical
and gnostic speculations. The great teachers of ufism
in whose sayings the influence of such ideas is discerni-
ble, were Ma'rufu'l-Karkhl, Abu Sulaymanu' d-Darani
and Dhu'n-Nun Misri. These three, as has been
pointed out by Professor Nicholson, lived and died in
the period which began with the accession of Harunu'r-
Rashld and ended with the death of Mutawakkil, that
is, from 786-861 A. D.* During these seventy-five
years Hellenic culture greatly influenced the current
of Islamic thought. Works of the Greek philosophers
were translated and eagerly studied. Hunayn b. Ishaq
(809-873 A. D.) and his son, who were Christians,
translated Plato, Aristotle and Porphyry. A strong
rationalistic movement resulted, under which ufism
took on its new form and was so moulded that it could
in the course of its later development absorb other
speculative elements. Thus certain extraneous and
non-Islamic elements such as theosophy, gnosticism,

* Professor Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, p. 232.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 19

ecstasy and pantheism became characteristic features of

Ma/ruful-Karkhl (815 A. D.) and Abu Sulaymanu'd-
Darani (830 A. D.), both natives of Mesopotamia, were
tHe first to give expression to theosophical and gnostic
ideas. Certain utterances of theirs which have come
down to us contain such expressions. The former is
reported to have said that ufism is "the apprehension of
divine realities and renunciation of human possessions."
Another of his sayings runs as follows: 'The saints of
God are known by three signs. Their thought is of
God, their dwelling is with God, their business is in
God."

The following are some of the sayings of Abu
Sulayman: kt None refrains from the lusts of this world
except him in whose heart there is a light which
always keeps him busied with the world to come."
44 Whenever a man on account of his actions is in despair
of his future welfare, that despair shows him the way
to salvation and happiness and Divine mercy.
It opens to him the door of joy, purges away sensual
corruption from his heart, and reveals to it Divine
mysteries." '

In the same century we come to the great mystic
Dfau'n-Nun Misri, who gave a definite turn to ufi
doctrine by introducing into it teachings about ecstasy
and the theory of gnosis. His repentance is attributed
to his meeting with desert ascetics. His reputation as
an alchemist and a worker of miracles is the theme of

*See, Tadhkiratul-Awliya.

20 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

many a later ufi writer. Professor Nicholson regards
him as the source of the Neo-Platonist elements in Islam.
When we remember that he was an Egyptian, it is not
too much to suppose that the school of Alexandria had
somewhat to do with the shaping of his thought. The
introduction of the idea that true knowledge of God is
to be obtained in ecstasy is attributed to him. A story
is told of how he fell into a swoon while at prayer, and
apparently he did not look unkindly at music in so far
as it induced this condition of ecstasy. There is then
in his advocacy of ecstasy a link with Neo-Platonism.
It is said that he described the mystic apprehension as
the communication which God makes of his spiritual
light to the depths of man's heart. It seems certain
that Dhu'n-Nun was a man of great learning and it was
that which in all probability got him a bad name and
roused suspicions of heterodoxy. Elements of specula-
tion and free-thought are not lacking in his recorded
words and acts. His present-day apologists are some-
times concerned to explain these so that orthodoxy may
not be outraged. Such, for example, is his advising a
fellow ascetic to omit his ritual prayer. But in all the
accounts of him he appears as a saintly figure, and this
was the impression he made on the zealous Khalifa
Mutawakkil by whom he was first imprisoned on
suspicion of heresy but later released and held in high
esteem. Some of the stories told of him remind one of
the Christian ascetics of the Thebaid. In Jami's
Nafhatu'l-Uns, which contains notices of most of the
Qfl saints, we read that he was the first Shaykh to

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 21

profess the tenets of ufism. Among the sayings
recorded of him is the following: "There are two sorts
of repentance, the repentance of conversion and the
repentance of shame. The former is simply repentance
through fear of God's punishment and the latter is
repentance through shame at God's mercy/ 1

Somewhat later in the same century appeared Abu
Yazldu'l-Bistaml, or Bayazld as he is called, one of the
earliest ufis of the pantheistic school. He was of,
Persian ancestry and belonged to Bistam a town in the
Province of Qumis near the south-east corner of the
Caspian Sea. His - grandfather, Sharwasan, was a
Zoroastrian, and his master in Sufism was Abu 4 Ali of
Sind. Abu Yazid first propounded the doctrine of fand,
annihilation, in its negative aspect, and in his teaching
Gfism became practically identified with pantheism.
Some of his sayings are as follows: "Beneath this cloak
of mine there is nothing but God." "Glory to me!
How great is my majesty!" "Verily I am God; there is
no god beside me, so worship me!"*

But the name which came to be held as the greatest
of all among the early pantheists was that of Husayn
b. Mansur, a wool-carder by trade, though some say
his name is simply one adopted to mark the unpreten-
tious and humble character of the ascetic or a nickname
given with the same intention. However this may be,
HalUj, a name by which he is known, means wool-
carder. MansGr, the name by which he is most fre-

*See Tadhkiratu'l-Awliya, the Chapter on Abu Yazid.

22 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

quently known, is really the name of his father who was
a convert from Zoroastrianism to Islam. Husayn was
a Persian. He was born in 858 A. D. In the first
place he was the disciple of several Sufi teachers, in
particular, Tustari, Junayd and l Amr Makkl, but he
finally broke with them. He travelled as a missionary
in Khurasan, Ahwaz, Persia, India and Turkistan.
After his third pilgrimage to Mecca he settled at
Baghdad and gathered many disciples about him. He
was a man of original genius and vehement spirit, a
profound mystic and a daring metaphysician. He has
been variously described as a dangerous intriguer, a
Christian, a rank blasphemer, a charlatan and a
martyred saint. In the year 922 A. D. after eight years
imprisonment, he was scourged, mutilated, hung on a
gibbet, and finally beheaded and burned. The charge
against him was that he had made use of the phrase
Ana'l-Haqq, I am the Truth, and that this was a claim to
divinity and, as such, blasphemy. The chief of his works
which have come down to us is Kitdbu't-Tawdsln, which
has been edited and annotated by Louis Massignon
(1913). This book is written in Arabic rhymed prose.
Each of its eleven sections, with the exception of the
last, is called Td Sin, as "The Td Sin of the Decree/'
"The Td-Sin of the Unity," and 'The fa Sin of the
mysteries of the Unity*', etc. These names are from
the two unexplained letters at the beginning of certain
chapters of the Quran. The resultant name of the
whole book is an artificial plural formed from the
compound of fd and Sin. Massignon has most probably

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 23

done all that is possible in the interpretation of Hallaj
with the material at present available. If we had all
the material to reconstruct the doctrine of Hallaj, and
could follow him in his travels, much that is obscure in
later ufl speculation would, in all probability, be clear
to us. The style adopted by Hallaj is recondite and
allusive. It is vehement "hyperdialectic", as Massignon
so aptly calls it. His editor makes it abundantly plain
that the ejaculation Anal-Haqq was not the mere
raving of a demented mystic out of himself in ecstasy,
but only one mode of expressing a deep conviction
and, in addition, the formula of a philosophy. Later
conceptions of huwiyyat and aniyyat are no doubt
definitely related to this philosophy, and a study of Ibn
*Arabi and Jill throws light on the meaning of Hallaj in
his mystical theology. Of this more will be said in a
later chapter.

One of the reasons why some have thought that
Hallaj was a secret Christian is the very high place
which he gives to Jesus in his system. Jesus is the Seal
of the Saints, while Muhammad is the Seal of the
Prophets. Jesus is the perfect witness and representa-
tive of God, Al-Haqq. He is the deified man. His
being is in God. Take for example that famous tercet
in which Hallaj extols the manifestation of God in
Man.

"Praise be to Him Who manifested His humanity, the
secret of His glorious divinity.

And then visibly appeared to His creation in the form of one
who eats and drinks.

24 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

So that His creation could perceive Him as in the flicker of
an eyelid."

In the first part of this the reference is to Adam and
in the second part to Jesus. Both Ibn 'Arabl and Jill,
among others, follow Hallaj in this conception, and the
former has that extraordinary statement that Jesus is
the Creator who restores to life and the creature who
is restored. It is difficult to escape the conclusion that
Hallaj 's doctrine of Ldhut and Ndsut shows evidence of
the influence of the doctrine of the two natures in the
person of Christ, for these are the very words used in
Syriac to express the divine and human natures respec-
tively.

The circumstances of Hallaj's execution were most
revolting. Condemned to be crucified, when he saw
the cross and the nails he turned to the people standing
round him and exhorted them not to let the spectacle
of his sufferings lead them to doubt the goodness of
God. tl God treats me in this matter as a friend treats
his friend. He passes me the cup of suffering which
He has first drunk Himself. 11 When he was put to the
torture, he is said to have prayed, and if the words we
have from Ibrahim b. Fatik are really the words he
used, then we have in this final prayer of his the revela-
tion of a great spirit. For thus he prayed : "O Lord, I
entreat Thee, give me to be thankful for the grace Thou
hast bestowed upon me, in that Thou hast concealed
from others* eyes what Thou hast made manifest to me
of the glories of Thy shining countenance and in that
Thou hast made it lawful for me to behold the myster-

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 25

ies of Thine inner consciousness which Thou hast made
unlawful to others. As for these Thy servants who,
zealous for Thy religion and desirous of Thy favour,
have gathered to kill me, forgive and have mercy upon
them, for verily if Thou hadst revealed to them what
Thou hast hid from them, then should I not have
suffered this anguish. Praise be to Thee in whatsoever
Thou decreest."'

(b) ufism wins recognition in Islam.

It is not a matter for surprise to find that because of
this later mixture of theosophical and pantheistic ele-
ments, the ufls came to be regarded as heretics, if not
actual unbelievers (kdfir). It was not till the time of
the renowned Imam al-Ghazali that ufism attained a
firm and assured position in Islam.

Abu Hamid Muhammadu'l-Ghazall, generally
known by the title of Hujjatu 'l-Islam, the proof of
Islam, was a native of Tus near Meshed in Khurasan
Left an orphan at a comparatively early age, he was
brought up by a ufi friend of his father's, and after-
wards studied at one of the colleges of his native city
Subsequently he went for further study to Nishapur.
He seems not to have been attracted much in his earlier
years by ufism but early showed marks of the sceptic-
ism which is an outstanding feature of his temperament.
He had turned from ufism to speculation before he

* Sec M assignor* Kitab al Tawastn, Parsis 1913, and Quatre
cextes inedites relatif 'a la biographic d 'al-Hosayn Ibn Mansour al-
Hallaj (1914).

26 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

was twenty years of age. Taqtid, or the slavish follow-
ing of tradition became anathema to him. A man of
brilliant gifts, he soon found his way to the Seljuql
court and under the patronage of the great minister
Nigamu '1-Mulk, he became a teacher in the Nigamiyya
College at Baghdad. This was in the year 1092 A.D.
While here he sunk into complete agnosticism. Philo-
sophy he studied but came to the conclusion that it was
a vain thing. He wrote books on canon law (fiqh)
and entered into controversy with the irreconcilable
Ta fimites, who were a political force to be reckoned
with. His restless mind and sceptical temperament,
associated with a deeply religious nature, could give
this man no rest. He seems to be trying to save
something from the ruins of his agnosticism. He tried
philosophy and found it wanting, and finally returned
to ufism.

He experienced a period of spiritual crisis and con-
version. The fear of God was upon him and the idea of
the coming judgement was ever present. In 1095 A.D.,
physically and nervously exhausted, he was converted.
He turned his back on the promises of the world and
the rich prizes which his intellect might have com-
manded and became a wandering devotee, seeking in
the ascetic life peace of mind and heart, and striving all
the while for a new rationale of his religious experience.
The system which resulted was pragmatic. The ground
of his assurance was his experience, and to this all
speculation and philosophy must be considered sub-
ordinate. He might disdain philosophy as the ground

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 27

of belief and had to repudiate it as it was taught by con-
temporary exponents, but he could yet use its methods
to clarify his thought and give a form to his intuitive
pragmatism. Indeed the influence of all the stages
through which he had passed can be seen in his mature
works, and he is himself a mirror of all the intellectual
activity of his age. On every page of the Ihyau
Ulumi 'd-Dln, the Revivification of the Religious Sci-
ences, the traditionalist is exhibited. He employs
dialectic Cllmu 'l-Kaldm) against the dialecticians
(mutahallimun) . In answer to the esoteric doctrine of
the Isma 'ilis and kindred spirits, he too has his secret
teaching, hinted at but never fully elaborated in Mish-
kdtu 'I- Anwar, The Niche for Lights. But all is made
to serve the cause of Kashf, and bows to the sovereignty
of his all-commanding spiritual experience. Without
that mystic illumination his intellectual life would have
fallen into complete scepticism.

His great achievement is in giving the clearest and
highest expression to orthodox Muslim theology. He
is the greatest theologian Islam has ever produced.
His work has given a place to ufism in orthodox
Islam. This he has done partly by modifying the
extreme pantheistic tendency of ufism. His work
shews evidence of Christian influence. Scriptural and
apocryphal sayings of Christ are ever on his lips. In
line with this influence we find that his view of the
eighth stage of the ufi path, Unity with God, is no
longer conceived in the negative manner which would
regard the goal as absorption in God and identification

28 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

with Him. This, in his opinion, is sin. Ghazall's view is
much closer to the Christian conception of an ethical
unity which is the beginning of a new life. So here we
find him breaking away from the abstruse and meta-
physical conception and maintaining the religiously and
spiritually valuable. Tawhid and Tawakkul, Unity and
Trust, are inseparably bound up together. In the
Ihyaul-Ulum we also find a complete spiritualising of
prayer, and insistence on prayer from the heart rather
than mere performance of ritual. Again and again he
stands out as the champion of the ethical and spiritual.
This was no mean service to perform and it is doubtful
whether Islam has ever really risen to the point of
realisation of all that Ghazall has done or would do for

it./

But while we can say all this it must still be said
that there are distinct weaknesses in Ghazali's view of
tawhid or unity, and some ufi interpreters would use
his words to establish tawhidu'l afal, unity of acts, in
such a way as to make it impossible to conceive that
there is any actor or originator of action in the universe
but God. This is, of course, the extreme doctrine of
Qadr, or predestination, which results in a pantheism of
will which is hardly less pernicious than other forms
of pantheism. We give here a translation of part of
the fourth volume of the Ihya'ul-Ulum on this sub-
ject."

"There is no actor other than God, and all things
which exist, creature and provision, giving and withhold-
Ihya'u'l-'Ulum, Vol. IV, 213.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 29

ing, death and life, gain and loss, wealth and poverty
and everything for which a name can be found, the
Cause, Originator, and Initiator is God who has no
partner. When this dawns upon a man then he will
not look anywhere else but will be in fear and awe of
Him and put utter trust and confidence in Him only.

For He alone is the Doer. There is none else

A wayfarer who had the Light of God as a

torch for his path saw a piece of paper the surface of
which had become black with ink. Said he: 'Your
face was white as wool; why have you made it black?'
The paper made answer: 'What justice is this that you
should ask me such a question. I didn't make myself
black. Ask the ink, for it was sitting in the ink-pot
which is its dwelling and it came out and made an
assault by force on my surface.' Said he, 'You are
right/ and then asked the ink, "What is the reason why
you blacken the face of the paper?' The ink said,
'Well, you ask me! I was sitting quietly in the ink-pot.
I never intended to leave that place but the pen forced
me by its wicked desire, exiled me from my home and

scattered my company all over this page but why

labour the obvious? You should ask the pen

The pen said: *I was a reed which stood among the
green trees on a river bank. The hand came with a
knife and pulling me up by the roots, stripped me of
bark, tore my clothes, cut me in pieces and then pared
me and split my head and fashioned my point for writ-
ing. Then it dipped me in the ink and exacts service
from me, moving me along on my head. Why then do

30 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

you question me and thus rub salt into my wound? Go
away; enquire from the hand.' "

In this way the interrogation is carried back and
back through the power which moves the hand to the
will which uses the power and the reason and knowledge
which instruct the will. When knowledge is question-
ed it excuses itself on the ground that it is but a figure
drawn on the white surface of the heart and the ques-
tion then proceeds upwards through the transcendent
spheres till at last the one Agent is reached to whom
must be ascribed all acts. The argument moves on with
force and humour but the implications with regard to
human responsibility are obscured by this tour de
force.

On the other hand, al-Ghazali appeals to man and
regards him as responsible for his acts and there can be
no doubt that he did a great deal to counteract the
antinomian tendencies in ufism against which
Qushayri had protested.

Reference has been made above to the Mishkdtu'l
Anwar. In this we find an exposition of the Lighf*
Verse in the Quran (Sura 24 :35). The result is a sort
of philosophy of illumination. Antitheses of light and
darkness remind us of the traditional Persian philosophy,
but there are in this work of al-Ghazali suggestions of
Platonism and even Logos doctrine, The book pre-
sents many problems. It gives us another glimpse of a
many-sided nature. Shihabu'd-Dln Yahaya Suhrawardl
is said to have built his philosophy upon this doctrine
of illumination, and yet he considered it to be contrary

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 31

to Islam, and his uncompromising attitude brought him
to an early death.

(c) The Classic Period of ufism and its ufi Poets.

In the thirteenth century A. D. began the classic
period of ufism. This new epoch was marked by the
advent of three great mystical poets of Persia. These
were Faridu'd-Dln'Aftar, Jalalu'd-Dln Rumi and
Shaykh Sa'dl. The writings of these poets have greatly
influenced the religious thought of Muslims in the
East and they are now very widely and eagerly studied.
No account of ufism would be complete without some
reference to them so we propose to give a brief sketch
of all three.

1. FARIDU'D-DIN ATTAR

Faridu'd-Dln 4 Attar was born about 1119 A. D., eight
years after the death of al-GJiazali, in Nishapur. The
name 4 A#ar signifies one who deals in 'itr, or otto of
roses, and other perfumes, but in its wider significance
means a druggist. He, like his father, kept a sort of
pharmacy where he was consulted by patients for whom
he prescribed, dispensing his own medicines. It was
while he was thus engaged in selling perfumes and
drugs that the call came to him to follow the reli-
gious life. Dawlat Shah, in his Memoirs of the Poets,
relates that one day, as he was standing among his bales
surrounded by his clerks and servants, a holy anchorite
appeared before him at the door, and gazed around
with strange wild eyes, fast filling with tears. Faridu'd-

32 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Din sharply rebuked him for his seeming curiosity and
bade him go away. "That is easily done/' said the
darwish, "I have little to bear along with me: nothing
but this poor habit. But you? When the time comes
for you to go away with all this costly merchandise, how
will you set about it? You will do well to arrange
before that inevitable hour arrives, about the packing
up of your treasures." ' Attar was profoundly affected
by the words of the darwish and gave up his shop,
abandoning his profession and entirely renouncing all
his worldly affairs.

Entering the monastery of Shaykh Ruknu'd-Din,
who was then one of the most distinguished masters of
the contemplative life, he gave himself up wholly to the
things of God, so that at the close of his life he is said
to have attained "the most perfect degree of spiritual-
ity/' Finally he met his death at the hands of the
Mongol invaders under Chengiz Khan (1229-30 A. D.)

'Aftar must have spent the greater part of a very
long life in literary work, for the number of his works
is said to have been equal to the number of chapters
in the Quran, one hundred and fourteen. But there is
much that is legendary in what we read of him and this
statement must be an exaggeration, for the number of
his writings preserved or mentioned by name hardly
exceeds thirty. Of these Tadhkiratul-Awliya, the
Memoirs of the Saints, is the only one written in prose.
The best known of his poetical compositions are the
Pandndma, or the Book of Counsels, which is still widely
read in the East, and Mcwtiqut-Tayr, or the Discourses

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 33

of the Birds, which is to be found in various editions,
an early European edition being that of Garcin de
Tassy (Paris 1857, 1863) with a French translation.
The Pandnama is a rather tedious book of maxims but
generally speaking l A#ar has a very clear style and
shews considerable ingenuity in choice of subject. He
is very fond of paradox. Take for example the way he
expresses the pantheistic theme of the Unity of all
existence.

The world is full of Thee and Thou art not in the world.

All are lost in Thee and Thou art not in the midst.

Thy silence is from Thy speech;

Thine hiding from Thine appearing.

I see the way to Thee by means of the smallest atom;

Then I see the two worlds as the face of Allah.

For dualism there is no way into Thy presence.

Thou and Thy power are the whole universe.

A man of eloquent speech has well said in respect to the

Essence

That Oneness is the dropping of all adjuncts.
There is no doubt as to the meaning of what I have said.
Thou art without eyes and there is no Universe ('A/am)

or Knower ('A Jim) but one.*

In this last stanza it is possible to read either word
given in brackets and the implication is that the Uni-
verse and the Knower (a name of God) are inter-
changeable terms.

The MantiqiCt-Tayr is a sort of Pilgrim's Progress
with birds for pilgrims. In it, in allegorical fashion, is
depicted the ascending stages of the Mystic's progress

Shibli, She'ru'l 'A jam Vol. 2, p. 15 ff, (Ma'arif Press, Azamgarh).

34 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

to Unity with God. The birds gather together under
the leadership of the Solomon of the Birds, the Hoopoe,
to seek the Slmurgh their mysterious King. The greater
part of the book is taken up with his counsel to the
assembled birds and anecdotes of pilgrims of the ufi
Path. Then the birds set out and after traversing the
seven valleys of Search. Love, Mystic Apprehension,
Detachment, Unity, Bewilderment and Annihilation
only thirty birds (st, thirty and murgh, bird) survived
the privations and perils of the way and came to the
threshold of the Simurgh's abode. Here there is a
fanciful etymology for the name Slmurgh, which lends
itself to the denouement in the identification of the
thirty birds with the Slmurgh. In reality the name
Slmurgh is a compound of the Pahlawi seen, the name
of a bird of prey, with murgh. The Slmurgh is asso-
ciated with early Persian mythology and stories of it
are told in the Shdhndma of Firdawsi.

The birds arrive at the threshold of the KiAg's
palace, and the chamberlain of Grace admits them into
the Royal Presence where they are presented with the
record of their deeds. Says 'Attar: "Seeing the record
of their deeds those thirty birds were so ashamed that
their very souls and bodies sunk into utter annihilation.
But being thus purged and purified they emerged into
new life by the Light of the Divine Presence. But
now a new sort of amazement seized upon them. What
they had done and left undone in the past was utterly
obliterated from their breasts. It was as though they
had changed identity. The Sun of the Near Presence

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 35

shone from them, and that life by its rays illuminated
them all. By their own reflection the thirty birds saw
the face of the Slmurgh. They were that and it was
they. Lost in astonishment they could not tell whether
they were this or that. Then they demanded of the
Simurgh what this great mystery might mean. He
t^lls them that his nature is like unto a mirror. Look-
ing on theA they perceive their true selves". Thus
the birds became lost in the Slmurgh and the shadows
of phenomenal existence faded but in the light of the
Sun of true existence.

Here we return to the older idea of Fand, or annihi-
lation. How far was 4 A#ar indebted to his stay in
Hindustan for this picture of Maya and release? How
far also are we to see the influence of that conception
of the u Veiled in Light 11 who constitute the fourth
division of mankind in al-Ghazali's Mishkat and who
have utterly attained to the end and goal?

2. JALALU'D-DIN RUMI

Jalalu'd-Dln Rumi, commonly known among Muslims
as Mawldnd, our Master, or simply Ruml, meaning one
who lived in Asia Minor, where the greater part of his
life was spent, was the most eminent ufi poet whom
Persia has ever produced. He was the author of the
most widely known poetical work on mysticism, the
Mathnaw-i-Manaun, Spiritual Couplets, frequently
referred to as the Mathnaw Sharif, the Holy Mathnawi.
It is also said to be the Quran in Pahlawl, (i. e. in the
Persian language). No other literature on mysticism

36 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

is so loved and studied, at least in India, as this great
work.

Jalalu'd-Din was born in Balkh in 1205 A. D. His
descent is traced to Abu Bakr, and his father was
BahaVd-Dln who was related to Khwarizm Shah. In
those days Fakhru'd-Din Razi, the philosopher, was
friendly with Khwarizm Shah and Baha'u'd-Dln was
opposed to philosophy. Khwarizm Shah was jealous of
the influence which Bah'u'd-Dm had and so was Razi
and the result of it was that Baha Vd-Dm found it
expedient to leave Balkh. This took place when
Jalalu'd-Dm Iwas five years old. They went off to
Nishapur where it is said the aged * Attar met them and
blessed the young child. The family wandered from
city to city in Syria and Asia minor and at last came to
Quniya, the ancient Inconium, when the lad was eight-
een or nineteen years old. There they gained the
patronage of *AlVd-Dln the Seljuqi to whom the
family was related. Indeed it is on record that when
'AlaVd-Din Kayqobad III died without issue, Jalalu'd-
Din might have had the kingdom but he resigned his
rights in favour of 'Uthman the founder of the
'Uthnianll dynasty. In Iconium Jalalu'd-Din's father
worked as a professor. He died in the year 1230 A. D.
There seem to be some discrepancies in the accounts
of the next few years. Apparently, Carra de Vaux
says that, Jalalu'd-Dln did not leave Quniya except for
a short journey after his father's death. Sipa Sslr t
a favourite disciple of JalSlu'd-Dln, says he met
Shamsu'd-Din TabrizI at Quniya when he was thirty-

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 37

eight years of age. In Munaqibu'l-'Arifin, the work of
Shamsu'd-Din Afcmad Aflakl, it is said that he was in
Damascus till he was forty years of age. The generally
accepted view is that Jalalu'd-Din studied at the famous
schools of Aleppo and Damascus till 1240 A. D., or a
little earlier. If this is correct then there is a possibi-
lity that Jalalu'd-Din was nearly contemporary with
Ibn Arabl at Damascus and it is strange therefore, that
we find so little in the great poet which can be referred
back to that great metaphysician. The explanation
may be that up to this time he had no real interest in
ufism.

With regard to his education, it seems that first he
was taught by his father and that later when his
father was dead his old tutor Burhanu'd-Dln taught
him the mystic path. Afterwards he studied in the
schools of Syria. His real awakening is however due
to his meeting with Shamsu'd-Din Tabriz!.

But what do we know about that meeting or about
the personality of Shamsu'd-Dm? The puerilities of
the narratives which have come to us make it almost
impossible to believe that the conjuring tricks (such as
plunging books into water and bringing them out dry)
which were alleged to have initiated the friendship
between him and the poet really have been the influ-
ence at work in the master mind of Jalalu'd-Din. All
that we dare say is that through the enthusiasm of
Shamsu'd-Din the smouldering fires of Jalalu'd-Dln's
genius burst into flame and the doctor of law became
the great poet. Shamsu'd-Din must have been a much

38 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

greater man than the traditions of him would have
us believe. The friendship was short but potent.
Shamsu'd-Din disappeared after a riot raised about
him and in that riot one of the poet's sons was killed.
To commemorate the tragic end of his friend Jallu'd-
Din founded the Maulawi order, introducing those
peculiar gyrations which have earned for the members
of the order among Europeans the name of "Dancing
Derwishes."

The most famous of the works of Jalalu'd-Dln are
the Mathnam and the Diwan which is dedicated to
Shams-i-Tabrlz. The former is found in many editions
in India but alas ! they contain many couplets which
cannot be considered genuine. In one edition in India
we have counted some four-hundred additional couplets
in the first book alone, taking the great edition edited
by Professor Nicholson as the standard text. Seeing that
there are some four thousand couplets in this first book
this is an extraordinary proportion. Professor Nichol-
son's edition of the text and translation is a great service
to students of the poet and they look forward eagerly to
his commentary. Professor Nicholson has also published
an edition of the Diwan but to this unfortunately
we have not had access. The Diwan has been published
by the Newal Kishore Press of Lucknow under the
name of the Kulliydt-i-Shams-i-Tabriz. This consists
of a thousand pages, foolscap size, with two couplets
to a line. It is from this that the translations given
later have been made. Some little time ago a prose
work called Flhi ma fihi was found in a manuscript

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 39

at Rampur. This has been published by the Ma'arif
Press at Azamgarh in the United Provinces.

We give some translations from the DiwSn to illust-
rate phases of ufi thought.

The Man of God.

"Drunk is the Man of God, drunk without wine;
Sated the Man of God, full without meat.
Aghast is the Man of God in utter bewilderment
Knows not the Man of God slumber nor sustenance.
Sprung not from earth nor air, God's Man is not so born;
Nor is his origin, water nor flame of fire.
King is the Man of God, wrapped in a beggar's robe;
Treasure the Man of God, hid in a ruin's heap.
Soul of devotion he - such is the Man of God-
Yet is the Man of God heedless of merit's gain.
Thus is the Man of God Faith and yet Unbelief;
What to the Man of God is sin then and righteousness?
Taught by Creative Truth God's Man is learned;
Not wise in legal lore culled from a book.
In the Abyss's void, God's Man on Chaos rode,
But here he suffered shame from his unbroken steed."*

The man of God is here considered to be the God-
intoxicated, lost in bewilderment in an unreal world.
His origin is spiritual and his true worth is disguised by
his life in the body. He is above the externalities of
formal religion and derives true knowledge by mystic
intuition. From his proud pre-existent state he suffered
abasement from this body of humiliation which is fre-
quently referred to as an untamed steed of the soul.

*Kulliyat-i-Sham3-i-Tabriz< P. 116 (The passage is the translation
made by the Rev. J. W. Sweet man.)

49 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
The following is an illustration of ufl ecstasy:

"We have lost our heart in the way of the Beloved:

We have sown dissension in the world.

We have struck fire within the hearts of the people:

And have thrown lovers into confusion.

I have washed my hands of all my belongings:

We have set fire to house and home.

I had a heavy load on my back

But thanks be to God we have thrown aside that heavy load.

What is the wealth of the world but carrion?

We have cast the carcase to the dogs.

We have extracted the kernel of the Quran:

And the husk we have cast to the dogs.

We have scattered the seed of eternal felicity and joy

From the earth to the sky.

The patched robe (of the derwish), the prayer carpet and

the rosary,

We have cast away in the Tavern of Souls.
The pious cloak and turban and the babbling of knowledge

about jot and tittle,

We have thrown it all into the flowing stream.
From the bow of desire, the arrow of Gnosis,
Taking straight aim, we have shot at the target.
Thou hast well said O Shams-i-Tabriz.
We have cast love glances at the Lord of the Soul. * '

Our next extract illustrates the idea of the pre-
existence of the soul.

From the depth I came to the height;

I was seeking that lovely Beloved.

I had friendship with that One in the world of Souls.

And I return whither I came.

I was an unthreaded pearl and suddenly

I came into a breast of flint.

*Kulhyat-i-Shams-i-Tabriz, P. 546. (The passage is translated
by the Rev. J. W. Sweetman.)

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 41

The Sun of His mercy warmed me

Back from that place I appeared in Time.

Once I had private converse with the Universal Reason

And again I wandered demented in the desert.

A hundred thousand years and centuries without number

Even before Adam and Eve I was.

Once I drew breath with the silent ones

From that silence I now have become a speaker.*

3. SA'DI.

The third of the great poets of this period was
Sa'di of Shiraz who was born in 1184 A. D. and died in
1291. He enjoys to-day a great reputation not only in
Persia but in India where he is as well known as Shake-
speare in England in spite of the fact that his tongue is
Persian. His Gulistdn, Rose Garden, and Bustdn.
Orchard, are most widely read and are generally the
classics to which students of Persian are first introduced.
His full name is commonly stated to be Muslihu'd-
Dln, but from the oldest manuscript of his works (India
Office No. 876, transcribed in A. D. 1328, only a few
years after his death) it appears to have been
Musharrafu'd-Dln 'Abdullah.

Sa'di was a great traveller though some of the
stories of his travels must be taken with a grain of salt.
He is said to have visited the Panjab, Somnath and
Gujrat. Apparently he travelled in the fashion of a
mendicant, hobnobbing with all sorts and conditions of
men till he became a true citizen of the world.

Ibid, P. 546. (translated by the Rev. J. W. Swcetman "SUent
ones*' arc the dead or unborn.)

42 SUn SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The earlier part of his life was spent in study but
about his thirtieth year he took to travel and writing.
Thus nearly thirty years passed and the latter part of
his life was spent in seclusion and probably in the
practice of the way of the mystic. That he was well
acquainted with the mystic path is made clear by his
receiving instruction from 'Abdu'l-Qadir Gilanl and
Shihgbu'd-Din 'Umaru's-Suhrawardi, the author of
'Awarifu'l-Maarif. But it is exceedingly doubtful
whether he was a ufi by temperament. In him the
didactic subordinates the mystic.

The Bustdn is a book of verse on ethical subjects
and the Gulistan has the same character but is in
prose, interspersed with verse. His RiscCil are prose
treatises on ufism. Among his many writings his
Qvubthiyot are a blot on his name, and his other works
are not free from obscenities. His style is elegant.
He is pleasant, easy-going, opposed to extremes. He
frequently gives advice to his readers to be not
righteous overmuch. His attitude to mystics is some-
times one of reproach for their hypocrisy. His ethics
are based on expediency, for the most part. But he
is not really troubled about consistency, valuing far
more independence. Dr. Browne has well said that
his writings are a microgflSJELpf the East.

As early as the seventeenth century translations
of his works began to appear in French, Latin, Dutch,
and English. Later translations of the Gulistan into
English are by Eastwick and Platts. We give below

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 43

some few translations of passages from the Bustan which
the ufts sometimes quote.

"The way of reason is nothing but a maze;

In the opinion of the gnostics there is nothing else but God.

All that is, is less that He;

For by His being, they bear the name of being.

When the King of Glory raises His standard

The whole world bows its head in the bosom of Not-being."

"In self-hood there is no way to God

But of this point only the unconscious is conscious."*

"Come Thou empty of claim that thou mayst be full."

(d) LATER $UFI POETS

The last phase of the development of ufism with
which we are concerned in this chapter is that which
is associated with the Gulshan-i-Rdz and the poets
Hafig and Jami. These poets are particularly known
and loved in India. Their works are used as text-books
by every student of ufism throughout the country.
Many there are in India who learn Persian for no other
purpose than to be able to read the Diwdn-i-Hafiz
and Jaml's Yusuf-o-Zulaykhd in the original.

1. GULSHAN-I-RAZ.

It is necessary to say something about this book. It
is a small Matknawi of little more than a thousand
couplets. It is the work of Mahmud Shabistari or Shab-
tari. We know very little about the life of the author.
He lived apparently in the latter part of the thirteenth
and the earlier part of the fourteenth century of the
Christian era. But his work is important out of all

'The "unconscious is the dead to self."

44 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

comparison with the importance of the author be-
cause it is a compendium of ufi terminology in the
form of question and answer.

It is a matter of frequent complaint by Eastern
writers that Europeans do not understand and are un-
able to interpret the mysticism of such writers as
Hfcfiz and are apt to regard their poems as undiluted
eroticism. There is no doubt that there is a very wide
divergence of view as to what is proper and fitting in
the emotional expression of religion and there would
probably be much difference among Europeans them-
selves about the propriety, say, of some expres-
sions used by Madame Guyon. Appreciation and
understanding of mystical poetry is not given to
all and there is a whole host of considerations,
preconceptions and associations which go to render
such poetry acceptable or unintelligible to the
reader. It would not be a matter of surprise, for
example, if an Eastern reader were not able to under-
stand the mystical character and value of Francis
Thompson's Hound of Heaven. Anything, therefore,
which can help us to realize the atmosphere and
understand the metaphors acceptable to the various
groups of thought should be welcomed. In the Gulshan-
-i-J?az we find help in this direction. Thus the lip of
the Beloved trembles with compassion. His frown
lays waste the world; His kiss revives it. Gazing
on Him the soul is intoxicated. The mole on His
cheek is the centre of Unity. Locks are wide-spread
works of His hands, half hiding and half revealing

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 45

His beauty. Sometimes His locks are parted for a
momentary glimpse of the beauty of His face. In His
curls the longing soul is entangled as man is caught
in the ephemeral beauty of the world. Wine is the
symbol of the loss of consciousness of self in the
rapture of union with Him. It is in this manner
that the sensuous symbolism of Muslim mysticism is
explained.

Gulshan-i-Rdzt 1 * is divided into fifteen sections, each
beginning with a question to which the answer is
then given with illustrations and amplification. The
following will serve as an example. The question,
"What is Thought?" is propounded. Shabistari replies:

"Thought is to pass from falsehood to Truth,

To perceive the Absolute Whole in the part.

In the works of the wise who have studied this theme

You may find they aver it must thus be defined:

"When first an idea is formed in the heart.

The name which is apt is Recalling to mind* ".

The next stage of thought, as they commonly deem.

Is called a Transition (from known to unknown) .

O leave the long way of deductive proof!

Like Moses forsake for a moment your rod.

And enter the Valley of Peace that therein

Unto thee Moses' bush may declare: I am God.(2)

(1) Many editions and commentaries in India. The edition
used is Mashkad-i-Naz, pubd. Kachaucha, Fyzabad. Winfields
is the best English edition but we have not had access to it as it is
out of print.

(2) God's Word considered to be hyDoetasised in the burning
bush.

46 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The Adept beatified, seeing the One,
His eye is first on the Light of Existence;
But he who by Light and Purity seeth,
Whatsoever he seeth, he first seeth God.
Detachment from all is pure .thought's condition;
Comes then God's confirming as lightning flashes.
To whom God Himself has been Teacher and Guide,
From the use of mere logic has profited naught.
How the wise in Philosophy stands at a lossl
For nothing except the Contingent he sees.
Unconditional Being he'd fain prove from that
But Necessity's nature perplexes him still.
At one time he travels a circle of causes
(From the hen to the egg and the egg to the hen.)
Again he's involved in a chain without end,
(A series of causes in endless regression).
Poor fool, he goes seeking the Sun in its glory
By the light of a lamp in the limitless desert. "(1)

Mahmud Shabistarl loves to have a tilt at philoso-
phy or rather the type of philosophy represented by
the Muslim schoolmen, but at the same time he pre-
sents his replies in philosophical form and his termi-
nology is often abstruse and difficult. This does not
lend itself to a very exalted form of verse but, in
general, his style is easy and smooth.

2. HAFIZ.

KbwSja Shamsu'd-Din liSfiz (d. 1389 A. D.) spent
most of his long life in Shiraz. His ancestors belonged
to Isfahan but his father, BahVd-Dln had taken up

(1) Translated by the Rev. J. W. Sweetman, Mashhad-i-Naz,
p. 50 if. Words in brackets are comment.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 47

his abode in Shlraz where he earned his living as a
merchant or, as some say, a baker. Just before he
died Baha'u'd-Dln failed in business and so his young
son and his wife were left in penury. The boy managed
to obtain some education and learned the Quran by
heart. It was for this achievement that he received
the title of Hdfiz. Later in his life when Shamsu'd-Dln
became a poet he adopted this title as his nom-
de -plume.

His collection of poems, the Diwdn-i-Hdfiz, would
appear on the surface to be "strongly tinged with
sensuality". Something has been said with regard to
this but it remains to say that there are many poems
for which it is extremely difficult to find any mystic
meaning. Shibli in his Sherul-Ajam gives no place
to mysticism at all in Hafiz. He says that the poet
exhibits the philosophy of Epicurus. One cannot be
unaware of a current of hedonism throughout, but at
the same time, to deny the mysticism of Hafij would
be absurd. It is true that it is not the mysticism
of a school and, so far as we know, he never pledged
himself to a pir, or recognised ufi teacher, though
there is one tradition associating him with the Naqsh-
bandiyya.

His poetry is remarkable for its beauty and clarity.
There is a freshness and sweetness in much of it which
makes one regret the wilder accents of his songs. And
throughout there is sincerity. He rings true. It is
remarkable to notice his detachment when the passion-
ate clamour of strife and bloodshed must have been

48 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

constantly in his cars. The time might have made him
a cynic but he never lost the sense of wonder, i

The works of Hafiz are sometimes called Tarju-
mdnul-Asrdr, the Interpreter of Mysteries, and Lisanw 1 /-
Ghavb. The Tongue of the Invisible. The latter title
is said to be due to an incident which happened imme-
diately after his death. Some orthodox Muslims, on
account of his antinomian habits, objected to the of-
fering of a funeral prayer. Finally it was agreed to
decide the question by taking an augury from his poems.
The verse they lighted on was,

"Withdraw not your footsteps from the bier of Hafiz,
For though immersed in sin, he will go to Paradise."

Since that time Muslims have sought omens in just the
same way and various methods have been invented for
this purpose. The one commonly practised is to open
the book at random and to find the answer from the
first line on the right hand page. Professor Browne
in his famous Literary History of Persia gives a transla-
tion of a little book called Latlfa-i-Ghaybiyya which
contains instances of auguries taken by famous people.

We conclude this brief sketch with a few transla-
tions of odes with a mystical meaning.

"O heedless one, strive thou to heed;
Blind to the Path, how canst thou lead ?
A Sire wouldst be? Strive thou O Youth
Before Love's Tutor in the School of Truth.
Self's dross purge out, as saints of old,
And by Love's Alchemy become fine gold.
Eating and sleeping, still of Love bereft
Spurn sloth and feasting for the Love you left.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS 49

I vow the heavenly Sun is not so bright
As heart and soul indwelt by His Love-light.
Lost Thou in God, sans life and limb,
Art head to foot all Light of Him.*

3. JAM!

Mulla Nuru'd-Dm 'Abdu'r-Rahman Jami was born
at the town of Jam in Khurasan on November the
seventh, 1414 A. D. He was a great poet, a great
scholar and a great mystic.

Jam! was a prolific writer. His poetical works
consisted of three Diwans of lyrical poetry and seven
romantic Maihnauns. In prose he wrote on the exegesis
of the Quran, the evidence of the prophethood of
Muhammad and the lives of the saints. Besides these
he was an author of several treatises on mysticism,
theology, Arabic grammar, prosody, music and other
matters.

The predominant passion of his life was mysticism
and, in the words of Professor Browne, "The mystical
and pantheistic thought of Persia may be said to find
its most complete and vivid expression" in him. His
ufi association was with the Naqshbandiyya. One
of the central and fundamental conceptions in his
mystical doctrine is that of the Absolute as the Eternal
Beauty. Starting from the famous tradition, M I was a
hidden treasure and I desired to become known; there-
fore I brought the creation into being in order that I

Translated by the Rev. J. W. Sweetman. Hafiz, Diwan,
Radif-i-Ya, ode Ho. 5.

50 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

might be known," his exposition was, that God is
Eternal Beauty and that it lies in the nature of beauty
to desire to manifest itself. Thus the purpose of crea-
tion is to manifest the Beauty of God. The passion for
beauty is a means to link the soul to God. This
thought is brought out in his comment on that favourite
proverb of the ufis, "The Phenomenal is the bridge to
the Real", in a beautiful passage in Yusuf-o-Zulay^ta,
from which we make the following translation :

"Be prisoner of Love; for so may'st thou be free.

Bear in thy breast its grief, so thou may'st blithesome be.

Thousands of learned men and wise have gone their

way

Have passed from ken, for strangers to Love were they.
But now no name or trace of them the world retains;
In the hand of Time nor tale nor fame of them remains.
How many birds there are of exquisite hue and mould 1
But never a lip moves their story to unfold.
Lo \ When the wise in heart, love -taught, take up the tale
They tell the story of the moth and nightingale.
Triest thou in thy life a hundred tasks in vain;
Thou from thyself, by love alone canst freedom gain.
Scorn not that lower love, the symbol of the Real,
Since by its aid thou may'st achieve the ideal.
Till from the Tablet, thou hast conned the Alphabet,
How canst thou from Quran, study the lesson set ?
A novice once before his Soul's Director stood,
Who shewed to him the Path of Mystic Brotherhood.
"If thou'st not lost thy footing in Love's way", said he,
"Go ! Be a lover ! Then return thou here to me.
For shouldst thou still disdain to drink Form's cup of

Wine.
To drain the Ideal to the dregs can not be thine.

LATER DVELOPMENTS 51

But yet beware, beware ! In Form make no delay,

And let that Bridge be crossed as quickly as it may.

If to the stage's end thy chattels thou wouldst bring,

Rapt at the Bridge's head, why standst thou lingering ?" (D

In the Law&ih of Jam! we have a theosophical treatise
of which we have an edition in English by Whinfield
with translation and notes. There are English transla-
tions of the Bahdristdn, by Rehatsek, of Sa/aman-o-
Absal by Edward Fitzgerald and of Yusuf-o-ZulavkhH
by Griffiths. Most of Jami's works can be procured in
the original in India and there is an edition of his
collected lyrics published in Lucknow. (2; ^

(1) Yusuf-o-Zulaykha, (Newal Kishore) p. 53 ff. This edition
is accompanied by a commentary. The above is the translation of
Rev. J. W. Sweetman.

(2) Newal Kishore Press, Lucknow.

CHAPTER III.
The Sufi Gnostic System.

1. SUFI SPECULATIVE CONCERNING GOD.

In Muslim thought those who have speculated
concerning the Divine Being are generally divided into
three schools, viz. the Ijadiyya, which is definitely
theistic and subscribes to the belief that God created
the world out of nothing and' that His essence is
distinct from His creation; the Shuhudiyya, a moderate
pantheism, considers that the universe and all that it
contains is so far transcended by the majesty of God's
reality that all else counts for nothing. This school
conceives the universe as a mirror in which the Divine
attributes are reflected. The third school is the U?uju-
diyya, which is monistic. It holds that there is only one
essence and that is God's. Thus to this school every-
thing is God and of the Essence of God, and its creed
is Hama ost, "all is He". The Shuhudiyya and the
IVujudiyya form the two great divisions of the ufi in
respect to the doctrine of God. There are certain
fundamental conceptions which underlie all the ufi
speculations with regard to the Godhead and we must
give a brief outline of these for the better understand-
ing of the system.

(a) Tanazzuldt. The Descent of the Absolute.
Tanazzul (pi. tanazzulat) "the descent 11 , is, in the
language of the Gfls equivalent to "individualisation 1 '.

THE SUFI GNOSTIC SYSTEM 53

and indicates the process by which the Absolute, from
the state of bare existence, gradually became "quali-
fied". As Neo-Platonism started with a Triad in its
emanational system consisting of the One, the Divine
Mind and the All-Soul, so too we find a triad here
whereby we trace from step to step the "descent" of
the Absolute from what is in the initial stage almost
parely negative or supra-existential, through a stage
where the divine consciousness moves to the realisa-
tion of Its Thought, to the third stage of Oneness in
Multiplicity. In the first and highest plane the Abso-
lute Being (al-Wujudu'l-Mutlaq) is conceived as simple
Essence, (.adh-dhpit) devoid of all attributes and relations.
This is defined by some ufls on lines which may be
fairly represented by the words of Jill in his /ruan-i-
KcmiL "The Essence means Absolute being, dropping
all modes, adjuncts, relations and aspects. Not that they
are external to the Absolute Being but that all these
modes and what is ascribed to them are totally of
and in Absolute Being, not of themselves nor by
virtue of their own modes, but essentially one with
the Absolute. And this Absolute Being is the Pure
Essence in which there is no manifestation, no name,
no quality, no relation, no adjunct or anything else.
So when anything else is manifested in it that mani-
festation is ascribed not to the Pure Essence but to
that which is manifested. Then the Essence in the
requirement of its own nature comprises Universals,
Particulars, Relations and Adjuncts by the requirement
of their continuance. Nay, by the requirement of their

54 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

disappearance beneath the domination of the Oneness
of the Essence. " (1) With this should be compared Ploti-
nus, "Since the Nature or Hypostasis of the One is
the engenderer of the All, it can be none of the
things in the All; that is, It is not a thing; It has

neither quality nor quantity It is essentially of a

unique form or rather no-form, since It is prior tc
form as It is also prior to movement and rest; afl
these categories apply only to the realm of existence
and constitute the multiplicity characteristic of that
lower realm. 11(2)

The inward aspect of this plane is called al-Amii,
"the dark mist/' and it is explained as a state of bare
potentiality. The outward aspect is called Ahdijyct,
the abstract notion of Oneness, in which the Essence
knows itself as transcendent Unity . (3)

The ufis quote two traditions in support of this
view. One is the Hadith-i-Qudsi (a special type of
tradition which is supposed to contain a Divine
revelation to Muhammad) which runs as follows, "I
(i. e. Allah) was a hidden treasure: I desired to become
known and I brought Creation into being that I might
be known." The other is as follows: "The Prophet
was asked by Abl Dara, 'Where was God before
Creation?' Muhammad replied, 4 He was in the state
of aZ-'Ama, a dark cloud or mist, above which there
was no air, and below which there was no air. 1

(1) Jili. Insan-i-Kamil (Cairo printed) Vol. 1. 43. Trans, by

(2) Plotinus: Ennead, Book VI. 9. 3. [J. W. Sweetman.

(3) Cf . Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism, pp. 94-95 and
Khwaja Khan: Studies in Tasawwuf, p. 41.

THE SUFI GNOSTIC SYSTEM 55

We next come to another plane of this triad in
the scheme of devolution. This is Wdhdat and is also
known as Haqlqatu'l-Mukammadiyya, *the Reality of
Muhammad/ The world is a manifestation of that
Reality. It is said that the realities or ideal prototypes
of the souls and bodies of the world are details of
the reality of Muhammad's soul and body.*

Here too we have an inward and outward aspect.
The inward is called Huunyyat, He-ness, and the out-
ward Anlyyat, I-ness. Humyyat represents the Thought
of the Divine Mind turned in to the One and Anlyyat
the Thought going out, as it were, to the realisation
or expression of itself in manifestation. The relations
of these two terms to each other are to some extent
shown by their derivation. Humyyat is the abstract
noun formed from the third person singular pronoun
"huwd". It is the Wahid, (singular) gha'ib, (hidden).
It is that which is specified or contemplated. But
this he-ness does not depend on a specifier outside
the Divine Unity. Thus the divine thought turned
inward in self-contemplation is the basis of the con-
ception. Anlyyat is from the first person singular. Here
the Divine Unity points to Itself, as it were, vis a vis
the world, or rather universe, of individuation. Anlyyat
corresponds to the Anal-Haqq of Hallaj and is appro-
priate to the sphere of manifestation, while Humyyat
corresponds more to the Hu of the dhikr, where the
aim is to put off the fetters of individuation and

*cf. Ibrahim Shattari: Haqa'iq Numa. p. 191.

56 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

to be lost in the Hidden Oneness. (I) But the use of
these two terms must not be taken as implying any
duality. "Everyone who does not harbour doubt is
aware that there is only one single existence". "But
there is no duality for Creative Truth; In that there
is no Tand 4 We' and Thouness'. T and 4 We\ Thou 1
and 'He' are all one thing; For there is no distinction
at all in Oneness". (2) .

The third plane is called Wdhidiyyat, Unity in
Plurality, or Singleness. It is in the use of this term
that we see the intention to preserve the Unity when
the plane of multiplicity has been reached. This also
is parallel with the Neo-Platonist system. "The All-
Soul includes and is All-the-Souls." (3) But in this there
is no sacrifice of the Unity. "All degrees and hier-
archies are but details of the Unity/ 1 says Jam! when
treating of this subject in his Law&ih. By the use of
this term then, the many are represented as identical
in essence with the One.

In the stage of Wahidlyyat, when the Essence came
to possess the essential attributes, viz. Life, Know-
ledge, Power, Purpose, Hearing, Seeing and Speech,
it was called Ldhut, Divinity: when it became qualified
with active attributes such as, to create, to make
alive, to kill, etc, it was called Jabarut, Power. The

(1) An interesting parallel to this is the use of person in a
grammatical sense with reference to the Trinity by Tertullian. See
Adv. Praxean Chaps, xi & xii.

(2) Gulshan-i-Raz, couplets 445 ff.

(3) Mackenna: Plotinus Vo. 1. p. 120

THE SUFI GNOSTIC SYSTEM 57

Jabarut attributes were named according to their
different manifestations. When they were manifested
in the world of spirit and angels, they were called
'Alam-i-Malakut the angelic world, when they were
manifested in "similitudes" they were called l A/am-i-
Mithdl, the world of Similitudes, and when manifested
in the material world, they were called 'Alam-i-N&sut*
the world of Humanity.

It is thus that "the Single Essence as to Its being
absolutely void of individualisations and limitations is
Creative Truth (Haqq) and in respect to multiplicity
and plurality by which It displays Its veiling in indi-
vidualisations It is the created universe (Ma/cj). a) The
appearing of the Creator in the form of the creature
has a reference to the tradition recorded from Mu'adh
b. Jabal and in various forms from others that Muham-
mad saw his Lord in a beautiful form, or as a hand-
some youth * (2) The assertion that the creature is in the
form of the Creator is the converse and is considered
the complementary aspect of the former conception.
This is referred to that other tradition ultimately
derived from the story of Creation in the book of
Genesis, "God created Adam in His own image."

(fc) The Haqiqatu'l'Muhammadiyya
Reference has already been made to the Haqiqatul-
Muhammadiyya, but as it occupies an important place
in the doctrine of the ufls, we proceed to give an

(1) Jami: Lawa'ik (Newal Kishorc Press) p. 19

(2) Mishkatu'l-Masabih (Majidi Press, Cawnpur) p. 72, cf also
Ritter in Der Islam 1928 p. 257.

58 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

outline of their teaching concerning it. Another name
for it is J^urul-Muhammadiyya, the Light of Muham-
mad. The growth of the doctrine has a long history.
Ibn Slna (b. 980 A. D.) in Kitabu'l-Isharat identifies
the Aristotelian 'Aql, Primal Reason, with the Light
of Allah referred to in mysterious terms in the Quran
(Sura, 24:35). It is not exclusively a ufi conception.*
The saying, quite evidently borrowed from St. John
14: 19. is ascribed to Muhammad, "He that hath seen
me hath seen Allah. 11 Thus Muhammad is regarded
by the ufis as the final and complete revelation of
God but not only so, he is believed to have existed
before the creation of the world. From this it will
be apparent that the place of the Haqiqatu'l-Muham-
madiyya in the ufi cosmogony is the same as that
of the Logos in Christianity. The pre-existence of
Muhammad is described in words which strongly
remind us of the statements in the Gospel concerning
the Logos, viz. "All things were made by Him; and
without Him was not anything made that has been
made". (St. John 1 :3). Tradition puts in the mouth
of Muhammad saying such as the following: "The
first thing which God created was the Light of the
Prophet/ 1 "I was a prophet while Adam was bet-
ween water and clay." "I am the Light of God and
all things are from my Light. 11 Further, the verse of
the Quran which says, "Muhammad is not the father
of any of you, but he is a messenger of God and

*For Shi'a conception see Hayatu'l-Qulub (Newal Kishore
Press) Vol. 2 p. 3 etc.

THE SUFI GNOSTIC SYSTEM 59

Seal of the Prophets", is interpreted by Najmu'd-Din
Kubra to mean that he was not of our world. <

Jill (b. 1365 A. D.),the author of the famous treatise
on ufism, Insdnul-Kamil, describes the Haqiqat-u'l
Muhammadiyya in the following words: "One of his
names is Word of God (Amru'llah) and he is the
most sublime and exalted of all existences. In regard
to dignity and rank he is supreme. There is no
angel greater than he. He is the chief of all the
archangels and is superior to angels in all devices. God
made the millstone of all existences to turn on him
and made him the axis of the revolving sphere of all
creation. He has a special form with every creature
which is attached to it and which preserves it in the
degree in which God created it. He has eight forms
which support the Most High Throne. He formed
the angels, all of them, the lofty and the elemental.
The relation of angels to him is as the relation of
drops of water to the sea."*

Jill also describes how this Light of Muhammad
has appeared in various forms in different ages. He
says: "He has different garbs and is manifested in
various habitations. A name is given to him in respect

to each His original name is Muhammad, his

patronymic is Abu'l-Qasim, his description is * Abdu'Uah
and his title Shamsu'd-Dln. Then in respect to later
forms he is given names and in every age has a name
which is appropriate to the guise in which he appears

Insanu'l-Kamil, (ed. cited) Vol. II. et infra. P. 9. Cap. 51.
Trans, by Rev. J. W. Sweetman

60 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

in that age. I was associated with him (Muhammad)
in the form of my Shaykfa, Shaykh Sharfu'd-Din
Isma'll Jabarti, and I did not know that the Shaykh
was the Prophet but I knew that he was the Shaykh
(guide in the ufl path) and this is one of the visions
I had of him in Zabld in the year 796 A. H. (1394 A.
D.) and the secret of this matter is that it is possible
for him to assume every form. When the one experi-
enced in spiritual knowledge has seen him in the form
of Muhammad, the form which was upon the Haqiqat-
u'1-M.uhamrnadiyya in his (Muhammad's) life-time,
then he is called by his name Muhammad and when
he has seen him in some other form and has known
that he was Muhammad, he does not call him by any
name except the name of that form. Then this name
(Muhammad) will not be applied except to the Ha-
<fiqatul-Muhammadiyya. Sawest thou not that when
the prophet was manifest in the form of Shibll, Shibll
said to his disciple "Testify that I am the Apostle of
God" and the disciple had insight and recognised him
and said, "I testify that thou art the Apostle of
God."*

The story of how the world was created by the
Light of Muhammad is still widely used for the pur-
pose of devotional reading. It may be described in the
words of Jill. God, created the forms of Muhammad
from the light of His name al-Bach *u 'l-Qfldir (i. e,
the Almighty Maker) and contemplated them with
His name al-Manndnul-Qahir, (the Overwhelming
Vnjanw'J- Kami/ (ed. cited) Vol. II. p. 46 Cap. 60.

THE SUFI GNOSTIC SYSTEM 61

Giver). Then He shone upon them with His name
al-Ldftfu'l-Ghflfir (the Forgiving Indulgent One). On
this, because of this irradiation it broke into two parts,
so that it was divided into two halves. From that half
on His right God made paradise and established it as
an abode of bliss and from that half on His left He
made the Fire, setting it up as a place of misery for the
erring.""

2. THE L AT A' IF, THE ORGANS OF SPIRITUAL
APPREHENSION,

According to ufi teaching the entire creation
belongs either to the 'A/am-i-Amr, the World of
Command, or to the *Alam-i-k]ialq, the World of
Creation. By the former is meant that world of exis-
tence which has been brought into existence by God
directly by His word of command "Be!", while the
latter is for that which is fashioned from something
already existing. The former is immaterial and cor-
responds in some sort to the pleroma, but the latter is
material. Taken together these two worlds form the
'Alam-i-Kdlnr, the Macrocosm. Man in contrast is
called 'Alam-i-$aghir the Microcosm and he possesses
within himself five elements of 'A/am-i-Amr and five
elements of 'Alam-i-Khalq. Those belonging to the
former are: Qalb, heart, Ruh, spirit, Sirr, the secret,
Kbafi, the hidden or mysterious, Afe/a, the deeply
hidden. Nicholson sometimes translates Sirr by tfye
word consciousness. One wonders whether the last
three might not be represented by intuition, deep
op. cit. Vol. H. p, 29.

62 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

intuition and deepest intuition. However, they are not
simple psychological terms but partly names in a
gnostic mythology. The elements belonging to the
*Alam-i-fhalq are: Nafs, ego or soul, and the four ele-
ments earth, water, fire and air. In the language of
the ufls each of these elements is called a Latlfa
(pi. LatcCif} which is a word difficult to translate. It
might mean subtle substance. It is not exactly faculty,
for the same reason offered above with regard to Sirr.
The latdiif connected with ' Alam-i-khalq constitutes
the physical side of human life, and the other five
which are connected with the 1 'Alam-i-Amr are the
organs of spiritual communication with God. These
belong in their true nature to the spiritual world,
in which their relative position is described in the
following way: The place of the Qalb is said to be on
the Throne of God and above it in ascending order
are Ruli, Sirr, Khafl and Afehfa. But somehow, they
are also connected with the inner life of man and as
such, are located in his body. Their exact location,
including Nafs, which of course belongs to the physi-
cal side of man, is: the Nafs under the navel, Qalb
on the left side, Ruh on the right side of the chest,
Sirr exactly between Qalb and Ru%. Khafl is said by
some to be in the forehead and Afakfa in the brain,
while others locate A&hfd in the middle of the chest,
Sirr between Qalb and A&fi/a, and Kbafi between
Ruh and

Shah Muhammad Ghawth, AsranCt-Tariqat, Urdu Tt. (Pubd.
Manzil-i-Naqshbandiyya, Lahore) P. 16.

THE SUFI GNOSTIC SYSTEM 63

It is further said that each lafifa in a mysterious way,
is related to a certain prophet. This relation, in the
language of the ufis, is expressed in the following
words: the degree of saintship attained through each
latlfa is "under the foot of a prophet. 1 ' Qalb is under
the foot of Adam; Rub Sirr Khafl are under the feet
of Abraham, Moses Jesus and Muhammad respectively.

The aim of every ufl is to awaken these five
Lajaif into active remembrance of God, and through
them to receive Tajalll, the Divine Illumination.
These objects he seeks to accomplish by the constant
practice of dhikr or remembrance. Normally the goal
is attained gradually and, whichever of these latffif
becomes active and divinely illuminated, the uft
concerned is said to have attained to the degree of the
saintship of that particular latlfa and of the Prophet
associated with it.

QALB, THE HEART.

Jill says that the heart is the eternal light and sublime
mystery sent down into the essence of created beings
so that God may look on man by it.* Muhammad is
said to have received the revelation "My earth and
My heaven contain Me not, but the heart of My
faithful servant containeth me/' Rum! in the Mathr
naun says, u The Prophet said that God said: I am not
contained in High or Low, nor in Earth nor in Heaven,
nor even in the Heaven of the Throne; know this for
certain, I am treasured in the believer's heart. How
*Insanu'l-Kamil Vol. ii. p. 14.

64 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

wonderful! If thou seekest for me, search in such
hearts," (1) and again he says, "That heart which is the
rising place of moonbeams (i. e. pale reflections of the
great Sun of Truth) is for the mystic the opening of
the gates (or chapters) of revelation." (2) Take also
these words of Hafig "Long years the heart was
searching for Jam's cup. What it had itself it desired
of the stranger. The pearl which is not in the shell of
the phenomenal world, it sought from benighted people
on the sea-shore." Here is a picture of mankind lost
on the shore of the boundless sea of divine knowledge.
Unaware as he is of his own identity, how can he pos-
sibly apprehend transcendent reality? Even though he
should spend long years, making diligent enquiry of the
sages (here symbolised by the Jdm-i-Jam, a fabulous
goblet or mirror supposed to have the property of
mirroring the whole world) he cannot achieve the
knowledge of God/ 3) Adam, says the ufl, left
Paradise to live in the world and it was as though he
had left that boundless ocean to dwell on the barren
shore. There he lost the knowledge of his real self
which was bound up with his mystic apprehension of
God. Nevertheless, in the heart of man, which is
vehicle of the Supreme Glory and the place of the
manifestation of Divine Light, there lingers still some
traces of the effulgence of divine knowledge and
therefrom some faint moon-beam gleams of mystic

(1) Jalalu'd-Din, Mathnawi. Bk. I. lines 26355.

(2) Ibid Bk. II, lines 163.

(3) Diwan-i-Hafiz* Radif-dal Ode 85.

THE SUFI GNOSTIC IN INDIA 65

apprehension of the Lord Most High. Hafig says the
heart longs to be comforted and blessed with the love
of the Beloved but as it turns hither and thither with
its questioning in the urgency of its longing, it vainly
disquiets itself and us, for it has itself all the secret
which is left to us. The treasury of Reality and Mystic
Apprehension is in the heart; we seek in vain from
others. We may turn to them very wistfully but "not
by these, by these was healed my aching smart/' Why
seek the precious pearl from those who are themselves
lost? The rays of the eternal beauty are not without
but within. Thus is the ufi's thought about the
heart expressed. He sees in it the Throne of God and
the centre of intuition of the Divine.

By the position of the Qalb between the * Alam-i-Amr
and the " Alam-i-'ghalq, it is an "intermedium" (barzafeh)
between them, and a meeting place of physical
and spiritual forces. In the words of a ufi writer,
"It is compounded of the subtle rulfi and the coarse
body; and has thus established connection between
the two. It receives impressions from the external
world through the five External senses (viz. Thought,
Instinct, Memory, Reasoning and Fancy).* "Thus it
comes about that the heart is the centre of a warfare.
Al-Ghazall says, "There are two servants of the heart
which, when they serve it perfectly, are helpful. These
are wrath and appetite (or desire). Indeed the heart
considers these two excellent companions for its
journey to God. But sometimes these are disobedient

*Khwaja Khan, Studies in Tasawwuf. p. 195.

66 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

to the heart and rebel against it so that it comes to this,
that they enslave the heart and are the workers of its
destruction and thus it is kept back from that journey
by which eternal bliss is obtained/**

So through a mist of scholastic subtleties, the ufi
gropes his way to find that which will assuage the deep
hunger of his heart and so joins hands with his Chris-
tian brother who says, "I was seeking Thee without and
lo, Thou wast within/' "Our whole work in this life
is to heal the eye of the heart by which we see

God."< 2 > .

V

(1) Ihya-ul-'Ulum. Vol. III. p. 5.

(2) St. Augustine.

CHAPTER IV.

The Path.

In the preceding chapter we have described the
general principles which underlie ufism, and now turn
to a consideration of the characteristic teachings at
the back of ufi practices, and of those experiences
through which ufis pass in their attempts to attain the
goal of Union with God. "ufism speaks of advance-
ment in the spiritual life as a "journey," and the
seeker after God as a sdlik, or "traveller 11 . Its teaching
is intended to guide the traveller to the attainment
of the perfect "knowledge 11 (marifai) of God, the
only Reality diffused through all things. Subsequently,
the wandering soul is led onwards by slow 'stages*
(maqdmdt), and through the experience of certain
* states' (akwdl), along a Path (at-Tariqat) t to the
desired goal of union with God, called fand fi'l-hacfiqat,
absorption (lit. 'extinction') in Reality".*

The very great gulf that separates man from God is
commonly described by ufi writers in symbolical
language. Such is the style of the following tradition
quoted by al-Qbazll: "Allah hath seventy thousand
Veils of Light and Darkness: were He to withdraw
their curtain, then would the splendours of His Aspect
(countenance) surely consume everyone who ap-

* Be van Jones, The People of the Mosque, p. 157.

68 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

prehended Him with his sight."* These veils are
thus explained: The inner half of these are said to be
of light, and the other half of darkness. The soul in
its journey to union with Deity, passes through seven
stages and at every stage is stripped of ten thousand of
these veils, the dark ones first and then the bright. At
the final stage the soul stripped of all sensual and
material qualities stands face to face with the Absolute
Being.

THE STAGES OF THE PATH.

The "stages" of the journey or Path, have been
variously described by the ufls. Such variation is
perhaps to be explained by the fact that ufis claim
that there are a myriad ways leading to God. Indeed
one of them is said to have declared, "The ways to
God are as many as the believes."

According to some authorities the Path consists of
the following seven 'stages':

(1) 'Ubicdiyyat, the stage of 'service' in which

the aspirant endeavours to purify his soul, and prepares
himself for the higher stages of the journey. At this
stage the first thing required of him is repentance,
which is described as "the awakening of the soul from
the slumber of indifference to awareness of his evil
ways, and a sense of contrition for past sins." The
aspirant is also exhorted to serve God and follow the
ordinances of the Law faithfully.

*C. W. H. T. Gairdener, Mishkatu'l- Anwar, pp. 88f.

THE PATH 69

(2) 'Ishq, that of love in which the Divine

influence inclines the soul towards the love of God.
'Allu'l-Hujwirl says: "Man's love towards God is a
quality which manifests itself in the heart of the pious
believer, in the form of veneration and magnification,
so that he seeks to satisfy his Beloved and becomes
impatient and restless in his desire for vision of Him,
and canno: rest with anyone except Him, and grows
familiar with the remembrance (dhikr) of Him, and
abjures the remembrance of everything besides. Re-
pose becomes unlawful to him and rest flees from him.
He is cut off from all habits and associations, and re-
nounces sensual passion and turns towards the court
of love an! submits to the law of love and knows God
by His attributes of perfection." (1)

At thL< stage the aspirant, urged by his intense
longing for God, is le|J to observe poverty. In his
heart there is no room for any earthly desire but that
of God. Thus, his poverty is not merely the lack of
wealth, kit also the absence of any desire for it. A
ufi writes: "the poor are the richest of God's crea-
tion tiey dispense with the gift for the sake of the

Giver." ^

(3) Zuhd, " renunciation " under the influ-
ence of tie Divine Love all worldly desires are expelled
from thd heart. " The first stage of zuhd, to the

(1) tashf al~Mahjub, (Professor Nicholson's translation;
pp. 307,8.

(2) Al-Sarraj. Kitab-al-Luma\ p. 48, quoted, in Margaret
Smith, Kate, p. 74.

70 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

ufi, is initiatory and represents the Purgative Life,
through which the novice must pass before setting
foot on the mystic Way. But when the soul has been
purified from all sensual desires, and the mystic 4 pure
from self as flame from smoke ' sets forth upon his
journey towards God, then he passes beyond this early
degree of zuhd and aims at the last stage, renunciation
of all but God, attained only by the adept ," (1) A

(4) Marifat, "knowledge" or "gnosis' 1 in

which the aspirant contemplates the nature, attributes
and work of God 4 Aliu'l-Hujwiri says: "Gnosis of God
is of two kinds : cognitional ('i/wO and emotional (feafi).
Cognitional gnosis is the foundation of all blessings
in this world and in the next, for the most important
thing for a man at all times and in all circumitances is
knowledge of God, as God hath said: 'I onlt created

the genii and mankind that they might serve Me 1
(Swra, 51:56), i.e. that they might know Me. But the
greater part of men neglect this duty, except those whom
God hath chosen and whose hearts He hath vivified with
Himself. Gnosis is the life of the heart throufh God,
and the turning away of one's inmost thoughts jrom all
that is not God."' 2) !

(5) Wajd, " ecstasy " in which mental

excitement is produced through contemplation of the
only existing Reality, God. At this stage the ftspirant
spends his time in contemplation, and practices much

as a means of inducing in him the ttate of

(1) Margaret Smith, Rabi'a, p. 76.

(2) Kaskf-al-Mahjub, p. 267.

THE PATH 71

ecstasy. Professor Nicholson says: "The whole of
ufism rests on the belief that when the individual self
is lost, the Universal Self is found, or, in religious
language, that ecstasy affords the only means by which
the soul can directly communicate and become united
with God.' 1(1)

(6) Haqlqat, " reality " the heart is now

illumined with the true nature of God. The aspirant,
as he learns the true nature of God, learns to exercise
tawakkul, dependence upon God. According to Al-
Ghazall tawhld and tawakkul are inseparably related.
To put one's trust in secondary causes is to associate
these with God as the object 01 devotion and this is
shirk. He uses the Quran to establish this view and
quotes Sura 29: 65 to show that men call on God to
give them a safe passage when they take ship, but
when they arrive they attribute their safe arrival to a
fair wind. True trust is rather in Him who rules the
winds. "When He saves them to the shore, behold,
they associate others with Him/' This is contrary to
tawhld and therefore not true tawakkul. Al-Gliazali
says: "Know that tawakkul is a sort of faith (iman) and
faith is made up of knowledge Oi7m), state (hdl) and
practice (?amal)\ so too is tawakkul." Thus to
Al-Qbazall tawakkul is practically identical with the
ufi conception of tawhld.

(7) Wasl, "union" in which the mystic, as

it were, sees God face to face. This "stage" precedes

(1) Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam, p. 59.

(2) Ihya 'u 'I 'Vlum, Vol. IV., pp. 211-15, (Cairo, ed. 1346 A.H.)

72 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

the final experience of fand wa baqd. 'annihilation and
subsistence 1 , the ufl's ultima Thule. Waslis also the
stage of satisfaction, which is defined as "the acquies-
cence of the heart in God's decision and the agree-
ment of the heart with what He wills and chooses 1 *,
and again " satisfaction is the acceptance of God's
4ecisions^with joy. 11(l) Satisfaction has two sides, viz.,
human satisfaction with God and Divine satisfaction
with man. Abu Sa'id, a famous uf! writer, is reported
to have said: "That man is a ufl who is satisfied with
whatsoever God does or God will be satisfied with
whatsoever he does, 11 (a>

THE 'STATES 1 OF THE MYSTIC.

The 'stages 1 just described must be distinguished
from those experiences of the traveller which the
ufts call 'states 1 . They define a 'state 1 as a condition
of feeling or disposition, which comes upon the mystic
without^ his intention or desire; such as sorrow, fear or
joy; 'Aliu'l-Hujwiri makes clear the distinction
between these as follows: " 'Station 1 (maqdm) (3) de-
notes anyone's 'standing 1 in the Way of God, and his
fulfilment of the obligations appertaining to that
'station' and his keeping it until he comprehends its
perfection so far as lies in a man's power. It is not

(1) Al-Qushayri, Risala, p. 117, quoted in, Margaret Smith,
Rabi'a, p. 89.

(2) Asrar al-Tawhid, p. 381, quoted, in Margaret Smith, op. cit.
p. 88, note.

(3) The word 'station' is used by Professor Nicholson or rtuxqam
while we have translated it throughout by the word 'stagre'.

THE PATH 73

permissible that he should quit his 'station' without
fulfilling the obligations thereof. Thus, the first
'station 1 is repentance (tawbat), then comes conversion
(inabai), then renunciation (zuhd), then trust in God
(tawakkuV), and so on: it is not permissible that any-
one should pretend to conversion without repentance,
or to renunciation without conversion, or to trust in
God without renunciation.

" 'State' (hdl), on the other hand, is something that
descends from God into a man's heart, without his
being able to repel it when it comes or to attract it
when it goes, by his own effort. Accordingly, while
the term 'station' denotes the way of the seeker, and
his progress in the field of exertion, and his rank be-
fore God in proportion to his merit, the term 'state'
denotes the favour and grace which God bestows upon
the heart of His servant, and which are not connected
with any mortification on the latter's part. 'Station^
belongs to the category of acts, 'state 1 to the category
of gift&L Hence the man that haiTa 'station' stands by
Els own self-mortification, whereas the man that has a
'state' is dead to 'self and stands by a 'state 1 which God
creates in him."*

SIGNIFICANCE OF A SUFI'S JOURNEY.

In the previous chapter we have described how the
Absolute, in manifesting Itself, has passed through
several stages of 'devolution'. The progress of a ufi
from, the lowest to the highest stage of the Path,

*Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 181.

74 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

consists in traversing the stages of this Divine 'devolu-
tion* in obverse order. Professor Nicholson while ex-
pounding Jill's idea of the Perfect Man, speaks of
this ascent of the ufl as follows: "Man is the
microcosm in which all attributes are united, and in
him alone does the Absolute become conscious of
itself in all its diverse aspects. To put it in another
way, the Absolute, having completely realised itself
in human nature, returns into Itself through the
medium of human nature; or, more intimately, God
and man become one in theJPerfect Man the enraptur-
ed prophet or saint whose religious function as a
mediator between man and God corresponds with his
metaphysical function as the unifying principle by
means of which the opposed terms of reality and
appearance are harmonised. Hence the upward move-
ment of the Absolute from the sphere of manifestation
back to the unmanifest^d Essence takes place in and
through the unitive ex2cricncej>f the soul. 11 *

Thus the soul's progress in the journey along the
Path is really the upward movement of the Absolute
from the sphere of manifestation back to the unmani-
festated state.

The downward path, consisting of the 'stages' of
'devolution 1 traversed by 'the Absolute, is designated
by the ufis as safaru'l-Haqq 'the journey of Reality*
and the corresponding upward path followed by the
mystics is designated as safaru'l-abd, 'the journey of
the creature*.

* Studies in Islamic Mysticism pp. 84, 85

THE PATH 75

The gradual ascent of the soul is further described
by ufis to be related to 'four main states', through
which the traveller must pass.

1. Ndsut, humanity, the natural state of every
human being, in which the disciple must observe
shariat.

2. Malakut, nature of angels, in which he takes
the Path of spiritual journey, at-'tariqat. (l)

3. Jabarut, possession of power, for which there is
Marifat.

4. Ldhut, Divinity, the state of absorption into the
Deity, in which he attains Reality, Haqlqat

THE THREE GREAT JOURNEYS OF THE
SUFIS.

There are certain ufis who speak of the Path as
consisting of three journeys:

(1) Sayr ilalldh, Journey to God 1 , the aspirant
travels from the World of Creation' to the 'World
of Command'. In this he traverses the 'stages' of
Wdhidiyyat and Wahdat, i. e. the last two stages of the
Divine 'devolution'. r2 ' This journey ends at Haqlqat-
i-Muhammadi.

(2) Sayr fi'lldh. Journey in God', in this the
aspirant is absorbed into the Essence of God. It is
the 'stage 1 of Ahdiyyat. It was at this 'stage 1 that
Hallaj cried out, Ana'l-Haqq 'I am the Reality', and
said;

(1) Shah Muhammad Ghawth. Asraru't-Tariqat, Urdu Tr.
(Naqshbandiyya Manzil, Lahore), pp. 27-28.
-(2) Cp. pp. 55. 56.

76 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

I am He whom I love, and He whom I love is I:

We are two spirits in one body.

If thou seest me, thou seest Him.

And if thou seest Him, thou seest us both.

(3) Sayr "ani "llah, 'Journey from God'. This
is the journey back to the world of manifestation
invested with the attributes of God. It is the 'stage 1
of baqd "subsistence after fand 'annihilation 1 . The
author of Gulshan-i-Rdz , thus discribes it:

"He obtains baqd, subsistence, after fand, annihilat-
ion. He returns to the Source from the end of his
journey by another way. He puts on the Law as a
garment and then wraps about it the robe of the Mystic
Path. But know that Truth itself is the Station of
his nature, the connecting link between unbelief (kufr)
and Belief (/man).''*

HAFS, OR THE SOUL.

The ufis distinguish between Ruh, the spirit, and
Nafs, the self or the appetitive soul. Nafs is consi-
dered to be the element of evil in man, the seat of
passion and lust, and mortification of this nafs is the
chief work of the aspirant. There are among ufis
many outward methods of mortification, such as fast-
ing, silence and solitude. The aim in all such practices
may be said to be "dying to self 11 . By this the ufis
do not mean to assert that the lower self can be
essentially destroyed, but that it is to be purged of all
its evil qualities. The word death is, in fact, employed

Guhhan-i-Raz, lines 249-251.

THE PATH 77

in a figurative sense to indicate the various methods
of self -mortification. The methods so described are
three in number:

1. Al-Mawtu'l-Abyad, 'the white death'; this is
held to mean abstinence from food, or such control
of the feeling of hunger as gradually purifies the Nafs
from appetitive cravings. A person who frequently
abstains from food is said to have entered the state
of the 'white death 1 .

2. Al-Mawtu'l-Akhdar, 'the green death'; this is
the wearing of old clothes in a state of voluntary
poverty. When a person gives up wearing purple and
fine linen, and has chosen the garment of poverty,
he is said to have entered this state of death.

3. Al-Maivtul-Aswad, 'the black death'; this is
applied to the voluntary taking of troubles, and submit-
ting to be evil spoken of for the truth's sake. When
an aspirant has learnt to submit to such troubles and
persecutions, he is said to have entered into this state
of death.

The Nafs, in such a process of mortification and
purgation of all its evil qualities, is variously described
according to the degree of purity it has attained:

1. Nafs-i-Ammard, 'the soul depraved'.

2. Nafs-i-Lawwdma, 4 the soul accusatory'.

3. Nafs-i-Mulhama, 'the soul inspired'.

4. Nafs-i-Mutma'inna, 4 the soul tranquil'.

5. Nafs-i-Rddiyya, 'the soul satisfied'.

6. Nafs-i-Mardiyya, 'the soul satisfying'.

78 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

7. Nafs-i-$dfiyya iva Kdmila, 'the soul clarified and
perfect*. x

TAJALLL THE DIVINE EFFULGENCE AND
MYSTIC ILLUMINATION.

Muslim theologians are wont to speak of Tawhidu
'dh-dhat, Unity of the Essence, Tawhidu'$-sfifdt, Unity
of the Attributes, and Tawhidul-Afal, Unity of Acts,
when speaking of the Deity in monistic terms. There
is only one Essence and all manifestations of that
One Essence, whether in attributes or acts, though
apparently diverse and manifold, are in reality one.
All existence is the sphere of this manifestation.
When men act it is really God acting; when they
display certain attributes these are really attributes
of the Divine. This manifestation is effected through
the Divine Effulgence. But while all men display the
effects of this Effulgence, only the mystic is able to
apprehend it. The ordinary man will attribute his
actions to himself but the mystic seeks to become
aware that his actions are acts of the Divine. Thus
in the mystic experience there is illumination which
corresponds to the Divine Effulgence. Tajalli then
on the Divine side represents the outgoing Effulgence
of the Divine towards the creature, and on the creat-
urely side the illumination which draws the creature
back to the Divine. Corresponding to the Divine
"descent" is the mystic "ascent".

The traveller on the mystic path journeying on the
ascent to God, receives illumination in varying degrees
through the self-manifestation of the Deity, in the

THE PATH 79

following ascending order: , Tajalli-i-afal, the mystic
illumination of the Divine_acts, Tajalli-i-shukudi, the
mystic illumination of the Divine names, JTajalll-i-
$ifdti, the mystic illumination of the Divine attributes,
and Tajalll-i-$hatii the mystic illumination of the
Divine Essence^" 'We now proceed to a brief descrip-
tion of these.

(1) THE MYSTIC ILLUMINATION OF THE
DIVINE ACTS.

In the Effulgence of Creative Truth in His acts,
in so far as this relates to the locus in which it is made
manifest, the creature sees the flow of power in all
things. Thus God, the Mover of these and the One who
brings them to rest, makes Himself evident by negating
the act of the creature and establishing His own. The
creature in this sphere in which the divine manifes-
tation is witnessed is deprived of strength, power and
will. Men in this stage may be of different sorts. To
one God shews His will first and then His act. Such
a creature is then deprived of strength, act and will
and this is the highest of the stages of the illumination
of the divine acts. To another God shews His will
but shews it being put into operation by creaturely
agents and its flow under the dominance of His power.
Some see the command at the time an act proceeds
from the created and trace it back to God. To another
God makes that evident after the procession of the act
from the created. There is another who does not
shew forth any act of his own but only the act of God.
Such an one does not attribute any act to himself.

80 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

He docs not say in obedience that he is obedient
nor in sinfulness that he is a sinner. Such a person
may eat with you and then swear he has never eaten
and then swear again that he has never sworn and in
spite of this be honest in the sight of God.*

Jill, speaking of those to whom the will is made
known before the act, says: 'Though we expect such
a person to follow the outward Law, yet he may dis-
obey it in obedience to the Divine will. In this case
we do not condemn him, but leave the matter between
him and God."
(2) THE MYSTIC ILLUMINATION OF THE

DIVINE NAMES.

When God manifests Himself to a servant in one
of His names, then that one is so completely drowned
in the radiance of that name, that if you should invoke
God by that name, his servant will answer you because
the name is applicable to him. It is thus that Jill opens
his discussion of this stage of illumination. He then
proceeds to describe the gradual revelation of different
names to the Mystic. The name first manifested to
him is Existence. This is followed by the name One.
The more the name particularises the higher in the
scale it is. Under the effulgence of the name Allah,
the intensity of the illumination is such as to overbear
the mystic and overwhelm him as though he were
crushed under a mountain. Here the name of the
mystic is obliterated and there is established in its place
the name of Allah. Thus the mystic receives the

'See Jili, Insanu 'l-kbmil Vol. 1. p. 34.

THE PATH 81

illumination of the names one by one, through the
effulgence of the names, till finally the name Qayyum
is manifested to him and in him and he reaches the
highest stage of the Illumination of the Divine Names.
Thence he proceeds to the apprehension of the efful-
gence of the Divine attributes. >

(3) THE MYSTIC ILLUMINATION OF THE
DIVINE ATTRIBUTES.

By the effulgence of the Divine attributes, the
essence of the Mystic is invested one by one with the
attributes of God, really, actually and absolutely, just
as any object receiving an attribute becomes qualified
by it. When a man is the object of illumination of
any attribute, he may be likened to one embarking on
a boat and launching out on a sea which he is to explore
to its uttermost reaches. Thus he is to explore the
whole range of the attribute till he attains perfection
in it and becomes completely invested with it. Then
he receives the illumination of further attributes until
he has exhausted the whole range of them.

When a man is the recipient of the effulgence of the
attributes his own existence is obliterated and when the
light of servile existence is extinguished and the spirit
of his creatureliness annihilated, then God sets up in the
temple of the human body but this without interpenet-
ration or permeation (hulul) from His essence, a subtle
substance not detached from Himself nor joined to
the creature as a substitute for that of which he was
deprived or that which was lost in annihilation (/ana).

82 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

(4) THE MYSTIC ILLUMINATION OF THE
DIVINE ESSENCE.

When "Essence" is used of the Absolute it implies
the dropping of all modes, adjuncts, relations and as-
pects. Thus the Effulgence of the Divine Essence is
without any reference at all to any name or attribute.
It is the Effulgence of the Absolute Being on the
highest plane when He is conceived as pure essence.

When the mystic receives illumination on this plane,
he becomes the Perfect Unit (al-fardul-kdmil), or the
Universal Succour (al-ghau>thu V-jamO, to whom all
resort for aid and to whom obeisance is made in
prayer. Through him God succours the whole uni-
verse. As al-Mahdi he is the rightly guided. He is
the Seal of Sainthood and the Vicar of God as narrated
in the story of Adam. The ultimate constituents of
all existences are drawn towards him to obey his
command as iron is drawn to a magnet. The world of
sense is subdued by his might and he does what he wills
by his power. Nothing is veiled from him for when
the subtle substance of the Divine is in this saint as
pure essence unconditioned by any degree of what is
appropriate to divinity or creatureliness, then he gives
to every degree of existence, whether Divine or crea-
turely, its due, and nothing can hinder him from doing
so; for what hinders the Essence is its conditioning
by name, quality or degree, but here all hindrance

*Microcosmic Pole, seej Nicholson; Studies in Islamic Mys-
ticism, p. 130.

THE PATH 83

disappears because there is nothing but pure essence.
Therefore with it all things are actual for there is
nothing to hinder whereas in other essences things arc
sometimes actual and sometimes potential. (* )

FA3VA, 'ANNIHILATION;

Fana or 'annihilation', is the state which precedes
that of 'subsistence' (or baqa). There has been much
speculation as to the true significance of the term. Said
Kharraz, who according to 'Allu'l-Hujwiri was the
author of this doctrine, says, "Annihilation is annihila-
tion of consciousness of manhood Cubudiyyai), and
subsistence is subsistence in the contemplation of
Godhead (ildhiyyat)." This is explained by the author
of the Kashfu 'l-Mahjub to mean, that "It is an
imperfection to be conscious in one's actions that
one is a man, and one attains to real manhood
(bandagf) when one is not conscious of them, but is
annihilated so as not to see them, and becomes sub-
sistent through beholding the actions of God. Hence
all one's actions are referred to God, not to one's self,
and whereas a man's actions that are connected with
himself are imperfect, those which are attached to
him by God are perfect. Therefore, when anyone
becomes annihilated from things that depend on himself,
he becomes subsistent through the beauty of God-
head."( 2 )

Some have gone further than this and have explained
fana to mean, "the non-cognizance of the traveller's

(1) Insdnu 'l-kdmil vol. 1. cap. 15.

(2) Kashf ul-Mahj&b. p. 245.

84 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

attributes as his own. 11 Others say that "fana is the
disappearance of the Anlyyat, the I-ness of the traveller
in the I-ness of God. 11 Again there are those who
assert that "in fand, the essence, the attributes and
actions of the traveller become the essence, attributes,
and actions of God." (1) It is this last opinion which is
commonly accepted by the majority of the ufls in
India.

According to some exponents of the doctrine, there
are three degrees in fand, viz., Qurb-i-FarcCid, proxi-
mity of obligations, Qurb-i-Nawdfil, proximity of
supererogations, and Jama' baynu'l-Qurbayn, the union
of two proximities. (2) In the first the ufi has no
'actions 1 of his own, he becomes an instrument in the
hand of God, who acts through him. In the second,
the order is reversed and the ufl becomes an agent
and God his instrument. In the third degree the
mystic finds himself neither as an agent nor as an ins-
trument; but he is one with the Essence of God.

"In that glory is no T or 'We 1 or 'Thou 1
T, 'We 1 , Thou 1 , and 'He 1 are all one thing. 11

Professor Nicholson says, "The enraptured ufl who
has passed beyond the illusion of subject and object
and broken through to the Oneness can either deny
that he is anything or affirm that he is all things. 11
The former is the 'negative 1 and the latter the 'positive 1

(1) Khaja Khan, Studies in Tasawwuf, p, 73.

(2) Najmu'l-Ghani. Tadhkiratus Suluk, (Pub. Muradabad),
p. 365.

THE PATH 85

aspects of cosmic consciousness. Both these aspects
of fana may be illustrated by the two following poems
of Jalalu'd Din Ruml.

The following illustrates the 'negative' way.

"O Muslim what can I do? For I do not know myself,

I am not a Christian nor a Jew, a fireworshipper nor a Muslim.

I am not oi the East or the West, nor of Land nor of Sea.

I am not o: the Elemental nor of the Circling Spheres.

I am not of earth nor of air, of water nor of fire.

I am not of the Empyrean nor of the outspread carpet of the

world, indeed I am not in the category of creation at all.
I am not of Hindustan nor of China nor from near-by Bulgaria.
I am not of the land of Iraq nor of the dust of Khurasan.
I am not of the Faith (or the present obligations of religion) nor

of the hereafter, nor of Heaven nor of Hell.
I am not from Adam nor from the garden of Paradise.
My dwelling is without location, my trail without trace.
There is neither body nor soul for I am the Soul of Souls.
I have expelled duality from myself. I have seen the two worlds

as one.

Let me seek One, say One, know One and desire One.
He the First, He the Last, He the Manifest, He the Hidden.
Without Him and other than Him nothing else I know.
I am drunk with the Soul of Love and the two worlds have

passed from my hand.

Except drinking and revelry I have no other aim.
If in my life some day I should draw but one breath without Him,
From that time, yes! from that very hour, I would repent me of

my life.
If in private some day just for a moment my hand might be given

to the Friend,
I would tread underfoot the two worlds and wave the other hand

(dancing in exultation).

86 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

How wounderful, my friends! what bird am I that I strike wing in

the egg?
Within this body of water and clay, all is Love and all is Soul.

The 'positive aspect 1 may be illustrated in the fol-
lowing poem:

O Mussulmans!

Is there lover in the world? Then I am he!

Muslim, Pagan, Christian monk? Lo, I am he!

Shibli, Karkhi, Bayazid and Junayd,

Bu-Hanila, Shaf i, Malik, I am he!

Throne and Carpet, Tablet, Footstool, Height and Depth,

Whether one with God or sundered all you see!

I, "Two bowshots off," "above", and "nigher still",

Yea, I am Injil, Psalter, Koran, utterly!

Cup-boy and lees, minstrel and cup, lute-string and song.

Sweetheart and lamp, wine and carouse, all these I be!

Sects and creeds seventy-and-two in the world?

Not one that remain; but all of them see thcu in me!

Four elements in the World, Soul and Bod> too,

Earth, Air, Water, and Fire, what are they all but me?

Truth, falsehood, evil and good, easy and hard, I am;

Knowledge, virtue, temperance, faith and piety!

Blazing fire of Hell, fierce-flaming am I;

Yea! Garden of Paradise and Houri heavenly!

Wearer of coat of skin, with quiver and lariat I;

Yet crown and diadem of both worlds' majesty!

Celestials and fairies. Jinn and Man I am;

This Earth and Heaven, and in them what'er there be!

"O Shams-i-Tabriz, what is the end of your claim?"

Hear then the gist: The Soul of the Soul, I am He.*

'Translated by the Rev. J, W. Sweetman, Diwan-i-S hams-Tabriz,
(Newal Kishore Press, p. 532).

CHAPTER V.

The Path (continued.)

i. DEVOTION TO THE PIR.

The ufi, in order to attain to his goal and reach
the end of his journey, is obliged to follow the direc-
tions of a leader who lays down for him certain rules
of practice, and otherwise guides him in every detail of
his life. A person who attempts to traverse the 'Path'
without the aid of such a counsellor is said to have
Satan for his guide and is compared to a tree that for
want of a gardener's care brings forth "none or bitter
fruit.' 1 *

Thus the first requirement for one desiring to fol-
low the life of a ufi is to place himself under a guide
who is called a shayhh or pir, both words mean an
'elder', or a murshid, i.e., 'leader'. Next he has to take
the vow of obedience (bay at) to his pir. Thus, he
becomes a murid, *aspirant' or disciple. A pir is to be
followed blindly, and, in actual practice, is obeyed as
much the prophet Muhammad. The least word of a
pir is absolute law to his disciple. "All the pir's wishes,
even though they contravene the letter of the shanat,
must be fulfilled. The saying of a famous mystic poet
illustrates this: "If the tavern-keeper (i. e. ptr) orders
thee to colour thy prayer-mat with wine, do it: for

*Cp. Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam, P. 32.

88 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

the traveller is not unaware of the customs and manners
of the stages of love's path."

The pir is believed to be able to 'transmit' spiritual
power to his murid. This he does by the exercise
tawajjuh 'concentration.' When a pir desires to exer-
cise tawajjuh, on one of his disciples, he seats himself
near him and proceeds, in imagination, to picture his
own heart as in close proximity to that of his murid, at
the same time concentrating his mind upon the idea
that his power is now being transmitted from his own
heart to that of the other. At the same time the murid
is required to concentrate his mind on the idea that he
is receiving the power from his pir. This rite is generally
performed at the time when the pir, after the perform-
ance of dhikr, is in an abnormal state of mind.

Tawajjuh is regarded as the one great means of
producing a spiritual change in the life of another. A
powerful saint is often believed to be able to work a
very great transformation in the life of his disciple by
this process." At times he is thought to be able to
exercise such tawajjuh by a mere look so that any one
on whom his glance may fall is believed to attain the
degree of saintship.

Further, it is the pir alone who can lead his disciple
from the beginning of his journey to its end, guiding
him at every 'stage' and helping him in every 'state 1 .
The hypnotic process (implied in the practice of tawaj-
juk) by which a pir helps his murid to reach the stage

*It must not be supposed that such transformation is neces-
sarily moral transformation.

THE PATH 89

of 'annihilation' is described by J. P. Brown in the
following words: "The murid must, mystically, always
bear his murshid in mind, and become mentally absorb-
ed in him, through a constant meditation and contemp-
lation of him. The teacher must be his shield against
all evil thoughts. The spirit of the teacher follows him
in all his efforts, and accompanies him wherever he
may be, quite as a guardian spirit. To such a degree
is this carried that he sees the master in all men and in
all things, just as a willing subject is under the influence
of the magnetiser. This condition is called 'self-annihila-
tion' into the murshid or shaykh. The latter finds, in
his own visionary dreams, the degree at which the
murld has reached, and whether or not his soul or spirit
has become bound to his own.

"At this state of the disciple, the shaykh passes him
over to the spiritual influence of the pzr, or original
founder of the particular tariqa or 'path' to which they
belong, long since deceased, and he sees the latter
only by the spiritual aid of the former. This is called
'self-annihilation' into the plr. He now becomes so
much a part of the pir as to possess all his spiritual
powers, and may perform even all of his supernatural
acts.

"The third grade also leads him, through the
spiritual aid of the shaykh, up to the Prophet him-
self, whom he now sees in all things. This state
is called, like the preceding, 'self-annihilation 1 into the
Prophet.

"The fourth degree leads him even to God. He

90 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

becomes a part of the Divinity, and sees Him in all
things."*

This exposition shows that the final stage of the
journey, 'absorption in the Deity, 1 is not attained un-
til the aspirant has annihilated himself in his plr.

n. SUFI DEVOTIONS.

The ufi, in the course of his journey, performs
certain acts of devotion, which are either of a general
or special nature. The former class consists of the
following:

(a) T^amaz, the ritual prayer, or worship.

(fc) Tildwat, the recitation of the Quran.

(c) Awrdd, set forms of prayer.

The 'special' acts are as follow:

(a) Mujdhada, acts of self-mortification.

(fr) Qbikr, remembering God, through particular
exercises of the breath.

(c) Murdqaba, contemplation.

GENERAL ACTS OF DEVOTION.

(<z) Namdz ( soldi) is one of the prescribed rites of
Islam. The ufis notwithstanding the fact that they
lay the chief emphasis on the regulation of the in-
ward life of the soul, attach importance also to the ri-
tual practices of Islam, such as, tahdrat, ceremoial puri-
fication, namdz ceremonial worship, haj pilgrimage to
Mecca, etc. 'Aliu'l-Hujwirl says, "The most impor-
tant act of mortification is to observe the external

Rose, The Danishes, p. 330,

THE PATH 91

rules of discipline (addb-i-zdhir) assiduously in all cir-
cumstances." (1) Certain of his anecdotes illustrate the
stress laid upon external practices by the teachers of
ufism "It is related that Ibrahim Khawwas said: 1
desire God to give me an everlasting life in this world,
in order that, while mankind are engrossed in the
pleasures of the world and forget God, I may
observe the rules of religion amidst the affliction of
the world and remember God/ And it is related that
Abu Tahir Harami lived forty years at Mecca, and
went outside of the sacred territory whenever he
purified himself, because he would not pour the water
which he had used for that purpose on the ground
that God had called His. When Ibrahim Khawwas
was ill of dysentery in the congregational mosque at
Rayy, he performed sixty complete ablutions in the
course of a day and night, and he died in the water. 1 ' (2)
In ufism, however, a spiritual significance is at-
tached to every external duty; for instance, 'Allu'l-
Hujwiri writing about the ceremonial purification
which precedes prayer, says, "Outward and inward
purification must go together; e. g., when a man
washes his hands he must wash his heart clean of
worldliness, and when he puts water in his mouth he
must purify his mouth from the mention of other than
God, and when he washes his face he must turn away
from all familiar objects and turn towards God, and
when he wipes his head he must resign his affairs to

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 292.

(2) Kashf al-Mahjub, pp. 292-293.

92 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

God, and when he washes his feet he must not form
the intention of taking his stand on anything except
according to the command of God." (1)

Similarly a spiritual significance has been attached
to every movement in the performance of namdz.
"One of the Shaykhs says: 'Four things are necessary to
him who prays: annihilation of the lower soul (nafs\
loss of the natural powers, purity of the inmost heart,
and perfect contemplation.' 'Allu'l-Hujwiri explain-
ing this saying writes: "Annihilation of the lower
soul is to be attained only by the concentration of
thought; loss of natural powers only by affirmation of
the Divine Majesty, which involves the destruction of
all that is other than God; purity of the inmost heart
only by love; and perfect contemplation only by purity
of the inmost heart." (2) Imam Q}azli has devoted an
entire section of his famous work on ufism, called
Ihya*ul-Ulum to tahdrat and namdz, in which he seeks
to give a spiritual interpretation to these acts and to
attach an inward significance to every movement
made in connection with their performance. For
instance, speaking of the worshipper's turning his face
towards Mecca, he says: "It is a turning of the out-
ward face from other directions to the direction of
the House of God. Do you suppose that turning the
heart from other things to the matter of Allah is not
desired of you? Away with you! For there is nothing
else desired but this. These external activities are

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 292.

(2) Kashf al-Majub, p. 302.

THE PATH 93

only the setting in motion of the inward activities." 1 >
Sometimes the ufis, following this spirit of namdz and
not the rigid rules which regulate every movement of
the worshipper, modify the outward modes of its
observance so as to make it more expressive of their
inward feeling. For instance, sometimes in the midst
of his worship a uft will take off his cap and cast it
on the ground as an expression of his humility before
God. Now, to take off one's cap and place it at the
feet of another is an extreme form of humility.
A further modification may be observed in a special
form of namdz called alatu'l-ma'kus (obverse prayer)
which has been offered by certain saints as an act of
austerity. This kind of prayer is performed by hanging
oneself upside down in a solitary place, preferably in
a well, and there repeating the prescribed prayers,
accompanied by signs in the place of bodily move-
ments.

(b) Tildwat* i. e. the practice of reciting the Quran.
In tildwat the ufi, as an orthodox Muslim, believes that
he is pronouncing the very words of Allah and so it
seems to him that he is hearing the sound of the Be-
loved of his soul. In consequence of such an impres-
sion he is often thrown into a state of ecstasy in
course of his devotional reading. Thus for ufis of
certain Religious Orders, who are forbidden the use
of music as a means of inducing the state of ecstasy,
the reading or chanting of the Quran supplies its place.

(1) Al-Ghazaii. Ihya ul- Ulum, Book of Worship. English Trans-
lation by Rev. E.L. Calvcrly. Pubd. C. L.S. Madras. P. 107.

94 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

But even in the case of those ufis who, like the
Chishtis, freely indulge in music, there is something in
the mere reading of the Quran which makes them go
into rapture. It is related that Khwaja Qufbu'd-Din
Bakhtiyar Kaki, a famous saint of the Chishtl Order,
on coming across a verse in the Quran containing some
Divine threat of punishment used to strike his chest
and become unconscious; but whenever he read a verse
containing God's promise of His grace and reward, he
would pass into a state of 'bewilderment' (hayrat) (l \
or ecstasy, and would remain in that state for a quite
a long time.

Baba Farid, another Chishti saint, is reported to
have said "Tildivat is the best of all forms of devotion;

to read the Quran is to converse with God."

"Every day God speaks seventy times to the heart of
His seeker; saying, 'If thou art my seeker, then leave
all the acts of thy austerity and occupy thyself solely
with the reading of the Quran.' (2) " And Nizmu'd-Din
of Delhi said, "Reading of the Quran bestows two
benefits upon its readers, first it guards the eyes from
all ailments, and second for every reading the merit of
a thousand years is recorded for its reciters." (3)

(c) Awrad (Sing, ivird, lit, exercise, practice or
task) set forms of prayers for daily recitation. There
are many awrad, which are believed to be of great

(1) Badru'd-Din Ishaq Israrul-Awliya Urdu Tr. (Manzil-i-
Naqshbandiyya, Lahore) P. 35.

(2) Ibid. 35.

(3) Khwaja Muhibbu ' Ullak. Miftahul-' Ashiqin (Manzil-i-
Naqshbandiyya, Lahore) P. 13.

THE PATH 95

efficacy in helping a 'traveller 1 to attain nearness to
God. The most popular of all is durud, prayer for
Muhammad. There are several forms of it, the shor-
test one which the Muslims repeat whenever they utter
the name of their Prophet or hear it being pronunced,
is as follows: "Mercy and peace be upon him/ An
extended form of it, always used in namdz, runs as
follows: "O God, have mercy upon Muhammad, and on
his descendants, as thou didst have mercy on Abraham
and on his descendants. Thou art to be praised and
thou art great. O God, bless Muhammad and his descen-
dants as thou didst bless Abraham and his desendants.
Thou art to be praised and thou art great."

Other forms of prayer used for the purpose of
daily repetition are called Dud-i-Mdthura, 'recorded
prayers'. These are said to have been used by Muhammad
and are handed down in the Traditions. Sometimes,
in addition to these, the Ninety-nine names of Allah,
and the Ninety-nine names of Muhammad, together
with the titles of some saint or other are repeated every
day. Besides these prayers every ufl repeats the
shajara (lit. a tree, a table tracing the line of succes-
sion in a particular Religious Order to Muhammad)
of his Order as a pious practice. Further, every Order
has its special set of prayers, called feiatm (lit. seal-
ing) which briefly consists of repeating certain chapters
of the Quran, the Ninety-nine names of Allah, the
Ninety-nine names of Muhammad and the names of
the saints of the order.

The following forms of ejaculatory prayers are also

% SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

used for daily recitation chiefly with the help of a
rosary (tastih):

(1) Tasbih viz., Subhdn Allah, "Holiness to God".

(2) Tahmld viz., Al-hamdu li'llah, "Praise be to
God."

(3) Takfar viz., Alldhu Akbar. "God is great.'

THE SPECIAL ACTS OF DEVOTION.

(a) Mujahada, self-mortification. The term is derived
from the root ]ahad< 'striving' from which comes also
the word jihad, "waging war against the unbelievers.'
Sometimes the Sufis treat this word jihad as inter-
changeable with mujdhada* and then they translate it
as 'striving against one's own self. Thus, for instance,
the verse of the Quran, "Those who fight strenuously
(jdhadu) for Us We will surely guide them into Our
ways/ 1 is translated by the ufls to mean: "Those,
who strive to the utmost (jdhadu) for Our sake, We
will guide them in Our way." (Sura. 29: 69). Further,
Sufis quote a tradition which makes Muhammad to
say: "The Mujdind (literally, one who fights in jihad,
holy war) is he who struggles with all his might
against himself (jdhadu nafsahu) for God's sake*'. Ac-
cording to another tradition Muhammad after the
battle of Badr is reported to have said, "We have
returned from the lesser war (al-jihddul-a$ghar) to the
greater war (al-jihddul-akbar)" On being asked, "What
is the greater war?' 1 he replied, "It is the struggle
against one's self (mujdhadatu'n-nafs). The 0fts infer
from this tradition that Muhammad 'adjudged the

THE PATH 97

mortification of the lower soul to be superior to the
Holy War against unbelievers, because the former is
more painful/ The term mujdhada is in fact, however,
applied to acts of penance and austerity. The traveller
observes prolonged fasts, repeats some names of God
night and day, and denies to himself the ordinary
comforts of life.

(b) Qhikr, 'remembering', is a term applied to
special acts of devotion by means of certain breathing
exercises and also by controlling respiration. There
are many ways of performing dhikr\ some of the more
important ones may be noted here.

(1) Qhikr-i-jall.

i. The worshipper sits in the usual posture and
shouts the word Allah, drawing his voice as from his
left side and then from his throat.

ii. Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word Allah
still louder than before, first from his right knee,
and then from his left side.

ni. Folding his legs under him he repeats the word
Allah first from his right knee, and then from his left
side, still louder.

iv. Still remaining in the same position he shouts
the word Allah first from the left knee, then from
the right knee, then from the left side, and lastly, in
front, still louder.

v. Sitting as at prayer, with face towards Mecca,
he closes his eyes, says La, drawing the sound as from
his navel up to his left shoulder; then he says ildha,
drawing out the sound as from his brain; and lastly,

98 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

illa'llah, repeated from his left side with great
energy. (1)

Every act of drawing the sound of Allah or the
syllables of the creed (viz., La, ildha, and ilia V/a/i),
from sides, front, navel, and brain, as described above,
is called a darfe,, lit, 'striking'. It will be noticed that
the practice (i) contains only one such act, and is
called dhikr-i-yak darfa., the dhikr of one darb: and
similarly the dhikr (ii) contains two such acts, and is
therefore called dhikr-i-do darbl. the dhikr of two
darbs. The rest of the dhikrs for the same reasons
are named, sih darlri, of three darbs\ chahdr darbi, of four
darbs\ panch darbi, of five darbs and shash darbi, of six
darbs.

(2) Uhikr-i-khafi.

i. Closing his eyes and his lips, the worshipper
says, "with the tongue of his heart, Alldhu sami'un,
i. e. "God hears*'; Alldhu baslrun, i, e,, "God sees 1 ';
Alldhu 'allmun, i, e. "God the knower." The first being
drawn, as it were, from the navel to the breast; the
second, from the breast to the brain; the third, from
the brain up to the heavens; and then again repeated
stage by stage backwards and forwards.

ii. He then says in a low voice, Allah, from the
right knee, and then from the left side.

iii. With each exhalation of the breath he says
Id ildha, with each inhalation, ilia 7/d/t. (2)

(1) Bevan Jones, The People of the Mosque, p. 161.

(2) Bevan Jones, op, tit. pp. 161-62.

THE PATH 99

(3) Sultdnul-Adhkdr, the dhikr of all dhikrs.
Occasionally, of set purpose the worshipper centres

his mind on the exact position in the body of the various
latcCif, as described in a previous chapter; and, by
concentrated thinking he endeavours to make them
'active with remembrance 1 of God. In this effort he
is greatly helped by the tawajjuh of his plr (see pp. 87,88).
When at length he realises that all his lataif are active
with the remembrance of God he is said to have
accomplished the Sultdnul-Adhkdr.

(4) Habs-i-dam, restraining breathing.

In this case the devotee holds his breath and con-
ceives of his qalb repeating the first part of the creed
Ld ildha ilia 'lldh as many times as possible in one breath.
Gradually his powers of control are so increased that
he is able to repeat the creed, in one breath, several
thousand times.

(5) Pds-i-anfds, guarding the respirations.

In this particular exercise the worshipper summons
before his mind a picture of his heart situated within
his left breast, and imagines that he sees the word
Allah engraved on it in luminous Arabic characters.
At the same time he brings himself to believe that
while inhaling his breath he is producing the sound
Allah, and that while exhaling he makes the sound ku.*

* Hu, the last syllable of the word Allahu is another form
of Auuw, the pronoun of the third person singular. In Sufi lang-
uage it indicates, Sirr Allah, the inmost consciousness of God.
Prof. Nicholson says, "Jili demonstrates this by analysing die
name Allah, which in Arabic is written ALLH: take away tic A,
and there remains LLH-/t/faA-"to God": then take away the first
L, and you are left with LH-lahu-"to Him": remove the second L,
and you have Huwa-"He". Studies in Islamic mysticism, p. 96 note.

100 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

This practice may be developed to such an extent
that the ufi imagines that the syllables Allah and
hu accompany every act of inhalation and exhalation,

(6) Mahmuda and nasira.

In the former of these two the eyes are made to
converge on the tip of the nose, and in the latter
towards the middle of the forehead. While doing so
the worshipper meditates on the thought that God is
present and sees him.

(7) Nafi-athbdt, negation and affirmation.

The worshipper sits in the posture of namaz and
faces Mecca. He so breathes as to imagine that he is
bringing up the phrase La ildha from his navel, and
then expels it by a jerk in the direction of his right
shoulder. He then utters ilia V/a/i and jerks his head
towards his heart as though to imprint these words on
it.

(c) Murdqaba, watching, is a term used for medi-
tation and contemplation.

It is thus practised:

"At the outset the worshipper performs dhihr by
repeating the phrases: Alldhu hddirl, i. e. "God who is
present" (with me); Alldhu ndziri, "God who sees
me 1 '; Alldhu shdhidl, "God who witnesses me"; Alldhu
mal "God who is with me."

"Having recited this dhlkr, either aloud or mentally,
the worshipper proceeds to meditate upon some verse
or verses of the Quran.

THE PATH 101

The following give some idea of the line of thought
considered by Muslim mystics to be the most devo-
tional and spiritual.

"He < v God) is first, He is last. The manifest, the
hidden, and who knoweth all things" (57:3)

4< He is with you wheresoever ye be" (57:4).

"We (God) are closer to him (man) than his neck-
vein" (50: 15).

"Whichever way ye turn there is the face of God"
(2: 109).

"God compasseth all things" (4: 125).

"All on earth shall pass away, but the face of the
Lord shall abide resplendent with majesty and glory"
(55:26,27). f

* Be van Jones, The People of the Mosque. P. 162

CHAPTER VI.
Notable Features of Sufi Practice.

i. VENERATION OF THE SAINTS.

The belief in Awliya (sing, wall, lit, a friend),
saints, is common among Muslims, and is a direct out-
come of ufl teaching. While the ufls, in virtue of
being God's chosen people, are looked upon as elect
of the Muslims, the saints, in virtue of being God's
'friends 1 , are regarded as the elect of the uf!s. The
biographies of these saints, their miracles, their teach-
ing, and legends concerning them are not merely
sought out and eagerly studied but their names and
more popular sayings are on the lips of about seventy
per cent of the followers of Islam. People of every
class among the Muslims invoke their names in hours
of distress, and pilgrimages are constantly made to
their tombs and shrines. In fact, there are many
Muslims who pay more attention to the saints than to
the obligatory duties of their religion.

God is believed to have exalted some of the saints
so highly as to bestow upon them the title of Beloved;
to others He has granted such mysterious power as
makes them the very cause of the world's subsistence.
According to the prevailing view it is of these that, God
has established in the Quran, "Verily on the friends
(Awliya) of God no fear shall come, and they shall not

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 103

grieve 11 (10: 63); and again "God is the friend (wall)
of those who believe 11 (2: 258). Yet another saying,
ascribed to Muhammad, reveals their dignity: viz: "He
who hurts a saint (wall) has allowed himself to make
war on me. 11

'Aliu'l-Hujwiri, expressing the common view of the
ufls about the saints, declares that God has marked
out the saints to manifest His actions and has purged
them of their natural corruptions, and that it is among
them that visible proof of the religion of Islam is to be
found. Thus he writes, "God, then, has caused the
prophetic evidence (burhdn-i-nabaun) to remain down
to the present day; and has made the Saints the means
whereby it is manifested, in order that the signs of the
Truth and the proof of Muhammad's veracity may
continue to be clearly seen. He has made the Saints
the governors of the universe; they have become
entirely devoted to His business, and have ceased to
follow their sensual affections. Through the blessing
of their advent the rain falls from heaven, and through
the purity of their lives the plants spring up from the
earth, and through their spiritual influence the Mus-
lims gain victories over the unbelievers' 1 .*

There is a class of saints known as pir-i-ghd'ibt in-
visible saints, who are worshipped in some parts of
India. Rose speaks of them as follows: "The pir-i-
ghaib or ghaib plr appears to be a name given to a
class of saints whose names are not known or whose

*Kashf al-Mahjub< p. 213.

104 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

miracle it was to hide themselves from the people at
some particular period of their life, or it might be that
the body of the saint disappeared after his death". (1)
This popular belief, however, is allied to the ufl view
of the 'concealed' saints, about whom 'Aliu'l-Hujwiri
says: "There are four thousand who are concealed and
do not know one another and are not aware of the
excellence of their state, but in all circumstances are
hidden from themselves and from mankind". (2)

II. THE HIERARCHY OF THE SAINTS.

The saints, as a class, form an invisible hierarchy at
the head of which is a Qutb, Axis or Pole. He is the
most eminent of them all, and on him the government
of the world is believed to depend. He is also called
Ghawth. 'Succourer' of the world. When a saint at-
tains to the dignity of Qutb, he is given the name of
'Abdullah and is granted two attendants, called
Imdmayn, leaders. The one on his right hand is named
'Abdu'r-Rabb, and he watches the 'Alam-i-Malakut.
the angelic world; the one on his left is called 'Abdul-
Malik, and he keeps watch on the ' Alam-i-Wdsut, the
physical world. Some ufls claim that besides having
an invisible dominion over the universe, the Qutb is
also endowed, at times, with temporal powers. Each
of the following is said to have been the Qutb of his,
time, viz. the first four successors of Muhammad, called
Rightly-guided $ialifas, Hasan and Husayn (the

(1) Rose, A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab.

Vol. I, p. 525.

(2) Kashf al-Mahjub> p. 213.

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 105

grandsons of Muhammad), and the khalifas Mu'awlya,
'Umar b. * Abdul- 4 Aziz, and Mutawakkil (1)

It is further believed that the Qutb sometimes con-
venes a council meeting of all the saints, over which
he himself presides. The members, though scattered
all over the world, on being supernaturally informed
of the meeting are in no way impeded by barriers of
time and space, but crossing seas; mountains and de-
serts, arrive at their destination in the twinkling of an
eye. (2)

Next in dignity to the Qutb are four Aivtad, (sing.
witd, a pillar) supports, who are appointed to the four
corners of the world. The one in the east is called
4 Abdu'l-Haqq, the one in the west, 'Abdul- 4 Allm; the
others in the north and south are called 'Abdu'l-Murid
and 'Abdu'l-Qadir respectively. (2) They receive these
names on their appointment to the office. According
to 'Allul-Hujwirl, "the Aivtdd must go round the
whole universe, and if there should be any place on
which their eyes have not fallen, next day some im-
perfection will appear in that place: and they must in-
form the Qutb, in order that he may fix his attention
on the weak spot, that by his blessing the imperfec-
tion may be removed." (3)

Next come Abdal (pi. of badl, "substitute") so
called, because, according to some, their natures un-

(1) Najmul-Ghani, Tadhkiratus-Suluk^Nayyar-i-A^z^m Press,

Muradabad.) pp. 188-9.

(2) ..

(3) Koshf-al-Mahjub, p.

106 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

dergo a complete change spiritually. Others, however,
explain that they are named "changing ones/' because
their cadre is always fixed; as soon as one dies
another takes his place. The Abddl are commonly
said to be forty in number, but some say they are only
seven and that to each of these is entrusted the care
of a continent. After these are five 'Amd, or "pillars",
the support of the universe. Some authorities
represent the Abddl, to be of lower grade than the
*Amd. Next come seventy Nujubd (pi. of najib, a
"noble 11 ), and three hundred Nuqubd (pi. of naqlb, a
"chief 11 ). Then, besides these special ranks, there
are a vast number of aivliya, or the more ordinary
'saints 1 .

Hi. ZIYARAT, VISITATION TO A SHRINE.

The visitation of shrines is a very common practice
in Islam, and has its origin in the ufl belief that "the
saints of God die not, they merely depart from one
habitation to another. 11 In consequence the excessive
honour paid to saints and plrs in their life-time is
continued to them after their death. As a rule shrines
are erected over their graves, and, usually on Thursday
evenings, small earthenware lamps are lit and placed
on the tombs. Flowers are also offered.

Pilgrimage to a shrine is called ziydrat, a visitation,
vhile the shrine itself is called a mazdr, a place of
visitation; it is sometimes called dargdh, a royal court.
Such a shrine may, at times, not contain the remains of
a saint at all, but is merely a place dedicated to some

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 107

saint. An example of such a shrine is that of Shaykh
'Abdu'l-Qadir Gllanl in Srinagar, Kashmir. Another
may be seen in Chittagong, which is dedicated to Baba
Farld, and in popular language is called, Chashm-i-Nahar
(Nahr-i-chashm) " the fountain of the eye". The story
goes that Baba Farid at this spot suspended himself,
upside down, from a tree for thirty years ! He took no
food, but shed copious tears, and for this reason the
place came to be called by the name of Chashm-i-
Nahar. But as a matter of fact, as we shall see,
the saint died and was buried at Pakpatan in the
Punjab.

A shrine is generally visited on the occasion of the
'urs of the saint, and at such time special ceremonies are
performed. Devotees of the saints attending the
celebrations are believed to acquire merit. It would
be an endless task to attempt to describe the particular
rites attached to the 'urs of individual saints, but "the
form the worship generally takes on the occasion of
such visits combine such features as these: Suras
1; 112; 113; and 114 are recited; these are followed by
the repetition of certain prayers for the soul of the
departed; finally, the worshipper makes some personal
requests. As a rule, a vow is made at the time, which
must be paid at the tomb when the favour is granted.
It is a common practice to tie bits of thread or pieces
of cloth, etc. on gratings near the tomb, by way of
reminding the saint of the favour asked." (1)

(1) Sevan Jones, The people of the Mosque, pp. 169-170.

108 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
iv. KARAMAT, MIRACLE.

A miraculous event is said, by the 'ulamd, to belong
to one of the following four classes, which are called
Khiraul-dddt, Violation of customs 1 !

"(1) mujiza, lit. "miracle," which is the sign of
prophethood, and is a gift bestowed by God on prophets
only;

(2) kardmat, lit. "favour" (from God) to work
wonders;

(3) maunat, lit. "help", a term used for describ-
ing wonderful works performed by an ordinary person
by mere accident;

(4) istidrdj, lit. "stealth" or "deception", by which
is meant the amazing deeds of the magician. " (1)

The term kardmat is only used for a work of wonder
performed by a saint. Mujiza differs from kardmat
in this respect only, that the former is exhibited by a
prophet as a sign of his prophethood, while the latter
manifests the divine power which a saint has acquired
through his union with God.

A saint, however, is expected to hide his kardmat,
while a prophet must exhibit his power of performing
miracles in demonstration of his prophetic office. Abu
Yazld BistamI is quoted to have said: "The saints do not
rejoice at the answers to prayers which are the essence
of miracles, such as walking on water, and moving in the
air and traversing the earth and riding on the heavens,
since the prayers of unbelievers receive an answer and

(1) Ibid p. 168. ~~

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 109

the earth contains both Satans and men, and the air is
the abode of the birds and the water of the fish. Let
not anyone who is perplexed by such things, put any
faith in this trickery." (1)

As an illustration of the ufl teaching concerning
the attitude that a saint should have towards his
kardmat the following will suffice: Zulfa, a companion
of Rabi'a, is reported to have said: "I said toRabi'a, "O
my aunt, why do you not allow people to visit you?"
Rabi'a replied, "I fear lest when I am dead people will
relate of me what I did not say or do, what if I had
seen, I should have feared or mistrusted. I am told
that they say that I find money under my place of
prayer, and that I cook (food) in the pot without fire".
I said to her, "They relate of you that you find food
and drink in your house", and she said, "O daughter of
my brother, if I had found such things in my house I
would not have touched them, or laid hands upon
them, but I tell you that I buy my things and am
blessed". ( ' J)

A close examination of ufism shows that the
thaumaturgic element in it belongs to the period of its
later development, and that it has been introduced by
the followers of different religious orders in their
attempts to vie with one another in proving the
superiority of the saints of their respective orders.

(1) Munawi, Al-Kawakibu-d-Durnya, p. 123, quoted by
Margaret Smith, in Rabija the Mystic, p. 31.

(2) Sibt b. al-Jawzi, Miratit'z-Zaman, p. 257, quoted by Mar-
garet Smith, in op. at. p. 37.

110 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Kardmdt (plural) are of endless variety: a few of
the more interesting may be noted here.

(1) Traversing long distances in a moment of time.
For instance, it is related that Shaykh 'Abdu'l-Qadir
Gllani once went from Iraq to Rum in the course of
half an hour to say the funeral prayer over the body of
a saint who had died. Dara Shikoh records in his
work, Satenatul-Awliya, that Miyao Mir used occa-
sionally to go to the Hijaz from Lahore to spend a
night in the cave of Hira, returning before dawn.

(2) Walking on water. An instance of such a
kardmat is found in a story told by Khwaja Husayn of
Nagore (in Rajputana). It is said that once, while
attending a musical festival at the shrine of Khwaia
Mulnu'd-Dln Chishtl, he passed into a state of ecstasy.
Still in this state he left the shrine followed by a bhangl
(sweeper), who had previously accepted Islam at his
hands, and by one of the musicians. Proceeding
towards the jungle he came at length to a large pond,
and walked over the water followed by the bhangl.
though the musician remained standing on the bank. a)

(3) Flying in the air. There is a story to the effect
that once Shaykh 'Abdu'l-Qadir Gllanl was preaching
to an audience when he suddenly rose up in the air,
shouting "O Israelite, stop and listen to the teaching
of Islam! 1 ' After flying to some distance he then
returned to his place and resumed his sermon. At
the conclusion when questioned about his strange

(1) Najmu'l-Ghani, Tadhkiratu's-Suluk p. 53.

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 111

benaviour, he merely said, "I saw Khidr passing the
mosque, and so I flew up to him and invited him to
listen to my sermon.'' (p

(4) Conversing with inanimate objects. (2) An
instance of such a miracle will be found in connection
with the story of Natthe Miyan, a disciple of Miyao
Mir.

(5) To be provided supernaturally with food, clothing
and the other necessities of life. Several instances of
such are to be found in the lives of most of the saints
of Islam. < 3>

(6) Prediction of future events. Every saint is
believed to have knowledge not only of things now
happening at a distance from him but of coming events.
Yet according to ufl teaching there are five things
which no one can predict, and even the Prophet
Muhammad is said to have declared that he had no
knowledge of them. These are:

(i) The hour of the day of judgment.
v ii) The time when it will rain,
(iii) One's own actions in advance,
(iv) The place where one will die.
(v) Whether a woman with child will have a boy
or girl, and whether that child will be fair or dark, of
good or bad character. (4)

(1) Najmu'l-Ghani, op. cit. p, 53, 4.

(2) Najmu'l-Ghani, op. cit. p. 54.

(3) See Attar, Tadhkiratul-Awliya, and Ghulam Sarwar,
Khazinatu ' l-Asfiya.

(4) Najmu'l-Ghani, op. cit. p. 70.

112 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

v. SAMA\ MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

Sama (lit. 'hearing'), or music, is the term especially
applied to a form of musical festival which is organised
with a view to induce a state of ecstasy in ufls. In
India it is popularly called qawwall, and the singers,
qawwdl.

According to the 'ulama, music is forbidden to
Muslims, though in some of the religious orders it is
not merely permitted but actually encouraged. To
the early mystics of Islam the formal recitation of the
Quran took the place of music, and that was enough
to move their hearts and arouse their emotions. At a
later stage, recitations of poetry and a rendering of
musical composititions were also permitted on the basis
of some tradition attributed to Muhammed and his com-
panions. At some yet later date in the development
of ufism certain mystics adopted music as a means of
inducing ecstasy, thereby giving rise to sharp differences
of opinion. 'Allu'l-Hujwirl says: 'Those who prohibit
music do so in order that they may keep the divine
commandment, but theologians are agreed that it is
permissible to hear musical instruments if they are used
for diversion, and if the mind is not led to wickedness
through them. 11 The principle to be followed by the
ufis in the use of music is thus enunciated by 'Allu'l-
Hujwiri, "In practising audition, however, the ufl
Shaykhs desire, nor permissibility as the vulgar do, but
spiritual advantages. Licence is proper for beasts, but
men who are subject to the obligations of religion
ought to seek spiritual benefit from their actions.

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 113

Once, when I was at Merv, one of the leaders of the
Ahl-i-hadlth and the most celebrated of them all said
to me: 'I have composed a work on the permissibility
of audition/ I replied. It is a great calamity to
religion that the Imam should have made lawful an
amusement which is the root of all immorality. 1 'If
you do not hold it to be lawful/ said he, 'why do you
practise it? 1 I answered: 'Its lawfulness depends on
circumstances and cannot be asserted absolutely: if
audition produces a lawful effect on the mind, then it
is lawful; it is unlawful if the effect is unlawful, and
permissible if the effect is permissible. 1 " (1)

Musical festivals are chiefly celebrated by the ufis
of the Chishtl Order. We shall see how the saints of
this order came into conflict with the 'ulamd on the
subject of music. At the present time, however, it
forms a popular feature of this Order; almost all
over India where the Chishtis are found, such
musical festivals are held, lasting till the hour of
the early morning prayer. According to Brown it was
introduced in the Qadiri Order in 1170 A.D. by Sa'd
Shamsu'd-Din, the immediate successor of 'Abdu'l-
Qadir Gilani.' 3)

The object of such music is to induce a state of
ecstasy. Arrived at such a stage, the ufis (or dar-
wishes), either individually or collectively, begin to
perform raq$, or dancing. Concerning such performance,

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub< pp, 401, 2.

(2) Rose, The Darvishcs, p. 286.

114 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Nizamu'd-Din Awliya, of Delhi, once said: "When a
darwish claps his hands in a state of ecstasy, all the
sins of his hands are removed, and when he shouts all
his evil desires are destroyed. There are cases on
record where ufis, listening to such music, have
actually died in a state of excessive ecstasy:" (1)

Sama is chiefly practised on the occasion of 'urs,
i.e. the anniversary of the death of a saint. The word
'wrs, however, literally means ''wedding-festivity", so
that, as applied to the anniversary of a saint's death, it
probably has a subtle reference to the umtive stage
attained by him in his life time and consummated at
the time of his death. This idea is expressed by the
famous poet, Ibnu'l-Farid:

"My spirit passed the gate which barred my going
beyond union (with the Beloved) and soared to where
no barrier of union remained." (2)

Thus Sama, music, is thought to be a fitting means
whereby to celebrate the death of a saint, who is looked
upon as having gone to his Beloved, the one whom his
soul desired.

The practice of Sama at many of the shrines in
India has, in these days, degenerated into a musical
festival ot a merely secular type. Indeed, these festi-
vals are often attended by common dancing-girls,
who perform their ndch (nautch) in honour of the
saint, so that no vestige of the uft ideal of music

(1) Muhammad Mubarak, Siru I- Awliya, p. 463.

(2) Sec Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism, p. 237.

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 115

remains. Such degenerate performances are of course
deplored by the better type of ufis and non-ufis
alike.

There are certain shrines where, at the time of 'urs,
instead of music, the Quran and some devotional
prayers are recited throughout the night. Occa-
sionally, sermons are also delivered for the benefit of
the crowds. When 'urs is celebrated in this way it is
called sharl "urs, for the reason that music is disallowed.
At the shrine of 4 Aliu'l-Hujwiri otherwise known as
Data Ganj Bakhsh in Lahore, strictly speaking music
is not allowed; nevertheless, while the more orthodox
devotees assemble within the shrine (not only at the
4 wr5, but every Friday) to spend the night in prayer
and in reciting the Quran, there are always to be found
outside the shrine, others who celebrate the saint's
honour with musical festival. w

KHIDR AND ILYAS

Belief in the famous saint, Khidr, is one of the
outstanding characteristics of ufism, and his cult forms
a popular feature of saint-worship among Muslims.
The name Khidr literally means 'sea-green\ and is
given to this saint because of the common notion that
wherever he sits the place turns green. His real name
is said to be Abu'l-' Abbas Malkan. There is a legend
which makes him to be great-great-grandson of Shem,
the son of Noah, and from the same source we learn
that by virtue of the water of immortality which he
succeeded in drinking, he will live till the end of the

116 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

world. It is believed that his physical body used to be
renewed supernaturally after every five hundred years,
but from the time of Muhammad it has been renewed
after every one hundred and twenty years. The story
goes that in 1322 A.D. during a fight between camel
drivers, he was struck by a stone, and he received an
injury in his head which caused a swelling for three
months. (1)

According to the popular story, Khidr and his
brother Ilyas were the attendants of Alexander the
Great, and when the latter set forth to discover 'the
water of life', they accompanied him. At a certain
place Khidr and Ilyas were separated from the king
and succeeded in reaching the fountain of life. After
themselves drinking of it they returned to tell the king
of their discovery. When Alexander reached the
fountain he noticed that the birds on its banks were
featherless and without any physical strength. He
asked Khidr the cause. The latter replied that, in
consequence of the fact that they had drunk of 'the
living water', they would not die till the Judgment
Day, but having partaken of all they were destined to
consume both of food and water, they were now
doomed to live on in this condition. Whereupon the
king refrained from drinking of the fountain lest the
same fate should befall him! On the other hand, Khidr
and Ilyas, who had already drunk of the water, prayed
to God for a special concession to enable them to live
on in comfort till the last day.

(1) cp. Najmu 1-Ghani, op. cit. 194, 5.

NOTABLE FEATURES OF SUFI PRACTICE 117

In the biographies of the saints Khidr is depicted as
the patron of learning. Again and again we read of
how, Khidr changed an ignorant person in one moment
into a great scholar. The following story of Khidr's
patronage of learning is given by Rose, It is said "that
Hadrat Imam Ghazall was devoted to learning but
being very poor could not devote his whole time to it.
Once Khidr appeard to him in a dream and bade him
open his mouth so that ihidr might put his saliva in it
and so enable him to imbibe all the sciences at once.
But Imam Ghazall said that knowledge so won would
be useless because it would have cost him nothing and
so he would not appreciate it. Khidr gave him some
casks of oil to enable him prosecute his studies. " (1)

Khidr is also believed to know the secret name of
God, called by Muslims Ismul-A^zam. 'the Great Name',
knowledge of which bestows upon the knower the gift
of miracle. It is one of the Khidr 's tasks to teach this
name to the saints of God.

(1) Rose, Glossary of Punjab Tribes and Castes. Vol I. p, 563

CHAPTER VII.
The Introduction of Sufism into India.

The early history of the ufls in India is most obscure
but we may safely assume that Muslims with strong
leanings towards mysticism were at work in this country
from the time of Islam's earliest contact with it. His-
torians tell us that it was by way of three open doors
the sea, the land route leading through Persia into Sind,
and the Khyber Pass that Islam entered India. (1)
Through these same doors there also must have come
Sufis and wandering Darwishes, following in the steps
of peaceful Arab traders and military commanders.

The writings of Muslim historians and Arab
travellers show that Islam first appeared early in South
India, on the Malabar coast, chiefly through the influence
of Arab traders, who in most cases were also preachers
of their new faith. Other channels of influence in
those early days were saints, who, as ever, were noted
for their wandering life. Tradition points out the
tomb of Wahab, a companion of the Prophet, at Canton
in China; and that of 'Akasha, another companion, at
port Mahmuda; and yet another tomb, again of a
companion, named Tamlm Ansari, at Mylapur, twelve
miles south of Madras. (2)

(1) C. P. Titus, Indian Islam, pp. 3-5.

(2) Akbar Shah Khan, A'ina-i-Ha^qiqatNuma (Ibrat Press,
Naiifcabad) pp. 46, 47.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 119

During the period in which it reached the coast of
Malabar, the faith was being preached also in Ceylon,
whence it found its way to the Laccadive and Maldive
islands. Ibn Batuta reports that during his visit to
Ceylon he found the tombs of several preachers and
saints, including those of Shaykh 'Abdullah Hanlf,
Shaykh 'Uthman, and Baba Tahir.

Through India's second gateway which leads from
Mesopotamia and south Persia through Baluchistan,
south of the mountains of Makran into Sind Islam made
very early contact with India. But no Muslim colony
resulted through the entrances made by this gateway-
until 712 A. D. in which year Sind was invaded by
Muhammad b. Qasim. As early as thirty years after
Muhammad's death Mu'awiya stationed a large" army
at the frontier town of Kankan, and thus brought
Islam to the very gate of India.

The third the Khyber Passthrough which Turk,
Mongol and Afghan forces were led into India, proved
to be the main entrance for Muslim ascetics and
wandering Darwishes.

Thus, long before the Muslim occupation of any
part of this country, Islam came into contact with
Indian thought, and was, to some extent, definitely
influenced by it, especially in its ufi doctrines and
practices. On the other hand, at a later date, wl
India was being subjugated by Muslim conquel
Islam itself exerted a powerful influence on HinSu
thought and life. Of the extent of the influence on
Indian thought on Islam we shall have occasion to

120 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

speak later. Regarding the subject of Islam's reaction
to Hinduism, however, though this is strictly beyond
the scope of the present treatise, yet it can be said in
passing, that this was so great that it resulted in the
rise of several Hindu sects in which the influence of
the new faith is very conspicuous. Dr. Titus mentions
no less than eleven of these by name, and gives in
addition a brief description of several others, such as,
the Plrzadas, the Chhajju panthls, the Husaynl
Brahmins and the Shamsis, in which a "definite mixture
of Hindu and Muslim notions and practices prevail." (T)
In spite of the fact that little is known of the early
ufis there are not wanting extraordinary legends which
purport to give detailed accounts of some of them. One
such saint was Baba Ratan, a Hindu, who is said to
nave visited Mecca twice, and on both occasions to
have met Muhammad himself, first in his early life
and then again after he had set himself up as a Prophet.
Baba Ratan on the latter occasion, accepted Islam and
then returned to India, where he lived on to the
incredulously great age of seven hundred years! His
name is mentioned by Ibn Hajar 4 Asqalanl in his Asaba
fl marifati s-Sahdba and also by a'dh-Qhahabi in his
Tajrid. The former ranks him as one of the companions
of Muhammad. He is said to have died in 1234-5 A. D.
and to have been buried in a place called Tabar Hind, of
which nothing is now known. (2) Equally fabulous legends

(1) See Titus, Indian Islam, pp. 172-177.

(2) Asraru-t-Tasawwuf, Manzil-i-Naqshbandiyya, Lahore*
April, 1925, pp. 10-11.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 121

concerning other early saints attach to a shrine which
still exists, called Bibi Pakdamanao (the chaste ladies),
in a famous and very ancient graveyard in Lahore.
In it are seven graves said to be those of seven women
saints belonging to the first century after Hijra. Six of
these, tradition tells us, were of the household of
'All. Their names were:

1. Ruqiya, known as Bibi Haj, a daughter of 'All.
2. Blbl Hur. 3. Blbl Nur. 4. Blbl Gawhar, 5.
Bibi Taj. 6. Bibi Shahbaz. The last five are believed
to have been the daughters of 'Aqil, 'All's brother.
These names are Persian, a fact which need not surprise
us, because after the Muslim conquest of Persia most
of the ladies belonging to the Persian royal family were
given in marriage to 'All's sons and relatives.

The seventh tomb in the group in Bibi Pakdamanao
is that of Bibi Tannur (iandur), the lady of the furnace,
who was kitchen maid to the above mentioned six
ladies. The story runs that when Husayn was besieged
on the plain of Karbala by Yazid's army in the month
of Muharram, 680-1 A.D., he asked these women, on
the day before the final tragedy, to leave the camp and
proceed to India. After much wandering they are
said to have reached Lahore. Here the Hindu Raja,
on being informed of their presence, sent his son to
conduct them into his palace. The women refused to
go, but when the Prince insisted that they should
accompany him, Taj Bibi gave him such a look of
indignation that he fell unconscious to the ground. On
recovering his senses he apologised for his rudeness

122 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

and accepted Islam. For some time they were allowed
to live in peace under the protection of the prince, but
afterwards Hindus began to annoy them. At last,
vexed beyond endurance, the ladies prayed that the
earth might shield them from the sight of these
unbelievers, and in answer to their prayer, the earth
opened her mouth and mercifully swallowed them!
The prince on witnessing this miraculous deliverance,
turned hermit and built seven tombs over the spot,
himself becoming the Mujdwir (guardian). - '

At the time of accepting Islam the prince had taken
the name of 'Abdullah, and later on came to be known
as Baba Khaki. He is said to have died in 719-20 A. D.
and his tomb also is in Pakdamanan cemetery. The
present guardian of the shrine claims to be one of his
descendants. Blbi Tannur is now regarded as the
patron saint of Indian bakers (NanbcCf). When Sultan
Mahmud Ghaznawl invaded Lahore and heard of Blbl
Pakdamanan he built an enclosure round the shrine and
added a porch to it. Later on Akbar also added some
more structures to it.

The saint next of whom we shall give a brief account
belonged to the early part of the eleventh century A. D.
This is Sayyid Salar Mas'ud Ghazi Miyan or Bale
Miyan, who is still revered all over India as a saint
and martyr. We have no really trustworthy account
of his life, but are dependent for our knowledge
concerning him on certain legends current among his

(1) Nur Ahmad Chishti, Tahqiqat-i-Chishti, (Pubd. Watan,
Lahore) pp. 312 ff.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 123

devotees, and on a book, Mira't-i-Mas'udl, an English
translation of which in an abridged form is to be
found in Elliot's History of India (Vol. ii, pp. 513-49).
This work in the words of Elliot is an "historical
romance. In it fact and fiction are freely mingled."
From such sources we learn a story that runs somewhat
as follows. Ghazi Miyan's father was named Salar
Sahu, and his mother Sitr-i-Mu'alla (the dignified
veiled one), she being a sister of Mahmud Ghaznawi.

Ghazi Miyao is said to have fought from a very
early age under his uncle, the Sultan, in his many
invasions of India. He is also said to have led several
independent expeditions against the Hindus, and finally
to have met a martyr's death at Bahraich on 14th, June
in 1033 A. D., while still only nineteen years of age!

His reputed tomb in Bahraich, in the United
Provinces, is the scene of a great annual fair held on
the occasion of his 'urs in which, strange to say,
large numbers of Hindus join with great enthuiasm.
The main feature of his 'urs is the celebration of his
marriage with Zuhra Bib!. The popular explanation of
this custom is given as follows. It is said that once a
blind girl, Zuhra Bibl, of Radauli in the district
Barabanki, had her eye-sight restored on making a
pilgrimage to the tomb of Ghazi Miyan. Out of
gratitude she erected a shrine over the saint's tomb
and had a grave dug for herself near his. At the age
of 18, while yet unmarried she died and was buried
in the grave she had prepared. Subsequently her
parents and relatives used to go to her tomb every

124 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

year to celebrate her 'marriage' with the saint. It was
not long before the custom became a popular annual
event and people began to come from different parts
of India to celebrate this mythical 'marriage'. During
its celebration decorated poles, mounted with tufts of
hair, are carried in procession, with music and dancing,
to the shrine. Such a pole is said to represent the head
of the martyred saint. Another feature in the celebra-
tion of his 'urs that calls for notice is the varied forms
in which the devotees make their nadjiar (offering).
One is called 'Zuhra Bibi's dowry\ and is presented to
the shrine in the form of certain articles such as are
generally given in dowry, e. g., pieces of furniture and
utensils. Another gift is called thai, which is presented
in the form of certain articles and coins, chiefly by
merchants and traders. Yet another form of offering is
called qalandan, made by throwing coins over the dome
of the tomb. If any votary's coin strikes the spire on the
summit of the dome it is thought to be a good omen
for him.

Qhazl Miyan's 'urs is also celebrated in other parts
of India, where similar poles mounted with tufts of hair
are taken out in processions. Further, there is a class
of wandering faqlrs, devotees of GbazI Miyan, who go
by the name of dafdll faqlr. They derive their name
from daf, a tambourine, which they play when begging.
Occasionally the saint's tomb is washed, and at such times
the dirty water runs off into a tank attached to the
shrine. This is, for the most part, crowded with lepers
who believe that by bathing in it they can be cured.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 125

In Eastern Bengal, where the fair itself is not held, it
is common to find a mud platform dedicated to his
name (Ghdzi Miydn hd than), which is an object of
veneration for Muslims and Hindus alike.

In the same century in which Qhazl Miyan was
carrying on his 'holy war' against the Hindus there
arose another saint of far greater historical value for
India than any of his predecessors. This was 'Aliu'l-
Hujwiri, still venerated in India by the name of Data
Ganj Bakhsh. He was a native of Ghazna in Afghanis-
tan, and was born some time during the last decade of
the tenth or the first decade of the eleventh century,
A. D. As a scholar and a writer of several books on
ufism, but more especially as the author of Kashf
al-Mahjub, (the first book ever written on this subject
of mysticism in the Persian language) he has justly
earned a place of prime importance among the earliest
ufls who came to this country.

'Aliu 1-Hujwiri was a disciple of Muhammad
b. al-Hasan al-Khuttall, a pupil of al-Husrl who, through
Shibli, was spiritually connected with Junayd of
Baghdad. He himself speaks of al-IQjuttall in the
following terms: 'He is the teacher whom I follow in
fjufism. He was versed in the science of Quranic
exegesis and in traditions (riwdydt). In ufism he held
the doctrine of Junayd. He was a pupil of Htasri and a
companion of Sirawani, and was contemporary with
Abu Amr Qazwim and Abu'l-Hasan b. Saliba. He
was sixty years in sincere retirement from the world,
for the most part on Mount Lukam. He displayed

126 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

many signs and proofs (of saintship), but he did not
wear the garb or adopt the external fashions of the
ufls and he treated the formalists with severity. I
never saw any man who inspired me with greater awe
than he did. 11(1)

'Allu'l-Hujwiri also studied under Abu'l-Qasim
Gurgam and Khwaja Muzaffar. The former was a
forerunner of the Naqshbandi order. The latter at one
time held some civil office, but then, "God opened to
him the door of this mystery (ufism) and bestowed
on him the crown of miracles. He spoke eloquently
and discoursed with sublimity on annihilation and
subsistence (fana-u-baqa) ." (2)

'Aliu'l-Hujwirl was a great advocate of celibacy
for ufis, and himself never married. From a passage
in Kashf al-Majhub it has sometimes been inferred that
he had a short and unpleasant experience of married
life, but the words in question may be taken to
refer to his experience of "falling in love 11 without
going to the length of entering the matrimonial state.
The passage runs as follows: "After God had preserved
me for eleven years from the dangers of matrimony, it
was my destiny to fall in love with the description of a
woman whom I had never seen, and during a whole
year my passion so absorbed me that my religion was
near being ruined, until at last God in His bounty gave
protection to my wretched heart and mercifully deli-

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 166.

(2) Ibid, p. 170.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 127

vered me." (1) It is in this connection that he speaks of
women disparagingly. Thus, "A woman was the cause
of the first calamity that overtook Adam in Paradise,
and also of the first quarrel that happened in this world,
i. e., the quarrel of Abel and Cain. A woman was the
cause of the punishment inflicted on two angels
(Harut and MSrut): and down to the present day all
mischiefs, wordly and religious have been caused by
women. " U)

Like most of the Qfls be was a great wanderer.
He travelled through the greater part of the Muslim
empire of his time; from Syria to Turkistan and from
the Indus to the Caspian sea. In all the places he
visited he sought out the ufis and saints and conversed
with them. Speaking of his experience in *Irq, where
he seems to have settled for a time and contracted
debts, he says: "Once, in the territories of 'Ir&q, I was
restlessly occupied in seeking wealth and squandering
it, and I had run largely into debt. Everyone who
wanted anything, turned to me, and I was troubled
and at a loss to know how I could accomplish their
desires. An eminent person wrote to me as follows:
"Beware lest you distract your mind from God by
satisfying the wishes of those whose minds are en-
grossed in vanity. If you find anyone whose mind
is nobler than your own, you may justly distract
your mind in order to give peace to his. Otherwise,
do not distract yourself, since God is sufficient for

(1) Ibid, p. 364.

(2) Ibid, p. 364.

128 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
His servants. These words brought me instant

Finally 'tyiu '1-Hujwirl came to Lahore, where he
lived till he died in 1063 or 1071 A. D. In Fuwffidul-
Fuwad, which is a compilation of the sayings of
Nizamu d-Din Awliya of Delhi (tf. 1325 A. D.), an
account of 'Aliu '1-Hujwirf s coming to Lahore is given.
According to the statement of this book, 4 Allu '1-
Hujwirl was asked by his pir to go to Lahore and settle
there. At first he was unwilling and tried to excuse
himself on the ground that Shaykh Hasan Zanjani, a
fellow disciple of his was already there. But when his
plr insisted on his going to Lahore he obeyed the order.
When at length he reached the city, he discovered to
his surprise that Hasan Zanjani had just died and the
people, at the moment, were conveying his body away
for burial. (2) It is said that the saint chose for his
place of residence in the city the spot on which his
shrine now stands.

Certain ufls believe that, though dead, 'Aliul-
Hujwiri continued to hold supreme authority over the
saints of India, and that no new saint entered the
country without first obtaining permission from his
spirit. Thus it was that saints who subsequently came
to India from outside first paid a visit to his shrine.

It was not until five hundred years after his death
the saint came to be known by the title of Data Ganj
Bakhsh. This is said to have been bestowed upon him

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 345.

(2) Fuwtfidu 'l-Fuwad, p.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 129

by Khwaja Mu'inu'd-Dm of Ajmer. The story runs
that Khwaja Mu'lnu'd-Dln on his arrival in India
spent some time in meditation at the tomb of 'Aliu'l-
Hujwirl. At the conclusion of his vigil and before
proceeding to Ajmer, he stood facing the tomb and
gave expression to the gratitude he felt for benefits he
received from the spirit of the saint. It was then that
he repeated the following lines, in which the title was
used for the first time:

Thou art the Ganj Bakhsh (the munificent one) of
both worlds,

Thou art the perfect plr for perfect saints

And the guide for those yet imperfect.
The word data a common title for mendicants in
India is a Hindi equivalent of Ganj Bakhsh, and was
later added to his name by Indian Muslims.

The chief characteristics of 'Allu l-Hujwirl's teach-
ing on ufism have been set out in the following
manner by Professor Nicholson:

"Although he was a Sunn! and a Hanafite, al-
Hujwiri, like many ufis before and after him, managed
to reconcile his theology with an advanced type of
mysticism in which the theory of 'annihilation' (fana)
holds a dominant place, but he scarcely goes to such
extreme lengths as would justify us in calling him a
pantheist. He strenuously resists and pronounces
heretical the doctrine that human personality can be
merged and extinguished in the being of God. He
compares annihilation to burning by fire, which
transmutes the quality of all things to its own quality,

130 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

but leaves their essence unchanged. He agrees
with his spiritual director, al~|huttall, in adopting
the theory of Junayd that Sobriety' in the mystical
acceptance of the term is preferable to 'intoxication.'
He warns his readers often and emphatically that no
ufis, not even those who attained the highest degree
of holiness, are exempt from the obligation of obeying
the religious law. In other points^, such as the excita-
tion of ecstasy by music and singing, and the use of
erotic symbolism in poetry, his judgment is more or less
cautious. He defends al-Hallaj from the charge of
being a magician, and asserts that his sayings are
pantheistic only in appearance but condemns his
docrtines as unsound. It is clear that he is anxious to
represent ufism as the true interpretation of Islam,
and it is equally certain that the interpretation is
incompatible with the text." (1)

'Allu 1-Hujwiri's tomb may still be seen in Lahore
near the Bhati gate. It has been an object of veneration
and a place of pilgrimage for the best part of 900 years.
All sorts and conditions of men, kings and beggars,
have resorted to it through the centuries seeking
spiritual and tempdral blessings. Most of the Muslim
invaders and wandering Darwishes on entering the
land made a point of paying their homage at his shrine.

At one end of the shrine is a large corridor, where

pious men, sometimes women also; recite the Quran

daily. Copies of the sacred volume are always at hand

for those who care to use them. Every Thursday

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub, Introduction, pp. xz, xxi.

'HOTO. DR. L. E. BROWNE.

Dargah Hadrat 'Aliu'l-Hujwirl (d. 1063

A.D.) Known as Data Ganj Bakhsh,

Lahore.

INTRODUCTION OF SUFISM INTO INDIA 131

night a vigil is kept by his devotees, who gather round
the tomb, many of them spending the night in reading
the Quran and offering ptajters. Attached to the
shrine is a small library containing various editions of
the Quran. Some of these were evidently written by
expert Indian caligraphers. The volumes vary greatly
in size, the largest being three feet in length.

CHAPTER VIII
The Relation of Sufism to Indian Thought.

The ufis claim that their doctrines are derived
solely from the Quran and the Traditions, but a closer
examination of uflsm reveals the fact that several
extraneous influences have been at work in its
development. For instance, in its earlier forms of
asceticism it undoubtedly followed the mode of life of
Christian ascetics; and again in its speculative reasoning
it bears traces of the influence of the teaching of
Plotinus, whom the Arabs called a'sh-Shaykhu '1-
Yunanl, 'the Greek Master'. Further, it will be noticed
that in some of its doctrinal features and more practical
teaching it bears a close resemblance to Indian thought.
It is with the last named element that we are more
particularly concerned at present.

Probably no one will deny that Indian thought has
influenced uflsm to some extent, but when we seek to
determine what those elements are which have entered
into it from this source we find considerable diversity
of opinion. For ourselves, we will endeavour, first, to
demonstrate that it was reasonable for Hinduism to
exert such influence and then content ourselves by
giving certain parallel doctrines in uflsm and Hindu-
ism.

In speaking of the early contact of Islam with India,
reference has been made to the occupation of the terri-

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 133

tory between Makran and Kankan by the Arab army in
672 A.D. This brought Islam to the very gate of India.
Much closer contact, however, was made in the eighth
century when Sind was conquered by the Abbasid
Khalifas and formed an outlying province of the Muslim
empire. During the Caliphate of Mansur, Harun and
M'amun, definite steps were taken to understand
Indian thought. In the reign of Mansur embassies of
the pandits came from Sind and presented to him
Brahmasiddhanta and Khandakhadyaka, the famous
treatises on astronomy by Brahma Gupta which were
promptly translated into Arabic and widely used by the
Arabs. Later, during the reign of Khalifa Harunu'r-
Rashld, elements of Indian thought found their way
more definitely and on a wider scale into Arabic
literature. At this period the great patron of Hindu
learning at the court of the Khalifa was the ministerial
family, Barmak. This name is believed to be but the
Arabic form of the Indian title Paramak. which itself
means the 'superior* of Vihara (i.e. Buddhist monastery)
The family had come from Balkh, where an ancestor
of theirs was an official in a Buddhist temple, Nava
Vihara. (1) The influence of the Barmak family in the
court of Harun is well-known. Under its patronage
Arab scholars were sent to India to study Indian
thought; and Indian pandits were invited to the court
at Baghdad to expound Hindu learning. Sanskrit
books on a variety of subjects, such as medicine,
astrology, philosophy, etc. were translated into Arabic.

(1) cp. Alberuni's India, edited by E. Sachan, p. xxxi.

134 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The contact thus established with India continued for
centuries till at last the Muslims succeeded in founding

an empire "not only of kings and rulers but an

empire of the heart reared upon the foundations of a
new religious faith". (1)

In the eleventh century, before the founding of the
Muslim empire in India, we find Al-Muwaffiq and
Al-Beruni coming to India for the purposes of studying
Indian thought. (2) The latter's work on India, gives
an account of the religion, philosophy, literature,
geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and
astrology of the country in about 1030 A. D. It was
Al-Berunl who made the first reliable translation from
Sanskrit into Arabic of the Sdnkhya by Kapila and the
Yoga Sutra by Patanjali, and who introduced his fellow
Muslims to the Bhagvadgita.

Later still, when Muslims had at length established
their power in the country, we find clear instances of
attempts on the part of ufls to study Hindu idolatry
and polytheism with calm minds, free from racial
prejudice. In view of the fact that the political rela-
tions between polytheist Hindus and monotheist
Muslims have not always been happy it is amazing to
come across such instances. Akbar's conciliatory
policy towards Hindus and his attempts to persuade his
Muslim subjects to act towards them in like manner,
are well-known. His great grandson Dara Shikoh,
about whom more will be said later, made earnest

(1) Titus, Indian Islam, p. 3.

(2) Alberum's India, Introduction, p. xxxii.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 135

attempts to reconcile Islam and Hinduism. He gave
himself up, to the task of acquiring knowledge about
the religion and philosophy of the Hindus, and for this
purpose, he not only read and translated Sanskrit books
into Persian but also sought the company of Hindu
ascetics. The books which he translated include the
Rdmayana, the Gita, the Upanishads and Yogavashista.
The Upanishads were translated under the title of 5zrr-
i-Akbar, or the Great Mystery, and for this he wrote a
preface, which commences with the conventional
Hindu formula, 4 Om Shri Ganesha Namoh.' He calls
the opening chapter of the Quran 4 Omu'l-Quran', (1) to
make it correspond with the Hindu formula 4 Om'.
Dara Shikoh in the preface to his translation of the
Upanishads confesses that he has an intense thirst for
knowledge, and that as he studied the Quran and the
other books on uflsm there arose doubts in his mind
which he failed to satisfy even by having recourse to
gnostics and pious men. He studied the Torah, Zabur,
Injil and other sacred books, but their meaning was
unintelligible to him. At last he discovered that the
subject of monotheism was very plainly explained in the
Vedas and the Upanishads. The latter he found to be
a "mine of monotheism. n(2) He collected all the
Upanishads which he could find and "Translated them

(1) The title of the Chapter of the Quran is Sura Fatiha, but it
is also called Ummu' l-Quran, the mother of the Quran.

(2) Maulvi Abdu 1-Wali, Khan Sahib; Hinduism according to
Muslim Sufis, in Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal Vol xix, 1923, No. 7. p. 243.

136 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

without subtraction or addition, or selfish motive, faith-
fully and word for word. " (1) In them he found fully
explained all the secrets for which he had searched so
long. He calls the collection of the Upanishads the
''earliest of the heavenly books" and "the spring of
monotheistic streams 11 . He found that it has been
mentioned in the Quran in the following verse. "This
is the honourable Quran, in the preserved book, let
none touch it but the purified. It is a revelation from
the Lord of the worlds. 1 ' According to Dara Shikoh
'the honourable Quran 1 which was hidden and which
none but the clean could comprehend was no other
than Upanishadsl He said that as the Upanishads
meant 4 the secret to be concealed 1 it was certain that
by the secret book, this ancient book was meant. "He
knew from it what he had not known, and understood
from it what he had not understood. 11 v/2)

Dara Shikoh also wrote Majmaul-Bahrayn, the
'meeting of the two seas, 1 to show that between Hindu
and Muslim mysticism there exist only verbal differ-
ences. This treatise has recently been published by
the Asiatic Society of Bengal The translator in his
preface says, "It is the last original work of Dara
Shikoh and according to one authority it was this very
work which brought about his death. It is said that
this tract was laid before the ecclesiasts who declared
its author a heretic and sentenced him to death, which

(1) Ibid, p. 243.

(2) Ibid, p. 244.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 137

was faithfully carried out by his over-zealous brother,
Aurangzeb/V

Such a liberal attitude towards Hinduism was not
confined to Akbar and Prince Dara Shikoh, nor was it
limited to their age. Among the ufis of India generally
it has been common to find such an extreme liberality
of attitude towards Hinduism as would shock orthodox
Muslims. For example, we come across a further
instance of such liberal attitude in the teaching of Mirza
Jan-i-Janao Mazhar, a saint of great reputation. This
man was born in 1701 A. D, of a family that had had
intimate connection with the Moghal emperor. His
father, Mirza Jan passed his -days in the service ot
Aurangzeb, and at length forsook the world and joined
the Qadiri order. His son, Mirza Jan-i-Janao, is said
to have been a great scholar in his day, and had
received the 'robe of permission 1 (to make disciples) in
three of the religious orders, viz., Qadiriyya, Chishtiyya,
and Naqshbandiyya.

Mirza Jan-i-Janao's opinion concerning Hinduism,
which is found in some of his letters, is given by Maulvi
4 Abdu 1 l-Wall Khan Sahib, in his article, Hinduism
according to Muslim Sufis, from which we have already
quoted in reference to Dara Shikoh's attitude towards
Hinduism. Mirza Jan-i-Janao in one of his letters
addressed to a certain disciple, writes about Hinduism
as follows: "You should know that it appears from the
ancient book of the Indians that the divine Mercy, in
the beginning of the creation of human species, sent a
Book, named the Bed (Veda) which is in four parts, in

138 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

order to reguktf^be duties of this as well as the next
world, contaminate- news of the past and future,
through an angel or divine spirit by the name of Bramha
(Brahman), who is omnipotent and outside the creation
of the universe." Continuing his letter he writes
further, "It ought to be noted that according to the
holy verse (of the Quran): 'And there is not a people
but a warner has gone among them/ and also: 'And
every nation had an apostle/ and other verses, there
were prophets also in the countries of Hindustan, on
whom be peace, and their account is contained in the
books of the Hindus. From their signs, it is apparent
that they had attained high and perfect position. The
Universal Divine Mercy did not leave out, for the good
of His creatures, even this extensive country."

The following anecdote, which occurs in the
biography of Mirza Jan-i-Janao, is yet another remark-
able illustration of the attitude of some 3ufis towards
Hinduism. "A man mentioned a dream which he had
dreamed of to Haji Muhammad Afdal, a teacher of the
Mirza Sahib. He said: 1 dreamed a field full of fire.
Kishan (Krishna) was in the fire, and Ram Chandar
(Rama Chandra), on the border of the fire. 1 A man
who was present gave his opinion that as Krishna and
Rama Chandra were the leaders of the infidels, they
were being punished in Hell-fire. Mirza Jan-i-Janaa
Maghar, who was present, said: 'This dream has another
interpretation. 1 He said: 'It is improper to charge
particular persons with being infidel, unless their
kufr or infidelity were proved by the canon of Islamic

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 139
Law. The Book and Sunnat (the Qu*|kii and Islamic

"E&tj,

Law) are silent about these two periitis. It is evident
from the Quranic verse: There is no village where
there was no warner, that there were bashir and na$kir
( warner and giver of good news) among those people.
Under the circumstance it is probable that they
(Krishna and Rma) were saints or prophets. Ram
Chandar having been m the beginning of the creation
of the genii when people lived long and were powerful
used to train the men of his time to the doctrine of
the right path (msbat*i~suluk); while Kishan, who was
the last of their eminent men when compared with
the past, men's ages were shorter, and strength less
used to preach to his people the (advanced) doctrine
of passion nisbat-i-jadhabi. The mention of song and
music, in which he indulged greatly, is a proof of his
excessive (Divine) love, and ecstasy for passion. The
fire of his excessive love and ecstasy appeared as a
field of fire. Kishan who was immersed in the state of
love appeared in the centre of that fire, and Ram
Chandar, who was in the path of suluk (as a beginner)
was seen at the end of it. And God knows best.*
Hadrat Hsjl Afdal liked the interpretation very much
and was greatly impressed by it.' 1(1)

We now proceed to give a few illustrations of such
features in 0fism as bear a close resemblance to the
teaching of Hinduism. It must be understood that the
following comparison of the Hindu philosophy and the
0fi teaching is offered just to suggest parallels between

(1) Ibid, p. 241.

140 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

their doctrines. The problem of sources is a very
intricate one and it cannot be even stated within the
compass of a short chapter, nor it is the purpose of
this book.

1. THE $UFI PIR AND THE HINDU GURU.

Starting with the practical life of a ufl, at the very
outset the devotion of murld (disciple) to his pir
(spiritual preceptor) presents a striking similarity to
the devotions of a chela to his guru. As no one can
become a ufl without the help of a pir so it has been
the custom among the Hindus from time immemorial
that a person desirous of leading a religious life must
seek a guru for himself. For instance, the Hindu
Scriptures say "The supreme mystery in the Vedanta

should be given to one who has the highest

devotion (bhaktf) for God, and for his spiritual teacher
(guru) even as for God" (1) "For the sake of this
knowledge (of Brahman) let him go, fuel in hand to a
spiritual teacher (guru) who is learned in the scriptures
and established on Brahman. " (2)

The similar devotion to a guru is advocated in the
latter development of Hinduism, for instance in Tulsi
Das's Ramdyana (written about 1574 A. D.) we read
4 The guru can save from the Brahmana's anger, but if
the guru himself be wroth, there is no one in the world
that can save.' 1(3)

(1) Svetasvatara UpanishacK 6; 23.

(2) Mundaka Upanishad, 1, 2, 12.

(3) I. Doha, 169.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 141

Dr. Urquhart makes the following observation on
the place of a guru in Hinduism: u The dramatic setting
of the Upanishads is largely constituted by the search
for a teacher who will reveal the deepest mysteries;
and, when he has been found, unbounded devotion and
the most minute practical service is demanded of the
pupil.' f(1)

Further, the following statement of Venkataramana,
a recent Hindu writer, in reference to the highest
knowledge corresponds to what is held concerning the
authority of a Shaykh as a spiritual authority in ufism;
"The sole source of this knowledge is a clear and
accurate understanding of the Vedic text, That thou
art'; but, however much one may analyse its meaning
by means of his own reason or with the aid of
commentaries, the realization of the self cannot take
place unless the Vedic text in question reaches the
student through the mouth of a spiritual teacher. 1t(2)
Dr. Urquhart expounding this authority of a guru
writes: "And in course of the development and as
a result of it, devotion to truth and devotion to the
guru become almost synonymous. (3) The latter comes
to be regarded as well advanced on the way to deifica-
tion; his personal authority is thus enhanced, and the
principle of authority becomes more and more deeply
engrained in the mental attitude of the Indian seeker
after truth/'

(1) Urquhart, The Vedanta and Modern Thought, p. 80.

(2) Urquhart, op. cit. pp. 80, 81.

(3) cp. fana fi'sh-Shaykh.

142 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

It will be noticed that these statements are in close
agreement with what we have already said about the
relation of the murid to his

2. $UFI SPECULATION CONCERNING GOD
COMPARED WITH THE TEACHING
OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY
ABOUT BRAHMAN

Similarity between the Sufi conception of God and
Hindu teaching about Brahman is very striking. It not
only exists in the general trend of the pantheistic
thought in both but also, as we shall see, in some of
the details of the exposition of their respective
doctrines. We have seen that the ufis in their con-
ception of God are divided into Wujudl (monistic) and
Shuhudl (moderate type of pantheistic) schools of
thought.

These correspond to the doctrine of Hindu teachers
in their speculation concerning Brahman, who, likewise,
are either upholders of Advaita (non-dualism) or
Visishadvaita (modified non-dualism).

i. 'WAHDATUL-WUJUDIYYA AND THE

ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY OF

HINDUISM

Several passages may be cited from ufi authorities
and the Hindu Scriptures to demonstrate the similarity
in their doctrines. For instance some passages of
Jill's Insdnu'l-Kdmil will be found in close agreement
with the teaching of Hindu sacred writings. Thus,
"His manifestation interpenetrates all existences and

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 143

he manifests his perfection in each atom and particle
of the Universe. He is not multiple by the multiplicity
of the manifestations but he is one in the totality of
manifestations, solely by what his noble Essence
necessitates in its very nature, and so on, from the
attributes of perfection to his manifestation in every
atom of existence; (he is one in them all). The whole
group is distinguished by the permeating (one) Exist-
ence in the aggregate of all existences. And the
mystery of this permeation is that he created the
Universe out of himself. And he is not divided into
parts but everything in the Universe is by reason of
his perfection and has the name of creatureliness as a
loan. Not, as some suppose, that it is the divine

attributes which are lent to the creature for

that which is lent is nothing but the relation of
creaturely existence to the attributes and verily Creative
Existence is the source of this relation. Creative Truth
lent his Ideal Prototypes Oiaqtiiq) the name of
creatureliness in order that the mysteries of Divinity
and their necessary counterparts might be made
manifest. And Creative Truth is the substance (liayula)
of the Universe. And God said 4 We have not created

the Heaven and the Earth except by Creative

Truth (Haqq .' The Universe is like ice, and God, the
Magnified and Exalted, is the water which is the origin
of this ice. The name 'ice 1 is lent to that frozen thing
and the name 'water' is the right name for it." (1) In
one of the Upanishads similar ideas may be noted

(1) Insanul-Kamil Vol., I. p. 28.

144 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

"Just as by one piece of clay everything made of clay
may be known the modification is merely a verbal
distinction, a name; the reality is just clay. Just as by
one copper ornament everything made of copper may
be known the modification is merely a verbal distinc-
tion, a name; the reality is just copper. Just as by one
pair of nail scissors everything made of iron may be
known the modification is merely a verbal distinction,
a name; the reality is just iron so is this teaching. 11(1)

The whole of this section of the Upamshad is in
form of a dialogue between father and son. The father,
Uddalaka, explains to his son, Svetaketu, how every-
thing that exists has sprung from the primary unitary
Being.

ii. THE $UFI DOCTRINE OF SHUHUDIYYA

COMPARED WITH THE VISHISTA-

ADVAITA OF RAMANUJA AND

HISHPRAPANCA IDEAL.

Like the Shuhudi doctrine of the ufis, the Vishistad-
vaita of Ramanuja is a modified non-dualism. Ramunuja
in contradistinction to the favourite assertion of the
monists that "there is no diversity" cognises Brahman
as carrying "multiplicity within himself", and also
admits His attributes to be real. Further he acknow-
ledges the reality of creation as well as that of the
pluralistic universe. To him God is not a mere totality
of the universe or of persons, but a person who must
not be confused with individual souls and non-intelligent
(1) Chhandogya Upamshad, VI. 1. 4-6.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 145

matter. God, on the one hand, is the transcendental
Absolute existing before and beyond the universe, and
on the other, He is the immanent ground of the world.
Ramanuja's view of the relation of the soul to God
will also be found to bear an interesting resemblance
to the teaching of ufism on the subject. The following
passage has often been quoted as summing up the
former: 'The soul is created by Brahman, is controlled
by it, is its body, is subservient to it, is supposed by it,
is reduced to the subtle condition by it (i. e. in the
world's state of dissolution) is a worshipper of it, and
depends on its grace for its welfare. " (l)

The goal of the individual soul, according to the
teaching of Ramanuja is to release itself from the
bondage karma and then to reach the "abode of
Brahman" and to exist eternally having permanent
consciousness of the highest Brahman, This is not
much different from the ufi goal of fund fil-ldh wa baqd
bi'l-ldh, 4 the annihilation and the subsistence in God'.
The means to attain this end according to Hindu
teaching are Bhakti and Vidya, the former is sometimes
translated technically as "remembrance" and the latter
as "meditation". Both of these may be compared with
the ufl dhikr and murdqaba.

Striking similarity may also be noticed when the
Shuhudl doctrine is compared with the Upanishadic
conception of God called ^iishprapanca Ideal, which is

(1) Sukhtankar's Teaching of Vedanta according to Ramanuja;
quoted in Macnicol: Indian Theism p. 104.

146 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

the source of the Vishistadvaita doctrine. The Nish-
prapanca doctrine is described by Professor Hiryana in
the following words: "It aims at unity and yet clings to
the double notion of God and nature. To arrive at
true unity, one only of these two should be retained.
If it is the notion of nature that is retained, there will
be no God apart from the world. This outcome of the
pantheistic tendency, viz., viewing the unity of the
world as itself the Absolute, does not figure very much
in the Upanishads, probably because it tends towards
naturalism, which, though not wholly unfamiliar to
them, is widely removed from their prevailing spirit.
If, on the other hand, it is the notion of God that is
selected for retention in preference to that of nature,
the world of common experience with all its variety
will cease to exist apart from God. That is precisely
the acosmic conception; only the theistic term is here
replaced by the philosophic one of Brahman." (1)

3. THE SUFI DOCTRINE OF TANAZZULAT

AND THE HINDU PHILOSOPHY OF

'MODIFICATIONS' OF BRAHMAN

The ufl statement about God's existence in the
state of al-'Ama, as a mere Essence devoid of all
qualities and relations corresponds to the Hindu
conception of Brahman in the state of nirguna, devoid
of all gunas, attributes. The Hindu theologians have
described this nirguna Brahman as void without
consciousness, without activity, a characterless noth-

(1) Hiryana. Outlines of Indian Philosophy, P. 61,

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 147

ing." This word, nirguna, is used as an attribute of
God in Svetasvatra Upanishad:

The one God, hidden in all things,
All-prevailing, the Inner Soul of all things,

The overseer of deeds (barman) in all things
abiding.

The witness, the sole thinker, devoid of qualities
(nirguna). (l> Svetakata admits the existence of a Supreme
Brahman, who is undefinable, above the changing world
and free from change, becoming and causality, but who
is the ground of the existence of the whole universe.
He is described as "without part, without activity,
tranquil, irreproachable, spotless, the highest bridge of
immortality, like a fire with fuel burned. " (2)

The Hindu teaching concerning Brahman in relation
to the creation of the universe, as interpreted by
certain schools, is in close correspondence to the ufi
teaching on the subject and bears a close resemblance
to the doctrine of tanazzuldt. According to the Hindu
doctrine, "individualisation" is the principle of creation.
It is this cosmic principle which gives rise to namarupa,
"name-and-form," In the Upanishads the term namarupa
is used to indicate individuality. For instance we read
in the Brihad Aranyaka Upanishda: "In the beginning
of this world was Soul alone in the form of a Person.
Looking around he saw nothing else than himself

(1) 6:12.

(2) 6: 19.

148 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

At that time the world was undifferentiated. It
became differentiated just by name and form." (1)

According to the teaching pf Shankara "The crea-
tion is the gradual manifestations of -diverse samanyas
with the visheshas produced from them." The term
vsamanyas stands for the causal reality; and the term
visheshas stands for its effects or qualities. Further
Shankara says : " There are in the world diverse
samanyas with their visheshas, both sentient and
insentient. All these samanyas. in their graduated
series, are included and comprehended in one great
samanyas. i.e., in Brahma's nature or swarupa" (2}

Professor Kokileswar Sastri explaining Shankara's
teaching on creation says: "The created elements have
been evolved from the 'nature' of Brahma for its own
realisation. Brahma has not sundered itself into these
elements; it has not actually passed into or been
converted into, these elements and thereby has
become something other than its own nature. It
expresses itself through these. We have therefore no
right to separate these from it and take them as 'some-
thing' distinct and complete in themselves The

evolving changes the diversities of emerging ndmarupa
are not something other than Brahma's nature, but
they are really the further and further revelations of
this nature. " (3) /

(1) I. 4: l, 7.

(2) Vedanta Bhasya, quoted in, Kokileswar Sastri, Advaita
Philosophy, p. 35.

(3) Kokileswar Sastri, op cit. p. 23,

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 149

4. THE LATA'IF OF $UFI DOCTRINE AND
THE CHAKRAS OF HINDU YOGA

9

The theory of latcCif and their position as described
in the human body resemble, to some extent, the
Chakras as detailed in the Yoga system of physiology.
The latter system speaks of the human organism
consisting of the physical body, the vital dynamism,
the psychic principles and the purusa. The purusa is
said to be hidden behind the veils of corruptible flesh
and restless mind.

The system of physiology as developed by the Yoga
philosophy relates to nadls, infinitely small nerves,
which traverse the body. "The spinal column contains
three yognddis of special significance, namely, ida,
pinguid, and susumna. The last is the chief of them.
To the right of it is pingald and to its left idd. This
nddl (i. e. susumna} has six subtle centres called padmas
or chakras, invisible to our senses, that could be
experienced through the eyes of Yoga." (1)

The chakras are as follows.

1. Sahasrara, lies within the cerebral region,

2. Ajna, situated in pineal gland,

3. Visuddhi, is situated in larynx,

4. Anahata, is located in the heart,

5. Manipura, is situated in the stomach

6. Muladhdra, is said to be located in the navel.

(1) Sir Radha Krishnan, The History of Indian Philosophy, Vol
II, p. 352 (note.)

150 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Besides these is also a Kundalmi, 4 a curled-up one'
lying dormant at the base of the spine. The Kundallnl
symbolises mystic illumination. When she is asleep
the devotee's mind is in an unawakened condition.
When she has darted upwards and reached the Sahasra
chakra, the mystic has reached full consciousness and
has merged it in the Divine.

5. THE $UFI FAN A COMPARED WITH THE

BUDDHISTIC NIRVANA AND THE

UPANISHADIC MOKSA.

The doctrine of nirvana has been variously inter
preted, but as at the present moment we are concerned
not as much with the doctrine itself as with a compara-
tive study of some of its feaures with those of fana, we
proceed to give a brief account of its leading charac-
teristics.

The word nirvana, or its Pali form nibbana, literally
means 'blowing out' or 'cooling' and is commonly
translated as 'annihilation'. According to Professor
Das Gupta it is the final extinction of sorrow which
takes place as the natural result of the destruction of
desires. The following passages are often quoted from
the Buddhist Scriptures to describe nirvana:

"He whose senses have become tranquil, like a
horse well broken-in by the driver; who is free from
pride and the lust of the flesh, and the lust of existence,
and the defilement of ignorance him even the gods
envy. Such a one whose conduct is right, remains like
the broad earth, unvexed; like the pillar of the city

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 151

gate; like a pellucid lake, unruffled. For such there are
no more births. Tranquil is the mind, tranquil the
words and deeds of him who is thus tranquilized and
made free by wisdom. " (1) 'They who by steadfast mind
have become except from evil desire, and well-trained
in the teachings of Gautama; they having obtained
the fruit of the fourth Path, and immersed themselves
in that ambrosia, have received without price, and are
in the enjoyment of nirvana. Their old karma is
exhausted, no new karma is being produced; their
hearts are free from the longing after future life; the
ckuse of their existence being destroyed, and no new
yearnings springing up within them, they the wise, are
extinguished like this lamp." (2) "That mendicant
conducts himself well, who has conquered error by
means of insight, from whose eyes the veil of error
has been removed, who is well-trained in religion; and,
who free from yearning, and skilled in the knowledge
of, has attained unto, nirvana. " (3)

From such passages Professor Rhys Davids infers
that the nirvana, which means simply going out, extinc-
tion, cannot be the extinction of a soul. He says:
*7t is the extinction of that sinful grasping condition of
mind and heart, which would otherwise, according to the
great mystery of karma, be the cause of renewed individual
existence. That extinction is to be brought about by,
and runs parallel with, the growth of the opposite

(1) Dhammapada, 90, 94-96.

(2) Ratana Sutta, 7, 14.

(3) Sammaparibbajaniya Sutta, 14.

152 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

condition of mind and heart; and it is complete when
that opposite condition is reached. Nirvana is there-
fore the same thing as a sinless, calm state of mind\ and
if translated at all, may best, perhaps, be rendered
'holiness' holiness, that is, in the Buddhist sense,
perfect peace, goodness, and wisdom. <M(1)

Professor De la Vallee Poussin and Mr. Schrader,
as pointed by Professor Das Gupta, hold nirvana to be
positive. In the opinion of the former it has been
represented sometime in the Pali text as a happy state,
as pure annihilaiton, as an inconceivable existence or
as a changeless state. " (2) Mr. Schrader says that: "The
Buddha held that those who sought to become
identified after death with the soul of the world as
infinite space (akasa) or consciousness (vinnana)
attained to a state in which they had a corresponding
feeling of infiniteness without having really lost their
individuality. " (3)

This interpretation, as Professor Das Gupta observes,
is 'Very new and quite against the spirit of the
Buddhistic text." He writes, "Whether we exist in
some form eternally or do not exist is not a proper
Buddhistic question, for it is a heresy to think of a
Tathagata as existing eternally (sasvatd) or not-existing

(1) Buddhism, pp. Ill, 112.

(2) Professor De la Vallee Poussm's article in the E. R. E. on
Nirvana.

(3) Mr. Schrader's article in Pali Text Society Journal, 1905 on
Nibbana, quoted in Professor Das Gupta, A History of Indian
Philosophy Vol. I, p. 109.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 153

(asasvata) or whether he is existing as well as not
existing or whether he is neither existing nor non-
existing. Any one who seeks to discuss whether
Nibbana is either positive and eternal state or mere
state of non-existence or annihilation, takes a view
which has been discarded in Buddhism as heretical. " (1)
Thus described, nirvana with negative implications
only, can hardly be akin to the ufi doctrine of fana wa
baqd. "annihilation and subsistence 11 ./

FANA AND MOKSA

Moksa literally means release, and is used in the
Upanishads to denote the release of the individual soul
from bondage to the sensuous, selfish and finite
existence. It runs almost parallel to the ufl doctrine
of fana wa baqd, 'annihilation and subsistence*. Many
passages can be quoted to demonstrate the truth of
this statement. For instance Mundaka Upanishad
says:

"As the flowing rivers in the ocean

Disappear, quitting name and form,

So the knower, being liberated from name and form,

Goes unto the Heavenly Person, higher than the

The same Upanishad contains the following passage:
"The mystic syllable Om (pravana) is the bow. The
arrow is the soul (atman).

(1) Professor Das Gupta, A History of Indian Philosophy*
Vol. I, p. 109.

(2) iii, 2:8.

154 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

By the undistracted man It is to be penetrated.

One should come to be in It, as the arrow in the
mark (i. e. Brahma). " (1) In the same Upanishad we
read: "All these become one in the highest imperishable
Brahma." (2) In the Brihadarnyaka Upanishad we come
across the following simile of the union with the
Divine. Yajanavalkya, the greatest thinker of the
age of the Upanishads, expounding the state of Moksa,
says; "As a man, when in the embrace of the beloved
wife, knows nothing within or without, so this person,
when in the embrace of the intelligent Soul, knows
nothing within or without. (3) Verily, that is his (true)
form in which his desire is satisfied, in which the Soul
is his desire, in which he is without desire and without
sorrow." (4)

This state is described in Mundaka to be companion-
ship with God.

They who have ascertained the meaning of the
Vedanta knowledge,

Ascetics, with natures purified through the applica-
tion of renunciation.

They in the Brahma-worlds at the end of time

Are all liberated beyond death. " (5)

(1) ri, 2:3.

(2) iii, 2, 7.

(3) Professor Macnicol says: "This symbol of union is the hall-
mark of mysticism in every country and every age." Indian Theism,
p. 58.

(4) iv, 3, 21.

(5) iii, 2:6.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 155

The same Upanishad teaches that liberated soul
attains to absolute likeness with God;
When a seer sees the brilliant
Maker, Lord, Person, the Brahma-source
Then, being a knower shaking off good and evil
Stainless, he attains supreme identity with him." (1)
From these passages it appears that absorption in
Brahma is not complete annihilation, but that it indicates
"the preservation at the same time in a subtle sense of
conscious personality."' 2 ' On the other hand it cannot
be denied that there are many passages in the
Upanishads which teach the complete absorption in
Brahma with such absoluteness that self is "completely
merged and indistinguishably lost." (3)

These two phases of the doctrine of liberation as
taught in the Upanishads may be compared with the
negative and positive aspects of fana. For instance,
the following sayings express the 'negative 1 aspect of
the absorption in Brahman:

"He becomes merged in the supreme imperishable
Soul/

"As a lump of salt which is thrown into the water
dissolves and cannot be gathered up again, but wher-
ever water is drawn, it is salty, so truly is it with this
great being, the endless, the unlimited, the fulness of

(1) ii, 1:3.

(2) Macnicol, Indian Theism, p. 58.

(3) Thibaut, in Sacred Book of the East, XXXIV. p. cxxi,
quoted in Macnicol. op. at. p. 57.

(4) Mundaka, iii 2: 7.

156 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

knowledge. Arising out of these elements, into them
also one vanishes away. There is no consciousness
after death." (1)

"Brahma-knowers become merged in Brahman. " (2)

Other passages illustrating the Positive aspect -of
liberation have already been quoted. The following
shows that the liberated soul in union with the
Universal Soul attains unhampered desire.

"He who knows this, on departing from this world,
proceeding on to that self which consists of food,
proceeding on to that self which consists of breath,
proceeding on to that self which consists of mind,
proceeding on to that self which consists of under-
standing, proceeding on to that self which consists of
bliss, goes up and down these worlds, eating what he
desires, assuming what form he desires. He sits singing
this chant:

*Oh, wonderful! Oh, wonderful! Oh, wonderful!

I am food! I am food! I am food!

I am food-eater! I am food-eater! I am food-eater!

I am fame-maker! I am fame-maker! I am fame-
maker!

I am the first-born of the world-order (nta)

Earlier than the gods, in the navel of immortality!

Who gives me away, he indeed has aided me!

I, who am food, eat the eater of food!

I have overcome the whole world!" (3)

(1) Bnhadaranyaka, iv, 5: 13. cp. n, 4- 13.

(2) Svetastra, 1: 7.

(3) Taittmya,iii, 10: 5,6.

RELATION OF SUFISM TO INDIAN THOUGHT 157

This song of the liberated soul is remarkable as it
indicates that it has an active existence. It should be
compared with Jalalu 'd-Din's poem quoted on p. 86^

Before we conclude this chapter the opinions of two
famous exponents of Indian Philosophy, Sir Radha
Krishnan and Professor Das Gupta, may profitably be
quoted on the nature of Moksa. This will bring out
more clearly the points of difference and resemblance
between it and the ufl doctrine of fana.

Sir Radha Krishnan summarising the doctrine of
Moksa says: "Whatever differences there might be
about the exact nature of the highest condition, one
thing is clear, that it is a state of activity, full of
freedom and perfection. Strictly speaking, we cannot
describe that state, but if a description is wanted, it is
best to consider it to be a state of divine life. The
self is not annihilated any more than the ray of the sun
is lost in the sun, the wave of the sea in the ocean, the
notes of music in one harmony. The song of the
individual is not lost in the music of the world march.
It is the same for ever and yet not the same. It is said
that the liberated soul becomes one with all and lives a
life in unity with God. The positive description seems
to suggest a sense of individuality which helps him to
act in this world, though this individuality is not based
on any self-feeling. This individualisation of life seems
to be necessary for the fulfilment of the joy of the one
supreme. Even though for a purpose of self-expression
there is this possession of a centre of individuality, we
are told that the soul is conscious of its glory and the

158 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

greatness of immortality. It feels that God is at work
in the cosmic drama, where the divine consciousness
plays and acts. The liberated individual also plays in
the same drama with full possession of the truth. There
is nothing which does not bend to his purpose. " (1)

Professor Das Gupta who calls it Aiuktl, emancipa-
tion, describing it says "Emancipation or Muktl means
in the Upanishads the state of infinitencss that a man
attains when he knows his own self and thus becomes
Brahman. The ceaseless course of transmigration is
only for those who are ignorant. The wise man
however who has divested himself of all passions and
knows himself to be Brahman and no bondage of any

kind can ever affect him The knowledge of the self

reveals the fact that all our passions and antipathies, all
our limitations of experience, all that is ignoble and small
in us, all that is transient and finite m us is false. We
do not know but are "pure knowledge" ourselves.
We are not limited by anything, for we are infinite;
we do not suffer death, for we are immortal. Emancip-
ation thus is not a new acquisition, product, an effect,
or result of any action, but it always exists as the Truth
of our nature." Then concluding his illuminating
summary he says: ** The true self manifests itself in
all the processes of our phenomenal existences, but ulti-
mately when it retires back to itself, it can no longer
be found in them. It is a state of absolute infinitude
of pure intelligence, pure being, and pure blessing. V (2)

(1) Indian Philosophy. Vol I, P. 241.

(2) A History of Indian Philosophy, Voi I. p. 58.

CHAPTER IX.

The Origin of Religious Orders.

In the preceding chapters we have traced the origin
and development of ufism, and have noticed how from
time to time certain new elements and modifications
were introduced into its teaching. But such doctrinal
development forms only one aspect of the study of
ufism. Another, and no less interesting one, is that
which concerns the origin and growth of its fraternities
or Religious Orders, through which the various forms
of its teaching were disseminated to the different parts
of the Muslim world.

The origin of these Religious Orders is said, by
certain western scholars, to date from the 12th century
A. D. Such a statement may be accepted as correct in
the sense that at that period these Orders were fully
organized, and that each was marked by distinguishing
features in its teaching and practice. Otherwise the
ufi-fraternities ought to be traced back to a much
earlier date. As Professor D. B. Macdonald himself
says. "The earliest Muslims were burdened, as we
have seen, (cp. pp. 11, 12) with fear of the terrors of
an avenging God. The world was evil and fleeting; the
only abiding good was in the other world; so their
religion became an ascetic other-worldliness. They
fled into the wilderness from the wrath to come.
Wandering, either solitary or in companies, was the

160 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

special sign of the true uft. The young men gave
themselves over to the guidance of the older men;
little circles of disciples gathered round a venerated
Shaykh; fraternities began to form. So we find it in the
case of al-Junayd, so in that of Sari as-Saqafl. Next
would come a monastery, rather a rest-house; for only
in the winter and for rest did they remain fixed in a
place for any time. Of such a monastery there is a
trace at Damascus in 150 (767 A. D.) and in Khurasan
about 200 (815-16 A. D.),"*

These wandering companies in course of time came
to be called at-Tarlqa, the path, (pi. al-furq) or
fihdnivada, a family, but through the influence of
western writers they are commonly spoken of as
'Religious Orders. 1 The teachings imparted in these
Orders are supposed to have been handed down
through more or less continous chains of succession
originating with the founders. Such a chain is called
silsila, (pi. saldsil)*/

The centre of every order at any given time is a
murshid (a guide) or plr (an elder), who is considered
to be a spiritual heir of the original founder, and as
such received his authority through his immediate
predecessor.

We have already seen that to a Muslim, ufism is not
a late development of Islam, but is as old as Islam
itself. As a matter of fact all the orders trace their
chains of succession back to Muhammad, and thus it is

*Macdonald, Theology, p. 177.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 161

that the founder of Islam is regarded by the ufls as
also the fountain head of ufism. Next to Muhammad
in the chains of succession comes, in most cases, the
name of 4 All, but in a few there stands second the
name of Abu Bakr. The importance of 'All in $ufism
is thus very great. Further, inasmuch as Muhammad
is reported to have said. "I am the house of knowledge
and 4 All is its gate, 1 ' most ufls regard 'All as the one
medium of divine knowledge between Muhammad and
his followers. He is revered by them as the heir to all
Muhammad's esoteric and exoteric knowledge. All
this is emphasized by the fact that while hundreds of
religious orders are traced to 'All, only three, viz. the
Bistamiyya, Bakhtashiyya, and Naqshbandiyya regard
Abu Bakr as their head, and of these, only the last
named is current in India. But so important is the
place of 'Ali in ufism, that the Naqshbandi order also
is traced by a different line of succession to him. This
has been done to invest it with the peculiar dignity
which attaches to the other religious Orders already
privileged to be associated with his name. It is true
that according to the decision of Sunnl cannon lawyers
'All ranks as fourth in dignity when compared with the
other three khalifas, Abu Bakr, 'Umar and 'Uthman,
but in ufism the first and highest place after
Muhammad is accorded to him.

Shaykh 'Aliu'l-Hujwiri writes concerning 'All.
"His renown and rank in this Path (of ufism) were
very high. He explained the principles (u^ul) of
Divine truth with exceeding subtlety, so that Junayd

162 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

said 'All is our Shaykh as regards the endurance of
affliction, i.e. in the theory and practice of ufism; for
ufis call the theory of this Path 4 'principles" (usul),
and its practice consists entirely in the endurance of
affliction." *

HASAN OF BASRA.

Hasan of Basra holds, next to 'All, the most pro-
minent place in the 'chains' of the Religious Orders. It
is said that 4 Ali had seventy disciples and that, after
his death, these appointed four persons from themselves
to be plrs or elders. The ufls differ as to the persons
who were chosen to be these four plrs. Some mention
Hasan and Husayn, the grandsons of Muhammad,
together with Khwaja Kumayl, and Hasan of Basra;
others, retaining the last two names, either substitute
Uwaysu '1-Qaram and Sarlu 's-Saqati, or 'Abdullah
Bahri.

It will be seen, however, that this difference of
opinion does not affect the position of Hasan of Basra.
His name follows 'All's at the head of most of the
Religious Orders, and, as we shall see, he is recognised
as the spiritual head of those lines of succession which
gave rise to three famous orders, viz. the Qadiriyya,
the Chishtiyya, and the Suhrawardiyya, His mother
was a maid servant of Umm Salma, one ot Muhammad's
wives, and he himself was a contemporary of the
renowned woman saint of Islam, Rbi*a of Basra. At
the death of Muhammad, Hasan was very young, and

*Kashf al-Mahjub. p. 74.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 163

though not honoured as one of the leading Tdbiun, the
followers of the companions of the Prophet. He is
said to have visited one hundred and thirty companions
of Muhammad. 4 Ali appointed him as one of his chief
successors to carry on the esoteric^ teaching of Islam.

The names of two of Hasan's disciples, viz. Khwaja
Abdu'l- Wahid b. Zayd and Habibu'l-'Ajami, stand at
the head of two main lines of the Religious Orders.
From the first of these sprang four further sub-divisions,
from the second, eight. These are called chawda
Qhhanwade or fourteen families. Most of the remaining
orders are subsequent divisions and sub-divisions of
these fourteen. We shall proceed to give a brief
account of the two main lines with their sub-divisions.

i. ZAYDIYYA.

This was the order founded by Khwaja 'Abdu '1-
Wahid b. Zayd, though the records tell us next to
nothing about it. The four Orders which sprang from
it are the following:

1. 'lyddiyya. This Order was founded by Khwaja
Fudayl b. 'lyad. An account of his life has already
been given in a previous chapter, (see pp. 13-14.)

His outstanding virtue is said to have been the love
of God in perfect conformity with His holy will. It
is related that on one occasion the famous Khalifa
Harunu 'r-Rashid asked him: "Have you ever met
with any one of greater detachment than yourself?"
He made answer, "Yes, O Khalifa! your detachment
exceeds mine, for I have detached myself from this

164 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

world doomed to perdition, while you seem to have
detached yourself from the world which is infinite and
shall endure for ever.'/

2. Adhamiyya. This Order was founded by Abu
Ishaq Ibrahim b. Adham, a successor of Khwaia
Fudayl b. 4 Iyad. Reference has already been made to
this Ibrahim as one of the earliest ascetics of Islam.
The author of Kashfu 'l-Mahjub writes about him: "In
the earlier part of his life he was prince of Balkh.
One day he went to the chase, and having become
separated from his suite was pursuing an antelope.
God caused the antelope to address him in elegant
language and say : "Wast thou created for this; or
wast thou commanded to do this ?" He repented, aban-
doned everything, and entered on the path of ascetic-
ism and abstinence. He made the acquaintance of
Fudayl b. lyad and Sufyan Thawri, and consorted
with them. After his conversion he never ate any
food except what he had earned by his own labour.
His sayings on the verities of ufism are original and
and exquisite. Junayd said: Ibrahim is the key of the
(Mystical) sciences/"

The following are the comments made by Rose upon
the ufi account of Ibrahim: "The ufi legend con-
cerning him is evidently modelled upon the story of
Buddha, for in it he appears as a prince who while
hunting, was warned by an unseen voice that he was
not created for such pursuits. Thereupon he aban-
doned the path of worldly pomp for the path of

Kashf al-awib. pl03

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 165

asceticism and piety. He became a quietist of a
practical type, and did not carry the doctrine of
tawahkul to the point of refusing to earn his livelihood;
on the contrary, he supported himself by gardening
and so on. He approved of begging in so far as it
incites men to give alms and thereby increase their
chance of salvation, but he condemned it as a means of
livelihood. So he distinguished two kinds of begging.
C. van Arendonk says that a trait far more characteristic
of Indian and Syrian than of Muslim ascetism appears
in the story that one of the three occasions on which
Ibrahim felt joy was when he looked at the fur garment
he was wearing, and could not distinguish the fur from
the lice (E. I. ii. p. 432). 'But this story is poor
evidence of Buddhist or Indian influence on Ibrahim,
because a very similar episode is told of the Breton
saint, Le Petit St. Jean. A notable legend says that
angels ministered to Ibrahim on the banks of the
Tigris after he had resigned his kingdom, bringing him
ten dishes of food. This roused the envy of a darwish
who had been a poor man before he assumed the habit
of a beggar, and to whom only one plate was vouch-
safed. The incident is a common place topic of Indo-
Persian or Mughal painting (J. R. A. S., 1909, p. 751
and 1910, p. 167) There can, however, be no doubt
that Ibrfihim was a great figure in his day, and his
memory still survives in Islam as far as India. The
tale that he married a princess is even more persistent
than the tradition that he was of royal birth." *
*Rose, The Danishes, p. 83.

166 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

3. Hubayriyya. This Order is ascribed to Khwaia
Hubayra of Basra, a successor of KhwSja Mar'ashi,
a vice-gerent of Ibrahim b. Adham. Hubayra is
known to have lived in company with Junayd of
Baghdad, but otherwise we are told little concerning
him.

4. Chishtiyya. This was founded by Khwaja Abu
Ishaq Sham! Chishtl, a disciple of Mimshad Dinwari, a
vice-gerent of Hubayra of Basra. Mimshad was also a
disciple of Junayd of Baghdad.

A more detailed account of the Chishti Order will
be given in the next chapter.

11. HABIBIYYA.

Habib ' Ajaml, the founder of this Order, was at first
a usurer but, being touched with the suffering of his
debtors, he renounced his profession and granted
remission to all who owed him money. Finally he
became a disciple of Hasan of Basra.

The story is told that one day Hasan came to Habib
who offered him some loaves. In the meantime a
beggar came and Habib quickly picked up the loaves
and gave them away. Hasan, annoyed at his behaviour,
reprovingly said to him, "Had you known the law you
would not have acted in this way. Do you not know
that it is forbidden to take away a meal when once
offered to a guest? 1 ' While he spoke a stranger
brought some food which Habib placed before Hasan
and said to him: "Master, you know the law, but
how good it is to have faith also/ 1

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 167

We find the following narrative concerning him in
Kashfu'l-Mahjub: "His native tongue was Persian
Cajaml), and he could not speak Arabic correctly.
One evening Hasan of Basra passed by the door of his
cell. Hablb had uttered the call to prayer and was
standing, engaged in devotion. Hasan came in, but
would not pray under his leadership, because Hablb
was unable to speak Arabic fluently or recite the
Quran correctly. The same night, Hasan dreamed that
he saw God and said to Him; "O Lord, wherein does
Thy good pleasure consist? ' and that God answered;
"O Hasan, you found My good pleasure but did not
know its value: if yesternight you had said your prayer
after Hablb, and if the Tightness of his intention had
restrained you from taking offence at his pronouncia-
tion, I should have been well pleased with you.' H1)
He died in 772-3 A.D.

The eight Orders which have originated from him
are as follows:

1. Karkhiyya. This was founded by Ma'rufu 1-
Karkjn (Karkh is a district of Baghdad), to whose
teaching brief reference has already been made
(sec pp. 18-19). Through his plr Da'ud T**X he is con-
nected with Hablb 'Ajaml. He died in 815-16 A. D.,
and his tomb, "saved by popular reverence, is one of
the few ancient sites in modern Baghdad. "^

2. Saqatiyya. This Order owes its origin to
Kbwja Hasan Sariu 4 s-Saqatl, a vice-gerent of Ma'rufu

(2) Macdonald, Muslim Theology, p. 175.

168 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

*l-Karkhl. He was called saqatl because he used to
carry on the business of a huckster (saqat farosh) in the
bazar at Baghdad. He was the first to give systematic
teaching about "'stations 1 * (maqdmdt) in the Path, as
well as concerning spiritual "states" (ahwdl). To him is
ascribed, "but dubiously, the first use of the word
tawhld to signify the union of the soul with God." (1>
One of his sayings runs as follows: "If God were
revealed in hell to the people of hell, sinful believers
would never think of Paradise, since the sight of God
would so fill them with joy that they would not feel
bodily pain/' He died in 870-71 A. D.

3. Tayfuriyya. This Order was founded by Abu
Yazld Tayfuru'l-Bistami, also known as Byazldu'l-
Bistami. Reference has already been made to him as
the one chiefly responsible for the introduction into
ufism of pantheism and the conception of self-annihila-
tion. He is said to have received his spiritual authority
from Imam Ja'far adiq and also from Habib 'Ajaml,
but he could not have had any contact with them in
their life-time, since both had died before he was born.
The author of the Shaqaiqun-Numdniyya {2} endeav-
ours to minimise the break in the continuity between
him and his predecessor by saying that Bayazldu'l-
Bistami, though born after the decease of the Imam

(1) Macdonald, op. cit. p. 175.

(2) Sec Rose. The Danishes, p. 140. The full title of the book
is the Shaqaiqu n-nu'maniyya ffulamau'd-dawlatu'l-Uthmamyya,
*Blood-red wild anemones touching the learned of the Ottoman
Empire' by the Mulla Tashkopruzada, who died in 1560 A.D.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 169

Ja'far adiq, yet received spiritual instruction from him
by the force of the will of the latter. A somewhat
similar explanation is given to connect him in the
spiritual succession with Hablb * Ajami. ufis in general
accept these explanations.

The distinctive feature of the Tayfur! Order is its
teaching about sukr, 'intoxication' of the love of God
and wajd, 'rapture'. The following is the explanation
of this as given by 'Allu'l-Hujwirl; "You must know
that 'intoxication' and 'rapture 1 are terms used by
spiritualists to denote the rapture of love for God,
while the term 'sobriety' expresses the attainment of
that which is desired. Some place the former above
the latter, and some hold the latter to be superior.
Abu Yazld and his followers prefer intoxication to
sobriety. They say that sobriety involves the fixity
and equilibrium of human attributes, which are the
greatest veil between God and Man, whereas intoxica-
tion involves the destruction of human attributes,
like foresight and choice, and the annihilation of a
man's self control in God, so that only those faculties
survive in him that do not belong to the human genus;
and they are the most complete and perfect. Thus
David was in the state of sobriety; an act proceeded
from him which God attributed to him and said,
"David killed Goliath" (Quran 2:252): but our Apostle
was in the state of intoxication; an act proceeded from
him which God attributed to Himself and said, "Thou
didst not throw when thou threwest but God threw" (Quran
8:17). How great is the difference between these two

170 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

men! The attribution of a man's act to God is better
than the attribution of God's to a man, for in the latter
case the man stands by himself, while in the former
case he stands through God." (1)

In further explanation of Bayazld's doctrine of
'sobriety' and "intoxication 1 'Aliu'l-Hujwirl writes:
"There are two kinds of intoxication: (1) with the
wine of affection (mawaddat) and (2) with the cup of
love (mahabbat). The former is 'caused' (m<2 '//),
since it arises from regarding the benefit (niamat)\ but
the latter has no cause, since it arises from regarding
the benefactor (munim). He who regards the benefit
sees through himself and therefore sees himself, but he
who regards the benefactor sees through Him and
therefore does not see himself, so that, although he
is intoxicated, his intoxication is sobriety.

"Sobriety also is of two kinds; sobriety in heed-
lessnesss (ghaflat) and sobriety in love (mahabbat).
The former is the greatest of veils, but the latter is the
clearest of revelations. The sobriety that is connected
with heedlessness is really intoxication, while that
which is linked with love, although it be intoxication,
is really sobriety. " (2)

It is on the basis of this theory of 'sobriety' and
'intoxication', that the pantheistic utterances of the
ufis are justified by the orthodox, they being uttered
not while in the state of the sobriety but in that of
intoxication.

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub. pp. 184-5.

(2) Ibid. pp. 187-8.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 171

4. The Junaydiyya. This had its origin in Abul-
Qasimu'l Junayd who is Sayyidut-TcCifa, 'Lord of the
sect', and Ta'usul-Ulama, 'peacock of the learned'.
He was a successor of his maternal uncle, Sarius-Saqatl.
Professor Macdonald says about him: "Perhaps the
greatest name in early ufism is that of al-Junayd
(d. 909-10 A. D.); on it no shadow of heresy has ever
fallen. He was a master in theology and law, reveren-
ced as one of the greatest of the early doctors.
Questions of tawhid he is said to have discussed before
his pupils with shut doors. But this was probably
tawhid in the theological and not in the mystical sense
against the mu'tazilites and not on the union of the
soul with God. Yet he, too, knew the ecstatic life and
fell fainting at verses which struck into his soul." (1)

'Allu'l-Hujwiri writes thus about his doctrine: "His
doctrine is based on sobriety and is opposed to that of

the Tayfurls, It is the best known and most

celebrated of all doctrines, and all the Shaykhs have
adopted it, notwithstanding that there is much differ-
ence in their sayings on the ethics of ufism." (2) The
following conversation between Husayn b. Mansuru'l-
Hallaj and al-Junayd illustrates differences between
'sobriety' and 'intoxication' as viewed by the latter.
Husayn b. Mansur, after he had broken his relation
with his teacher, Amr b. 'Uthmanu'l-Makki, came to
al-Junayd. "Junayd asked him for what purpose he
had come to him. Husayn said : 'For the purpose of

(1) Macdonald Muslim Theology, p. 176.

(2) Kashf al-M ahjub. p. 189.

172 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

associating with the Shaykh., Junayd replied: 1 do
not associate with madmen. Association demands
sanity; if that is wanting, the result is such behaviour
as yours in regard to Sahl b. 'Abdallah Tustari and
*Amr.' Husayn said 4 O Shaykh, sobriety and intoxica-
tion are two attributes of Man, and Man is veiled from
his Lord until his attributes are annihilated. 1 4 O son
of Mansur,' said Junayd, 'you are in error concerning
sobriety and intoxication. The former denotes sound-
ness of one's spiritual state in relation to God, while
the latter denotes excess of longing and extremity of
love, and neither of them can be acquired by human
effort. O son of Mansur, in your words I see much
foolishness and nonsense. " (1)

The remaining four Orders of the fourteen Khan-
wadas have descended from the Junaydiyya Order.

5. GcLzruniyya Order. This was founded by Khwaja
Abu Ishaq Gazrum. He is the fourth in the line of
succession from al-Junayd. Abu Ishaq died in 1037-38
A. D.

6. Tartawsiyya. This Order is ascribed to Abu'l-
Farah T ar tawsi, who is the fourth in the line of
succession from al-Junayd. The famous Shaykh
'Abdu'l-Qadir Gllanl, who founded the Qadiri Order,
was fourth in spiritual succession from this Abu'l-
Farah. Abu'l-Farah died in 1055 A. D.

7. Suhrawardiyya. This Order had its rise with
Abu'n-Najib, who died in 1234-35 A. D. A full

(1) Kashf al-Mahjub. p. 189.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 173

account of this Order will be given in the following
chapter.

8. Firdawsiyya, or Kubramyya. This was founded
by Abu'l-Jannab Ahmad b. 'Umaru'l-Khlwaqi (of
(Khiwa), commonly known as Najmu'd-dm Kubra. He
was a disciple of Abu'n-Najib, just mentioned. His
plr called him 4 the Shaykh of Paradise', hence he came
to be known as Firdawsl (of Paradise). Najmu'd-Dm
was seventh in the line of succession from al-Junayd.
He died in 1221 A. D.

CHAPTER X.
The Four Main Orders

Of all Orders which are directly or indirectly related
to the fourteen Khdnwddas mentioned in the preceding
chapter only four, viz. the Chishtiyya, the Qadiriyya,
the Suhrawardiyya and the Naqshbandiyya, exist in
India as Orders of sufficient importance to merit
detailed treatment here. Of these, as we have seen,
the Chishtiyya and the Suhrawardiyya belong to the
Hablbiyya, while the Qadiriyya is an offshoot of the
Tartawsiyya. In the case of the Naqshbandiyya,
though it sprang from the line of Junaydiyya, yet it is
traced back, from Junayd, through a different line of
succession to Abu Bakr. We now proceed to give a
brief description of these four.

i. THE CHISHTI ORDER.

Khwaja Abu Ishaq Sham! Chishtl, ninth in spiritual
succession from 'All, is regarded as the founder of this
Order. He migrated from Asia Minor and settled at
Chisht in Khurasan, and in consequence was called
Chishtl. He was a disciple and a vice-gerent of
Mimshad 'All Dinwari.

Mimshad 4 All Dinwari appears to have been
connected with two main lines of succession, already
mentioned, the one traceable to 'Abdul- Wahab b.
Zayd, and the other to Hablb 4 Ajaml. . In the former he
was a disciple of Hubayratu'l-BasrI and in the latter of

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 175

Junayd. As a vice-gerent of Hubayra he belonged to
the line which gave rise to the Chishti Order, but as
a disciple of Junayd he stood at the head of the line
which subdivided itself into the Qadiri and Suhrawardi
Orders. Prince Dara Shikoh, however, in his book,
Saflnatul-Awliya, holds to the opinion that Ihwaja 'All
Dinwarl and Mimshad Dinwarl were different persons.
The one, he says, was a disciple of Hubayra and the
other of Junayd. But the majority of the hagiogra-
phers consider that these were the names of one and
the same person, explaining that he had received his
spiritual authority from both the saints.

The following four, who were spiritually descended
from Abu Ishaq Chishti, are regarded by ufis to have
been the great pillars of the religion of Islam:

1. Khwaja Abu Ahmad, (d. 966 A. D.). He was
a vice-gerent of Abu Ishaq, and became an Abdal.

2. Khwaja Abu Muhammad, (d. 1020 A. D.). He
was the son and successor of Abu Ahmad.

3. Khwaja Abu Yusuf. (d. 1067 A. D.). He was
a vice-gerent of Abu Muhammad.

4. ghwaja Mawdud. (d. 1133 A. D ). He was
the son and successor of Abu Yusuf.

Fourth in the line of succession from Khwaja
Mawdud Chishti appeared Khwaja Mu*inu'd-Din of
Ajmer, the sponsor of the Order in India. He has
been the most renowned saint in the history of the
Order, in fact, by several writers, he, and not Khwaja
Abu Ishaq, has been regarded as the founder of the
Chishti Order.

176 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The devotees of this Order practise chilla, i. e. they
shut themselves up for forty days in some room or
pass the time in a mosque. During this period they
eat little food and spend the greater part of the night
and day in prayer and meditation, nor do they talk
with others more than is absolutely necessary. Another
characteristic of the followers of this Order is their
fondness for music. They hold musical festivals, and
pass into ecstasy while listening to singing.

The Order is now indigenous to India, and hence a
detailed account of it will be given in connection with
its Indian History.

(ii) THE QADIRI ORDER.

This Order, as we have seen, sprung from the
Kbanwada Tartawsiyya, and traces its origin to 4 Abdu'l-
Qdir Gilfini or Jilam. 'Abdu'l-Qadir is also called
Hasanu'l-Husaym, on account of his descent, on his
mother's side from Husayn and on his father's side from
Hasan, Muhammad's grandsons. His father's name was
Ali alih, nicknamed Jangi dost, a Persian phrase which
means "warlike friend." How the father came to
acquire this name is not definitely known. That the
father was given this Persian name and he himself was
known as Gilani seems to indicate that this Arab family
must have been long settled in Persia. Gllan or Jilan
was a district south of the Caspian Sea, where l Abdu 1-
Qdir was born. The date of his birth is given as 1077
A. D. At the age of 18 he went to Baghdad and be-
came a disciple of Abu Sa'ld Mubarak MukjiarramL

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 177

In several texts Mukharrami is corrupted to Makhzumi.
but as Mukharram was a place in Baghdad, Mubarak's
name must have been derived from it. Abu Sa'id
Mubarak was the head of the a Hanball school which
he handed over to 4 Abdu'l-Qadir. It was in this
Madrasa that the saint began to lecture, and it became
so crowded that it was necessary to have it enlarged.
In 1134 A. D. a huge new building was completed, and
it was from this centre of instruction that his disciples
carried his teaching all over Iraq. 'Abdu'l-Qadir lived
in Baghdad till he died in 1166 A. D.

He has more than 99 titles, the chief and the best
known are; Plr-i-Pirdn or Chief of the saints; Pir-j-
Dastglr or the Saint my helper, Ghawthul-A'zam or the
Great Refuge, Mahbub-i-Subhdni or the Beloved of
God, and Muhi'ud-Din, The Reviver of Religion.

The following anecdote, ascribed to 'Abdu'l-Qadir,
purports to give his explanation as to how he came to
have his last designation. It is related that the saint
said, "In 1117 A. D. when I returned from one of my
periodic wanderings to Baghdad I met a person who
was very sick, in fact his entire body was emaciated
and his face a ghastly yellow. Saluting me he sought
my help to enable him to sit up. When I stretched
out my hand to raise him he was at once restored to
perfect health and became again a strong and handsome
man. I was surprised at the sudden change that came
over him, but the man said, 'Do you not know me? I
am the religion of Islam, and was at the point of death,
but God has revived me through your help/ When,

178 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

having left him, I arrived at the mosque to say prayer
every one greeted me as "Muhlu'd-Dln, and kissed my
hand. Hitherto no one had ever called me by this
name."

With a view to enhance his dignity many traditions
foretelling 'Abdu'l-Qadir's advent and glory have been
ascribed to Muhammad. For instance, there is the fol-
lowing anecdote quoted by J. P. Brown. It is related
that once the daughter of the Prophet of God, Fatima,
saw in a dream, that a man came out of her father's
apartment, holding a large candle in his hand, the light
of which extended from the East to the West. She
mentioned this to the Prophet, in the presence of his
nephew, 'All, her husband, and the former interpreted
it, that one would come after him ('All), whose sanc-
tity would resemble the candle, and be the chief of all
saints. 4 AlI exclaimed against this, on the ground that
he himself was the chief. "No," said the Prophet; "the
one I allude to will have his foot on the neck of all the
saints, and all will come under his rule; those who do
not bear his feet on their shoulders and bend before
him, will bear bags on their shoulders." 4 All would not
admit this, and declared that for one he would refuse
to bear him. Just then, the Prophet miraculously
created a child; and as there was some fruit on a high
shelf of the room, he asked 'All to reach it down for
the child. 'All attempted to do it, but was not high
enough, and the Prophet placed the child on his
('All's) neck, so as to reach the fruit. 4 Ali having sub-
mitted to this, "See, see!" exclaimed the Prophet, "you

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 179

already bear the person I allude to on your neck/'
This child was 'Abdu'l-Qadir himself. (1)

This alleged prediction of Muhammad concerning
him is said to have been fulfilled when, in his Baghdad
Guest House, before a large audience of scholars and
saints of Iraq, he uttered in the course of a lecture the
words, "This my foot rests on the neck of all the saints
of God." At this all the saints there present bowed
their necks. It is further asserted that, at that very
instant, three hundred and thirteen saint in other parts
of the world received the impression of 'Abdu'l-Qadir's
assertion and forthwith bowed their necks in obedience.

His 'urs is celebrated on the llth. of the month
Rabl'u 'th-Tham. On the evening of the 10th. a special
ceremony is performed in some parts of India in the
following way. A large green flag, with impressions of
the out-spread hand (panja) made on it with sandal-
wood paste, is carried in procession. With this is
carried sandalwood-paste, powdered sugar-bread
(mallda), flowers, sweets, and aloes and thus with
lighted torches and music the people go to an appointed
place and set up the standard. Then, offering the
Fdtiha in the name of the plr, the sweets and powdered
sugar-bread are distributed to the people. Because
the 'urs itself is celebrated on the llth, that day is
called Gydrahwin sharif, the Holy Eleventh, the day of
the saint's death, but as a matter of fact, there is dif-
ference of opinion as to the actual date on which he
died. According to some his death took place on the

(1) Rose, The Danishes, pp. 52, 53.

180 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

8th. and according to others on the 10th, of Rabfu
th-Thanl. But as he himself was in the habit of recit-
ing the Patina in the name of the Prophet on the llth
day of every month, therefore, by common consent,
the llth, of Rabi'u 1 th-Thanl is kept for reciting the
Fdtiha in his name. On this day his devotees recite the
chapters 1, 111, 113 and 114 of the Quran, repeat his
99 names on food specially prepared, and feed their
friends and beggars. Others recite the Fdtiha, not on
food, but on some sweets, which are then distributed.

The saint is also invoked when cholera or any other
epidemic is raging. At such times people take out the
flag of the saint in procession, singing an invocation to
the saint. Both Hindus and Muslims make gifts of
money and put them in a plate in which incense is
burnt. Herklots says, "Some people vow that if, by
the mercy of the saint, they are blessed with a son or
daughter, they will make him, or her, his slave. Should
their wishes be accomplished, on the 10th. or llth, of
this month they fix on this child a large anklet (A.
halqa, fcefO on which year by year they pass a smaller
ring. They cook cakes, place on them eleven small lamps
made of flour paste, and light them with red cotton wicks
soaked in butter. They burn aloes and put the ring on
the child, if it be an anklet, on the right ankle, if it be
a collarette (tauq), round the child's neck." (l)

The followers of the Qadiri Order wear an em-
broidered rose in their caps, the origin of which is
traced to the following legend. "The ShaykhuVSa'id

(1) Herklots, Islam in India, pp. 193, 4.

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 181

'Abdu'l-Qsdir JilanI was directed by Khwaja Kbidr to
proceed to Baghdad. On his arrival there, the Shaykh
sent him a cup filled with water, the meaning of which
was that the city of Baghdad was full of holy people,
and that it contained no place for him. This occurred
during the winter season, and no flower was in bloom.
The Shaykh ('Abdu'l-Qadir Jilanl) put a rose in the
cup, signifying that Baghdad would hold a place for
him. Seeing this, all present exclaimed, 'The Shaykh
is our rose', and going to meet him they conducted
him to the city, and showed him marked respect." (1)

The form of the rose of Baghdad is as follows: "It
has two outside and two inside rings, and three circles,
and is made of green cloth. The first circle signifies
shari'at, 'God's law as revealed by His Prophet'; the
second signifies ^tan^at^ or 'Path 1 of the Order; the third
signifies the marifat, or 'knowledge 1 of God. The
three together are sign that their acquisition has
bestowed the hdl, or condition, known as the haqiqat,
or 'Truth'. The holy word Hay, or 'The Living God 1 ,
manifested to the Shaykh, has for its colour green, and
for this reason the rose is made on cloth of that colour.
The circles are white, and the reason is that this same
is a sign of perfect submission to the Shaykh, according
to the traditional words of the Prophet, The Divine
law is my word; the path is my acts (practices); the
knowledge is the chief of all things; and the truth is
my condition 1 . Whoever knows these secrets must
assume the disposition of the moral laws of God, and

(1) Rose, The Danishes, p. 101.

182 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

the character of the Divine nature. The blessings
which will accompany him in eternal life are those of
everlasting felicity and never-ending aid." (1)

iii. THE SUHRAWARDI ORDER.

This order originated from the Junaydl Khanwada
and was founded by piyaVd-Din Najlb Suhrawardi,
the author of the Adabul-Muridln, Manners of the
Disciples. The latter died in 1167 A. D., but not much
is known about his life.

It was through some of his leading disciples that the
Order gained in reputation and influence. Special
reference has already been made to one of his vice-
gerents, Abu'l-Jannab Ahmad Kfaiwaql (of Khiva or
Khwarazm), commonly known as Shaykh Najmu'd-Dm
Kubra, as the founder of the Firdawsl or Kubrawl
Khanwada. His title Kubrd is an abbreviation of his
nickname at-tammatul-kubra, "the Greatest Scourge.' 1
which in the days of his student life was given to him
by his friends on account of his trenchant and dexter-
ous style in debate which rendered him always victor-
ious over his adversaries. He is also called by the title of
wall tarash, "Fashioner of Saints/' which was bestowed
upon him because it was believed that the one on
whom his glance fell in moments of divine ecstasy
attained to the degree of saintship. Many strange
anecdotes illustrating the transforming power of his
glance are found in Muslim hagiography which go to
show that this influence was not limited to human

(1) Rose, The Danishes, pp. 103,4.

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 183

beings but extended to birds and animals. One such
story says that once during one of the moments of his
ecstasy, Shaykh Najmu'd-Dln was standing at the door
of his khanaqah, his glance fell on a passing dog. In-
stantly the condition of the dog was changed and it
showed such behaviour as corresponded to that of a
man who had lost himself (i. e., in the mystic sense.)
Wherever it went dogs gathered round it who would
put their paws into his (in token of allegiance) and then
withdraw themselves and stand at a respectful distance
surrounding it. A few days after, the dog died, and
by the order of the Shaykh Najmu'd-Dm its carcass
was buried and a structure was raised over its grave.

Najmu'd-Dln was one of the 600,000 who perished
in the sack of Khwarazm by the Mongols in 1221 A, D.
The story is related that the fame of his character and
spiritual leadership reached Chengiz Khan who sent a
message to say that he intended to sack Khwarazm and
massacre its inhabitants and as the moment had arrived
for the accomplishment of this catastrophe therefore
Najmu'd-Dln should leave the city and join him. The
Shaykh refused to avail himself of this opportunity to
save his life and replied: "For me to come out from
among the inhabitants of Khwarazm would be an action
far from the way of magnanimity and virtue. " Then
addressing his disciples he said: "A great fire is kin-
dled in the east which will burn unto the west, therefore
arise and return to your own countries." When the
Mongols invaded IQjwarazm, he went out to fight and
was found amongst the slain.

184 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Shihabu'd-Dln Suhrawardi was another eminent
disciple of the founder of this Order. He was born in
1145 A. D. and died in 1234-5 A. D. He received his
instruction in Mysticism from Diya Vd-Din, his paternal
uncle, who appointed him his vice-gerent. In the early
days of his life he remained also in the company with
Shaykh Abdu'l-Qadir Gilanl and was highly spoken of
by him.

Shihadu'd-Dm was a great exponent of uflsm. Of
his various works, the most famous is 'Awdrifu'l-
Madrif, "Gifts of Divine Knowledge 11 , which has been
used as a manual for the study of uflsm by ufis of
all Orders. Its Urdu translation is commonly available
in India. In the original Arabic it was printed on the
margin of an edition of al-Ghazalfs Ihyaul- Ulum, pub-
lished at Cairo in 1888. The famous Sa'dl of Shiraz, one
of his more notable disciples, has a short anecdote about
him in the Bustdn. The saint is there represented as
praying that hell might be filled with himself if perchance
others might thereby obtain salvation. In his days he
was the chief of the Shaykhs of the ufls at Baghdad
and mystics from different parts of the Muslim world
sought his advice in spiritual matters. One such ufl
wrote to him: "Master, if I cease from deeds I am
perpetually in idleness and if I perform deeds I am filled
with presumption, which of these is the better?' 1 He
replied: "Perform deeds and ask God's pardon for the
presumption. " (1)

(1) Md. Husain: Anwaru I'Arifin, p. 332.

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 185

Others of Shihabu'd-Dln's disciples introduced the
Order to different parts of the East. Sayyid Nuru'd-
Dln Mubarak Ghaznawl, one of his vice-gerents, came
to Delhi, and was appointed Shaykhu'l Islam of that
city by King Altamash. Another of his vice-gerents,
Baha Vd-Dln Zakariya, to whom we shall have occasion
to refer again, came to India and settled in Multan,
and is recognized as the pioneer saint of the Order in
this country.

The political influence of the Suhrawardl Order is
well illustrated by the achievement of one of its saints,
Amir Sultan Shamsu 1 d-Dm Muhammad b. 'Aliu'l-
Husayniu'l-Bukharl, born in 1369 A. D. It is said that
once, when he visited Medina, the Sharif of Haramayn
refused to recognize him as a Sayyid. Whereupon a
voice from the tomb of the Prophet acknowledged him
as a descendant of Muhammad. Later he settled at
Bursa where he made 400,000 disciples. He married
Nilufar Khanum, a daughter of the Sultan Bayazld I.
It is true that such alliances between saints and
daughters of ruling princes are commonplace legends
in ufi traditions, but this union is a historical fact. (1>
It is, too, an admitted fact that he played an important
part as a mediator in the invasion of Timur. He is
recognised also as a saint of the Naqshbandl Order,
and till the abolition of the Monastic Orders in Turkey
three takias known by his name were held by the
Naqshbandis. (2)

(1) The Danishes* p. 161.

(2) The Danishes, pp. 470, 71, 72.

186 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The late Canon Sell says about this Order. "The
majority of its followers are still in Persia, but its
influence has been felt elsewhere. The teaching of as-
Suhrawardl was highly mystical and dealt with the
deeper aspect of uflsm. It is not so much now an
Order as a school of mystic philosophy, which has had
a great influence on the teaching of many of the
African Orders and fosters the growth of fatalism
amongst them." (1)

iv. The NAQSHBANDI ORDER.

The origin of this Order is generally ascribed to
Khwaja Baha'u'd-Dm Naqshband, who died in Persia
in 1389 A. D. The word naqshband literally means an
embroiderer or printer on cloth, and, as applied to
Baha Vd-Dln, probably refers to his ancestral profession.
Another explanation, however, is given by a Muslim
writer whom Rose quotes: 'This people (taifa) polish
the exterior of their minds and intellects with pictures,
and being free from the rust and wiles of life are not
of those who are captivated by vain colourings of the
world as varied as those of the changeful chameleon;
and as Naqshband drew incomparable pictures of the
Divine Science, and painted figures of Eternal Inven-
tion, which are not imperceptible, his followers became
celebrated by the title of the Naqshbandls, The
Painters'. (2)

(1) The Religious Orders of Islam, p. 44.

(2) Rose, op. cit. p. 142.

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 187

Rose further observes, that, "The History of the
Naqshbandi Order would be of some interest if it could
be recovered, not merely because it has played an
important part in Muslim thought, but also because it
had not a little influence on the political vicissitudes
of India, Mesopotamia, and, to a less extent, Turkey.
In order to unravel some pieces of the tangled skein it
is essential to set forth the spiritual pedigree of the
Order." For this reason and also because its study is
of more interest than of those of other Religious
Orders we proceed to indicate the 'chain of succession'
of i-his Order as given by Rose a - with some alterations
and adaptations to bring it in line with the Indian
tradition of its history.

1. Muhammad

2. Abu Bakr

3. Salmanu '1-Farsi; the Persian companion of
Muhammad.

4. Qasim, a son of Abu Bakr.

5. Ja'far adiq, a grandson of Qasim from his
mother's side, and the seventh Shi'a Imam

6. Bayazid of Bistam, (d. 875 A. D.)the founder of
the Tayfurl Khanwada. As he was born after the
death of Ja'far adiq he is believed to have been
spiritually instructed by him. The living medium
is said to have been an Indian, one Abu 'All of
Sind.

7. Abu'l-Hasan Kharqan! (d. 1033-34 A. $>). He
was born after the death of Bayazid and hence is said

(1) Ibid Appendix I. p. 435.

188 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

to have been spiritually instructed by him. Some
writers give as an alternative to Abu'l-Hasan, the
name of Abu'l-Qasim Gurganl.

8. Shaykh 4 All Farmadl (d. 1078 A. D.). He was
a contemporary of 'Allu'l-Hujwiri, who has spoken
highly of him in his Kashful-Mahjub.

9. Khwaja Abu Yusuf Hamadam (d. 1140 A. D.).
One of his disciples was Ahmad Yasawl, a saint of great
importance. He takes his title from Yasl, or Hadrat-i-
Yasl, as it was commonly called, a place on the north
of Tashkand on the road to Orenburg. Ahmad Yasawi
founded a school of mystic, to which in the fourth
generation belonged Hakim 'Ata, the founder of the
Bakhtashiyya and patron saint of Janissaries.

10. Khwaja 'Abdu'l-Khaliq GhujdawanI (d. 1179-80
A. D.). He was born at Ghujdawan, six farsakh from
Bukhara. MSS. of his works still exist, but little really
is known about him, except that he studied under the
above-mentioned Shaykh Abu Yusuf. It was he who
formulated the first eight of the eleven rules, to be des-
cribed below, which constitute the tariqa of the
Khwajas. According to Hartman, 'Abdu'l-Khaliq was
taught the habs-i-dam or restraining of the breath by
Khidr, a practice common to one of the forms of the
Yoga.

11. Khwaja *Arif Rewgari. The saint took his
title from Rewgar a place in the neighbourhood of
Bukhara. His death is assigned to the year 1315-16
A. D. but as his pir died in 1179-80 A. D. he must have
either lived to a very old age or like other saints of

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 189

this Order, received his instruction spiritually from the
departed plr.

12. Khwaja Mahmud Anjir Faghnawi. The last
name is derived from Faghna a place in the neighbour-
hood of Bukhara, where he was born. There is much
uncertainty about the date of his death, which is
assigned to any year between 1272 and 1316 A. D.

13. Khwaja 'Azizan Shaykh 'All Ramitam (d. 1306
or 1321 A. D.). Ramitan is also a place near Bukhara.

14. Khwaja Muhammad Baba Samasi (d. 1340 or
1354 A. D.). He was born in Samasi a dependency
of Ramitan, lying three farsakh from Bukhara.

15. Khwaja Amir Sayyid Kulal Sokhari (d. 1371
A. D.). Sokhar, two farsakhs from Bukhara, was the
place where he was born and buried. He worked as
a potter (kulal).

16. Khwaja BahaVd-Dm Naqshband. The founder
of the Order was born in 1318 A. D. in Qasr-i-Arifdn,
two miles from Bukhara, where he also died and
was buried in 1389 A. D. at the age of 73. (1)

Prior to the time of BahaVd-Dln the school of
Mystics, with which, as we have shown, his name is
closely linked, was known by the name of Tariqa-i-
Khivdjagdn, but since his days it has been called
Tariqa-i-Naqshbandiyya.

In the above pedigree we have shown that the most
of its saints lived in the neighbourhood of Bukhara. It

(1) Sec Rose, The Danishes, Appendix I, pp. 435-6 and also
Khazinatu'l-Asfiya, (Nawalkishor, Cawnpore; Vol II pp. 517-548
Hadratu'l-Quds (Manzil-i-Naqshbandiyya, Lahore).

190 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

is also noticeable that there were several breaks in the
continuity of its line of succession. But it is held th^t,
since there is vital communion between all the saints,
dead or alive, a Shaykh and his predecessor need not
be contemporaries. One may receive as real an autho-
rity from a saint who died several centuries ago, as
from one who may be living in one's life-time. In
other words, the succession consists rather in confor-
mity to the spirit of the Shaykh than in mere formal
adherence to one's pir. Further, in this Order there
appears a progressive development of its doctrine, and
that, for the most part, in keeping with the teaching
of orthodox Islam. In consequence, of all the ufi
Orders, this one is the most orthodox in its practice.

As has been mentioned more than once, this is
one of the very few Orders which traces its line of
succession to Abu Bakr. This has been done perhaps,
to safeguard it against the intrusion of the idea that
Islam has an esoteric aspect. Such a notion has been
the fruitful source of many 'innovations' in Islam, and
is a common feature of most of the religious sects and
Darwish Orders which claim 'All as their head.

The orthodoxy of the followers of this Order does
not permit them to practise Qhikr-i-jali, which is
recited aloud, but Qhikr-t-khafi, repeated in a low
voice.

There are eleven rules which a Naqshbandl is
required to observe. The first eight, as stated, were
divised by 'Abdu'l-gjialiq and the last three by
Baha'u'd-Dln. They are as follows:

THE FOUR MAIN ORDERS 191

1. Hoshdardam. 'Awareness while breathing/ Not
a breath may be inhaled or exhaled in the state of
forget-fulness of the Divine Presence.

2. Nazar bar qadam. 4 Watching the steps/ A
ufl in walking should always have his eyes on his
footsteps. This he is directed to do in order to
restrain his mind from wandering, and to be able
to concentrate his attention on the Divine Presence.

3. Safar dar watan. 'Journey within one's own
land." A ufl should always keep in mind that
he is making a 'journey' from human to angelic
stages.

4. Jfchilwat dar anjuman. 'Ability to enjoy soli-
tude even while in an assembly/ Here the aim is to
achieve such power of concentration that, while busy
in the affairs of the world, one may be able to meditate
upon God.

5. Ydd karo. 'Remember/ Never forget the aim
which a ufl has chosen in his life. Sometimes it is
said to mean remembering the dhikr which one has
learnt from the pir.

6. Bdz gasht, 'Restraint/ While practising the
dhikr, the ufi should stop at short intervals and say
some extemporary prayers or repeat the following
words: 'O Lord, Thou only art my goal. I renounce
the benefits of this world and of the world to come
for Thine own sake; bestow upon me Thy blessings and
grant me Thy vision/

7. Nigah ddsht. 'Be watchful/ The ufi is asked
to shut out the affections of the mind. It also means

192 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

that the mind is to guard against the intrusions of evil
thought.

8. Yad dasht. 'Recollect/ To concentrate upon
the Divine Presence without the aid of words or
ideas.

9. IVuquf-i-Zamanl. 'Temporal Pause'. To exa-
mine how one has spent one's time.

10. Wuquf-i-Adadl. 4 Numbering Pause'. To know
whether the formula of dhikr has been repeated
as many times as directed by the plr.

11. Wuquf-i-Qalln. 'Heart Pause'. To form in
the mind a picture of one's heart with the word Allah
engraved upon it in Arabic characters.

CHAPTER XI
The Chishti Order.

KHWAJA MU'INU'D-DIN CHISHTI

The Chishti Order was the first important religious
Order to be established in India. It was founded by
KhwSja Abu Ishaq Shim! Chishti, a brief description of
whose life has already been given in the preceding chap-
ter, and was introduced into this country by Khwaja
Mu'inu'd-Din Chishti Sanjari Ajmeri, who was eighth
in the line ot succession from the founder of the Order.
He was born in the town of San jar in Sistan 1142-43
A. D., or according other authorities, in 1136 A. D. He
traced his descent on his mother's side from Hasan, and
on his father's side from Husayn, the grandsons of Mu-
hammad. His ancestors for several generations were
reputed to be mystics, for this reason his own inclina-
tion to mysticism, signs of which appeared in his early
youth, might be said to be hereditary. At the death of
his father, whom he lost when he was only fourteen
years old, he received as his portion of the inheritance a
garden and a mill-stone, and these were his only means
of subsistence.

When he was still young, his native place Sanjar
was sacked by Tartars, and the sight of the massacre
and awful atrocities committed by the invaders probably
intensified his feeling that the world was a place of
vanity. Thi^impression was the more deeply engraved

194 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

upon his mind by his contact with a certain Shavkh
Ibrahim Qandozl, who was held in high esteem for the
sanctity of his life and because he was subject to state
of ecstasy. It was to him that Mu'inu'd-Dln owed his
violent experience of 'conversion', whereby . he finally
broke away from the world and adopted the life of a
recluse. It is stated that once when Mu'inu'd Din was
watering the plants of his gardeiy Shaykh Ibrahim
Qandozi happened to pass by. On seeing him, Mu'lnu'd-
Dm ran out and with great respect conducted him into
his garden and presented to him some of its choicest
fruits. Shaykh Ibrahim, pleased at his warm hospitality,
is said to have transmitted to him his own deep spiritual
vitality. There was thus effected, in one instant by a
symbolic operation, a complete and lasting transforma-
tion in Mu'inu'd-Dm's life. This sacramental act of
'transmission 1 was performed by an outward sign
connected with a piece of bread, which Ibrahim, taking
out of his wallet first chewed and then handed to
Mu'inu'd-Dm for him to eat. This bread having been
in close contact with the holy man was believed to
possess supernatural power, and is said to have acted
like magic, imparting to him, in an instant, all spiritual
knowledge, with the result that he at once resolved to
renounce whatever worldly possessions he had. He
therefore sold all that belonged to him and whatever
he realized thereby he distributed among the poor.

This is the only occassion when Shaykh Ibrahim's
name is mentioned in connection with Mu'lnu'd-Dm,
but we shall not be far wrong if we surmise that the

THE CHISTI ORDER 195

young boy of Sanjar, with his inborn religious dis-
position, must have met his fellow-townsman more
than once, for the man had a great reputation as a
very spiritually-minded person. What passed in the
mind of Mulnu'd-Dln in that hour of his deep spiri-
tual experience when he met the holy man in his
garden must remain a secret shrouded in mystery, such
as veils the experience of many lives as being too
sacred to disclose. The incident, however, illustrates
the fact that contact with a saintly person increases
the fervour of one's spiritual life, and in this way
stimulates one's love towards God. The story of a
great change in Mu'inu'd-Din's life, as described by
his biographers, also illustrates incidently the striking
belief of Muslim mystics that spiritual vitality can be
transmitted through some material substance, which
has been in intimate contact with the person of a holy
man. Thus saliva, or any portion of food that has
been chewed by such persons, is regarded as surcharg-
ed with spiritual power that has emanated from them-
selves.

However that may be, Khwaja Mu 4 inu'd-Dm f
after his complete renunciation of the world, entered
upon the life of a wandering hermit in search of a
spiritual guide. First he spent a couple of years in
Samarqand to complete his religious education, and
then he went to Bukhara for further study of the
Quran under the guidance of Mawlana Hisamu'd-Din
Bukharl, a mystic and renowned exponent of the
Muslim scriptures. Eventually be came to Harun, a

196 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

town in the province of NlshSpur, where he was
formally initiated as a disciple of Khwaja 4 Uthman
Harunl, a famous saint of the Christ! Order. After he
had served his master for a long time how long the
authorities differ, though some make it a period of
twenty years he was appointed as his vice-gerent and
directed to go to India. Some biographers mention
that it was the Prophet Muhammad himself who, in a
vision, asked him to go to India as his representa-
tive and convert the idolaters to the faith of Islam.
In any case Khwaja Mu'mu'd-Din taking leave of his
spiritual master, started out on his long journey which
was to end finally at Ajmer in India.

To appreciate the spiritual merit said to have been
acquired by Mu'mu'd-Dm on his journey, it is neces-
sary to remember that, according to ufi doctrine,
mysticism does not merely consist of knowledge to be
acquired but includes power and illumination that may
be gained through personal contact with living saints.
Such spiritual power and illumination may also be
sought and received at the tomb of a departed saint.
The ufi in other words, believes literally in 4 the
communion of saints 1 . That 'Friends of God 1 do not
die, is a part of his creed. To him this means com-
munion with all saints, whether still alive and waiting
for the call of their Beloved, or departed to enjoy that
eternal union with God for which, while alive, they
had denied themselves the riches of this world and
despised the rewards of paradise and the torments of
hell. Consequently the degree of the spiritual sanctity

THE CHISTI ORDER 197

of a mystic is often determined by the number of
saints with whom he has actually come in contact, and
the number of shrines he has visited.

The hagiographers of Islam, anxious to enhance the
sanctity and degree of .spiritual power of Mu'lnu'd-
Dln, describe at length how he met all the famous
saints of that period and visited all the shrines, in the
course of his long journey from Nishapur to Ajmer.
First he came to Baghdad, where he is said to have
met the great Ghawth 4 Abdu' 1-Qadir Gilani, the
founder of the Qadiri Order. There he also met
Abu'n-Najib Suhrawardl and his son and successor
Shihabu'd-Dln the most renowned saints of the Suh-
rawardl Order. Thus Mu'mu'd-Dln, though belonging to
the Chishtl Order, was also endowed with the spiritual
gifts of these other two famous religious Orders.
Qadiriyya and Suhrawardiyya. Then passing through
Hamadan and Tabriz he met in turn Shaykh Abu Yusuf
Hamadani, and Abu Sa 4 ld Tabriz!. The former was a
mystic of great fame, and the latter was the spiritual
teacher of the renowned saint Mawlana Jalalu'd-Dln
Ruml, author of Mathnaun. Again, in Isfahan he met
KJjwaja Qutbu'd-Dln Bakjjtiyar Kakl, then in search
of a spiritual guide. This man was destined to be his
own famous disciple and spiritual successor in India.
Passing through Mehna, he visited the tomb of the
saint Abu Sa'ld Abu'l-Kbayr, and in Khirqan he visited
the tomb of Abu'l-Hasan JjChirqanL Then, when he
came to Astrabad he met Shayl^bl Nasiru'd-Dm, an-
other saint with a great reputation. In Herat he

198 SUn SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

stopped for some time at the tomb of ImSm 'Abdullah
AnsSri, who had been a companion of the Prophet.
Leaving Herat he came to a place known as Sabzwar,
where the first incident in demonstration of his spiri-
tual power is said to have taken place. This was
connected with the miraculous conversion of Muham-
mad Yadgar, the Governor of that place. This man
was notorious for his bad conduct, and had acquired
great wealth by extortion. As Mu'lnu'd-Dln passed
through his territory he happened to enter his garden,
and there spread out his carpet by the tank to rest.
Yadgar's servants requested him to quit the place and to
take shelter somewhere else, explaining that their
master, the owner, was shortly expected, and if he found
him in his garden he would deal severely with them-
selves, and might possibly drive him out with insult.
Mu'Inu'd-Din, however, would not be persuaded to
leave the garden, either by entreaties or threats. In the
meantime the Governor appeared on the scene and
advanced towards Mu'inu'd-Dln in a threatening atti-
tude, but as soon as he met the steady gaze of his serious
eyes, fear and trembling seized hold of him, and he saw so
clearly the evil state of his own sinful soul, that he
was filled with dread of eternal punishment. The
narrative goes on to say that in the silence that
followed a battle went on in the Governor's soul, the
issue of which wrought a tremendous change in him.
The once haughty man, now repentant for his past
sins and resolved to make amends for the future,
threw himself at the feet of Mu'inu'd-Din, and in

THE CHISTI ORDER 199

words like those of Zacchaeus said: "Master, I repent
of all my evil deeds, and promise that whatever I
have acquired by unjust method, I will return with
compensation; and in expiation of my past iniquities
I will bestow the rest of my goods on the poor. And
do thou accept me as one of thy disciples." Then
Mu'lnu'd-Din shared with him a cup of water, drinking
half himself and giving the rest to him. In the perfor-
mance of this sacramental act he is said to have
transmitted some of his own spiritual power to the
new disciple. The effect of the water thus drunk was
instantaneous, for we are told that a radical change
came over the man, his heart was illuminated and
the former notorious sinner was changed into a saint.
In accordance with his declaration he sold all that he
had, compensated those he had injured, and distributed
what was left to the poor. Finally, he set at liberty
all his slaves. The proud Governor, now a humble
disciple divested of all his worldly encumbrances,
accompanied his new master as far as Hisar Shadman
where, after receiving his final instructions, he remain-
ed as his vice-gerent, seeking to lead others into the
mystic path.

Leaving Balkh, Mu'Inu'd-Din passed on his way
through numerous towns and cities, visiting shrines,
meeting the leading saints and scholars of his time,
working miracles, turning sinners into saints, and
converting into Islam here a group of Magi and there
a village of idolaters. Advancing thus like a victor
who subdues his opponents and receives homage from

200 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

his adherents, Mu k lnu'd-Dln entered India and march-
ing over the frontier came to the Punjab, which had
already been conquered and subdued by invaders
from the North. In Lahore he spent some time in
meditation at the tomb of Data Ganj Bakhsh. At
the distance of a yard from the grave of this saint
a small structure is pointed out as the site of the
hut occupied by Mu'lnu'd-Dln during his residence at
the tomb. From Lahore he went to Delhi, where
through his miracles he is said to have converted many
Hindus to the faith of Islam. Eventually in 1165-66
A.D he reached Ajmer which was destined to be his
last resting place, and the Mecca of the members of
the Chishti Order throughout the world, f

The narrative of his early residence in Ajmer is
embellished with stories of supernatural events, such as
miracles performed by himself, but these have not the
slightest historical value. Nevertheless we give a brief
description of some of these here, so as to acquaint the
reader with Muslim ideas of this renowned saint.

In Ajmer he came into conflict with the ruling
prince, Raja Prithvl Raj, who resented his entrance
into his dominion, and a struggle followed between the
saint and the court magicians. The discomfiture of
the Raja's magicians before the miraculous power of
Mu'lnu'd-Din is described in terms no less striking
and impressive than those used of the men who
opposed Moses in the court of Pharaoh.

On first entering the city the spot selected by
Mu'lnu'd-Din as a resting place happened to be the

THE CHISTI ORDER 201

place reserved for the Raja's camels, and he was not
allowed to stay there. The saint, after pronouncing a
curse on the camels, which deprived them of the power
to rise from the ground, took shelter under a tree on
the banks of lake Anasagar. The following morning
the drivers found that the camels could not be made to
stand up. Concluding that this mishap was the result
of the discourtesy which they had shown to the saint,
they sought him out and apologised for their rudeness,
and begged him to restore the camels to their normal
state. Instantly at a sign from Mu^lnu'd-Dln, the
camels recovered their power and stood up. News
of this miracle soon spread throughout the city, so
that everybody was talking about it. The Raja thus
hearing of the intrusion of a Muslim mendicant into
his territory became exceedingly angry and ordered
his expulsion. When a body of soldiers approached
the saint with a view to carrying out their master's
orders, he, like Muhammad on the occasion of his
memorable flight to Medina, took up a handful of dust
and threw it over them. This imitation of the
Prophet's act resulted in similar disastrous conse-
quences, some of the soldiers being struck with blind-
ness, others with paralysis. Rendered powerless by
the miraculous act of Mu'lnu'd-Din, they invoked his
help and were quickly restored to their normal condi-
tion, on accepting Islam. Physical force having failed
to expel him from his territory, the Raja strove to
overthrow this champion of Islam in intellectual
combat, hoping that by this means Mu'inu'd-Din

202 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

would acknowledge his defeat and leave the country
crestfallen. Consequently on the following morning
Ram Dev, the royal mahant, together with hundreds
of leading pandits, was ordered to meet Mu'lnu'd-Din
in religious debate. One glance from the saint was
sufficient to disclose to the mahant the falsity of his
own polytheistic beliefs, and to reveal to him the truth
and beauty of Islam. Thus conquered and subdued
he became a Muslim. Thereupon Mu'inu'd-Dm drank
some water from a cup and passed it on to the mahant
for him to finish. When he had done so a miraculous
change came over him, his heart was illuminated, and
he sought to be admitted into the saint's discipleship.
Mu'inu'd-Din performed the usual rites of initiation
and changed his name from Ram Dev to Shadi Dev.
According to some biographers, his former name was
not Dev but Deo, the latter meaning an evil spirit.
Thus it came about that he is believed by some to be
still alive as a supernatural being, and persons sup-
posed to be possessed of evil spirits invoke his name
during the annual 'urs of the saint at Ajmer. In
writing these two names in Persian character there
is of course no difference between Dev and Deo, and
it is most probable that this peculiar belief about Ram
Dev first arose through a confusion in the reading of
his name.

The Raja's discomfiture was now complete. He
had failed to vanquish the saint through the help of
his soldiers, who indeed had proved traitors to his
cause; the royal mahant had not only ignominously

THE CHISTI ORDER 203

failed him but had himself fallen a victim to the power
of this Muslim beggar. Alarmed at Mu'mu'd-Din's
supernatural power, the Raja next sought the assistance
of Jaypal Jogi, the chief magician of the court. Muslim
narrators at this point give the most extraordinary
account of the conflict which is supposed to have
taken place between Mu'lnu'd-Din and this magician;
in fact the story of the display of supernatural power
on both sides surpasses even the wonders of Egypt
during the time of Moses.

Jaypal, accompanied by a thousand of his disciples,
advanced to meet Mu'mu'd-Dln in a combat which
was to be conducted by invisible forces, and as his first
precautionary measure, he took control of lake Ana-
sagar, and so cut off the water supply of the saint and
his followers. His object in doing this was not merely to
deprive the Muslims of water to drink, but more
especially to prevent them from performing their legal
ablutions, without which, Jaypal evidently was aware,
prayers offered as a protection against the evil influence
of the black art would be ineffective. Shadi Dev, the new
convert to Islam, acting under the orders of Mu'lnu'd-
Din, somehow managed to get a bucketful of water
from the lake. He had no sooner carried out the order,
than the water of the entire lake, and of all the wells
and water-reservoirs in Ajmer became absolutely dry.
When the distress of the people through lack of water
became very great, Jaypal approached Mu'lnu'd-Dm
and thus addressed him. "You pretend to be a holy
man, and yet you deliberately permit men, women and

204 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

children to suffer the torments of thirst; such callous-
ness is not in keeping with your pretensions."
Mu'mu'd-Din, moved by his rebuke, ordered the con-
tents of the bucket to be poured back into the lake,
and instantly the water supply of Ajmer was restored
to its normal proportions. Then ensued a series of
magical attacks initiated by Jaypal, but these were all
repelled by the efficacy of the saint's prayers. To
mention only a few by way of illustration: hundreds
of ferocious animals and reptiles, such as lions, tigers,
snakes, scorpions, etc. would appear from all directions
at the command of the royal magician, and dart towards
Mu'mu'd-Din, but they disappeared as soon as they
touched the magic circle which the saint had drawn
round himself and his disciples. Then fire would
descend from above, reducing all the neighbouring trees
to ashes, but not a spark would enter in the protective
circle. Failing in such displays of his magical art,
Jaypal then spread out his carpet of deer skin, and
seating himself thereon, flew high into the air, but
Mu'inu'd-Din despatched his wooden clog after him,
which beat him and drove him down to earth again.
Thus defeated and humiliated, Jaypal accepted Islam,
and was re-named 'Abdullah 1 . He then requested
Mu'lnu'd-Din to pray for him that he might remain
alive till the day of judgment. The saint assured him
that the favour would be granted, but informed him
that on the expiration of the natural length of life, he
would become invisible. This story accounts for the
belief which is current among the devotees of Mu'inu'd-

THE CHISTI ORDER 205

Din that Jaypal, or 'Abdu'llSh is still alive in Ajmer,
and that when pilgrims to the shrine lose their path
it is he who guides them, and when they are in distress
it is he who helps them. In consequence, it is a
common practice among the pilgrims at Ajmer to
invoke him by the name of 'Abdu'llah Baybanl i. e.,
'Abdu'llah of the wilderness, it being supposed that
he haunts the wilderness in the neighbourhood of
Ajmer.

Mu'Inu'd-Dm, thus triumphant over all the devices
of the Raja, was now permitted to reside in Ajmer
peacefully and even to start making disciples. Neverthe-
less biographers state that, after some time, the Raja
began to persecute his disciples, and, in particular, to
oppose plans for the conversion of Hindus to Islam.
Mu'lnu'd-Dln exasperated at the behaviour of the Raja,
is said to have ejaculated in words that were meant to
indicate the supreme authority granted to him by God
over India: "I herewith hand over Prithvi Raj alive
into the hands of king Shihbu'd-Dln!" It is said that
a few days later this fate actually befell him for it was
in 1192 A. D. the year in question, that Sultan Shihabu'd-
Dln Muhammad Gborl marched from Ghor with a
large army to fight against the Raja. A decisive battle
was fought at Sirhind in which the Raja was defeated
and taken prisoner. Shihabu'd-Din attributing his
victory to the blessing of the saint, came to Ajmer to
pay him his respects, and while there he transformed
the great temple into a mosque in the brief space of
two and a half days. It is for this reason that the

206 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

building, as it stands to-day, is called Dhd'i Din kd
Jhonprd, the two-and-a-half-day structure.

Shihabu'd-Din at the conclusion of his campaign
appointed one of his slaves named, Qutbu'd-Dln, to be
his viceroy in Delhi, and this man, on the death of his
master, founded the Slave Dynasty.

It appears that Mu'mu'd-Din remained a celibate
even to old age, but eventually he married, though his
age at the time cannot be stated with certainty. The
Muslim narrators make him out to have been eighty-
nine years old, and say that he took two wives by whom
he had four children. There is undoubtedly some
discrepancy about his age, and in any case chronology
is not a strong point with these biographers. It seems
clear, however, that his wedded life began after the
conquest of Ajmer by Shihabu'd-Din. His first wife
was Ummatu'llah, who, according to some, was the
daughter of the Muslim Governor of the fort in Ajmer.
Others, however, say that she was the daughter of
some Hindu prince, and that she was taken captive at
the conquest of Ajmer and presented to Mu'mu'd-Din
who first converted her to the faith of Islam and then
married her. His second wife, 4 Asmatu'llah, was the
daughter of a leading Muslim of that time. His first wife
gave birth to a daughter only, Bibi Hafis Jamal, who
became renowned for her piety and austerity. She
was appointed as one of the successors to Mu 4 inu'd-Din,
and was by him authorised to make disciples of women.
She is one of the very few women saints of Islam to
whom this privilege is said to have been granted. She

THE CHISTI ORDER 207

was married to one Shaykh Riyadu'd-Dln, by whom
she had two children, both of whom died in infancy.
Bib! Hafiz Jamal lies buried near the tomb of Mu'inu'd-
Din. By his second wife, 'Asmatu'llah, he had three
children. His first-born, Hisamu'd-Din, mysteriously
disappeared in infancy. Some Muslims say that he
was a great favourite with the Abdals, and that he
joined them when a child and so was never seen again.
His second son, Fakhru'd-Din, took to farming, and
passed his life in a village some thirty miles from Ajmer,
and died twenty years after his father. His third son,
Abu Sa 4 ld, dwelt in Ajmer where he died and was
buried within the shrine of Mu'in'ud-Din, in a porch
under a marble dome known as Karnatakl Dalan,
(Karnatak porch). Mu'lnud-Dln's two wives lie buried
near a mosque called Masjid-i-Sandal. ,

Khwaja Mu k mu'd-Din himself died in 1236 A. D.
His tomb in Ajmer is the most celebrated of all shrines
in India. On the occasion of his 'urs, which celebrates
the anniversary of his death, Muslims from every part
of India make pilgrimage to it. A remarkable feature
of the celebrations at this time is that of cooking rice
with several other ingredients in two huge cauldrons
and then the distribution of it in portions to pilgrims
and visitors. This is the only shrine, so far as we know,
where no Christian is permitted to enter. This re-
striction was imposed not very long ago owing to the
careless behaviour of certain European visitors.

There are several mosques connected with the
dargdh, one of these was built by Akbar. In it there is

208 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

a Madrasa, largely supported by grants from H. E. H.
the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Emperor Akbar became
greatly devoled to the Khwaja from the time that he
had a son in answer to the prayer of a Chishtl saint,
Shaykh Sallm, a descendant of Baba Farld. This saint
had taken up his abode in a cave some 23 miles from
Agra. When that son, afterwards to rule as Jehaoglr,
was born to Akbar, he was named Sallm after the
saint, and that area in which v/as the cave of the saint,
became transformed into the famous capital city of
Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar also made annual pilgri-
mage to Ajmer every year and distributed large gifts
in honour of Khwaja Mu'in ud-Dln.

CHAPTER XII

The Chishti Order after the death of
Mu'inu'd-Din.

1. KHWAJA QUTBU'D-DIN

Two of the lesser known vice-gerents of Mu'inu'd-
founded minor sub-divisions in the Chishti Orders.
Very little is known about these men beyond their
names. One was Shah 'Abdullah Karmani of Bengal,
who founded the Karmanl Order, the other was Hadrat
Pir Karim of Ceylon, who founded the Karimi Order.
Muslim Hagiographers are for the most part silent
about their activities. We do not know that the fame
of Mu'inu'd-Din had, in his life-time, extended as far
as Bengal and Ceylon. So that we cannot say whether
these men came of set purpose to Ajmer, or whether
they were merely adventurers and by chance met with
Mu'inu'd-Din and became his disciples. The presence,
however, of large numbers of devotees of Mu'inu'd-
Din in Bengal to-day, is clear indication of that
country's early contact with the saint of Ajmer.

But the chief successor and heir to all the spiritual
gifts of Mu'inu'd-Din was Qu^bu'd-Din Kki. In
Islamic hagiography he is portrayed as one of the few
saints who, from their very birth exhibited tokens of
special divine favour, and whose subsequent spiritual
dignity was foreshadowed by portents accompanying
the natural development of their physical and mental

210 SUFI SAINT AND SHRINES IN INDIA

life. Records of saints of this type indicate the uft
belief in the doctrine of election. Just as according to
Muslim theologians God chooses the Prophets without
any regard to their merits, as an especially privileged
body of people to be His messengers and His friends,
so, according to certain ufis, He elects some of His
saints even before their birth to be His favourites, His
lovers or Beloved. Although belief in such "predes-
tinated-saints" forms no part of early Tasawwuf, they
occupy a prominent place in Indian hagiography.

There can be no doubt, however, that miracles
ascribed to their infancy, and this belief in their "pre-
ordained spiritual dignity/ 1 must have been invented
by their devotees long after their death, for these
saints do not seem to have claimed such high privileges
for themselves.

Qutbu'd-Dln is described as one of the favourite
saints of God. He was born in 1186 A. D. at Farghana
in Isfahan. ' Many miraculous events are said to have
occurred at his birth. His biographers, describing the
events of the night in which he was born, say that the
whole house was illuminated with a dazzling light, and
that as soon as he was born, he bowed his head in
adoration to God, and continued in loud Qhikr till the
morning. It is also related that his mother knew half
the Quran by heart, and that the child, hearing her
recite it had himself learnt that portion while still an
infant.

We are told that he came of noble lineage though
his home was not a wealthy one. He himself claimed

CHISTI ORDER AFTER MU'INU'DIN 211

to be a descendant of the Prophet, and his genealogical
tree shows him to be the sixteenth in line from Husayn,
the grandson of Muhammad, and ninth from the eighth
Imam directly descended from 'All. It further appears
that almost all his ancestors were mystics, so that the
very blood of ufis ran in his veins. Indeed, if we are
to believe our sources, he began, in early life, to show
signs of the mystic's temperament. His father died
when he was a little child and he was brought up
solely by his mother, a pious and God-fearing woman.
There can be little doubt that he owed much of his
religious discipline to the early training of his devoted
mother.

1 He received his instruction in Tasawwuf from
several teachers, in his time Baghdad was not only a
centre of secular and religious learning but also of
mysticism, and it was there that he studied it under
its most renowned teachers, chief of whom was
Shihabu'd-Din Suhrawardi, the founder of the order
of that name. The fame of Baghdad as the scene of
the activities of such noted saints as Shihabu'd-Dln
Suhrawardi and 'Abdu'l-Qadir Gilani, had drawn
Mu'inu'd-Dln there while on his way to India and it
was while young ( Qutbu'd-Din was there studying that
he met Mu'inu'd-Dm in the mosque of Abu'l-Laytfa,
and accepted his discipleship. j

Soon after Mu'lnu'd-Din had settled down in
Ajmer Qutbu'd-Din left Baghdd, and following the
footsteps of his master, made his way towards India.
As he journeyed he paid the customary visits to the

212 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

tombs and shrines of the saints, and met the living
ufis of his day. In Multan he stayed for some time
with Baha'u'd-Dln Zakariya and Jalalu'd-Din TabrizI,
both pioneer saints of the Suhrawardi Order. His
fame as a saint had already preceded his appearance
in India, so that when at length he reached the Muslim
capital of Delhi, having followed the routes taken by
his master before him he was hailed with every token
of honour and respect. The king and the populace
conducted him into the city and prevailed upon him to
take up his abode there. Mu l inu'd-Din hearing the
news of his arrival in Delhi, appointed him his vice-
gevent and permitted him to stay there.

It was during this period that the pioneer saints of
the Suhrawardi order were trying to establish them-
selves in India. For instance, Baha'u'd-Din Zakariya
had made Multan a centre of the Order. Again,
Jalalu'd-Din, his fellow-disciple had on the request of
King Altamash, taken up his abode temporarily in
Delhi, nevertheless marked preference was shown for
the Chishti Order. King Altamash himself, successor
of Sultan Qutbu'd-Din, the founder of the slave
dynasty, by professing his allegiance to this order had
given it his royal patronage, holding Qutbu'd-Din his
spiritual master in the highest esteem.

When the office of the chief Qadi in Delhi fell
vacant, the king, anxious to show his regard for
Qutbu'd-Din offered it to him, but he declined it. Sub-
sequently Najmu'd-Dln Sughra, a notable scholar and
close friend of Mu'inu'd-Din, was appointed to the

CHISTI ORDER AFTER MU'INU'DIN 213

office. Even so these saints who enjoyed such royal
support, were from time to time victims of the
intrigues and jealousy of high officials. f

The following incident serves to illustrate the state
of things that existed. Najmu'd-Din Sughra was at
first a friend of Qutbu'd-Dln, but on being promoted,
from the office of the chief Qadi to the dignity of
Shaykhu'l-Islam, he became very jealous of him. In
particular he was jealous of his increasing popularity
with the people, and exceedingly vexed at the honour in
which he was held by the king. He tried every means
he knew to bring discredit upon him, but failed. During
a brief visit of Mu'mu'd-Dln to Delhi he found an
opportunity to complain to him against Qutbu'd-Dln in
words that clearly revealed his hatred. The master be-
coming thus apprehensive for the safety of his beloved
disciple, spoke to him before leaving for Ajmer, in the
following affectionate manner: "My son Qutbu'd-Din!
I desire that you should come along with me to Ajmer
and that there, as my successor, you should exercise
authority as spiritual guide/' Thus Qutbu'd-Din,
always obedient to his master's instructions, left Delhi
in the company of his master after bidding farewell, to
his friends and disciples. It is said, however, that when
they reached the gate of the city, the king and almost
the whole population, stricken with grief followed
them with loud lamentation, and urged Qutbu'd-Din to
return to the city. Mu'inu'd-Din was deeply moved
by the touching scene, and commending Qutbu'd-Din
to the protection of God, allowed him to return.

214 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
QUTBU'D-DIN'S TITLES.

Qutbu'd-Din is known by the two titles of "Bakhti-
yar" and "Kaki", which mean respectively "a friend of
fortune," and a "man of cakes 1 '. The name Bakhtivar
was given to him by his master Mu'inu'd-Din but how
he acquired the other is variously explained. The
following is the account of its origin as given by
Nizamu'd-Din of Delhi who was second in the line of
succession from Qutbu'd-Din. He relates how that
once when Qutbu'd-Din was sitting near the tank
known as Shamsiya in Delhi, some friends of his drew
near and expressed a desire to eat hot cakes. The
saint at once plunged his hand into the water of the
tank and drew forth just such cakes as his friends
desired, and from that day he came to be spoken of by
this name of Kaki.

HIS DEATH.

Early biographers of Qutbu'd-Din have left us a
vivid account of the last days of this remarkable man.
They describe how he himself selected the very spot
where he desired to be buried and the stipulation he
made concerning the person who alone should be
allowed to wash his corpse. Towards the close of his
life he named Faridu'd-Din, his disciple, as his successor,
though the latter was not present when the end came.
One of Qufbu'd-Din's last acts was to bid his disciples
to make over to Faridu'd-Din his robe, prayer-carpet,
shoes and staff, properties which since the commence-

CHISTI ORDER AFTER MU'INU'DIN 215

ment of the order had been passed on from master to
successor, and were thus regarded as holy relics.

MUSIC IN THE CHISHTI ORDER.

A characteristic feature of the mystics of this Order
is their use of music, and, although according to the
orthodox teaching of Islam such is forbidden to Muslims,
they attach great importance to it. They call it
Sama literally 'hearing 1 , but it is described by one of
the saints of the Order as "the hearing of harmonious
sounds which move the heart, and kindle the fire of
love for God/' It appears that through the influence
of Qutbu'd-Dln the custom of holding musical festivals
became very popular. The orthodox leaders were
alarmed at the frequency of such assemblies. In Delhi
music became the subject of fierce controversy between
the guardians of the shari'at and the ufls of this Order.

Thus the orthodox 'Ulama petitioned King Altamash
to put a stop to the use of music by exercising his
royal authority, but he, embarrassed on the one hand
by his loyalty to Qutbu'd-Dln and on the other by his
regard for the law of Islam, adopted a strictly neutral
attitude in the matter. But popular feeling triumphed
over orthodox opposition, and it is reported that festi-
vals of song, prolonged at times for several days, were
frequently held in Delhi.

2. BABA FARID SHAKARGANJ.
The Faridi section of the Chishti Order.

, Farldu'd-Din Mas'ud Shakarganj, who is popularly
spoken of as Bba Farid, was the chief successor of

216 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Qufbu'd-Din, and the section of the Chishti Order
founded by him is known as Faridiyya. It is said that
he belonged to a noble and ancient family of Kabul.
During the invasion of Chengiz Khan his grandfather
Shu'ayb with his family fled from their ancestoral
home and took refuge in the Punjab, where he was
appointed Qadi of Kathwal, a town in the district
of Multan. It was here that Farldu'd-Din was
born.

From his childhood he was deeply religious, and it
is probable that in early life he was much influenced
by Baha'u'dJDin Zakariya of the Suhrawardi Order, to
whom he owed all his education, though he did not
accept him as his guide in the mystic way. When
seventeen years' old he came in contact with Qutbu'd-
Dln during the latter's short stay in Multan and became
his disciple, receiving his initiation at his hands in the
Chishti Order. Soon after, having completed his reli-
gious and secular studies under Baha'u'd-Dln Zakariya,
he followed Qutbu'd-Din to Delhi. There he served
his master with great zeal and fervour, and led a life
of severe austerity and piety. Consequently his
fame spread far and wide, and soon crowds of people
began to come to him with urgent requests that he
would intercede with God for them. But disliking
popularity and prefering solitude, he left Delhi with
his master's permission and went to reside at Hansi.
Even here he was not allowed to pass his time in quiet-
ness and so fled to Ajodhya where he stayed for a
considerable time. The last sixteen years of his life,

CHISTI ORDER AFTER MU'INU'DIN 217

however, were spent at Kathwil in Multan, the scene
of his early life.

Many stories are current concerning his austerity
and self-mortification. He is said to be one of the
few saints of Islam who have performed their prayers
continuously for forty nights, and he did this hanging
head downwards, suspended by the feet in a well. We
are told that he used to take great care to conceal
his austerities. On the occasion of the prolonged
prayer just referred to, having searched diligently for
some place where he could remain unnoticed, he
sought the help of a friend who would tie him every
night in the required position, and at the same time
guard his secret closely. He found such a place
in a mosque in Uchh, the muadhdhin of which
agreed to hang him by his feet every night and
release him before the congregational prayer at
dawn.

THE ORIGIN OF HIS TITLE 'SHAKARGANJ\

A simple story is related in explanation of his title
'Shakarganf. It is said that his mother, in order to
inculcate in the child the habit of performing the
regular daily prayers, used to place a few sweets under
his prayer-carpet as an inducement. Once she neg-
lected to do so, but Farid, having rolled up his carpet
was not disappointed, because instead of the few sweets
he expected to find there was under the carpet an
abundant supply. His nickname Heaps of Sweets is
said to rest on this story!

218 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

OTHER TITLES.

Baba Farid is believed to be still a wonder-working
saint, and he is invoked by his devotees in time of
trouble. So high indeed is the esteem in which he is
held that he has been given no less than 101 titles, and
these are often repeated as a charm to heal the sick,
to escape affliction and to obtain one's desires. A few
of these titles are as follows; The Present, The Praised,
The Perfect, The Truthful, The Patient, The Great,
The Majestic, The First, The Last, The Outward, The
Inward, The Land, The Ocean, The Light of God, The
Sight of God, The Grace of God, The Liberality of God,
The Secret of God, The Spirit of God.

It will be noticed that some of these titles are to
be found in the famous Ninety-nine Beautiful Names
of God, e. g., The Truth, The Great. Moreover,
the titles, The First, The Last, The Outward and The
Inward, are the four names especially used by Muslim
mystics as attributes of God.

MARRIED LIFE AND DEATH.
He passed the greater part of his life as a celibate,
but married in his old age. His first wife is said to
have been Princess Huzaira, the daughter of Balban,
King of Delhi. Shortly afterwards he took two more
wives, who were the maid-servants presented by the
king to his daughter on the occasion of her marriage
to the saint. We are told that the king gave a handsome
dowry and a palace to his daughter, in order that she
might escape the sufferings of poverty as the wife of

CHISTI ORDER AFTER MUINU'DIN 219

a hermit, but she very soon decided to share the ascetic
life of her husband and consequently distributed her
entire wealth to the poor. According to certain
biographers Farid had six sons and four daughters.
The eldest son Shaykh Badru'd-Dln Sulayman, later
became one of his vice-gerents, while the youngest
daughter married 'All Ahmad abir, of Piran Kaliar, his
own nephew and one of his chief successors.

Baba Farid died at the age of 93, in 1265-6 A. D.
and was buried at Pak Patan in the Punjab, where his
'urs is celebrated every year on the 5th, Muharram.
His mausoleum contains a door, called "Bihishti Dar-
waza\ the Door of Paradise, which is opened only on
the day of his 4 wr5, on which occasion his devotees
make a point of passing through it. In explanation of
this name and practice it is said that once, when
Nizamu'd-Dln, the successor of Farldu'd-Dln, was
present at the shrine, he had a vision of Mahammad
standing at this door, and saying: "O Nijamu'd-Din
whosoever shall enter this door will be saved." Since
then the door has been known by the name of the Door
of Paradise.

CHAPTER XIII

The Nizami and Sabiri Sections of the
Chishti Order.

The Faridi section of the Chishti Order gave rise to
two streams of mystical teaching associated with two
famous disciples of Baba Farld, namely Nigamu'd-Din
Mahbub-i-Ilahl of Delhi, and 4 Alau'd-Dln 'All Ahmad
abir of Piran Kaliar. These two sub-divisions are
known respectively as the Nizamiyya and the abiriyya,
and no section of the Chishti order enjoys so great
popularity as these two, whose adherents exceed those
of any other branch.

1. THE NIZAMI SECTION OF THE CHISTI
ORDER.

Nizamu'd-Dln was himself born in Budaun in 1236-7
A.D. but his grandparents had come from Bukhara
and settled down in India. His father died when he
was a child of five and so he was indebted to his mother
Zulaykha for his early training. From the various
accounts left to us we gather that she was a very pious
woman, who exhibited extraordinary trust in God, and
there can be little doubt that it was owinr* to her early
influence that her son grew up to be spiritually-minded
and in consequence became one of the renowned
saints of Islam. Nizamu'd-Din proved himself to be an
obedient son and showed great affection for his mother.
Indeed, so strong was his attachment to her, and so

NIZAMI AND SABIRI OF CHISTI ORDER 221

great his reverence for her, that even after her death
he made it a habit to visit her tomb frequently.

When twenty years old he heard of the fame of
Baba Farld and went to Ajodhya, where the saint was
residing, and in due course he became his disciple.
After he had satisfied his master with his progress in
the mystic path, he was appointed his vice-gerent and
sent to Delhi. Here, however, his relations with suc-
cessive emperors were not happy. This was in part
due to the fact that he had made it a rule never to pay
a purely ceremonial visit to the royal court, and this
rule he observed so strictly that even when pressure
was brought to bear upon him by the emperors them-
selves he would not break it. Nevertheless the hostile
attitude of the rulers did not prevent leading personal-
ities of the royal court from becoming his disciples.
Moreover, so great was the esteem in which he was
held by the people that hundreds would come every
day from far and near to seek his blessing. The defiant
attitude of a person of such influence was considered
by the emperors to be dangerous, and the following
incident will illustrate the strained relations that were
apt to exist between the king and this saint.

In pursuance of an old custom of Muslim rulers, the
king, Mubarak Khiljl, at the appearance of a new moon
used to give audience to the courtiers and the leading
citizens of Delhi, and they in turn wished him happiness
and prosperity for the month. Nizamu'd-Din persistent-
ly refused on these occasions to visit the king and offer
the customary greeting. This was looked upon as an

222 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

4

affront to the king, who, in consequence, threatened
to take severe measures against Nisamu'd-Dln if he
absented himself at the next new moon. The saint on
being informed of the threat, visted his mother's tomb,
and after offering the usual prayers, he is reported tc
have said, "Dear mother, if the king i* not dead by the
appearance of the next moon, I shall never come to
your tomb again. 11 Now the fact is that by a strange
coincidence, at the time of the appearance of the new
moon, the king was put to death by a minion of his
court, a low caste Hindu, who styled himself Khusru
Khan. This slave inaugurated a reign of terror, but
Ghiyathu'd-Dln Taghlak having removed him, restored
order and founded a new dynasty. Even so the rela-
tion between the new king of Delhi and the saint con-
tinued to be strained. The latter's presence in Delhi
was in fact as intolerable to the new Sultan as it had
been to his predecessor. In 1325 A.D. when Sutaln
was returning from a successful expedition in Bengal,
he sent word to Nizamu'd-Dln to quit Delhi. The
saint on receiving the royal command gave expression
to the words: "Hanoz Delhi dur ast." "Delhi is still
far off 11 a Persian phrase which has since become
popular in the sense of the English proverb, "It is a far
cry to London", The king, however, was not destined
to enter Delhi, and so could not summon the saint to
his court, for he met an unexpected death at Taghlaka-
bad through the fall of a pavillion erected in his honour.
This tragic incident is generally believed to have been
planned by Prince Jawna, who then ascended the

NIZAMI AND SABIRI OP CHISTI QRDER 223

throne as Sultan Muhammad Taghlak. It has, how-
ever, been suggested that the cause of the tragedy is to
be sought not in Prince Jawna, but in the hostility
that existed between the king and the saint. And
indeed the pavilion in question was erected by Ahmad
son of Malikzada Ayyaz, the Inspector of Buildings, a
man who was known to be an over-zealous disciple of
Nizamu'd-Dln. It was he who was responsible for
the faulty construction, whereby the building suddenly
collapsed when one of the army elephants, whose
mahawt was a relative of his, stampeded and crashed
into it.

Nizamu'd-Dln is known also by the titles of
Mahbiib-i-Ildhl, the Beloved of God, and Sulfanu'l-
Awliya the king of the Saints. He died at the age of
91 and was buried at Qhiyathpur in the neighbourhood
of Delhi. His tomb, which is well known in that dis-
trict, has recently been raised to the dignity of a
monastery by Kbwaja Hasan Nizami who has made it
a centre of Muslim propaganda.

One of the saint's famous disciples was Aml^
Khusru, well known as one of India's great Persian
poets and regarded as the Chaucer of Hindustani
literature, "He was the first to employ the indigenous
Urdu for literary purposes and also to compose songs
and write verse* in it. He was the inventor of many
riddles, rhymes, enigmas, and punning verses, which are
still popular. He was born in the thirteenth century
in the district of Etah, and led a chequered life through
the reigns of Balban, Kaikubad and other sovereigns

224 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

of Delhi. He became a distinguished disciple of
Nij&amu'd-Dln. He was deeply attached to him and
died in grief in 1325 A.D. at the death of his pir." (1)

In course of time the Nizami section of the Chishti
order itself became sub-divided into two further
groups to which we shall refer briefly.

(i) HISAMIYYA.

The Hisami section was founded by Hisamu'd-Din
of Manikpur (d. 1477-8 A.D.) This man was a suc-
cessor of Shaykh Nuru'd-Din otherwise know as Qutb-
i- 4 Alam, the son and successor of 'Ala'u'd-Din of
Bengal. This 'Ala Vd-Dln was a successor of Siraju'd-
Din, one of the pioneer saints of the Chishti order in
Bengal, and a vice-gerent of Nigamu'd-Dln.

(ii) HAMZASHAHI.

The Hamza Shahl section was founded by Shaykh
Hamza, one of the descendants of Baha Vd-Din Zakari-
ya of Multan, a famous saint of the Suhrawardi Order.
Before he became a ufi, Hamza was in the service of
the royal guard. One night while on duty the thought
suddenly occurred to him. "How shameful it is for
me to forget Him who is protecting me every moment
of my life merely to serve one who rather needs to be
protected by me". In consequence he resigned his post
on the following day and adopted the life of a hermit.
Hamza's line is traced back through several saints of
the order and especially through Gesu Daraz and

(1) Ram Babu Saksena, A History of Urdu Literature, p. 10.

NIZAMI AND SABIRI OF CHISTI ORDER 225

Naslru'd-Dm, to Nizamu'd-Din Awliya of Delhi. Very
brief reference may be made to these two saints.

Nasiru'd-Din, also known as Chirdgh-i-Dihlt, the
Lamp of Delhi, belonged to a Sayyid family and was
born in Oudh. He was forty when he came to Delhi
and became a disciple of Nigamu'd-Din. He died in
1356 A.D. and his tomb, famous as Chirdgh-i-Dihll,
is to be seen near Shahjahanabad in Delhi.

Sayyid Mir Gesu Daraz, was a sucessor of Shavkh.
Nasiru'd-Din and was born in Delhi in 1320 A.D. His
father, Yusuf Chishtl was himself a ufi and also one
of the successors of Shaykh Nasiru'd-Dm. Mir Sayyid
Gesu Daraz consequently had an early opportunity of
acquiring the knowledge of mysticism. On the death
of Nasiru'd-Din, his master, he left Delhi and went to
the Deccan where he died in 1422 A.D. His tomb in
Gulbarga is a famous resort of pilgrims.

2. THE SABIRI SECTION OF THE CHISHTI
ORDER.

Makhdum 4 Ala Vd-Dm 'All Ahmad abir of Piran-i-
Kaliar was born in Herat in 1197-8 A. D. His father
died when he was only seven years old, and his mother,
because of their extreme poverty, took him to her own
brother Baba Farid, with whom she left him. When
he grew to manhood Baba Farid appointed him to
supervise his langar khdnd or public kitchen. Subse-
quently his mother came again from Hert to see her
son, and was very grieved to find him so much reduced.
She accordingly complained to Baba Farid about his

226 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

neglect of her son. When Baba Farid made inquiry as
to the cause of his starved appearance, 4 AlaVd-Dln
replied, "I was asked to supervise the kitchen but I was
not told if I myself might eat from it." On receiving
this explanation the saint was overjoyed at the scruplous-
ness of his nephew, and forthwith bestowed on him the
title of abir, or the Patient one, in recognition of his
power of endurance. Later Baba Farid appointed him
as his successor, and sent him to Kaliar. There he was
ill-treated by the people, and on a particular Friday
when he went to the mosque to take part in the
congregational prayer, he was forced out of the main
building into the courtyard. His biographers would
have us believe that, as a direct consequence of their
rudeness to the saint, the entire mosque suddenly
collapsed, crushing to death many hundreds of worship-
pers assembled within it. A yet further punishment,
in the form of an epidemic of plague, destroyed vast
numbers of the population of Kaliar, with the result that
the survivors fled from the city in terror. The city
thus depopulated was changed in course of time into a
forest, and the abandoned houses falling into ruins
became the dens of wild animals. It was in this desolate
place that 'AlaVd-Dln abir spent his days in a small
hut beneath a fig tree, with his disciple Shamsu'd-Din
Turk as his sole companion. It was this disciple who
succeeded him after his death.

'AlaVd-Dln is said to have possessed so terrifying
a disposition that no one dared come near him; even his
disciple would serve his meals from behind, never

NIZAMI AND SABIRI OF CHISTI ORDER 227

venturing to confront him. Like other saints of the
Chishti Order, * Ala'u'd-Din was fond of music, but the
musicians whom Shamsu'd-Dm was in the habit of
employing, took care to seat themselves at a consider-
able distance from the saint while they sang. After
twenty years of such solitary existence the saint died
in 1291 A. D. His 'urs is celebrated on 13th. RablVl-
Awwal, pilgrims coming to Kaliar from different parts
of India. The extreme loneliness of his life accounts
for our lack of some contemporary account of himself
and his teaching. Such biographical narratives as we
have abound with stories of supernatural events, many
of which border on the absurd.

'Ala Vd-Din's gloomy disposition and irascible tem-
perament stand out in bold contrast to Nigamu'd-Din's
amiable nature and wide popularity. Indeed, it is these
characteristic features in their respective dispositions
that have led some ufis to formulate the theory that the
two saints represented two different aspects of the attri-
butes of Allah. Nizamu'd-Din's life exhibited the Jamdft
i. e., the Glorious Attributes, while 4 Ala'u'd-Din gave
expression to the Jaldli, or the terrible Attributes, of
God. The former, by his sympathy and generosity drew
thousands to himself, whereas the latter, largely owing
to his terrifying personality, so isolated himself from
the human society that he lived and died in the company
of on lone disciple. Nigamu'd-Din may be looked
upon as the archetype of that class of ufis known as
Ahl-i-$uhbat> Associates', and 'Ala'u'd-Din may as that
of Ahl-i-JZhilwat, 'recluses'.

CHAPTER XIV.
The Suhrawardi Order.

The history of the Suhrawarti Order in Indiajbegins
with the advent of some of the disciples of Shihabu'd-
Din Suhrawardi from Baghdad. They were contem-
poraries of Qutbu'd-Din Bakhtiyar Kakl, whose influence
at the time was so strong that certain of them transferred
their allegiance to him, and in course of time their
names were formally admitted to the calendar of the
saints of the Chishtl Order. One of these men was
I-Iamidu'd-Din of Nagore (d. 1279 A. D.), concerning
whom Shihabu'd-Din has recorded that he was the
chief of his vice-gerents in India; nevertheless, in Delhi
he so came under the influence of Qutbu'd-Din as to
become his disciple. There by the Qufub Minar his
tomb is to be seen at the foot of the grave of his new
master. Another disciple to join the Chishtl Order was
Shaykh Jalalu'd-Din Tabrizl, who for seven years was
the disciple of Shihabu'd-Din in Baghdad. This man
also when he came to India accepted the discipleship
of Qutbu'd-Din who later on appointed him his vice-
gerent and sent him to Bengal, where he died in 1225
A. D. Among other pioneers of this Order in India
were Sayyid Nuru'd-Dln and Shah Turkoman, both of
whom cultivated the friendship of Qutbu'd-Din but did
not join his Order. They were buried in Delhi, and the
shrine of the latter is even now believed to possess

THE SUHRAWARDI ORDER 229

aling properties. It is a common custom for people,
to leave a vessel full of water over night at the tomb of
this saint, and in the morning to give a drink from it to
the sick as an aid to their recovery.

BAHA'U'D-DIN ZAKARIY&.

The man who undoubtedly did most to spread the
influence of this Order in India was Baha'u'd-Din
Zakariya. His ancestors were of the Quraysh tribe,
and his grandparents on his father's side had come to
India from Mecca and had settled down in Multan,
where he himself was born in 1182 A. D. The author
of the ghuldjatu'l-Arifin, states on the authority of
Baha'u'd-Dm's disciple, Sayyid Jalalu'd-EHn Bukhari
that the saint was, through his mother, a grandson of
4 Abdu'l-Qadir Gllanl, the founder of the Qadiri Order.

Early in life Baha'u'd-Din made the journey to
Mecca and thence, after some years, he proceeded to
Baghdad, where he became a disciple of Shihbu'd-Dln
Suhrawardl. Under the latter's guidance he soon
attained perfection in the mystic way and was appointed
vice-gerent by his master and sent to India.

The stories that describe this saint's spiritual dignity
are many and varied. He is said to have been the
recipient of three mantles, symbols which served to
indicate that he held the highest authority among his
contemporaries in the Order. It is said that he
received one of these in a dream, from the very throne
of God, and that, on waking from sleep, he actually
found it on himself . That same night he received the

230 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

other two at the hands of his master Shihabu'd-Dln.
Of these, one was that which had come down through
successive generations of saints from the Prophet
himself; the other was the master's own mantle. Shaykh
Jalalu'd-Din Bukhari and Baba Farld are both recorded
to have stated that once in their presence Shaykh
Baha'u'd-Dln, in a state of ecstasy, exclaimed: "Lord
grant me Thy highest favour in this world and the
next. 1 ' A voice was heard saying in reply: "Thou art
the Qutb of both worlds/ 1 The saint prayed again,
"Lord, confer yet more than this.' 1 The voice replied,
"Thou art the Ghawth of my whole creation. " Yet again
the saint cried out for more, and this time the voice was
heard to say: "Beyond this remains the stage of prophet-
hood, and there ariseth no prophet after Muhammad;
nevertheless I bestow upon thee two of my own names;
thou artXafeiz: (the great) and_Munlr (the Enlightener)".
Continuing their narrative the authors tell us that
Baha'u'd-Din, when the ecstatic experience was over,
declared, "Any needy person who recites the follow-
ing invocation, which contains all the titles which I have
received from God; will have all his needs supplied,
and God will forgive his sins and increase the light of
his faith; and if a person recites this prayer every day
of his life, I promise to stand as surety for him in order
to obtain for him the rewards of paradise in the day of
judgment." The words of the invocation are as follows,
M O my God, for the honour and dignity of the 'Chief
of Islam and Muslims' the 'Qwffe' of both worlds and
the 'Gftau>/i' of the whole creation, the Shaykh 'Kater

THE SUHRAWARDI ORDER 231

and 'Mumr\ the 'Glory 1 (Baha) of the Truth, of the
Law and of Religion (Din) Muhammad Zakariya fulfil
thou my desires/*

BahaVd-Din died in 1267-68 A. D. and was buried
at Multan, where his tomb is still greatly revered by
Muslims. He had appointed several vice-gerents, and
of these he sent some to places outside India such as
Baghdad and Damascus. /

SADRITD-DIN.

His eldest son adru'd-Dm, who is regarded as one
of the leading saints of this order, succeeded his father
as vice-gerent in Multan. Baha Vd-Dln had left vast
wealth, including a large castle, and this was duly
divided among his seven sons. adr'u'd-Din received
as his share seven lakhs of gold mohars, besides a
portion of the landed property nevertheless he distri-
buted his entire share of the patrimony to the poor.
When a friend remonstrated with him for having so
readily thrown away the wealth which his father had
carefully collected, he replied, "But my father had
complete control over all wordly desires, and so could
afford to hoard such wealth, whereas 1 am weak,
and therefore fear lest wordly possession should make
me forget God." The following incident, which is
recorded by the historian Farishta, has often been
quoted by Muslim writers as one of the saint's miracles.
Muhammad Shah, eldest son of the reigning king Balban,
was Governor of Multan, and had married the grand-
daughter of the late king Altamash. She was a very
beautiful woman and her husband was deeply in love

232 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

with her. Once, however, in the state of intoxication
he divorced her irrevocably' i. e., by thrice uttering
the words signifying separation. On recovering his
senses he was deeply grieved to learn what he had
done, for, according to the Muslim law, the only way
whereby he could take her back as his wife, was for her
to be regularly married to another and then once
more be divorced. The Qddl of Multan suggested to
the Governor that adru'd-Dln, who stood in high
repute as a saint, be asked to act as an intermediate
husband by marrying her for one night only. As the
Governor was most anxious to receive her back as his
wife he agreed to the proposal. The records state,
however, that on the following morning adru'd-Dln,
at the request of the bride herself, Irefused to give her
up. The Governor was so enraged at this that he made
the plans to put the saint to death on the next day.
But it so happened that in the night Mongols besieged
the city of Multan, and during the course of the day,
the Governor fell in the fight with the invaders. This
incident is regarded by the saint's biographers as the
direct intervention of God thereby justifying his
retention of the Governor's wife.

$adru'd-Dm died in 1285 A.D. and was buried in
MultSn near the tomb of his father.

SHAYKH AHMAD MA'SHUQ.

Shaykh Ahmad Ma'shuq one of the vicegerents of
adru'd-Din, is an example of a peculiar type of saint
in Muslim Hagiology. A merchant by profession he

THE SUHRAWARDI ORDER 233

was, before he became a mystic, a notorious drunkard.
He was a native of Qandhar where he kept a shop.
Business often brought him into Multan, where he once
happened to meet adru'd-Dln and in a moment his
whole life was changed. In due course he became his
disciple and rose to be one of the prominent saints of
the order. It is related of him that once while bath-
ing in a river, he prayed thus, "O God, I will not go up
out of the water, till Thou hast revealed to me the
dignity that I have in Thy sight." In reply he heard a
voice'lsaying to him, "So great is thy dignity in my
sight that on the day of judgment a large number of
sinners will receive pardon through thy intercession."
He prayed again, "O Lord this is not enough further
increase my dignity out of Thy bounteous mercy/'
Then the voice replied. "I am thy lover and thou art
my Beloved (mashuq); go now and make others my
seekers." From that time he came to be known by the
title of mashuq, the beloved.

This saint was frequently the subject of ecstatic
experiences, and in consequence neglected the rites and
practices of Islam. On one occasion the 'Ulama urged
him to say his prayers, but he pleaded to be left alone,
the fact being that he could not bring himself to recite
the Fdtiha, which forms a necessary part of all Muslim
prayer. When further pressed, he reluctantly con-
sented, making a condition that he omitted the verse,
"Thee we serve and Thee we ask for aid." The 'Ulama
replied that such prayer would be invalid, and they
compelled him to proceed to say his prayer in the pro-

234 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

per manner. It is said, however, that when he came to
the middle of the chapter and began to recite the above-
mentioned verse, blood was seen to ooze from every
part of his body; he therefore stopped abruptly and
exclaimed, "You see I am ceremonially unclean, and
thus excused from further prayer/* The incident is
said to have convinced the * Ulamd of his extraordinary
sancity, and of the fact that he stood in a peculiar rela-
tionship to God.

SUB-SECTIONS OF THE SUHRAWARDI ORDER.

We gather from the history of the religious Orders
in India that in the process of their break-up into
sub-divisions there appeared a marked tendency on the
part of some individuals to ignore not only the original
teachings of the early saints but the practices of Islam
also. The chief stress came to be laid on the worship
of saints and on ecstatic experiences. As we proceed
we shall observe that some of the leaders of these sub-
divisions resorted to hypnosis and the use of intoxi-
cants. Those imbued with these ideas came to be
spoken of by the followers of the more regular orders
as Maldmatls (lit. 'blame- worthy'). They are some-
times referred to as belonging to be-shara (without the
law) orders. In contrast to the bd-shara, i. e. those
who observe Islamic rites and practices, (cp. Dr.
Titus, Indian Islam, p. 125). The Suhrawardi Order in
particular has given rise to a large number of such
maldmatl sections.

It will be seen that this order thus falls into two
groups, viz: the bd-shara and the be-shara , and in our

THE SUHRAWARDI ORDER 235

treatment of them we propose to follow this classifica-
tion. It must, however, be borne in mind, that it is not
possible to draw a line of demarcation between the two
classes. As a matter of fact saints who were really
be-shara are to be found in the ba-shara sections, e. g.
Ahmad Ma'shuq, who has already been mentioned as
one of the early saints of this order. Moreover, we
find a proneness in saints of the ba-shara section to
degenerate and in course of time to become be-shara .
For instance, some of the saints of the Jaldll Order
degenerated in course of time and become founders of
azdd (or free) orders.

CHAPTER XV.

THE SUB-DIVISIONS OF THE SUHRAWARDI
ORDER.

1. Ba-shara* Section.

i. THE JALALI SECTION.

The Jalall section is ascribed to Sayyid Jalalu'd-Din
Shah Mir Surkh-posh of Bukhara (1192 -1291 A.D.),
who was a vice-gerent of Baha'u'd-Din Zakariya of
Multan. This saint was born in Bukhara, but when he
grew to manhood he came to India and settled down in
Uchh. His descendants are still known as Sayyid
Bukhari. Jalalu'd-Din is said to have possessed miracu-
lous power even from his childhood, T. W. Arnold
says of him: "Sayyid Jalalu'd-Din is the ancestor of
generations of saints, some of whom were active and
successful propagandists of Islam. His khalifa was his
grandson Jalal b. Ahmad Kabir, commonly known as
Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan (d. 1384 A. D.) who is said to
have made the pilgrimage to Mecca thirty-six times and
to have performed innumerable miracles. One of
Makhdum-i-Jahaniyao's grandsons, Abu Muhammad
'Abdullah, known as Burhanu'd-Din Qufb-i-'Alam
(d. 1453 A.D.), went to Gujrat, where his tomb is still
a place of pilgrimage at Batawa. His son, Sayyid
Muhammad ShSh 'Alam (d. 1475 A.D.), became still
more famous and played an important part in the poll-

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 237

tical and religious life of his time; his tomb is at Rasul-
abad, near Ahmadabad." 1

The followers of the Jalall Order, known as Jalalf
faqirs, wear black threads round their heads, and also
wear an amulet tied round their arms which is said
to be made in the form of the Seal of the Prophet
Muhammad. They also carry a horn which they blow
when they are in a state of ecstasy.

These faqirs have their chief seat in the Deccan at
a place called Penukondah, a town in the Anantpur
district, where each year on the first day of Jamadi'th-
Tbanl, they congregate with the faqirs of other Orders,
and select their representatives to go on a two-years'
pilgrimage to the tombs of the saints in the Pre-
sidency. 2

ii. THE MAKHDUMI SECTION.

This section was founded by Mir Sayyid Jalalu'd-
Din Mukhdum-i-Jahaniyao Jahao-gasht Bukhari, who
has already been mentioned as a grandson and khalifa
of Sayyid Jalalu'd-Din Surkhposh. As his august titles
indicate he is held in high honour among the ufis as
the Master of the universe and as one who traversed
the globe. He is said to have met all the saints and to
have been initiated into all the chief religious Orders
of his time. Not only so, he is said to have received
the authority to make disciples in each of these Orders.
Moreover it is asserted that he travelled round the

1. Quoted by Dr. Titus in Indian Islam, P. 122,

2. See Khwaja Khan, Studies in Tasawwuf, P. 155.

238 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

world several times, and a work is still obtainable in
the book-shops which is alleged to be a true record of
his journeys. This, however, contains such fantastic
stories, particularly of cities in Persia and Afghanistan,
as to make it impossible for us to accept it as an
authentic journal.

A story which throws light on Jalalu'd-Dln's charac-
ter, speaks of how Khan-i-Jahan, minister of ulfan
Firoz Shah of Delhi, once imprisoned a boy and
punished him severely. It is said that the saint, at the
request of the boy's father went to plead with the
minister for the boy, but the minister having no respect
for him, refused to see him. Jalalu'd-Dln, however,
persisted and visited him as many as ten times, until at
last the minister, in great irritation exclaimed: "How
long will you continue to pester me, O shameless
Sayyid?" The saint meekly replied, "Till you have
ceased to oppress the boy, and gained the pleasure of
Allah/* The minister greatly pleased with this reply,
at once released the boy and became a disciple of
Jalalu'd-Din. The saint died in 1383 A.D. and was
buried in Uchh.

lii. THE MIRAN SHAHI SECTION.

This is attributed to Mlran Muhammad Shh
Mawj-i-Darya Bukharl, a descendant of Jalalu'd-Dln
Surkh-posh. Originally he belonged to Uchh, the
home of his ancestors, but later on settled in Lahore,
where he passed the rest of his life. He lived during the
reign of Akbar, who held him in high esteem, and the

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 239

Emperor's ultimate conquest of Chitor is attributed,
by the saint's biographers, to his prayer. The story is
told of how the Emperor when he found it impossible
to conquest the impregnable fortress by force of arms,
resorted to certain holy persons one of whom advised
him to seek the aid of Mlran Shah. Acting on this
advice he sent some of his noblemen to the saint, and
invited him to the royal camp to offer prayer for his
victory. Mlran Shah dismissed the royal messngers
with the following words. u Go back to your Emperor,
and tell him to wait for a tempest at night, which will
follow shortly after your return to camp. During the
storm no one will be able to keep his lamp alight, but
at a distance from the military quarters, there will be
seen one solitary light unaffected by the wind. Tell
the Emperor, that he will find me there."

This prediction was duly fulfilled soon after the
messengers reached the camp. That night, while a
very strong wind was blowing, the Emperor, sighted a
distant solitary light and proceeded towards it bare-
footed. Having requested the saint to pray for him, he
was dismissed with the assurance of the desired victory.
The biographers assert that the fortress of Chitor was
subdued on the following morning in direct answer to
the saint's prayer. Akbar, overwhelmed with joy,
besought Miran Shah to take up his residence in a city
near to his capital. The saint, acceding to the Emperor's
entreaty chose Lahore for his new home, was granted
there, and in Batala, certain freeholds, together with
an annuity of Rs. 9 lakhs.

240 SUn SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

He died in 1604 A. D. and his 'urs is celebrated on
17th. Ratfu'l-Awival each year in Lahore. Though
he died while in Batala his body was brought to Lahore,
where he was buried near Anarkali. In Batala a shrine
was built at the spot where his body was washed for
burial. Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjab,
made a grant of Rs. 40 per month for the upkeep of his
tomb in Lahore. [

iv. ISMAIL SHAHI SECTION.

This section was founded by Hafiz Muhammad
Ismail, generally known as Miyan Wadda, the four-
teenth in the line of succession from BahaVd-Dln
Zakariya of Multan. He was born in 1586 A. D., and
while still young, was sent by his father, himself a
mystic, to Makhdum *Abdu'l-KarIm, a famous pir of
those days who had his khdnaqah at Langar-i-Makhdum
on the Chenab. When he reached the age of twelve
he was given the task of grinding corn for the }&anaqatis
kitchen. The story is told of how once his master paid
him a surprise visit and was astonished to find the lad
lost in meditation, the hand-mill, meanwhile, grinding
the corn automatically, without his aid. 4 Abdu'l-Karim
on witnessing the miracle at once released his disciple
from this duty. Ismail, however, insisted upon work
of some kind being given to him, accordingly he was
set to milk the cows. It soon came to be noticed that
the cows he tended yielded unusually large quantities
of milk, and so the people of the neighbourhood began
to bring their cows to him to be milked. This was to

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 241

4 Abdu'l-KarIm yet further evidence of his disciple's
saintly character, and led him to pronounce him a saint,
and no longer in need of his instruction. Taking leave
of his master he retired to the banks of the Chenab
and seated himself under a shisham tree, where, within
a short time, he is said to have made perfect as many
as one hundred and fifty disciples. Finally he came to
Lahore and took up his residence in the part of the
city known as Telpura. There he started a maktab for
the purpose of instructing his pupils in the art of read-
ing the Quran. It is believed that he possessed such
a power as a teacher that each of his disciples became
hdfiz in a remarkably short period of time. He is re-
ported to have declared that this virtue would continue
to be potent at his tomb even after his death. It was
this notion that led to the establishment of the maktab
atJjis tomb, which at one time drew large numbers of
students filled with the desire to acquire the art of
reading of the Quran. It is also believed that by eating
the herbs and leaves of plants which grow in close
proximity to the tomb, the intellect is quickened so
that the Quran is memorized more easily.

Ismail died in 1683 A. D. His strict orthodoxy is
indicated by the fact he desired that no dome should
be erected over his grave, but the present sajjada-
nishin, i. e., successor, has built a shrine and a separate
room in which he sits daily, reading the Quran.

He had three brothers who like him passed their
life in retirement, living in a state of celibacy. Two
of them, viz. Khalil and Ibrfihim have their tombs in

242 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

a place called Chhani Wachak in Sialkot, while the
tomb of the third, Husayn, is in Lahore, in a graveyard
known as Bibi Goristan.

Ismail's successor was his disciple Sayyid JSn
Muhammad Hudurl, whose grand-father, Sayyid
ShamsuV Arifin Ghawrl, came from Ghawr and settled
in Lahore. His tomb was built by one of his ciplides,
*Abdu's-amad, a merchant, who also added a mosque
to it. The tomb is to be seen in Lahore on the west
of Shahu Garhi, and south of the road leading to Miyan
Mir.

v. THE DAWLA SHAHI SECTION.

Dawla Shah, the founder of this section, was eighth
in the line of succession from BahaVd-Dln Zakariya
of Multari. He "was born in 1581 A. D. during the
reign of Akbar. His father was 'Abdu'r-Rahim Khan
Lodi, a descendant of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, grandson
of Bhalul Shah Lodi who died in 1488. This would
make him a Pathan by descent, but he is nevertheless
claimed by the Gujars of Gujarat as belonging to their
tribe. His mother was Ni'mat Khatun, .great-grand
daughter of Sultan Sarang Ghakhar.

"In the reign of Sultan Sallm, son, of Sultan Sher
Shah, (1545-1553 A. D.) a large force was sent to sub-
due ghwas Khan, who had rebelled in support of 'Adil
Khan, Sallra Shah's elder brother. Kljwas Khan met
with a crushing defeat and sought refuge with the
Ghakhars, who supported him, and a battle was fought
near Rhotas, in the Jhelum district, in which Sultan

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 243

Sprang Ghakhar was killed, and all his family were
afterwards made captives. A daughter of Ghazi Khan,
son of Sul^Sn SSrang, was among the captured, and she
had at the time an infant daughter at her breast. This
was Ni'mat Khatun, who was taken with her brother
to Dilhi and in the first year of Akbar's reign (A. D.
1556), shortly after Humayun's death, she was married
to 'Abdu'r-Rahlm Lodi, then an officer of the Imperial
household. But Shah Dawla was not born of this
marriage till the 25th year of Akbar's reign (A. D. 1581)
which was also the year of his father's death.

"Where Shah Dawla was born is not known, but
his widowed mother returned to her native country,
Pathas, now represented by the Jhelum and Rawalpindi
districts. On her arrival, however, she found that,
though she was the great-granddaughter of Sultan
Sarang, she was as much a stranger there as in Hindus-
tan and no one had any regard for herself or her fallen
family. For five years she had to earn her living by
grinding corn in the village of Sabhala in the pargana
of Phirhalat, whence she removed to Kalh, where she
died in 1590 A. D. after four more years of toil."2

Shah Dawla, now left an orphan and friendless,
was sold to a Hindu as a slave. At his master's house
he exhibited great piety, and on account of his faithful
services, he soon obtained his freedom. Once set at
liberty he decided to lead the life of a hermit, and

1 Rose, Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-
West Frontier Province. Vol. I. P. 631.

244 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES. IN INDIA

therefore he bacame a disciple of Sayyid Nasir Mast of
Sialkot, who had the reputation of being a saint.

The author of the Tadhkiratu'l-Asfiyd, says that
Nasir Mast had another disciple, also called Dawla,
whom he specially favoured and intended to appoint as
his successor. The story is told of how, one night
when Sayyid Nasir Mast lay dying on his bed, he called
three times for Dawla, this favourite disciple, but each
time he was absent and the response was mads by
Shah Dawla, who, however, was sent away as not being
the person he wanted. But towards morning, before
he breathed his last, he exclaimed:

"To whom God (Mawld) grants favour

'Tis he becomes Shah Dawla" (king i.e. saint)
and then afterwards appointed Shah Dawla his suc-
cessor, and bestowed on him his mantle.

For ten years after the death of Shah Nasir Mast,
Dawla "remained in the neihbourhood, growing yearly
in reputation and power. He built many buildings,
mosques, tanks, bridges and wells, the most notable of
which was the bridge over the Aik. After this Shah
Dawla moved to Gujrat and settled there permanently in

obedience to divine instructions It is said that

he never asked for money and that he paid his labourers
promptly. He was also most successful in finding the
sites of the old ruins, whence he dug up all the materi-
als he required for his buildings. He was liberal to
the poor, irrespective of creed, and had a peculiar
attraction for wild animals, keeping a large menagerie

Rose, op. cit. pp. 633, 34.

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 245

of all sorts of beasts and birds. His tolerance made
him beloved of all classes and there were both Hindus
and Musalmans among his disciples. He became very
famous for his miracles and received large gifts. The
attraction towards him felt by wild animals largely
contributed to the general belief in him."

He died in 1676 A.D. and his tomb and shrine lie
on the eastern side of the town of Gujrat. He was
succeeded by one Bhawan Shah, concerning whom
there is some doubt as to whether he was a real or an
adopted son of the saint. In any case the present pirs
of this section are descended from him.

"Many tales of his miracles are told of Shah Dawla,
but that which is chiefly associated with his name is
the miracle of the Chuhds, or 'Rat children/ said to
be born through his agency with minute heads, large
ears, rat-like faces, and without the understanding or
the power of speech."

"The popular idea is that these unfortunate beings
have been blessed by the saint, Shah Dawla of Gujrat
in the Punjab, and though they are repulsive objects, no
contempt of them must be shown, or the saint will
make a chuhd of the next child born to one who despises
one of his proteges. It is this fear which has brought
about the prosperity of Shah Dawla's shrine at Gujrat.

"The common superstition as to origin of the chuhds
is this: Shah Dawla, like other saints, could procure
a child for a couple desiring one, but the first child
born in response to his intercession would be a chuha
brainless, small-headed, long-eared and rat-faced.

246 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The custom used to be to leave the child as soon as it
was weaned, at Shh Dawla 's Khdnaqdh and as an
offering to him. After the saint's death the miracle
continued, but in a modified form. Persons desiring
children would go to the saint's shrine to pray for a
child, and would make a vow either to present the
child when born or to make an offering to the shrine.
In some cases when the child was duly born in response
to the prayer, the parents neglected to make the pro-
mised gift. Upon this the spirit of the offended saint
so worked on the parents that the next child born was
a ckuhd, and all subsequent children as well, until the
original vow was fulfilled.

"The cult of Shh Dawla offers few unusual fea-
tures. No lands are attached to the shrine and its pirs
are wholly dependent on the alms and offerings of the
faithful. Three annual fairs are held at the shrine,
one at each 7d and the third at the 'urs, on the 10th,
of Muharram. A weekly fair used to be held on
Fridays, attended by dancing girls; but this has fallen
into abeyance. There are no regular rules of succession
to the shrine, and each member of the saint's family has
a share in it. Three of them, however, have a special
influence and one of these three is generally known as
the sajjdda-nishln, or successor of the saint. The
general income of the sect is divided into three main
shares, each of which is divided into minor shares a
division per stripes and per capita. The shareholders
also each take in turn a week's income of the shrine.

M There is a notable off-shoot of the Shfih Dawla

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 247

fa<ftrs in an order of facfirs who properly own allegiance
to the Arkhund of Swat. A disciple of ArkhOnd,
named Ghazi Sultan Muhammad, a native of A wan, a
village in Gujrat district on the Jammu border, has
established a considerable following. He lives now at
Shah Dawla's shrine, but has built himself a large stone
house at Awan/' 1

2. Be-Shara Sections of the Order.

i. LAL SHAHBAZIYYA.

This section of the Suhrawardi Order was founded
by Sayyid Lai Shahbaz, a vice-gerent of Baha'u'd-Din
Zakariya. Very little is known about him and about
the section of the Order which takes his name. As he
was in the habit of wearing red garments, the epithet
Lai was added to his name.

He is described by the hagiographers as having led
the life of a libertine. He not only disregarded the
precepts of Islam, but never said even the obligatory
prayers nor observed the month of fasting On the
other hand, he is said to have been addicted all his life
to the use of wine and other intoxicants.

His devotees ascribe his antinomian mode of life to
his desire to conceal his spiritual dignity from people;
and in justification of his use of intoxicants they say,
that his holy touch changed the wine hito water! He
died in 1324 A.D. and was buried in Sindh, where his
tomb is regarded as a place of pilgrimage.

1. Rose, op. cit. pp. 630, 31.

248 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The ufis of this Order, now few in number, dress
in red and use intoxicants, in imitation of their leader.

ii. THE SUHAGIYYA SECTION.

Musa Shahl Suhag, a vicegerent of Sayyid JalSlVd-
Din Surkh-posh founded a new section of the Suhra-
wardl Order, which is called after his name. He is
described to have bten one of the hidden saints of his
time. He concealed his spiritual dignity by living
among eunuchs, who were dancers by profession. The
epithet Suhdg, affixed to his name, indicates that he
used to dress and adorn himself like a woman. The
story is told that once in Ahmedabad, his native place,
there occured a great scarcity of rain. The qddl of the
city, who himself was a saint, told the people that if
Shah Musa could be prevailed upon to pray, God would
surely answer his prayer. On a search being made
for the saint he was discovered among the eunuchs,
and was entreated to offer prayer. Raising his eyes
towards heaven, he prayed thus: "O my husband, if
you are not going to send rain at once, I am going to
deprive myself of these bridal ornaments. 11 He was
about to break his bangles, when lo! the clouds appear-
ed on the horizon, and soon it began to rain heavily,
continuing for several days.

This incident brought him into prominence, and
he soon gathered around him a large number of dis-
ciples. He, too, did not observe the precepts of Islam
regarding prayers and fastings. We are told that the
orthodox 'Ulamd of the city once persuaded him to

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 249

join him in prayer, and for this purpose they put off
his female attire of red cloth, and dressed him in white
garments. When he began to say his prayer, these
garments turned red, and when the prayer was over
he said, "My husband desires me to remain a bride
(suhdg) but these wretches would reduce me to a
widow!"

Amazed by this strange incident they apologised
to him for their presumption. He died in 1449 A.D.
and after his death the * Ulamd and other saints of the
neighbourhood appointed one of his disciples to be his
successor whom they adorned like his master in the
dress and ornaments of a bride.

The followers of this Order, who are now rare,
always call themselves sadd suhdgin, a married woman
whose husband is alive.

iii. THE RASUL SHAHI SECTION.

The origin of this sect according to the statement
of its faqlrs, is described to be as follows. In a place
called Bahadurpur, situated at a distance of 20 miles
from Alwar, there lived during the reign of the im-
mediate successors of Aurangzeb, a wealthy jeweller
named Ni'matu 1 llah. Once on business he went to
Egypt where he heard of Da'ud, a man who had the
fame of being a great saint but who led the life of a
libertine. When Ni'matu 'Hah paid his visit to this
reputed saint, he was offered a drink of some intoxicant
and though he was a pious Muslim and would not
touch such thing he drank it off in deference to

250 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Dfi'dd's authority as a man of Allah. It is said that
the instant he finished drinking he fell into a state of
ecstasy, tore off his clothes and taking the dust from
the feet of Da'ud rubbed it all over his body. Finally
after distributing all he had with him he accepted
his discipleship. One day Da'ud said to Ni'matu 'llah,
"It is now time that my soul should leave this body
and enter yours. So when I die you go to Alwar
where you will find Sayyid Rasul Shah, make him your
disciple and guide him to the experience which you
have gone through under my direction; he will be the
founder of a new sect of the ufis." Da'ud, when he
had finished speaking, died, and according to the belief
of the faqlrs of this Order his soul entered the body of
Ni'matu 'Hah.

The latter, acting upon the last advice of his late
ptr, went to Alwar and sent for Sayyid Rasul Shah.
When he came he was offered a drink. As soon as he
drank it up, his life was changed; he shaved off his
head, moustaches and eye brows, and became a disciple
of Ni 4 matu 'llah. Rasul Shah lived for many years
in company with his pir, and served him by preparing
the drink of hemp for him. Then one day Ni'matu llah,
in words similar to those of his predecessor, said to
him, "Rasul! My soul is now about to leave this
mortal frame and enter yours, you then shall be
the founder of a new sect of ufls which will be
known after your name." Shortly after Ni'matu llth
expired, and, in course of time, he came to be regarded
by certain Muslim jewellers and merchants as their

SUB-DIVISIONS OF SUHRAWARDI ORDER 251

patron saint. Rasul Shah, in spite of his antinomian
habits, gained the reputation of being a saint. He
soon gathered round himself a large number of fol-
lowers who used to pay him divine honour. He was
recognised, as foretold by his plr, to be the founder of
a new sect called Rasul Shahl after his name. It is
customary among the faqlrs of this sect to worship
their pir by falling before him in adoration. 1

The following is an account of them as given by
Rose, "They wear a white or red handkerchief on the
head tied in the shape of a peaked cap: they also keep
a handkerchief containing ashes which they rub on
their bodies and faces; they shave the head, moustaches
and eye brows, wear wooden clogs, and in the hot
weather carry hand fans. They not only see no harm
in drinking spirits, but look on it as a virtue, and it is
said that they have, or had till lately, a special license
to manufacture their own liquor. Their taste for
drink drew them into close sympathy with the Sikh
Sirdars of pre-annexation times and Ranjit Singh is
stated to have allowed them a monthly grant of
Rs. 200 for spirits. They are a small sect and not
celibate. As a rule men well-to-do, they are never
seen begging and many of them are men of literary
tastes, popularly credited with a knowledge of alchemy.
Their chief centre in the Punjab is a building near
Landa Bazar in Lahore, and they have also a building

(1) The faqirs or this order believe that when their pir dies
his soul enters in one of his disciples who becomes his successor.

252 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

in the environs of that city near Khu-i-Mlran, but are
also returned from Jhelum." 1

Sayyid Rasul Shah was seventeenth in order in
the line of succession from Baha'u'd-Dln Zakariya of
Multan.

(1) Rose: A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Pun-
jab and Northwest Frontier Province. Vol. Ill, p. 324.

Rose's above account of the faqirs of this sect is in full agree-
ment with the statement of the author of the Tahqiqat-i-Chishti<
The Investigations of a Chishti, a book written after thorough
inquiry about the Sufis and their Orders and shrines in Lahore.

CHAPTER XVI.
The Qadiri Order.

i. SOME EARLY SAINTS OF THE ORDER.

This Order was established in India as late as three
hundred years after the death of its original founder,
Shaykh 'Abdu'l-Qadir Jilanl or Gllani, by Sayyid
Muhammad Qhawth, tenth in the line of succession.
He was born at Aleppo, and in his youth he travelled
as far as India, and after spending some time in Lahore,
he went back to his home, eventually returning in 1428
A. D. He settled in Uch, which has already been
described as the centre of the activities of the saints of
Suhrawardi Order. The fame of the founder of the
Qadiri Order had previously reached India, and he was
already honoured as Plr-i-piran, "the saint of saints."
When therefore Muhammad Gljawth arrived, he soon
became popular, and in a remarkably short space of
time gathered around him a large number of adherents.
Sultan Sikandar Lodl, the Afghan ruler of Delhi, not
only became his disciple, but also gave his daughter to
him in marriage. He is said to have done this in
obedience to the command of Shaykh *Abdu'l-Qadir
who appeared to him in a dream and ordered him to
give his dauhgter to Muhammad Qhawth in marriage.
No child, however, was born of this union. Ma^iammad
then took a second wife, Efifima, a daughter

254 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

of Abul Fatah, fourth in the line of descent from
aflu'd-Dm, who is regarded as the founder of a
colony of Sayyids in Uch. This afiu'd-Dln was a
nephew of Abu Ishaq Gazrunl, a Governor of Lahore.
It is said that the latter had bestowed upon him a robe
of honour and then bidden him go on his way, with
permission to choose as his future home the place
where his camel should happen to stop. When there-
fore, on reaching the site in Uch now known as
Muhalla Gllaniyan, his camel sat down, that spot was
selected by afiu'd-Din as the quarter to be occupied
by himself and his descendants This part of Uch, now
inhabited by the descendants of Muhammad Ghawth, is
called Gllaniyan, with reference to the district Gllan or
Jilan, the home of their illustrious ancestor, Shaykh
'Abdu'l-Qadir. The other part of Uch is occupied by
the desendants of Sayyid Jalalu'd-Dm Bukharl, the
famous saint of the Suhrawardi Order, and is called
Muhalla Bukhariyan,

Muhammad Ghawth had four children born to him
by his marriage with Fatima. He died in 1517 A. D.
and was buried in Uch. Sayyid Mahammad Ghawth
was succeeded by his son 4 Abdu'l-Qadir II who in his
early lite indulged in various luxuries. On his father's
death, however, when succeeding him as Khalifa, his
life underwent a complete change. He renounced the
world and returned to the Government all the royal
credentials for freeholds and annuities which had been
granted to his father by the king. He passed the rest
of his days in a life of absolute poverty, in which he was

THE QADIRI ORDER 255

not spared various persecutions and troubles. These,
however, he bore with complete resignation and faith
in God. Meanwhile his brothers held high offices
under the Government, but he himself steadily refused
to take advantage of any opportunity that came his
way of gaining favours at the royal court. Indeed, his
contempt for the world was so pronounced that he
scrupled to visit the ruling princes, even when specially
invited by them. The story is told, how once, when a
prince sent him a persuasive invitation, he replied in a
stanza which may be rendered as follows:

I have nojdoor to which to go

From this one door of Allah.

While seated here, come weal or woe,

I am content with either.

Whoso, in this world, wears the cloak

Provided by the King of Love,

Feels a delight he could not have

Though robed in light in heaven above.

The hagiographersjrecord many miracles said to have
been performed by him, chiefly works of healing. He
died in 1533-34 A. D. and was buried in Uch.

ii. Sub-sections of the Order.

i. THE QUME$IYYA.
Shah Qumes, the founder of this section was seven-

teenth in the line of descent from
Qdir GilanL He and his father, Abul-HaySt, are
counted among the pioneers of the Qadiri order in
India. He lived in Bengal.

256 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

"Shah Qumes most probably flourished in the 16th,
century, as tradition connects him with Akbar and
Humayun's war against Sher Shah Sur, though even so

his birth cannot be carried back to 1425 His cult

is said to be connected with Bihar and three large
fairs are held, one in that Province, one at Ludhiana
and a third at Sadhaura itself. 1 ' (l) /

2. THE BAHLLJL SHAHI

This section was founded by Bahlul Shah Darya'i,
a disciple of Shah Latlf Barri. The latter 's plr Hayatu'l-
Mlr, is said to have become a disciple of 'Abdu'l-
Qadir, some three hundred years before the time of
which we are writing! Further, he is supposed to have
been endowed with life immortal, and in consequence
is known as Zinda plr, i. e, a plr who is still alive. It
thus comes about that Bahlul Shah, notwithstanding
the gap of some three centuries between him and the
original founder, is accounted fourth in the line of
succession.

We do not possess any details concerning the life
of Bahlul Shah himself, but around his pir Shah Laflf
Barri and the pir of his ptr, Hayatu'1-Mlr, there have
grown up certain legends and they now rank among the
more popular saints. Rose describing the cult connected
with La^lf Barri writes: "About 10 miles north of
Rawalpindi is a famous Ramkund or Rama's pool, with
a Hanuman Kund, a Lachhman Kund, a Suraj Kund and

(1) Rose, A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and
North- West Frontier Province. Vol. i. p. 542.

THE QADIRI ORDER 257

a Sita Kund, but in the last-named no Hindu will bathe
though bathing in all the others is meritorious on any
holy day and more especially on the first of Baisakh at

iheSankrant Two miles to the south of Ramkund

is Nurpur Shahan (in Tehsil Rawalpini); where a
Mohammadan fair is held on the first Thursday after
Baisakh 15th. Ecstasy and frenzy (haT) are not unknown
on this occasion. The fair begins on the arrival of an
offering of every kind of fruit in season from Peshawar,
and cannot commence without it. It is held in honour
of Shah-i-Latif Barri or Barri Sultan, said to have been
a pupil of Sayyid Hayatu'n-Nur Qadiri. Barri Sultan
used to be supplied daily with milk by a Gujar, but the
buffalo which gave the milk always used to die on the
day it was milked for the saint. At last the Gujar was
reduced to a bull, but the saints bade him milk it too.
It also died, the Gujar only recovered his cattle from
the spring to see them all turned into stones, where
they stand to this day, because he disobeyed the saint's
behest not to look back, when he called out their
names one by one at the spring." (1)

4 The ziyarat of Hayatu'1-Mir, 24 miles north-east of
Manshara at Balakot on the bank of the Kunhar Ndla,
is in Mohammadan belief the sitting place of Sakhi
Hayatul-Mir, who is said to have been endowed with
life everlasting, while according to Hindus it is the
sitting place of Bha'i Bala. At the 'Id one day men
and the next day women assemble there. It has a
spring known as Sharbat, which has medical properties

(I) Rose, op. cit. vol. I. P. 130.

258 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

being believed to cure leprosy and other diseases and
twenty and thirty sufferers are generally to be found
there." cl)

THE MUQIM SHAHL

This section is ascribed to Sayyid Muqlm Muhkam-
'ud-Dln, who was a vice-gerent of Hayatu'1-Mlr, the
saint alluded to above as the plr of the pir of Bahawal
Shah Darya 1 !. Of Muqlm Shah himself we know little,
but his great-great-grandfather, Sayyid Bahawal Shah
is held in high esteem as a very famous saint of the
Qadiri Order. The latter's tomb is to be seen at
Muzang in Lahore, and in connection with it the story
is current that in the day of Bahawal Shah a river ran
past this spot and that he used to seat himself on its
banks, and pass his days in meditation. But the women
of the neighbourhood complained to their husbands that
when they came to the river to draw water they were
exposed to the gaze of the faqir. Driven away from
one place he eventually settled himself at another
further along the bank, but when here also he began to
meet with opposition, he angrily smote the river and
ordered it to change its course. The river, we are told,
now began to flow at a distance of four miles from its
original position, and meanwhile in the bed of the old
stream there appeared a hillock which the saint chose
as the place in which to pass his days.

It it said that he drove three wooden pegs into the
ground near him, each of which immediately sprouted

(1) Rose, op. cit. vol. I. P. 594.

THE QADIRI ORDERS 259

into a tree. Two of them are said to be still green,
but one, a neem tree, is now dried up. The attendant at
his shrine on receiving an offering of Rs. l/4/-will give
the visitor a bit of this neem wood, which is valued as a
relic, and is generally made into beads for a rosary.
The hagiographers depict this Bahawal Shah riding on
a lion and carrying a snake in his hands in place of a
whip.

Muqlm Shah spent his early days at this shrine of
Bahawal Shah in meditation, and it was here, while
sleeping one night that his pious ancestor is said to have
appeared to him in a dream and directed him to the place
now known as Miyanl Muqim Shah, rousing himself
from sleep, obeyed the order and preceding thither
met Hayatu'l Mir, who admitted him in the Qadiri
Order.

THE NAWSHAHI SECTION.

The Nawshahl Order owes its origin to Shah Ma 4 ruf
Chishtl-Qadirl, a descendant of Baba Farld Chishti and
a vice-gerent of Sayyid Mubarak Haqqani. The latter
was a son of the famous Sayyid Muhammad Gbawth.
already mentioned as the pioneer of the Qadiri Order
in India. So that, in the person of Shah Ma'ruf the
two lines of succession united, but it was the Qadariyya
which took precedence and his spiritual descendants
are counted in the line of that Order. Though the
Nawshahl section is traced back to Shah Ma'ruf, yet
the distinctive title Nawshah (bride-groom) was actual-
ly given for the first time to Hajl Muhammad, a dis-

260 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

ciple of Shah Ma'ruf s vicegerent, Sulayman Shah. In
fact, the records say very little about the originator of
this section, beyond mentioning him as its titular
saint.

Shah Haji Muhammad is regarded as having been
endowed with the dignity of sainthood from his very
birth. The story goes that once, when he was an in-
fant of six months, a woman of the neighbourhood
approached his cradle intending to take him in her lap,
but she became greatly alarmed on removing the
coverlet to find a snake coiled round his body. Her
loud shriek brought the mother to the cradle, but she
failed to find any cause of fear, as in reality no snake
was to be seen. While still wondering at what she
was told about the snake, the mother heard a voice
saying, "Fear not, the woman is ceremonially unclean
and was thus stopped from taking the holy child into
her arms. 11

When Haji Muhammad reached the age of 17 he
retired from the world and lived in the desert. His
parents eventually sought him out and took him to
Naushahra, in the Punjab, where they prevailed upon
him to get married to the daughter of a religious man.
Henceforth Naushahra became the home of Haji
Muhammad and his parents. The saint, however,
continued to live as a recluse spending his night in
meditation on the banks of the river and his days in a
mosque, reading the Quran. Six years after he had
settled at Naushahra he heard the fame of Sulayman
Shah Qadirl and became his disciple. Within a short

THE QADIRI ORDER 261

space of time he became perfect in the mystic path
and received from his pir the title of Naushah Ganj
Bakhsh.

Hajl Muhammad had the reputation of being a very
hospitable man, for he was always ready to feed beg-
gars, and when his own resources failed he would go
out and beg from door to door till he had collected
sufficient for all his guests. The story is told of how
once when he went to beg for some flour at a neigh-
bour's door, the woman of the house was in the act of
kneading some flour, but on seeing the saint at a
distance she hid it it quickly under her thigh, and then
apologised to him saying that she had non. When
the saint had departed she discovered to her horror
that the flour had stuck to her body, and no amount
of effort could detach it from her thigh, until her hus-
band went to the saint and, confessing her fault,
besought him to pray on her behalf.

Hajl Muhammad died in 1604-5 A. D. and was
buriedlat Chani Sahnpal at the Chenab, opposite Ram-
nagar in Wazirabad tahsil.

Some of the disciples of Hajl Muhammad have
become famous saints of the Qadiri order. One such
person was Muhammad Fudayl, a native of Kabul.
In search of a pir he came to India and became a
disciple of Hajl Muhammad. After he had acquired
perfection in the mystic path he was appointed a vice-
gerent and sent back to his home. Being given to
ecstatic experiences he neglected the obligatory prayers.
The * Ulamd of Kabul then came to him and threatened

262 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

to punish him if he would not say his prayers. Fudayl
argued that prayer could not be offered without the
customary ablution and that in his case he was unable
to perform it. The 'Ulamd desiring to test the truth
of his assertion, brought some water and proceeded to
pour it on his arms so as to help him to perform his
ablutions, but to their great surprise they noticed that
it did not even wet his hands. He died in 1699-1700
A. D. and was buried in Kabul.

The Naushahi section was further sub-divided by
Ilajl Muhammad's two disciples, Pak 'Abdu'r-Rahman
and Pir Muhammad Sachyar. The followers of the
former are known as Pak Rahmanis and those of the
latter as Sachyaris. When 4 Abdu'r-Rahman was 5 years'
old Hajl Muhammad once happened to fix his gaze
upon him with the result that the child turned insane,
and came to be spoken of as Mad Rahman. His
parents, abandoning all hope of the child's recovery,
presented him to Hajl Muhammad. The child was no
sooner received by the saint than he recovered his
sanity. When he grew up the saint allotted to him
the duty of carrying bread to those who were appointed
to till the ground attached to the monastery. It is
said that each time he carried out the bread he would
receive two portions as his daily ration, but instead of
eating them himself he used to give them away to some
beggar. Many days were passed in this manner so that
he became much reduced in health. At last the matter
was brought to the notice of Hajl Muhammad who
ordered him to eat his meal in future in his presence.

THE QADIRI ORDER 263

The other disciple, Plr Muhammad Sachyar, was
one day about to get married, but instead turned faqlr,
and for this reason some have been led, though
wrongly, to consider him the founder of the Naushahl
section.

The following story explains how he came to be
known by the title of Sachyar. Hajl Muhammad on
the occasion of the wedding of his son Hashim, accom-
panied the marriage procession to the house of the
bride. While there, according to the custom of the
country, the bride's relatives demanded of him a
present in cash of Rs. 100. But, as the saint had nothing,
he turned to his disciples asking them to lend him the
amount, but none of them were able to help him out.
Plr Muhammad, however, unhesitatingly replied,
"Never fear. I will get you the amount, 11 and saying
this he went out and began to pray. While still^pray-
ing a man came to him and besought prayer for his
wife who was lying ill. After offering prayer on her
behalf Plr Muhammad followed the man to his house,
and there healed the woman. Her husband was so
delighted that he thereupon made him an offering of
Rs. 100 and a horse. The saint duly returned with
these and presented them to Haji Muhammad as gifts,
and since then he received the title of Sachyar, 4 true
friend 1 .

The faqlrs of Naushahi and of its two sub-divisions,
contrary to the rules of the Qadiri Order, hold musical
festivals and on such occasions shake their heads
violently to and fro. The faqlrs of Pak Rahman! are

264 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

said to exceed those of SachySr in their frenzied be-
haviour. Rose, who writes concerning the Pak
Rahmanl faqlrs, says that, "when subject to religious
frenzy they hang themselves on trees with head down-
wards and sway their bodies violently backward and
forwards shouting Ilia lldh till they faint from exhaus-
tion. They explain this custom by a story about Pak
Rahman ascending to heaven, and on being recalled by
Naushah, thinking it respectful to his tutor to descend
with his head foremost." (1) /

(1) Rose, op cit. Vol. Ill, P. 199. See also, Nur Ahmad Chishti,
Tahqiqat-i-Chishti, Lahore, P. 428.

CHAPTER XVII
The Qadiri Order (continued)

The Husayn Shahl and Miyan Khel Sections

The Husayn Shahi

This section is ascribed to Hadrat Shah Lai Husayn
of Lahore, a disciple of Bahlul Shah Darya 'i. His mother
was a Rajput woman of the Dhadha tribe, and his
paternal ancestors were known as Kalsaral. Thus
Lai Husayn's own name was originally Dhadha Husayn
Kalsara'l. The first of his ancestors to accept Islam
was a man named, Kalsara'l, who became a Muslim
during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlag, and was
appointed by him to be Shaykhu'l-Islam. The family
name, Kalsara'l, dates from that time, Lai Husayn
showed, even as a child, a marked preference for
clothes of saffron and red colour, hence the epithet
Lai added to his name. Very early in life it became
clear that he possessed a religious disposition, and
while still only ten years' old he was initiated into the
Qadiri Order by Bahlul Shah Darya 1 !. For twenty-six
years he strictly followed the rites and practices of
Islam, and led a life of real austerity. But on reaching
the age of thirty-six, it is said that while studying a
commentary on the Quran under a certain Shaykh
Sa'du'llah in Lahore, he came one day to the verse;
"The life of this world is nothing but a game and

266 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

sport." (vi. 32). He asked his master to explain this
to him, but when the usual meaning was given he
refused to accept it, saying that the words must be
taken literally, and that henceforth he himself would
pass his life in sport and dancing. This incident proved
to be a turning point in his career and from that time
he sought to express in life the extraordinary views he
held. In consequence he abruptly left the madrasah
and went about shouting and dancing in public. He never
returned to his student life and religious practices. We
are told that one of his first acts on leaving his studies
was to throw his book. Maddrik, a commentary on the
Quran, into a well. His fellow-students, grieved at the
loss of so valuable a work began to chide him, where-
upon he turned and addressed the well as follows: "O
water, return my book, for my friends are anxious to
have it;" on saying this he drew it out unsoiled!

He now gave himself up to the life of a libertine
and spent so much of his time in drinking, dancing and
music that he became, in the language of the ufis,
malamati, blameworthy. It is said that his plr Bahlul
Shah Daryai, hearing of the change in his disciple came
to see him and, strange to relate, in spite of the freedom
from restraint which he himself witnessed in Lai
Husayn's manner of life he expressed himself satisfied
with the hidden sanctity of his disciple, and thereupon
confirmed him in his position as his vicegerent in
Lahore.

IJassu Tell, famous as the saint of oilmen, was a
contemporary of Lai Wusayn. He kept a shop at Chawk

THE QADIRI ORDER 267

Jhhanda near the Mori gate. At first he used to sell
corn, but later at the direction of his plr, Shah Jamal
(whose tomb is in Ichhra), he started selling oil. Lai
Husayn, who was in the habit of visiting the
tomb of Data Ganj Bakhsh, would stop on his
way at the shop and spend some time in dancing
and shouting. One day Hassu Tell, teasing him said,
"O, Husayn, why this dancing and shouting? You have
no cause for such ecstasy, for I have never seen you in
the court of the Prophet." But on the following day,
when Muhamad held his court in the spirit world, with
all the prophets and saints in attendance including
Hassu Tell as one of the representatives of the living
saints on earth, a child appeared, who first went to the
lap of the Prophet, and was then passed from one to
the other, finally coming to Hassu Tell. While playing
on the latter's knee he plucked out some hairs from
his beard. When next Lai Husayn stopped at the
oilman's shop Hassu repeated his taunt that the man
was not worthy of being admitted into the Prophet's
court. For reply Lai Husayn quietly produced the hairs
which he had plucked from Hussu's beard ! The oilman
was at first thrown into great consternation, but re-
covering his equilibrium retorted after a moment's
silence: "So it was you, was it ? Ah well, it was as a
child that you got the better of me !"

Lai Husayn's name is popularly associated with that
of another person called Madhu, and in fact, the two
are so constantly thought of together that the saint
commonly goes by the name of Madhu Lai Husayn as

268 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

though the master and this disciple of his were one
person. Madhu was a young Hindu boy, a Brahmin by
caste, to whom Lai Husayn was, one day, irresistibly
attracted as he saw him pass by. So strong indeed was
the fascination he felt for the boy, that he would rise
in the middle of the night and, going to his house,
would walk round it. In time Madhu himself felt the
attraction of Lai Husayn and, coming under the spell of
his fervent love, began to frequent his house, and even
joined him in drinking wine. Such intimate connection
between a Hindu boy and a Muslim faqlr ot question-
able character very soon become the talk of the place.
Madhu's parents feeling it to be a disgrace to their
family, tried their utmost to dissuade the boy from
going to Lai Husayn, but in vain.

So far Madhu, though the bosom friend of Lai Hu-
sayn, had not yet renounced Hinduism. It was, we are
told, a miracle wrought by Lai Husayn that finally led
him and his parents to the conviction of the truth of
Islam. The story goes that once when Madhu's parents
were going to Hardwar to perform the bathing ceremony
they desired to take their son with them. Lai Husayn,
however, would not let him go, though he promised to
send him later. When the parents had reached Hardwar,
Lai Husayn made Madhu shut his eyes and then, after
striking his feet upon the ground, to open them again.
Madhu did as he was told and was greatly astonished
on looking round to find himself in Hardwar! His
surprise was shared by his parents, who marvelled at
his arrival from such a distance within so short a space

THE QADIRI ORDER 269

of time. Impressed by this miracle, Madhu and his
parents on their return to Lahore accepted Islam at the
hands of Lai Husayn.

The latter died in 1599 A. D. at the age of 63 and
Madhu who survived him for forty-eight years was
buried in a tomb next to that of his plr, in Baghbanpura,
in Lahore. The shrine containing their tombs continues
even to this day to attract dense crowds of people of
all classes. The 'urs used formerly to be celebrated on
22nd. Jamadi 1 th-tham, i. e. the anniversary of Lai
Husayn's death; but later, in order to avoid any incon-
venience through the date for the celebration falling
in the heat of summer, it was agreed to make the festival
coincide with the advent of spring so now the 14th.
Baisakh and the last Sunday in March are the recognised
dates for its celebration.

Lai Husayn had sixteen Khalifas, four of them were
called Khaki, four Gharlb, four Dlwan, and four Bilawal.
After his death four of them, viz. Khaki Shah, Shah
Gharlb, Diwan Madhu, and Shah Bilawal took up their
abode at his shrine, and were eventually buried within
its precincts. (1)

The Miyan Khel Section.

This section was founded by Mir Muhammad, com-
monly known as Miyao Mir. His original home was
Siwastan, where he was born in 1550 A.D. He received

(1) A full account of Lai Husayn and Madhu, and of their
shrines may be found in, Nur Ahmad Chishti, Tahqiqat-i-Chishti*
p. 31 ff.

270 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

his early training in mysticism from his mother who
was herself initiated in the Qadirl Order. When he
grew up into manhood he became a disciple of Khidr
Siwastanl, a saint of cynical disposition who lived the-
life of a hermit in the solitude of a desert, wearing
nothing but a loin-cloth throughout the year. In winter
this Khidr would pass the night time in a furnace that
had been heated during the day. The story is told how
one day in summer, when he was sitting in the blazing
sun, the ruler of Siwastan visited him, and standing
close by cast his shadow upon his body so as to protect
him from the sun. The saint raising his head asked him
what he wanted. The ruler said "I desire to be permit-
ted to do you some service." The saint replied. "The
one service that I would have you perform is that you
get away from here and do not cast your shadow upon
me." The ruler, retreating a short distance, then re-
quested the saint to pray for him during the hour of his
worship. But the saint rebuked him, saying, "God for-
bid, that in the hour of worship I should think of any
one else beside Him/'

After spending some time under the discipline of
Kbidr Siwastanl, Miyaa Mir eventually went to Lahore
for the purpose of study. Within a short period he
completed his studies and settled permanently there.
He had arrived in Lahore during the latter part of
Akbar's rule, and**lived on through the successive
reigns of Jahaogir and Shahjahan.

Prince Dara Shikoh, son of the Emperor Shahjahan,
held Miyan Mir in high esteem and wrote a biography

THE QADIRI ORDER 271

of him, under the title of the SakinatiCl-Aivliyd which
has come down to us. Though the prince knew the
saint intimately and paid him frequent visits, yet for
some reason or other he became a disciple of Mullah
Shah, one of Miyan Mir's vicegerents. Dara Shikoh
has depicted the saint as a man of high principles,
one who scorned material possessions, shunned cheap
popularity, and exibited at all times the utmost con-
tempt for wordly pleasures. To him the true renuncia-
tion was that wherein a ufl, in his search after God,
becomes so absorbed that he grows unconcerned about
the ordinary necessities of life, and is anxious only to
live in continuous meditation upon God. His biogra-
pher tells us that he had a habit of saying that the
purging of one's self from every love except that of
God is the first step towards the mystic Path. He
would enjoin upon his disciples the cultivation of
humility, and urged them to avoid the company of the
rich and of men of high dignity. In this connection he
often used to quote the saying of Muhammad. ''The
last thing that goes out of the head of the righteous is
love of dignity." He himself is described in words
which indicate that he endeavoured to live up to the
standard of austerity which he set before others. He
remained a celibate all his life.

Miyan Mir's favourite disciple was Miyan Nattha, a
native of Sirhind, who also waited upon him. The
saint liyed in the upper story of his house while Miyao

(1) Our information concerning the life of Miyan Mir and his
associates are chiefly derived from this book. See also, Nur Ahmad,
op- cit. p. 250 ff.

272 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Nattha occupied the lower. Every night it was his
custom to carry water to his master for the ablutions
before prayer. One night, according to Dara Shikoh,
he was late in taking the water and on reaching the
room he failed in spite of a thorough search, to find
his master. Astonished at the saint's sudden dis-
appearance, he spent the whole night seated outside
the door, awaiting his return. Great was his surprise
when, early in the morning, he heard his master shout-
ing from within the room to bring the water. Miyan
Nattha, curious to know where he had been during the
night and how he managed to get inside the room,
naturally asked for an explanation. The saint at first
would not reply, but when Miyao Nattha persisted in
his enquiry; he answered, "I generally spend my night
in Mt. Hira, in the vicinity of Mecca, where Prophet
Muhammad used to meditate in his early life. 11

Miyo Nattha was very much subject to states of
ecstasy and would often pass whole day in some desert
place, lost in profound meditation. Dara Shikoh
speaks of him as one who could understand the langu-
age of birds, trees, plants, etc., and tells the story of
how Miyao Mir once asked him where he resorted for
meditation. The disciple replied. "At first I used to
meditate in Ichra, but there the noise of the trees and
plants praising God disturbed me, and so now I retire
to the corner of a shrine in Mohalla Junayd Khalifa. 1 '
Miyfin Mir jokingly retorted: "Aha! listen to all the
talks of this oilman! 1 * (This probably was an allusion to
his previous occupation).

THE QADIRI ORDER 273

Another story of similar type is told on the autho-
rity of Miyan Nattha himself. Once a jinn, the owner
of vast wealth, pressed him to take as much of it as he
desired, but he refused saying that it was of no use to
him. A little further he heard a tree calling out to
him, and as he drew near to it, the tree thus addressed
him. "You did not listen to the jinn, well now take a
little of my root. When desired you just put a bit of
it into some molten metal and it will turn it into pure
silver." Nattha still paying no attention, passed on, and
heard a plant which called out to him from some dis-
tance ahead, saying: "Take me along; a little bit of
me if put into some metal will turn it into gold."
Whereupon Miyan Nattha turned to God in prayer
and cried: "O Lord of the Universe, these Thy
creatures distract me from contemplation of Thy-
self! Command them never again to address me
thus."

Miyao Mir died in 1635-36 A. D., and was buried in
Lahore at the place now known by his name, Prince
Dara Shikoh sent to Siwastan for the saint's cousin,
Muhammad Sharif, to come to take charge of the
shrine, and his descendants still serve there as its
attendants. The Prince commenced to build the shrine
and also planned to make a road of red stone all the
way from the saint's tomb to the Fort, but before the
work was completed he was put to death by his brother
Aurangzeb. The edifice remained unfinished for a
whole year, and then, when Aurangzeb himself visited
the place, he gave orders for its completion.

274 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Within the precincts of the shrine, but outside the
area enclosing the saint's tomb, there are many graves.
Chief of these is that of Miyan Nattha who had died
before his master in 1618 A. D. Others are the tombs
of the descendants of Muhammad Sharif the first guar-
dian of the shrine. Attached to the shrine is a Baradari,
which contains the tomb of Princess Nadirah, sister of
Dara Shikoh. The story goes that the Princess from
the time she was nine years' old, used to come to the
saint and assist him to make his ablutions for the
midday prayer. After two years of such service the
saint said to her, one day, "Daughter! You are now
growing up, do not trouble to come any more." The
following morning she was found dead in her apart-
ment, it being surmised that she died of grief, so dis-
tressed was she that the privilege of serving the saint
had been taken away.

The 'urs of Miyan Mir is held on the 7th. of
RabiVfh-thani, and is celebrated for a night and a day
during which a continuous stream of people visit the
tomb. Hundreds of temporary shops are set up in
booths on both sides of the road leading to the shrine.
The anniversary celebrations are also, unfortunately,
attended by women of ill-fame, as well as by singers
and musicians who throughout the night give free
performances of their dancing and singing. A fair is
also held there on every Wednesday in the months of
Savan and Bhadun, and on these days people throng to
the shrine and take part in celebrations of a type
similar to the 'urs.

CHAPTER XVIII.
The Naqshbandi Order.

The first saint of this order to enter India was
Khwaja Baql Billah Berang, seventh in the line of
succession from Khwaja BahaVd-Din Naqshband, the
founder. Baqi Bi'llah acting on the instruction of his
pir, came to India and settled in Delhi, where he died
after three years.

He may be considered to have merely introduced
the Order into this country, for it was his disciple and
vicegerent, Ahmad Faruql, who really established it
here. This man, in fact, exerted so great an influence
upon the people that for a time it seemed as if the
Naqshbandi Order would supersede the rest of the
Orders in India. The importance that came to be
attached in course of time to this one may be judged
by the following remarks made by Rose, /The history
of the Naqshbandi Order would be of some interest if
it could be recovered, not merely because it has played
an important part in Muslim thought, but also because
it has had no little influence on the political vicissitudes
of India, Mesopotamia, and, to a less extent, Turkey."*
Since these words were written much material relating
to the Indian history of the Order has been recovered,
and as a result of the keen interest recently shown in
the Order by the Muslims of the Punjab, a consider-

*Rose, The Danishes, P. 435.

276 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

able literature on the subject is now available in both
Urdu and Persian. This history, however, so far as
India is concerned begins with Ahmad Faruqi of
Sirhind.

Ahmad Faruqi was born in 1563-64 A.D. in Sirhind.
It is asserted by the ufls of this Order that his coming
was known to the saints centuries ahead, and that
Sirhind, long before his birth was regarded as the
place in which he would appear. Khwaja Ahmad
Amkangi is stated to have sent Baqi Bi'llah, his dis-
ciple, to India for no other purpose but to initiate the
long-expected saint into the Order. Baqi Billah
himself, on reaching Delhi, was informed by divine
revelation concerning every detail in the personal
appearance of this chosen saint of God and was
instructed to look out for him. But we are told that as
early as five years hundred before his birth * Abdu'l-Qadir
Gllani had foretold Ahmad's coming and had announc-
ed that he would be a great reformer of Islam. l Abdu'l-
Qadir went so far as to entrust his i^hirqa or, patched
garment to his son 'Abdu'r-Razzaq, to be passed on
from generation to generation till the appearance of
Ahmad, when it should be bestowed upon him. It is
said that his duty was eventually performed, in 1604
A. D., by Sayyid Sikandar Qadirl, a descendant of
'Abdu'l-Qadir GilanL (1 >

A number of supernatural events are said to have
taken place at his coming, such as that all the saints

(1) Abul-Fayd Khwaja Kamalud-Din. Rawdatu l-Qayyumiya-
Part I p. 108.

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 277

who were dead appeared to his mother and congratu-
lated her upon his birth. His father saw Muhammad,
in company with all the prophets, come near the
infant and repeat the adhdn in hij ears and enumerate
his virtues. Further, we are told that for a whole
week from the day he was born no musician could
use his instrument. Many of them took this to be a
sign of God's disapproval of their profession and
relinquished it. Like Muhammad he too was born
circumcised.

Ahmad's father, Shaykh 'Abdul-Ahad, was a very
distinguished ufl who held authority to make disciples
in fifteen different religious orders and when Ahmad
reached the age of discretion his father initiated him in-
to all of them. But so far neither 'Abdu'1-Ahad nor his
son had come into touch with the Naqshbandl Order.

In 1598-99 A. D. when his father died, Ahmad
left his home with the intention of making the
pilgrimage to Mecca. His route lay through Delhi
where a friend introduced him to Baqi Bi'llah, who
constrained him to stay with him for a week. It did
not take long for Ahmad to come under the influence
of his host, and before the week was over it was
agreed to prolong his stay there. Eventually he gave
up the idea of making the pilgrimage and became a
disciple of Baqi BHlah. At the end of two months
he was appointed a vicegerent by his new pir and sent
back to Sirhind.

Four years after he paid another visit to Baqi
Billah, and, contrary to all custom, the disciple was

278 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

received with every token of respect by his ptr. He
was alloted an eminent place in the monastery where
even his pir would sometimes sit along with his own
disciples and listen to the mystical expositions of
Ahmad. The extraordinary treatment that Ahmad
received from his plr roused the jealousy of some of
the other disciples, nevertheless his fame rapidly grew
and he soon outshone all contemporary ufl teachers.

Shortly afterwards he returned to Sirhind, and it
was on this occasion that he received the Khirqa of
the Qadiri order, to which reference has been made
above. Ahmad has left it on record that when he
assumed this ghirqa the spirit of 'Abdu'l-Qadir with
that of *All. and the spirit of BahaVd-Dm with that
of Abu Bakr (in company with all the departed saints
of their respective orders) came to him, each claim-
ing him to be the representative of his Order. While
the contention was still in progress, the spirits of the
founders of the Chishti and Suhrawardi Orders, attend-
ed by companies of departed saints, also appeared
to him, and each put forward his argument in support
of his claim that Ahmad should represent his Order.
The dispute is said to have been continued from morn-
ing till noon. At last appeal was a made to Muhammad,
who decided the matter by saying, "Let there be
united in Ahmad the spiritual power of all the religi-
ous orders, and let each of you bestow upon him the
right of supreme authority in your orders. But the
Naqshbandiyya should take the precedence of all orders
with him, since it is traced to my friend Abu Bakr,

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 279

and because it is in keeping with the Law of Islam,
for he is to be the reformer of my religion." (1)

The above story is often quoted by the ufls of the
Naqshbandi Order not only to show the superiority
of this Order over all the rest, but in justification of
their claim that its plrs have authority to make disciples
in all the others. As a matter of fact the Khalifas of
Ahmad did, for a time, initiate disciples into all the
religicus orders, but later on the practice was restrict-
ed to the Naqshbandi and Qadirl Orders only. This
restriction arose through indulgence by others in such
practices as music which are contrary to the law of
Islam.

In 1603-4 A. D. Ahmad paid his third visit to his
pir. On this occasion Baqi Bfllah eulogised him,
enumerating the points of distinction in his character.
For instance, he said, "Ahmad has guided us to the
true interpretation of ufi pantheism. In the know-
ledge of mysticism he is like a sun while we are like
planets revolving round him. Indeed, after Muhammad
there have never been a saint in dignity equal to
him."

Soon after his return from Delhi he went to Lahore,
where he was welcomed by the ufis and the 'Ulmd
as a saint and reformer of Islam. While he was still
there, news reached him of the death of his pir, so he
hastened to Delhi where he was acknowledged as the
head of the Naqshbandi Order. He was soon acclaim-
ed as the much-needed Mujaddid, or reformer of Islam,
(1) Md. Part I. pp. 109,10.

280 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

and in consequence the order itself came to be known
as the "Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddadiyya."

The fame of Ahmad soon spread far and wide in
India, and he began to exercise great influence over
all classes of the people. He not only acted as a pir
but, in keeping with his title, he also exerted himself
to purge Islam of numerous heretical teachings which
were current among Muslims, much of it due to the
influence of Akbar's eclectic religion, Din-i-Hahi. He
further set himself up in opposition to the Shi'as who
were gaining much influence at the time, and wrote
several treatises in refutation of their tenets. In a
word, he endeavoured to restore Sunn! Islam to its
pristine condition. The result was that from all quarters
of the country the orthodox enthusiastically hailed
him as the saviour of their religion. He is said to
have tried to convert even Faydl and Abu'l-Fadal,
Akbar's chief religious advisers, from their heretical
beliefs. His success, however, was most marked in the
reign of Jahaoglr, when many of the leading officers
of the court became his followers. Moreover he tried
to effect certain religious reforms among the Emperor's
soldiers, for whose spiritual instruction he appointed
Badf u'd-Din, one of his own disciples. These activities,
but more especially his effort to combat Shi'a influence
in the state, roused the temper of Asaf Jah, the Shi 4 a
prime minister of Jahangir. As he had the Emperor's
ear he prevailed upon him to exercise his royal authority
to curb the progress of the new movement, arguing that
it might prove to be dangerous to the state. Acting

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 281

upon his advice, the Emperor promptly transferred
to distant provinces such of his leading officers as
were Ahmad's disciples; for instance, jChan-i-Khanan
was sent to the Deccan; Sayyid adar Jahao to Bengal;
Khan-i-Jahao to Malwa; and Mahabat Khan to Kabul.
When the more influential friends of the saint had
been scattered, Ahmad himself was summoned to
appear at court. Foreseeing the danger of persecution,
he sent his family away to Afghanistan, and came,
attended only by his immediate followers, into the
presence of Jahanglr. On being brought before the
king he refused to make the customary obeisance to
him, and when urged to observe the usual court
etiquette, he replied, "I have never bowed my head
to any of God's creatures, and I never will!" This
gave an opportunity to his enemies to whisper to the
Emperor of the grave danger he ran in granting liberty
to a person of such marked independence of character.
The saint and his companions were, thereupon, ordered
to be imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior. News of this
aroused the most indignant feelings among his followers,
and for a time an insurrection seemed imminent. In
particular, Mahabat Khan, shocked at the news of his
ptr's imprisonment, was on the point of returning from
Kabul at the head of an army. Fortunately, however,
the saint intervened and issued orders from the prison,
that no one was to rise in revolt on his behalf,
adding that any one who gave way to violence would
incur his greatest displeasure. Thus tranquility was
restored among his followers.

282 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Ahmad remained a prisoner for three years, by
which time Jahaogir became convinced of his innocent
character, and not only granted him his freedom, but,
impressed with his saintly life, actually became his
disciple. The Emperor, following the advice of his
pir, proceeded to make several changes in matters of
state. For instance, the custom of falling prostrate
before the king, which had been in force from the
time of Akbar, was discontinued; the use of beef,
which had hitherto been prohibited was made permissi-
ble, a new mosque was built close to the Diwan-i-'Am
in the fort, for the special convenience of the king
and his courtiers, and the Sunn! code was adopted
as the law of the state. Ahmad's triumph over the
Shi'as at court was also complete. Their influence
indeed declined to so great an extent that their
Mujtahid, Sayyid Nuru'llah, was trampled to death
by an elephant at the order of the king. In short,
from the time of Ahmad the influence of the plrs of
the Naqshbandi-Mujaddadl Order continued to be an
important factor in the courts of the Moghal Emperors (1)
Aurangzeb, the bigotted Muslim, who was a disciple
of Ahmad's son Ma* sum, was himself a product of this
Order. Ahmad died in 1625 A. D. at the age of 63,
and was buried in Sirhind.

We shall not attempt to describe any of the 700
miracles which are said to have been performed by
him, but shall content ourselves instead with a brief
account of his teaching and achievements as a ufl

(1) Ibid. 124-130; 186-195

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 283

and a reformer Undoubtedly the chief service that
he rendered to Islam was through his reforms. He
extirpated the heresies introduced by Akbar, drove
out the Shi'a beliefs and practices which had found
their way into the court of Jahangir through the
influence of his wife Nur Jahao, and purged ufism
of many of those extraneous elements which had
become attached to it through its long history. It was
because of his efforts to harmonise the doctrines of
mysticism with the teachings of the Quran and Sunnat,
that he came to be looked upon as the person foretold
by Muhammad in the following tradition, "Among
my people will arise a man who will be called Sila"
This word is interpreted by the ufls to mean, one
who shall reconcile his followers to God and also
harmonise the teaching of the mystics with the law of
Islam. Another tradition which is quoted as having
reference to him, runs as follows, "Muhammad said: At
the beginning of the tenth century, during the period
intervening the reigns of two powerful monarchs,
there will arise a man who shall be my namesake;
he shall be a great light, and shall carry many thou-
sands with him into paradise," Ahmad forbad his
disciples to make use of the following practices, though
they are still considered permissible in certain of the
other religious Orders: the use of music; dancing
while in the state of ecstasy; prostration before one's
pir; the worship of the saints and shrines, and illuminat-
ing the tombs of saints.

He also revised to theology of the uf!s. For

284 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

instance, in the matter of their belief about God the
ufis were divided into Wujudiyya and Shuhudiyya,
The one holding an extreme pantheistic view, the
other a modified view of it. Ahmad reconciled the
two by asserting that a ufl in the early stage of
mysticism fails to see any distinction between the
Creator and the creatures and he is a Wujuch, a mynist;
but in the higher stages he gains the knowledge of
the " two as existing separately and is thus a Shuhudi,
a modified pantheist,

Ahmad is credited with as many as 644 treatises on
different religious subjects. His teachings are mainly
embodied in a series of letters which were collected
in his lifetime and are now published in three large
volumes.

We shall speak again of Ahmad in the following
chapter in connection with the peculiar dignity which
he claimed for himself and for his three immediate
successors.

CHAPTER XIX
The Naqshbandi Order.
THE FOUR QAYYUMS.

The doctrine of Qayyumiyat, to be explained in the
present chapter, is peculiar to the teachings of the
Naqshbandi-Mujaddadi Order and requires separate
treatment.

Ahmad Sirhindl was the first of the saints of Islam
who claimed for himself and for his three immediate
successors the title of Qayyum. It would seem that
the Qayyum is to be considered higher in rank and
dignity than the Perfect man. (1) He is described as
follows: The Qayyum is the dignitary on whom the
whole order of existence depends, and under whose
control are all Names, Attributes, and things actual
and potential. All things, whether they belong to the
past, the present or the future men, animals, birds and
plants in fact every animate and inanimate object
the throne of God, the Preserved Tablet, the Pen, the
Planets, the fixed stars, the sun, the moon, and the
heavens with all their signs of the Zodiacs, are "under
his shadow, 11 i. e. (government).

It is through his command that the heavens and
their 'Zodiacs 1 move in their courses, that the waves

(1) The doctrine of the Perfect Man has been expounded by
Ibnu'l-'Arabi and Jili, also see, Nicholson, Studies in Islamic
Mysticism.

286 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

rise and fall in seas and oceans, that the leaves in the
trees shake and rustle, that the rains fall from heaven,
that fruits ripen, that birds open their beaks (to receive
food), and that day succeeds night. Every event, small
or great, takes place according to his command. No
a drop of rain falls without his knowledge. The earth
remains motionless or quakes in accordance with his
will, and every one of its inhabitants receives joy or
sorrow, pleasure or pain according to his discretion.
Not a single moment or day, week, month, or year can
prove auspicious or inauspicious to the world without
his order. There can be no harvest, no growth of any
plant unless he wills. In fact, every conceivable event
takes place as he desires and directs.

Moreover, all ascetics, worshippers, pious people
and saints occupied with God's praise, remembrance
and meditation, in huts and cells, on mountains and by
the banks of rivers or seas, either with their tongues
or with other organs of spiritual communication
(/ata'i/) all such are engaged by the will of the Qayyum,
and unless their worship is first accepted by him it
does not reach unto God.

The Qayyum is 'the substance' of all that exists
actually or potentially, and all beings, except God, are
to him what 'accidents' are to 'substance'. He is the
Vicar of God on earth. The Absolute bestows upon
him a special essence, called mawhub. (1) on which de-
pends the subsistance of the universe, yet though he
is the 'Substance' of all, the application of this term is
(1) Lit; given.

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 287

not commensurate with his dignity. Even so, since
the universe stands to him in the relation of 'accidents',
we call him 'substance 1 , for there is no substance with-
out accidents, and no accidents without substance.
Every Qhawth, Qutb, Abdal etc. is a representative of
the Qayyum and is his servant. Verily, he is the Vicar
of God, and all the Afrdd a} of the world turn to him.
He is moreover the qibla of the universe and of all its
inhabitants, whether they know it or not. Such is
the dignity of the office of Qayyum as bestowed upon
Ahmad Sirhindi and his three immediate successors.
But this office was strictly limited to these four and
no other can receive this high dignity in future.

Ahmad further asserted that God fashioned his
body with the substance that was left over after the
creation of the body of Muhammad. The second
Qayyum, Ma'sum, a son of Ahmad, states in one of
his letters that, "Ahmad said that God used the resi-
due of the substance of the body of Muhammad to
form his body and those of his three successors. **In
this connection a story is told of how one night after
his prayer Ahmad's whole body became so luminous
that it dazzled the eyes, and at that moment he receiv-
ed the following 'revelation' from God: "O, Ahmad!
this thy body, is made of the residue of the substance
of Muhammad's body, which I had reserved for thy
sake, for thou wast to be my beloved. " (2)

(1) A frad< are those saints who are not under the Qutb, the
head of the invisible hierarchy of the saints.

(2) Abul-Fayd Khwaja Kamalu d-Din op. cat. Part I. pp. 93>97.

288 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

It is said that when God bestowed upon Ahmad
the dignity of the Qayyum, the spirit of Muhammad
appeared to him and said: "You are indeed my son,
like Ibrahim and Qasim. (1) The honour and privilege
which God has given to you, no other saint has ever
received from Him. You have been raised a thousand
years after me, at a time when God might raise up an-
other Prophet to reform religion, but as there can
arise no Prophet after me, you are sent forth into the
world endowed with the dignity of those exalted
messengers of God who were known as Ulul-azam^
"Possessors of constancy/' and all the acts of such
prophets will proceed from you, and through you my
religion will be reformed. Muhammad then turned to
the spirit of Khadlja and said, " Ahmad is your son
also, for God has given him to us both, and he is
brother of Qasim and Ibrahim, 11 Whereupon Khadija
affectionately embraced him and said, "You are the
best of all my sons." (3)

Another story, illustrating his dignity in virtue of
his Qayyumiyat (the office of Qayyum), runs as follows.
Once Ahmad saw the angels, jinn, human beings and
the entire creation performing their namaz and making
prostration towards him. He 'concentrated his mind'
to find out why he was the recipient of such higher

(1) Muhammad's two sons born of Mary the Copt, and Khadija,
who died in their infancy.

(2) The following nine are said to have been Ulu'l-cazam
Prophets: Noah, Abraham, David, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Jesus,
and Muhammad.

(3) Ibid, Part I. 99-100.

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 289

honour. He was forthwith 'inspired' to know that the
Ka'ba itself had come to visit him and that he was so
completely surrounded by it that every one prostrat-
ing towards the Ka'ba was actually prostrating towards
himself. At the same time he received the following
"revelation": "O Ahmad! your great desire was to
visit the Ka'ba, and lo! I have sent the Ka'ba to visit
you. I now bestow upon the ground whereon stands
your monastery, the dignity of the Ka'ba and I also
deposit within it the light of the Ka'ba itself." The
Ka'ba then entered the monastery of Ahmad, and the
ground whereon the monastery stood itself became so
intimately one with the Ka'ba, that the former was
first 'annihilated' and then received its 'subsistence' in
the latter, and thus all the realities of the Ka'ba came
to exist in the monastery also. An angel was then
heard to proclaim, "This mosque (monastery) of Ahmad
Sirhindl has superiority over all the mosques of the
world, and he who ever performs prayer in this mos-
que will acquire the same degree of merit as though
he had offered prayer in all the mosques of the world."
It is on the basis of this legend that the Muslims of
India, more especially those of the Punjab, make a
pilgrimage to this particular mosque. The tomb of
this saint himself is said to be situated at a distance of
about twenty yards from this ground which is now
regarded as being quite as sacred as that of the Ka 4 ba. (1)
The next great favour which Aljmad, as the Qayyum,
claimed to have received from God was that He

(1) Ibid Part I. pp. 100-101.

290 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

bestowed upon him the title of the 4 Depository of God's
Mercy', and actually made him the custodian of
'His Treasury of Mercy 1 . At the time when he receiv-
ed this favour he declared that he saw an infinite
number of angels descending from heaven and standing
before him, in rows, with folded hands, and that they
said to him; "We are the angels of mercy, and God has
commanded us to carry out your orders." Thus Ahmad
not only claimed that he was the treasury of God's
Mercy but also that its distribution was entrusted to
him. He further asserted that he had given the charge
of keeping the seal of the permit to enter heaven on
the day of judgment to his son, Sa'ld. He declared
that all who receive from God a permit to enter heaven
on the day of judgment must first get the impress on
it of his seal. Other acts of Mercy, such as rescuing
sinners from hell, and assisting people at the Bridge
and at the Balances, he has entrusted to his son and
successor, Ma'sum. (1)

The story is related that once Ahmad went to the
graveyard in Sirhind, where one of his ancestors,
RafiVd-Dln, the founder of the city, was buried.
There it was revealed to him that henceforth, by virtue
of his visit to that cemetery, no one buried in it will
suffer the usual punishment of the grave till the day
of judgment. <2)

Similar sanctity is said to attach to the land situated
to the north of his monastery. This is called 4 heavenly

(1) Ibid Part I. pp. 101-102.

(2) Ibid Part I. pp. 154, 155.

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 291

land' and it is believed that any one buried in it will
surely go to heaven. Ma'sum writes that his father
once told him that God had graciously made his burial
place 'heavenly' and that if a handful of earth from
this ground be cast into the grave of any one, the soul
of the person there buried will not suffer from any tor-
ment of hell. This particular piece of 'Heavenly land'
measures 40 yards in length and 30 yards in breadth.
On its western extremity is a well concerning which
Ahmad once declared that any one drinking of its
water thrice, would escape the touch of the fire of hell
and most surely enter heaven. (T) . * .

The following story is yet a further illustration of
the high claims which this saint made concerning his
personal dignity as the Qayyum of his age. It is said
that once in Sirhind plague was raging very violently.
When the mortality became excessive, people hastened
to Ahmad and asked him to pray that the epidemic
might cease. After offering prayer Ahmad declared:
"God demands one of my children on behalf of .the
people, and I have agreed to give one." The same day
his son Muhammad Isa, eleven years old, died of the
plague. His death, however, though believed to have
taken place by way of relief for the people, failed to
bring about any abatement of the epidemic. Con-
sequently, the people came once again to Ahmad and
entreated him to pray on their behalf. This time he
was informed by a 'revelation* from God that yet an-
other son of his must die on behalf of the people.
(1) Ibid Part 1. p. 160.

292 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Again the saint consented to the death of his son,
Farukh, then ten years old. He also was attacked by
the plague and died the same day. Even this did not
have the desired effect, for the epidemic continued to
rage as violently as before. The devotees of the saint
once again besought his prayers. Ahmad now offered
his daughter Kulthum, and also the wife of his son
Ma'sum, and in consequence of his prayer they both
fell ill and died of the plague. It is said that when
Kulthum was lying on her deathbed, about to breath
her last, angels appeared to the saint and congratulated
him. But this being no occasion for joy, he greatly
wondered at their felicitations, whereupon God is said
to have sent him the following extraordinary 'revela-
tion 1 : "O Ahmad! rejoice, for I have chosen thy
daughter, Kulthum, for my prophet Yahya (John the
Baptist), and these angels and saints who stand around
her bed are there to solemnize her marriage with him."
On receiving Ahmad's consent the ceremony was per-
formed by 'the spirit of Muhammad/ and then the
spirits of all the prophets and angels bore witness to it.
As soon as the ceremony was over she breathed her
last. The saint forbade the people to mourn over her
death, for he said that he saw Yahya with a great con-
course of the angels and the spirits of the saints and
the prophets following the bier of Kulthum as if they
were marching in a wedding procession. He also said
that when her body was laid in the grave the spirit of
Yaljya caught hold of it. 1

(1) Ibid. Part I. 157-158.

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 293

Ahmad even declared that he had access to 'the
Preserved Tablet/ The story goes that one of his dis-
ciples, Shaykh Tahir, fell in love with a Hindu girl,
and in consequence renounced Islam and became a
Hindu. Ahmad prayed earnestly for him and he was
guided back to Islam. Soon after he again apostatized,
and again his faith was restored to him by the prayer
of the saint. When this was repeated the third time,
the saint studied the 'Preserved Tablet/ and discovered
that it was recorded of him that he would die as a
'sinner.' The saint records that he then erased the
word 'sinner 1 and wrote the word 'saint 1 in its place!
Tahir then repented sincerely of his lapse into Hinduism
and became a devoted disciple of Ahmad. Soon after
he received from the saint permission to make disciples
in the Chishtl, the Qadiri and the Naqshbandi Orders,
and was also raised to the dignity of the Qutb. Ahmad
finally sent him to Lahore as his vicegerent, where he
lived until his death (163031 A. D.) (1)

The second Qayyum and successor of Ahmad was
the latter's third son, Muhammad Ma'sum 'Urwatu'l-
Wuthqa, born in 1598-99 A.D It is said that the name
Ma'sum, 'sinless/ was given to him in accordance with
the instruction of 'the spirit of Muhammad/ At his
birth the spirit of Muhammad, in company with the
spirits of all the prophets and saints, is said to have
come and repeated the a^han in the ears of the child.
Miraculous events are said to have marked each stage
of his development.

(1) Ibid, Part I p. 327.

294 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

The second Qayyum claimed to have learnt from
his father the meanings of the mysterious letters which
and found at the beginning of the certain chapters of
the Quran. It is said that no one had ever known their
meanings except Muhammad and his more intimate
companions. It was a thousand years after the time
of Muhammad that they were revealed for the first
time to Ahmad, and the only person to whom he
transmitted this knowledge was this son, his successor.
It is related that in the period during which the father
was expounding the meanings of these letters to his
son, every precaution was taken against the possibility
of being overheard by any man, jinn or spirit. For
instance, the evil spirits and demons were imprisoned
in the ocean, and the angels were made to stand in
tiers with folded hands, round about Ahmad and his son.
Both the Qayyums at this time had miraculously trans-
ported themselves to Mecca, and had shut themselves
up inside the Ka 4 ba. For three days the instructions
continued to be given and they are said to have been
of such terrible nature that at every exposition of the
mystery Ma'sum became unconscious. But at the end of
the three days the saint had only completed the unfold-
ing of the one letter, qdf . It is said that the mysteries
attaching to the remaining letters were subsequently
revealed to Ma'sum by God Himself. a)

Prince Aurangzeb, who in his early youth was a
devotee of Arimad, now became a disciple of Muhammad
Ma'sdm. The reason given for his accepting QayyQm

(1) Ibid. Part I pp. 164 166. ~~

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 295

II as his plr is said to be as follows. He dreamed one
night that the day of judgment had come, and that
sinners were being dragged down to hell. The angels
of hell came to him also to drive him into the fire, but
as they were about to take hold of him shouts were
heard from all sides, "Here comes Imam Ma'sum!
Imam Ma'sum! Imam Ma'sum! he is our deliverer! !"
The Qayyum then appeared on the scene delivered
the sinners from hell, and instead sent them to
heaven. Finally Ma'sum turned to Aurangzeb and
bade the angels release him on the ground that he was
his disciple. It is said that on the following morning
he went to the Qayyum and became his disciple. (1) The
saint, after initiating him into his Order, predicted that
he would succeed his father as Emperor of India. From
that time Aurangzeb was supported in his contest
against his brothers for the throne by this saint who
wielded very great influence throughout the Empire.
It was largely through the influence of this puritanical
plr of his, Ma'sum, that he reimposed the jizya on his
Hindu subjects and forbade the use of music. Even
the practice of Sama* at the shrines of the Chishti
saints was put a stop to.

The third Qayyum was Khwaja Naqshband Huj-
jatu'llah, born in 1624-25 A.D. He was the second son
of Qayyum II. The year of his birth is regarded as
remarkable, and is called sdl-i-muflaq, 'the absolute
year/ for it was in this very year that Qayyum I died,

(1) Ibid. Part II p. 38.

296 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

that Qayyum II succeeded him, and that Qayyum III
was born. ;

Like his predecessor, Hujjatu'llah also influenced
very greatly the reigning Emperor, Aurangzeb, in his
political career. The biographers of Qayyum III say
that it was at the instigation of this saint that Aurang-
zeb led out his great expedition against the Shi'a king-
dom of South India.

A large number of miracles are declared to have
been performed by him. The most astonishing of these
is that he is said to have raised to life his grand-
daughter after she had been dead for three days. It
is said that his grand-daughter, Taju'n-Nisa, once fell
ill, and after suffering for some time died. When the
news was conveyed to the Qayyum he said that she
was not dead but alive. The doctors did their best to
revive her but they did not find any sign of life in her.
When three days had passed, and her body began to
show signs of decay, the people approached the saint
and requested him either to allow to make preparation
for her burial or else raise her to life. Whereupon the
saint approached the body and called her by name, at
which she at once sat up. (1)

The fourth Qayyum Zubayr, was a grandson of
Qayyum III. It is related that his father, Abu'l 'All,
took the veil, after the manner of women, when 12
years old but discarded it when Zubayr was born 12
years afterwards. Such supernatural events as are
said to have taken place at the time of the birth of the

(1) 7W7~"Part III, p?9a "

THE NAQSHBANDI ORDER 297

first three Qayyums are reported to have occurred at
Zubayr's birth also, and countless miracles are said to
have been performed by him from his childhood on to
old age.

It was during the time of the fourth Qayyum that
Aurangzeb died, and in the subsequent war of succes-
sion between princes A'zam and Mu'azzam, the saint
appears to have played an important role in deciding
its final issue. He openly championed the cause of his
disciple, Mu'azzam, and encouraged him with the
promise of victory in his fight with his brother. As
predicted the battle ended in favour of Mu'azzam, who
ascended the throne with the title of Bahadur Shah.
Zubayr, however, never allowed him to forget that
it was through his influence that he had gained the
Empire.

The fourth Qayyum passed the rest of his life amid
the turbulent times of the now decaying Muslim
Empire. The hostile forces of Marhattas, Rajputs,
Sikhs, Jats, the French and the English were closing in
upon Delhi. It was during this time that Delhi was
sacked by the Persians under Nadir Shah ( 1739 A.D.)
who took away the Peacock Throne and with it
immense treasure.

The decay which had set in was due in the main to
the intolerance and fanaticism with which the four
Qayyums had imbued the Moghal Emperors in parti-
cular Aurangzeb and his successors. It is notable that
the Muslim Empire in India was at the height of its
glory in the time of Akbar, in whose reign Qayyum I

298 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

assumed office, and that it lay in ruins when the last of
the Qayyums died, in 173940 A.D. Equally note-
worthy is the fact that at the death of Zubayr the
Naqshbandl-Mujaddadi Order had spread to every
part of the Muslim world.

CHAPTER XX.
Some Minor Orders.

1. THE UWAYSI ORDER.

This Order is ascribed to Uwaysu'l-Qaram, who
derived his title from Qaran, a village in Yaman. He
was a contemporary of Muhammad but was prevented
from seeing him chiefly because of his high sense of
duty to his own mother and also owing to the fact that he
was subject to states of ecstasy which periodically over-
mastered him. He is said to have received instruction
in a mysterious way from the spirit of Muhammad.
Thus it is that when a ufl is known to have no ptr, he
is said to be an 'Uwaysi. 1 The custom, to which refer-
ence has already been made (p. 190} , of connecting
two saints or mystics in a spiritual genealogy who could
never have met because separated by a long space of
time or distance, is really derived from this Uwaysl
order. The one is said to have received instruction
from the ruhdniyat ('spirituality/ elsewhere we have
translated this word by 'spirit') of the other. Such cases
are common in the Naqshbandi other. (See pp. 187-190).

The following anecdote concerning Uways is related
by the author of the Kashfu'l-mahjub: The Apostle said
to the Companions: 'There is a man at Qaran, called
Uways, who at the Resurrection will intercede for a
multitude of my people, as many as the sheep of Rabf a

300 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

and Mudar. Then turning to 'Umar and 'All, he said:
'You will see him. He is a lowly man, of middle height,
and hairy; on his left side there is a white spot, as large
as a dirhem which is not from leprosy (plsti) and he has
a similar spot on the palm of his hand. When you see
him, give him my greetings, and bid him pray for my
people. 1 After the Apostle's death 'Umar came to
Mecca, and cried out in the course of a sermon: 'O men
of Najd, are there any natives of Qaran amongst you ?
They answered, 'Yes'; whereupon 'Umar sent for them
and asked them about Uways. They said: 'He is a mad
man who dwells in solitude and associates with no one.
He does not eat what men eat, and he teels no joy or
sorrow. When others smile he weeps, and when others
weep he smiles.' 'Umar said: 1 wish to see him.' They
replied: "He lives in a desert, far from our camels.
'Umar and 4 All set out in quest of him. They found
him praying and waited until he was finished. He
saluted them and showed them the marks on his side
and the palm of his hand. They asked his blessing and
gave him the Apostle's greeting, and enjoined him to
pray for the Moslem people. After they had stayed
with him for a while, he said: 'You have taken trouble
(to see me) ; now return, for the Resurrection is near,
when we shall see each other without having to say
farewell. At present I am engaged in preparing for the
Resurrection/ When the men of Qaran came home,
they exhibited great respect for Uways. He left his
native place and came to Kufa. One day he was seen
by liarim b. HEayySn, and after that nobody saw him

SOME MINOR ORDERS 301

until the period of civil war. He fought for *AlI, and
fell a martyr at the battle of Siff!n." (1)

D'Ohsson in his work on the Ottoman Empire says
that Uways formed the first order of the anchorites who
practised the greatest austerity. He writes: "This
visionary pretended also to have received from the
heavenly visitor the plan of his future conduct, and the
rules of his institution. These consisted in a continual
abstinence, in retirement from society, in an abandon-
ment of the pleasures of innocent nature, and in the
recital of an infinity of prayers day and night. Uways
even added to these practices. He went so far as to
draw out his teeth, in honour, it is said, of the Prophet,
who had lost two of his own in the celebrated battle of
Uhud. He required his disciples to make the same
sacrifice. He pretended that all those who would be
especially favoured by heaven, and really called to the
exercises of his Order, should lose their teeth in a
supernatural manner; that an angel should draw out
their teeth while in the midst of a deep sleep; and that
on awakening they should find them by their bedside.
The experiences of such vocation was doubtless too
severe to attract many proselytes to the Order; it only
enjoyed a certain degree of attraction for the eyes of
fanatic and credulously ignorant people during the first
days of Islamism." (2)

Uways was regarded as the patron saint of many of
the trade guilds in Turkey, especially that of the barber

(1) Kashf al-Mahjri, pp. 83, 84.

(2) Quoted by Rose in The Darvishes, pp. 266, 267.

302 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

tooth-drawers. According to Rose he is also the patron
of bowmen and camel drivers.

As we have seen the place assigned to Uways in
Indian hagiology is significant. There were indeed many
saints who were termed 'Uwaysi' and some of them
originated certain of the other Minor Orders. One
such Order is called Madarl, and we shall now proceed
to give a brief account of it. -^

2. THE MADARI ORDER.

This Order is ascribed to BadlVd-Din Shah Madar.
Unfortunately there is much confusion in the various
details given concerning him by different hagiographers.
The following account is based on the M ir'dt-i- Madarl,
a manuscript copy of which is to be found in the Buhar
Library, a section of the Imperial Library, Calcutta.
The Mir'dt-i-Maddri is said to have had for its sources
the Iman-i-Mahmudi, a work believed to have been
written by Mahmud Kanturi, one of the vicegerents of
Shah Madar.

Shah Madar was a Jew, and his father, Abu Isfraq
Shami was a direct descendant of Aaron, the brother
of Moses. The birth of Shah Madar is said to have
been announced to his father in a dream by Moses
himself, who named the child BadlVd-Din (the maker
of religion), and said that he would be like unto him in
the dignity of sainthood. According to Moses' predic-
tion signs of the 'Mosaic saintship' showed themselves
in Madar in his youth. He received his early education
from a Jewish teacher, Hadlqa Shmi, a man who

SOME MINOR ORDERS 303

knew all the scriptures by heart and truly followed
their teachings. This Hadlqa is said to have performed
many miracles in his life.

When Shah Madar was still young hi*"parents died,
and he, broken hearted over his loss, went to his master
Hadiqa and said, "I have acquired mastery over all the
Scriptures and have learnt much from you about the
mysteries of religion, but so far I have not entered at
all into the experience of union with God. You have
taught me of one Ahmad, foretold in the Torah and
Injil, who was to come after Moses and Jesus, and
through whom alone one could find God. Where is he
to be found? 1 ' His master replied, "Ahmad has passed
away from this world, but his followers are to be found
in Mecca and Medina.'* Whereupon Shah Madar
renounced all his worldly possessions and went to
Mecca. There he spent some time in the study of the
Quran and Traditions and then mastered the Fiqh of
all the four Sunnl Schools of Jurisprudence. Even so
his soul was not satisfied. At last, disappointed, he
thought of returning to his home in Syria, but when he
went to make the circuit of the Ka'ba for the last time,
he heard a voice saying to him, "If thou art a seeker
after God, hasten to the tomb of Muhammad in Medina/'
In obedience to the voice he went to the Prophet's
tomb and as he kissed it he heard a voice saying to him,
"Peace be on thee, O BadiVd-Din Shah Madar ! God
willing, thou wilt soon attain thy goal/ 1 Shortly after-
wards the spirit of Muhammad appeared and, in the
presence of 'All's spirit, instructed him in the mystery

304 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

of the religion of Islam. Afterwards Muhammad com-
mended him to the care of * All and ordered him to
instruct him as one of his own sons in esoteric know-
ledge. Shah Madar next went to Najaf Ashraf, the
sacred place of the followers of 'All. There he was
introduced by 'All to Imam Mahdi, the twelfth invisible
Imam, who further instructed him in the twelve heavenly
books. We leain of these books thus incidently in
this connection. They are enumerated as follows: The
four books which were revealed for the children of
Adam, viz.,

Torah, Zabur, Injil and Furqan.

Four which were sent down to the jinn viz. Rakuri,
Jajari, Dashari and Wallyan.

Four which were revealed to the Angels viz. Mir 'at,
A'lnu'r-Rab, Sirr-i-Majir and Mazhar-i-Alif.

When Shah Madar had been thoroughly instructed
in all esoteric and exoteric knowledge, Imam Mahdl
took him to the spirit of 'All, who then appointed him
his vicegerent and ordered him to go to Medina. There
the spirit of Muhammad directed him to proceed to
India.

Another version of his life speaks of him as an Arab
of the Quraysh tribe, and traces his genealogy on his
father's side to Abu Hurayra and on his mother's side
to ' Abdu'r-Rahman b/ Awf , both companions of Muham-
mad. His father's name, according to this version, is
said to be 'All. In his spiritual genealogy, he is con-
nected, through 'Abdullah Makki and Sh%ykhul-Jarib
Muqaddasi with JayfGr ShUini. The story goes that

SOME MINOR ORDERS 305

Tayfur's plr had been a disciple and companion of Jesus
Christ, and that Jesus informed Tayfur that he would
live to a great age and see Muhammad! Jesus is further
said to have instructed him to remain hidden in a cave
till the appearance of Muhammad, and then to accept
his religion.

Though obscurity surrounds the origin of Badl'u'd-
Din, there is reason for believing that, on reaching
India, he first went to Ajmer where he is said to have
received instruction as to his future activities from the
spirit of Khwaja Mu'mu'd-Dln. Thence he went to
Makanpur, in the neighbourhood of Cawnpore, where
he died in 1485 A. D. There is some difference of
opinion as to his age at the time of his death. Accord-
ing to some he lived to be 250 years old; according to
others 150. (1)

His tomb in Makanpur is visited by crowds of both
Muslims and Hindus, and is the scene of an annual
fair. Women are excluded from his shrine because it
is believed that any woman entering it is immediately
seized with violent pains, as if her whole body were
wrapped in flames of fire. On the occasion of his 'urs
the rite of fire-walking is performed by Madari facftrs.
Burning coals of fire are spread on the ground and
sandalwood is sprinkled upon them. Then the facfirs,
following their leader, jump quickly along the path of
coals, shouting meanwhile "Dam Madar; Dam Madar;"

(1) See, Ghulam Sarwar, Khazinatu'l-Asjiya vol. II, (1914, Nawel-
kishor Press, <awnpore) pp. 310-311. See also, AkhbanCl Akhyar
Munaqiau'l-Asfiya Mu'arijub l-Wilayat.

306 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

i. e. 'By the breath of Madar;' Their cry is believed
to be a protection against injury from the hot coals,
as well as a cure for the bite of a snake or the sting
of a scorpion. After the performance their feet are
washed and are found to have received no injury.

Sometimes devotees of the saint vow a black cow at
the time of his birthday, which is supposed to have been
the 17th. Jamadlu 1-Awwal. The cow is then slaugh-
tered and the meat distributed among faqlrs. This
custom is called "gdi lutnd" i. e., plundering the cow.

3. THE SHATTARI ORDER.

This order is an offshoot of the Tayfuri Khanwada.
and is attributed to Shaykh 'Abdullah Shattari a des-
cendant of Shaykh Shihabu'd-Dln Suhrawardi. The
name Shattdr literally means *speed\ and is a term ap-
plied by the ufls to certain mystical practices whereby
they are enabled in the shortest possible time to arrive
at the state of 'annihilation 1 (fand) and 'subsistence*
(Jbaqd). 'Abdulllah was the first to receive the title
of Shatfari on the completion of such practices. It
was given to him by his pir, Shaykh Muhammad 'Arif,
who afterwards sent him to India. Wherever he went
'Abdullah sought out the ufis and said to them: "If
you possess any spiritual gift, I request you to share
it with me, otherwise I invite you to share mine". He
also made this proclamation in every place through
which he passed: "Let everyone who is a seeker after
God come to me and I will lead him to God. 1 '

When in India he first took up his residence at

SOME MINOR ORDERS 307

Jaunpur, the capital of the then reigning Sulfan, Ibra-
him Sharqi. But soon his relations with the court
became strained and he was obliged to leave for Malwa,
which then was a small independent Muslim state.
Therein its capital Mandu he lived till he died in
1428-29 A. D. ; .

Shah Muhammad Ghawth of Gwalior was a famous
saint of this Order, fourth in the line of succession
from 'Abdullah Shattarl. He travelled extensively,
making acquaintance wherever he went with leading
saints and ufls of his time. First he laboured hard to
acquire the esoteric knowledge peculiar to uflism,
which consists chiefly of the art of magic and methods
of summoning jinn. Later, he turned his attention to
the study of mysticism and devoted himself to the
purification of his heart for the purposes of attaining
to the knowledge of God. Soon he rose to be a mystic
of so high an order that he held authority to make dis-
ciples in the fourteen Khanwadas becoming at length
a Qutb of his age. The Emperor Humayun held him in
very high esteem, and indeed it was in consequence of
his friendly relation with Emperor that Sher Shah,
after defeating Humayun, regarded Muhammad Ghawth
with suspicion. A further pretext for the new ruler's
persecution of the saint was found in his book Mi raj
(ascension). In this he described his experiences in
the path of spiritual progress, frequently making use of
pantheistic expressions. Such a book was considered
sufficient reason for condemning him to death. Muham-
mad Ghawth fled from Malwa and took shelter in Guj-

308 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

rat, which then formed an independent state under
Sultan Muhammad III. But the ' Ulamd of Gujrat also
prepared a brief against him and presented it to the
court. The Sultan however refused to take any step
unless it was signed by Shah Wajihu'd-Din, a courtier
for whom the king entertained great regard.

When Shah Wajihu'd-Din was urged by the ' Ulamd
to add his signature to the brief, he went personally to
Muhammad Ghawth in order to hear his explanation
of the objectionable passages in his book. Shah
Wajihu'd-Dm was so impressed with Muhammad
Ghawth, that he refused to sign the brief on the ground
that the passages in question were uttered in the state
of ecstasy and hence beyond the purview of the juris-
diction of the 'Ulama. In conseqence, Muhammad
Ghawth was acquitted of the charge of heresy and
hailed as a saint. Shah Wajihu'd-Din himself became
his disciple. (1)

Muhammad Qbawth was the author of several
books which dealt for the most part with magic, in-
cantations, and the methods of summoning the jinn.
The most notable of his extant writings are, Jawdhir-
i-lghamsa and Awrcd-i-Qhawtinyya. The saint died in
1562-63 A. D. and his tomb in Gwalior is famous as a
place of pilgrimage.

Shah Wajihu'd-Din, succeeded Muhammad Ghawth,
and in time came to be regarded as a famous saint of
Gujrat. He founded a great Madrasa, which was a
centre of learning for the whole of that district and

(1) Sec Ghulam Sarwar op. cit. pp. 332-333.

SOME MINOR ORDERS 309

actually existed as late as 1820-21 A. D. He lived
during the reigns of successive rulers of Gujrat, and
witnessed its conquest by Akbar.

He too was a notable author, and is said to have
written about 300 works, but of course this is gross
exaggeration. Some of his writings may still be seen
in the Library of Plr Muhammad Shah in Ahmadabad.
He 4j^yi^lpl8 A. D., and was buried in the centre of
his 'great Mtadrasa. Over his tomb a beatiful shrine
was built by Murtada Khau, the Governor of Gujrat
during the reign of Jahaugir.

4. QALANDARI ORDER.

The meaning of the word qalandar has not yet been
satisfactorily defined. In an article written on the
subject a few years ago, an Indian ufi claimed that it
is derived from one of the names of God in Syriac. (1)
Others have sought to find its derivation in the Persian
Kaldntar, a chief man, or Kalantar a rough, uncouth
man, but both of these are rejected by Rose as highly
improbable. Further, the idea has been put forward
that the term is derived from the Turkish Qarinda or
Qalanddri, both meaning musical instruments, or again,
that it is connected with the Turkish word qdl, mean-
ing pure; but all such attempts to trace it to known
word in various languages are beset with difficulties.

The term, whatever its meaning, is applied to an
order of faqlrs, of which we have varying descriptions.
According to some writers these faqlrs form a class of

(2) Asnar-i-Tasauwuf Lahore, July 1925..

310 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

begging monks, but others speak of them as a tribe of
nomads who make their living by conjuring and the
exhibition of performing bears, etc. Others, again,
give a more honourable account of its members,
depicting them as a pious people who travel about,
mostly without shoes, and practise the severest acts of
austerity, and at times live in a state of ecstasy. (1) But
in the hagiology of Indian Islam the Qalandariyya is
an order of faqlrs who are so absorbed in religious
reveries or overcome to such an extent by ecstatic
experiences that they are unable to distinguish between
things lawful and unlawful. Members of this order
are distinguished by the fact that they shave their
heads, eyebrows, moustaches and beards.

The first man known to have had the name Qalan-
dar is said to bave been 'Abdul- 4 Aziz Makki. It has
generally been believed that he was a companion of the
Prophet himself. According to ufi legend he is not
only still alive, but is said to have been living though
the ages from the time of Abraham until now! In
Pakpatan, close to the tomb of Baba Farld, a small
mound (sarddba) is pointed out as the place inside of
which he is said to be now existing through in a state
of unconsciousness self-induced by the effect of Habs-i
Dam, the holding of the breath.

According to an account current in India, the order
was found by Sayyid Khidr RumI Qalandar Khapra-
dari, a disciple of 'AbduVAziz Makki. The word

(1) For a fuller discussion on the term see Rose, The Danishes*
pp. 169-70.

.SOME MINOR ORDERS 311

Rum! indicates that he belonged to Rum, or Turkistan,
while the title Khapradari is connected with a cup which
he called Khaprd, and always carried with him. It is
said that this cup possessed the miraculous quality of
being able to supply to any one whatever was wanted.
The peculiarity of this order whereby the members
shave their heads etc, is thus explained. Khidr Ruml's
pir, 'Abdu'l-'Aziz owing to his very great age had lost
all his hair, and his disciple in his ardent desire to
imitate his master in every detail of his life and ap-
pearance, shaved off the hair of his face.

It is said that Khidr Rumi once came to Delhi and
there met Khwaja Qutbu'd-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki, who
initiated him in the Chishti Order and gave him the
authority to make disciples in it. In return Khidr
Ruml received Qutb-ud-Din in the Qalandarl order and
bestowed upon him a like authority. Thus originated
within the Chishityya a sub-section called the Chish-
tiyya-Qalandariyya; and in the Qalandariyya called the
Qalandariyya-Chishtiyya.

The biographers of Khidr Ruml say that he was a
contemporary of the following saints; 'Abdu'l-Qadir
Gilani, Shihabu d-Din Suhrawardi, Mawlana BahaVd-
Dln the father of Jalalu'd-Din Rumi, BadlVd-Din Shah
Madar, Faridu'd-Dm l Aftar and Faridu'd-Din Shakar-
ganj.

The Qalandar! Order was introduced into India by
Sayyid Najmu'd-Din Qhawhu'd-dahar Qalandar. The
saint was at first a disciple of Nizamu'd-Din Awliya of
Delhi, but later at the suggestion of his pir he went to

312 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Rum and became a disciple of Khidr Rumi, who ap-
pointed him his vicegerent and sent him back to India .
Najmu'd-Din is said to have journeyed twice to
England and China and to have made the pilgrimage
to Mecca forty-two times. Among his acts of austerity
it is mentioned that once he fasted for a period of
forty years, breaking his fast every evening with the
leaves of the plum tree; and that, further, he remained
seated for thirty years on one stone. His chest, we
are also told, used to give out the sound of 'Hu\ the
ufi's abbreviated name for God (Allah). Legend
tells us that he lived to the great age of 200 years, and
that he died in 1432 A. D. His shrine is at Mandu in
Malwa, close to the palace of Sultan Muhammad
Ghawri. He was succeed by Qutbu'd-Dm Binadal
Qalandar Sarandaz-i-Ghawthl. The title Sarandaz
means one who casts away his head, and is said to have
been given to him because at the time of performing
E)Hikr his head would become severed from his neck.
He died in 1518 A. D. at the age of 145. He was the
last of the Qalandari saints to have lived to over 100
years.

Another saint of this order whose name is still
venerated all over North India, was Sharfu'd-Din
Bu'AU Qalandar of Panlpat. He at first held the office
of a Mufti in Delhi and was a disciple of Shihabu'd-Dln
Chishtl, fourth in the line of succession from Qu^bu'd-
Dln Bakhtiyar Kakl. The story goes that once when
he was delivering a lecture and parading his learning,
a faqlr stood at the door and said, U O Sharfu'd-Din,

SOME MINOR ORDERS 313

it is not for this that you were born how long will
you continue in such disputations?" This gentle
rebuke sank deep into his heart, and forsaking his
office and the pulpit he began to seek peace in solitude.
Eventually he cast away his books into the river
Gumtl, and as an act of penance continued to stand
knee-deep in its waters for several years. Then he
heard a voice saying to him: "O Sharfu'd-Dm, thine
austerity has been accepted, ask whatsoever thou
wiliest." He replied, "Nothing but Thee, and Thee
alone." He was then told that his prayer had been
heard, and he was ordered to come up out of the
water. Sharfu'd-Din said, "If this is Thy desire take
Thou me from this water by Thine own hand, as for
myself I have no desire to leave this 'sea of love'." At
the next moment he found that some one had lifted
him up from the water and had placed him on the
ground. Exasperated at the conduct of this stranger,
he cried out, "Shame! thou hast spoiled my labour of
many years. But a few more moments and I would
have attained my goal." The stranger replied, "I am
* All, and son-in-law of the Prophet; art thou not aware
that I am also known by the title of yad Allah, the
hand of God?" "Saying this 'All imparted to him
spiritual power and disappeared. From that time he
became a Qalandar. According to others he was
initiated into the Qalandarl Order by Najmu'd-Din
Ghawth Qalandar.

Sharfu'd-Din's teachings are contained in a series of
letters addressed by him to his disciple Ikhtivaru'd-Din.

314 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

He died in 1324 A. D. and was buried at first in
Karnal, but the people of Panipat, claiming him to be
a native of their city, disintered his body and re-buried
it in their own city. There is a legend, however, which
says that when the people of Panipat came to remove
his body they were prevented from carrying out their
design by some supernatural portent, and so they
merely dug up a few bricks from the tomb and, placing
these in a coffin, carried them away in procession.
On reaching Panipat they cpened the coffin and, to
their great surprise, found his body in it! It is now
supposed that he lies buried both at Panipat and
Karnal.

His 'urs at any rate is held at both the places from
the 9th. to 12th. Ramadan, during which days both
shrines are illuminated and musical festivals are held. (1)

5. THE MALAMATI ORDER.

The designation Malamati is derived from maldmat.
*'blame," and signifies one who is "blameworthy."
The term has been generally applied to the saints of
this Order, as indicating that they stood in a special
relation to God, and, in consequence, were not subject
to the Divine ordinances. This however does not
appear to have been the meaning which the early
exponents of uflsm attached to the word. Rather it
was used by them for a mode of life sometimes adopted

(1) For Qalandari saints see Asrar-i-Tasawwuf. Manzil-i-Naqsh-
bandiyya, Lahore, July, 1925. The above account of the Qalandari
order is chiefly derived from this Sufi Journal.

SOME MINOR ORDERS 315

by the ufls whereby they cloaked their sanctity by
affecting the manners of the libertine. -

The first saint to follow the path of maldmatiyya
was Dhun Nunul-Misri who has been mentioned in
the earlier chapter of this book (see pp. 19, 20). He
was regarded by the ' Ulama of Egypt as a zindlq or
freethinker. It was his disciple, Hamdunu'l-Qassar,
who founded the Malamati Order. 'Allu'l-Hujwirl
speaking about him writes as follows: "He has many
fine sayings on the subject. It is recorded that he said:
Al-maldmat tarku s-salamat, "Blame is the abandon-
ment of welfare. 1 If anyone purposely abandons his
own welfare and girds himself to endure misfortune,
and renounces his pleasures and familiar ties, in hope
that the glory of God will be revealed to him, the more
he is separated from mankind the more he is united to
God." (1)

The order was introduced into Constantionple by
Shaykh Hamza, a Mulla of Brusa, in the 16th, century.
There the maldmatls came to be known as Hamzawis,
after the name of Hamza. They formed a secret Order,
with an organization strikingly like that of the
Freemasons. "Shaykh Hamza was executed soon after
the accession of Sultan Murad (111), apparently in
1575. The ground of his condemnation was said to be
his excessive reverence for the Lord Jesus, and he
was sentenced to be stoned at the Hippodrome, but,
out of fear of a popular outbreak, as soon as he was
brought out of his prison his throat was cut. One

(1) Kashf ul-Mahjub. p. 66.

316 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

wonders if he was influenced by Qabiz, founder of
the Khumbasihis, a sect which held Jesus to be morally
superior to Muhammad. He too, had been executed
with exemplary promptitude in 1527. " (1)

It is a fact that from the early days of uflsm,
there have appeared from time to time men of this
type who have led the life of a libertine under the
pretext of being followers of the Malamatl Order.
*Aliu'l-Hujwir! writing as early as the eleventh
century A. D. says: "He who abandons the law and
commits an irreligious act, and says that he is follow-
ing the rule of "blame," is guilty of manifest wrong
and wickedness and self-indulgence. There are many
in the present age who seek popularity by this means,
forgetting that one must already have gained popular-
ity before deliberately acting in such a way as to make
the people reject him; otherwise, his making himself
unpopular is a mere pretext for winning popularity. 1 '
Describing the true principles of the Malamatiyya,
4 Aliu'l-Hujwin writes: "Now blame (malamai) is of
three kinds: it may result (1) from following the right
way (maldmat-i-rast r of tan), or (2) from an intentional
act (malamat-i-qasd kardan), or (3) from abandonment
of the law (jnalamat-i-tarh kardari). In the first case,
a man is blamed who minds his own business and
performs his religious duties and does not omit any
practice of devotion: he is entirely indifferent to the
behaviour of the people towards him. In the second
case a man is greatly honoured by the people and
(I) Rose, The Darvishes, p. 230.

SOME MINOR ORDERS 317

pointed out among them: his heart inclines to the
honour in which he is held, and becomes attached to
those by whom it is bestowed: he wishes to make
himself independent of them and devote himself
wholly to God; therefore he purposely incurs their
blame by committing some act which is offensive to
them but which is no violation of the law: in conse-
quence of his behaviour they wash their hands of
him. In the third case, a man is driven by his natural
infidelity and erroneous beliefs to abandon the sacred
law and abjure its observances, and say to himself,
"I am treading the path of blame:" in this case his
behaviour depends on himself alone. 11 'Aliu'l-Hujwiri
has given several anecdotes to illustrate the correct
meaning of Malamatiyya. One such runs as follows:
"A story is told about Abu Yazld, that, when he was
entering Rayy on his way from the Hijaz, the people
of that city ran to meet him in order than they might
show him honour. Their attentions distracted him
and turned his thoughts away from God. When he
came to the bazaar, he took a loaf from his sleeve and
began to eat. They all departed, for it was the month
of Ramadan. He said to a disciple who was travelling
with him: "You see! as soon as I perform a single
article of the law, they all reject me.' 1(1) Abu Yazld,
being at that time on a journey, was not legally bound
to observe the fast.

Several of the Malamatl sections have been noted
in the description of the Suhrawardi Order. A few
(1) Kashf ul-Mahjub, p. 65.

318 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

further types of the faqlrs of this Order may be briefly
described here. These it is true have no direct
connection with ufism, but are interesting inasmuch
as their peculiarities have had a certain amount of
influence upon the masses.

(1) Libertines, who drink intoxicants and lead a
free life and do not practise any religious duty. They
claim to be the followers of Jalalu'd-Din Rumi or
Fakhru'd-Dm 'IrfiqI. Their life, of course, is in mani-
fest contradiction to their claim.

(2) Faqlrs who take opium, Indian hemp and
other drugs, as they say, to produce quiescence of
spirit. Sometimes, however, the noxious drugs are
taken in excessive doses in order to stimulate the
imagination and craving for exaltation of their mind;
but in reality the effect is such as to make them wild
and terrible. These Faqlrs claim to belong the Qadiri
and Suhrawardl orders.

(3) There are those who are devoted to music,
and feign ecstasy. They imitate the ufis of the
Chishtl Order in their external practices, but do not
follow the precepts of Islam.

(4) Others are given to hallucinations, and
because of their wild talk have come to be looked
upon as ufls.

EPILOGUE.

The Indian ufism has largely been built upon the
mystical ideas of Persia where it has reached the
point of its highest attainment by fifteenth century.
The situation has been historically summarised in the
following words of Evelyn Underbill: "Muhammadan
mysticism, appearing in the eighth century in the
beautiful figure of Rabi'a the 'Muslim St. Teresa 1
(717-831), and continued by the martyr Al-Hallaj,
(ob. 922), attains literary expression in the eleventh
in the 'Confession' of Al-Ghazali (1055-1111), and has
its classic period in the thirteenth in the works of the
mystic poets 'Attar (c. 1140-1234), Sa'df (1184-1263),
and the saintly Jalalu'd-Dln (1207-1273). Its tradition
is continued in the fourteenth century by the rather
erotic mysticism of Hafig (c. 1300-1388) and his suc-
cessors, and in the fifteenth by the poet Jaml (1414

In the opinion of the same author the note of
decadence of the mysticism of Islam was struck at
the time of Hafiz, but it will not be far from the
truth to say that in spite of signs of deterioration
it continued to progress till the beginning of the six-
teenth century. It then reached a point from which
there was no hope of further progress. But its diver-
gence from Islam started long before it began to

(1) Mysticism, p, 462.

320 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

deteriorate. In its course of progress it gathered
elements which were foreign to Islam, and so now in
its doctrine of God, in its outlook upon life, and in its
conception of the relation of man to God, it differs to
a very great extent from the early Islam preached
by Muhammad. A ufi whether a Wujudl or Shuhudl
i. e., a monist or modified pantheist, is never in his
theology an Ijadl, one who believes that God created
the universe out of nothing. Further, the practice of
paying an excessive homage to the saints and worship
in shrines cannot be reconciled with the religious
duties based on the rigid monotheistic teachings of
Islam. Nevertheless the extraordinary thing is that
though the present form of ufism is made up of ele-
ments many of which contradict the teachings of the
Quran it has found an abiding place in Islam and is
integrally related to it. It is now woven in the very
texture of the orthodox faith of the Muslims. A
pious Muslim some time or other in his life generally
gets initiated into some religious Order. Such initia-
tion in many cases may mean nothing beyond a simple
bay at, repenting of one's sins and making a profession
of faith at the hand of some plr, and then promising
to be a good Muslim in future, but it also gives the
right to belong to that particular Order and grants
the privilege of being reckoned as a spiritual child of
the saint who had founded that Order. Thus it is
not uncommon to find a Muslim calling himself by
such titles as Hanafl Qadirl, or Hanafl Qadiri Chishtl,
which indicate that in the matters of the Canon ^ aw

EPILOGUE 321

he belongs to the Hanafi School of Jurisprudence and
at the same time by virtue of his bay at to a pir he
belongs to the Qadiriyya or to the Qadiri and Chishtl
Orders in ufism.

This incidently illustrates that the point of primary
importance is not the teaching but the Shaykh. ufism
in action centres round the personality of its several
Shaykhs or plrs. It is they who in its development
have contributed from their own personal experience
and thus have given rise to multifarious forms all of
which to a great extent are the expressions of the
inner experience of the founders. This explains the
existence of varieties of mystical teachings in Tasaw-
wuf. The pantheism of Hallaj, the monism of Ibnu'l-
4 Arbi, the emotionalism of the saints of the Chishtl
Order, the legalism of the Khwajas of the Naqshbandi
Order, the high ethical standard of al-Ghazali, the
sensuous symbolism of Hafiz, the magical display of
Gurzmar faqirs, the strange peculiarities of the
Qalandars, the antinomian tendency of the Malamatis
are all found existing under the name of Tasawwuf
in Islam and are tolerated by the leaders of the dif-
ferent mystical schools. Even a way has been found
to justify the extreme pantheistic expressions like
those of IJallaj and Bayazld, which otherwise would be
condemned as blasphemy. The term Shathiyat has been
invented to be applied to all such expressions of the
ufis which if uttered by a non-ufl, will be considered
blasphemous. A ufl, no matter what his doctrinal
beliefs and mode of living are, above all is God's

322 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

'Ashiq, a lover, and as such he stands in a different
relation to God from others who are merely 'abd,
slaves. It is this peculiar relation that a ufi has
with God that entitles him to act and speak in a
manner which would be highly presumptuous and
even bleasphemous in others. :

It is because of this element of love that ufism
has been the source of vitality to Islam. It bears out
the truth of what some one has said "Dogma and
duty are not the whole of a religion. There are in
our nature needs of loving and of suffering, as well
as of believing and of doing; and no faith that does
not contain something to satisfy these needs could ever
have wielded that vast power which, as a matter of
fact, has been and is being exercised by Muhammadan-
ism. Hence the importance of the school to which
the name of ufls is generally given." (1)

It is chiefly because of this element of love that
it has appealed to the masses and has inspired the
poetical works in the Persian and Urdu languages. If
the mystical element in Persian and Urdu songs and
poetry were lost, one wonders what would be left. It
is true that the eloquence of the Quran is regarded
by the Muslims as an outstanding miracle, but the
part that the mystical poetry plays in the lives of
Muslims is in some ways greater than that of the
Quran itself. To a Muslim the Arabic Quran is the
sublime word of God, but the msytic song speaks in
a language that is easily understood for it speaks in
(1) Williams S. Lilly Many Mansions, p. 118.

EPILOGUE 323

terms of love and appeals to the deepest emotion. It
rouses in his heart the innermost longing for union
with God. This is what led Dr. Pusey to observe that
the speedy growth of mystical doctrine in the thin
and arid soil of Muhammadanism also bears eloquent
witness to the longing innate in the human heart for
union with God. (1)

There is another sense in which ufism in its work-
ing process may be said to be a source of vitality to
Islam. It provides various means by which a man can
give expression to his religious feelings. It is because in
its system it is not so rigid and stern as are the
precepts of Shari'at in Islam. This is best illustrated
in the striking difference that one can see between
the worshippers in a Mosque gathered for congrega-
tional prayer and the devotees of a saint when they
assemble in a shrine to pay homage to him. In a
Mosque the prayers are offered in a solemn, dignified
and orderly manner according to the prescribed
details, but in a shrine one can see men, women and
children all giving expressions to their inner feelings
of devotion to the man whom they believed was a
lover of God, and though his remains lie buried in
tomb, yet he lives and receives their homage, hears their
prayers and intercedes on their behalf. There in his
shrine or dargdh, the royal court as they call it, they
are free to honour him in the manner that they would
:hoose and to express their love in whatever form
they like. Of the crowd of worshippers, therefore,

(1) Quoted in op. ctt. p. 119.

324 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

some would fall prostrate, some would stand with
their hands spread out and some would go round
the tomb as the pilgrims do in Mecca round the Kaaba.
This of course, does not mean that the shrines of
different saints have no fixed forms of devotion. In
a shrine while masses are free to show their devotion
to the saint according to their inner urge there is
to be found also a uniform method of offering the
Fdtiha, or of making a manual or vow to be fulfilled
when a favour is granted. Similarly one may find set
methods of muraqiba or meditation, and the custom
of tying a thread or a piece of rag to the railing or the
door of a shrine as a reminder to the saint of the
favour asked by the devotee, and the practice of
lighting a lamp, especially on Thursday, the two latter
being universally observed. On the other hand as one
goes from one shrine to another one can also notice
distinctive features. The monotonous chanting of
Illallah, or Allahu, or simply Hu accompanied with the
movement of the body from right to left which grows
faster and faster, the Sama, or the musical festival
accompanied with raqs, or dancing of the devotees
though not quite peculiar to the ufls of the Chishti
Order, are yet outstanding features of this Order's
worship. The emphasis on the observance of the
shari'at alongside ufi practice to the exclusion of
Dhikr-i-jali, marks the Naqshbandl Order. The pierc-
ing of the body and playing with red hot iron are
feats exclusively appropriate to the Gurzmar faqirs.
To be suspended by the feet while in the state of

EPILOGUE 325

ecstasy is the peculiar custom found only among the
Naushahls. Similarly the Qalandars with their head,
beard, eye-brows and moustaches clean shaven,
wandering from place to place, the Rasul Shahis in-
dulging in intoxication, the Malamatis leading, the life
of libertines all go to show the peculiar and strange
practices tolerated in present-day ufism.

ufism, however, is best illustrated in the indi-
genous songs and poems of the ufls which are sung
by the native faqirs. For this reason we now proceed
to give a metrical translation of a Punjabi sacred lyric
which may be regarded as typical of modern uft
literature in India. This poem is entitled, Si Harfl
Dholla, i. e. a lyric of thirty stanzas in praise of the
Beloved. The poet's nom de plume isTalib. The poem
is one of those which are often sung to the accompani-
ment of music, usually a sdrangl, or fiddle. This was
originally translated by Professor R. Sirajuddin and
Rev. H. A. Walter, both of Lahore and we give it
with some alterations. This poem is a thoroughly
native, pure Punjabi poem, the popularity of which is
evidenced by the fact that it is used as an early
morning hymn by the street singers who go about sing-
ing such songs partly as religious worship and partly
with the object of receiving alms.

1,

Come, Love, within the soul Thy dwelling place doth lie,
Thy distant hone desert, and to my fond heart fly!
Thou sayst Thou dost bide than the neck vein more nigh.d)
Yet, vexing one, Thy form is veiled before mine eye.

(1) cp. Qunn 50: 15.

326 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

2.

O, Love, deceive no more! Thy fickle words forsake!
Without us and within Thy dwelling Thou dost take.
My heart, with wiles bewitched, a captive Thou dost make:
Then into words of scorn Thy mocking accents break.

3.

Oh, Love, for all our woes no pity hast Thou shown,
Exiled from Home, to pine in far off realms alone.

Through Thy false deed, Who once had made our souls Thine
own,

In this strange land, alas, no peace my heart hath known.

4.

Thou only art; all else is unearthly.
Why press this vain debate if one or separate we?
Since, when Thy face is shown, my sighs Thy grief nust be,
And in my prayers for death, my tears are tears of Thee.

5.

I sleep, and at my side Love sinks in slumber deep:
When first my eyes unclose, He rouses, too, from sleep.
I laugh, He shouts for joy; His tears fall when I \xeep:
Yet bargains He, nor cares my plighted hours to keep.

6.

None knows my state save Love; for no one else 'twere meet.
I sacrifice my all, an offering at Love's feet.
Each moment yearns my heart its guileless Love to greet:
Unless Love quickly come, this heart must cease to beat,

7.

'Twas told that the Beloved to holy Mecca camfc:
That never man should know He chose Muhanjnad's name.
Medina, now, His home: and Talib'sd) fond lip^ frame
Prayers for "God's peace" on Him, and His higi service claim.

(1) Talib, meaning a seeker of God, is the|nom de plume of
the poet.

EPILOGUE 327

8.(D

A gift I crave whose sight sweet thoughts of Thee shall start;
With ring from Thy dear hand, or necklace, Thou must part.
In Hindustan, my home; Thou in Medina art.
Slain by Thy love, what sins had soiled my helpless heart?

9.

By telling o'er Thy name each passing hour I grace.
Leave town and vale and make my heart Thy resting place.
Love reigns the Lord of all; His, earth and sky and space.
Since Thou hast made me Thine, whom else should I embrace?

10.

If e'er my lips, unsealed. Thy mystery reveal,(2)
From mighty rivers' depths great flames of fire will steal.
Blood from God's throne will rain, the stars will earthward reel.
Ah, Love, what streams can cool when these hot fires I feel?

11.

My years of youth were spent in doleful tears and sighs.
Now, to my aged heart, Love's winged arrow flies.
Bring hither my Beloved, the darling of mine eyes.
Talib's true love from heart as well as tongue doth rise.

12.

My artless Love goes by nor casts on me His eyes.
Heedless, He passes by; counsel Him, O, ye wise!
Medina, now, I seek, there my sole refuge lies.
O, Talib, plead thy love, till from His course He hies.

(1) From this stanza onward the disciple speaks of himself as
woman, a bride, a wife, and uses the feminine gender for himself,

nd the masculine for the Divine Beloved.

(2) This refers to the esoteric truth of the Sufis, supposed to
tave originated with Muhammad, to which the Sufi's lips must ever
emain sealed.

328 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

13.

Beloved, my heart yearns to see Medina fair,
All hidden grief and pain to lay before Thee there.
Long years have sped since Love left me to lone despair.
All men, O Talib, now toward Thee some malice bear.

14.

Apart from the Beloved, no comfort can I gain.
Should one Love's kahma read, these inward fires might wane.
Remembering Love my lifeless heart revives again.
O, let Love learn, at last, my piteous cries of pain!

15.

Thou who my surety art, O Love, stir not away.
Summon me to Thyself, and share my grief, I pray.
Secure my pardon, Love for I have gone astray.
To my dead soul give life, and sinless I shall stay.

16,

Mount Sinai's lofty my Love hath put to shame.
Mounting the throne on high, all-holy God, His name.
To tread Medina's streets, as the Beloved, He came;
Now, guiding on the Path, as Chishti, spread His fame.

17.

Inside and out my Love holds His high Sovereignty:
In every place He dwells, the First and Last is He.
Save only the Beloved, none other can there be.
I live but by His life. Love's own eternally.

18.

From the great Presence sought, Thy bounteous Love I own.
Afar or near, O Love, I see but Thee alone.
All from Thy light have come no other source have known.
Send pardon from Thyself, nor bid my steps begone.

19.

Never to know my Love were no man's mournful fate.
To her who is Love's bride my life I consecrate.
For her whom Love hath called, with welcome all would wait.
That Love mine arm would hold, my longing passionate.

EPILOGUE 329

20.

Stricken to death, I lie, crushed by Thy beauty's wave.
In Thy love's ocean vast my soul hath found its grave.
In every town men's tongue for Thee their tribute save,
To Thee our lives we yield: to see Thy face we crave.

21.

This daily task to do, of old my destiny

That I His praise proclaim, whenever Love summons me.

O, friends, I am consumed; Love's form I cannot see.

My Love hath learned to work with what strange witchery!

22.

Who, from the path of Love, my steps shall turn aside?
My life, if Love desire, to Him would I confide.
Love will not faithless be; my trust hath time defied.
Since Love hath held mine arm, with me He must abide.

23.

Love, I am slain, whom man with gibes and taunts assail.
My heart Medina craves, for justice there to wail.
Come, O, my Love, behold, I have removed my veil
Credence my witness wins to Thy dear beauty's tale.

24.

In the Beloved's way, friends, I am lost to sight.
Then lest I be not found, let all in search unite!
This very Love, the thief 0, seize His arm with might!
A seeker after Love, know me, by day and night.

25.

"Negation's"*!) medicine, Love, for mine eyes was brought;
And now, save only Love, I can distinguish naught.
Love's citadel He showed, with every splendour fraught.
Love, I am lost indeed: what magic hast Thou wrought?

(1) Nafi athbat. See p. 100.

330 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

26.

Love, I would die for Thee, most ravishing Thy grace.
Bring news, O friends, from whence come the Beloved's face.
My soul with joy grows faint, and faster, my heart's pace.
What if, this morn, should come Love's step and His embrace.

27.

My necklace is God's praise, wherewith I am arrayed.
My ear-rings are the prayer, "God's peace" my lips have prayed.
Love, on my heart, for gems, longing for God hath laid.
The nuptial bed I mount, invoking Chishti's aid.

28.

The heavenly lightnings flash, and blazing fountains spout.
With Sinai's splendour clothed, my glory shines about.
Love, entering at last, "My follower", calls out.
Beings of lights and fire and earth, (1) "God's blessing" shout.

29.

To meet Love, as He comes, with bended head I go,
"God's benediction" ask, and at Love's feet bow low.
This hand-maid's ministry, unworthy, all must know.
Talib, Thy slave to keepthis boon, O Love, bestow.

30.

How bountifully, Love, Thy gracious mercies fall.
Ever Thy faith I own, Thy Kalima recall;
Ever at Thy blest tomb, I sacrifice my all;
Ever on Chishti, Guide, with grateful spirit, call.

(1) That is, angels, jinn and men, who, as the Muslims be-
lieves are created out of light, fire and clay respectively, See
Quran, 15: 26, 27 and 4: 13, 14.

APPENDIX A

List of the saints of Indian Sufism arranged chrono-
logically.

* Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order.

Name Date of

Place of

Death

Shrine.

1. *Mu'inu'd-Din Ajmerl (1) 1236

Ajmer

2. *Qutbu'd-Dln Kaki (2) 1237

Delhi

3. *Shamsu'd-Din Altamash 1237

Delhi

4. 'Jalalu'd-Dm Tabrezi 1244

Bengal

5. Muhammad Turk 1245

Narnol

6. Badru'd-Din Ghaznawl 1259

Delhi

7. Jamalu'd-Dm 1261

Hansi

(1) He collected the sayings of his plr, Khwaja
'Uthman Harunl, under the title of Anisu'l-Arwafa.
Friend of Spirituals. His own teachings are found in
the collections made by several of the saints of the
Chishti Order and also in his letters, Maktubdt.

(2) He collected the sayings of eight ufl saints of
the Chishtl Order who had preceded him in a book and
called it Hisht Bahisht, Eight Paradises. He also
wrote Dalilu'l-Arifin. The Proof of the Mystics.

332 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order (contd.)

Name Date of Place of

Death Shrine

8. *Faridu'd-Dln Shakar-

ganj (1) 1266 Pakpatan

9. Najibu'd-Din Mutawak-

kil 1272 Ghiyaspur

(Delhi)

10. Nizamu'd-Dln Abu'l-

Mu'ayyid 1273 Delhi

11. Hamldu'd-Din ufi 1274 Nagore

12. Qadi Hamldu'd-Din 1279 Nagore

13. DaudPalhi 1281 Delhi

14. Imam 'All Lahaq 1287 Sialkot

15. Burhanu'd-Dln Mahmud

Abu'l-Khayr 1288 Delhi

16. **Alau'd-Din Ahmad

Sabir 1291 Piran-i-Kaliar

17. Badru'd-Dm b. 'All

Ishaq (2) 1291 Ajodhan

(1) He is^said to be the author of the following
books on ufism: Jawahir-i-Faridl, The Gems of
Farid, Irshad-i-Farldl, The Instructions of Farid,
Tadhkiratu'l-Fuqara. The Memoirs of Ascetics,
FawctidtCs-Sdlikln, The Things Beneficent to the
Travellers. The last named being the collection of the
sayings of Nizamu'd-Din Awliya of Delhi.

(2) He is reputed to be the author of the famous
book on Gfism, Asrdru'l-Awliyd, *The Mysteries of
the Saints/

APPENDIX A 333

Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
1. The Saints of the Chishti Order (contd.)

Name Date of Place of

Death Shrine

18. Muntakhabu'd-Dm (1) 1296 Deogiri

(Deccan)

19. Sayyid Muhammad b.

Sayyid Mahmud

Kirmani 1311 Delhi

20. Nisamu'd-Dln Shlrazi 1318 Delhi

21. *Shamsu'd-Din Turk 1318 Panipat

22. Qadl Muhiu'd-Dm

Kashani 1319 Delhi

23. Khwaja 'Alau'd-Dm b.

Shaykh Badru'd-Dln 1320 Pakpatan

24. Shamsu'd-Din 1320 Zafarabad

25. *Sharfu'd-Dm Bu 4 All

Qalandar (2) 1324 Karnal & Panipat

(1) He preached Islam in Deogiri. It is said that
many who refused to accept Islam on his preaching
were turned into stones.

(2) He wrote the following books on ufism:
Maktubdt, 'Epistles'. Hikmat Nama, The Book of
Wisdom'. Hukum "Hama Shaykh Bu "All Qalandar,'
'The Commands of Bu 4 Ali Qalandar. Matfinaun Bu
'All Qalandar.

334 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

'^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.

1. The Saints of the Chishti Order (contd.)

Name

Date of Place of

Death

Shrine

26.

*Nijamu'd-Din Awliya

(1)

1325

Delhi

27.

*Amir Khusru (2)

1325

Delhi

28.

Mo'ayid'ud-Dm

1326

Delhi

29.

Wajlhu'd-Dln Yusuf

1329

Chanderi

30.

Muhammad Imam (3)

1335

Delhi

31.

Hisamu'd-Din

1335

Pakpatan

32.

Fakhru'd-Din Rozi

1336

Delhi

(1) His sayings have been collected by several of
his disciples, the most famous of these is Fawdidu'l-
Fuwad, "The Beneficent to the Heart."

(2) He is known as the Chaucer of Urdu literature.
The number of his works is said to have been equal to
the number of the names of God, ninety-nine, and the
number of his poems are said to have amounted to five
hundred thousands. But this must be an exaggeration.
He ranks very high also in Persian literature and is
known widely as Tuti-i-Hind, the parakeet of India.
He was the first to employ Persian metres in Urdu and
his famous production Khdliq Ban, a rhymed vocabulary
of Arabic and Persian words in common use explained
in Urdu is still widely read by youths. The authorship
of Ral}atul-M uhibbin, 'The joy of the Lovers,' a book
on ufism is ascribed to him.

(3) He was a grandson of Bsba Farid and wrote
Anwdrul-Majalis, The Illumination of the Assemblies 1 ,
in which he collected the sayings of Niz5mu*d-Dln
Awliya (see 26).

APPENDIX A

335

1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order (ccmfcf .)

Name

33. Mir Hasan 'Ala'i

Sanjari (1)

34. Diyau'd-Dm Barm (2)

35. Burhanu'd-Din Qharlb

36. Hisamu'd-Din Sokhta

37. 'Azizu'd-Dln ufi

38. Shamsu'd-Dm Yahya

39. Malikzada Ahmad

40. Shaykh Danial

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine

41. Fakhru'd-Dm Zaradi

42. Piya'ud-Dm Bakhshl (3)

1336 Deogiri (Deccan)
1338 Delhi

1340 Deogiri

1341 Sanbhar (Ajmer)
1341 Delhi

1345 Delhi

1346 Delhi

1347 Satrakh (near

Lucknow)

1347 Was drowned on
his way to Mecca
1350 Budaun

(1) He was one of the vicegerents of Nizamu'd-
Dln Awliya (26) and collected the sayings of his pir in
what is now well-known as Fawaidu'l-Fawdd *Bene-
ficent to the Heart 1 .

(2) A vicegerent of Nizamu'd-Din Awliya (26)
and the author of the famous historical treatise, Tdrikk-
i-Firoz Shdhi, The History of Firoz Shah'. He
wrote his own mystical experience under the title of
Hasrat Kama, The Book of Regret. 1

(3) He was one of the vicegerents of Bsba Farid
(8) and wrote Silku's-Suluk, The Mystic Path and
Sharfy-i-Dud-i-Surydnl, 'A Commentary on a Syrian
Prayer' and other books on ufism.

336 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order, (conid.)

Name

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine

43. Faridu'd-Dm (1) 1351

44. Kamalu'd-Dm 'AllSma 1353

45. Naslru'd-Dln Chiragh-i-

'Dehli (2) 1356

Akhl Siraju'd-Dln 1357

adru'd-Dm Hakim 1358

Qutbu'd-Dm Munawwar 1359
4 Ala Vd-Dln Nablll 1361

Siraju'd-Din 1361

46.
47.
48.
49.
50.

51. Jalalu'd-Dm Kabiru'l-

Awliya 1364

52. Hamldu'd-Dm Qalan-

dar (3) 1367

53. Sayyid Muhammad b.

Mubarak Kirmam (4) 1368

Nagore
Delhi

Delhi
Bengal
Delhi
Hansi
Delhi

Patan (Ahmed-
abad)

Panipat

Delhi

Delhi

(1) He wrote Sururu 's-$udur \ 'The Gladness ot
Hearts' in which he collected the sayings of Hamidu'd-
DmNagorl (see 12).

(2) The authorship of Adabut-Talibin, The
Manners of the Seekers, 1 and Intibdhu'l-Muridln, The
Awakening of the Disciples', are ascribed to him.

(3) He is said to have written Iptayrul-Majdhs,
The Best of the Assemblies' which gives a collection
of the sayings of NasIru 1 d-DmChiragh-i-Delhl(see 54).

(4) He was one of the vicegerents of Nalru f d-
Din (45) and wrote Sayru'l-Awliya 'Lives of the Saint 's.

APPENDIX A 337

1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order. (confcJ.)

Name Date of Place of

Death

Shrine

54.

Yusuf Chishti (1) 1372

Delhi

55.

Taju'd-Din

1382

Narnol

56.

Abu'l-Fatah

1386

Jaunpur

57.

'Abdu'l-Muqtadir (2)

1389

Jaunpur

58.

'Ala'u'd-Dln 'Alau'1-Haq

1398

Panduah

59.

Mawlana Khwajagi

1398

Kalpi

60.

Mir Sayyid Ashraf Jahao-

glr Samnanl (3)

1405 .

Kachaucha

61.

'Allmu'd-Din

1406

Patna

62.

Nuru'1-Haq

1410

Panduah

63.

Shaykh Ahmad

1417

Kalpi

64.

Fatahu'llah

1418

Oudh

(1) He was a vicegerent of Naslru'd-Dm (see 45)
and wrote Tuhfatun-NascCih, 'A Present of Good
Counsels/

(2) He was a vicegerent of Nasiru'd-Dln (see 45)
and wrote Munaqibus-$iddlqln, 'Virtues of Good Peo-
ple 1 , containing the accounts of ufi saints.

(3) Kachaucha, the seat of his shrine, is well-
known for exorcism. His biography, Kitab-i-Ashrafi,
The Book of Ashraf 1 , is a popular book among the
ufis of India. He himself is the author of two books
on ufism, Bishdratu'l-Muridln, 'Good News for the
Disciples 1 , and Maktubdt a collection of letters.

338 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order, (contd.)

Name Date of Place of

Death Shrine

65. Mir Sayyid Muhammad

Gesu Daraz (1) 1422 Hyderabad

(Deccan)

66. Muhammad Mutawakkil

Kantorl 1422 Bahraich

67. Shaykh Yusuf Irchl 1431 Malwa

68. Shaykh Ahmad 'Abdu'l-

Haq (2) 1433 Radauli

69. Sher Khan Bak (3) 1433 Delhi

70. Qawwamu'd-Dln 1438 Lucknow

71. Qadi Shihabu'd-Dm 1444 Daulatabad

72. Nuru'd-Dln Qutb 'Alam

Bangali 1447 Panduah

73. Shaykh Kabir 1453 Gujrat

(1) His sayings have been collected by one of his
disciples, Muhammad, under the title of Jawdmiul-
Kaldm, The Collection of Sayings. 1 He himself was a
vicegerent of Nasiru'd-Din (45).

(2) He was a vicegerent of Jalalu'd-Dm (51). His
disciples when meet with each other say, *Haq, Haq!
the Truth, the Truth. In this salutation a reference is
found to the name of the saint himself.

(3) He wrote several books in prose and poetry on
various subjects. Among his books on ufism are,
Yusuf -o-ZulayQia, written in imitation of the famous
book of the same name by Jaml, and Miratu'l-Arifin,
The Mirror of the Mystics. 1

APPENDIX A

339

1. The Saints of the
Name

74. Abu 1-Fatah 'Ala'i

Qurayshl

75. Shaykh Muhammad

Mayna

76. Kaku Shah (1)

77. Sa'du'd-Dln (2)

78. Shah Miyanjl Beg

79. Sayyid Muhammad b.

Ja'far (3 >"

80. Shaykh Muhammad

Rajan (4)

Chishti Order, (contd.)

Date of Place of
Death Shrine

1457 Kalpi

1465 Lucknow

1477 Lahore

1477 Khairabad

1484 Mandu

1486 Sirhind

1495 Ahmedabad and
Pak Patan.

1495 Hissar

81. Shaykh Junayd

(1) His shrine was supposed to be in Shahidganj,
Lahore, now famous for the Sikh-Muslim dispute.

(2) He was a disciple of Shaykh Mayna (75) and
wrote a commentary on the Futuhat-i-Makkiya in which
he has incorporated much of the sayings of his plr as
well as incidents from his life. He also wrote
Majmaus-Suluk, containing the sayings of Shaykh
Mayna and Makhdum-i-JahSniyan.

(3) He was one of the vicegerents of Nasiru'd-Dln
(45) and was an author of several books on religious
subjects. The following books he wrote on ufism:
Bdkrul-Maanl, 'Ocean of Things Spiritual,' Daqd'iqu'l-
Mcfani, The Minute Details of Things Spiritual,'
HaqcCiqiCl-Maanl, 4 The Realities of Things Spiritual/
Asrdr-i-Ruh, * Mysteries of Soul. 1 !

(4) He was first buried in Ahmedabad and later
his body was exhumed and buried in Pak Patan.

340 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
1. The Saints of the Chishti Order, (contd.)

Name

Date

of Place of

Death Shrine

82.

Shaykh Husayn <"

1496

Nagore

83.

Raji Hamid Shah

1496

Manikpur

84.

Shaykh Hasan Tahir

1503

Delhi

85.

Shaykh Bakhtiyar

1503

Radauli

86.

Shaykh Muhammad 'Isa

1505

Jaunpur

87.

Mawlana Allah Dad

1514

Jaunpur

88.

Shaykh Ahmad Majid

Shaybam

1529

Nagore

89.

Shaykh Muhammad

Hasan

1537

Delhi

90.

'Abdu'l-Quddus

Gangohl

1538

Gangoh (Delhi)

91.

'Abdu'l-Kablr Bala Pir

1540

it it

92.

Shaykh Baha'u'd-Din

1540

Jaunpur

93.

Shaykh Khanu

1540

Gwalior

94.

Shaykh 'Ala'u'd-Din

1541

Delhi

95.

Sayyid Sultan

1542

Bahraich

96.

Sayyid 'All Qawwam

1543

Jaunpur

97.

Shaykh Yusuf

1543

Burhanpur

98.

Shaykh Aman (2)

1549

Panipat

(1) He wrote Sawanih Imam Qhazall, 'The Life
of Imam Ghazal!,' and Tafsir-i-*Nurun Nabl, 'A Com-
mentary on the Light of Muhammad/ the latter being
in 30 volumes.

(2) He wrote Itkbdtu'l-Akdiyyat, 'The Positiveness
of the Oneness, 1 and a commentary on the Lawd'ih of
Jaml.

APPENDIX A 341

1. The Saints of the Chishti Order, (contd.)

Name

Date

of Place of

Death Shrine

99.

Shaykh Hamza Daharsu

1549

Narnol

100.

Shaykh Hisamu'd-Din

1553

Multan

101.

Mir Sayyid 'Abdu'l-

Awwal (1)

1560

Delhi

102.

Shaykh Qadi han

1562

Zafarabad

103.

Shaykh Ajodhan

1567

Jaunpur

104.

Shaykh Salim

1568

Fatehpur Sikri

105.

Shaykh Hasan Muham-

mad

1573

Ahmedabad

106.

Naql Hayik (2)

1574

Manikpur

107.

Muhammad Tahir (3)

1576

Gujrat

108.

Nigamu'd-Dm Pikharl

1577

Burhanpur

109.

Piyara Chishti

1578

Gujrat

110.

Jalalu'd-Dm

1581

Thaneswar

111.

Rizqu'llah (4)

1581

Delhi

112.

'Uthman Zinda Pir

1582

Panipat

(1) He was a descendant of Mir Sayyid Gesu
Daraz (65). He is an author of many books on various
subjects, the chief of these is Faydul-Bdri, a com-
mentary on the collections of traditions by al-Bukharl.
He is reputed to have written several treatises on
ufism also.

(2) His name is used as an incantation for the cure
of snake-bite.

(3) He is an author of several treatises on tradi-
tion.

(4) He wrote several treatises on JJufism in Persian
and Hindi. The famous ones in Hindi are Jut J^iranjan
and Sdr Bachan.

342 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order, (contd.)

Name

Date

of Place

of

Death Shrine

113.

Sa'du'd-DlnBuddhan'"

1585

Khayrabad

114.

Shaykh Nizam

1591

Narnol

115.

Shaykh Jaha

1592

Ahmedabad

116.

Shaykh Math <

1595

Gagrun

117.

Mawlana' Abdullah < 3 >

1597

Sultanpur

118.

Ikhtiyaru'd-Din

1602

Kalpi

119.

Sayyid Jiw

1606.

Delhi

120.

Mir 'Abdu'l- Wahid (4)

1608

Belgram

121.

Haji Awes Tuzi

1608

Kasur

122.

Ahmad Sa'id Shoryani

1609

Kasur

123.

Nizamu'd-Din b.

'Ujhman Zinda Plr

1609

Panipat

(1) He wrote a commentary on the Futuhdt-i-
Makkiya of Ibn 'Arabi.

(2) The stones and pebbles of Gagrun because of
him are believed to possess the power of healing the
patients suffering from cholera. A piece of stone
generally from the neighbourhood of his shrine, is taken
and washed and the water is given to the patient for
drinking.

(3) For his antagonism to Shi'a Islam and also
because of his oppositions to Akbar's new religion,
Din-i'Ildhl, he was first exiled and then on his return
from Mecca was poisoned, it is said, by the order of
the Emperor.

(4) He produced a treatise on technical terms of
Qfism in poetry and also several other books on the
subject of mysticism.

APPENDIX A

343

1. The Saints of the Chishti Order, (contd.)

Name

Date of Place ot

Death Shrine

124.

Shaykh Rahmat

Shoryam

1616 Kasur

125.

Shaykh Muhammad b.

Fadlullah

1620 Burhanpur

126.

Shaykh Ahmad

Shoryam (1)

1621 Kasur

127.

Muhammad Salim

1621 Lahore

128.

Mir Sayyid

1622 Kalpi

129.

Shah Ala

1624 Panipat

130.

Shaykh Jan Allah

1630 Lahore

131.

Shah Muhammad

Shamsu'd-Din

1632 Ahmedabad

132.

Shaykh Muhammad

A'zam^

1632 Ahmedabad

133.

Hajl Gagan

1633 Kasur

134.

Shaykh 'Abdu'l-Jalll

1633 Lucknow

135.

Shaykh 'Abdu'l-Karlm

< 3 >1635 Lahore

(1) He wrote Sawdlat-i-Ahmadi, 'Questions of
Ahmad", in refutation of heresies.

(2) He is said to have written

'Forty two Treatises 7 , a book, perhaps on, ufism.

(3) It is said that once while travelling he was
very thirsty and was guided to water by a partridge and
since then he forbade his disciples to eat the flesh of
that bird, a custom which is still observed among his
spiritual descendants. He wrote a commentary on
FufUju'l-Hikam, and Asrar-i-'Ajibiyya, The Strange
Mysteries', a book on ufism.

344 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
1. The Saints of the Chishti Order, (confd.)

Name

Date

of Place

of

Death Shrine

136.

Mawlana Darweza (1)

1638

Peshawar

137.

Abu Sa 4 ld

1639

Gangoh (Delhi)

138.

Allah Dad Nun

1639

Kasur.

139.

Malik Muhammad (2)

1639

Jais

140.

Makhdum 'Abdu'r-

Rashid

1645

Jaunpur

141.

Mir Sayyid Ahmad Gesu

Daraz

1648

Kalpi

142.

Muhammad adiq b.

Fatahullah

1648

Gangoh

143.

'Abdul-Khaliq

1649

Lahore

144.

Shaykh 'Arif

1654

Lahore

145.

Muhammad Ismail

1656

Akbarabad

146.

Shaykh Said Khan

1657

Burhanpur

147.

Shaykh Phogi Afghan

1659

Kasur

148.

Shaykh Panju

1662

Peshawar

149.

Shaykh Junayd

1667

Sandila

150.

Shaykh Habib Khaybari

1668

Aurangabad

(1) He is the author of Makhzan-i-Isldm, The
Treasure House of Islam', a book on ufism which he
left unfinished and was completed by his son after his
death.

(2) He wrote in Bhakha, the old Hindi, many
books on various subjects the chief among them being
Padmdwat, Dhoti J^dma, and Postin Ndma. On
ufism he wrote : Zddus-Sdlikln, 'Provisions for Travel-
lers, and Maq$udu t-Tdlibin, The Goal of The
Seekers'. His little book Rashidiyya, on the rules of
debate is a well-known treatise on the subject.

APPENDIX A 345

1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order, (contd.)
Name

151.
152.

153.
154.
155.

156.
157.

158.
159.
160.

161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.

168.
169.

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine

Plr Muhammad
Hasan Muhammad

Jamalu'd-Dm
Shaykh Muhammad

Siddiq abirl
Shaykh Muhammad

Da'ud
Shah Abu'l-Mu'ali

1669
1670
1673

1684
1704

4 Abdur-Rashid 1709

Sayyid Muhammad Sa'id

Mlran Bhlkh 1729

Kalimullah 1729

Shaykh Nisamu'd-Dln 1730
Shaykh Muhammad Salim

Sabiri 1739

Shah Bahlul Barki 1757

Shaykh 4 Adadu f d-Dln 1759
Shah Lutfullah 1773

Maulana Fakhru'd-Dm 1785
Sayyid ^Alimullah 1786

Shaykh Nur Muhammad 1791
Shaykh Muhammad Sa'id

Sharaqpuri 1799

Muhammad Sa'ld 1806

^Abdul-Bari 1813

Lucknow

Ahmedabad

Lahore

Gangoh

Ameth, Saharan-

pur.
Jullundhur

Kohram

Delhi

Aurangabad

Lahore

Jullundhur

Amroha

Jullundhur

Delhi

Jullundhur

Bahawalpur State

Lahore

Jullundhur

Amroha

346 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
1. The Saints of the Chishtl Order, (contd.)

Name

170. Shaylkh Khayru'd-Dm

Khayr Shah

171. Qadi Muhammad 'Aqll

172. Hadrat Bandagl Sayyid

abir 'All Shah

173. Sayyid Muhammad

A'gam

174. Sayyid Imadu'd-Dm

175. Bandagl Hafiz Musa

176. Sayyid Niyaz Ahmad

177. Ghulam Naslru'd-Din

Kale Shah

178. Muhammad Sulayman

179. Ghulam Mustafa

180. Qadi Khuda'Bakhsh

181. Mirza Roshan Bakht

182. Chore Shah Sirooj!

183. Amanat 'All

184. Hajl Ramdan

185. FaydBakhsh

186. Kbwaja Fakhru'd-Dln

187. Sayyid Ghulam Mu'lnu'd-

Dln Khamosh

188. Sayyid Mir 'Abdullah

Shah

Date of Place of
Death Shrine

1813

Lahore

1814

Kot Mathan

1818

Delhi

1822

Rupar

1826

Delhi

1832

Manikpur

1834

Bareilly

1846

Delhi

1850

Taunsa

1851

Wazirabad

1853

Kot Matthan

1854

Faridabad

1857

Lahore

1863

Amroha

1865

Lahore

1869

Lahore

1871

Kot Matthan

-

1872

Hyderabad

1887

Delhi

APPENDIX A

347

Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
2. The Saints of the Suhrawardi Order.

Name

Date of
Death

Place of

Shrine.

1.

Sayyid Nuru J d-Dln

Mubarak (1) 1249 Delhi

2. *Shaykh BahauM-Dln

Zakariyya 1267

Jamal Khandaru 1268

Shaykh Sadru J d-Dm 1283
Shaykh Hisamu J d-Dln 1288
Shaykh Hasan Afghan 1290
7. *Sayyid JalaluM-Din
Munlr Shah
Mir Surkhposh
Bukhari 1291

3.
4.
5.
6.

Multan

Uchh

Multan

Budaun

Multan

*Shaykh Ahmad Ma'shuq 1320

1323
1324
1335

8.

9. piy J uM-Din Rumi

10. Lal Shahbaz Qalandar

11. Shaykh RuknuM-Din

Uchh

Multan

Delhi

Sindh

Multan

12.

Shaykh HamiduM-Din

1337

Delhi

13.

WajihuM-Dm U^hman

Sayyah

1338

Delhi

14.

S.alahu J d-Din Darwesh

1340

Delhi

15.

Shaykh 'Ala-'uM-Din

1340

Multan

16.

Sayyid Mir Mah

1370

Bahraich

1. He was one of the vicegerents of Shaykh Shi-
habu 4 d-Din Suhrawardi and held the office of Shaykhu'l-
Islam in Delhi.

348 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
2. The Saints of the Suhrawardi Order, (contd.)

Name

Date of
Death

17

Shaykh Hajl Chiragh-i-

Hind 1372

18. 'Mir Sayyid JalaluM-Dm

Makhhum-i-Jahaniyap
Jahangasht

19. Makhdum Shaykh Akhi

20. Sayyid llmuM-Dm

21. KabiruM-Dm Isma'll

22. Raju Qattal or Qantal

23. SirajuM-Dm Hafiz

24. Sayyid BurhanuM-Dln

Qutb 'Alam

25. Sayyid Shah 'Alam

26. Shaykh 'Abdu^l-Latif

Dawaru^l-Mulk

27. Sayyid KablruM-Dm

Hasan

28. Shah-'Abdullah Qureshi

29. SamauM-Dm

30. 4 Abdu^l-Jalil Qutbu^l-

'Alarn

31. Qadl NajmuM-Dm
32 Sayyid Uthman Shah

Jhhula
33. Shaykh llmuM-Dln

1490
1494
1496

1497
1505

1506
1510

Place of
Shrine.

Zafarabad

1383

Uch

1398

Rajgir

1405

Palaun

1424

Uch

1424

Delhi

1426

Kalpi

1453

Ahmedabad

1475

Ahmedabad

1484 Gujrat

Uch

Delhi

Delhi

Lahore
Gujrat

Lahore
Chuniwal

APPENDIX A

349

2. The Saints of the Suhrawardi Order, (contd?)

Name Date of Place of

Death Shrine.

34. Qadi Mahmud 1514 Gujrat

35. Shaykh Musa Ahangar

(Ironsmith") 1519 Lahore

36. Sayyid HajrAbdu^l-

Wahab 1525 Delhi

37. Shaykh 'Abdullah

Biyabam 1529 Delhi

38. Shaykh Jamali 1535 Delhi

39. Shaykh Adham Zaynu^l-

'Abidln 1536 Delhi

40. Sayyid JamaluM-Dln 1542 Delhi

41. Mulla Flroz Mufti 1565 Kashmir

42. Makhdum Sultan Shaykh

Hamza 1576 Kashmir

43. Shaykh Naurozl Reshi 1578 Kashmir

44. Baba Da^ud Khaki 1585 Kashmir

45. Sayyid Jhulan Shah Ghore

Shah Bukhharl 1594 Lahore

46. Sayyid Shah Muhammad

b. 'Uthman Jhula 1602 Lahore

47. Shaykh Hasan, known as

Hassu Tell 1603 Lahore

48. Mlran Muhammad Shh

Mauj Darya Bukharl 1604 Lahore

49. Sayyid JaUlu'd-Din

Haydar 1612 Kashmir

50. Baba Robi Reshi 1615 Kashmir

350 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

2. The Saints of the Suhrawardi

Name Date of

Death

51. Sayyid ImaduM-Mulk 1629

52. Shah Arzani 1630

53. Baba NasibuM-Dm 1637

54. Sayyid ShihabuM-Dm 1631

55. Sayyid 'Abdu^r-Razzaq 1638

56. Sayyid Shah Jamal 1639

57. Sayyid Mahmud Shah

Naurang 1643

58. Mawlana Haydar 1647

59. Shah Dawla Daryal 1664

60. Shaykh Jan Muhammad 1671

61. Shaykh Muhammad

Isma'll, known as
Miyao Wadda 1674

62. Shaykh Hasan Lalu 1689

63. Shaykh Ya'qub 1694

64. Sayyid Zinda 'All 1699

65. Shaykh 4 Abdu*r-Rahlm 1703

66. Baba Abdullah ' 1705

67. Shaykh Jan Muhammad 1708

68. Shaykh Hamid ' 1752

69. Shaykh Karamullah

Qureshl 1785

70. Shaykh Sikandar Qureshl 1799

71. Shaykh Shah Murad

Qureshi 1800

72. Shaykh Qalandar ShSh

Qureshi 1832

Order, (contd.)

Place of
Shrine.

Lahore
Patna
Kashmir
Lahore
Lahore
Lahore

Lahore
Kashmir
Gujrat (Panjab)
Lahore

Lahore

Kashmir

Kashmir

Lahore

Kashmir

Kashmir

Lahore

Lahore

Shahjahanpur
Lahore

Khokhar
Lahore

APPENDIX A

351

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
3. The Saints of the Qadirl Order.

1.

*2.

3.

*4.
5.
6.

7.
8.

9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.

Name

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine,

Shah Inayatullah
Sayyid Muhammad

Ghawth 1517

Mir Sayyid Shah Firoz 1526
Sayyid 'Abdu^l-Qadir II. 1533
Sayyid Mahmud Hudurl 1535
Sayyid 'Abdu^l-Qadir

Gllam 1535

Sayyid 'Abdu^r-Razzaq 1542
Shah Latlf Barn 1543

Mir Sayyid Mubarak

Haqqanl 1549
Sayyid Muhammad

Ghawth Bala Plr 1552
BahaVd-Dm Gllani

Bahawal Sher 1565
Sayyid * Abdulla Rabbanl 1570

Sayyid Isma 4 il Gllani 1570
Sayyid Hamid Ganj

Bakhsh 1570
Shaykh Da^ud Karmam 1574

Shaykh Bahlul Daryal 1575

Shaykh Abu Is^aq 1577

Sayyid Mir MirSn 1578

1515 Koh-i-Hakhaki

Uch in Jhang

Lahore

Uch in Jhang

Lahore

Lahore
Uch in Jhang
Nurpur

(Rawalpindi)

Uch in Jhang
Satghara (PanjabJ

Hujra

Uch in Jhang

Lahore

Uch

Shergarh

Chiniot

Lahore

Lahore

352 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
3. The Saints of the Qadirl Order, (contd.)
Name

19.

*20.

21.

Date of
Death

Sayyid Nur 1580

Shah Qumes 1584

Sayyid Ismail b. Sayyid

Abdal 1586

22. Sayyid Allah Bakhsh

Gilani 1586

23. Sayyid Shah Nur Huduri 1588

24. Hadrat Musa Pak

Shahld 1592

25. Shaykh 4 Abdu^l-Wahab 1592

26. Sayyid ufi BadnrM-

Din

27. Sayyid Kamil Shah

28. Sayyid Husayn

29. Shaykh Ni'matullah

30. Shah Badar Gilani

31. Shah ShamsuM-Dln

32. 4 Abdu J l-Qadir Gilani III 1613

33. Shah SbayruM-Din

Abu J l-Mu'all 1615

34. *Miyan Nattha 1617

35. Sayyid 'Abdu'l-Wahab

Gilani 1627

36. Shaykh * Abdullah Bhattl 1627

37. MullaHamid 1635

Place of
Shrine.

Chunian (Lahore)
Sadhaura ( Ambala)

Fort Rathor

Bengal
Lahore

Multan
Lahore

1593

Lahore

1596

Lahore

1599

Lahore

1608

Sirhind

1609

Patiala

1612

Lahore

1613

Lahore

Lahore
Lahore

Lahore

Delhi

Lahore

APPENDIX A 353

* Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.

3. The Saints of the Qadiri Order, (contd.)

Name Date of

Place of

Death

Shrine.

38.

*Miyan Mir Bala Plr

1635

Lahore

39.

Sayyid Ghulam Ghawth

1635

Lahore

40.

Sayyid Shah Bilawal

1636

Lahore

41.

Sayyid 'Abdu J l-Qadir

1640

Akbarabad

42.

Shaykh 'Abdu^-Haq

Muhaddih

1641

Delhi

43.

Mir Inayatullah Shah

Amari known as

Miskin Shah

1642

Lahore

44.

Sayyid Muqlm Muh-

kamu'd-Dm

1646

Hujra

45.

-Shaykh Madhu

1650

Lahore

46.

^hwaja Biharl

1655

Lahore

47.

Shah Sulayman

1655

Bhilowal

48.

Sayyid Jan Muhammad

Hudurl

1655

Lahore

49.

Muhammad alih

1657

Akbarabad

50.

Sayyid *Abdu J r-Razzaq

Shah Chiragh

1658

Lahore

51.

Shah Muhammad Mulla

Shah

1659

Lahore

354 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

'^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
3. The Saints of the Qadirl Order, (contd.)

Name

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine.

52, *Dara Shikoh (1)

53. Shah aftullah Sayfu^r-

Rahman 1669

Hajl 'AbduM-Jamll 1671

Hajl Muhammad Hashim

Gilani 1676

Sayyid Sarwar Din
^ Huduri 1689

57. Sayyid Muhammad Amir

Gilani 1691

Shaykh Hajl Muhammad

Nawshah Ganj

Bakhsh 1692

1660 Delhi

54.
55.

56.

58.

Hujra
Lahore

Lahore
Lahore
Hujra

Chhani Sahnpal

(Wazirabad)

59. Sayyid Ja 4 far b. Hajl

Muhammad Hashim 1696 Lahore

60. Sayyid 'Adbu^l-Haklm

Gilani 1697 Lahore

(1) He wrote the following books:

Sakinatu*l-Awliyd, on the life of Miyao Mir.
Majma*ul-Bahryan, The Meeting of Two

Oceans, in which he has attempted to reconcile Islam

with Hinduism.

Hasndtu'l-Arifm, dealing with Qadirl Order.

Ramuz-i-Ta$awwuf, The Secrets of ufism, and Tariqat-

i-Hacjiqat. The Path of Reality.

APPENDIX A

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
3. The Saints of the Qadiri Order, (contd.)

Name Date of

Place of

Death

Shrine.

61.

Sayyid Muhammad Fadil

Mutawakkil

1701

Lahore

62.

*Khwaja Muhammad

Fudayl Nawshahl

1701

Kabul

63.

Shaykh Rahim Dad

1703

Bhilowal

64.

Sayyid 'Urnar Gilam

1703

Lahore

65.

Sayyid Hasan Gilam

1703

Peshawar

66.

Shah Rida

1706

Lahore

67.

Shah Muhammad alih

Nawshahl

1706

Chak Sada (Guj

rat)

68.

Shah Kanth

1707

Lahore

69.

Shaykh adruM-Dln

Nawshahl

1708

. .

70.

Shah Dargahl

1710

Lahore

71.

Shaykh Taj Mahmud

1711

Bhilowal

72.

Shaykh 4 Abdu J l-Hamid

Nawshahl 1713

73. Sayyid Nur Muhammad

b. Sayyid Muhammad
Amir 1714

74. Shaykh Khamosh

Muhammad Naw-
shahl 1715

75. Hafig Barkhurdar Naw-

shahl 1718

Hujra

Chhani Sahnpal
Chhani Sahnpal

356 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA
^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
3. The Saints of the Qadiri Order, (contd.)

76.

77.
78.

79.
80.

81.
82.

83.

84.
85.

86.

87.

88.
89.

Name

Date of
Death

Shaykb Fatih Muhammad
GhiyahuM-Din 1718

Sayyid 'AbduM-Wahab 1719

Khwaja Hashim Darya

Dil Nawshahi 1721

Sayyid Ahmad Shaykh iTl-
HindGllam 1722

Sayyid Badru J d-Din

Gilani 1722

Shah Sharf 1723

Shaykh Ismatullah Naw-
shahl 1725

Shaykh Ahmad Beg

Nawshahl 1727

Shah Inayat 1728

Sayyid Hajl 'Abdullah

Gllanl 1728

Shaykh Jamalullah Naw-
shahl 1729

Shah Muhammad

Ghawth GilanI 1739

*Pir Muhammad Sachyar 1739
^Shaykh 4 Abdu^r-Rahman
Pak Rahman Naw-
shahl ' 1740

Place of
Shrine.

Kirana
Lahore

Chhani Sahnpal
Kotla

Lahore
Lahore

Sialkot
Lahore

Lahore

Chhani Sahnpal

Lahore
Gujrat

Tehri 'Abdu^r-
Rahman

APPENDIX A 357

3. The Saints of the Qadirl Order, (contcf.)

Name Date of

Place of

Death

Shrine.

90.

Sayyid 'Abdu^l-Qadir

Shah Gada

1741

Lahore

91.

Shah Farid Nawshahl

1745

Lahore

92,

Shaykh Fatih Muhammad

Nawshahl

1745

Photuhar

93.

Shaykh Inayatulla

1745

Chhani

Sahnpal

94.

Shaykh Sultan Mirgbml

1745

Lahore

95.

Sayyid Shah Husayn

1749

Hujra

96.

Miyan Rahmatullah

1753

97.

Shaykh Nasratullah

Nawshahl

1756

98.

Mir Bahll Shah

1757

Kusur

99.

Shaykh Sa'dullah Naw-

shahl

1761

100.

Shaykh Muhamad 'Asim

1767

Lahore

101.

Shah Sardar

1770

Babakwal

(Lahore)

102.

Sayyid Muhammad Shah

Razzaq Gitani

1770

Hujra

103.

Shaykh Masahib Khan

1776

Babakwal

(Lahore)

104.

Shah adru t d-Dln b.

Mir 'Abdu^r-Razzaq

1776

Hujra

105.

Shaykh Jan Mutiammad

1791

Babakwal

(Lahore)

358 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
3. The Saints of the Qadirl Order, (contd.)

Name

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine.

106.
107.
108.

109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.

Shaykh 'Abdullah

Bilochi
Shaykh Mahmud b.

Muhammad 'Aglm 1801
Sayyid 'Adil Shah Natthu

Gilam 1805

Sayyid Shadi Shah 1806

Sayyid 'All Shah 1812

Sayyid Sardar 'All Shahid 1813
Sayyid QutbuM-Dln 1834
Shaykh Muslim Khan 1838
Sayyid Shah Bare ahib 1854
Shah 'Abdu^l-'Azlz ' 1879
Sayyid Qhawth ' All Shah 1881

1797 Lahore

Hujra

Lahore

Lahore

Lahore

Hujra

Hujra

Delhi
Delhi
Panipat

4. The Saints of the Naqshbandl Order.

1. *Khwaja Muhammad

Baqibillah Berang 1603 Delhi

2. *Shaykh Ahmad Faruql

Mujaddid Alf-i-Thanl 1615 Sirhind.

3. *Shaykh Jahir 1630 Lahore

4. Khwaja Berang 1632 Delhi

5. Mulla Husayn 1640 Kashmir

6. Sbwaja Kbawind Hadrat

Ishan 1642 Lahore

7. Sbwaja Haji Khidr 1642 Sirhind

APPENDIX A 359

* Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
4. The Saints of the Naqshbandl Order, (contd.)
Name

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.

Date of
Death

Sayyid Adam Banawrl 1643
Shaylkh Hamid 1644

Shaykh Nur Muhammad 1649
Mir AWl-'Ula ' 1650

Shaykh Ahmad Said 1659
Shaykh Muhammad 1664

:1: Shaykh Muhammad

Ma' sum 1668

Shaykh Muhammad 1672

Shaykh Muhammad Sharif 1672
Khwaja MumuM-Dln (1) 1674
Shaykh 'Abdu^l-Khaliq 1675
Khwaja Da->ud Mishkati (2) 1685
Shaykh Muhammad Amin

Dar< 3) 1686

Shaykh SayfuM-Dm 1686

Shaykh Sa'di 1696

Place of
Shrine.

Lahore

Peshawar

Akbarabad

Sirhind

Sultanpur

Sirhind

Ambala

Shahabad

Kashmir

Kasur

Kashmir

Kashmir

Sirhind

Lahore

(1) He wrote the following: Fatawa-i-Naqsh-
bandiyya, The Decisions of Naqshbandiyya 1 , Kanzus-
Saddat, The Treasure of Virtue/ and Risdla Ridwdnl.

(2) He is the author of Asrdrul-Abrdr, The Sec-
rets of Good People'.

(3) The authorship of Qatrat, The Drops,
ascribed to him.

is

360 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

'"Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
4. The Saints of the Naqshbandi Order, (conic/.)

Name

Date of
Death

23. Maulana Hajl Muhammad

1699

1701

1718
1723

Ismail Ghauri

24. Makhdum Hafiz '

Ghafur

25. Shaykh Muhammad

Murad

26. Sayyid Nur Muhammad

27. Khwaja Muhammad

iddlq ' 1724

28. Khwaja 'Abdullah Balkhl 1726

29. Khwaja 4 Abdullah Bukharl 1728

30. -Shaykh 'Abdu^l-Ahad b.

Khazmatu^r-Rahmat 1729

31. Shaykh Muhammad

Farrukh 1731

32. Hajl Muhammad Afdal 1733

33. Haji Muhammad Muhsan 1734

34. Shaykh Muhammad Fadil 1739

35. ghwaja Hafig Sa'ldullah 1740

36. *Shaykh Muhammad

Zubayr 1740

37. ShahGulshan 1742

38. Shaykh 'Abdu^r-Rashid 1742

39. NuruM-Din Muhammad

Aftab ' 1743

Place of
Shrine.

Peshawar
Kashmir

Kashmir
Budaun

Sirhind

Kashmir

Kashmir

Sirhind

Sirhind

Sirhind

Delhi

Patiala

Shajahanabad

Sirhind

Delhi

Delhi

Kashmir

APPENDIX A

361

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
4. The Saints of the Naqshbandl Order, (contd.)

Name Date of Place of

Death Shrine.

40. Shaykh Hajl Muhammad

Said 1752 Lahore

41. ghwaja 'AbduVSalam 1758 Kashmir

42. Shah Muhammad adiq

Qalandar 1758 Kashmir

43. Khwaja Muhammad A'zam

Domri (1) ' 1771 Kashmir

44. Khwaja KamaluM-Din 1774 Kashmir

45. Hadrat Shah Shamsu'M-Din

Hablbullah Mirza Jan-i-

Jana Mazhar 1780 Delhi

46. Maulwi Ahmadullah 1783 Panipat

47. Shaykh Muhammad Ihsan 1791 Delhi

48. Maulwi 'Alimullah 1796 Gangoh

49. Maulwi Thanaullah 1797 Panipat

50. Shah Dargahl 1811 Rampur

51. afiuM-Dln afl t> u <> l-Qadar 1821 Lucknow

52. Shah 4 Abdullah Ghulam

V AH 1824 Delhi

53. Shah Abu Said 1834 Tonk

54. ShahRauf 1837

55. Shaykh Muhammad Asghar 1839 Delhi

(1) He is the author of the famous history of

Kashmir known as Tarifeji 'Azaml, The History of
*Azam.

362 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.
4. The Saints of the Naqshbandl Order, (contd.)

Name

57. Maulwl Karamullah of

Delhi

58. Mawlana 'Abdu^l-Qbafur

59. Mirza Rahimatullah Beg

60. Sayyid Munawwar Shah

61. Maulwi Khatib Ahmad

62. Mawlana Muhammad Jan

Shaykhu J l-Haram

63. Shah Ahmad Sa'id

64. Imam 'All Shah

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine.

1842

Sindh

1842

iur 1843
g 1844

Khurja
Azimabad

h 1848

Lahore

: 1850

Bhopal

Ian
1852

_

1860

1860

Ratr C h

a t r

(Gurdaspur)

5. The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular Orders.

1. -Sayyid Salar Mas'ud

Ghazi

2. Shaykh Isma'il

3. * l Aliu J l-Hujwirl

4. Sayyid Ahmad Sakhi

Sarwar

5. Sayyid Ahmad Tokhta

6. Sayyid Ya'qub adar

Dlwan

7. Mir Sayyid Husayn

Khung Sawar

1033 Bahraich

1056 Lahore

1072 Lahore

1181 Multan

1205 Lahore

1207 Lahore

1213 Ajmer

APPENDIX A

363

^Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.

5.

The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular
Orders, (contd.)

Name

Date of
Death

8. Sayyid 'Azlzu'd-Dm

Makkl

9. ufi Badhm

10. Sayyid Math

11. Khwaja 'Aziz

12. Amir Kablr Sayyid 'All

Hamadani

13. Shaykh NuruM-Dln

'Abdu J r-Rahman

14. Shaykh Nuru^-Dm

Malikyar

15. Shaykh Badru J d-Dm

Ishaq

16. Bulbul Shah

17. Shaykh Ishaq Maghribl

18. Shaykh SharfuM-Din

b. (1) Yahya Munirl

19. Sayyid Ishaq Gazrunl

20. -Shaykh 'Abdulla Shat-

tarl

1215
1240
1262
1267

Place of
Shrine.

Lahore
Delhi
Lahore
Budaun

1287 Kashmir

1296 Kashmir

1296 Delhi

1316
1326
1374

1380
1384

Delhi

Kashmir

Nagore

Rajgir Hills
Lahore

1429 Mandu (Multan)

(1) He is an author of several books on ufism the
chief of these being Mahtubdt, 'Epistles/ Irshadu*s-
Sdlikin, The Directions for The Travellers/ Madanu*l-
Maam, _The Mine of Things Spiritual, and a commen-
tary on Adabul-Muridin.

364 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

:1 'Indicates that mention has been made of him in the text.

5. The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular
Orders, (contd.)

Name

21. Shaykh 'All Flru

22. Shaykh 'All b. Ahmad

23. *Shaykh Badi'u'd-Din

Madar

24. Shaykh NuruM-Din Wall 1438

25. Shaykh BahaVd-Dm

Ganj Bakhsh

26. Shaykh Ahmad Katthu

27. Shaykh Jamal Gojar

28. Shaykh HilaluM-Dm

29. Sayyid Muhammad

Amin

30. Malik ZaynuM-Din

31. ZabaruM-Din

32. Shu'ayb

33. Shah JalaluM-Dm

34. Shaykh Sulayman b.

4 Affan

35. Sayyid Muhammad

Ghawth

36. Baba Quds

37. Sayyid GbyathuM-Din

Gilani

38. *Shaykh WajihuM-Din

39. Baba Wale

ate of
)eath

Place of
Shrine.

1431

Gujrat

1432

Deccan

1436

Makanpur

1 1438

Kashmir

1445

Kashmir

1445

Ahmedabad

1454

Oudh

1457

Kashmir

1484

Kashmir

1520

Delhi

1525

Delhi

1529

Delhi

1537

Delhi

1537 Delhi

1562
1578

1582
1589
1592

Gwalior
Kashmir

Lahore
Gujrat
Kashmir

APPENDIX A

365

5. The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular
Orders, (contrf.)

Name Date of

Place of

Death

Shrine.

40.

Ya'qub ufi

1594

Kashmir

41.

Sayyid Muhammud

Ghawth

1595

Lahore

42.

Mir Muhammad b.

Ahmad

1602

Kashmir

43.

Sayyid Yusuf Muhammad

Banje

1602

Kashmir

44.

Muhammad Kamal

1608

Kashmir

45.

Mawlana Shah Gada-i-

Kashmlr

1615

Kashmir

46.

Hablbullah

1617

Kashmir

47.

Shaykh Musawl Baldl-

mari

1617

Kashmir

48.

Shaykh Muhammad

Sharif known as Shok

Baba

1618

Kashmir

49.

Shah Ni l matullah

1619

Kashmir

50.

Shah Qasim Haqqanl

1623

Kashmir

51.

Khwaja ZaynuM-Dln

Dar

1632

Kashmir

52.

Shaykh Pir Shattarl

1632

Meeruth

53.

Shaykh Nazlr

1647

Akbarabad

54.

Baba 'All

1649

Kashmir

55.

Mir ahib Kashafi

1650

Akbarabad

56.

Mawlana Muhammad b.

Muhammad Faruql

1652

Jaunpur

366 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

57.
58.
59.
60.
61.

62.

63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.

70.

71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.

5.

The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular
Orders, (contd.)

Name

Shaykh Baql
'Abdu^l-Hakim
liaklm Sarmad
Shaykh Da j ud

Date of
Death

1654
1658
1660
1660

Shaykh Abu Turab Shah

Gada 1661

Najmu J d-Dln Baba

Sakhl

Mir Muhammad 'AH
Baba Zahid
Sayyid Hamid
Abu J l-Fatih
Baba Habib Lattu
Mir Taju
Shah Muhammad Qadirl

Suhrawardi, & Kub-

rawi
Baba Uliiman Qadiri,

Suhrawardi &

Muhammad Hashim
'Abdu'r-Rahlm
Mirza Hayat Beg
Shaykh Husayn
QSdl Haydar
Mawlana 'Inayatullah

1705
1706
1708
1708
1710
1710
1713

Place of
Shrine.

Akbarabad
Sialkot
Delhi
Kashmir

Lahore

1662

Kashmir

1662

Kashmir

1671

Kashmir

1679

Lahore

1688

Kashmir

1693

Kashmir

1699

Kashmir

1705 Kashmir

Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir

APPENDIX A

367

5.

The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular
Orders, (contd.)

Name

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine.

77. Sultan Mir Ju 1713 Kashmir

78. Mir Abu J l-Fatih 1713 Kashmir

79. Shaykh Muhammad 1714 Kashmir

80. Qadi Dawlat Shah

Husaynl 1714 Delhi

81. Mirza Kamil 1718 Kashmir

82. 4 Abdu J l-Latif 1721 Kashmir

83. Mir SharfuM-Din 1722 Kashmir

84. Mir Muhammad Hashim

Gilani 1722 Kashmir

85. Mawlana 'All Asghar 1727 Kanauj

86. Baba Muhammad Mehdi 1737 Kashmir

87. Shaykh Fatih Shah Shat>

tari 1737 Lahore

88. Plr Munammad Isma'll

Kubrawi 1737 Kashmir

89. ghwaja Ayyub Qurayshi 1742 Lahore

90. Baba 4 Abdu J l-Baqi Kub-

rawi 1744 Kashmir

91. Rustam l All b. 4 All

Asghar 1764 Kanauj

92. Shah Wall Ullah Muhad-

dith 1765 Delhi

93. Mir Muhammad Ya'qub

Gilani 1765 Lahore

368 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

5.

The Saints of the Minor or the Irregular
Orders, (confd)

Name

Date of
Death

Place of
Shrine.

94. Hafiz 'AbduM-Khaliq

AwesI

95. Sayyid Shah Husayn

Gilan!

96. Sayyid v Abdu^l-Karlm

Pir Bahawan Shah

97. Maulwi Ghulam Farid

98. Mufti Rahimullah

99. Shaykh Nur Ahmad

Husayn

100. Shah l Abdu^l- 1 Aziz

101. Sulfan Bala Din Awes!

102. Shaykh Laddhe Shah

103. Ahmad Shah

1771 Bahawalpur
1790

1798 Lahore

1801 Lahore

1819 Lahore

1820 Lahore
1823 Delhi
1825 Bahawalpur
1837 Lahore
1860 Kashmir

APPENDIX B.

THE PRINCIPAL ANNIVERSARIES OF THE
SAINTS 1 'URS IN INDIA.

The date of death is observed, and in the following list the
dates are given according to the Muslim Calendar.

1. Sultan Bahu, Bahu in

Dist. Jhang ... 1st Muharram.

2. Bhore Miyan, Rampur 4th

3. FariduM-Din Shakar-

ganj, Pak Patan ... 5th-7th

4. Langar ahib, Hyder-

abad ... 10th

5. Salar Mas'ud Ghazi,

Bahraich ... llth

6. Shaykh Ibadu j l-Huda,

Gwalior ... 19th

7. Hajl Warith 'All Shah 21st

8. Shamsu J l-Haq, Jabbi,

Shahpur ... 21st

9. Shah Jamalu J l-Huda,

Rampur ... 23rd

10. MutiVr-Rasul, IBudaun 25th

11. Mir Ashraf Jahangir

Samnanl, Kachaucha 25th-28th

12. Warijh 'All Shah, Dewa

Sharif ... 16th afar.

370 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

13. Shah Jamalullah, Rampur 3rd Safar.

14. Muhammad 'Abbas 'All

Khao Naqshband,

Amroha ... 5th ,,

15. KhwajaMutma^in, Tunsa 6th

16. ThanauM-Dm Zakariya,

Tunsa ... 7th

17. Shah Nizamu'd-Din

Chishtl, Bareilly ... 12th

18. Karlm Shah, Surat, ... 13th

19. ShamsuM-Din Sayyal 13th-15th

20. Sakhi Sarwar Sultan,

Dhaunkal ... 13th

21. 'Abdu^l-Quddus, Gan-

goh ... 14th

22. Shah Dargahl, Rampur 14th

23. Imam 'All, Sialkot, ... 15th

24. 'Alm^l-Hujwiri, Lahore 20th

25. Shah Mayna, Lucknow 23rd

26. Sa j in Fadal Ilahl, Kusur 25th

27. Makhdum Shah 'All,

Cwanpur ... 26th

28. Shah Bulaqi, Murada-

bad ... 27th

29. Shaykh Ahmad Faruql,

Sirhind ... 27th-28th

30. adiq Shah, Cwanpur... 28th

31. Plr Muhammad Naw-

shah, Naushahra ... 4th Rabi'ul-Awwal.

APPENDIX B 371

32. Khwaja Zarl Bakhsh,

Jalalabad ... 4th Rabi'ul-Awwal.

33. MuntakhibuM-Din, Au-

rangabad ... 6th

34. Miyan Mir, Lahore ... 6th

35. Shah Hamdan, Kashmir 7th

36. Makhdum 'AlauM-Din

Sabir, Piran Kaliar 7th-13th

37. Sakhl Sarwar, Lahore 8th

38. Ghwthu-H-A'zam, Am-

bala 9th

39. Jamal Bahar, Monghyr 12th

40. Khwaja Qutbu j d-'Din

Kaki, Delhi ... 14th

41. Nawshah Ganj Bakhsh,

Naushahra ... 15th

42. Shah Muhammad Said,

Sharqpur ... 15th

43. Abu^l-Mu'ali, Lahore 16th

44. Shah Muhammad

Ghawth, Lahore ... 16th

45. Ghawth Shah, Panipat 17th

46. NizamuM-Din Awliya,

Delhi ... 18th

47. Husayn Bakhsh, Far-

rukhabad ... 19th

48. Ghulam Qadir, Lahore 19th

49. Talib Husayn, Far-

ruhkabad ... 21st

372 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

50. Shah Jamal, Lahore ... 22nd Rabi'ul-Awwal

51. Fadlu^r-Rahman, Murad-

abad

52. Farid Thani, Mathan

Kot

53. Mihran Shah, Ahmad

Nagar

54. Ghawthu J l-A 4 2am, Ba-

tala

55.. Gydrhunn Sharif of
Ghawthu J l-A 4 gam. . .

56. Ladora Dargah, Dar-

bhanga

57. Shah Dawla, Gujrat,

(Punjab)

58. ufl Muhammad Imam-

uM-Din, Mukhtas-
sar

59. Ghawthu^l-A'sam, Ra-

walpindi

60. 'Abdu^-Hakim, Ghazi-

pur

61. NigamuM-Dln, Delhi ...

62. Zinda Shah Madar,

Makanpur

63. Pir Hayder Shah, Jalal-

pur ...5th-7th

64. Bibl Pakdamanan,

Lahore ... 7th

23rd
2nd Rabi'u'th-Tham

10th
10th
llth
llth
19th

20th
30th

12th Jamadi'l-Awwal
15th

17th

APPENDIX B 373

65. FakhruM-Din, Delhi ... 7th Jamadi^th-Thanl.

66. Hamid Qadiri, Lahore, 8th

67. Hadrat Imam ahib,

Sialkot ... 17th

68. Baqi Billah, Delhi ... 28th-29th

69. Kbwaja Mu'lnuM-Din

Chishtl ... 6th-14th Rajab.

70. Shah adar Diwan,

Lahore ... 16th

71. Bandagl Shah Lutfullah,

Bijnor ... 1st Sha 4 ban.

72. 4 Abdu J l-Kanm, Rampur 2nd

73. BadruM-Dm Ishaq, Ajo-

dhan ... 4th

74. Sayyid Shah Ghawth,

Budaun ... 5th

75. Bandagl Shah, Sikandar-

abad ... 9th

76. Shah 'Abdu^l-Bari, Am-

roha ... llth

77. Khwaja Muhammad

Hadrat Ishan, La-
hore ... 12th

78. Bawajl Nur Muhammad

Naqshband, Chaw-

rah ... 12th

79. ShamsuM-Dln Turk,

Panipat ... 19th

80. Shh Altamash, Delhi 20th

374 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

81. 'Abdu^l-Karlm, Sialkot 20th Shaban.

82. Maulwl Ayyubl, Luck-

now ... 21st

83. Anwar, Kakori ... 22nd

84. Sarmad Shahid, Delhi 22nd

85. Bahlul Shah, Lahore ... 27th-29th

86. Shaykh Bilawal, Lahore 28th

87. Shamsu J d-Dln Hablbul-

lah, Sirhind ... 1st Ramadan.

88. Haji Ramadan Chishtl,

Lahore ... 2nd

89. 'Abdu J l-BarI Mahiri,

Amroha ... 4th

90. Muhammad Daru, Gan-

goh ... 5th

91. Bu 'All Qalandar, Pani-

pat and Karnal ... 12th-13th

92. Shah Muhammad Gosha

Nashln, Ahmadabad 15th

93. Muhammad Ghawth.

Gwalior ... 15th

94. Mulla Hamid Qadiri,

Lahore ... 17th

95. NaslruM-Dln Chiragh-i-

*Delhl, Delhi ... 18th

96. Najibullah Mutawwak-

kil, Delhi ... 19th

97. RuknuM-Din Abul-

Hasan, Vellore ... 20th

APPENDIX B

375

98. Hujjatullah GhayWl-

Lisan, Delhi

99, Shah Junayd, Ghazipur

100. Shah 'Allmullah, Rae-

barelli

101. Shaykh Hasan Afghan,

Malakan

102. Dlwan Muhammad Nur-

u J d-Dln, Ajodhan ...

103. Sharfu J d-Dm, Calcutta

104. Miyao Wadda, Lahore

105. Shaykh Salim Chishtl,

Fatehpur Sikri

106. Ahmad Sarwar, Murad-

abad

107. Shyakh Misrl, Bombay

108. Wazir 'All, Rampur ...

109. Habibu J r-Rahman,

Budaun

110. Amir Khusru, Delhi ...

111. Shah 'All Hayder, Ka-

kori

112. Miyan 'Abdu^l-Haklm,

Rampur

113. Nisamu^d-Dln, Kakori

114. Shah Taqi, Cambellpur

115. Sayyid Muhammad Gesu

Daraz, Gulbarga ...

116. 'Ashiq 4 Ali, Dongriabad

21st Ramadan.
24th

25th
26th

27th
28th
28th

29th

8th Shawwal.
13th
13th

15th
18th-20th

26th

2nd Db'1-Qa'adah.
7th
8th

llth-15th
17th

376 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

117. Shah Wilayat 'All, Agra 18th Dh'1-Qa'adah.

118. Shah 'Alam, Racpur ... 27th

119. 'Abdu J l-Khaliq, Baha-

walpur ... 28th

120. Makhdum-i-Jahaniyap

Jahan Gasht, Uchh 9th 10th Dhil-Hajj.

121. Din Muhammad, Amrit-

sar ... llth

122. Hadrat Fadil, Batala ... 12th

123. Basit 'All, Allahabad ... 18th

INDEX

'Abbasid, 133.
Abdal, 105, 106, 207.
'Abdu J l-Ahad, 277.
'Abdu'l-'Aziz Makkl, 310, 311.
'Abdu J l-Karlm, Makhdum, 240.
'Abdu-4-Khaliq Ghujdawani, 188, 190.
'Abdullah Ansari, 197.

Bahrl, 162.

Bayabani, 204, 205.

Hanlf, 119.
Karmani, 209.

Khaki, 122.

Shattari, 306, 307.

'A6du J l-Qadir Gilanl, 42, 107, 110, 113, 172, 176-182,

184, 187, 197, 211, 229, 253256, 276, 311.
'Abdu'l-Qadir, II, 254, 255.
'Abdu'l- Wahid b. Zayd, 14, 163, 174.
'Abdu^l-Wali ghan ahib, 137.
'Abdu^r-Rahim Khao, 242.
'Abdu^r-Rahim Lodl, 243.
'Abdu J r-Rab, 104.
'Abdu^r-Razzaq, 274.
'Abdu j s-amad, 242.
Abel, 127.
Abl Dara. 54.

378 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Abl alih, 176.
Abu Ahmad, 175.

Ahmad Yasawl. 188.

'All of Sindh, 21, 187.
Abu Amr Qazwinl. 125.

Abu Bakr, 36, 161, 174, 190, 279.

Abu Darda, 10.

Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazall, see al-Ghazali.

Abu Hayat, 255.

Abu Ishaq Gazruni, 172.

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, see Ibrahim b. Adham.

Abu Ishaq Shaml Chishtl, 166, 174, 175, 193, 302.

Abu^l-Fadl, 280.

Abu^l-Farah Tartawsl, 172.

Abu^-Hasan kharqani, 187, 188, 197.

Abu->l-Hasan b. Sallba, 125.

Abu^l-Jannab Ahmad b. 'Umaru 1-Khiwaqi, 173, 182.

Abu^l-Layth, 211.

Abu^l-Qasim, 59.

Abu^l-Qasim b. Junayd, 171.

Abu^l-Qasim Gurganl, 188.

Abu Muhammad, 175.

Abu Muhammad 'Abdullah, see Burhanu J d-Din Qutb

'Alam.

Abu^n-NajlbSuhrawardl, 172, 173, 197.
Abu Sa'ld, 72.

Abu Said Abu^l-Khayr, 197.
Abu Sa*id Mubarak Mukharraml, 176, 177.
Abu Sa Id b. Mu'inuM-Din, 207.

INDEX 379

Abu Sa'id Tabrezi, 197,

Abu alih, 176.

Abu Sulayman Darani, 18, 19.

Abu Yazld, see Bayazld.

Abu Yusuf, 175.

Abu Yusuf Hamadam, 168, 188, 197.

adab-i-zahirl, 91.

AdaVl-Muridin, 182.

Adam, 24, 57, 58, 64, 82, 127.

Adhamiyya, 163.

adhan, 277.

adh-DSahabi, 120.

adh-dhat, 53.

advaiia, 142.

Afaliyyat, 54. 75.

Ahl-i-Khilu>at,227.

Ahl-i-$ukbat, 227.

Ahmad Faruq, 276-285.

Ahmad M'ashuq, 232235.

abwdl, (Sing, hal), 67, 168.

Ajmer, 196, 197, 200, 202209, 211, 213.

Ajodhya, 216, 221.

okas, 152.

l Akasha, 118.

akhfa, 61, 62.

al^Ama, 54, 146.

'Alam-i-Khalq, 61, 62, 65.

'Alam-i-Kabir< 60, 61.

'Alam-i-Malakut, 57, 104.

'Alam-i-Mith&l, 57.

380 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

'Alam-i-Ndsut, 57, 104.

'Alam-i-Saghlr> 60, 61.

'AlauM-Din 4 All 'Ahmad abir, see 'Ali Ahmad abir,

'AlauM-Din of Bengal, 224.

'AlauM-Din Kayqobad III, 36.

4 AlauM-Dln Seljuqi, 36.

Al-Beruni, 134.

Aleppo. 37.

Alexander the Great, 115.

Alexanderia, 20.

al-fardu*l-kamil. 82.

iami \ 82.

l, 35-30, 67, 71, 92, 117.
Al-Mehdl. 82.
Al-Muwaffiq, 134.
Altamash 185, 212, 215.
Alwar, 249.

al-Wujudu*l-Mutlaq, 53.
4 Ali, 121, 161, 162, 174, 178, 190, 211, 303.
' AH Ahmad abir, 218, 220, 225-227.
'Allu^l-Hujwiri, 69-72, 83, 90-92, 103-105, 112, 115.

169, 171, 181, 315-317.
'AliDinwarl, 175.
4 AlI Farmadi, 188.
4 Ali Ramitam, 189.
4 Amar Makki, 22, 171.
Amir Kbiisru, 223.
Amir Sayyid Kull, 189.
Amir Sultan Shamsu^d-Din, 185.
Amrullah, 59.

INDEX 381

Ana*l-Haqq, 22, 23, 55, 75.

Anasagar, 201, 203.

Aniyyat, 23, 55, 84.

Annihilation, 83, ff, 92,

4 Aql, Primal Reason, 58.

'Aqil, 121.

Areopagite, 17.

Arendoke, C van, 165.

4 Arif , 17.

'Arif Rewgari, 188.

4 Arif, Shaykh, 306.

Aristotle, 18.

Asdba fl Marafati*$-Sahaba, 120.

Asaf Jah. 280.

Asceticism, 9-16.

Ashabu^s-^afa, 6.

Asiatic Society of Bengal, 136.

Astrabad, 197.

4 Aftar, see Faridu d-Din Attar.

Af-Tariqat, 75, 160.

Aurangzeb. 136, 273, 294, 296, 297.

'Awarifu*l-Ma'arif, 42, 184.

Awliya, (Sing, wall), 102, 106.

B

iaba Farld, 44, 107, 208, 215-221, 225, 226, 310
Baba Khaki, 122.
Baba Ratan, 120.
Baba SamasI, 189.
Baba Tahir, 119.

382 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Bad! Vd-Dln, 280.

Bad! Vd-Dm Shah Madar see Madr Shah.

BadruM-Dm Sulayman, 219.

Badl see Abdal.

Baghdad, 26, 167, 168, 176, 177, 184, 188, 197, 211.

Bahadurpur, 249.

Baharistdn, 51.

Baha J uM-Dm, father of Jalalu J d-Dm RumI, 36.

BahaVd-Din, father of Khwaja Shamsu J d-Dln Hafiz,

47.

BahaVd-Din Naqshband, 186, 189, 190.
BahaVd-Din Zakariya, 185, 212, 216, 229-231.
Bahawal Shah, 258.
Bahlul Shah Darya j i, 256.
Bahlul Shahl Section of the Qadirl Order, 256-258, 265,

266.

Bahraich, 123.

Bakhtiyar, a little of QutbuM-Din Kaki, 214.
Balkh, 36, 133, 164, 199.
Balban, 218, 223.
Bale Miyan, 122.
Baluchistan, 119.
Bandagi, creatuxeliness, 83.
Baqa, subsistence, 76, 83.
BaqI billah, 275-279.
Barabanki, 123.
Barmak, 133.
Bar Sudhayli, 17.

Ba Shara 4 sections' |of|the Suhrawardl Order, 234-247.
Bashlr. 138.

INDEX 383

Batala, 239, 240.
Bay at, 87.
Bayazid I, 188.
Bayazid Bistaml, 21, 168.

, on the doctrine of sukr, 'intoxication'

169, 170.

, in the chain of succession of the

Naqshbandi Order, 187.

, as a maldmati 317.

Bdzgasht, one of the rules of the Naqshbandiyya, 191.

Bengal 209.

Be Shara' sections of the Suhrawardi Order, 234, 235,

247-252.

Bhagvatgiat, 134.
Bha'l Bala, 157.
Bhakti, 145.
Bhawan Shah, 245.
Blbi Pakdamanan, 121.
Bihar, 256.

Bihishti darwaza, 219.
Bistam, 21.

Bistamiyya, 161.
Brahma Gupta, 133.
Brahman, 142, 145-148.
Brahma siddhanta, 133.
Brown, J. P. 88, 178.
Browne, F. G. 42, 49.
Bu 4 All Qalandar, 312-314.
Budaun, 220.
Buddha, 144.

384 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Bukhara, 188, 189, 195, 220, 236.
Burhdn-i-Nabawi, 103.
BurhanuM-Din, 37.
BurhanuM-Din Qufb-i-'Alam, 236.
Bustan, 41-43, 184.

C

Canton, 118.
Carra de Vaux, 36.
Ceylon, 119, 209.
Chajju panthis, 120.
Chakras, 148, 149.
Chela, 140.

Chengiz Khan, 32, 183, 216.
Chilla, 175.
Chisht, 174.
Chishtis, 93.
Chisht! Order, and musical festivals, 113, 215.

, traced to Hasan Basri, 162.

, founded by Abu Ishaq Shaml, 166.

, one of the four main Orders, 174-176.

, introduced in India, 193-208.

, after the death of Kbwaja Mu'inuM-

Din, 209-219.

, and its sections 220-227.
Chitagong, 107.

Chitor, 239.

Chuhas of Shah Dawla, 245, 246.

Conversion, 73.

Creative Existence, 143.

Creative Truth, 57, 79, 143.

INDEX 385

D

Dafdll faqirs, 124.

Damascus, 37, 160.

Dancing Darwishes, 38.

Dara Shikoh, 110, 134, 136, 175, 270-273.

Dargah, 106.

Darwish, 119, 130, 165.

Das Gupta, 150, 152, 156, 158.

Data Ganj Bakhsh, 115, 128, 129, 200.

Da'ud, 249.

Dawla Shah, 242-245.

Dawla Shah! Section of the Suhrawardl Order, 242-247.

Dawlat Shah, 31.

Death, in the sense of self-mortification, 76, 77.

De la Valle Possim, 152.

Delhi, 185, 200, 206, 212-216, 221, 222, 225, 253.

Devotions, classifications of, 90.

, General acts of, 90-95.

, The special acts of, 96-101.
Dhikr, 1, 4, 55, 69, 70, 88.

, one of the special acts of ufl devotion, 90.

, Jail, 97, 190.

, Khafi, 98, 190.
Dhu'n-Nun Misrl, 18-20, 315.
Din-i-Ilahi, 280.

Divine Effulgence, 78-83.
Divine Essence, 78, 82.
Divine Love, 69.
Diwan-i-Hafiz, 43, 47.
Diwdn-i-Jdmi, 49.

386 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Diwan-i-Shams-i-Tabriz, 38.
I?iySVd-Dln Najlb Suhrawardi, 182, 184.
D'Ohsson, 301.
Du'd-i'Mdthura, 95.
Durud, 95.

Eckhart, 17.

Ecstasy, 4 t 70.

Egypt, 19, 315.

Essence, 53, 54, 78, 82, 84, 146.

Etah, 223.

Eternal Beauty, 50.

Existence, 80.

F

Faghna, 189,

FakhruM-Dln, son of Mu 4 InuM-Dln Ajmen, 207.

FakhruM-Dln Iraqi, 318.

FakhruM-Din Razl, 36.

Fans, 21, 35, 76, 81.

, the doctrine of, 83, 84.

, the negative aspect of, 84-86.

, the positive aspect of, 86.

, ^liuM-Hujwirl^s teaching on, 129.

, compared with the Buddhistic Nirvana, 150-153.

, compared with the Upanishadic Moksa, 153-158.
Fand fi*l-baqiqat, absorption in Reality, 67.

Fand filldh wa baqd billdh, the annihilation and subsist-
ence in God, 145.
Fand wa baqd, annihilation and subsistence, 72, 126, 153.

INDEX 387

Farldi, section of the Chishtl Order, 215-219.
FariduM-Din 'AftSr, 31-35.
FarlduM-Dm Shakarganj, see Baba Farid.
Fatehpur Sikri, 208.
Fatiha, 179, 18O* *
FSfima, MuhaJMad's daughter, 178.
Fatima, wife of Wuhammad Qbawth, 253, 254.
Fthi ma fihi, 38.

Firdawsl, author of Shahnama, 34
Firdawsl, a title of AWl-Jannab Ahmad, 173, 182.
Firdawsiyya Order, 173.
Fudayl b. 'lyad, 12-14, 163, 164.
128.

Gautama, 150.

Gesu Daraz, 224.

GJiaflat, heedlessness, 170.

Ghawth, 104.

Ghawthu*l-A'zam, 177.

Gfaazi Khan, 243.

GhSz! Miyao, 122-124.

Gbfizi Sultan Muhammad, 247.

QhiySthpur, 223.

GhiySthuM-Din Tajghlak, 222.

Ghujdawan, 188.

Gita, 135.

Giydrhmn Sharif, 179.

Gnosis, 70.

388 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

God, ufl conception of, 52-61.

, Qfl conception compared with Advaita philoso-
phy of the Upanishads, 142444.

, ufi conception compared with Vishista-advaita
of Ramanuja, 144-146.

, the Qfi doctrine of TanazzuI$mT\d the Hindu

doctrine of namarupa, 146-148.
Gujrgt, 41,236, 307-309.
Gujrat (Punjab), 242,244-246.
fiulbarga, 225.
Gulistan, 41,42.
Gulshan-i-Raz, 43, 76.
Gunas, attributes, 146.
Guru, spiritual preceptor, 140.
GurzmSr faqirs, 324.

H

IJablb 4 Ajami 166-169, 174.
tfabibiyya, 166, 167,174.
Habs-i-dam, 99, 188.
IJadlih-i-Qudsi, 54.

, Kbwaj* Shamsu J d-Din, 43, 47, 48, 64, 65.
Jaml Blbl, 206,207.
tfaj, 90.

IJijI Afdal, see Muhammad Afdal.
IJfijI Shah Muhammad, 260-263.
IJftkim 4 At&, 188.

181.

(emotional), 70.
Haltftj, see Husayn b. Mansur.

INDEX 389

Hama ost, 52.

Ramadan, 197.

Hamdunu'l-Qassar, 315.

Hamza, 224, 315.

Hamza Shhi, 224.

Hamzawis, 315.

Hansl, 216.

Haqiqat, reality, 71, 75, 181.

Haqiqatu*l-Mukammadiyya, 55, 57, 59.

Hartman, 188.

Harun (a town), 195.

HSrunu'r-Rashld, 133, 163.

Harut, 127.

Hasan, 104, 162.

IJasan Basri, 11, 162, 163, 166.

Hasan Khattall 125 ,130.

Hasan Nizami, 223.

Hasan Sari^u's Saqati, 167.

Hasan Zanjani, 128.

Hassu Tell 226, 267.

Hay, The Living One, 181.

HayStu^l-Mir, 256-259.

Hayula, substance, 143.

Hellenic culture, 18.

Herat, 197, 198, 225.

Hijaz, 110.

Hinduism according to $ufts, 137-139.

Hindu Philosophy, 142-158.

IJira, 110.

Hiryana, Professor, 145.

390 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

t*

IJisamiyya, a section of the Chishti Order, 224,

IJisfimuM-Dln b. Mu'inuM-Dln, 207

yisfimuM-Dln Bi&hari, 223.

HKsamuM-Din Manikpurl, 224.

IJisfimuM-Dln Nagore, 228.

Hash dar dam. 191.

Hw, 55.

IJujjatullah, 295, 296.

HuM, 81.

Humayun, 307.

IJusayn, 104, 162.

Husayn b. Mansur, 21-25, 55, 130, 171.

liusayn Shfihi, a section of the Qadirl Order, 265-269.

Husrl, 125.

Huwiyyat, 23, 55.

Huzayra, princess, 218.

I

Ibnu'VArabi, 24, 37.

Ibn Batata, 119,

Ibn Hlajar ^sqalfinl, 120.

Ibn Ij'anbal, 10.

Ibn Sad, 10.

Ibn Sin, 58.

Ibnu^l-Farid, 114.

Ibrfthim b. Adham, 12, 13, 163-166.

Ibrahim b. Faflk, 24.

Ibrfihlm Kbawwfis, 91.

Ibrahim Qandozl, 193.

Ibrahim Sharql, 317.

INDEX 391

Iconium, 36.

Ida, 149.

Iby&u*l-UUim, 27, 28, 92, 184.

Ijadiyya, 52.

Ildhiyyat, 83.

7/mf, cognitional knowledge of God, 70.

'Ilm-i-Safina, book knowledge, 7.

Ilm-i-Slna, heart knowledge, 7.

7/mu*J Kalarn. 27.

Illumination, 78-82.

Imdn-i-Makmudi, 302,

Indbat, repentance, 73.

India, 187, 193, 169, 200, 211, 212.

J-ne5s, 55, 84.

Injil, 135.

Intoxication, of the love of God, 169, 170, 172.

Iraq, 110, 127.

Isfahan, 47, 197.

7sn<?, 69.

Ism 4 Il, Hsfiz, 240-242.

Isma 4 il Shahi, a section of Suhrawardi Order, 240-242

Ismatullah, 206.

Ismu-l A 4 ?am, 117.

Istidrdj, 108.

J

Jabarut, 56, 57. 75.
Jafardiq, 168,169,187.

JalSl b. Al^mad Kabir, see Makhdf2m-i-Jah&niyn.
Jalab, attributes of God, 227.

392 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Jalall, a section of the Suhrawardl Order, 236, 237.

JalaluM-Dln Rumi, 35-41, 84, 156, 197, 318.

JalaluM-Dln Surkhposh, 236.

Jamabaynu*lqurbayn, 84.

Jamdli, attributes of God, 227.

Jaml, Mulla Nuru'd-Din 'Abdu'r-Rafrman, 49-51.

Jfin Muhammad, 242.

Janissaries, 188.

Jaypal Jogi, 203.

Jihd, 96.

Jehanglr, 208.

Jesus, 23.

Jihadu'l-Akbar, 96.

Jihadul-Asghar, 96.

JllSn, 176.

Jili, 23, 24, 53, 59, 74, 80.

Journey of a ufl, significance of, 73.

, of Reality 74.

, of creature, 74.

, the three great, 75.
Junayd, Abu'l-Qasim, 22, 125, 164, 166, 171-175.
Junaydiyya, a religious order, 171-174, 182.

K

K&ld, a title of QutbuM-Din, 214.
Kankan, 119, 133.
Karamat, 108-111.
KarbalS, 121.
Karkh, 167.

a religious order, 167.

INDEX 393

Karma, 151.
Karman, 146.

Karmniyya, a section of the Chishti Order, 209.
Karnal, 314.
Kashf, 27.

Kashfrfl-Mabi&b, 83, 125, 126, 164, 167, 188, 299.
Khafi, an organ of spiritual apprehension, 61-63.
phalli, brother of Muhammad Ismail SuhrawardI, 242.
Khalq, the created universe, 57.
Khanwadah, 160, 172, 174.
Khatm, 95.
ghawla, 10.

ghaybar Pass, 118, 119.
Khidr, 111, 115-117, 181, 188.
ghidr Rumi, 310-312.
ghidr SwistanI, 270.
Khilwat dar anjuman, 191.
n, 197.

dat 9 168.
ghubthiydt, 42^
ghulasatu*l-Arifm, 229.
Khurasan, 160.
Khusru Khan, 223.
Kbwarizm Shah, 36.
Kbwas KhSo, 242.
Kitabu*l-Ishdrat, 58.
Kitabu*t-Tau>asin, 22.
Knowledge, 67, 70.
Kokileswar Sastari, 148.
Krishna, 138.

394 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Kubrawl, sec FirdawsL

Kubrawiyya, 173.

Kufa, 300.

Kufr, 76, 138, 139.

Kulal, 189.

Kulliyat-i-Shams-i-Tabriz, 38.

Kulthum, 292.

Kumayl, 162.

Kundalini, 149.

Laccadive, 119.

Lahore, 110, 121, 128, 130, 200, 238, 242.

Lahut, 24, 56, 75.

LSI Husayn, 265-269.

LSI ShahbSz, 247-248.

La&if, 61-63, 99, 148, 286.

Latlfa, 63.

Laf BarrI, 256.

La$lfa-i-Ghaybiyai 48.

Law&ih, 51, 56.

Le Petit St. Jean, 165.

Light of Allah, 58.

Light of Muhammad, 58, 160.

Lisanu* l-&hay$ 48.

Literary History of Persia* 48.

Logos, 30, 58.

Lucknow, 51.

Ludhiana, 51.

INDEX 395

M

Macdonald, D.B. 17, 171.
Macrocosm, 61.
Madarl Order, 302-306.
Madar Shah, 302-306.
Madhu 267-269.
Madras, 118.
Magi, 199.
Mahabat Khao, 170.
Mahant, 202.
Mahmuda, 100.

Mahmud Anjlr Faghwam, 189.
Mahmud Ghaznawi, 122.
Mahmud Shabistarl, 43-46.
Majrria*ul-Bahrayn> 136.
Makanpur, 305.

Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan Jahan Gasht, 236-238.
Makhdumi section, 237-238.
Makran, 119, 133.
Malabar Coast, 118, 119.
Maldkut, 75.
Maldive, 119.
Malikzada Ayyaz, 223.
Malwa, 307.
Mamun, 133.
Man of God, 39.
Mansur, 133.
Mantiqu*t-Tayr, 32, 33.
Maqdmat, 67, 178.
Mar'ashi, 166.

396 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Ma'rifat, 67, 70, 181.

Ma'rufu'l-Karkhl, 18, 19, 167.

M'arSf Shah, 260.

Mfirut, 127.

Massignon, Louis, 22.

M'asum, 291, 223-295.

Maihnawi Sharif, 35, 38, 63, 197.

Mathnawi Jaml, 49.

Maunat, 108.

Mawaddat, 170.

Mawdud. 175.

Mawlawl, a religious order, 38.

Maya, 35.

Mazdr, 106.

Mecca, 90-92, 120, 200.

Medina, 185, 201.

Mehna, 197.

Memoirs of the Poets, 31.

Merv, 113.

Mesopotamia, 19, 119, 187.

Microcosm, 61, 74.

Mimshfid Dinwarl, 166, 174, 175.

Miracle, 108.

Mini. 307.

Mlrtn Muhammad Shah Mawj-i-DaryS Bukbfiri, 238-

240.

Mirn Shfihi section, 238-240.
Mir^at-i-Madari, 302.
-i-Mas'Gdi, 123.
Sayyid Gesudarfiz, 224, 225.

INDEX 397

MirzS JSn-i-Jaho Mazhar, 138, 139.

Mishkatu*l-Anwdr, 27, 30, 35.

Miyan Kiel, a section of the Qidiri Order, 265-274.

Miyn Mir, 110, 111, 269-274.

Miyan Nattha, 271-273.

MiySn WaddS, 240-244.

Moksa, 150, 153, 154, 157.

Monastic Orders, 185.

Mongols, 183.

Mount Lukam, 125.

Muadh b. Jabal, 57.

Muawiya, 105, 119.

Mubarak ghilji, 221.

Muhammad Afdal, 138, 139.

Muhammad b. Qasim, 119.

Muriammad Fudayl, 261, 262.

Muljammad Ghawtb, 253.

Muhammad Isma'll, see Miyan Wadda.

Muhammad Shah 'Alam, 236.

Muhammad Ta,ghlak, 223.

Muhammad YadgSr, 198.

Muharram, 121.

MuhlVd-Dln, see *AbduM-Q5dir JilSnl,

Mta l InuM-Dln Chishti, 110, 125, 129, 193-208, 305.

Mujahada, 90, 96.

Mujahadatu*n-Hafs, 96.

MujSwir, 122.

Mu'jiza. 108.

Mukti, 158.

Mullt NSruM-Din *Abdu a r-Rakmin Jiml, see Jiml.

398 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Mulls Shah, 27.
Multn, 185, 212, 216, 231-233.
Mundqibu^l-Arifin, 37.
Mun'im, 170.

N

Hadhpr, 124.

Nadhir, 138.

Nadirah, 274.

Kadis, 149.

Hafbatu*l-Uns, 20.

Nafi-athbat, 100.

Nafs, 62. 76-78, 92.

Najd, 300.

Najib, see Nujubd.

NajmuM-Din GhawthuM-Dahar, 311-313.

NajmuM-Dln Kubra, 59, 173, 182-184.

NajmuM-Dln Sutfhra, 212, 213.

Namarupa, 147, 148.

Namaz, 90, 92, 94.

Nacfib, see Nuquba.

Naqshbandi Order, 185-192, 275-298.

Naqshbandiyya, 49, 137, 161, 174.

Nasir Mast, 244.

Naslru^d-Dln Astrabadi, 197, 225.

Nasut. 24, 75.

Natthe''MiyfiD, 111.

Nature, 54.

Nawshah, 262. 263.

Nawshh Ganj Bakhsh, 261.

INDEX 399

Nava Vihara, 133.

Nazar bar qadam, 191.

Negation and affirmation, 100.

Neo-Platonism, 17, 20, 53.

Nibbana, 152.

Nicholson, Professor, 18, 20. 38, 71, 74, 84.

Nigdh dasht, 191.

NilGfar Kfafinam, 185.

Nimat, 170.

Ni'mat KhatUn, 242, 243.

Ni'matullfih, 249-251.

Nirguna, 146, 147.

Nirvana, 150-152.

Nlshapur, 25, 31, 36, 196, 197.

Nishpranca Ideal, 144, 145.

Nizam of Hyderabad, 208.

NizSmiyyah College, 26.

NizSmiyyah Section, 220-224.

Nizimu'd-Din, 94.

NizamuM-Dln Awliyi, 113, 128, 214, 219-224, 227.

Nizamu-'l-Mulk, 26.

Nujuba, 106.

Nuquba, 106.

NOruM-Dln Mubarak Qbaznawl, 185, 228.

NuruM-Dln Qibla 'Alam, 224.

NuruM-Mub-ammadiyya, 58.

o

Om, 153.

Oneness, 84.

Oneness of the Essence, 54.

400 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Orders, 174-192, 187, 190, 193.
Orenburg, 188.

Padmas, 149.

Pak 'Abdu'r-Rahman, 262-264.

Pakpatan, 107, 219.

Pak Rahmams, 262-264.

Pandits, 133, 202.

Pandnama, 32, 33.

Panipat, 314.

Panjab, 111, 200, 216, 219.

Pantheism, 168.

Pas anfds, 99.

Path, 67-72, 74, 75, 161.

Penukondah, 237.

Perfect Man, 74.

Perfect Unit, 81.

Persia, 119, 121, 185, 186.

Pingla, 149.

Pir, 87,89, 99, 106, 140, 141, 160, 162, 179, 188, 189, 190,

191.

Piran-i-Kaliar, 219, 225, 226.
Pir-i-Gha'ib, 103.
Pir Karim, 209.

Pir Muhammad Sachyar, 262-264.
Plrzadas, 120.
Plato, 18.
Platonism, 30.
Platts, 42.

INDEX 401

Plotinus, 132.
Prithviraj, 200, 205.
Prophyry, 18.
Pseudo-Dionysius, 17.
Pure Essence, 53.
Purgative life, 69.
Purusa, 149.

Q

Qadiri Order, 113, 172, 175-182, 197, 253-255.

Qadiriyya, 137, 162, 174, 194.

Qadr, 28.

Qalandarl, 124.

Qalandarl Order, 309-314.

Qalb, 61-65.

Qandhar, 233.

Qaran, 299, 300.

Qasim b. Abu Bakr, 187.

Qasr-i-'Arifm, 189.

Qawwal, 112.

Qawwdli, 112.

Qayyum, 81, 285-298.

Qayyumiyat, 285, 288.

Qumesiyya, 255, 256.

Qumes Shah, 255,

Quniya, 36.

Quran, 6, 93, 94, 100, 102, 112, 115' 130, 131, 132, 135,

136, 138, 195, 210, 241.
Qurb-i-fara*id, 84.
Qurb-i-nawdfil, 84.

402 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Qushayri, 7, 30.

Qutb, 104.

QutbuM-Dln Aybak, 206.

Qutf>uM-Din Blnadal, 312.

QutfmM-Dm Kakl, 197, 209, 215, 228, 311.

R

Rabija, 12, 14-16, 109, 162.

Radha Krishna, Sir, 156.

Radauli, 123.

RSmanuja, 144, 145.

Ramayana, 135, 140.

Ram Chandra, 138, 139.

Ramitan, 189.

Rimpur, 39.

Rapture, 169.

Raq^ 113.

Rasulabad, 237.

Rasul Shahl section, 249-252.

Reality, 67.

Rehatsek, 51.

Religious Orders,

, the origin of, 159-173.

, the main, 174-192.

, the Chishtl, 193-227.

.the Suhrawardl, 228-252.

, the Qadiri Order, 252-274.

, the Naqshbandl t 275-298.

.the Uwaysl, 299-302.

, the MadSrI, 302-306.

INDEX 403

, the Shattarl, 306-309.

, the Qalandari, 309-314.

, the Malamatl, 314-318.
Renunciation, 73.

Repentance, 73.
Rewgar, 188.
Rhys Davids, 151.
Ris&il, of Sa'di, 42.
Riwayat, 125.
RiyaduM-Dln, 207.
Ruh, 61-63, 65, 76.
RuknuM-Dln, 32.
Rum, 110.

Sabiri Section, 225-227.

Sada Suhagin, 249.

Sadhaura, 256.

Sa'dl, 41, 42, 184.

Sa 4 d Shamsu J d-Dln, 113.

Sa 4 dullah, 265.

SadruM-Dm, 231, 232.

Safar dar watan, 191.

Safaru*l-abd, 74.

Safaru>l-Haq, 74.

Saflnatu*l-Awliyd, 175.

afluM-Dln, 254.

Sahl b. 'Abdullah Tastarl, 172.

Said gharraz, 83.

Saints, of early ufism, 12-15.

404 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

, the veneration of, 102-104.

, the hierarchy of, 104-106.

, of the early days of Islam in India, 118-131.

, of the fourteen ^hdnwadas, 163-173.

, of the Chishti Order, 174-176, 193-227.

, of the Qadirl Order, 176-182, 253-274.

, of the Suhrawardl Order, 182-186, 228-252.

, of the Naqshbandl Order, 186-189, 275-298.

, of the Uwaysl Order, 299-302.

, of the Madari Order, 302-306.

, of the Shattan Order, 306-309.

, of the Qalandari Order, 309-314.

, of the Malamatl Order, 247-252.
Sakmatu^l Awliya, 110, 271.

SalSr Mas'ud Ghazl. 122-124.

alat, 90.

$alatu*l Ma bus, 93.

Salik, 67.

Sallm Chishti. 208.

Salaman-o-Absal, 51.

Salmanu^l- Farsi, 187.

Sama, 112-115, 215.

Samanyas, 147, 148.

Samarqand, 195.

Sammasi, 189.

Sanjar, 193.

Sankhya, 134, 147.

Saqatf, 168.

Saqa^iyya, 167.

SariuVSaqatf, 160, 162, 171.

INDEX 405

Sasvata, 152.

Satisfaction, 72.

Sayrani^llah, 76.

Sayr fillah, 75.

Sayr ilallah, 75.

Sayyid Bukharl, 236.

Sayyid Siknadar, 276.

Schroder, 152.

Seal o? Sainthood, 82.

Self-annihilation, 168.

Self-mortification, 77, 96.

Sell, Canon E., 185.

Seven Valleys, 34.

Shah Jamal, 267.

Shah Muhammad Ghawth, 307, 308.

Shajra, 95.

Shakargani, see Baba Farid.

ShamsuM- 4 Arifin Ghawri, 242.

ShamsuM-Din, a title, 59.

ShamsuM-Dln Aflaki, 37.

Shamsu^d-Dia Hafiz, see Hafig.

ShamsuM-Dln Tabrezi, 36-38.

ShamsuM-Dm Turk, 226, 227.

Shankara, 147,148.

Shaqdyiqun'-Wb'maniya, 168.

SharfuM-Dm Bu 4 AU Qalandar, 312-314.

Sh^rfuM-Dln lima 4 il Jabaruti, 60.

Shanal, 87, 181, 215.

Shariurs, 115.

Order, 306-309.

406 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Shathiydt.

Shaykh, see ptr.

Shaykh Sa'di, 31.

ShaykhuM-YunSni, 132.

Sher Shah, 242, 307.

Ske'ru*l-Ajam, 47.

Shibli, 47, 125.

Shihbu J d-Dln Muhammad Qbawri, 205, 206.

ShihSbu J d-Dm Suhrawardl, 7, 30, 42, 184, 185, 197, 211,

228,230.

Shirtz, 41,47,184.
Shu'ayb, 216.
Shuhudi, 284.

ShuhQdiyya, 52, 142, 144, 284.
Sikandar Lodi, 253.
?ila, 283.
Silsila, 160.
Sindh, 118, 133, 247.
Sipa Salar, 61-63.
SirSjuM-Din, 224.
Sirawanl, 125.

Sirhind, 205, 276, 278, 282, 289, 290, 291.
SistSn, 193.
Sitr Mu'alla, 123.
Sobriety, 169, 170, 172.
Sokhar, 189.
Srinagar, 107.
Stages, 67, 68-72.
States, 67, 72, 73, 76.
Subsistence, 76, 83.

INDEX 407

ufi, speculation concerning God, 52.

, derivation of the word, 6.

, significance of the journey of a, 73.

, stages of the journey of a, 68.

, devotions of a, 90.

, notable features of the practices of a, 102-117.

, speculation concerning God compared with

Hindu Philosophy, 142-148.
and also see, 161, 162, 164, 169, 170, 184, 191, 196,

210, 211, 212, 215, 227.
ufism, beginning of, 7,

, the earliest form of, 8,

, speculative elements in, 17-25.

, the influence of Hellenic philosophy, 18,

, the Pantheistic elements in, 21-25.

, finds recognition in Islam, 25-30.

, classic periods of, 31.

, music in, 112.

, introduction in India 118,

, in relation to Indian thought, 133-158.
see also, 160, 161, 162, 164, 168, 171, 184, 185.
SufySn Thawri, 164.

Suhag, 248, 249.

Suhagl section, 248, 249.

Suhrawardl Order, 175,182-186,212,228-234.

, sub-sections, 234-252.

, Ba Shara 4 sections, 234-247.

, Be Shara' sections, 247-252.
Suhrawardiyya, 162, 172, 174, 197.

Sukr, 169.

408 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Sulayman Shah, 260.
Sultanu*l-adhkar, 99.
Sultan Sarang Ghakkar, 242.
Svetakdta, 144, 147.
Svetasvatra, 146.
Swarup, 148.
Syria, 36, 37, 127.

Tabar Hind, 120.
Tabriz, 197.

Tadhkiratu*l-Awliyd, 14, 32, 244
Taghlaqabad, 222.
Tahdrat, 90.
Tahmld, 96.
Tajalli, 78-83.
Tajrid, 120.
Takhr, 96.
Takia, 185.
Tamim Ansari, 118.
Tamimu^d-Darl, 10.
Tanazzuldt, 52-57.
Taqlld, 26.

Tarjuamnu*l-Asrar, 48.
fanqa-i-Khwajagdn. 189.
Tariqa-i-Naqshbandiyya t 189
Tarlqai, 67, 181, 188.
Tartar, 193.

Taitawsiyya, 172, 174, 176.
Ta$awwuf, 6, 210, 211, see Sufism.

INDEX 409

Td 5m, 22.
Tashkand, 188.
Tathagatha, 15.
Tawajjuh, 88, 99.
Tawakkul 28, 71, 73, 165.
Tawayt, 73.

Tau^fd, 28, 71, 168, 171.
Tawhidu*dh-dhat, 78.
Tar'hldu>l-afaL 28, 78.
Tcwhidu*s-sifdt. 78.
Tcyfur! ^lanwada, 187.
i ayfuriyya, 168, 169, 171.
tayfur Sham!, 304, 305.
Titus, Dr. M. T., 120.
Torah, 135.
Triad, 53.
Turkey, 185, 187.
Turkistan, 127.
TOs, 25.

U

'Ubudiyyat,58, 83.

Uchh, 217, 236, 238, 253, 254, 255

Uddalaka, 144.

4 Umar, 161, 300.

4 Umar b. 'Abdu^AzIz, 105.

Umayyad, 11.

Ummatullah, 206.

Umm Salma, 162.

Union with God, 34, 67, 72.

410 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

Unity, 54, 56.

Unity of all existence, 33.

Unity in God, of Essence, 78.

, of attributes, 78.

, of acts, 78.
Universal Self, 71.
Universal Soul, 156.
Universal Succour, 82,

Upanishads, 135, 136, 140, 143, 144-147, 153, 154.

Urquhart, Dr. 140, 141.

'Urs, 107, 114, 115, 123, 202, 207, 219, 226, 246.

U&l, 161, 162.

'Uthman, 161.

'Uthman tx Maz l un, 10.

'UthmSn, a saint, 119.

'UjhmSn HSruni, 196.

Uwaysiyya, 299-302.

Uwaysu^l-Qaram, 162, 299-302.

V

Vedanta, 140, 154.

Vedas, 135, 137.

Veils of light and darkness, 67.

Veneration of the saints, 102.

Venkataramana, 141.

Vicar of God, 82.

Vidya< 145.

Vinnana, 152.

Visheshas, 147, 148.

INDEX 411

Vishistadvaita, 144, 145.
Visitation to a shrine, 106, 107,

W

Wajd, 70, 169.
WajihuM-Dm, 308, 309.
Wahab, 118.
Wafrlat, 55, 75.
Wafydiyyat, 75.
Wahid, 55.
Wakidiyyat, 56, 75.
Wali, see Awliya.
Wasl 72.
Wild see Awtdd.
A^orld of Command, 75.
World of Creation, 75.
Wujudl, 284.
Wujudiyya, 52, 142, 284.
Wuquf-i-adadl, 192.
Wuquf-i-qalafa, 192.
Wuquf-i-Zamanl, 192.

Yad dasht, 192.

Yadgar, Muhammad, 198.

Yad karo, 191.

Yajanavalkaya, 154.

Yasi, 188.

Yogi, 148.

Yognadis, 149.

412 SUFI SAINTS AND SHRINES IN INDIA

fog Sutra, 134.
Yusuf Chishti, 225.
Yusuf-Zulaykha, 43, 50, 51.

Zabur, 109.

Zabld, 60.

Zahid, 17.

Zaydiyya, 163.

Zinda plr, 256.

Ziyarat, see visitation.

Zubayr, 296-298.

Zuhd, 69, 70, 73.

Zuhra Blbl, 123.

Zulfa, a companion of Rabi'a, 109.

Zulayklja, mother of NigamuM-Dln Awliya, 220.

Printed and Published by C. O. Forsgren, at the Lucknow Publishing
House, Lucknow. 1739-3-36.