,,nub. .LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Deceived Gfc***tX-' , ,8g &
^Accessions No. ft 7 f^f~. C/.?ss No.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
FOR REFINERIES, SUGAR-HOUSES,
EXPERIMENTAL STATIONS, ETC.,
AND AS A
HANDBOOK OF INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS OF CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY.
BY
FERDINAND G. WIECHMANN, PH.D.,
Instructor in Chemical Physics and Chemical Philosophy, School of Mines,
Columbia College;
Consulting Chemist to the American Sugar Refining Company, New York.
SECOND EE VISED EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
1898.
COPYRIGHT, 1893,
BY
FERDINAND G. WIECHMANN.
All rights reserved.
ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.
INSCRIBED
TO
HIS TEACHER
CHARLES F. CHANDLER, PH.D,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, COLUMBIA COLLEGE,
AS A
SLIGHT TOKEN OF SINCERE
GRATITUDE, ESTEEM AND REGARD.
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
IT has been the aim of the writer to prepare a concise
yet thorough treatise on Sugar Analysis that should
prove of service to the practising chemist as well as to
the student of this branch of analytical chemistry.
Within the past few years numerous changes have
been made in the older methods of sugar-analysis, new
methods have been devised, and many researches of im-
portance to sugar-chemistry have been accomplished.
The current literature of the day devoted to sugar and
its interests, abounds in matter pertinent to the subject.
A great number of these investigations have, however,
appeared only in foreign journals and have therefore not
been accessible to all ; moreover, they occur scattered
through so many different publications that a critical
study of the same involves no inconsiderable outlay of
time and labor.
A work that should give a general survey of this field
seemed therefore both desirable and timely, and it has
been with the aim indicated in view, that this publication
was undertaken.
The greatest difficulty encountered was the making of
a proper choice from the wealth of material at hand.
The schemes selected and here offered, embrace those
methods of analysis which, after careful investigation,
and, in many cases, after prolonged trial in practice, have
seemed to the writer best adapted to the requirements of
a technical laboratory.
iii
IV PREFACE.
A glance at the Table of Contents will show at once
the plan and scope of this manual.
Instead of taking up for discussion, as is usually done,
the different products met with in sugar-laboratories,
such as raw sugars, refined sugars, liquors, molasses, etc.,
and describing for each in turn the determination of their
constituents, it has been deemed more expedient to dis-
cuss the methods of determining the individual constitu-
ents, as sucrose, invert-sugar, water, ash, etc., independ-
ently of the products in which they may occur, and then
to add such comments and suggestions as certain contin-
gencies would seem to call for.
By the adoption of this plan numerous repetitions have
been avoided.
Wherever feasible, examples have been inserted in the
text to aid in the understanding of the principles dis-
cussed, and of the calculations explained.
Numerous references are given throughout ; these will,
it is hoped, incite to a study of the original memoirs.
The tables have been selected with the greatest of care,
prompted by a desire to introduce only the most accu-
rate. To ensure uniformity of basis, several of these
tables have been calculated expressly for this issue. The
publication of the formulae by which the different tables
were obtained, should prove a welcome feature to the
student.
A list of books and of periodical literature bearing on
Sugar Analysis is appended. Asterisks attached to titles
show that the publications so marked were consulted in the
preparation of these pages, and indicate the obligations of
SCHOOL OF MINES, THE AUTHOR.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 1890.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Polarization 1
Pol ari scopes: construction — adjustment — examination — quartz-plates —
polariscope-tubes ., 3
Hydrometers : varieties used— range of scales 13
Methods of Testing Hydrometers : by means of : pyknometer— solutions
of chemically pure sugar — polariscope 15
Graduation of Flasks : in true cubic centimetres— Mohr's method 18
Verification of Graduated Glass Vessels, in true Cubic Centimetres. 19
Thermometers : examination— conversion formulae 20
Balances : requirements — examination 21
Weights : verification 22
CHAPTER II.
Sampling Sugars and Molasses : manner of sampling— percentage of
cargo sampled — representative sample 23
Determination of Color of Sugar and Sugar Solutions : Dutch
standards — colorimeters 25
Determination of Density of Solutions : by : specific-gravity flask —
pipette and beaker — hydrometers — glass spheres— hydrostatic balance. 26
Determination of Alkalinity 30
Determination of Acidity 31
Test for Sulphurous Oxide in Sugar 32
CHAPTER III.
Determination of Sucrose in the Absence of other optically active
Substances 33
Optical Analysis : with balance— without balance 33
Quotient of Purity, or Exponent: determination by: drying to con-
stant weight— aid of hydrometer — Ventzke's method— Casamajor's
method — true and apparent quotient of purity — calculation to dry 38
substance
Gravimetric Analysis 42
v
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
Determination of Sucrose in the Presence of other optically
active Substances 44
Clerget's Inversion Method 44
Sucrose in the Presence of Raffinose : German government method —
correction for temperature of observation — reference-list to other
methods 46
Sucrose in the Presence of Dextrose: qualitative tests— quantitative
methods : hot polarization — gravimetric 49
Sieben's Process for Destruction of Laevulose 59
Determination of Sucrose, Dextrose, and Laevulose : Winter's
method— gravimetric method 61
CHAPTER V.
Invert-Sugar 64
Qualitative Examination 64
Quantitative Determination : formula for Fehling's solution 65
Tolumetric Methods : Soxhlet's— Fehling's — dextrose solution for
standardizing Fehling's solution 65
Gravimetric Methods : Meissl-Herzfeld— Bodenbender and Scheller. . . 69
Soldaini's Solution 74
CHAPTER VI.
Water : determination by drying in : air-bath — inert gas — vacuum 76
Ash : methods of determination — Scheibler's — Von Lipprnann's — carbon-
ization 77
Quantitative Analysis of Sugar- Ash 79
Suspended Impurities : determination of : total — inorganic — organic. . 80
Determination of Woody Fibre 82
Detection of the Sugar-Mite 82
CHAPTER VII.
Organic Non-Sugar : determination by basic acetate of lead 83
Classification of Organic Bodies accompanying Sucrose : organic
acids— nitrogenous substances — non-nitrogenous substances 84
Schemes for Analysis of the Organic Acids: non-volatile acids —
rare non-volatile acids— volatile acids— approximate determination of
organic acids : non-volatile and volatile 85
Determination of Total Nitrogen 95
Non-Nitrogenous Organic Substances 96
Determination of Pure Cellulose 96
TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii
CHAPTER VIII.
Notes on the Reporting of Sugar- Analyses : forms of reports— inter-
pretation of analyses — nature of reducing sugar 98
Reiidement : determination by the Payen-Scheibler process 102
Calculation of Bendement: United States of America— England-
France— Germany 105
Duty : United States of America 106
Calculation of the Weight of Solids and Liquids from their
Specific Gravity: weight in pounds per cubic foot — weight of a
gallon in pounds 107
CHAPTER IX.
Synonyms : English — German — French 108
References to Literature on Sugar Analysis : books — periodicals. . . . 110
Tables 113
Index.. 183
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
CHAPTER I.
POLARIZATION - POLARISCOPES — HYDROMETERS — FLASKS —
THERMOMETERS— BALANCES— WEIGHTS.
Polarization.— If a ray of light strikes a glass mirror
and makes an angle of about 55° with the normal of the
mirror, the ray is not only reflected, but is endowed with
certain properties, and is said to be polarized.
In Fig. 1, ab is the incident ray, be the polarized ray.
A plane conceived as passed through abe is called the
plane of polarization.
If a polarized ray is allowed to fall upon a
second mirror, parallel to the first, it is again f
reflected at the angle above mentioned. If this
second mirror is turned around be, its inclina- 0*
tion to the horizontal being preserved un- a^/ \
changed, the intensity of the reflected ray FIG.I.
continuously diminishes until, when the rotation has
been carried through 90°, the light is extinguished com-
pletely. If the rotation be carried beyond this point the
mirror becomes again illumined ; and when it has been
turned through 180°, the reflection is again at its maxi-
mum of brightness. In other words, the intensity of the
reflected light is greatest when the incident ray and the
1
2 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
polarized ray, after reflection from the second mirror, are
in the same plane, and least, when these rays are in planes
at right angles to each other.
Polarization of light can also be produced by other
means : by repeated single refractions, or by double re-
fraction in certain crystals — Iceland-spar, for instance.
If a plate of quartz, cut at right angles to its prin-
cipal axis, is inserted between two mirrors placed as above
described, and traversed by a polarized ray, the image of
the quartz will appear in color in the upper mirror. The
color of the image changes with the turning of the mir-
ror ; the order in which the colors appear is the same as
found in the solar spectrum : red, yellow, green, blue, and
violet.
This phenomenon is termed circular polarization. It
depends on the property possessed by quartz of rotating
to a different degree the planes of polarization of the
various colored rays which compose white light. One
variety of quartz shows these colors in the order named
when the mirror is turned to the right ; a second variety
of the mineral exhibits the colors in this sequence only
when the rotation of the mirror is to the left. These
varieties of quartz are respectively termed right-rotating
and left-rotating, or dextrogyrate and laevogyrate.
Among other bodies which share with quartz the
property of circular polarization are the sugars when in
solution. Some of the sugars are dextro-rotatory: for
instance, sucrose, dextrose, and raflrnose; others rotate
the plane of polarized light to the left, as laevulose and
sorbinose.
The extent to which the plane of polarized light is
turned by quartz, by a sugar solution, or any other opti-
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 3
cally active substance, depends on the thickness of the
layer which the polarized ray has to traverse. The
thicker the plate or the longer the column of solution, the
greater the rotation of the ray. Whereas in the case of
a quartz-plate the thickness of the plate is the only
factor to be considered, in sugar solutions the concen-
tration of the solution, i.e., the amount of sugar in the
solution, must be taken into account.
Polariseopes. — Basing on this property of circular
polarization, instruments have been constructed by which
the strength of solutions containing optically active sub-
stances can be determined. They are called polariscopes
or polarirneters. Polariscopes intended for general scien-
tific work are provided with a circular disk, graduated in
such a manner that the angle of rotation can be con-
veniently read. Instruments intended for some special
purpose, as, for instance, for sugar analysis, are generally
provided with a scale which, if certain directions have
been followed in the preparation of the solution, will at
once indicate in percentage the amount of the optically
active substance present. Polariscopes designed especially
for sugar analysis are termed saccharimeters.
The principle on which these instruments are con-
structed is briefly this : A ray of light is polarized by
passing through a prism, called the polarizer, and gener-
ally made of Iceland-spar; the ray is then made to
traverse a column of sugar solution of known length.
Emerging from this, it passes through a second prism oi
Iceland-spar, the analyzer, which corresponds to the sec-
ond mirror in the apparatus previously described. li
now only remains to ascertain the extent to which the
plane of polarized light has been rotated by the sugaj
4 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
solution. The arrangements by which this is effected
differ in the various forms of saccharimeters, but in the
more modern instruments it is generally accomplished by
allowing the light on its emergence from the analyzer to
pass through a layer of quartz, the thickness of which
(capable of accurate measurement) can be so regulated
as to exactly compensate the rotation produced by the
sugar solution. It is assumed that the rotatory dispersion
of sugar corresponds to that of quartz.
The field of vision of a saccharimeter is either one of
color, or else exhibits, when correctly set at zero, a uni-
form faint tint ; polariscopes showing the latter are known
as half -shade instruments, and can be used by color-blind
persons, as well as by others.
The arrangement . of the optical parts of a saccha-
rimeter is shown in the accompanying Figs. 2 and 3.
BZS7D
Fig. 2.
Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler Polariscope.
1. Magnifying-glass for reading scale.
2. Telescope for observing field of vision.
3. Nicol prism, analyzer.
4. Quartz-wedge, fixed, bearing vernier. ~j
5. Quartz- wedge, movable, bearing scale. Rotation
6 O rt 1 te * Dextro-rotatory if 4 and 5 are laevo-rotatory. j Compensator.
' Laevo-rotatory if 4 and 5 are dextro-rotatory, j
7. Double quartz-plate (dextro- and laevo-rotatory).
8. Nicol prism, polarizer.
9. Quartz-plate, dextro- or laevo-rotatory. i „ , ,
10. Nicol prism.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
10 11
5 6
Fig. 3.
Double-wedge Compensator Polariscope, Schmidt and Haensch Construction.
1. Eye-piece.
2. Objective.
3. Nicol prism, analyzer.
4. Quartz- wedge. 1
5. Quartz- wedge. 1 Constituting the Double-
6. Quartz-wedge, f wedge Compensator.
7. Quartz-wedge. J
8. Lens.
9. Nicol prism.
10. Lens.
11. Lens.
The scales of saccharimeters are constructed by ascer-
taining the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds
which a definite amount by weight of pure sugar dis-
solved in water and made up to 100 cubic centimetres
will rotate the polarized ray. This is marked as 100,
and the scale is then divided into one hundred parts.
If the same weight of an impure sugar is brought
into solution and polarized under the same conditions, the
reading in the polariscope of course at once expresses
percentage of the active substance present.
The scales of different saccharimeters have their 100
mark correspond to different weights of pure sugar.
In the Duboscq instrument it is 16.192 grammes, in
Wild's apparatus it is 40.000 grammes, and in the
Ventzke-Soleil 26.048 grammes. These values are
termed the "normal weights" of the respective instru-
ments.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
EQUIVALENCE IN DEGREES OF DIFFERENT
SACCHARIMETERS.
1° scale of Mitscherlich
'1° " " Soleil-Duboscq
1°
1°
Ventzke-Soleil
" Wild (sugar scale)
" Laurent and Duboscq (shadow)
Grammes of Sugar
in 100 Cubic Centimetres.
= 0.750
= 0.1619
= 0.26048
= 0.100
= 0.1619
One-degree on the Scale
of—
Corresponds
to—
Corresponds
to—
Corresponds
to—
Corresponds
to —
Mitscherlich.
Soleil-Ventzke.
2.870°
Soleil-Duboscq.
4 61?1;0
Wild .
• Soleil-Ventzke . . .
o 346°
I 608°
2 648°
Soleil-Duboscq . . . - . . .
O 2I*i°
o 620°
I 6lQ°
^Tild (sugar scale)
0
O I M
o ^8j.°
o 618°
J 1°
J 1°
J 1°
J 1°
EQUIVALENCE IN CIRCULAR DEGREES.
Soleil-Duboscq
u u
Soleil-Ventzke
= 0.2167 circular degree D.
= 0.2450 " J.
= 0.3455 " " D.
= 0.3906 " " J.
The letters J and D represent certain rays of light.
The former signifies the mean yellow or transition tint,
the latter the sodium ray. The amount of rotation
which the plane of polarization experiences, called the
angle of rotation, varies with the wave-length of the ray :
it is least for the red, and greatest for the violet ray.
In saccharimeters using white light (gas or lamp),
this value is generally given for the transition-tint,- which
means the color complementary to mean yellow light.
In order to adjust a polariscope, first obtain by, the
telescope a sharp and clearly-defined view of the field.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 7
Then turn the screw attached to the quartz- wedge
until both halves of the field are, in color instruments,
of the same tint; or if the polariscope is a half-shade
apparatus, until both halves of the field are equally
illumined.
If the instrument is provided with double-wedge
compensation, the red scale is first set exactly at zero,
and the manipulation is then carried out as described
above.
When this has been done the position of the scale
is carefully read through the magnifying-glass. The
zero of the scale should be exactly in line with the zero
mark on the vernier; if this is not the case, they must be
brought into the required position by a slight turning
of the screw-micrometer provided for the purpose. Care
must be taken that the screw in connection with the
analyzer be not mistaken for the other screw, or the
whole apparatus will be thrown out of order.
If it is impossible to obtain a uniform shade or tint
on both sides of the centre line of the field, the polarizer
and the analyzer must be brought into adjustment.
This is done by removing the movable and the sta-
tionary quartz-wedges, as well as the compensation
quartz-plate; the cover is then closed, and the key hav-
ing been inserted in the screw-head connected with the
analyzer (this screw-head is generally placed on the right-
hand side of the polariscope), the key is turned until the
tint in both halves of the field is uniform.
The wedges and the plate which had been removed
are then replaced, and the zero-point accurately ad-
justed.
When the instrument has been correctly set at zero,
8 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
a quartz-plate of known value, preferably one approxi-
mating the average test of the sugar solutions to be
examined, is inserted in the instrument, and the correct-
ness of that part of the scale ascertained.
The zero-point should be determined before every
observation ; where press of work renders this impracti-
cable, the observation should be insisted on at least twice
daily — in the morning before a polarization is made, and
again in the middle of the day.
When a solution is introduced for reading, the tele-
scope must first be properly focussed, as before stated,
to insure a clear and sharply defined view of the
field.
If the scale stood at zero before the tube filled with
the solution was introduced, a glance through the glass
will after its introduction show the halves of the field to
be of different colors; or, if a half-shade polariscope is
used, one half of the field will appear dark and the other
light.
The screw attached to the quartz-wedge is then turned
until equality in tint or shade shall have been restored
to the whole field.
It then only remains to read the scale. Most instru-
ments have the degrees divided into tenths. First it
must be determined how many whole degrees the zero
of the scale is removed from the zero of the vernier.
When this has been ascertained, attention must be given
to the tenths of a degree indicated. The number of
divisions marking tenths on the vernier are counted until
one is found which coincides perfectly with a division
on the movable scale, that is to say, which appears to
form a continuation of that line. This division repre-
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
sents the number of tenths indicated. The accompany-
ing figure, for instance, shows 30.7 degrees.
V 2<
,'i 1 1 1 1
)
1 1 1 1 i i
30
I I I M I I I
40 /
Mil I I I 1 1 K
mill
i'o
I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
10
Fig. 4.
The sources of error in saccharimeters are numerous
and therefore every instrument before being placed in use,
should be carefully examined.
The principal difficulties that may be encountered are
the following :
The scale may be too long or too short. Adjust the
zero-point exactly. Make 100 c.c. of a sugar solution by
dissolving the normal weight of chemically pure sugar*
in water, and polarize. This solution should read 100
degrees (per cent) on the scale if the instrument is correct.
If it does not read 100, the instrument should be rejected.
The scale may be right in some places, and wrong in
others. This is the case when the surfaces of the quartz-
wedges are not perfectly plane. In half-shade polari-
scopes provided with double compensation wedges, this
cannot occur, as any inequality would be noticed at
once. In other polariscopes, the scale may be examined
by pure sugar solutions of different densities, by means
of the " control tube" of Schmidt and Haensch, or by
quartz-plates.
The following figures, taken from a table calculated
by Schmitz, show the number of grammes of pure sugar
which must be made up to 100 c.c. aqueous solution in
* For preparation of chemically pure sugar see page 17.
10
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
order to show the corresponding degree on a polariscope
having 26.048 grammes for its normal weight :
Polariscope
Degrees.
Grammes C. P.
Sugar in looc.c.
solution.
Polariscope
Degrees.
Grammes C. P.
Sugar in TOO c.c.
solution.
Polariscope
Degrees.
Grammes C. P.
Sugar in 100 c.c.
solution.
I
0.260
35
9.097
69
17-954
2
0.519
36
9-357
70
18.216
3
0.779
37
9.618
71
18.476
4
1.039
38
9.878
72
18.738
5
1.298
39
10.138
73
18.998
6
1.558
40
10.398
74
19.259
7
1.817
41
10.659
75
19-519
8
2.078
42
10.919
76
19.781
9
2-337
43
11.180
77
20.042
10
2-597
44
11.440
78
20.302
ii
2.857
45
11.701
79
20.564
12
3-II7
46
11.961
80
20.824
13
3.376
47
12.222
81
21.085
14
3.637
48
12.482
82
21.346
15
3-896
49
12.743
83
21.608
16
4.156
50
13.003
84
21.868
17
4.416
51
13.264
85
22.130
18
4.676
52
13.524
86
22.391
19
4.936
53
13.784
87
22.652
20
5.196
54
14.044
88
22.912
21
5.456
55
14.305
89
23.I74
22
5.716
56
14.566
90
23-435
23
5.976
57
14.826
91
23.696
24
6.236
58
15.087
92
23-957
25
6.496
59
15.347
93
24.219
26
6.756
60
15.608
94
24.480
27
7.016
61
15.868
95
24.742
28
7.276
62
16.130
96
25.002
29
7.536
63
16.390
97
25.265
30
7.796
64
16.651
98
25-525
31
8.056
65
16.912
99
25-787
32
8.316
66
17.173
100
26.048
33
8-577
67
17-433
34
8.837
68
17.694
This method of testing requires a separate solution
for each degree of the scale which is to be examined.
If the weights necessary to this mode of examination
are not available, the tests can be made by dissolving the
normal weight of chemically pure sugar in different vol-
umes of water at the normal temperature. Thus with a
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 11
German saccharimeter 26.048 grammes of such sugar wil^
when dissolved—
in 100 c.c. water polarize 100.00 degrees.
" 105 " " " 95.23 "
" 110 " " " 90.90 "
" 115 « " " 86.95 "
" 120 u « " 83.33 "
If a control-tube is used, but few solutions are needed,
as this tube is so arranged that it can be lengthened or
shortened at will. A funnel receives the superfluous
solution when the tube is shortened, and a scale attached,
shows the length of the column in millimetres. A simple
calculation gives the reading which will be shown by
the polariscope if this is correct.
If quartz-plates are used to test the accuracy of dif-
ferent parts of the scale, care must be taken that the sur-
faces of the plates are perfectly plane, that they are
inserted in the optical axis of the instrument and at right
angles to it.
The quartz-plates themselves should, before being
used to control polariscopes, be examined as to their
accuracy. One of the ways of ascertaining their value,
that is to say, the amount by which they rotate a plane
of polarized light, is to measure their thickness.*
This measurement is effected most accurately by
means of a spherometer. This consists of a movable
screw supported in the centre of three arms, upon which
the apparatus rests. The screw is provided at its lower
end with a steel point ; near its upper end there is fast-
ened a circular plate of metal, the circumference of which
is divided into several hundred equal divisions. Fastened
* Open to objections, because the specific rotatory power of quartz is not a
constant value. Zeitschrift des Vereines far Riibenzucker-Industrie. Vol.
xix. D. 388.
12 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
to one of the supporting arms is a metal bar, also bearing
a graduation ; its graduated edge is placed at right angles
to the circular disk.
Parallel to the latter, and attached to the bar, is a
sliding-scale which can be set and fastened at any desired
height. The graduation of the sliding-scale is so made,
that nine of its divisions correspond to ten divisions on
the disk.
When the thickness of a plate of quartz, for instance,
is to be measured, the screw is first adjusted in such a
manner that it shall just touch the perfectly level surface
on which the apparatus has been placed.
The sliding-scale is next fastened on the bar exactly
on a level with the circular disk.
Suppose the latter to bear five hundred equal divi»
sions, and the graduated bar to be divided into halves of
a millimetre. The threads of the screw are so cut that
one complete revolution of the screw, indicated by the
graduated disk fastened to it, raises the screw through
one half of a millimetre. To effect the measurement the
screw is first raised sufficiently so as to allow the quartz-
plate to be slipped beneath it ; when this has been done,
the screw is carefully lowered until contact is secured
between its point and the quartz-plate. From the num-
ber of revolutions through which the screw has been
turned, the thickness of the quartz-plate is determined ;
with a spherometer graduated as here assumed, the meas-
urement will be exact to the one ten- thousandth part of
a millimetre.
Besides giving attention to the points already referred
to, care must be taken that the Nicol prisms and the
lenses are not dusty, and that the illumination is perfect.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 13
The light must be steady and of an unvarying intensity,
as the field of vision is materially affected by the flicker-
ing of the flame. The end of the instrument must not
be placed too near the light, as the heat affects the cement
which holds the prisms in position.
The polariscope-tubes must be of exactly the pre-
scribed length, as the amount of deviation of the polarized
ray produced by an optically active substance depends,
among other conditions, on the length of the column of the
substance which it traverses. The length of tubes can
readily be determined by measuring them with a metal
rod made of the standard length. The ends of the pol-
arization-tubes must be ground perfectly plane-parallel.
Another point to be borne in mind is the fact that the
glass covers of the polarization-tubes may be optically
active, either by nature of the glass, by being screwed
down too tight, or by not having both surfaces perfectly
parallel. The latter difficulty can be readily recognized
by taking a glass cover between two fingers and rotating
it rapidly, at the same time looking through it at some
fixed object. If the latter seems to be moving, the glass
is not plane-parallel, and should be rejected.
Hydrometers — The hydrometers used in the analysis
of saccharine solutions embrace specific-gravity hydrome-
ters and instruments graduated according to an arbitrary
scale. To the latter belong the Baume hydrometers, and
the Brix or Balling spindles. The degrees of a Brix hy-
drometer indicate percentage by weight of sugar, when
immersed in a solution of pure sugar.
The suggestion has been made to replace the Baume
scale by a scale graduated in the so-called densimetric
degrees.
14
SUGAE ANALYSIS.
These values are found by taking the specific gravity
corresponding to any given Baume degree, ignoring the
unit, and dividing the decimals by 100.
Example. —
Baum£
Degrees.
Densities.
Densimetric
Degrees.
0
I.OOOO
0.00
5
1.0356
3.56
10
50
1.0731
1.5161
7-31
5I.6I
This scale has, however, not yet been adopted in general
practice.
The range of scale in each and all of these hydrome-
ters of course varies greatly, according to the ideas and
preference of the makers, and of those who use the in-
struments. The following will be found to be convenient
graduations for the ordinary requirements of refinery and
laboratory :
Specific-gravity Scale. — Range from 1.095 to 1.106.
The scale bears twelve full divisions, and these are di-
vided into halves. Temperature of graduation, 17°.5 C.
The Brix Hydrometers. — Range from 0° to 28°, and
covering three instruments : the first from 0° to 8°, the
second from 8° to 16°, the third from 16° to 28°. Each
degree is divided into tenths.
The BawYie Hydrometers for Liquids heavier than
Water.— ROT general use in the refinery, a scale on a single
instrument ranging from 0° to 50°, and divided into quar-
ters or halves, will prove sufficient. For work at the
"blow-ups" the range of scale is from 27° to 32°, and
each degree is divided into tenths. For the syrup-boiler
a scale from 32° or from 38° to 44°, also divided into
tenths, is desirable. For laboratory work the range is
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 15
from 0° to 45°, best carried over three or more instru-
ments : for instance, from 0° to 20°, from 20° to 35°, and
from 35° to 45° ; the subdivision to be in tenths of a
degree.
It is a matter of great importance that the hydrome-
ters used in analytical work be correct. Every instru-
ment should be examined in at least three places, these
being preferably chosen at points corresponding to the
upper, the middle, and the lower part of the scale.
If a correct instrument is at hand (ascertained to be
correct by careful examination), other hydrometers of
the same scale are readily tested by comparison with the
standard hydrometer. If a standard is not available,
the testing must be done in comparison with very accu-
rate specific-gravity determinations, made by a balance.
If the instrument tested is a specific-gravity hydrometer,
the balance determinations are of course directly compared
with its readings ; if it is a Brix or a Baume spindle, the
corresponding specific-gravity values can be ascertained
from Table I.
Methods of Testing Hydrometers. — METHOD I. — The
balance determinations are made by weighing first a
specific-gravity flask or pyknometer,* perfectly clean and
dry. The flask is then filled with distilled water at the
temperature at which the hydrometer was graduated.
This had best be 17°.5 C., and if the hydrometers are
made to order, this temperature should be insisted on for
the graduation.
The weight of the flask filled with water up to the
mark is next taken, A solution is then prepared by dis-
* The neck where the mark is placed, should be narrow, and the flask
should have a tightly-fitting stopper to prevent loss by evaporation.
16 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
solving pure sugar in water. The density of this solu-
tion is such that it corresponds approximately to one of
the points marked on the scale of the hydrometer which
is being tested. The temperature of the solution is made
to correspond exactly with the temperature at which the
specific-gravity flask was previously filled, and the weight
of this flask now filled with the sugar solution is accurate-
ly determined.
Subtracting the weight of the flask from these two
weighings gives respectively the weight of equal volumes
of water and of sugar solution. Dividing the latter
value by the former, gives the specific gravity of the
sugar solution.
Example. —
Weight of specific-gravity flask + water, 40.0408
" " " " C " 15.0811
Weight of water in flask, 24.9592
Weight of specific-gravity flask + sugar solution, 42.5810
" " " " " " 15.0811
Weight of sugar solution in flask, 27.4999
27.4999 -J- 24.9592 = 1.1018
Specific gravity of sugar solution = 1.1018
Some of the sugar solution is poured into a glass
cylinder, the temperature carefully brought to 17°.5 C.,
and the hydrometer, perfectly clean and dry, inserted.
It should be allowed to glide down slowly into the solu-
tion in order that no more of the stem shall be immersed
than necessary. Care must also be taken that the instru-
ment floats free, that is, does not come into contact with
the sides.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 17
When the hydrometer has come to rest, a reading of
the scale is made and compared with the specific gravity
obtained by the balance. The indications of specific-
gravity hydrometers should of course agree exactly with
the balance determinations ; for Brix and for Baume in-
struments the limit of agreement should be placed at
± 0°.15. The cheaper Baume hydrometers, ranging from
0° to 50°, will, however, rarely agree closer than ± 0°.25,
and this degree of accuracy will suffice for the practical
working purposes of the refinery.
METHOD II. — If the hydrometer is a specific-gravity
hydrometer of limited range, it may be tested by immer-
sion in solutions of chemically pure sugar ; these solutions
are prepared as follows : *
Sp. Gravity. Grammes Grammes distilled
C. P. Sugar. Water at 17°.5 C.
1.095 22.6 77.4
1.097 23.0 77.0
1.100 23.7 76.3
1.103 24.3 75.7
1.106 25.0 75.0
METHOD III. — If a balance is not available, the test-
ing of specific-gravity hydrometers may be accomplished
by the aid of a polariscope. This method is also applica-
ble to Brix and to Baume hydrometers if their degrees are
translated into the corresponding specific-gravity values.
Prepare pure sugar by washing best granulated or
powdered block-sugar repeatedly with an 85 per cent
alcohol. The washing should be done with a volume of
alcohol equal to from three to five times the volume of
* Based on the table given in Stammer's Lehrbuch der Zuckerfabrika-
tion, 3d edition, p. 26 et seq.
18 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
the sugar. The washed sugar must then be perfectly
dried at the temperature of about 100° C., and kept in an
air-tight jar. A solution of this sugar is made, the tem-
perature taken, and the hydrometer inserted in it with all
the care and precautions previously referred to. After
the reading of the hydrometer has been noted, the solu-
tion is polarized, and the polarization is multiplied by the
factor (Table IV) corresponding to the specific gravity
of the solution, corrected, if necessary, for temperature
(Table II). If the hydrometer is correct (of course a
correct polariscope is premised), the result of the multi-
plication of the polarization by the factor must be 100.
Example. —
Specific gravity of solution corrected
for temperature, 1.096
Factor, 1.042
Polarization, 96.0
96.0 X 1.042 = 100.0.
Graduation of Flasks — Two methods are used. The
first, the scientifically correct one, is to graduate in true
cubic centimetres. A true cubic centimetre represents
the space occupied by 1 gramme of water weighed in
vacuo at a temperature of 4° C.
The second method, known as Mohr's, omits the
reduction to volume at 4° C. and to weight in vacuo.
METHOD I. — To graduate a flask at any given tem-
perature, ascertain from Table XVII the weight of 1
cubic centimetre of water at that temperature. Then
correct for weighing in air, that is to say, reduce the
weighing in air to weighing in vacuo by assuming each
gramme of water weighed in air to be 1 milligramme too
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 19
light. * Tare the flask accurately, place tlie correct
weights on one scale-pan, and weigh the corresponding
weight of water into the flask.
Example. — To graduate a flask to hold exactly 100
cubic centimetres at 15° C. Table XVII shows that 1
cubic centimetre of water at 15° C. weighs 0.99916
grammes.
Hence 100 X 0.99916 = 99.916 grammes.
As the weighing is to be made in air, to reduce to
weighing in vacuo,
99.916 X 0.001 = 0.099916
must be subtracted from the former figure :
99.916000
0.099916
99.816084
Therefore 99.8161 grammes of water at the tempera-
ture of 15° C. must be weighed into the flask.
METHOD II. — The required number of grammes of
water (at the temperature chosen) corresponding to the
desired volume in cubic centimetres are weighed into the
ilask, and the resulting volume marked on the flask.
These " cubic centimetres" are of course larger than the
true cubic centimetres.
Example. — To graduate a flask to hold 50 cubic centi-
metres at 15° C., 50 grammes of water at 15° C. are
weighed into the flask, and the volume occupied is
marked as 50 c.c.
Verification of Graduated Glass Vessels, in true Cubic
Centimetres — Fill to the mark with distilled water of
* This presupposes the use of brass weights. If the weight of water
exceeds 100 grammes, 1.06 milligrammes instead of 1.00 milligram me must
be taken in above calculation.
20 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
the temperature at which the vessel was graduated, and
weigh.
Add to this weight 1 milligramme for each gramme
of water weighed.
The density of the water at the temperature of the
experiment is to be found in Table XVII.
If P — Corrected weight of the water,
Q = Density of water at temperature of the ex-
periment relative to water at 4° C.,
t = Temperature of the water in the experiment ;
then the volume in cubic centimetres contained in the
vessel at the temperature t° is
Example. — A flask holds 50.072 grammes of water
at 15° C.
The weight in vacuo will be 50.072
+ 0.050
50.122 grammes,
and the capacity at 15° C. will be
50.122
0.99916
— 50.16 cubic centimetres.
Thermometers. — The thermometers should be, if pos-
sible, compared with some standard instrument. This
applies especially to the thermometer which is to be
used to determine the temperature while ascertaining
the polarization of inverted sugar solutions. It will
answer to verify, on Centigrade thermometers intended
for ordinary use, the zero and the 100 mark ; on a Fah-
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 21
renheit instrument, the 32° and the 212° mark; and to
see that the degrees are of equal size.
The zero-mark on the Centigrade scale (32° Fahren-
heit) is ascertained by placing the bulb and part of the
stem in snow or pounded ice for about a quarter of an
hour. The vessel in which the snow or ice is placed
should be provided with a small opening at the bottom,
through which the water is drained off as it is formed.
To obtain the 100° C. (212° F.) mark, the thermo-
meter is suspended in the vapor of boiling water, care
being taken that it does not dip into the water. The
pressure of the atmosphere should be 760 mm. at the
time ; if not, a correction for the variation must be made.
The reading of one scale can be translated into that
of the other by the following formulae :
F= 0+ 32
5
For a comparison of the different thermometric scales
see Table XVIII.
Balances. — For weighing out samples for polariza-
tion, a balance capable of weighing up to 300 grammes
and sensible to 1 milligramme will answer. For water
and ash determinations an analytical balance should be
used ; this should be sensible to 0.1 of a milligramme,
and be capable of bearing a charge up to 200 grammes.
A good balance* should give the same result in suc-
cessive weighings of the same body ; the two halves of
* See Deschanel-Everett : Natural Philosophy.
22 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
the beam should be of equal length ; it should be sensible
to a small load, and it should work quickly.
It is an easy matter to determine whether a balance
possesses these properties. Repeated weighings of the
same load will quickly establish whether the balance is
consistent with itself; this depends principally on the
trueness of its knife-edges.
To determine whether both halves of the beam are
of the same length, the two pans should be loaded with
equal weights. If the arms are of unequal length, the
pan attached to the longer arm will descend.
To test the sensibility, load both pans with the maxi-
mum weight which they are intended to bear, and then
add to one of the pans the weight to the extent of which
the balance is supposed to be sensible. The addition of
this slight extra weight should cause the pan on which
it has been placed, to descend.
Weights — The weights used, both the regular weights
for analytical purposes, and the so-called sugar- weights
(normal and half normal), should be verified from time
to time, as they will in daily use unavoidably suffer
some wear and tear. Most of the weights are so made
that the plug or stopper unscrews from the body of the
weight, and slight deficiencies in weight can readily be
corrected by inserting tin-foil or small shot into the
cavity after removing the plug.
Should the weights be too heavy, a little filing will
readily remedy the evil.
CHAPTER II.
SAMPLING— DETERMINATION OF : COLOR— DENSITY— ALKA-
LINITY—ACIDITY— SULPHUROUS OXIDE.
Sampling Sugars and Molasses. — Too much impor-
tance cannot be attached to the securing of correct sam-
ples, that is to say, to the obtainment of samples which
shall be representative of the substance examined.
The samples of raw sugar are drawn with a long steel
bar resembling the half of a pipe cut longitudinally.
A hole having been made in the package, the " tryer,"
as it is called, is inserted, rotated completely, and then
withdrawn. The sample which fills the hollow in the
tryer is removed and is placed in a can.
When syrups or molasses are to be sampled, a rod or a
stick is inserted in the bung-hole of the barrel and rapidly
withdrawn ; the adhering liquid is placed in a can, and
the operation repeated until sufficient has been obtained.
When sugars in hogsheads are sampled, the hogs-
head is placed on its side. The manner of inserting the
tryer differs. The Government takes its sample by run-
ning straight through the contents from centre to centre
of the heads ; at some refineries the tryer is run through
diagonally from head to head.
Melados are sampled through the bunghole of the
hogshead.
In a refinery, 100 per cent of all sugars, syrups, and
molasses are sampled.
24 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
The U. S. Government varies its requirements as to
the number of packages to be sampled, with tie nature
of the package :
Of hogsheads, tierces, boxes, and barrels, 25 per cent
are required for sample and 100 per cent for a resample ;
of centrifugals and of beet-sugars, in bags, 5 per cent for
sample and 5 per cent for resample ; of mats, 2^ per
cent for sample and 2^- per cent for resample ; of baskets,
10 per cent for sample and 10 per cent for resample; of
"Jaggeries," Pernambuco, and Brazil sugars, 5 per cent
for sample and 5 per cent for resample.
When the samples have been taken and are brought
to the laboratory for analysis, it is necessary, either to
make a separate analysis of every mark in a lot, or, as this
is generally not feasible, to prepare a representative sam-
ple.
In order to do this, fix upon some definite quantity by
weight as the unit weight. Weigh out this amount, pro-
portionate to the number of hogsheads in each mark, and
place in a well-closed jar.
For example, suppose a lot of sugar contained four
marks, A, B, C, and D.
Mark A = 1000 hogsheads,
" B = 200
" C = 350
" D = 70 "
Then take from :
A = 100 grammes
B = 20 "
C = 35
D= 7
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 25
For analysis, if necessary, crush the sample, thoroughly
mix the contents of the jar, and then proceed as usual.
As some lots come in mixed packages, that is to say,
partially in hogsheads, bags, tierces, and barrels, a certain
relation between these has been assumed ; it is as fol-
lows :
1 hogshead = 2 tierces.
" =8 barrels.
= 8 bags.
To prepare average samples of refined sugars, proceed
in a similar manner, as directed above.
Determination of Color of Sugar and Sugar Solu-
tions.— The color-tests made on sugars and on sugar
solutions are generally only comparative, that is to say,
the color of the sample examined is compared with that
of some other sample which is taken as the standard.
In the examination for color of raw sugar, the so-called
" Dutch standards" are usually employed. These consist
in fifteen samples of raw sugar, numbered from No. 6 to
No. 20, and ranging in color from a dark-brown (No. 6)
to almost a white (No. 20). They are prepared and
sealed with great care by a certain firm in Holland. The
samples are renewed every year, and serve as standards
for the twelve months following their issue.
In examining the color of sugar solutions, to learn,
for instance, how effectively a certain sugar has been
decolorized in passing through bone-black, two test-tubes,
beakers, or cylinders made of white glass, are filled to an
equal height with, respectively, the sample under exami-
nation and the " standard " solution with which the sam-
26 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
pie is to be compared, both solutions of course being of
equal density.
Various forms of apparatus have been designed for
effecting color comparison. In some, the " standard " solu-
tion is replaced by colored-glass disks of tints ranging
from a pure white to a dark yellow or brown ; by com-
bination of these it is possible to produce almost any
shade desired.
The colorimeter probably most used is that of Stammer.
As the depth of color of a solution is proportional to the
length of a column of such solution, there is ascertained
in this instrument the height of a column of the solution
which will in color correspond to the tint of a " standard "
colored-glass disk inserted in an adjoining tube. The
scale is graduated in millimetres. If, for instance, a depth
of one millimetre of the solution corresponds to the nor-
mal tint, the color is said to be 100. If two millimetres
depth of solution are required to match the tint, the color
is 50 ; if four millimetres, 25 ; and so on.
Determination of the Density of Solutions. — By the
Specific-gravity Flask. — The most accurate way to de-
termine the density (specific gravity) of a solution is by
means of a specific-gravity flask (pyknometer) and a
delicate balance, as already described on page 15. The
weight of the flask, empty and dry, having been ascer-
tained, and the weight of distilled water which it will
hold at 4° C. or at the temperature at which it was
graduated being known, once for all, it is only necessary
to fill the clean and dry flask exactly up to the mark
with the solution whose specific gravity is to be deter-
mined. If the solution has not been brought to the tem:
perature at which the flask was graduated, before the flask
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 27
is filled with it, this must certainly be done before the
weighing is made, in order that the weight of equal vol-
umes of the water and the solution may be obtained.
The flask filled with the solution is weighed, the
weight of the flask subtracted from this figure, and
the remainder divided by the weight of the correspond-
ing volume of water. The result is the specific gravity
of the solution.
By Pipette and Beaker. — An adaptation of the method
just described, and which is convenient for rapid work-
ing, is the following :
A pipette capable of holding a certain volume, say
10 or 20 c.c., is placed in a glass beaker; both pipette
and beaker of course must be perfectly clean and dry.
The combined weight of the two is taken and noted.
The pipette is then filled with distilled water at the
temperature which is to be made the normal temperature,
— preferably 17°.5 C. The pipette is replaced in the
beaker, and the combined weight of the pipette, beaker,
and water is determined. The vessels having been again
cleaned and dried, the solution whose specific gravity is-
to be determined, is brought to the standard temperature,
and the pipette filled with it up to the mark. The
weight of pipette, beaker, and solution is then deter-
mined. The calculation to be made is exactly as before
explained, the combined weight of beaker and pipette
taking the place of the weight of the pyknometer in the
previous method.
By Hydrometers. — The hydrometer selected for mak-
ing the determination may be a specific-gravity hydrome-
ter or an instrument graduated according to an arbitrary
scale (Brix, Baume).
28 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Whenever a solution is to be tested, care must be taken
to have it as free of air-bubbles as possible. If the solu-
tion whose density is to be determined is a thick syrup or
a molasses, it had best be poured into a vessel provided
at the bottom with a stop-cock. This vessel may advan-
tageously be enclosed in a water-jacket. This can be
heated and the molasses thus readily warmed, which will
greatly hasten and facilitate the rising of the air-bubbles.
When they have all risen to the top, the liquid is drawn
off from below, without disturbing the frothy layer on
the surface.
The liquid is placed into a glass cylinder, which must
stand perfectly level, and the hydrometer is carefully and
slowly inserted. It must float free in the liquid, that is,
it must not be permitted to touch the sides of the cylinder.
When the hydrometer has come to rest, the point up to
which it is immersed in the solution is read and recorded
The temperature of the solution is determined, and i
not of the standard temperature, a correction therefoi
must be made. (See Table II or III).
The readings of the specific-gravity, the Brix, and
the Baume hydrometers can each readily be translated
into the terms of the others by Table I.
By Glass Spheres. — For approximate density deter-
mination small glass balls of different weights are some-
times used. A number engraved or etched on each, desig-
nates the density of a liquid in which it will float.
Beginning; with the heavier, the balls are succes-
o o
si vely thrown into the solution whose density is to be de-
termined, until a ball is found which will float in the
liquid tested. The number engraved on this ball indicates
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 29
the density of the solution. Of course regard must here
also be had to the temperature of the liquid.
By Mollys Hydrostatic Balance. — From one end of
the beam of this balance a glass bob, preferably one pro-
vided with an accurate thermometer, is suspended by a
fine platinum wire. The other end of the beam is pro-
vided with a counterpoise to the bob ; this counterpoise
terminates in a fine metal point, and serves as the tongue
of the balance. It shows the beam to be in equilibrium
when the same remains at rest in a horizontal position
directly opposite to a fixed metal point.
The balance, when correctly adjusted, is in perfect equi-
librium when the glass bob hangs freely suspended in air.
That parfc of the beam between the fulcrum and the
end from which the bob is pendant, is provided with nine
graduations, numbered from one to nine. Accompanying
the balance are five weights or riders. The largest two
are each equal to that weight of distilled water (at a cer-
tain temperature, usually 15° C. or 17°.5 C.), which the
glass bob displaces when it is immersed. The other
three riders weigh respectively one tenth, one hundredth,
and one thousandth as much as the large rider.
When the bob is immersed in water, one of the large
riders must be placed at that end of the beam from which
the bob is suspended. This will restore the equilibrium,
and the balance then indicates the specific gravity 1.000.
If the bob is immersed in a liquid heavier than
water, this liquid having been brought to the temperature
for which the balance was graduated, some of the other
riders also must be placed on the beam in order to restore
the equilibrium. The position of these riders indicates
the specific gravity of the solution, each rider according
30 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
to its weight, representing respectively as many tenths,
hundredths, or thousandths as is expressed by the num-
bered division on the beam where it is placed.
Determination of Alkalinity. — The alkalinity of the
different products of a refinery may be caused by potas-
sium, by sodium, by lime, or even partially by free am-
monia. It has, however, become customary to report the
alkalinity in terms of calcium oxide (caustic lime).
Alkalinity is determined by the addition of an acid
of known strength to a known weight or volume of the
product examined, until neutrality has been established.
The acid used may be either sulphuric, nitric, or hy-
drochloric acid, the first of these being the one most com-
monly employed. As indicator, litmus solution, phenol-
phthalein, or rosolic acid (corallin) is available.
Litmus turns red with free acid, while phenol-phthal-
^in is colorless, and rosolic acid* is colorless or shows a
pale yellow color with free acid. The indications afforded
by these agents are said to be not identical, and any set of
comparative determinations therefore should be carried out
with the same indicator, whichever of these may be
selected.
The acid used is generally of " tenth-normal " strength.
To prepare this there are needed of :
Sulphuric oxide 4.00 grammes SO3 in 1 litre of water.
Hydrochloric acid 3.637 " HC1 " " " "
Nitric acid 6.289 « HNO3 " " « "
The acid should be delivered from a burette divided
into tenths of a cubic centimetre.
To effect an alkalinity determination, 10 to 20
* Use alcohol for dissolving. Of phenol-phthalein, 1 part in 500 parts
of alcohol; of rosolic acid, use 1 part in 100 parts of alcohol of 90$.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 31
grammes of the product to be tested are weighed out and
dissolved, or, if a solution is to be examined, from 10 to
20 cubic centimetres are measured out and placed in a
porcelain dish. A few drops of the indicator having been
added, the acid is allowed to flow in from a burette
until the change in color of the indicator shows the
reaction to be finished.
1 cubic centimetre of ^ (tenth normal) sulphuric acid
corresponds to 0.0040 gramme sulphuric oxide, 0.0028
gramme calcium oxide, or 0.0047 gramme potassium oxide.
The number of cubic centimetres of acid used, multi-
plied by 0.0028, show therefore the amount of calcium
oxide present.
Example. — 25 cubic centimetres of a sugar solution
(specific gravity 1.198) required 2.4 cubic centimetres
YQ sulphuric acid to effect neutralization. This repre-
sents 0.0028 X 2.4 = 0.00672 gramme calcium oxide.
25.0 : 0.00672 : : 100 : GO.
x= 0.02688 per cent calcium oxide. This is per-
centage by volume. If percentage by weight is required,
the above value must be divided by the specific gravity of
the solution, or if a specific-gravity determination and
this subsequent calculation are to be avoided, the solution
to be tested must be in the first place weighed out, and
not measured.
Determination of Acidity — To determine the acidity
of a solution, syrup, molasses, etc., the same course is fol-
lowed as above described, only of course the solution
added to effect neutralization is one of sodium hy-
drate (caustic soda), potassium hydrate (caustic potash),
or calcium hydrate (slaked lime), and the change of
32 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
color of the indicator, if litmus, must be from red to blue,
or if phenol-phthalein or rosolic acid are employed, from
colorless to a bright crimson. Of these solutions the cal-
cium hydrate is least desirable, as the carbonic acid of the
atmosphere readily precipitates in it calcium carbonate,
and so changes the strength of the solution. A ^ sodium-
hydrate solution contains 3.996 grammes NaOH in 1 litre
of water.
Test for Sulphurous Oxide in Sugar — Dissolve from
10 to 20 grammes of the sugar in about 25 cubic centi-
metres of distilled water. Pour into a flask, and add
about 5 grammes of chemically pure zinc (free from
sulphur), and 5 cubic centimetres of chemically pure hy-
drochloric acid. Suspend a paper moistened with acetate
of lead solution in the neck of the flask. If sulphur
dioxide is present, it will be liberated from its combina-
tions and changed into sulphuretted hydrogen, and this
gas will turn the acetate of lead on the paper a brown or
a black color, owing to the formation of sulphide of lead.
CHAPTER III.
SUCKOSE : IN THE ABSENCE OF OTHER OPTICALLY ACTIVE
SUBSTANCES.
Optical Analysis — METHOD I. With Halance. — Weigh
out 26.048 grammes of the sample.* Dissolve in 50 to
75 c.c. of water, and pour into a 100 c.c. flask. Add basic
acetate of lead solution, f the amount depending on the
nature of the sugar tested, and then add a few drops of
a solution of sodium sulphate to insure the precipitation
of any excess of the lead salt. $
Filter rapidly into a covered beaker to avoid concen-
tration of solution by evaporation ; rejecting the first few
drops entirely, fill the 200 mm. polarization-tube, and
take the reading. Several readings should be taken on
the same solution, and their mean recorded.
* The sample must previously have been well mixed; if the sugar, as is
frequently the case, contains lumps, the whole sample must be thoroughly
crushed before the mixing.
In cold weather sample-cans brought in from out-of-doors, should be
allowed to stand in the laboratory until their contents shall have approx-
imately attained the temperature of the room. This is done in order to-
avoid condensation of moisture on the cold sugar, as this would slightly
lower the polarization.
t Basic Acetate of Lead. — To 300 grammes acetate of lead and 100
grammes litharge (oxide of lead) add 1 litre of water. Allow to stand for
twelve hours in a warm place, with occasional stirring; then filter, and
preserve in a well-closed bottle.
The basic acetate of lead must show a strongly alkaline reaction, and
have a specific gravity ranging from 1.20 to 1.25 at a temperature of
17°.5 C.
| It is impossible to prescribe the quantity of the basic acetate of lead
solution to be used; always, however, employ the least amount that will
produce the desired effect, tor a voluminous precipitate causes an error in
polarization.
33
34 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
With very dark sugars and with syrups, the halt
normal weight, 13.024 grammes, is often taken, dissolved
up to 100 c.c., and the reading made in a 200 mm. tube;
or the normal weight is used, and the reading effected
in the 100 mm. tube.
. It must be remembered that the temperature exerts
an influence on the polarization reading. The colder the
solution the higher the reading; a variation in temper
ature of two degrees Centigrade,* is stated to cause a dif-
ference of one tenth of a degree on the polariscope.
Decolorization of dark solutions is effected by add-
ing to the solution some bone-black dust previously pre-
pared^ by use of the so-called Gawalowsky'sdecolorizer,
or by " blood carbon." Whichever of these is employed,
the least amount possible should be used.
For very dark sugars and molasses the use of sodium
sulphite (a 10 per cent solution) and basic acetate of
lead is recommended. J The sodium sulphite is first in-
troduced, about 2 c.c., and then the basic acetate of
lead solution is gradually added with constant shaking,
till no further precipitation occurs. If necessary, the
filtrate from this can be subjected to the action of sul-
phurous acid and bone-black.
Opalescence or a slight but persistent turbidity of the
solution to be polarized, can be overcome by the addition
of a little " alumina cream."§ Three to five cubic centi-
* Die Deutsche Zuckerindustrie, vol. xiv. p. 503.
t "Warm for several hours with hydrochloric acid to dissolve the phos-
phate and carbonate of lime; then wash with boiling water till all traces
of chlorine are removed ; dry at about 125° C., and keep in a well-closed jar.
t Allen : Commercial Organic Analysis, vol. i. p. 201.
§ Precipitate a solution of alum, not too concentrated, by ammonic
hydrate. Wash the precipitate until all the salts have been removed, and
the washings no longer tarn red litmus blue.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 35
metres are ample, if not more than the half -normal weight
has been used for making the solution. This reagent is of
little value as a decolorizer, but very efficient with high-
grade sugars that show the troublesome opalescence.
The sacchari meters now in universal use record the
amount of sucrose in per cent, provided the normal weight*
of the sample has been used, and the reading has been
effected in a 200 mm. tube; if a 100 mm. tube has been used,
the reading must be doubled ; or if the half -normal weight
has been taken, and the polarization has been effected in a
200 mm. tube, the reading must of course also be doubled.
If for any reason the normal or the half -normal weight
has not been taken, a simple calculation will serve to fig-
ure the percentage of sucrose in the sample. Suppose, for
instance, that 9.000 grammes had been weighed for po-
larization and that these were dissolved up to 50 c.c. A
polarization of this solution in a 200 mm. tube = 62.00.
As a rotation of one degree represents 0.13024 gramme
sucrose, there are contained in the sample 0.13024 X 62
— 8.07488 grammes pure sucrose.
Hence 9.00000 : 8.07488 : : 100 : x. x = 89.72.
Therefore the sample contains 89.72 per cent sucrose.
A more direct way of figuring this is by means of the
formula :
PxW'
—yy — = per cent sucrose.
P = polarization of the solution ;
W = normal or half -normal weight of the instrument
used ;
W = weight of substance taken for polarization.
* The normal weight for the German instruments is 26.048 grammes;
for the Duboscq polariscopes it is 16.192 grammes.
36 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
62.0 X 13.024
Example. -= 89.72.
y.u
Kesults so obtained can be verified by calculating the
amount of sugar which would be necessary in order to
indicate 100 degrees on the polariscope. This is known
as Scheibler's method of " One hundred polarization."
Example. — In the case just discussed, a polarization of
89.7 required 13.024 grammes of the sugar: how much
will be required to produce a rotation of 100 degrees on
the instrument ?
89.7 : 13.024 : : 100 : x. x = 14.5195.
Therefore 14.5195 grammes of this sample are polar-
ized in the usual manner, and if they indicate 100 per
cent, the result previously obtained, is correct.
Table VII, by Scheibler, obviates the necessity of
this calculation, showing at once the amount that must
be used.
METHOD II. Without Balance. — The percentage of
sucrose in a sample can also be obtained without mak-
ing a weighing. A solution is made and the specific
gravity of the solution is determined, either directly by a
specific-gravity hydrometer, or else by some other hydrome-
ter (Brix, Baume), the readings of which are translated
into the corresponding specific gravity (Table I).
The polarization of the solution is then made, and
the percentage of sucrose calculated by the formula :
0_ P X .2605
— ~ — /T — ?
in which S = percentage of sucrose,
P — polarization of the solution,
D — specific gravity.
If the solution needs clarifying, it is placed into a
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 37
graduated flask, the amount of basic acetate of lead solu-
tion that is added, is noted, and the reading increased in
proportion.
Example. — Specific gravity of solution, 1.0909 ;
Polarization of solution = 35.0.
To 100 c.c. of solution added 5 c.c. basic acetate of
lead solution ; this corresponds to 5 per cent of 35.0 =
1.75.
Hence corrected polarization = 36.75 per cent.
36.75 X .2605
= 8.77 per cent sucrose.
This calculation can be avoided by consulting Table
VI. This table is used in the following manner :
Example. — Corrected specific gravity = 1.0339 ;
Polarization =25.0.
In a line with the specific gravity 1.0339, and in the
horizontal column marked 2, is found the number .504
This multiplied by 10 = 5.040.
In a line with the specific gravity 1.0339, and in the
column marked 5, is found the number 1.260.
Adding these values, 5.040
1.260
Percentage of sucrose = 6.300
The simple polarization of a sugar, syrup, liquor,
magma, or sweet-water shows the percentage of sucrose
in the sample as it is. Sometimes, however, it is necessary
to know what this percentage would be if the water in
the sample were removed ; in other words, it may be de-
sirable to ascertain the percentage of sucrose in the " dry
substance."
38 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
The percentage of pure sugar in the " dry substance"
is referred to as :
>\ The Quotient of Purity, or Exponent. — There are
several ways of determining this. The most accurate
method undoubtedly, but also the one demanding most
time, is the following :
METHOD I. — Determine polarization of the normal
weight of the sample as previously described (p. 33). De-
termine the percentage of water by drying to constant
weight (see p. 76). Subtract the percentage of water from
100, .and divide the remainder into the polarization multi-
plied by 100.
Example. — Polarization of syrup, 33.00 ;
Water in syrup, per cent, 24.16.
100.00
24.16 3300 -T- 75.84 = 43.5
75.84
Polarization on dry substance = 43.5.
METHOD II. — Determine polarization of the normal
weight of the sample as previously described (p. 33). De-
termine the degree Brix of the sample. Correct for tem-
perature (Table III).
Calculate polarization on the dry substance by the
Pol. X 100
formula : =P— -^ . — .
Degree .Brix
Example. — Polarization, 40.00 ;
Density, 50° Brix at 24° C. ;
Correction for temperature, -j- 0.49
Degree Brix corrected for temperature,
= 50.49.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
39
100.00 -f- 50.49 = 1.9806, factor ;
40.00 X 1.9806 = 79.22, polarization on the dry sub-
stance, or coefficient of purity.
METHOD III. Ventzke's Method. — Prepare a solution
of the sugar which shall have the specific gravity 1.100
at 17°.5 C. Take the reading of this solution in a 200
mm. tube. This polariscope reading shows at once the
percentage of pure sugar in the dry substance. This
is the case, because a solution made by dissolving 26.048
grammes of chemically pure sugar in water up to 100
c.c. has the specific gravity of 1.1000 at the temperature of
17°.5 C., and a column of this solution 200 mm. in length,
indicates 100 per cent in the German polariscopes.
The following table prepared by Gerlach* shows the
specific gravity of the above solution at the temperatures
given :
Temper-
ature.
°C.
Specific
Gravity.
Temper-
ature.
0 C.
Specific
Gravity.
Temper-
ature.
°C.
Specific
Gravity.
0
.10324
I6.5
. IOO28
23
1.09834
5
. 10266
17
.10014
24
1.09802
10
.10192
17.5
. IOOOO
25
1.09770
ii
.10168
18
.09986
26
1.09736
12
.10144
18.5
.09972
27
1.09702
13
.10119
19
•09957
28
I . 09669
14
.10095
19-5
.09943
29
1.09635
15
.I007J
20
.09929
30
1.09601
15-5
.10057
21
.09897
16
. 10043
22
.09865
As the preparation of a solution wrhich is to have
* Jahresbericht liber die Untersuchungen und Fortschritte auf dem
Gesammtgebiete der Zuckerfabrikation, 1863, p. 234.
40 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
a certain specific gravity at a certain temperature is apt
to prove a tedious operation, the following modification
of Ventzke's method will prove serviceable :
If the temperature at which the solution is prepared
is not the normal temperature, a correction must be made
(Table. II).
This correction must be subtracted from the reading
of the specific-gravity hydrometer if the temperature is
lower than the normal,1 and added, if it is above the nor-
mal temperature.
The polarization obtained in the 200 mm. tube must
then be multiplied by the factor corresponding to the
corrected specific gravity (Table IV).
METHOD IV. Gasam&for's Method. — Determine the
specific gravity or the degree Brix of the solution. Cor-
rect for temperature if necessary (Table III). Determine
the polarization of this solution and multiply the polariza-
tion by the factor corresponding to the degree Brix
(Table V).
Example. — Polarization of solution — 61.2 ;
Brix, = 15°.5 at 22° C.;
Correction for temperature, +0.31
Corrected degree Brix = 15.81 ;
Factor corresponding to 15°.8 Brix is 1.548
61.2 X 1.548 = 94.74, which is the polarization on
the dry substance, the coefficient of purity.
The quotient of purity obtained by Method I (where
the percentage of water is obtained by actual drying out),
is called the " true " quotient of purity ; if hydrometers
are resorted to, as in Methods II, III, and IV, the resulting
coefficient is called the " apparent " quotient of purity.
If a syrup or a molasses has been analyzed, the re-
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 41
suits of the analysis can easily be calculated into equiva-
lents on the dry substance in the following manner:
The reciprocal of the degree Brix (that is, the quo-
tient obtained by dividing 1 00 by the degree Brix), gives
a factor by which the percentage of sugar, invert sugar,
and ash must be multiplied in order to reduce them to
the basis of dry substance.
Example. — A syrup of 80°.4 Brix shows on analysis :
Polarization, 31.2 ;
Invert sugar, 12.5 ;
Ash, 6.0.
100 •*- 80.4 = 1.2437.
On Dry Substance.
Hence : Polarization, 31.2 X 1.2437 = 38.80 per cent.
Invert-sugar, 12.5 X 1.2437 = 15.55 "
Ash, 6.0 X 1.2437 = 7.46
Non-ascertained (by difference) = 38.19 "
100.00 per cent.
If sucrose has to be determined in a molasses, a syrup,
or in sweet- water, the calculation of the result to dry sub-
stance can be avoided by aid of Table VIII.
This table has been calculated for use with the Ger-
man polariscopes (normal weight 26.048 grammes). It
presupposes the addition of 10 per cent by volume of
basic acetate of lead to the sucrose solution examined, and
in its preparation the variable specific rotatory power of
sucrose has also been taken into account.
The use of the table is very simple.
Example. — Density of a sugar solution, 22°.0 Brix.
Polarization (after using 10 per cent by volume of basic
acetate of lead solution for clarifying), 60.3.
In column headed 22°.0 Brix, and opposite to the
42 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
number 60 in the column headed " Polariscope degrees,"
we find 15.72 per cent sucrose. Then turning on the
same page to the division for tenths of a degree, in the
section headed " Per cent Brixfrom 11.5 to 22.5.," there is
given opposite to 0.3 Brix the value 0.08 per cent sucrose.
Hence 60°.0 = 15.72 per cent.
0°.3 = 0.08 "
60°. 3 = 15.80 per cent sucrose.
Gravimetric Analysis. — Weigh out 13.024 grammes
of the sample. Dissolve with about 75 c.c. of water in a
100 c.c. flask. Add 5 c.c. hydrochloric acid containing 38
per cent HC1 (sp. gr. 1.188). Heat quickly, in two or
three minutes, on a water-bath up to between 67° and 70° d
Then keep at this temperature (as close to 69° C. as pos-
sible) for five minutes, with constant agitation. Cool
quickly; make up to 100 c.c. Remove 50 c.c. by a pipette,
place in a litre flask, and fill up to 1000 c.c. Of this so-
lution take 25 c.c. (corresponding to 0.1628 gramme of
sample), neutralize all free acid present by about 25 c.c,
of a solution of sodium carbonate prepared by dissolving
1.7 grammes crystallized sodium carbonate in 1000 c.c. of
water. Then add 50 c.c. of Fehling's solution, heat to
boiling as directed in invert-sugar determination, boil for
three minutes, and proceed as directed on page 69.
Calculation. — In Table XI seek the number of milli-
grammes of copper which agree most closely with the
amount of copper found. The corresponding number in
the column to the left, shows at once the number of
milligrammes of sucrose.
Example. — 25 c.c. of the inverted solution '= 0.1628
granune of sample, yielded 0.1628 gramme copper.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 43
This corresponds to 0.082 gramme sucrose ; hence there
are present in the sample 50.4 per cent sucrose.
As invert-sugar, dextrose, and even raffinose (after
inversion by acid), reduce Fehling's solution, a correction
of the results yielded by this method must be made,
whenever appreciable quantities of the substances named
are present.
If the sample analyzed contains invert-sugar, the
amount of this substance multiplied by 0.95 must be sub-
tracted from the " Total sucrose " found, in order to ob-
tain the actual amount of sucrose present. This factor
0.95 is used, because sucrose on inversion yields invert-
sugar in the proportion of 95 : 100.
CHAPTER IV.
SUCROSE: IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHER OPTICALLY ACTIVE
SUBSTANCES.
THE determination of sucrose can be effected by means
of the polariscope, as described in the previous chapter,
provided no other optically active bodies are present.
Such substances, however, occur frequently ; they may
be dextro- or Isevo-rotatory. If the presence of such sub-
stances is suspected, it will be necessary to perform an
inversion by acid, and determine the polarization of the
inverted solution.
If no other optically active substances are present
besides the sucrose, the polarization before and after in-
version will be equal.
If the polarization after inversion is higher than the
polarization before inversion, Isevo-rotatory bodies are
present ; if the polarization after inversion is lower than
the polarization before inversion, dextro-rotatory sub-
stances are indicated.
In the former case invert-sugar, laevulose, etc., must be
considered ; in the latter, dextrose, raffinose, etc., will have
to be looked for.
Clerget's Inversion Method. — Weigh out 26.048
grammes of the sample, and determine the polarization.
Of the filtrate, take 50 c.c. for inversion, or weigh out sep-
arately 13.024 grammes of the sample.* Dissolve with
about 75 c.c. of water in a 100 c.c. flask ; add, while agi-
* Herzfeld's modification. Zeitschrift des Vereines fur Rubenzucker-
Industrie, 1888, p. 709.
44
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 45
tating the solution, 5 c.c. hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.188),
containing 38 per cent HC1. Heat quickly, in two or
three minutes, on a water-bath up to between 67° and
70° C. Then keep the temperature of the solution for
five minutes as close to 69° C. as possible. Agitate con-
stantly. Then cool quickly, fill with distilled water up to
the 100 c.c. mark, and polarize in a tube provided with
an accurate thermometer.* The temperature at which
the reading is taken should be 20° C.
For dark solutions, molasses, etc., take 26.048 grammes
of the sample, dissolve, add basic acetate of lead and
sodium sjripttate, and fill up to 100 c.c. Filter. Of the
filtrate remove 50 c.c. with a pipette, place in a 100 c.c.
flask, add 25 c.c. of water, and 5 c.c. of hydrochloric acid
containing 38 per cent HC1, and proceed as directed above.
The result is calculated by means of the formula :
z 142.66 - #
H = sucrose ; S — sum of the two polarizations before
and after inversion, the minus sign being neglected ; t =
temperature in degrees Centigrade at which the polariza-
tion after inversion is observed.
Example, — Polarization of normal weight before in-
version, 87.5 ;
Polarization of half-normal weight after
inversion, — 14.3 at 20° C.
- 14.3 x 2 87.5 100 X 116.1
- 28^T~ 28.6 M ~- 142.66 - 10
116.1
11610 =
R "132.66 87'5
* Thermometers constructed expressly for this purpose, and on which the
degrees are divided into tenths, are made by C. Haack in Jena. Germany.
46 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
It is best to carry out the determination at 20° C. if
possible. If, however, the determination is made at any
other temperature from 10° C. to 30° C., Table X gives a
series of factors by which it is necessary to multiply
the difference of the indications, before and after inver-
sion. Of course the factor corresponding to the temper-
ature at which the reading of the inverted solution was
made, must be used.
Example. — Direct polarization, 86.0 ;
Polarization after inversion, — 25.0, at a
temperature of 22° C.
86.0 + 25.0 = 111.0.
Referring to Table X, opposite to 22° C. there will be
found the factor 0.7595. Multiplying 111 X .7595 = 84.3;
this is the desired result.
If any other weight than 13.024 grammes is used for
1 00 ^f
the determination, the formula It — ., .. ... - — does not
2. bo — t
give quite correct results, because the specific rotatory
power of an invert-sugar solution varies also with the de-
gree of concentration of the solution.
Sucrose in the Presence of Raffinose.* — Prepare
26.048 grms. of the sample for polarization, as directed p.
33, and polarize. Of the polarized solution (from which
all lead should first have been removed) take 50 c.c.
Place in a 100 c.c. flask ; add 5 c.c. concentrated hydro-
chloric acid (38.8 per cent HG1) and about 20 c.c. of dis-
tilled water. Heat on a water-bath up to between 67°
* Method prescribed by the German Government to regulate the duty
on sugar, July 9, 1887. Several methods and numerous modifications
have been proposed to effect the determination of raffinose. For the bene-
fit of those desiring more information on the subject, a list of references
is given on the opposite page.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
47
and 68° C. This should take about five minutes. When
this temperature has been reached, it should be maintained
for five minutes more. The solution is then quickly cooled
to 20° C., made up to the 100 c.c. mark, and polarized at
exactly 20° C. in a tube provided with a very sensitive
and accurate thermometer. This tube should be enclosed
in another tube or should be placed in a trough which
is filled with water, so that the temperature of 20° C.
may obtain throughout the observation.
Author.
Publication.
Year.
Volume.
Page.
Pellet and Biard.
Journal des fabr. de sucre.
1885
Von Lippmann.
Deutsche Zuckerindustrie.
1885
X.
310
Tollens.
Zeitschrift d. V. f. Riiben-
1886
XXXVI.
236
zucker-Ind.
Scheibler.
Neue Zeitschrift f. Riiben-
1886
XVII.
233
zucker-Ind.
Creydt.
Zeitschrift d. V. f. Riiben-
1887
XXXVII.
153
zucker-Ind.
Creydt.
Zeitschrift d. V. f. Ruben-
1888
XXXVIII.
979
zucker-Ind.
Directions of the Ger-
Neue Zeitschrift f. Riiben-
1888
XXI.
132
man Government.
zucker-Ind.
Gunning.
Neue Zeitschrift f. Rtlben-
1888
XXI.
335
zucker-Ind.
Lotman.
Chemiker Zeitung.
1888
XII.
391
Breyer.
« «
1889
XIII.
559
Schulz.
Zeitschrift d. V. f. Riiben-
1889
XXXIX.
673
zucker-Ind.
Wortman.
Zeitschrift d. V. f. Riiben-
1889
XXXIX.
767
zucker-Ind.
Lindet.
The Sugar Cane.
1889
XXI.
542
Herzfeld.
Zeitschrift d. V. f. Rttben-
1890
XL.
165
zucker-Ind.
Courtonne.
Journal des fabr. de sucre.
1890
XXXI.
48 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
The sucrose and raffinose are calculated by the
formulae :*
„ (0.5188XP)-/.
A QA K. >
0.845
JR = raffinose ;
P = polarization of normal weight (26.048 grins.)
before inversion ;
/= polarization of normal weight (26.048 grms.)
after inversion.
Example. — Polarization before inversion, 93.8
Polarization after inversion,— 12.7
93.8 x 0.5188 = + 48.66344
- 12.7 x 2 = -- 25.40000
+ 74.06344
74.06344 -r- 0.845 = 87.6. S = 87.6 per cent.
93.8
- 87.6
Jx2 -r- 1.85 = 3.35. R = 3.35 per cent.
If the observation of the inverted raffinose solution
has not been made at 20° C. a correction of 0.0038° for
each degree Centigrade above or below 20° C. must be
* Tollens and Herzfeld prefer to calculate these values by the formulae:
0 (0.5124 xP)-/ P—S
S = ~ -0839
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 49
introduced. This correction is effected by the formula :*
Polarization j ( Polarization }
after inversion V = -J after inversion } + 0.0038 8(20— t\
at 20° C. ) ( at t° C. )
in which .£> represents the sum of the polarizations before
and after inversion.
Example. — Suppose a solution of sucrose and raffinose
polarized :
before inversion, 105°.0 ;
After inversion, — 22°.0 at a temperature
of 18°.2 C.
Then the polarization after inversion at 20° C. will
be equal to :
- 22.0 + 0.0038(105.0 + 22.0) (20.- 18.2)
- 22.0 + 0.0038(+ 127.0)(+ 1.8)
- 22.0 + 0.86868
= - 21.13.
Sucrose in Presence of Dextrose (Glucose). Qualita-
tive Tests. — A number of tests have been proposed
for the qualitative examination of a sugar for dex-
trose. Among these the following are possibly the
most serviceable : f Thoroughly dry the sample to be
examined. Prepare a solution of niethylic alcohol satu-
rated with dextrose. J Pour some of this solution on the
dried sample, and stir for about two minutes. Allow the
residue to settle, and pour off the clear solution. Repeat
this treatment. If any dextrose is present, some chalky-
* Zeitschrift des Vereines fiir Rubenzucker-Industrie, vol xl. p. 201.
t Casamajor, Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. ii. p. 428,
and vol. iii. p. 87.
t 100 c.c. methylic alcohol, showing 50° by Gay-Lassac's alcoholometer,
dissolve 57 grammes of dry glucose. The specific gravity of the solution
is 1.25.
50 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
white particles and a fine deposit will remain, for dextrose
is practically insoluble in the solution employed, while
the sucrose will go into solution.
The test is best made in a beaker with a flat bottom
or on a pane of glass..
If a syrup is to be examined for the presence of dex-
trose, provided the dextrose has been added in suffi-
ciently large quantity, and the syrup has the usual den-
sity of about 40° Baume, the following test may be
applied: The direct polarization of the syrup should
show a percentage of sugar not higher than the number
of Baume degrees which indicate the density. If, for
instance, a syrup of 40° Baume should show a direct
polarization of 55.0, some dextro-rotatory substance, most
probably dextrose, must have been added to this syrup, as
an unadulterated product of this description would be a
mixture of crystals and syrup, and could not be a clear
syrup.
The polariscope may also be resorted to for detecting
the presence of dextrose.
The manner of procedure is simple :
The solution is prepared as usual for the polariscope ;
then, immediately after preparing it, a reading is taken ;
the solution is allowed to remain in the tube for some
time, and repeated readings are taken at certain inter-
vals. If dextrose is present, the successive readings will
become lower and lower, for dextrose is bi-rotatory.
Readings on the solution are continued until the rotatory
power has become stationary ; it may take up to fifteen
hours before this is attained.
When this point has been reached, treatment with
hydrochloric acid (attempted inversion), will produce no
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 51
effect on the dextrose, the dextro-rotatory power of this
substance remaining unchanged.
Quantitative Methods. — The quantitative methods for
the determination of dextrose in the presence of sucrose
are based either on optical analysis, on gravimetric analy-
sis, or on a combination of both.
Among the methods of the first type, that of hot
polarization, due to Drs. Chandler and Ricketts, is prob-
ably the best.*
This method depends upon the following well-known
facts :
1. Dextrose, under the conditions of analysis, exerts a
constant effect upon the plane of polarized light at all
temperatures under 100° C.
2. Lcevulose. The action of Isevulose is not constant,
the amount of rotation to the left being diminished as
the temperature is increased.f
3. Invert-sugar, being a mixture of one half dextrose
and one half laevulose, does not affect the plane of polar-
ized light at a certain temperature, somewhere near 90*
C.J (for it can easily be seen that the constant dextro-
rotatory power of dextrose must be neutralized by the
varying laevo-rotatory power of laevulose at some such
temperature. The exact temperature is determined by
experiment).
4. Cane-sugar, when acted on by dilute acids, is con-
verted into invert-sugar, while dextrose remains practi-
cally unaltered.
* Abstracted from a report made by A. L. Colby to the Chairman of
the Sanitary Committee in the Second Annual Report of the State Board
of Health of New York, 1882.
t Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. v. p. 464.
| Ibid. p. 465.
/^
OF TRE
UNIVERSITY
52 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Hence, if a "mixed sugar" is heated with dilute
acids, the cane-sugar present is converted into invert-
sugar, which, with that originally present (due to the
process of manufacture), is optically inactive at a certain
temperature (near 90° C.) ; while the artificial dextrose,
preserving its specific rotatory effect, w7ill at this temper-
ature show a deviation to the right in proportion to the
amount present.
It is only necessary, therefore, to secure some means
of heating the observation-tube of the ordinary polari-
scope, so that readings may be taken at any temperature
under 100° C. The middle portion of a Soleil-Ventzke
saccharinieter, ordinarily intended for the observation-
tube alone, is so modified as to admit of the interposition
of a metallic water-bath, provided at the ends with metal
caps, which contain circular pieces of clear plate-glass.
The tube for holding the sugar solution to be polarized,
is made of platinum, and provided with a tubule for
the insertion of a thermometer into the sugar solution.
The metallic caps at the end of the tube rest on project-
ing shelves inside the water-bath, thus bringing the tube
into the centre of the bath, where it is completely sur-
rounded by water. The cover of the water-bath is
arranged for the insertion of a thermometer, so that the
temperatures of the water-bath and of the sugar solution
may both be ascertained. The water-bath is heated from
below by two to four small spirit-lamps or gas-burners.
The first step in using the instrument is to determine, by
experiment, the exact temperature of the sugar solution,
at which invert-sugar is optically inactive on polarized
light. This will vary slightly with different instruments.
For the particular instrument and thermometer used in
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 53
the investigations referred to, 86° C. was found, by re-
peated experiment, to be the temperature of the pure in-
verted sugar solution at which the reading was zero on
the sugar scale.
The next step taken was the determination of the
value of a degree of the scale in terms of the glucose
known to be the variety used to adulterate cane-sugar. It
was found that the rotation to the right at 86° C. was 41 °,
when using a solution containing in 100 c.c. fifteen grammes
of a sample containing 85.476 per cent chemically pure
glucose. Hence as fifteen grammes was the amount taken,
15 x ^HHp- -^ 41 X 100 = 31.2717 grammes, which repre-
sents the amount of chemically pure glucose necessary to
read one hundred divisions on the sugar scale of the in-
strument used; or, each division = 0. 312717 grammes chem-
ically pure glucose. (A duplicate determination made, by
using 26.048 grammes, gave as a factor 0.312488.)
The success of the process depends greatly upon the
care exercised in preparing the sugar solution for the
polariscope. The inversion and subsequent clarification
were accomplished as follows :
26.048 grammes of the sugar to be examined were com-
pletely dissolved in about 75 c.c. of cold water, and were
treated with 3 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 5 by
volume) on a water-bath at a temperature of about 70°
C. for thirty minutes. The solution thus inverted was
then rapidly cooled, nearly neutralized with sodium car-
bonate solution (saturated), transferred to a 100 c.c. flask,
and the gummy matters, etc., precipitated with 5 c.c. of a
solution of basic lead acetate.* The flask was then filled
* Prepared by boiling for thirty minutes 440 grammes neutral lead ace-
tate with 264 grammes litharge, in one and a half litres of water ; dilufr
ing when cool to two litres, and siphoning off the clear liquid.
54 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
to the mark, the solution transferred to a small beaker,
mixed with enough bone-black to clarify completely, and
then thrown on a fluted filter. The amount of bone*
black necessary to effect decolorization depends on the
grade of the sugar and on the color of the solution. It
was not found necessary to use, even with sugars of the
lowest-grade, more than five grammes.'55'
The clarified inverted sugar solution was then placed
in the platinum polarization-tube, the water-bath was tilled
with cold water, the thermometers were adjusted, and
the temperature gradually raised to 86° C. This part
of the operation should take about thirty minutes. If
the sample is unadulterated, the polariscope reading
would be zero at 86° C., while if starch-sugar is present
the amount of deviation to the right, in degrees and
fractions, multiplied by the proper factor and divided by
the amount taken, would give the per centage of chem-
ically pure glucose added as an adulterant.
Gravimetric Method. — The following method is based
on gravimetric determinations, and is independent of all
optical data. This will be recognized as an advantage
when the great influence is remembered that temperature-
fluctuations exert on the rotatory power of invert-sugar.
Unfortunately, however, the destruction of the Isevu-
lose by hydrochloric acid (Sieben's process), on which this,
whole scheme of analysis is based, is not always accom-
plished with the same certain ty,f and the results obtained
by this method must therefore be received with some
caution and reserve.
* The bone-black used was pulverized to pass through an 80-mesh sieve,
dried at 110° C. for three hours, and kept in a well-closed bottle.
t The Author: School of Mines Quarterly, 1890, vol. xi., and 1891,
vol. xii.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 55
The determinations to be made are :
1. Total sucrose. See p. 42.
2. Total reducing sugars. See p. 69.
3. Dextrose after destruction of the laevulose by Sie-
ben's treatment. See p. 59.
Determination No. 1 embraces :
a. Invert-sugar formed from the sucrose by inversion,
b. Invert-sugar existing as such.
c. Bodenbender's substance (regarded as invert-sugar).
d. Free dextrose (if present).
Determination No. 2 embraces :
a. Invert-sugar.
b. Bodenbender's substance (regarded as invert-sugar).
c. Free dextrose (if present).
Determination No. 3 embraces :
a. Dextrose from the inverted sucrose.
b. Dextrose from invert-sugar.
c. Dextrose from Bodenbender's substance (regarded
as in vert- sugar).
d. Free dextrose (if present).
No. 1 minus No. 2 gives the copper reduced by the
(inverted) sucrose. One half of this amount represents
the dextrose from this source, i.e., from the sucrose which
was turned into invert-sugar.
Subtracting this from No. 3 leaves the copper due to
the dextrose of the invert-sugar + the dextrose of Boden-
bender's substance (regarded as in vert- sugar) + free dex-
trose, if present. Call this amount x.
If there is no free dextrose present, but only invert-
sugar and Bodenbender's substance (regarded as invert-
sugar), then 2Xo? must be equal to the amount of cop-
per found in No. 2.
66 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
If there is no in vert- sugar, but only sucrose and dex-
trose, then x will be equal to No. 2.
If there is free dextrose present besides the invert-
sugar, then 2 x ® will be greater than No. 2, and the
amount of copper representing the free dextrose will be
found, as shown by example No. 3.
Example 1. — Present: sucrose and invert-sugar, but no
free dextrose.
Det. No. 1 yields 0.420 Cu
Det. No. 2 " 0.040 Cu
Det. No. 3 « 0.212 Cu
No. 1, 0.420
minus No. 2, 0.040
0.380 -f- 2 = 0.190 Cu due to dex-
trose from the inverted sucrose.
Det. No. 3, 0.212
less 0.190
0.022
This corresponds to the x above.
0.022 x 2 = 0.044
Det. No. 2 = 0.040
These two values agree within 0.004, and as the
limit of difference should be placed at 5 milligrammes of
copper, it must be inferred that this solution contained
no free dextrose.
Another way of calculating is as follows :
Det. No. 3, 0.212 Cu
Det. No. 1 = 0.420
less Det. No. 2 = 0.040
0.380-1-2 = 0.190 Cu
0.022 Cu
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 57
This is the copper due to the dextrose from the invert-
sugar, from Bodenbender's substance (regarded as invert-
sugar) and from free dextrose, if any is present.
This amount 0.022 must be equal to one half of No.
'2, if no free dextrose is present.
No. 2 = 0.040 -r- 2 = 0.020 ; hence there is a differ-
ence of only 0.002, and therefore there is no free dextrose.
Example 2. — Present: sucrose and dextrose^ but no
invert-sugar.
Del No. 1 yields 0.474 Cu
Det. No. 2 " " 0.286 Ou
Det. No. 3 « 0.382 Cu
Det. No. 1 - 0.474
less No. 2 •= 0.286
0.188 -*- 2 = 0.094 Cu
due to the dextrose of the inverted sucrose.
Det. No. 3 = 0.382
less 0.094
0.288
This value is not equal to one half of No. 2, but equal
to the whole of the copper found in No. 2 (in fact it
shows 2 milligrammes of Cu more) ; hence this solution
contained no invert-sugar, but only sucrose and dextrose.
Example 3. — Present : sucrose, dextrose, and invert-
sugar.
Det. No. 1, 0.500 Cu
Det. No. 2, 0.300 Cu
Det. No. 3, 0.275 Cu
Det. No. 1, 0.500
less No. 2, 0.300
0.200
58 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
.200 -r- 2 = .100 copper due to dextrose from the in-
verted sucrose.
No. 3, 0.275
less 0.100
0.175
.175 X 2 = 0.350
No. 2 is 0.300 ; hence, as this value 0.350 is greater
than No. 2, yet not twice as great, there must be present
invert-sugar and free dextrose. To calculate the amounts
respectively of the invert-sugar and of the dextrose, pro-
ceed as follows :
No. 2, 0.300 is Cu reduced by the invert-sugar, Bodenben-
der^s substance and dextrose ;
0.175 is Cu reduced by one half of the invert-sugar
and of Bodenbender's substance, and by the
whole of the dextrose ;
0.125 X 2 = 0.250 invert-sugar and Bodenbender's
substance ;
and 0.300 minus 0.250 = 0.050 is the Cu reduced by the
dextrose.
The 0.250 Cu reduced by the invert-sugar + Boden-
bender's substance (regarded as invert-sugar) is equal to
0.1347 invert-sugar.
The 0.050 Cu reduced by the dextrose is equal to
0.0259 dextrose. (Table XV).
The 0.200 rCu reduced by the invert-sugar produced
from the sucrose by inversion, corresponds to 0.1015 su-
crose; hence the sample contains:
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 59
Sucrose, milligrammes, 101.5
Invert-sugar (inclusive of Bodenbender's
substance), milligrammes, . . . . 134.7
Dextrose, milligrammes, 25.9
Knowing the amount of dry substance on which the
tests were performed, the calculation to percentage can
be readily effected.
Sieben's Process for Destruction of Lsevulose.— Take
100 c.c. of a solution made to contain 2.5 grammes on the
dry substance of invert-sugar, or of invert-sugar and laevu-
lose, place in a flask, add 60 c.c. of a hydrochloric-acid
solution which is six times the strength of a normal solu-
tion, and heat the flask for three hours while it is sus-
pended in boiling water. After this has been done, cool
immediately, neutralize with a sodium-hydrate solution
which is six times the strength of a normal solution,
make up to a volume of 250 c.c., and filter. Of the filtrate
use 25 c.c. for the determination of the dextrose ; this
is obtained as follows :
Take 30 c.c. copper-sulphate solution ; *
30 cc. Rochelle-salt solution ; f
60 c.c. water.
Heat to boiling. Add the 25 c.c. dextrose solution,
prepared as above, and keep boiling for two minutes.
Then proceed as with a gravimetric determination of
invert-sugar. (See p. 69). Table XV shows the amount
of dextrose corresponding to the weight of copper found.
* Prepared by dissolving 69.278 grammes C. P. sulphate of copper in dis-
tilled water, and making the solution up to 1 litre.
f Prepared by dissolving 173 grammes Rochelle salt, cryst. and 125
grammes potassium hydrate in distilled water, and making the volume up to
500 c.c.
60 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Determination of Sucrose, Dextrose, and Laevulose.
—Several methods have been suggested for the deter-
mination of sucrose, dextrose, and Isevulose in the pres-
ence of each other.
Some of these are combinations of optical and gravi-
metric methods ; as, for instance, those given by Tucker, *
Apjohn,f and Dupre. J The. first of these mentioned is
directed to the determination of dextrose and laevulose,
while the others ' refer also to the determination of
sucrose.
Winter § has published an outline of the separation
and determination of dextrose and Isevulose in the pres-
ence of sucrose; his method is based on the action of
ammoniacal acetate of lead. This reagent is prepared,
immediately before use, by adding ammonic hydrate to
basic acetate of lead solution, until the turbidity .formed
just continues to disappear.
To the solution to be • examined, add ammoniacal
acetate of lead until no further precipitate -is formed.
Then filter. The precipitate must be digested with large
quantities of water, and the washings must be added to
the filtrate. This filtrate contains the sucrose.
• The precipitate consists of the lead salts of dextrose
and Isevulose. It is suspended in water, carbonic-acid
gas is passed in, and the solution is then filtered.
The filtrate contains the dextrose. This is determined
by the polariscope and by its action on alkaline copper
solution.
* Tucker : Manual of Sugar Analysis, 2d Ed;, p. 208.
f Chemical News, vol. xxi. p. 86 ; Amer. Reprint, p. 230.
\ Loc. cit., p. 97 ; Amer. Reprint, p. 239.
§ Zeitschrift des Vereiues fur Riibenzucker-Industrie. 1888, p. 782.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 61
The precipitate consists of the carbonate and the bevu-
losate of lead. This is suspended in water, and sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas is passed in. The sulphide of lead
is removed by filtration. The filtrate is concentrated by
evaporation, and the Isevulose is determined by the polari-
scope and by its action on alkaline copper solution.
Gravimetric Method.— The gravimetric method de-
scribed on page 54 can also be adapted to the deter-
mination of sucrose, invert-sugar and dextrose, or kevu-
lose. The determinations to .be made are the same as
those there directed, namely, total sucrose, total reducing
sugars, and total dextrose after destruction of the laevu-
lose by Sieben's treatment.
The same reserve, however, as there noted, must be
exercised with reference to accepting the results ob-
tained, Any method by which the destruction of the
Isevulose could be effected completely and under all cir-
cumstances, and leave the -dextrose unattacked, would
make this, method a most valuable one.
The method of calculating the results is analogous to
the one before given, and consists of two steps :
Step I. is always the same, and merely establishes
whether the dextrose and the Igevulose are present in . the
proportion of 1 to 1, or whether either is in excess.
Step II. determines the amount of this excess, be it
of dextrose or of Isevulose.
Values determined :
No. 1. Copper reduced by total sucrose + total reducing
sugars.
No. 2. " " " total reducing sugars.*
No. 3. " " " dextrose (after Sieben's treat-
ment).
62 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
CALCULATION.
Step I.
No. 1 = Cu reduced by inverted sucrose and total
reducing sugars.
Less No. 2 = Cu reduced by total reducing sugars.
Difference = Cu reduced by inverted sucrose. Report
the corresponding value as sucrose.
This difference -=- 2 = Cu reduced by the
dextrose of the inverted sucrose. Call
this value x.
No. 3 = Cu reduced by the total dextrose (after Sie-
ben's treatment).
Less x = Cu reduced by the dextrose of the inverted
sucrose.
Difference = Cu reduced by the dextrose of the total re-
ducing sugars. Call this value y. Then,
y X 2 = 2y Cu reduced by invert-sugar + free dex-
trose, if any is present.
Compare this value, 2^, with No. 2 :
If 2y = No. 2, invert-sugar only is present. If so,
report as invert-sugar.
If 2y > No. 2, free dextrose is present.
If 2y < No. 2, free laevulose is present.
Step II.
When %y > Jfo. 2, free dextrose is present.
No. 2 = Cu reduced by the total reducing sugars.
Less y = Cu reduced by the dextrose from the total
reducing sugars.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 63
Difference = Cu reduced by the Isevulose of the total
reducing sugars. Call this value p.
p X 2 = 2p Cu reduced by invert-sugar. Report as
invert-sugar.
No. 2 = Cu reduced by the total reducing sugars,
less 2p = Cu reduced by invert-sugar.
Difference = Cu reduced by the free dextrose.
Step IL
When %y < No. 2, free Icevulose is present.
No. 2 = Cu reduced by the total reducing sugars.
Less 2y = Cu reduced by the invert-sugar. Report as
invert-sugar.
Difference = Cu reduced by the free laevulose.
In these calculations no attention has been paid to
the fact that the reducing-power of invert-sugar, dextrose,
and laevulose for copper solutions is not identical.
The reducing power of dextrose being considered as
100, that of invert-sugar is 96, and of laevulose 94.
CHAPTER V.
INVERT-SUGAR.
Qualitative Examination for Invert-Sugar. — TEST
WITH METHYL-BLUE. — Dissolve 1 gramme of methyl-blue
in 1 litre of water, and keep for use.
To execute this qualitative test for the presence of
invert-sugar, dissolve 20 grammes of the sugar in water,
add basic acetate of lead solution, make up to 100 cubic
centimetres, and filter. Make the filtrate slightly alkaline
with a 10 per cent solution of sodium carbonate, and fil-
ter again. Of this filtrate take 50 cubic centimetres,
representing about 10 grammes of the sugar tested,place in
a porcelain casserole, and add 2 drops of the methyl-blue
solution. Then place the casserole over a naked flame,
and note accurately when the solution begins to boil.
If the solution is decolorized by boiling, inside of one
half -minute, there is sufficient invert-sugar present to
permit of a quantitative determination. If it requires
from one-half to three minutes boiling to effect disap-
pearance of the blue color, traces of invert-sugar are to
be reported; and if decolorization does not take place
within three minutes, " no invert-sugar" is recorded.
If the normal weight has been dissolved up to 100
c.c., 20 c.c. of the solution, clarified by basic acetate of
lead, are made up to 50 c.c. The lead is removed by add-
ing five drops at a time of the sodium-carbonate solution,
64
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 65
and the addition of this reagent, in the same quantity, is
continued, until no more precipitation can be detected.
To 25 c.c. of the filtrate one drop of the methyl-blue
solution is added; about 10 c.c. of this solution are kept
actively boiling over a naked flame for one minute.
If, after thus boiling for one minute, the solution is
completely decolorized, it must have contained at least
0.01 per cent of invert-sugar. If it is not decolorized, it
contained no invert-sugar, or certainly less than 0.015
per cent.*
Quantitative Determination of Invert-Sugar. — Feh-
ling's solution (Soxhlet's formula) :
Sulphate of copper cryst., 34.639 grrns. in 500 c.c. of water.
Rochelle salts, . . . 173.0 grms. in 400 c.c. of water.
Sodic hydrate, . . . 50.0 grms. in 100 c.c. of water.
Keep the sulphate of copper solution in one flask, and
the Rochelle- salt-soda solution in another. Mix the two
immediately before use. It will be found very conven-
ient to have the solutions in flasks or jars provided with
a siphon-arraDgement, and to have the delivery-tube so
graduated that the required amount may be rapidly, yet
accurately measured out. The accompanying figure shows
an arrangement answering this purpose.
Fig. 5.
Volumetric Methods. SOXIILET'S METHOD^ — Take 25
c.c. of the sulphate of copper solution and add to it 25
ue. of the Rochelle-salt-soda solution.
* Wohl. Zeitschrift des Vereines fur Rubenzucker-Industrie, 1888,
p. 352.
f Journal fur Practische Chemie, New Series, 1880, vol. xxi. p. 337.
o
66 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Place in a deep porcelain casserole, heat to boiling,
and add sugar solution until the fluid, after boiling for
two minutes, is no longer blue.
This preliminary test indicates approximately (within
about 10 per cent) the amount of invert-sugar present.
Next dilute the sugar solution till it contains about 1
per cent of invert-sugar. The true concentration will be
0.9 to 1.1 per cent, which slight deviation from the con-
centration desired, has no influence on the result.
Take 50 cc. of Fehling's solution, heat, add the requi-
site amount of sugar solution, boil for two minutes, and
then pour the whole solution through a large corrugated
filter-paper. Test the filtrate for copper by acetic acid
and potassium ferrocyanide.
If copper is found to be present, repeat the test, but
take a greater volume of the sugar solution. If the fil-
trate is found to be free from copper, repeat the test,
but take 1 c.c. less of the sugar solution.
Continue with these tests until of two sugar solu-
tions, differing from one another by only 0.1 c.c., the one
shows copper, and the other shows no copper in the fil-
trate. The amount of sugar solution intermediate be-
tween these two, must be regarded as the one that will
just decompose 50 c.c. of the Fehling solution.
1.0 equivalent of invert-sugar reduces 10.12 equiva-
lents of cupric oxide in solutions made as here prescribed.
If the solution be diluted by four volumes of water, 1.0
equivalent of invert-sugar will reduce 9.7 equivalents of
cupric oxide.
FEHLING'S METHOD.* — Five, ten, or, if necessary, more
* Annaleu der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1849, vol. 72, p. 106.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 67
grammes of sugar are weighed out, dissolved in a flask,
and the solution made up to 100 c.c. The weight of
sugar used varies, of course, with the nature of the sample
examined, that is to say, with the amount of invert-sugar
it contains. It is advantageous to have the solution of
such a strength that 20 c.c. to 50 c.c. will completely pre-
cipitate the copper in 10 c.c. of the»solution cited above.
The Fehling solution is measured out (using 5 c.c. each
of the copper sulphate and the Rochelle-salt-soda solu-
tion), placed in a porcelain dish, and quickly brought to
the boiling-point. The sugar solution is then run in
from a burette (graduated in tenths of a cubic centime-
tre) until all of the copper in the solution is precipitated
as cuprous oxide. The operator is warned of the approach
of the end of the reaction by the change in the color of
his solution. The blue color disappears and the solution
becomes colorless, or, if the sugar solution is colored,
assumes a yellow tinge.
The end-point, however, is determined by filtering a
few drops of the solution through paper or linen cloth
into a very dilute solution of potassic ferrocyanide * and
acetic acid, f
If a brownish-red color shows, owing to the forma-
tion of cupric ferrocyanide, two tenths c.c. more of the
sugar solution are added to the copper liquor, the solu-
tion is again boiled, and the test repeated. This is con-
tinued until the addition of a few drops of the .solution
to the ferrocyanide no longer produces the red color.
If a polarization is to be made on the same sample,
19.21 cubic centimetres of the solution for polarization,
* 20 grammes dissolved in 1 litre of water,
t A 10 per cent solution.
68 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
prepared by dissolving 26.048 grammes in 100 c.c., and
from which the lead has been removed, represents ex-
actly 5 grammes, and may be used for the determination
of the invert-sugar. If th,e French normal weight (16.19
grammes) has been used, 30.8 c.c. are required. These
amounts can be measured out from a burette, or pipettes
may be procured, graduated to deliver the given volumes
of solution.
As 10 c.c. of the copper solution are assumed to cor-
respond to 0.05 gramme of invert-sugar, the calculation is
an easy one. If 5 grammes of sugar have been dissolved
up to 100 c.c., the reciprocal of the number of cubic cen-
timetres required of this solution to precipitate all of the
copper in 10 c.c. of the copper liquor, multiplied by 100,
is the direct percentage of invert-sugar sought. (See
Table XII.)
Example. — Dissolved 5 grammes of sugar in 100 c.c.
Of this solution used 22 c.c. to precipitate all of the cop-
per in the Fehling solution. Referring to Table XII,
22 c.c. will be found to correspond to 4.54 per cent of
invert-sugar; hence there is this amount of invert-sugar
present in the sample.
DEXTROSE SOLUTION FOR STANDARDIZING THE FEHLING
SOLUTION. — Dissolve 4 grammes C. P. anhydrous dextrose,
in distilled water, and make up to 1000 c.c. 1 c.c. = 0.004
dextrose.
To test the strength of the copper solution, place 10
c.c. of it in a porcelain dish or casserole, with from 30
to 40 c.c. of water. Boil, and run in the dextrose solution
from a burette until all the copper is precipitated.
The number of cubic centimetres of the dextrose
solution used, multiplied by 4, represents the number of
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 69
milligrammes of dextrose required to precipitate the cop-
per in 10 c.c. of the Fehling solution.
Gravimetric Method.— MEISSL-HERZFELD.— Weigh out
26.048 grammes of the sample. Place into a 100 c.c. flask,
clarify with basic acetate of lead, make up to 100 c.c.,
filter, and polarize. Take an aliquot part of the filtrate,
add sodium sulphate to remove any lead present, make up
to a definite volume, and filter. It is best to arrange the
dilution so, that the 50 c.c. of this filtrate, which are
to be used for the determination of the invert-sugar, will
precipitate between 200 and 300 milligrammes of copper.
To 50 c.c. of the sugar solution prepared as above, add
50 c.c. Fehling's solution (25 c.c. copper sulphate and 25
c.c. of Rochelle-salt-soda solution). Over the wire-gauze
above the flame lay a sheet of asbestos provided with a
circular opening of about 6.5 cm. diameter; on this place
the flask, and arrange the burner in such a manner, that
about four minutes are consumed in heating the solution
to the boiling-point. From the time that the solution
starts to boil — the moment when bubbles arise not
only from the centre, but also from the sides of the ves-
sel— continue to boil for exactly two minutes with a
small flame. Then remove the flask from the flame im-
mediately, and add 100 c.c. of cold distilled water, from
which the air has previously been removed by boiling, *
Then filter through an asbestos filter, wash, and reduce
to metallic copper, f
* The water is added to prevent subsequent precipitation of cuprous
oxide.
t This last step is sometimes omitted, the cuprous oxide being weighed
after washing and drying, and the corresponding amount of copper cal-
culated.
70 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
This operation is carried out in the following manner:
Clean thoroughly a small straight calcium-chloride tube,
or other tube of similar pattern. Introduce asbestos
fibres * so as to fill about half of the bulb. Draw air
through while drying, cool, and weigh. Connect with
an aspirator, filter the precipitated Cu2O, wash with hot
water, and then, having changed the receiving flask, wash
twice with absolute alcohol and twice with ether. Hav-
ing removed the greater part of the ether by an air-cur-
rent, connect the upper part of the filter tube by means
of a cork and glass tubing with a hydrogen apparatus,
and, while the hydrogen gas is flowing through, cau-
tiously heat the precipitate with a small flame whose
tip is about 5 cm. below the bulb containing the Cu2O.
The reduction should be completed in from two to three
minutes.
After the tube has been cooled in the current of hy-
drogen, air is once more drawn through and the tube is.
then weighed.
After an analysis is completed, the asbestos is readily
freed from the adhering copper by washing with dilute
nitric acid.
The use of the electric current has also been advo-
cated for reducing the precipitate to metallic copper, f
The cuprous oxide is dissolved with 20 c.c. nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1.2), the solution is placed into a weighed
platinum dish, made up to between 150 and 180 c.c. with
* The asbestos must first be prepared by washing successively with a
solution of caustic soda (not too concentrated), boiling water, nitric acid>
and again with boiling water. When filled into the glass tube the asbestos
is made to rest on a perforated platinum cone.
t Formanek Bohm. Ztschr. fur Zuckerindustne, 1890, vol. xiv. p. 178.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 71
distilled water, and the copper precipitated by the elec-
tric current.
The method of calculating the amount of invert-
sugar, corresponding to the weight of copper found, can
best be illustrated by an example. Suppose that of the
26.048 grammes of sugar dissolved in 100 c.c., 25 c.c. had
been removed, clarified with sodium sulphate, made up
to 100 c.c., and filtered: 50 c.c. of this filtrate would cor-
respond to 3.256 grammes of substance.
Let this weight be designated by the letter p.
The approximate amount of invert-sugar may be as-
sumed to be _ Cu
V
The approximate percentage of invert-sugar will be
Cu 100
Representing the former value by Z, the latter by y,
we have „ Cu
A~~ :T>
and
Cu ^ 100
*=TX7-
The ratio between the invert-sugar and the sucrose is
determined by the following formulae, designating sucrose
by the letter R, and invert-sugar by L
ft _ 100 X Polarization
Polarization + y
1= 100 - E.
"Example. — Polarization of 26.048 grammes = 86.4.
p — 3.256 grammes.
72 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Suppose these 3.256 grammes have precipitated on
boiling with Fehling's solution 0.290 grammes of copper.
Then,
Cu _ 0.290_
* T ~2~~
0 Cu 100
2' TX1T = °'145 x 8366 = 4'45 =
3. = 8640 96jl =
Pol. + y 86.4 + 4.45
100 - It = I,
100 - 95.1 = 4.9,
4.9= I,
and therefore the ratio of R : Us expressed by 95.1 : 4.9.
In order to find the factor F we must hunt up the
correct vertical and horizontal columns in Table XIII.
The value Z= 145 is most closely approximated by the
column headed 150; the ratio R : 1= 95.1 : 4.9 is most
closely approximated by the horizontal column 95 : 5.
At the line of intersection of these two columns there
will be found the factor 51.2, by aid of which the final
calculation is effected.
4. — X F— ^^—- X 51.2 = 4.56 p. c. invert-sugar.
The analysis would hence show :
Polarization, ...... 86.40
Invert-sugar, ...... 4.56
If duplicate or comparative determinations of invert-
sugar are to be made by this method, the same weight of
substance should always be taken. Otherwise, the value
of Z varying, will necessitate the employing of different
factors, and in consequence discrepancies will ensue.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 73
Example :
Weight used, . . . 2.500 grammes.
Polarization, .... 95.00
Cu reduced, . . . . 0.140
Invert-sugar = 2.587 per cent.
Weight used, . . . 5.000 grammes.
Polarization, .... 95.00
Cu reduced, .... 0.278
Invert-sugar — 2.768 per cent
Of the methods here described, Soxhlet's is possibly
the most exact, but its execution calls for more time than
can generally be given in a technical laboratory.
Of the other two methods given either may be used
in practice, as each gives reliable results. Comparative
determinations have shown that the results yielded by
these two methods agree closely.*
If an invert-sugar determination has been made in a
syrup, the result can be recorded either as percentage
on the syrup, or as percentage on the dry substance. The
calculation necessary to obtain the latter, corresponds of
course, to that explained on page 41.
These methods of determining invert-sugar are based
on the assumption that there are no other substances
present besides invert-sugar which will precipitate the
copper from its solution. Sometimes, however, such
bodies are present. In beet-sugars their existence has
been amply demonstrated, and their presence in cane-
products is probable.
* The Author, "Determination of Invert-Sugar by Alkaline Copper
Solutions," School of Mines Quarterly, November, 1888.
74 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
To determine the invert-sugar in such cases, a dupli-
cate copper determination, the one before, the other after
the destruction of the invert-sugar, is necessary.*
Of the caustic potash necessary for the preparation
of Fehling's solution, dissolve 40 grammes, together with
175 grammes Kochelle salt, and make the solution up to
400 c.c. with water; 20 grammes of the caustic potash
dissolve up separately with water to 100 c.c.
I. Heat 10 grammes (50 c.c.) of the sugar, clarified
with basic acetate of lead, to boiling. Into this put 50
c.c. of Fehling's solution heated to the boiling-point. This
solution is composed of 25 c.c. copper-sulphate solution,
20 c.c. of the alkaline E-ochelle-salts solution, and 5 c.c.
of the caustic-potash solution. Boil exactly two minutes.
II. 10 grammes (50 c.c.) of the sugar, clarified with
basic acetate of lead, are boiled for 10 minutes with 5 c.c.
of the caustic-potash solution, care being taken to re-
plenish the water which evaporates. Then 25 c.c. copper-
sulphate solution + 20 c.c. of the alkaline Rochelle-salts
solution are added, and the mixture boiled for two min-
utes more. The rest of the determination is then carried
out exactly as before described.
The amount of copper obtained under II. is sub-
tracted from the amount found under I., and the remain-
der calculated to invert-sugar.
Soldaini's Solution.— Within the past few years great
claims have been made for the Soldaini copper solution
for the determination of invert-sugar, as being superior
to the numerous so-called " Fehling" solutions, f
* Bod en bender and Scheller.
t Stammer's Jahresberieht, 1885, p. 283, enumerates no less than twenty
different formulae for the preparation of the same.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 75
Soldaini's solution is prepared* by dissolving 15.8
grammes of sulphate of copper in a hot solution of 594
grammes of potassium bicarbonate. After the copper pre-
cipitate has completely dissolved, the solution is made up
to 2 litres. The specific gravity of the solution is about
1.1789.
The manner of working with this solution is analo-
gous to that described on page 69 et seq. The time of
boiling is 10 minutes.
Table XIV shows the relation between the amount
of copper reduced and the in vert- sugar.
This solution has as yet not been generally adopted,
but many opinions in its favor have been expressed.
Among the objections cited against itf are, that it
contains only one fifth the amount of copper that Feh-
ling's solution contains, and that hence it must be in many
cases less sensitive than the former. On being greatly
diluted it deposits cupric oxide, and on boiling for a long
time it deposits cuprous oxide.
* Schellers formula.
t Herzfeld, Zeitschrift des Vereines fiir Riibenzucker-Industrie, 1890,
vol. xl. p. 52.
CHAPTER VI.
WATER— ASH- SUSPENDED IMPURITIES.
Water. — Weigh out 5 to 10 grammes of the sample.
If the determination is to be made on a rather moist sugar
or on a syrup, a corresponding amount of perfectly dry
powdered glass or of sand must be intimately mixed
with the sample.
Place in an air-bath, the heating of which should be
commenced only after the introduction of the assay.
The heat should be gradually carried up to between 95°
and 100° C., and continued until the sample has attained
to constant weight.
The loss in weight sustained, represents the water.
Example. — Weight of dish, sand, and sample, . 23.0000
" « " and sand, . . . 18.0000
Sample taken, 5.0000
Original weight of dish, sand, and sample, . . 23.0000
Final weight (after drying to constant weight), 21.1546
Water = 1.8454
5.000 : 1.8454 :: 100 : x.
x — 36.91 per cent water.
Instead of drying in an air-bath, the drying can be
done in a current of any inert gas, or it can be still more
rapidly accomplished by drying in a vacuum. A tube
provided with a number of small branch-tubes, each of
76
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 77
which can be closed independently by means of a stop-
cock, is put into connection with a vacuum-pump. The
samples of sugar in which the moisture is to be deter-
mined, are weighed into metal dishes provided with a
cover and of known weight, and these dishes, after being
placed on a steaming water-bath, are connected with the
branch-tubes and the air exhausted.
Entire dessication is accomplished in from half an
hour to one hour's time.
A method for determining approximately the amount
of water in a sample of syrup, liquor, or sweet- water, is to
take the Brix hydrometer reading of the solution, and to
subtract this from 100. The difference is accepted as
representing the water.
Example. — Density of syrup in degrees Brix, 75°. 0.
100
Less 75
25 per cent of water.
Ash. — SCHEIBLEE'S METHOD. — Weigh out 2.5 to 5
grammes of sample into a platinum ash-dish. Moisten
with eight to ten drops of chemically pure cone, sulphuric
acid, or better, with sixteen to twenty drops of dilute
sulphuric acid (1 : 1). Pour a little ether over the con-
tents of the dish and ignite. This treatment yields a
porous carbonized mass, and avoids in a great measure the
danger of loss by the assay mounting and creeping over
the sides of the dish. When all gases have burned oft',
place in a platinum muffle, or in a Russia sheet-iron
muffle (the metal should be about ^ inch in thickness),
and keep the muffle at a dull-red heat until the sample
has been turned completely to ash ; cool and weigh.
78 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
As the addition of sulphuric acid has converted a num-
ber of the salts present in the sugar into sulphates, 10 per
cent is deducted from the weight of the ash found in order
to make the results obtained by this method harmonize
with those obtained by the method of carbonization.
Example. — Used 2.5 grammes of sugar.
Weight of dish -f ash, . . 13.9030
" u " 13.8490
Ash, 0.0540
Subtract 10 per cent, . . 0.0054
Total ash, 0.0486
Total ash, 1.944 per cent.
This subtraction of one tenth of the weight of the
ash is generally assumed to answer for beet-sugars, but is
entirely misleading where cane-products are analyzed, be-
cause the ash of the latter possess a composition entirely
different from the ash of the former.* At present, however,
the subtraction of one tenth is still the general practice.
That unreliable results are obtained by this method
of incineration with sulphuric acid and the subsequent
subtraction of one tenth from the weight of the sulphated
ash, even when beet-sugars are analyzed, has been re-
cently admitted by European chemists of note.f
Von Lippmann J advocates taking the dried-out sample,
on which the water determination has been made, saturating
it with vaselin-oil (having a boiling-point of about 400°),
* The Author, "Ash Determinations in Raw Sugars," School of Mines
Quarterly, vol. xi. No. 1.
t Die Deutsche Zucker-Industrie, 1890, March 14, No. 11. Beilage 1,
p. 337.
Loc. cit.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 79
and igniting the mixture. The carbonized mass is then to
be burned to ash in a mixed current of air and oxygen.
METHOD OF CARBONIZATION. — Weigh out 2.5 to 5.0
grammes of the sample. Carbonize at a low heat. Ex-
tract the soluble salts from the carbonaceous mass with
boiling water ; ignite the residue. Add the ash obtained
to the aqueous extract and evaporate to dry ness. Moisten
with ammonium carbonate, drive off all ammonia, cool,
weigh, and report as carbonate ash.
Quantitative Analysis of Sugar- Ash. — Dissolve 10
grammes of the sugar in hot water and filter ; * wash the
residue thoroughly with boiling water and evaporate the
filtrate and the washings to dryness. Carefully carbonize
the mass, and then extract the same with boiling wTater
until nitrate of silver no longer gives the reaction for
chlorine. Evaporate the solution to small bulk. The
residue must be dried, ignited, and weighed. This weight
ie noted as, insoluble ash. The solution and the ash ob-
tained are then combined, hydrochloric acid is added,
and the solution evaporated to dryness. All the chlorine
is then driven off, the residue is taken up with water and
a little hydrochloric acid, and filtered. The insoluble
residue in the filter is thoroughly washed, and the wash-
ings are added to the filtrate. This residue is silica. To
the filtrate- am monic hydrate is added, and the solution is
boiled and filtered ; the residue, iron and alumina, must
be thoroughly washed, and the washings added to the
filtrate.
* This should be done in every case so as to have all the analyses made
under the same conditions; in most instances it will be imperative, for the
inorganic suspended impurities (sand, clay, etc.) in a sample of cane-sugar
often weigh more than the total sugar-ash.
80 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
To this ammonium oxalate is added, and the whole is
evaporated to dryness. The ammonia is burned off, and
the oxalates are changed to carbonates by adding a little
ammonium carbonate, and again driving off the ammonia.
The mass is then taken up with water, filtered, washed,
and the washings added to the filtrate. The residue con-
sists of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium. The
filtrate is evaporated to small bulk, ammonium carbonate
is added, and the evaporation is then continued to dryness,
the ammonia is cautiously driven off, and the residue
weighed. This gives the alkalies in the form of carbonates,
and this weight added to the weight of the insoluble ash
previously determined, represents the total carbonate ash.
Suspended Impurities.— It is often necessary to de-
termine the share of work done in filtration respectively
by the bag- filters and the bone-black.
The former, of course, remove only the mechanically
suspended impurities, or at least the greater part of
them, and leave to the bone-black the rest of the work
to be accomplished.
The suspended impurities are both mineral and or-
ganic; their determination is effected in the following
manner :
Dissolve from 2.5 to 10 grammes of the sample in hot
water. Pour on a filter-paper which has previously been
dried and weighed between watch-glasses, and wash with
boiling water until all of the sugar has been removed.
This is most conveniently done by the aid of a vacuum-
pump. Then dry filter and contents to constant weight,
and weigh as before between watch-glasses. The increase
in weight over the previous weight, represents the total
suspended impurities. Ignite the filter and contents in a
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 81
platinum crucible, and record the weight of the ash as
mineral or inorganic suspended impurities ; the difference
between the total suspended impurities and tfris figure
gives the organic suspended impurities.
An ash determination made as previously described
represents the mineral matter contained in the sugar, in
the form of salts, etc., as well as the mineral matter
mechanically suspended, and which latter, the bag-filters
are supposed to remove.
The inorganic suspended impurities when subtracted
from the total ash show the "soluble" ash, the more or
less complete removal of which is expected of the bone-
black.
Example. — Used 2.5 grammes of raw sugar.
Weight of watch-glasses + filter -j- total sus-
pended impurities, . . .' . . . . 22.5071
Weight of watch-glasses + filter, /. . . 22.5000
Total suspended impurities, . 0.0071
Weight of crucible + ash of filter + inor-
ganic suspended impurities, . . . 13.20020
Weight of crucible, 13.20000
Ash of filter + inorganic susp. impurities, . 0.00020
Ash of filter, 0.00008
Inorganic susp. impurities, . 0.00012
Total suspended impurities, 0.00710 = 0.2840 per cent.
Inorganic " " 0.00012 = 0.0048 " "
Organic " " 0.00698 = 0.2792 " "
82 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Total ash (previously determined), . 0.5040 per cent.
Inorganic suspended impurities, . . 0.0048 " "
Soluble ash, 0.4992 " "
Determination of Woody Fibre. — About 20 to 25
grammes of the sample, in as finely divided a state as
possible, are placed in a flask or beaker, into which cold
water is poured. The water, after having been in con-
tact with the chips or shavings from 20 to 30 minutes,
is decanted carefully, in order to avoid any loss of the
weighed sample. This treatment with cold water is re-
peated two or three times, and is then followed by a
similar treatment with hot wrater; finally, the sample is
boiled several times, fresh water being taken for each
treatment, and the treatment continued until all the sol-
uble material has been washed out. Sometimes this is
followed by washings with alcohol and ether.
The sample is then transferred to a weighed filter,
preferably made of asbestos, and gradually dried to con-
stant weight. If dried in the air-bath, a temperature of
110° C. should not be exceeded. If the sample can be
dried in vacuo, and subsequently weighed in a covered
dish or capsule, all danger of oxidation and absorption
of moisture are avoided.
The increase in weight which is noted in the filter, of
course represents the woody fibre.
Detection of the Sugar-Mite.— To detect the sugar-
mite (Acarus sacchari) in raw sugars, dissolve the sample
in warm water ; the mite will cling to the sides or to the
bottom of the vessel. Drain off the solution and identify
by means of a microscope.*
* For drawings, see Hassall, " Food and its Adulterations.''
CHAPTER VII.
ORGANIC NON-SUGAR.
IN regular technical analyses the organic matter not
sugar, raffinose, or invert-sugar is not determined. It
is assumed to be represented by the difference between
100 and the constituents determined, viz., sucrose, raffi-
nose, invert-sugar, water, and ash. This difference is fre-
quently recorded as "non-ascertained," or "undeter-
mined matter."
There are several methods for the direct determina-
tion of this organic matter, but the results which they
yield are of value chiefly for comparative purposes. The
following method is perhaps the most satisfactory:
Dissolve 10 to 20 grammes of raw sugar in warm
water. Add basic acetate of lead solution in excess.
Warm for a short time and filter. Wash the precipitate
thoroughly ; then suspend it in water and pass in sulphu-
retted hydrogen until all the lead is precipitated as sul-
phide. Filter out the sulphide of lead, wash thoroughly,
and evaporate the filtrate and washings to dryness (con-
stant weight), in a dish previously weighed. The tem-
perature at which the drying is done, must not exceed
100° C.
Example. — Used 10 grammes of raw sugar.
Weight of dish and organic matter, .... 17.0973
•< dish, . 17.0482
Organic matter, 0.0491
Organic matter = 0.491 per cent.
83
84
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
The organic bodies accompanying sucrose can be
divided into three classes :
1. Organic acids, or bodies that can act as acids.
2. Nitrogenous substances.
3. Non-nitrogenous substances.
These classes embrace respectively the following
bodies :
ORGANIC ACIDS.*
Acetic, , . .
. CHO
Melassic, ...
C12H1005 (?)
Aconitic, . .
. cXo63
Metapectic,
CHO
Apoglucic,
CHO
Oxalic, .....
cXb.T
Aspartic, . .
. c4H,M4
Oxycitric, . . .
C.HA
Butyric, . .
Citric, . . .
. O.H.O,
CHO
Parapectic, . . .
Pectic, . . . .
0!4H'"01'1
Formic, . .
. CHA
Propionic, . . .
C^HA "
Glucic, . . .
C12H1809
Succinic, . . .
CHO
Glutamic, . .
C'H NO
Tartaric, . .
C.HA
Lactic, . . .
CHO
Tricarballylic,
C,H,06
Malic, . . .
. C3H603
Ulmic, ....
CS4H,A
Malonic, . .
4 65
. CSHA
24 18 9
NITROGENOUS SUBSTANCES.
Albumin, . .
* 45 78 11 V/
Legumin, . . .
C42H66N18(?)
Ammonia, . .
NH3
Leucine, . I ' .'
C6H13N02
Asparagin, . .
Betai'ne, . .
; ojjjfo;
Trimethylamin, .
Tyrosine, .
OX.NO.
Glutamine, . .
• C.H10NaO,
NON-NlTROGENOUS SUBSTANCES.
Arabinose, . .
CRH,206
Pectin, ....
32"^48 32
Cellulose, . .
(C H2 0 )n
Pectose, ....
(C,HA)n
Cholesterin,
. c BH o*
Vanillin, . . .
C8H,03
Coniferin, . .
. C'X,40.
Coloring matters,
Dextrane, . .
• OH, 6.
Ethereal oils,
Mannite, . .
• oSIo!
Fats,
Parapectin,
CTT r\
33I146^31
Gummy matters.
* These acids are chiefly in combination with the metals potassium,
sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese. Rubidium and
vanadium have also been identified in sugar-beets.
SCHEMES FOR ANALYSIS OF THE ORGANIC
ACIDS.*
SCHEME I. Non-volatile acids.
SCHEME II. Rare non-volatile acids.
SCHEME III. Volatile acids.
SCHEME IV. Approximate determination of organic
acids, non-volatile and volatile.
* Translated by the author from the French of E. Laugier (Bittmann's
arrangement), as published in Commerson and Laugier, Guide pour Analyse
des Matieres Sucrees, 3d Edition, 1884. Paris.
SCHEME I.
NON- VOLATILE ACIDS.
88
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
l.*:^ V <D~ 2. .I'X ® ® <S <BJ1
^1«1
SCHEME II.
BABE NON-VOLATILE ACIDS.
90
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
SCHEME II.
Rare Non-VolatUe Acids.
Dissolve 20 grammes of the sample ; precipitate by neutral acetate of lead, place on
filter, and wash with boiled distilled water until the washings no longer contain lead.
Precipitate.
It contains
the lead salts
of the organic
acids, as well
as the sulphate
and phosphate
of lead ; small
quantities o f
parapectin
may also be
found in the
lead precipi-
tate. (Pectin
is precipitated
only by basic
acetate of
lead.) For the
separation of
these sub-
stances see col-
umn 2.
Filtrate 1.
Add an excess of acetate of lead in solution, filter, and wash the pre-
cipitate.
Pr
Suspend
phuretted b
and filter o
lead. Fro
move the s
gen by boili
a few cub
acetic acid.
Precipi-
tate.
Pectin
and para-
pectin.
These sub-
stanc e s
may be
s e p arated
in the same
manner as
legumin.
To effect
this, acidify
strongly
with acetic
acid, boil,
and filter
out the co-
agulum.
ecipitate.
in water, pass sul-
lydrogen in excess,
ut the sulphide of
m the filtrate re-
alphuretted hydro-
og, add alcohol and
ic centimetres of
Filter.
Filtrate 2.
This contains aspartic and metapectic
acids. Add several cubic centimetres of
an ammoniacal solution of acetate of lead,
leave at rest for 12 hours, filter, wash, de-
compose by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
filter out the sulphide of lead. Evaporate
the filtrate to small bulk; add an equal
volume of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42), and heat
for a quarter of an hour. Aspartic acid
remains unchanged ; metapectic acid is
decomposed into oxalic acid, which goes
into solution, arid into mucic acid, which
crystallizes on cooling. Filter.
Filtrate.
This may contain
small quantities of
glucic, malic, and
succinic acids
which were not
completely pre-
cipitated by neu-
tral acetate of ^ead.
Besides these there
may be present
traces of aspartic
and of metapectic
acids, which may
be identified after
the precipitation of
the former acids,
by nitrate of cal-
cium and alcohol.
(See the following
column.)
Crystals.
The washed
crystals of mucic
acid are boiled
with nitric acid;
the mucic acid is
decompo sed
completely into
oxalic and tar-
taric acids, the
identification of
which proves the
presence origi-
nally of mucic
acid.
Mother Liquor.
This contains aspar-
tic and oxalic acids
produced by the fore-
going decomposition.
Pass a current of N2O3.
Nitrogen is set free,
and at the same time
malic acid is formed
(at the expense of the
aspartic acid). This
is searched for as
directed in Scheme I.
The identification of
malic acid proves the
existence of aspartic
acid in the original
solution.
SCHEME III.
VOLATILE ACIDS.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
SCHEME in.
Volatile Acids.
20 to 100 grammes of the sample (syrups, etc., are brought to 20° Baum6) are rendered
strongly acid by dilute sulphuric acid. All the chlorine of the metallic chlorides is pre-
cipitated with a standardized sulphate of silver solution, and the precipitate of argentic
chloride is filtered out. The liquid is distilled as long as acid vapors pass over, the dis-
tillate is exactly saturated with a solution of barium hydrate, and any excess of this reagent
which might have been added, is removed by a stream of carbonic-acid gas. The liquid is
concentrated, the barium carbonate filtered out, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness at
110° C. in a platinum capsule.
Residue of Distilla-
Distillate.
tion.
Contains nearly the
whole of lactic acid, only
traces having passed over
into the distillate. Add
three volumes of alcohol
and distil the mixture with
milk of lime. Filter the
boiling solution to separate
the hydrate and sulphate
of calcium. In this filtrate
the lime is precipitated by
a stream of carbonic-acid
gas. Evaporate to dry-
ness, take up the residue
with strong alcohol, filter
again, and let the filtrate
htand.
If lactic acid is present,
crystals of calcium lactate
are formed, which are re-
cognized by their charac-
teristic structure.
The dried barium salts obtained from the distillate are ex-
tracted with boiling alcohol of 88 per cent, the operation being
repeated several times, and the residue remaining undis-
solved, is filtered out.
Residue.
Formate and nitrate
of barium. Traces of
acetate of barium. Dis-
solve in a little water,
and precipitate the
barium with sulphate
of sodium. Filter, and
mix a portion of the
filtrate with argentic
nitrate. Formate of
silver, which is precipi-
tated, is reduced by
heating to a mirror of
metallic silver. In an-
other portion of the
solution test for formic
acid by the reduction
of mercuric to mercur-
ous chloride.
Solution.
Acetate, propionate, and butyrate
of barium. Evaporate to small bulk,
take up with a little water, precipitate
the barium with sulphuric acid, filter
out the precipitate, and divide the fil-
trate into two equal parts. Neutral-
ize one portion with sodium hydrate,
and then add this to the other portion.
Subject the whole to distillation.
Distillate.
Butyric and
propionic acids.
They are identi-
fied by their odor,
and the oily drops
which are formed
in decomposing
their salts by sul-
phuric acid.
Residue.
Acetic acid. Iden-
tified by its odor,
and by the forma-
tion of acetic ether,
produced on warm-
ing one of its salts
with sulphuric acid
and alcohol.
SCHEME IV.
APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC ACIDS:
NON- VOLATILE AND VOLATILE.
94
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
SCHEME IV.
Approximate Determination of Organic Acids, Non- Volatile and
Volatile.
Non-volatile Acids.
Volatile Acids.
A. Precipitation by neutral
B. Precipita-
C. Precipita-
D. Not precipitated by
acetate of lead.
tion by basic
tion by amtno-
acetate of lead: formic,
Oxalic, citric, tartaric, and
acetate of lead.
niacal acetate
acetic, lactic, propionic,
malic acids. Incompletely:
Pectic, para-
of lead. As-
and butyric acids.
pectic, parapectic, glucic,
melassinic, ulmic, and suc-
pectic, glucic,
melassinic, ul-
partic and met-
apectic acids.
cinic acids.
mic, and succi-
nic acids. Par-
50 grammes of the sam-
50 grammes of the sample
apectin. In-
ple to be examined (in
are dissolved in distilled
completely: as-
The filtrate
case of juices a larger
water and made slightly acid
partic and met-
obtained from
amount must be taken;
with acetic acid. The solu-
apectic acids,
the precipita-
thick syrup must be di-
tion is boiled to expel the car-
and pectin.
tion with basic
luted), are strongly acidi-
bonic acid, and neutralized
acetate of lead
fied with dilute sulphuric
with sodium hydrate (free
is mixed with
acid. All the chlorine
from carbonic acid). A
several cubic
which has been previously
slight excess of neutral ace-
To the filtrate
centimetres of
determined volumetrically
tate of lead is added, and
from the lead
an ammoniacal
in a separate sample, is
digested for one hour. The
salts precipita-
acetate of lead
precipitated by a stand-
residue is placed on a dry
ted . by neutral
solution. Al-
ardized sulphate of silver
and weighed filter, and is
acetate of lead.
low to stand for
solution. The filtrate from
washed with boiled distilled there is added
twelve hours.
the argentic chloride is
water until the washings give i a slight excess
Filter, allow to
distilled until acid fumes
no longer the reaction for of basic acetate
drain off, and
no longer pass over. This
lead. (For treatment of the of lead, and the
wash once with
distillate is then mixed
filtrate, see B.)
precipitate fil-
distilled water
with a solution of barium
The precipitate contains
tered out. (For
to which a lit-
hydrate, any excess of
the lead salts of the above- i filtrate, see C.)
tle ammoniacal
this reagent is precipitated
named acids, and besides
The precipi-
acetate of lead
by carbonic acid, and the
sulphate and phosphate of
tate is placed
has been add-
solution filtered. The fil-
lead, if the sample examined
contained sulphates and
on a dried and
weighed filter,
ed. The pre-
cipitate, dried
trate is evaporated to dry-
ness at 110° C. in a weighed
phosphates. The filter with
its contents is dried at 110°
then washed,
dried at 1 10° C.,
and weighed, is
treated as de-
platinum capsule: the
residue represents the
C., and weighed. The pre-
and weighed.
scribed under
weight of the organic
o.ipitate is removed, the filter
A part is incin-
A and B.
acid salts of barium, which
is burned in a weighed plati-
erated as in A.
Note. — The
are determined as sul-
num crucible, the precipi-
and the weight
ammoniacal
phates or carbonates.
tate is again added, and
of the organic
acetate of lead
If nitrates were present
heated to dull redness.
acids determin-
must be added
in the sample analyzed,
To facilitate the combus-
ed by differ-
only gradually
the residue contains also
tion of the carbon, small
ence, as there
and in small
barium nitrate. In that
doses of ammonium nitrate
described.
amounts, for
case the nitric acid must
are repeatedly added, great
without this
be determined, the weight
care being taken to prevent
precaution it is
of the barium nitrate cal-
loss by spitting. After cool-
ing, the crucible is weighed.
apt to precipi-
tate sugar, and
culated from the result,
and this value subtracted
The wright of the contents
then even an
from the weight of the
of the crucible subtracted
appr o xi m a t e
organic acid salts of ba-
from that of the precipitate
determinat i o n
rium previously found.
dried at 110° C. represents
of the acids
the weight of the organic
sought for, be-
acids, because the sulphate
comes very dif-
and phosphate of lead are
ficult.
not altered by the ignition.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 95
Determination of Total Nitrogen.* — An amount of
the substance, varying from 0.7 to 2.8 grammes, according
to its proportion of nitrogen, is placed in a digestion-flask
with approximately 0.7 gramme of mercuric oxide and 20
cubic centimetres of sulphuric acid, t
The flask is placed in an inclined position, and heated
below the boiling-point of the acid, from five to fifteen
minutes, or until frothing has ceased. The heat is then
raised until the acid boils briskly, and this boiling is con-
tinued until the contents of the flask have become a clear
liquid, colorless, or of a very pale straw color.
While still hot, finely pulverized potassium perman-
ganate is introduced carefully and in small quantity at a
time, till, after shaking, the liquid remains of a green or
purple color.
After cooling, the contents of the flask are transferred
to the distilling-flask, with about 200 cubic centimetres
of water ; to this a few pieces of granulated zinc and
25 cubic centimetres of potassium-sulphide solution t are
added, shaking the flask to mix its contents. Sufficient
of a sodium hydrate solution § is then added to make the
reaction strongly alkaline. This reagent should be
poured down the sides of the flask, so that it does not
mix at once with the acid solution.
The flask is then connected with the condenser, and
its contents are distilled until all ammonia has passed
* The Kjeldahl method. Abstracted from Bulletin No. 19, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
t C. P. acid, specific gravity 1.83, free from nitrates and ammonium
sulphate.
| Prepared by dissolving 40 grammes of commercial potassium sulphide
in 1 litre of water.
§ A saturated solution of sodium hydrate, free from nitrates.
96 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
over into standard hydrochloric acid. * The distillate is
then titrated with standard ammonia.
Previous to use, the reagents should be tested by a
blank experiment with sugar, which will partially reduce
any nitrates that are present, and which might otherwise
escape notice.
If the nitrogen present in organic combination is to
be ascertained, the nitrogen present in the form of nitric
acid and in the form of ammonia must be separately
determined, and their sum subtracted from the total
nitrogen found ; the remainder is the nitrogen in or-
ganic combination.
Non-Nitrogenous Organic Substances. — The determi-
nation of non-nitrogenous organic substances is effected
by aid of basic and neutral acetate of lead and alcohol
(pectin and parapectin), by the successive use of water,
alkalies, acids, alcohol, and ether (cellulose), by treat-
ment with ether (fats, essential oils), by the aid of yeast
fermentation, and alcohol (isolation of mannite).t
Determination of Pure Cellulose.} — To make this de-
termination, place 10 grammes of the sample, 30 to 40
grammes of pure potassium hydrate, and about 30 to 40
c.c. of water into a glass retort. Close the retort by a glass
stopper, place in an oil-bath, provided with a thermo-
meter, and heat up gradually. At about 140° C. the
solution will commence to boil and foam considerably.
Increase the temperature to about 180°, and continue
heating for about one hour. When the contents of the
* Half-normal acid, 18.25 grammes HC1 to the litre.
t For details of these determinations see Zeitsehrift des Vereines fur
Rubenzucker-Industrie, 1879, vol. xxix. p. 906.
\ Method of G. Lange. Chemisches Repertorium, 1890, vol. xiv., No.
3, p. 30.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 97
retort cease foaming, become quiet, and begin to turn dry,
the end of the reaction has been reached.
Remove the retort from the oil-bath, and after cool-
ing to about 80°, add hot water and rinse the contents of
the retort carefully first with hot and then with cold
water, into a beaker.
After cooling, acidify with dilute sulphuric acid ; this
acid will precipitate the particles of cellulose which have
been kept in suspension in the strong alkaline solution.
Then, with very dilute sodium hydrate, produce anew a
faintly alkaline reaction, so that all of the precipitated
substances, excepting the cellulose, may be again brought
into solution.
The residue is then transferred to a weighed filtering
tube provided with a finely perforated platinum cone
and washed out thoroughly, first with hot water, and
then with cold. Drying is effected on a water-bath, and
the filter with its contents weighed.
The residue is then removed from the filter, ignited,
and the weight of the ash found subtracted from the
value previously obtained. The difference in weight
represents pure cellulose.
CHAPTER VIII.
NOTES ON THE REPORTING OF SUGAR-ANALYSES, DETERMI-
NATION AND CALCULATION OF THE RENDEMENT, ETC.
IN commercial analyses it is customary to report only-
Polarization,
Invert-sugar,
Water,
Ash,
Non-ascertained,
the " non-ascertained " being the balance required to make
the analysis figure up to 100.
When beet-sugars are examined, and a raffinose deter-
mination has been made, this substance, of course, makes
another item in the report, which would then embrace :
Polarization,
Sucrose,
Raffinose,
Invert-sugar,
Water,
Ash,
Non-ascertained.
The polarization in the first form of analysis given
above, may either correspond to, be greater, or smaller
than the amount of sucrose really present, for the presence
of other optically-active bodies influences the polariscope-
reading to a marked degree.
98
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 99
Invert-sugar turns the plane of polarized light to the
left. At 17°.5 C. one part of invert-sugar neutralizes the
optical effect of 0.34 parts of sucrose. In order, therefore,
to obtain the sucrose corrected for this disturbing influ-
ence, the amount of invert-sugar found is multiplied by
€.34, and the result is added to the direct polarization.
This sum is then regarded as representing the sucrose.
Frequently a polarization after inversion is made, and
compared with the direct polarization.
If there are no other optically active bodies present
in the sample besides the sucrose, the result of the polari-
zations before and after inversion will be identical, or at
least agree very closely. If the polarization after inver-
sion is higher than the direct polarization, the presence
of laevo-rotary bodies is indicated; if it is lower, dextro-
rotatory substances are present.
Recent investigations have, however, shown that this
method of inversion and subsequent polarization (Cler-
get's test) is not applicable to sugars rich in reducing
sugars (so-called invert-sugar), because the inverting
acid (hydrochloric acid) increases the Isevo-rotation of the
invert-sugar,* and because the reducing sugar sometimes
consists of a mixture of Isevo- and of dextro-rotatory sub-
stances in varying proportions.
In dealing with samples of such description, as, for
instance, low sugars and molasses, sugar-cane products,
an exhaustive analysis is desirable, in order to gain all
information possible with regard to the nature of the
sample.
* Jungfleisch and Grimbert, Report to the French Academy of Sci-
ences, December, 1889.
100 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Such an analysis should record —
Reaction (acid, alkaline, or neutral),
Total sucrose,
Polarization after inversion,
Direct polarization,
Total reducing sugars,
Water,
Ash.
The interpretation of an analysis of this description
is not always an easy matter.
If the polarization after inversion agrees with the
direct polarization plus 0.34 times the total reducing
sugar, this value may be regarded as the amount of
sucrose (crystallizable sugar) present. As, however, all
results obtained by the Clerget method on sugars rich in
invert sugar are open to doubt, it will be better, eA^eu in
case the direct polarization plus 0.34 times the total re-
ducing sugar is equal to the polarization after inversion,
to resort to gravimetric determinations for verification
of the result.
In case of non-agreement of the direct polarization
plus 0.34 times the total reducing sugar, and the Clerget
test, of course gravimetric analysis must be employed.
Determine the total sucrose, after inversion, by its
reducing action on copper solution, and in a similar man-
ner determine also the total reducing sugar. Calculate
the latter over to its equivalent of sucrose by subtracting
one twentieth of the amount found; deduct this result
from the total sucrose, and report the remainder as
sucrose.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 101
Example.—
Polarization before inversion, .
Polarization after inversion, . .
Total reducing sugar, . *.-
Total sucrose (gravimetric det.), .
22.89 Total sucrose,
Less -gV, . 1.14 Less
21.75 Sucrose
Concerning the nature of the reducing sugar, this may
be present as —
a. Optically Inactive Sugar. — The existence of a
sugar that will reduce copper solution, but which is
inactive to polarized light, is, at best, doubtful. But it
might happen that the laevo-rotatory power of the invert-
sugar is just neutralized by the dextro-rotatory influence
of some other substance — raffinose or dextrose, for in-
stance.* In either case the direct polarization and the
polarization after inversion would agree.
b. Invert-Sugar. — In this case, barring the danger of
an increased laBvo-rotation by the inverting acid, the
polarization after inversion will be equal to the sum of
the direct polarization plus 0.34 times the reducing sugar.
c. Dextrose (Glucose). — In this case the polarization
after inversion is equal to the direct polarization minus
the reducing sugar multiplied by a factor. This factor
has been given as 0.8. This seems, however, to be cor-
rect only when the dextrose, which is a bi-rotatory sub-
stance, has reached its lowest rotatory value, for experi-
ments made by the author on mixtures of anhydrous
crystallized dextrose and raw sugars of various grades,
* Borntrager, Deutsche Zuckermdustrie 1890, p. 277, claims, that owing
to bi-rotation of the dextrose of the anhydrous invert-sugar, the Isevo-ro-
tation of the Isevulose is temporarily neutralized.
102 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
gave values that fluctuated considerably from the factor
quoted.
d. Mixture of Invert-Sugar and Dextrose, or Invert-
Sugar and Lcevulose, in varying proportions :
In this case only an analysis of the reducing sugar
(see page 61) will permit a conclusion as to its compo-
sition. In all cases a gravimetric determination of the
invert-sugar, the dextrose, or laevulose will afford a valu-
able check on any inferences that may be drawn from,
the data obtained by optical analysis.
If a cane- juice has been analyzed, the report should
embrace the following determinations : *
1. Density expressed as specific gravity, or in degrees
,of Baume or Brix.
2. Total solids.
3. Sucrose.
4. Reducing sugar (glucose).
5. Solids not sugar.
6. Coefficient of purity.
7. Glucose ratio.
No. 5 is equal to No. 2, less No. 3 + No. 4.
No. 6 is found by multiplying No. 3 by 100, and
dividing by No. 2.
No. 7 is obtained by multiplying No. 4 by 100, and
dividing by No. 3.
The percentage of extraction is obtained by dividing
the weight of juice obtained by weight of cane used, and
multiplying by 100.
Rendement. — The yield in crystallizable sugar can be
analytically determined by the Payen-Scheibler method.
This process is based on the treatment of the raw
* Scheme adopted by the Louisiana Sugar Association.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 103
sugar, whose rendement is to be ascertained, by solutions
that will wash out the molasses-forming impurities, and
leave behind the pine crystallizable sugar.
Five solutions are required :
No. 1 is a mixture in equal parts, by volume, of abso-
lute alcohol and ether.
No. 2 is absolute alcohol.
No. 3 is alcohol of 96 per cent Tralles.*
No. 4 is alcohol of 92 per cent Tralles.
No. 5 is alcohol of 85 per cent to 86 per cent Tralles,
to which 50 c.c. of acetic acid per litre have been added.
Solutions Nos. 3, 4, and 5 are all saturated with pure
sugar; and, in order that they should remain saturated
with sugar at all temperatures, they are kept in flasks
which are half filled with best granulated sugar, pre-
viously washed with absolute alcohol.
These flasks are provided with a siphon arrangement ;
the air enters through chloride-of-calcium tubes, so as to
be thoroughly dried; the solution is discharged through
tubes filled with pure and dry sugar. Plugs of felt placed
at the ends of these tubes prevent the carrying over of
any sugar particles.
The wrashing operation is carried out as follows : The
accurately weighed sample, usually 13.024 grammes, is
placed into a 50 c.c. flask which has previously been dried.
A cork or a rubber stopper, through which two glass
tubes are made to pass, serves to close the flask. One
of these tubes reaches down almost to the bottom of the
flask ; it is provided with a felt-plug at its mouth ; this
* The alcoholometer of Tralles gives the percentage volume for the
temperature of 60° F. = 15f ° C. Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. i. p.
84.
104 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
serves as strainer. The shorter tube only reaches to just
below the cork or stopper. The longer tube is connected,
by means of a rubber tube, with a large receiving bottle,
from which the air is to a great extent exhausted by an
aspirator or a vacuum pump. The rubber tube is pro-
vided with a pinch-cock, so that connection can be made
or broken at will, between the receiving bottle and the
small flask which holds the sample.
The apparatus being thus arranged, about 30 c.c. of
solution No. 1 is allowed to flow into the flask containing
the sugar. This solution is permitted to remain quietly
in contact with the sample for from fifteen to twenty
minutes, and is then drawn over into the receiving bottle.
When it has all been drained over, 30 c.c. of solution
No. 2 are introduced. After a contact of two minutes
this solution is drawn off, and followed successively by
about the same amounts of the other three solutions, in
the order of their numbering.
The last of these, solution No. 5, is really the active
reagent, the others principally serving to displace the
moisture contained in the sugar.
This solution is allowed to remain on the sample for
half an hour, being frequently and well shaken in the
mean time to insure intimate contact.
It is then drawn off, and replaced by a fresh supply
of the same solution. This in turn is drawn off, and the
treatment is repeated with fresh amounts of solution No. 5,
until the solution standing above the sugar, remains per-
fectly colorless. The time of contact is thirty minutes for
each treatment.
The last traces of the solution No. 5 are then removed
by successive addition of solutions Nos. 4, 3, and 2, in the
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 105
order named. These are added and drawn off at inter-
vals of two minutes each. The last traces of alcohol are re-
moved by drying on a water-bath, a current of dry air being
continuously drawn through the flask in the mean time.
When the sample is perfectly dry, the cork with its
inserted tubes is carefully withdrawn, and any sugar
clinging to the long tube or its felt plug, is carefully
washed into the flask. The solution is then made up to
50 c.c. and polarized. The reading on the polariscope
represents in percentage the yield in crystallizable sugar.
Calculation of Rendement. -- UNITED STATES OF
AMEEICA. — From the polarization (the crystallizable)
subtract five times the ash, for sugars of all grades.
If the sugars are products of the beet, then, in addi-
tion to the above, subtract for —
1st Products: Three times the invert-sugar (non-
crystallizable), if it does not exceed one quarter per cent ;
five times the invert-sugar (non-cry stallizable), if it ex-
ceeds one quarter per cent.
2d Products : Three times the invert-sugar (non-crys-
tallizable), if it does not exceed one half per cent ; five
times the invert-sugar (non-crystallizable), if it exceeds
one half per cent.
ENGLAND.* — Beet-Sugars. — 1st. Products. Basis, 88
p. c. — From the cry stallizable sugar deduct five times the
ash and three times the non-crystallizable, provided the
latter does not exceed one quarter per cent. If it ex-
ceeds this amount, then subtract five times the non-
crystallizable.
Lower Products. .Basis, 75 p. c.— From the crystal-
* Liste Generate des Fabriques de Sucre. Paris, 1889.
106 SUGAR ANALYSIS.
lizable, deduct five times the ash and three times the non-
cry stallizable, provided it does not exceed one half
per cent. If it exceeds this limit, deduct five times the
non-crystallizable.
FRANCE.* — Beet-Sugars. — From the crystallizable
sugar subtract four times the ash and twice the non-crys-
tallizable, which must not exceed one quarter per cent.
From this rendement, figured without fractions of a de-
gree, subtract one and one half per cent.
GERMANY. — From the crystallizable sugar (as deter-
mined by the polariscope), subtract five times the salts,
i.e., the ash less the suspended impurities, and twice the
invert-sugar.
Duty — The duty levied by the United States Gov-
ernment is based on the polariscope test and on color.
For the color-test the "Dutch standards" (see page
25) have been adopted as the guide. In testing by
the polariscope every fraction over a full degree is figured
as if the next whole degree had been indicated. Thus,
a sugar testing 94.0 degrees on the polariscope pays the
duty prescribed for this grade, but a sugar testing 94.1
is classed as a 95.0 sugar.
The following is quoted from the existing law (March,
1890):
"All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard in
color, . . . testing by the polariscope not above 75°, shall
pay a duty of 1^- cent per pound, and for every addi-
tional degree, or fraction of a degree, sho\vn by the polari-
scope test, they shall pay T^- of a cent per pound addi-
tional.
* Liste G6n6rale des Fabriques de Sucre. Paris, 1889.
SUGAR ANALYSIS. 107
"All sugars above No. 13 Dutch standard shall be
classified by the Dutch standard of color, and shall pay-
duty as follows, namely: All sugar above No. 13 and not
above No. 16, 2f cents per pound ; all above No. 16 and
not above No. 20, 3 cents ; all above No. 20, 3^ cents."
Calculation of the Weight of Solids and Liquids from
their Specific Gravity. — One cubic foot of distilled water
weighs 62.50 Ibs. = 1000 ounces. The specific gravity
of water is 1.000. If the decimal point of a specific-
gravity value be moved three places to the right, the
weight of a cubic foot in ounces will be obtained. This
value divided by 16 gives the weight of a cubic foot in
pounds. From this the following rule is deduced :
To find ike weight in pounds per cubic foot :
Determine the specific gravity. Remove the decimal
point three places to the right, and divide by 16.
Example. — Specific gravity of a bone-black is 0.87904.
879.04 -j- 16 = 54.94.
Hence the bone-black weighs 54.94 Ibs. per cubic foot.
As above stated, if the decimal point of a specific-
gravity value is removed three places to the right, the
weight of a cubic foot in ounces will be obtained, and this
figure divided by 16 will give the weight of a cubic foot
in pounds. But if the cubic foot be assumed equal to 7.5
gallons, 7.5 X 16 = 120. Therefore,
To find the weight of a gallon in pounds :
Determine the specific gravity. Remove the decimal
point three places to the right, and divide by 120.
Example. — A syrup has a specific gravity of 1.413.
1413 -1-120 = 11. 78.
Hence the syrup weighs 11.78 Ibs. per gallon.
CHAPTER IX.
SYNONYMS— LITERATURE ON SUGAR ANALYSIS— TABLES.
SYNONYMS.
English.
German.
French.
Cane-sugar
Rohrzucker
Sucre de Canne
Saccharose
Saccharose
Saccharose
Sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose
Common sugar
Saccharobiose
Sucre-normal
Crystallizable sugar
Diglucosic alcohol
Sucre
Saccharon
Cannose
Dextrose
Dextrose
Glucose
Glucose
Olycose
Glycose
Glycose
Fruit sugar
Honey sugar
Honigzucker
Diabetic sugar
Uric sugar
Harnzucker
Rag sugar
Potato -sugar
Right-handed sugar
Grape sugar
Traubenzucker
Sucre de Raisin
Starch sugar
Starkezucker
Dextro-glucose
Kriimelzucker
Sucro -glucose
Levulose (laevulose)
Lavulose
Levulose
Fruit sugar
Fruchtzucker
Left-handed glucose
Linksfruchtzucker
Laevo-glncose
Sucro-glucose
Syrupzucker
Schleimzucker
Honigzucker
Chylariose
Chyliarose
108
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
SYNONYMS.— Continued.
109
English.
German.
French.
Invert-sugar
Invertzucker
Sucre invert!
Sucre interverti
Raffinose
Raffinose
Eaffinose
Melitose
Melitose
Melitose
Melitriose
Plus-sugar
Pluszucker
Gossypose
Bau m wollzucker
•
Raffinotriose
Raffinohexose
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
ON"
SUQAR ANALYSIS.
BOOKS AND PERIODICALS.
1839 PELIGOT, E. Analyse et Composition de la Betterave a Sucre.
1840 PELIGOT, E. Composition chimique de la Canne a Sucre.
1848 *BACHE, A. D., AND McCuLLOUGH, E. S. Keport on Sugar
and Hydrometers.
1863 FRESE, 0. Beitrage zur Zuckerfabrikation.
1865 ICERY, E. Recherches sur les Jus de la Canne a Sucre.
1867 *MANDELBLUEb C. Leitfaden zur Untersuchung der ver-
schiedenen Zuckerarten,sowie der in der Zuckerfabrikation
vorkommenden Produkte.
1867 MONIER, E. Guide pour TEssai et PAnalyse des Sucres.
1868 *VIOLETTE, C. Dosage du Sucre au Moyen des Liqueurs
titrees.
1869 MOIGNO, I/ABBE. Saccharometrie optique, chimique et
melassimetrique.
1874 Possoz, L. Notice sur la Saccharometrie chimique.
1875 GUNNING, J. W. La Saccharometrie et PImpot sur le
Sucre.
1875 TERREIL, M. A. Notions pratiques sur ^Analyse chimique
des Substances sacchariferes.
1875 WACKENRODER, B. Anleitung zur chemischen Unter-
suchung technischer Produkte welche auf dem Gebiete der
Zuckerfabrikation und Landwirthschaft vorkommeu.
1876 MAUMENE, E. J. Traite theorique et pratique de la Fabri-
cation du Sucre.
1878 *URE'S Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, vol. iii.,
and Supplement (1879).
Asterisks mark the publications consulted. — F. G. W.
110
SUGAR ANALYSIS. Ill
1879 BARBET, E. Analyse des Liquides Sucres.
1879 *LANDOLT, H. Das optische Drehungsvermogen Organischer
Substanzen und die praktischen Anwendungen desselben.
1880 COLLIER, P. Report of Analytical and Other Work done on
Sorghum and Cornstalks. Department of Agriculture,
Eeport No. 33.
1881 FRANKEL, J., AND HUTTER, R. A. Practical Treatise on the
Manufacture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-sugar, and Dextrine.
1882 *LANDOLT, H. Handbook of the Polariscope and its Practi-
cal Applications. (From the German.)
1882 *VoN LIPPMANN, E. Die Zuckerarten und ihre Derivate.
1882 *SPONSJ Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures,
and Raw Commercial Products, vol. ii., article: "Sugar
Analysis."
1883 LE DOCTE, A. Traite complet du Controle chimique de la
Fabrication du Sucre.
1883 LEPLAY, H. Chimie theorique et pratique des Industries
du Sucre.
1883 *TUCKER, J. H. A Manual of Sugar Analysis. (Second Edi-
tion.)
1884 *COMMERSON, E., ET LAUGiER, E. Guide pour Analyse des
Matieres sucrees. (Third Edition.)
1884 *VoN WACHTEL, A. Hilfsbuch fur chemisch-technische Un-
tersuchungen auf dem Gesammtgebiete der Zuckerfabri-
kation.
1885 * ALLEN, A. H. Commercial Organic Analysis, vol. i., arti-
cle: "Sugars."
1885 *FRUHLING, R., UND SCHULZ, J. Anleitung zur Unter-
suchung der fiir die Zuckerindustrie in Betracht kom-
menden Rohmaterialien, Producte, Nebenproducte uad
Hiilfssubstanzen. (Third Edition.)
1887 *Ausfuhrungs-Bestimrnungen zum -Zucker-steuergesetz vom
9ten Juli, 1887. (German Government.)
1887 *SCHMIDT, F., UKD HAENSCH. Gebrauchs- Anweisung zu den
Polarisations- Apparaten von Schmidt und Haensch.
1887 *STAMMER, K. Lehrbuch der Zuckerfabrikation. (Second
Edition.)
1888 LOCK AND NEWLAND. Sugar: A Handbook for Planters
and Refiners.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
1888 PELLET. Nouveau Precede simple, rapide et pen couteux de
Dosage direct du Sucre contenue dans la Betterave, la
Canne, la Bagasse, le Sorgho, etc.
1888 *SACHS, F. Eevue Universelle des Progres de la Fabrication
du Sucre.
1888 *TOLLENS, B. Kurzes Handbuch der Kohlen-hydrate.
1888 *WEIN, E. Tabellen zur quantitativen Bestimmung der
Zuckerarten.
1889 *BASSET, N. Guide du Planteur de Cannes.
1889 *LEPLAY, H. Etudes chimiques sur la Formation du Sucre.
1889 *SPENCER, G. L. A Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and
their Chemists.
PERIODICALS.
*The American Chemist (1870-1877).
*The Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. America.
Weekly.
Sugar Bowl and Farm Journal. America. Weekly.
The Sugar Beet. America. Monthly.
*Sugar Cane. England. Monthly.
Sugar. England. Monthly.
The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. England.
Monthly.
*Chemiker Zeitung. Semi- weekly.
*Die Deutsche Zuckerindustrie, Weekly.
*Jahresbericht iiber die Untersuchungen und Fortschritte auf dem
Gesammtgebiete der Zuckerfabrikation.
*Neue Zeitschrift fur Kiibenzucker-Industrie. Semi-monthly.
*Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Zeitschrift fur Zucker-Industrie und
Landwirthschaft. Six numbers per annum.
Taschenkalender fur Zuckerfabrikanten. K. Stammer. Annual.
Wocheuschrift des Centralvereines fur Rubenzucker-Industrie in
der Oester : Ungar : Monarchic.
*Zeitschrift des Vereines fur die Rubenzucker-Industrie des
Deutschen Reichs. Monthly.
Zeitschrift fiir Zuckerindustrie in Bohmen. Ten numbers per
annum.
Bulletin de TAssociation Beige des Chimistes. Monthly.
* Journal des Fabricants de Sucre. France. Weekly.
*La Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. France. Weekly.
TABLES.
I.
EEL AT ION BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY,
DEGREES BRIX AND DEGREES BAUME,
FOR PURE SUGAR SOLUTIONS FROM 0 TO
100 PER CENT.
MATEGCZEK AND SCHEIBLEB.
(Temperature 17.5° C. = 63.5° F.)
FORMULAE OF VON LiORENZ.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DEGREES BRIX.
Let d = specific gravity, s = degrees Brix.
For the range of:
«*- ..................................................................
«°B- ................................................................
DEGREES BRIX AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
For the range of:
1.00000-1.15411 ..... 29375d- 29374
100d + 14
1.15411-1.35088 ................................ 35163d -35036
lOOd + 43
42908d - 42067
1.35088—1.55785.
,.8 =
lOOd + 93
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DEGREES BAUME.
Let d = specific gravity, n = degrees Baum6.
146.78
" 146.78 - it'
DEGREES BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
„ = 146.78^.
DEGREES BRIX AND DEGREES BAUME.
Let s = degrees Brix, n = degrees Baume.
For the range of:
0.00°— 19.60° Baume s = 10 + 2097n
19.60°-38.12» Baum6 ...s = 483 + 814'5n
488 — n
38.12o-52.56o Baume s = 18g + 457'2n
oUo.o — n
DEGREES BAUME AND DEGREES BRIX.
For the range of:
35°— 70° Brix n =
700-100° Brix... ...n =
s -f- 814.5
306.3.9 - 1342
s + 457.2
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
117
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
O.O
I.OOOOO
o.oo
4.0
.01570
2.27
O.I
.00038
0.06
4.1
.Ol6lO
2-33
0.2
.OOO77
O.II
4.2
.01650
2.38
0-3
.OOIl6
0.17
4-3
.01690
2.44
0.4
.00155
0.23
4.4
.01730
2.50
0.5
.00193
0.28
4-5
.01770
2.55
0.6
.00232
0-34
4.6
.OlSlO
2.61
0.7
.00271
0.40
4-7
.01850
2.67
0.8
.00310
0-45
4.8
.01890
2.72
0.9
.00349
0.51
4.9
.01930
2.78
.0
.00388
0-57
5-0
.01970
2.84
.1
.00427
0.63
5-i
.O2OIO
2.89
.2
. 00466
0.68
5-2
.02051
2.95
•3
.00505
P-74
5-3
.02091
3.01
•4
.00544
0.80
5-4
.02131
3.06
• 5
.00583
0.85
5-5
.02171
3-12
.6
.00622
0.91
5-6
.02211
3.18
• 7
. OO662
0.97
5-7
.O2252
3-23
.8
.OO7OI
1.02
5-8
.02292
3.29
•9
.00740
1. 08
5-9
.02333
3-35
2.0
.00779
I.I4
6.0
.02373
3-4°
2.1
.008l8
I.I9
6.1
•02413
3.46
2.2
.00858
1.25
6.2
.02454
3-52
2-3
.00897
I-3I
6-3
.02494
3-57
2.4
.00936
1.36
6.4
•02535
3-63
2-5
.00976
1.42
6-5
-02575
3-69
2.6
.OIOI5
I.48
6.6
.O26l6
3-74
2.7
.01055
1-53
6-7
.02657
3.80
2.8
.01094
1.59
6.8
.02697
3.86
2.9
.01134
1.65
6.9
.02738
3-91
3-0
.01173
1.70
7.0
.02779
3-97
3-i
.01213
1.76
7-i
.02819
4-03
3-2
.01252
1.82
7-2
.02860
4.08
3-3
.01292
1.87
7-3
.02901
4.14
3-4
.01332
L93
7-4
.02942
4.20
3-5
.01371
1.99
. 7-5
•02983
4.25
3-6
.01411
2.04
7-6
.03024
4.31
3-7
.01451
2.10
7-7
. 03064
4.37
3-8
.01491
2.l6
7-8
•03105
4.42
3-9
•OI53I
2.21
7-9
.03146
4.48
i
118
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume\
8.0
.03187
4-53
13-0
.05276
7-36
8.1
.03228
4-59
I3.I
.05318
7 41
8.2
.03270
4.65
13.2
•05361
7-47
8.3
.03311
4.70
13-3
.05404
7-53
8.4
.03352
4.76
13-4
.05446
7.58
8-5
•03393
4.82
13.5
.05489
7.64
8.6
.03434
4.87
13-6
•05532
7.69
8.7
•03475
4-93
13.7
•05574
7-75
8.8
.03517
4.99
13.8
.05617
7.81
8.9
.03558
5.04
13-9
. 05660
7,86
9.0
.03599
5.10
14.0
•05703
7.92
9.1
.03640
5.i6
I4.I
•05746
7-98
9.2
.03682
5.21
14.2
.05789
8.03
9-3
.03723
5-27
14-3
.05831
8.09
9.4
•03765
5-33
14.4
.05874
8.14
9-5
.03806
5.38
14-5
,05917
8.20
9.6
.03848
5-44
I4.6
.05960
8.26
9-7
.03889
5-50
14.7
.06003
8.31
9.8
.03931
5-55
I4.8
.06047
8.37
9.9
.03972
5.61
14.9
.06090
8-43
IO.O
.04014
5.67
15.0
.06133
8.48
IO.I
.04055
5.72
I5-I
.06176
8-54
10.2
.04097
5.78
15-2
.06219
8-59
10.3
.04139
5-83
15-3
.06262
8.65
IO.4
.04180
5-89
15 4
.06306
8-71
10.5
.04222
5-95
15-5
.06349
8.76
10.6
.04264
6.00
15-6
.06392
8.82
10.7
. 04306
6.06
15.7
.06436
8.88
10.8
.04348
6.12
15-8
.06479
8-93
10.9
.04390
6.17
15-9
.06522
8-99
II. 0
.04431
6.23
16.0
.06566
9-04.
n. i
•04473
6.29
16.1
.06609
9. 10
II. 2
•04515
6.34
16.2
.06653
9.16
11*3
•04557
6.40
16.3
. 06696
9.21
11.4
•04599
6.46
16.4
.06740
9.27
U-5
.04641
6.51
16.5
.06783
9-33
n. 6
.04683
6-57
16.6
.06827
9-38
ii. 7
.04726
6.62
!6.7
.06871
9.44
II. 8
.04768
6.68
16.8
.06914
9.49
It .9
.04810
6-74
16.9
.06958
9-55
12.0
.04852
6.79
17.0
.07002
9.61
12. 1
.04894
6.85
17.1
.07046
9.66
12.2
•04937
6.91
17.2
.07090
9.72
12.3
.04979
6.96
17-3
.07133
9-77
12.4
.05021
7.02
17.4
07177
9-83
12-5
-05064
7.08
17-5
.07221
9.89
12.6
.05106
7-13
17.6
.07265
9.94
12.7
.05149
7.19
17.7
.07309
10.00
12.8
-05191
7.24
17.8
•07358
10.06
12.9
•05233
7-30
17.9
•07397
10. II
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
119
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume\
l8.0
1.07441
10. 17
23.0
.09686
12.96
I8.I
1.07485
10.22
23.1
.09732
13-02
18.2
1.07530
10.28
23.2
.09777
13.07
18.3
1.07574
10.33
23-3
.09823
I3.I3
18.4
1.07618
10.39
23-4
.09869
13.19
18.5
1.07662
10.45
23.5
.09915
13.24
18.6
1.07706
10.50
23.6
.09961
I3-30
18.7
1.07751
10.56
23-7
. IOOO7
13.35
18.8
1.07795
10.62
23.8
.10053
13.41
18.9
1.07839
10.67
23-9
. 10099
13.46
19.0
1.07884
10.73
24.0
.10145
13.52
19.1
1.07928
10.78
24.1
.10191
13.58
19.2
1.07973
10.84
24.2
. 10237
I3-63
19-3
1.08017
10.90
24-3
.10283
13.69
19.4
1.08062
10.95
24.4
.10329
13-74
19-5
I. 08106
II. OI
24-5
•10375
13.80
19.6
I.08I5I
II. 06
24.6
.10421
13.85
19.7
1.08196
II. 12
24.7
. 10468
13- 91
19.8
1.08240
Il.lB
24.8
.10514
13.96
19.9
1.08285
11.23
24.9
. 10560
14.02
20. 0
1.08329
11.29
25.0
.10607
14.08
20.1
1.08374
H-34
25.1
.10653
I4-I3
20.2
1.08419
11.40
25.2
. 10700
14.19
20.3
1.08464
"•45
25-3
. 10746
14.24
20-4
1.08509
11.51
25-4
.10793
14.30
20.5
1.08553
11-57
25-5
. 10839
14-35
20.6
1.08599
11.62
25.6
.10886
14.41
20.7
1.08643
11.68
25-7
. 10932
14.47
20.8
1.08688
H-73
25-8
• 10979
14.52
20.9
1.08733
11.79
25-9
.IIO26
14.58
21.0
1.08778
11.85
26.O
.11072
14.63
21. 1
1.08824
11.90
26.1
. Illig
14.69
21.2
1.08869
11.96
26.2
.11166
14.74
21.3
1.08914
12.01
26.3
.11213
14.80
21.4
1.08959
I2.O7
26.4
.11259
14.85
21.5
1.09004
12.13
26.5
.11306
14.91
21.6
1.09049
I2.I8
26.6
•II353
14.97
21.7
1.09095
12.24
26.7
. 11400
15.02
21.8
1.09140
12.29
26.8
.11447
15.08
21.9
1.09185
12.35
26.9
.11494
15.13
22.0
1.09231
12.40
27.0
.11541
15-19
22.1
1.09276
12.46
27.1
.11588
15.24
22.2
1.09321
12.52
27.2
.11635
15-30
22.3
1.09367
12.57
27-3
.11682
15-35
22.4
1.09412
12.63
27.4
.11729
15.41
22.5
1.09458
12.68
27-5
.11776
15.46
22.6
1.09503
12.74
27.6
.11824
I5-52
22.7
1.09549
12.80
27.7
.11871
15-58
22.8
1.09595
12.85
27.8
.11918
15-63
22.9
I .09640
12.91
27.9
.11965
15.69
120
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume".
28.0
.12013
15.74
33-0
I.I4423
18.50
28.1
.12060
15.80
33.1
I . 14472
18.56
28.2
.12107
15.85
33-2
I.I452I
18.61
28.3
•12155
I5-91
33-3
1.14570
18.67
28.4
.12202
15.96
33-4
I . 14620
18.72
28.5
.12250
16.02
33-5
I . 14669
18.78
28.6
.12297
16.07
33-6
1.14718
18.83
28.7
•12345
16.13
33-7
1.14767
18.89
28.8
•12393
16.18
33.8
1.14817
18.94
28.9
.12440
16.24
33-9
1.14866
ig.OO
29.0
.12488
16.30
34-o
1.14915
19.05
29.1
.12536
16.35
34.1
I . 14965
19.11
29.2
.12583
16.41
34-2
I.I50I4
19.16
29-3
.12631
16.46
34-3
1.15064
19.22
29.4
.12679
16.52
34-4
I.I5"3
19.27
29-5
.12727
16-57
34-5
I.I5I63
19.33
29.6
•12775
16.63
34-6
I.I52I3
19.38
29.7
.12823
16.68
34.7
1.15262
19.44
29.8
.12871
16.74
34-8
I.I53I2
19.49
29.9
.12919
16.79
34-9
I.I5362
19-55
30.0
.12967
16.85
35-0
I.I54H
19.60
30.1
.13015
16.90
35-1
I.I546I
19.66
30.2
.13063
16.96
35-2
I.I55H
19.71
30-3
.13111
17.01
35.3
I.I556I
19.76
30.4
.13159
17.07
35-4
1.15611
19.82
30-5
.13207
17. 12
35-5
1.15661
19.87
30.6
•13255
17.18
35.6
I.I57IO
19-93
30-7
.13304
17.23
35-7
I.I5760
19.98
30.8
.13352
17.29
35-8
1.15810
20.04
30.9
.13400
17.35
35-9
1.15861
20.09
31-0
. 13449
17.40
36.0
I.I5911
20.15
3I-I
.13497
17.46
36.1
1.15961
20.20
31-2
.13545
17.51
36.2
i. 16011
2O.26
31-3
.13594
17-57
36.3
i. 16061
20.31
3i-4
.13642
17.62
36.4
i.i6in
20.37
3i-5
.13691
17.68
36-5
1.16162
20.42
31-6
.13740
17-73
36.6
1.16212
20.48
3i-7
.13788
17.79
36-7
i . 16262
20.53
31.8
.13837
17.84
36.8
1.16313
20.59
3i-9
.13885
17.90
36.9
1.16363
20.64
32.0
•13934
17-95
37-0
1.16413
20.7O
32.1
.13983
I8.0I
37.1
I . 16464
20.75
• 32-2
.14032
18.06
37-2
1.16514
20.80
32-3
.14081
18.12
37-3
1.16565
20.86
32.4
.14129
18.17
37-4
I. 16616
20.91
32-5
.14178
18.23
37-5
1.16666
20.97
32.6
.14227
18.28
37-6
1.16717
21.02
32-7
.14276
18.34
37.7
1.16768
21.08
32.8
.14325
18.39
37-8
I. 16818
21.13
32.9
• 14374
18.45
37-9
I . 16869
21.19
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
121
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume".
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume
38.0
. 16920
21.24
43-0
•1950S
23.96
38.1
.16971
21.30
43-1
•19558
24.01
38.2
.17022
21-35
43-2
.19611
24.07
38.3
.17072
21.40
43-3
.19663
24.12
38.4
.17132
21.46
43-4
.19716
24.17
38.5
.17174
21.51
43-5
.19769
24.23
38.6
.17225
21-57
43-6
.19822
24.28
38.7
.17276
21.62
43-7
.19875
24-34
38.8
.17327
21.68
43-8
.19927
24-39
38.9
•17379
21.73
43-9
.19980
24.44
39-o
.17430
21.79
44.0
.20033
24.50
39-i
.17481
21.84
44.1
. 20086
24-55
39-2
.17532
21.90
44-2
•20139
24.61
39-3
.17583
21.95
44-3
.20192
24.66
39-4
.17635
22.00
44.4
.20245
24.71
39-5
.17686
22.06
44-5
. 20299
24-77
39-6
•17737
22.11
44.6
.20352
24.82
39-7
.17789
22.17
44-7
. 20405
24.88
39-8
.17840
22.22
44.8
.20458
24-93
39-9
.17892
22.28
44.9
.20512
24.98
40.0
•17943
22.33
45-0
.20565
25.04
40.1
.17995
22.38
45-i
.20618
25.09
40.2
.18046
22.44
45.2
. 20672
25.14
40.3
.18098
22-49
45-3
.20725
25 .20
40.4
.18150
22-55
45*4
.20779
25.25
40.5
.18201
22.6O
45 5
.20832
25.3I
40.6
•18253
22.66
45.6
.20886
25-36
40.7
.18305
22.71
45-7
.20939
25.41
40.8
.18357
22.77
45-8
.20993
25-47
40.9
.18408
22.82
45-9
.21046
25.52
41.0
.18460
22.87
46.0
.2IIOO
25.57
41.1
.18512
22.93
46.1
.21154
25.63
41.2
.18564
22.98
46.2
.21208
25.68
41-3
.18616
23.04
46.3
.21261
25.74
41.4
.18668
23.09
46.4
.21315
25.79
41-5
.18720
23.15
46.5
.21369
25.84
41.6
.18772
23.20
46.6
.21423
25.90
41.7
.18824
23.25
46.7
.21477
25-95
41.8
.18877
23.31
46.8
•21531
26.00
41.9
. 18929
23.36
46-9
.21585
26.06
42.0
.18981
23.42
47-o
.21639
26.11
42.1
.I9033
23-47
47.1
.21693
26.17
42.2
. 19086
23.52
47-2
•21/47
26.22
42.3
.19138
23.58
47-3
.21802
26.27
42.4
.19190
23.63
47.4
.21856
26.33
42.5
.19243
23.69
47-5
.2IQIO
26.38
42.6
.19295
23.74
47.6
.21964
26.43
42.7
.19348
23.79
47.7
.22019
26.49
42.8
I . 19400
23.85
47-8
.22073
26.54
42.9
I.I9453
23.90
47-9
.22127
26.59
122
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume'.
48.0
.22182
26.65
53-0
.24951
29.31
48.1
.22236
26.70
53-1
.25008
29.36
48.2
.22291
26.75
53-2
.25064
29.42
48.3
.22345
26.81
53-3
.25120
29-47
48.4
. 22400
26.86
53-4
•25177
29.52
48.5
•22455
26.92
53-5
.25233
29-57
48.6
.22509
26.97
53-6
.25290
29.63
48.7
.22564
27.02
53-7
.25347
29.68
48.8
.22619
27.08
53-8
.25403
29-73
48.9
.22673
27.13
53-9
.25460
29.79
49.0
.22728
27.18
54-0
.25517
29.84
49.1
.22783
27.24
54-1
.25573
29.89
49.2
.22838
27.29
54-2
.25630
29.94
49-3
.22893
27.34
54-3
.25687
30.00
49.4
.22948
27.40
54-4
.25744
30.05
49-5
.23003
27-45
54-5
.25801
30.10
49.6
.23058
27.50
54-6
.25857
30.16
49-7
.23113
27.56
54-7
.25914
30.21
49-8
.23168
27.61
54-8
.25971
30.26
49.9
.23223
27.66
54-9
.26028
30.31
50.0
.23283
27.72
55-0
.26086
30.37
50.1
•23334
27.77
55.1
•26143
30.42
50.2
•23389
27.82
55-2
. 26200
30-47
50.3
.23444
27.88
55-3
.26257
30.53
50.4
.23499
27.93
55-4
.26314
30.58
50-5
•23555
27.98
55-5
.26372
30,63
50.6
.23610
28.04
55-6
.26429
30.68
50.7
. 23666
28.09
55.7
. 26486
30.74
50.8
.23721
28.14
55.8
.26544
30-79
50.9
•23777
28.20
55-9
. 26601
30.84
51-0
.23832
28.25
56.0
.26658
30.89
5I-I
.23888
28.30
56.1
.26716
30.95
51.2
•23943
28.36
56.2
.26773
31.00
51-3
.23999
28.41
56.3
.26831
3I-05
51-4
.24055
28.46
56.4
.26889
31.10
51-5
.24111
28.51
56.5
. 26946
31.16
51.6
.24166
28-57
56.6
.27004
3I-2I
51-7
.24222
28.62
56.7
.27062
31.26
51.8
.24278
28.67
56.8
.27120
3L3I
51.9
> 24334
28.73
56.9
.27177
31-37
52.0
.24390
28.78
57-o
•27235
31.42
52.1
.24446
28.83
57-1
.27293
31-47
52.2
.24502
28.89
57-2
.27351
3L52
52-3
.24558
28.94
57-3
.27409
3L58
52.4
.24614
28.99
57-4
.27467
31.63
52-5
. 24670
29.05
57-5
.27525
31.68
52.6
.24726
29.10
57-6
.27583
31.73
52-7
.24782
29.15
57.7
.27641
31.79^
52.8
•24839
29.20
57-8
.27699
31.84
52-9
.24895
29.26
57-9
.27758
31.89
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
123
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume".
58.0
.27816
3L94
63.0
.30777
34.54
58.1
.27874
32.OO
63.I
.30837
34-59
58.2
.27932
32.05
63.2
.30897
34-65
58.3
.27991
32.10
63.3
.30958
34.70
58.4
.28049
32.15
63.4
.31018
34-75
58-5
.28107
32.20
63-5
.31078
34.8o
58.6
.28166
32.26
63.6
•3"39
34.85
58.7
.28224
32.31
63-7
.31199
34-90
58.8
.28283
32.36
63.8
.31260
34.96
58.9
.28342
32.41
63.9
.31320
35-01
59-o
. 28400
32.47
64.0
.31381
35-o6
59-1
•28459
32.52
64.I
.31442
35-n
59-2
.28518
32.57
64.2
.31502
35-16
59-3
.28576
32.62
64-3
.31563
35.21
59-4
.28635
32.67
64.4
.31624
35-27
59-5
.28694
32.73
64-5
.31684
35.32
59-6
•28753
32.78
64.6
• 3*745
35.37
59-7
.28812
32.83
64.7
.31806
35.42
59-8
.28871
32.88
64.8
.31867
35-47
59-9
.28930
32.93
64.9
.31928
35-52
60.0
.28989
32.99
65.0
•31989
35-57
60. i
. 29048
33-04
65.1
.32050
35.63
60.2
.29107
33-09
65.2
.32111
35.68
60.3
.29166
33-14
65.3
.32172
35-73
60.4
.29225
33.20
65.4
.32233
35-78
60.5
.29284
33-25
65.5
.32294
35.83
60.6
.29343
33.30
65-6
.32355
35.88
60.7
.29403
33-35
65.7
.32417
35-93
60.8
. 29462
33-40
65.8
.32478
35.98
60.9
.29521
33.46
65.9
-32539
36.04
61.0
.29581
33.51
66.0
.32601
36.09
61.1
. 29640
33.56
66.1
.32662
36.14
61.2
.29700
33.61
66.2
.32724
36.19
61.3
•29759
33-66
66.3
.32785
36.24
61.4
.29819
33-71
66.4
.32847
36.29
61.5
.29878
33-77
66.5
.32908
36.34
61.6
.29938
33-82
66.6
.32970
36.39
61.7
.29998
33.87
66.7
•33031
36.45
61.8
.30057
33.92
66.8
.33093
36.50
61.9
.30H7
33-97
66.9
.33155
36.55
62.0
.30177
34-03
67.0
.33217
36.60
62.1
.30237
34-08
67.1
.33278
36.65
62.2
.30297
34-13
67.2
.33340
36.70
62.3
.30356
34.18
67.3
.33402
36.75
62.4
.30416
34-23
67.4
.33464
36.80
62.5
.30476
34.28
67-5
.33526
36.85
62.6
.30536
34-34
67.6
•33588
36.90
62.7
30596
34-39
67.7
.33650
36.96
62.8
30657
34-44
67.8
•33712
37-01
62.9
30717
34-49
67-9
•33774
37.o6
124
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume".
68.0
1.33836
37-11
73-0
• 36995
39-64
68.1
.33899
37-16
73-1
•37059
39.69
68.2
.33961
37-21
73-2
.37124
39-74
68.3
. 34023
37-26
73-3
.37188
39-79
68.4
.34085
37-31
73-4
.37252
39-84
68.5 -
.34148
37.36
73-5
•37317
39-89
68.6
.34210
37-41
73-6
.37381
39-94
68.7
.34273
37-47
73-7
• 37446
39-99
68.8
•34335
37-52
73-8
•37510
40.04
68.9
.34398
37-57
73-9
•37575
40.09
69.0
.34460
37-62
74-o
•37639
40.14
69. i
-34523
37.67
74.1
•37704
40.19
69.2
•34585
37-72
74-2
•37768
40.24
69-3
•34648
37-77
74-3
.37833
40.29
69-4
.347H
37.82
74-4
.37898
40.34
69-5
•34774
37.87
74-5
.37962
40.39
69.6
•34836
37.92
74-6
.38027
40.44
69.7
.34899
37-97
74-7
-38092
40.49
69.8
. 34962
38.02
74-8
•38157
40.54
69.9
•35025
38-07
74-9
.38222
40.59
70.0
.35088
38.12
75-0
.38287
40.64
70.1
•35I5I
38.18
75-i
•38352
40.69
70.2
•35214
38-23
75-2
•38417
40.74
70.3
•35277
38.28
75-3
.38482
40.79
70-4
•35340
38.33
75-4
.38547
40.84
70-5
•35403
38.38
75-5
.38612
40.89
70.6
•35466
38.43
75-6
•38677
40.94
70.7
•35530
38.48
75-7
.38743
40.99
70.8"
•35593
38.53
75-8
.38808
41.04
70.9
•35656
38.58
75-9
•38873
41.09
71.0
•35720
38-63
76.0
•38939
41.14
71.1
.35783
38.68
76.1
. 39004
41.19
71.2
•35847
38.73
76.2
• 39070
41.24
71-3
•359To
38.78
76.3
.39135
41.29
71.4
•35974
38.83
76.4
.39201
41-33
7i-5
.36037
38.88
76.5
.39266
41.38
71.6
.36101
38.93
76.6
•39332
41-43
71.7
.36164
38.98
76.7
•39397
41.48
71.8
.36228
39-03
76.8
• 39463
41-53
71.9
.36292
39.08
76.9
.39529
41.58
72.0
•36355
39.13
77-o
•39595
41.63
72.1
.36419
39-!9
77-i
.39660
41.68
72.2
•36483
39-24
77.2
.39726
41-73
72.3
.36547
39-29
77-3
•39792
41.78
72 4
.36611
39-34
77-4
•39858
41.83
72.5
•36675
39 39
77-5
.39924
41.88
72.6
•36739
39-44
77-6
• 39990
41-93
72.7
•36803
39-49
77-7
. 40056
41.98'
72.8
.36867
39-54
77-8
.40122
42.03
72.9
•36931
39-59
77-9
.40188
42.08
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
125
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
78.0
.40254
42.13
83.0
.43614
44-58
78.1
.40321
42.18
83-1
.43682
44.62
78.2
.40387
42.23
83.2
•43750
44.67
78.3
.40453
42.28
83-3
.43819
44.72
78.4
.40520
42.32
83.4
.43887
44-77
78.5
.40586
42-37
83-5
.43955
44.82
78.6
.40652
42.42
83.6
.44024
44.87
78-7
.40719
42.47
83.7
.44092
44.91
78.8
.40785
42.52
83.8
.44161
44.96
78.9
.40852
42.57
83.9
.44229
45-01
79.0
.40918
42.62
84.0
.44298
45-o6
79.1
.40985
42.67
84.I
.44367
45-n
79.2
.41052
42.72
84.2
•44435
45.16
79-3
.41118
42.77
84-3
•44504
45-21
79-4
.41185
42.82
84-4
•44573
45-25
79-5
.41252
42.87
84-5
.44641
45.30
79.6
.41318
42.92
84.6
.44710
45-35
79-7
.41385
42.96
84.7
•44779
45-40
79.8
.41452
43.01
84.8
.44848
45-45
79-9
.41519
43.06
84-9
.44917
45.49
80.0
.41586
43-11
85.0
.44986
45-54
80. i
•41653
43.16
85.I
•45055
45-59
80.2
.41720
43-21
85.2
•45124
45.64
80.3
.41787
43.26
85.3
•45193
45-69
80.4
.41854
43-31
85.4
.45262
45-74
80.5
.41921
43.36
85.5
•45331
45.78
80.6
.41989
43-41
85.6
.45401
45.83
80.7
.42056
43-45
85.7
•45470
45-88
80.8
.42123
43-50
85-8
•45539
45-93
80.9
.42190
43-55
85.9
.45609
45.98
81.0
.42258
43.6o
86.0
•45678
46.02
81.1
.42325
43.65
86.1
•45748
46.07
81.2
.42393
43.70
86.2
.45817
46.12
81.3
. 42460
43.75
86.3
.45887
46.17
81.4
.42528
43.8o
86.4
.45956
46.22
81.5
.42595
43.85
86.5
.46026
46.26
81.6
.42663
43-89
86.6
.46095
46.31
81.7
.42731
43-94
86.7
.46165
46.36
81.8
.42798
43-99
86.8
•46235
46.41
81.9
.42866
44.04
86.9
.46304
46.46
82.0
•42934
44.09
87.0
.46374
46.50
82.1
.43002
44.14
87.1
.46444
46.55
82.2
.43070
44.19
87.2
.46514
46.60
82.3
.43137
44-24
87.3
.46584
46.65
82.4
.43205
44.28
87.4
.46654
46.69
82.5
.43273
44-33
87.5
•46724
46.74
82.6
•43341
44.38
87.6
.46794
46.79
82.7
.43409
44-43
87.7
.46864
46.84
82.8
•43478
44.48
87.8
•46934
46.88
82.9
.43546
44-53
87-9
.47004
46.93
126
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
8S.o
.47074
46.98
93-0
•50635
49-34
88.1
•47145
47-03
93.1
• 50707
49-39
88.2
.47215
47-08
93-2
•50779
49-43
88.3
.47285
47-12
93-3
-50852
49.48
88.4
.47356
47-17
93-4
.50924
49-53
88.5
•47426
47-22
93.5
. 50996
49-57
88.6
.47496
47-27
93-6
.51069
49.62
88.7
.47567
47.31
93-7
.51141
49.67
88.8
.47637
47.36
93-8
.51214
49.71
88.9
.47708
47.41
93-9
.51286
49.76
89.0
•47778
47.46
94.0
•51359
49.81
89.1
.47849
47.50
94.1
.51431
49-85
89.2
.47920
47.55
94-2
.51504
49.90
89-3
.47991
47.60
94-3
.51577
49-94
89.4
.48061
47-65
94-4
.51649
49-99
89.5
•48132
47.69
94-5
.51722
50.04
89.6
.48203
47.74
94-6
•5'795
50.08
89.7
.48274
47-79
94-7
.51868
50.13
89.8
•48345
47-83
94-8
•5I94I
50.18
89.9
.48416
47.88
94.9
.52014
50.22
90.0
.48486
47.93
95-0
.52087
50.27
90.1
.48558
47.98
95-1
•52159
50.32
90.2
.48629
48.02
95-2
.52232
50.36
90-3
.48700
48.07
95-3
.52304
50.41
90.4
.48771
48.12
95 4
.52376
50-45
90-5
.48842
48.17
95-5
52449
50.50
90.6
.48913
48.21
95-6
.52521
50 55
90.7
.48985
48.26
95-7
.52593
50.59
90.8
.49056
48.31
95-8
52665
50.64
90.9
.49127
48.35
95-9
.52738
50.69
91.0
.49199
48.40
96.0
.52810
50.73
91.1
.49270
48.45
96. r
.52884
50.78
91.2
•49342
48-50
96.2
52958
50.82
Qi-3
•49413
48.54
96.3
53032
50.87
91.4
.49485
48.59
96.4
53106
50.92
9i-5
•49556
48.64
96.5
53180
50.96
91.6
.49628
48.68
96.6
53254
51.01
91.7
.49700
48.73
96.7
53328
51-05
91.8
•49771
48.78
96.8
53402
51-10
91.9
.49843
48.82
96-9
53476
5I.I5
92.0
•49915
48.87
97.0
53550
51. 19
92.1
.49987
48.92
97.1
53624
51-24
92.2
•50058
48.96
97.2
53698
51.28
92.3
•50130
49.01
• 97-3
•53772
51.33
92.4
. 50202
49.06
97-4
.53846
51-38
92-5
• 50274
49.11
97-5
•53920
51.42
92.6
•50346
49- *5
97-6
-53994
51.47
92.7
.50419
49.20
97-7
. 54068
Si-Si
92.8
• 50491
49-25
97-8
.54142
5i 56
92.9
•50563
49.29
97-9
.54216
51 .60
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
127
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume*.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume".
98.0
. 54290
51.65
99.0
.55040
52.11
98.1
.54365
51.70
99.1
.55H5
52.15
98.2
• 54440
51.74
99.2
.55189
52.20
98.3
•54515
51-79
99-3
.55264
52.24
98.4
• 54590
51.83
99.4
.55338
52.29
98.5
.54665
51-88
99-5
•55413
52.33
98.6
•54740
51.92
99-6
.55487
52.38
98.7
.54815
5L97
99-7
•55562
52.42
98.8
.54890
52.01
99.8
.55636
52.47
98.9
1.54965
52.06
99.9
•557II
52.51
100. 0
1.55785
52.56
n.
CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE IN DE-
TERMINATIONS BY THE SPECIFIC GRAV-
ITY HYDROMETER.
(CASAMAJOR.)
129
130
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
II.
Normal Temperature : 15.0° C.
Normal Temperature : 17.5° C.
Temperature in
Degrees Centigrade.
Add to the Reading of
the Hydrometer.
Temperature in
Degrees Centigrade.
Add to the Reading of
the Hydrometer.
9.90
—0.0005
7-5
—O.OOIO
15-00
0.0000
13-0
— 0.0005
18.20
-j-0.0005
17-5
o.oooo
20.75
O.OOIO
20.2
+0.0005
23.20
0.0015 "
23.0
O.OOIO
25-30
0.0020
25.0
0.0015
27.30
0.0025
27.0
O.OO2O
29.40
O.OO3O
29.0
0.0025
31.20
0.0035
3LO
O.OO3O
32.80
0.0040
32-5
0.0035
34.50
0.0045
34-7
0.0040
36.10
O.OO5O
36.2
0.0045
37.60
0.0055
37-4
O.OO5O
38.80
0.0060
39-0
0.0055
40.40
0.0065
40.5
0.0060
41.60
O.OO7O
42.0
0.0065
42.90
0.0075
43-4
0.0070
44.20
O.OOSO
44.2
0.0075
45-00
O.OO83
45-0
0.0080
III.
CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE IN DE-
TERMINATIONS BY THE BRIX HYDRO-
METER.
Normal Temperature = 17.5° C.
(STAMMER.)
181
132
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
III.
DEGREE BRIX OF THE SOLUTION.
Degree
Centi-
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
So
40
50
60
70
75
grade.
The degree read is to be decreased by —
0°
0.17
0.30
0.41
0.52
0.62
0.72
0.82
0.92
0.98
I. II
1.22
1.25
1.29
5
0.230.30
0.37
0.44
0.52
0-59
0.65
0.72
0.75
0.8o
0.88
0.91
0.94
10
O.2OO.26
0.29
0-33
0.36
0-39
0.42
0-45
0.48
0.50
0-54
0.58
0.61
ii
0.18
0.23
0.26
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.36
0-39
0.41
0-43
0.47
0.50
0-53
12
0.16
0.20
0.22
0.24
O.26
0.29
0.31
0.33
0-34
0.36
0.40
0.42
0.46
13
0.14
O.T8
0.19
O.2I
O.22
0.24
O.26
O.27
0.28
0.29
0-33
0-35
0-39
14
0.12
0.15
0.1.6
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.21
0.22
0.22
0.23
0.26
0.28
0.32
15
0.09
O.II
0.12
0.14
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.16
0.17
o. 19
O.2I
0.25
16
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
O.IO
O.IO
O.II
0.12
O.I2
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
J7
0.02
O.O2
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
O.O4
O.O4
O.O4
0.05
0.05
0.06
The degree read is to be increased by—
18
O.O2
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
O.O3
O.O3
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
J9
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.09
O.IO
O.IO
O.IO
O.IO
O.IO
O.IO
0.08
0.06
20
O.II
0.14
0.15
0.17
0.17
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.19
0.19
0.18
0.15
O.II
21
0.16
O.20
0.22
0.24
0.24
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.26
O.26
0.25
0.22
0.18
22
0.21
0.26
O.29
0.31
0.31
0.32
0.32
0.32
0-33
0.34
0.32
O.29
0.25
23
0.27
0.32
0-35
0-37
0.38
0-39
0-39
0.39
0.40
0.42
0-39
0.36
0-33
24
0.32
0.38
0.41
0-43
0.44
0.46
0.46
0.47
0.47
0.50
0.46
0.43
0.40
25
0-37
0.44
0.47
0.49
0.51
0-53
o-54
0.55
0-55
0.58
o.54
0.51
0.48
26
0-43
0.50
0-54
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.62
0.66
0.62
0.58
0-55
27
0.49
0-57
0.61
0.63
0.65
0.68
0.68
0.69
0.70
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.62
28
0.56
0.64
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.76
0.76
0.78
0.78
0.82
0.78
0.72
0.70
29
0.63
0.71
0-75
0.78
0.79
0.84
0.84
0.86
0.86
0.90
0.86
0.80
0.78
30
0.70
0.78
0.82
0.87
0.87
0.92
0.92
0.94
0.94
0.98
0.94
0.88
0.86
35
I. IO
1.17
1.22
1.24
1.30
1.32
1-33
1-35
1.36
i-39
1-34
1.27
1.25
40
1.50
1.61
1.67
1.71
i-73
1.79
1.79
i. 80
1.82
1.83
1.78
1.69
1.65
5°
2.65
2.71
2.74
2.78
2.80
2.80
2.80
2.80
2.79
2.70
2.56
2.51
60
....
3-87
3-88
3-88
3-88
3-88
3-88
3-88
3-90
3.82
3-70
3-43
3.4i
TO
*.i8
^.2O
5 • 14
C.I-J
5.10
5.08
5.06
4.90
4.72
4-47
4-35
/u
80
3 • ***
6.62
3 * ***J
6.59
0 • •I-tT
6-54
J J
6.46
6.38
6.30
6.26
6.06
5-82
5.50
5-33
IV.
FACTORS.
Arranged for Specific Gravity Determinations.
Calculated for Wiechmann : Sugar Analysis, from the data given
in Table I.
26.048
Factor =
Degree Brix x Specific Gravity
134
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
IV.
Specific
Gravity.
Factor.
Specific
Gravity.
Factor.
Specific
Gravity.
Factor.
Specific
Gravity.
Factor.
.0950
1-053
.0980
1.023
.1010
0.990
I . 1040
0.959
•0955
1.047
.0985
1.013
.1015
0.985
I . 1045
0-955
.0960
1.042
.0990
1.008
.1020
0.981
I.I050
0.950
.0965
1-037
•0995
1.004
.1025
0.976
I-I055
0.946
.0970
1.033
.IOOO
1. 000
.1030
0.972
I . 1060
0.942
•0975
1.028
.1005
0.944
•1035
0.968
V.
FACTORS.
Arranged for Brix determinations.
Calculated for Wiechmann: Sugar Analysis, from the data given
in Table I.
26.048
Factor =
Degree Brix X Specific Gravity*
IK
136
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
V.
Degree
Brix.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
o
260.381
no. 140
86.726
65 .OIQ
c i . 006
4. a . -210
•37. in
•32. A <Q
28.842
I
25-947
23-579
* O^' • J-itv-'
21.606
19.936
\J^ . \*r xv^
18.505
3* . VV"
17.265
TO • O •*• O
16.179
o / * x x •*
15.222
J TOV
I4-370
13-609
2
12.923
12.303
11.739
11.225
10.753
10.318
9.918
9-547
9.202
8.881
3
8.582
8.302
8.039
7-793
7.560
7.342
7.135
6-939
6-754
6.578
4
6.411
6.253
6.101
5-957
5.819
5.688
5.562
5.441
5-326
5-215
5
5.109
5.007
4.909
4.814
4.723
4.635
4-551
4.469
4-39°
4.314
6
4.241
4.170
4.101
4-034
3-969
3-907
3.846
3.787
3-730
3.674
7
3.621
3-568
3.5I7
3.468
3.419
3.372
3.327
3.282
3-239
3.197
8
3.155
3-"5
3-076
3-038
3.000
2.964
2.928
2.893
2.859
2.826
9
2.794
2.762
2.731
2.700
2.671
2.641
2.613
2.585
2-557
2.531
10
2.504
2.479
2-453
2.428
2.404
2.380
2-357
2-334
2.311
2.289
n
2.268
2.246
2.225
2.205
2.185
2.165
2.145
2. 126
2.107
2.088
12
2.070
2.052
2.035
2.017
2.000
.983
.967
.951
•935
1.919
13
1.903
.888
• 873
.858
-843
.829
.815
.801
.787
•774
14
1.760
• 747
•734
.721
.709
.696
.684
.672
.660
.648
15
1.636
.625
.613
.602
-591
.580
•569
.559
.548
.538
! 16
1.528
.518
.508
.498
.488
.478
.469
•459
•450
.441
17
1.432
.423
.414
•405
-397
.388
-380
•371
.363
•355
18
1-347
•339
•331
.323
.315
.308
.300
.293
-285
.278
19
I.27I
.264
.256
•249
.243
.236
.229
.222
.215
.209
20
I.2O2
.196
.189
.183
.177
.171
.164
.158
.152
.146
21
I.I4O
•134
.129
.123
.117
.III
.106
.100
-095
.089
22
1.084
.079
1.073
.068
.063
.058
.053
.047
1.042
•037
23
1.033
.028
1.023
.018
.013
.008
.004
0.999
0.994
0.990
24
0.985
0.981
0.976
0.972
0.968
0.963
0-959
0-955
0.950
0.946
25
0.942
0.938
0-934
0.930
0.926
0.922
0.918
0.914
0.910
0.906
26
O.9O2
0.898
0.894
0.891
0.887
0.883
0.879
0.876
0.872
0.869
27
0.865
0.861
0.858
0.854
0.851
0.847
0.844
0.841
0.837
0.834
28
0.831
VI
ESTIMATION OF PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR BY
WEIGHT, IN WEAK SUGAR SOLUTIONS.
Tucker: Manual of Sugar Analysis.
Abridged from a table calculated by:
(OSWALD.)
137
138
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
VI.
Degree
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
READING OF THE SACCHARIMETER.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.0
I.OOOO
.26c
•52
.78
1.04
I.3O2
1.56
1.823
2.084
2-344
1. 2.605
0-5
1.0019
.260
.520
.780
1.040
i.3oc
1.56
1.820
2.08C
2.340
) 2.600
I.O
1.0039
.259
•519
.778
1.03
1.297
1-55
1.816
2.076
2-335
2.595
1-5
1.0058
.259
.518
•777
1.036
1.295
1-55
1.813
2.072
2.331
2.590
2.O
1.0078
.258
.517
•775
1-034
1.292
1-55
1.809
2.068
2.32^
2.585
2.5
1.0097
.258
.516
•774
1.032
1.290
1-54
i. 806
2.064
2.322
2.580
3-0
I.OII7
.257
•515
•772
1.029
1.287
1-54
1.802
2.060
2.317
2.575
3-5
1.0137
.257
•514
.771
1.028
1.285
1-54
1.799
2.056
2-313
2.570
4.0
1.0157
.256
.513
.769
1.026
1.282
1-539
J-795
2.052
2.308
2.565
4-5
1.0177
.256
.512
.768
i. 02^
1.280
i -536
1.792
2.048 2.304 2.559
5-0
1.0197
.255
•Sir
.766
1.022
1.277
1-533
1.788
2.044
2.299
2.554
5-5
I.02I3
• 255
.510
•765
1.020
1.275
1.530
1-785
2.040
2.295
2.549
6.0
1.0237
.254
•509
.763
I.OI8
1.272
1-527
1.781
2.036
2.290
2.544
6.5
1.0257
.254
.508
.762
1.016
1.270
1-524
1.778
2.032
2.285
2.539
7.0
1.0278
.253
'507
.760
I. OK
1.267
1.52
1-774
2.027
2.281
2.534
7-5
1.0298
.253
.506
758
1. 012
1.265
1.518
1.771
2.023
2.276
2.529
8.0
1.0319
.252
•505
757
.OIO
1.262
I-5I5
1.767
2.019
2.272
2.524
8.5
1.0339
252
.504
756
.008
1.260
1.512
1.763
2.015
2.267
2.519
9.0
1.0360
251
503
754
.006
1.257
1.509
1.760
2.011
2.263
2.514
9-5
1.0380
251
502
753
.004
1.255
1.506
1-757
2.OO7
2.258
2.509
10- 0
1.0410
250
501
751
.OO2
1.252
1-503
1-753
2.OO3
2.254
2.504
10.5
1 . 0422
250
500
750
.000
1.250
1.500
1.750
-999
2.249
2.499
II. 0
1.0443
249
499
748
.998
1.247
1.497
1.746
•995
2.245
2.494
"•5
1.0464
249
498
747
.996
1.245
1.494
1-743
.991
2.240
2.489
12. 0
1.0485
248
497
745
•994
1.242
1.491
1-739
.987
2.236
2.484
12.5
1.0506
248
496
744
.992
1.240
1.488
1.735
.983
2.231
2.479
13.0
1.0528
247
495
742
.990
1.237
1.484
1-732
•979
2.227
2.474
13-5
1.0549
247
494
741
.988
1-235
1.482
1.728
•975
2.222
2.469
14-0
1.0570
246
493
739
.986
1.232
1.479
1.725
.971
2.218
2.464
14-5
1.0591
246
492
738
.984
1.230
1.476
1.722
.967
2.213
2.459
15.0
1.0613
245
491
736
.982
1.227
1-473
1.718
.963
2.2O9
2.454
15-5
1.0635
245
49°
735
.980
1.225
1.470
1.714
•959
2.20J
2.449
16.0
1.0657
244
489
733
.978
1.222
1.467
1.711
•955
2.2OO
2.444
16.5
1.0678
244
488
732
.976
1.220
1.464
1.708
•951
2.195
2.439
17.0
1.0700
243
487
730
•974
I.2I7
1.461
1.704
.948
2.I9I
2.434
17-5
1.0722
243
486
729
.972
I.2I5 1.458
1.701
•944
2.186
2.429
18.0
1.0744
242
485
727
.970
1. 212 1-455
1.697
.940
2.182
2.424
18.5
1.0765
242
.484
726
.968
1. 210
1.452
1.694
.936
2.178
2.420
19.0
1.0787
241
.483
724
.966
1.207
1.449
1.690
-932
2.173
2.415
IQ-5
1.0810
241
.482
723
.964
1.205
1.446
1.687
.928
2.169
2.410
20.0
1.0833
240
.481
721
.962
1.202 1.443
1.683
.924
2.164
2.405
20.5
1.0855
240
.480
720
.960
I.2OO 1.440
i. 680
.920
2.I6O
2.400
21.0
1.0878
239
•479
718
.958
I.I97
1-437
1.676
.916
2.155
2.395
21.5
I . 0900
239
.478
717
.956
LI95
1-434
1.673
.9!2
2.I5I
2.390
22.0
1.0923
238
•477
7i5
•954
I. 192
I-43I
1.669
.908
2. 146
2.385
22.5
1.0946
238
.476
714
.952
I.I90
1.428
1.666
.904
2.142
2.380
23-0
I . 0969
237
•475
712
•950
I.l87
1.425
1.662
.900
2.137
2.375
VII
HUNDRED POLARIZATION."
(SCHEIBLER.)
139
140
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
YII.
Degrees
read.
Instead of 13.024 g.
there must be taken.
en
t> •
£"3
^
Instead of 13.024 g.
there must be taken.
8 .
ii
(T
Instead of 13.024 g.
there must be taken.
Grammes.
Differ-
ence.
Grammes.
Differ-
ence.
Grammes.
Differ-
ence.
82.0
15-883
2.859
86.0
15.144
2.I2O
90.0
14.471
1.447
I
864
840
i
127
103
i
455
431
2
844
820
2
109
085
2
439
415
3
825
801
3
092
068
3
423
399
4
806
782
4
074
050
4
407
383
5
778
763
5
057
033
5
391
367
6
768
744
6
039
015
6
375
351
7
748
724
7
022
1.998
7
359
335
8
729
705
8
005
981
8
344
320
9
710
686
9
14.987
963
9
328
304
83.0
692
668
87.0
970
946
91.0
312
288
i
673
649
I
953
929
i
296
272
2
654
630
2
936
912
2
281
257
3
635
611
3
919
895
3
265
241
4
616
592
4
902
878
4
249
225
5
598
574
5
885
861
5
234
210
6
579
555
6
868
844
6
218
194
7
560
536
7
851
827
7
203
179
8
542
5i8
8
834
810
8
187
I63
9
523
499
9
8i7
793
9
172
I48
84.0
505
481
88.0
800
776
92.0
157
133
i
486
462
i
783
759
i
141
117
2
468
444
2
766
742
2
126
102
3
450
426
3
750
726
3
in
087
4
431
407
4
733
709
4
095
071
5
413
389
5
717
693
5
080
056
6
395
37i
6
700
676
6
065
O4I
7
377
353
7
683
659
7
050
026
8
358
334
8
667
643
8
034
OIO
9
340
316
9
650
626
9
019
0-995
85.0
322
298
89.0
634
610
93-0
004
980
i
304
280
i
617
593
i
13.989
965
2
286
262
2
601
577
2
974
950
3
268
244
3
585
56i
3
959
935
4
251
227
4
568
544
4
944
920
5
233
209
5
552
528
5
929
905
6
215
191
6
536
512
6
915
891
7
197
173
7
520
496
7
900
876
8
179
155
8
503
479
8
885
861
9
162
138
9
487
463
9
870
846
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
141
!l
Instead of 13.024 g.
there must be taken.
I?
Instead of 13.024 g.
there must be taken.
b
Instead of 13.024 g.
there must be taken.
Grammes.
Differ-
ence.
Grammes.
Differ-
ence.
Grammes.
Differ-
ence.
94.0
13.855
0.831
96.0
13.567
0-543
98.0
13-290
0.266
I
841
817
i
553
529
i
276
252
2
826
802
2
538
514
2
263
239
3
811
787
3
524
500
3
249
225
4
797
773
4
5io
486
4
236
212
5
782
758
5
496
472
5
222
198
6
767
743
6
482
458
6
209
185
7
753
729
7
468
444
7
I96
172
8
738
714
8
455
431
8
182
158
9
724
700
9
441
417
9
I69
145
95-0
710
686
97.0
427
403
99.0
I56
132
i
695
671
i
413
389
i
142
118
2
68 1
657
2
399
375
2
129
105
3
666
642
3
385
361
3
116
092
4
652
628
4
372
348
4
103
079
5
638
614
5
358
334
5
089
065
6
623
599
6
344
320
6
076
052
7
609
585
7
33i
307
7
063
039
8
595
571
8
317
293
8
050
026
9
58i
557
9
303
279
9
037
013
IOO.O
024
000
VIII.
ESTIMATION OF PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR BY
WEIGHT:
FOR USE WITH SOLUTIONS PREPARED BY ADDITION OF 1/10
VOLUME BASIC ACETATE OF LEAD.
For Soleil-Ventzke Polariscopes.
(SCHMITZ.)
144
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
VIII.
PER CENT BRIX
PER CENT BRIX AND
FROM 0.5 TO 12. 0.
Polari-
scope
0.5
1.0
1.6
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Tenths of
a Degree.
Per Cent
Sucrose.
Degrees.
1.0019
1.0039
1.0058
1.0078
1.0098
1.0117
1.0137
1.0157
1.0177
0.1°
0.03
1°
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.2
O.O6
2
0.57
0.57
0-57
0.57
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0-3
0.08
3
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.84
0.4
O.II
4
1.14
I 13
I-I3
I.I3
I.I3
1-13
1. 12
0-5
O.I4
5
1.42
1.42
1.41
1.41
1.41
1.41
» 1.40
0.6
o 17
6
1.70
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.69
1.68
0.7
0.19
7
1.98
1.98
1.98
1.97
1.97
1.96
0.8
0.22
8
2.26
2.26
2.26
2.25
2.25
0.9
0.25
9
2-54
2-54
2-53
2-53
10
2.82
2.82
2.81
2. Si
IT
3.10
3-09
3-09
12
3.38
3.38
3-37
13
3-66
3-65
-
14
3-94
3-93
PER CENT BRIX
15
4.21
FROM 12.5 TO 20.0.
16
4-49
17
Tenths of Per Cent
18
a Degree. ; Sucrose.
19
20
0.1°
0.03
21
0.2
0.05
22
0-3
0.08
23
0.4
O.II
24
0-5
0.13
25
0.6
0.16
26
0.7
0.19
27
0.8
0.21
28
0.9
0.24
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
145
CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
1
Polari-
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
scope
Degrees.
1.0197
1.0217
1.0237
1.0258
1.0278
1.0298
1.0319
1-0339
1.0360
1.0381
1.0401
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
1°
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0-55
0-55
0.55
0-55
0-55
0-55
2
0.84
0.84
0.84
0.84
0.83
0.83
0.83
0.83
0.83
0.83
0.82
3
1. 12
1. 12
1. 12
I. II
I. II
I. II
I. II
I. II
1. 10
I.IO
I. IO
4
I.4C3
1.40
1.40
1-39
1-39
1-39
1.38
I.38
1.38
1.38
1.37
5
1.68
1.68
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.65
1.65
6
1.96
1.96
1-95
1-95
1-95
1.94
1.94
1-93
1.93
i-93
1.92
7
2.24
2.24
2.23
2.23
2.22
2.22
2.22
2.21
2.21
2.20
2.20
8
2.52
2.52
2.51
2.51
2.5O
2.50
2.49
2.49
2.48
2.48
2.47
9
2.80
2.80
2.79
2.79
2.78
2.78
2.77
2.76
2.76
2.75
2-75
10
3.08
3-08
3-07
3.06
3.06
3-05
3-05
3-04
3-03
3-03
3-02
ii
3.36
3.36
3-35
3-34
3-34
3-33
3-32
3-32
3-31
3-30
3-30
12
3-64
3-64
3.63
3.62
3.61
3.61
3-60
3-59
3-59
3-58
3-57
13
3-92
3-92
3-91
3.90
3.89
3.88
3-88
3.87
3-86
3-85
3-85
14
4.20
4.19
4.19
4.18
4.17
4.16
4-15
4.15
4.14
4-13
4.12
15
4.48
4-47
4-47
4.46
4-45
4.44
4-43
4.42
4.41
4.40
4.40
16
4-77
4.76
4-75
4-74
4-73
4.72
4.71
4.70
4.69
4.68
4.67
17
5-03
5-02
5-01
5.00
4-99
4.99
4-97
4-97
4.96
4-95
18
5-32
5.31
5-29
5.28
5-27
5-26
5-25
5-24
5-23
5.22
19
5.58
5-57
5.56
-5-55
5-54
5-53
5-52
5.5i
5-50
20
5.86
5-85
5-84
5-83
5.82
5.81
5-79
5-78
5-77
21
6.13
6.12
6. ii
6.09
6.08
6.07
6.06
6.05
22
6.41
6.40
6.38
6.37
6.36
6-35
6.33
6.32
23
6.67
6.66
6.65
6.64
6.62
6 61
6.60
24
6-94
6-93
6.91
6.90
6.89
6.87
25
7.22
7.20
7.19
7-17
7.16
7.15
26
7.48
7.46
7-45
7-44
7.42
27
7.76
7-74
7-73
7-71
7.70
28
8.02
8.00
7-99
7-97
29
8.28
8.26
8.25
30
8-55
8-54
8.52
31
8.83
8.81
8.80
32
9.09
9.07
33
9-35
34
9.62
35
36
37
38
39
146
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
PER CENT BRIX
PER CENT BRIX AND
FROM 0.5 TO I2.O.
Polari-
scope
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
Tenths of
Per Cent
Degrees.
a Degree.
Sucrose.
1.0422
1.0443
1.0464
1.0485
i .0506
1.0528
1.0549
1.0570
1.0592
0.1°
0.03
1°
0.28
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.2
O.O6
2
0-55
0-55
0-55
0-55
0-54
0.54
0-54
0-54
0-54
0-3
0.08
3
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.81
0.81
0.81
0.81
0.4
O.II
4
1. 10
I.IO
1.09
1.09
1.09
1.09
i. 08
i. 08
i. 08
°-5
0.14
5
1.37
1-37
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.36
i-35
1-35
i-35
0.6
0.17
6
1.64
1.64
1.64
1.64
l.63
1.63
1.62
1.62
1.62
0.7
o. 19
7
1.92
1.91
1.91
1 .91
1.90
1.90
1.89
1.89
1.89
0.8
0.22
8
2.19
2. 19
2.18
2.18
2.18
2.17
2.17
2.16
2.16
0.9
0.25
9
2.47
2.46
2.46
2-45
2.45
2.44
2-44
2-43
2-43
10
2.74
2.74
2.73
2-73
2.72
2.71
2.71
2.70
2.70
ii
3-02
3.01
3.00
3-OO
2.99
2.99
2.98
2-97
2.97
12
3.29
3-28
3.28
3.27
3.26
3-26
3.25
3.24
3.24
13
3.56
3-56
3.55
3-54
3-54
3-53
3.52
3.5i
3.51
14
3.84
3-83
3.82
3.82
3.8i
3-8o
3-79
3.78
3-78
PER CENT BRIX
15
4.11
4.II
4.10
4.09
4.08
4.07
4.06
4.06
4.05
FROM 12.5 TO 20.0.
16
4-39
4.38
4-37
4.36
4-35
4.34
4-33
4.33
4-32
17
4.66
4-65
4.64
4-63
4.62
4.62
4.61
4.60
4-59
Tenths of
a Degree.
Per Cent
Sucrose.
18
4-93
5.21
4-93
5-20
4.91
5.19
4.91
5-18
4.90
5.17
4.89
5-16
4.88
5-15
4.87
5-14
4.86
5-13
20
5-49
5-47
5.46
5-45
5-44
5-43
5.42
5.41
5-40
0.1°
0.03
21
5-76
5-75
5-74
5-73
5.7i
5-70
5.69
5.68
5.67
0.2
0.05
22
6.03
6. 02
6.01
6.00
5-99
5-97
5.96
5-95
5-94
0-3
0.08
23
6.31
6.30
6.28
6.27
6.26
6.24
6.23
6.22
6.21
0.4
O.II
24
6.58
6-57
6.56
6-54
6.53
6.52
6.50
6.49
6.48
0.5
0.13
25
6.86
6.84
6.83
6.82
6.80
6.79
6.78
6.76
6-75
0.6
0.16
26
7.13
7.12
7.10
7.09
7.07
7.06
7-05
7-03
7.02
0.7
0.19
27
7.41
7.39
7.38
7.36
7-35
7-33
7.32
7-30
7.29
0.8
O.2I
28
7.68
7.66
7-65
7.63
7.62
7.60
7-59
7-57
7.56
0.9
0.24
29
7.96
7-94
7.92
7.91
7.89
7.87
7.86
7.84
7.83
30
8.23
8.21
8.20
8.18
8.16
8.15
8.13
8. ii
8.10
31
8.50
8.49
8.47
8-45
8.44
8.42
8.40
8.39
8-37
32
8.78
8.76
8.74
8.73
8.71
8.69
8.67
8.66 8.64
33
9.05
9-03
9.02
9.00
8.98
8.96
8.94
8.931 8.91
34
9-33
9-3i
9.29
9.27
9.25
9-23
9.22
9.20
9.18
35
9.60
9-58
9-56
9-54
9-53
9 51
9.49
9-47
9.45
36
9.88
9.86
9.84
9.82
9.80
9.78
9.76
9-74
9.72
37
10.15
10.13
10. II
10.09
10.07
10.05
10.03
IO.OI
9.99
38
10.40
10.38
10.36
10.34
10.32
10.30
10.28
10.26
39
10.68
10.66
10.64
10. 61
10.59
10.57
10.55
10.53
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
147
CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Polari-
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
scope
Degrees.
1.0613
1.0635
1.0657
1.0678
1.0700
1.0722
1.0744
1.0766
1.0788
1.0811
1.0833
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.26
1°
0-54
0-54
0.54
0-54
0-53
0-53
0-53
o.53
0-53
0-53
0-53
2
0.81
0.81
0.80
0.8o
0.8o
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.79
0.79
0.79
3
i. 08
i. 08
1.07
1.07
1.07
1.07
1. 06
i. 06
1. 06
1. 06
1. 06
4
1-35
1-34
1-34
1-34
1.34
1-33
1-33
1-33
1.32
1.32
1.32
5
1.62
1.61
1.61
1.61
i. 60
i. 60
1. 60
1-59
1-59
i-59
1-58
6
1.88
1.88
1.88
1.87
1.87
1.86
1.86
1.86
1.85
1.85
1.85
7
2.15
2.151 2.15
2.14
2.14
2.13
2.13
2.12
2.12
2.12
2. II
8
2.42
2.42
2.41
2.41 2.40
2.40
2.39
2.39
2.38
2.38
2-37
9
2.69
2.69
2.68
2.68 2.67
2.67
2.66
2.65
2.65
2.64
2.64
10
2.96
2.95
2-95
2.94 2.94
2-93
2.92
2.92
2.9I
2.91
2.90
ii
3-23
3.22
3-22
3-2i 3-20
3-20
3.19
3.18
3-18
3-17
3-17
12
3-50
3-49
3-49
3.48
3-47
3.46
3.46
3-45
3-44
3-44
3-43
13
3-77
3.76
3-75
3-75
3-74
3-73
3.72
3-72
3-71
3-70
3.69
14
4.04
4-03
4.02
4-02
4.01
4.00
3-99
3-98
3-97
3-97
3.96
15
4-3T
4-30
4.29
4-28
4.27
4.26
4.26
4.25
4.24
4-23
4.22
16
4.58
4-57
4-56
4-55
4-54
4-53
4-52
4.5i
4-50
4.49
4.48
17
4-85
4.84
4-83
4-82
4.81
4.80
4-79
4.78
4-77
4.76
4.75
18
5.12
5-ii
5.10
5.09
5-08
5.06
5-05
5-04
5-03
5-02
5.01
19
5-39
5.38
5.36
5-35
5.34
5-33
5-32
5.3i
5-30
5-29
5.28
20
5.66
5-65
5.63
5-62
5-61
5-6o
5-59
5.58
5.56
5-55
5-54
21
5-93
5-91
5-90
5-89
5-88
5-87
5-85
5.84
5.83
5.82
5.80
22
6.20- 6.18
6.17
6.16
6.14
6.13
6.12
6. n
6.09
6.08
6.07
23
6.46
6.45
6.44
6-43
6.41
6.40
6-39
6.37
6.36
6-35
6-33
24
6-73 6-72
6.71
6.69
6.68
6.67
6.65
6.64
6.63
6.61
6.60
25
7.00 6.99
6.97
6.96
6-95
6-93
6.92
6.90
6.89
6.88
6.86
26
7.27
7.26
7-24
7-23
7.21
7.20
7.18
7.17
7-15
7.14
7-13
27
7-54
7-53
7-51
7.50
7.48
7-47
7.45
7-44
7.42
7.40
7-39
28
7.81
7.80
7-78
7-77
7-75
7-73
7.72
7.70
7.68
7-67
7.65
29
8.08
8.06
8.05
8.03
8.02
8.00
7.98
7-97
7-95
7-93
7.92
30
8-35
8-33
8.32
8.30
8.28
8.27
8.25
8.23
8.21
8.20
8.18
31
8.62
8.60
8.58
8-57
8.55
8-53
8.51
8.50
8.48
8.46
8-45
32
8.89
8.87
8.85
8.84
8.82
8.80
8.78
8.76
8-75
8-73
8.71
33
9.16
9.14
9.12
9.10
9.09
9.07
9-05
9-°3
9.01
8.99
8.97
34
9-43
9.41
9-39
9-37
9-35
9-34
9-3i
9-30
9.28
9.26
9.24
35
9.70
9.68
9.66
9.64
9.62
9.60
9-58
9-56
9-54
9-52
9-50
36
9-97
9-95
9-93
9.91
9.89
9.87
9-85
9-83
9.81
9-79
9-77
37
10.24
IO.22
10.20
10.18
10.15
10.13
IO.II
10.09
10.07
10.05
10.03
38
10.51
10-49
10.46
10.44
10.42
10.40
10.38
10.36
10.34
10.32
10.29
39
148
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
PER CENT BRIX
FROM II. ^ TO 22 ^.
PER CENT BRIX AND
Polari-
Tenths of
Per Cent
scope
Degrees.
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
a Degree.
Sucrose.
1.0464
1.0485
1.0506
1.0528
1.0549
1.0570
40°
10.93
10.91
10.89
10.86
10.84
10.82
0.1°
0.03
41
II.I8
II.I6
11.14
II. 12
11.09
0.2
0.05
42
11.46
n-43
11.41
n-39
II .36
0-3
0.08
43
11.71
11.68
11.66
11.64
0.4
O.II
44
11.98
u-95
n-93
II .91
0-5
0.13
45
12.25
12.23
12.20
12. 18
0.6
0.16
46
12.50
12.47
12.45
0.7
0.19
47
12.74
12.72
0.8
0.21
48
13.02
12.99
0.9
O.24
49
13.26
50
51
52
53
54
PER CENT BRIX
FROM 23.0 TO 24.0.
55
56
57
Tenths of
Per Cent
58
a Degree.
Sucrose.
59
60
O.I°
0.03
61
0.2
0.05
62
0-3
0.08
63
0.4
O.IO
64
0-5
0.13
65
0.6
o. 16
66
0.7
0.18
67
0.8
0.21
68
0.9
0.23
69
70
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
149
CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Polari-
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
scope
1.0592
1.0613
1.0635
1.0657
1.0678
1.0700
1.0722
Degrees.
10.80
10.78
10.76
10.73
10.71
10.69
10.67
40
11.07
11.05
11.03
11.00
10.98
10.96
10.94
41
11-34
11.32
11.29
11.27
11.25
11.23
11.20
42
II .61
u-59
11.56
11.54
11.52
11.49
11.47
43
11.88
11.86
11.83
11.81
11.79
11.76
11.74
44
12.15
12.13
12. IO
12. 08
12.05
12.03
12.01
45
12.42
12.40
12.37
12.35
12.32
12.30
12.27
46
12.69
12.67
12.64
12. 6l
12.59
12.56
12.54
47
12.97
12.94
I2'9I
12.88
12.86
12.83
12. 8l
48
13.23
13-21
13.18
13.15
13.13
13-10
13.07
49
13.50
13.48
13-45
13.42
13.40
13-37
13-34
50
13.78
13-75
13.72
13.69
13-66
13.64
I3.6l
51
14.02
13-99
13-96
13-93
13.90
13.88
52
14.29
14.26
14.23
14.20
14.17
14.14
53
14-53
14.50
14.47
14.44
14.41
54
14.80
14.77
14.74
14.71
14.68
55
15.03
15.00
14.97
14.94
56
15-30
15-27
15-24
15-21
57
15.57
15-54
15-51
15.48
58
15.81
15.78
15.75
59
16.05
16.01
60
16.31
16.28
61
16.55
62
16.82
63
64
*
65
66
67
68
69
70
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
150
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
PER CENT BRIX
PER CENT BRIX AND
FROM II.5 TO 22.5.
Polari-
scope
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
Tenths of
Per cent
Degrees .
a degree.
Sucrose.
1.0744
1.0766
1.0788
1.0811
1.0833
1.0855
40°
10.64
10.62
10. 60
10.58
10.56
10.54
0. 1°
0.03
41
10.91
10.89
10.87
10.85
10.82
I0.8o
0.2
0.05
42
ii. 18
ii. 16
11.13
II. II
II. OQ
11.07
o-3
0.08
43
u-45
11.42
11.40
11.38
n-35
u-33
0.4
O.II
44
11.71
11.69
11.66
1 1 . 64
11.62
11-59
0.5
0.13
45
11.98
11.96
"•93
11.91
11.88
11.86
0.6
0.16
46
12.25
12.22
12.20
12.17
12.15
12.12
0.7
0.19
47
12.51
12.49
12.46
12.44
12.41
12.39
0.8
O.2I
48
12.78
12.75
12.73
12.70
12.67
12.65
0.9
O.24
49
13-05
13.02
12.99
12.97
12.94
12.91
50
13-31
13.29
13.26
13.23
13.20
13.18
5i
13-58
13-55
13.52
13.50
13-47
13-44
52
13.85
13.82
13-79
13.76
13.73
13.70
53
14.11
14.08
14.05
14.03
14.00
13-97
54
14.38
14-35
14.32
14.29
14.26
14.23
PER CENT BRIX
55
14.65
14.62
14.59
14.56
14-53
14-50
FROM 23.0 TO 24.0.
56
14.91
14.88
14.85
14.82
14.79
14.76
57
15.18
15.15
15.12
15.09
15.06
15.02
Tenths of
a degree.
Per cent
Sucrose.
58
59
15-45
15-71
15.42
15-68
15.38
I5.65
15-35
15.62
15.32
15.58
15.29
15-55
60
15.98
15-95
15.92
15-88
15.85
15.82
0.1°
0.03
61
16.25
16.21
16.18
I6.I5
16.11
16.08
0.2
0.05
62
16.52
16.48
16.45
16 41
16.38
16.35
0-3
0.08
63
16.78
16.75
16.71
16.68
16.64
16.61
0.4
O. IO
64
17-05
17.01
16.98
16.94
16.91
16.87
0.5
0.13
65
17.32
17.28
17.24
17.21
17.17
17.14
0.6
o. 16
66
17.55
I7.5I
17.47
17.44
17.40
0.7
0.18
67
17.81
17.78
17-74
17.70
17.67
0.8
0.21
68
18.04
18.00
17-97
17.93
0.9
0.23
69
18.31
18.27
18.23
18.19
70
18-53
18.50
18.46
7i
18.76
18.72
72
19.03
18.99
73
i9-25
74
19.52
75
19.78
76
77
78
79
80
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
153
CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Polari-
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
scope
Degrees.
1.0878
1.0900
1.0923
1.0946
1.0969
1.0992
1.1015
10.52
10.49
10.47
10.45
10.43
10.41
10.38
40°
10.78
10.76
10.74
10. 71
10.69
10.67
10.65
41
11.04
1 1. 02
II .OO
10.97
10.95
10.93
10.90
42
11.31
11.28
11.26
11.24
II. 21
11.19
11.17
43
n-57
11-55
11.52
11.50
11.47
H.45
11.42
44
11.83
ii. 81
11.78
11.76
n-73
11.71
11.69
45
12.09
12.07
12.05
1 2. 02
12.00
11.97
II- 94
46
12.36
12.33
12.31
12.28
12.26
12.23
12.21
47
12.62
12.60
12.57
12.54
12.52
12.49
12.47
48
12.88
12.86
12.83
I2.8I
12.78
12.75
12.73
49
I3-I5
13-12
13.09
13.07
13.04
13.01
12.99
50
I3-4I
13-39
13.36
13-33
13.30
13.27
13-25
5i
13-68
13-65
13-62
13-59
I3-56
13-53
13-51
52
13-94
I3-9I
13.88
13.85
13.82
13-79
13-77
53
14.20
14.17
14.14
14.11
14.08
14.06
14.02
54
14.47
14.44
14.41
14.38
14-35
14.32
14.29
55
14.73
14.70
14.67
14.64
I4.6l
14.58
I4o5
56
14.99
14.96
14-93
14.90
14.87
'14.84
14.81
57
15-26
15-23
15-19
I5.I6
15.13
15.10
15-07
58
15-52
15.49
15.46
15.42
15-39
15.36
15-33
59
15.78
15-75
I5-72
15.69
I5.65
15.62
15.59
60
16.05
16.01
15.98
15-95
15.91
15-88
15-85
61
16.31
16.28
16.24
16.21
16.18
16.14
i6.n
62
16-57
16.54
16.51
16.47
16.44
16.40
16.37
63
16.84
16.80
16.77
16.73
16.70
16.66
16.63
64
17.10
17.07
17.03
17.00
16.96
16.92
16.89
65
17-37
17.33
17.29
17.26
17.22
17.19
17.15
66
17.63
17-59
17.56
17-52
17.48
17.45
17.41
67
17.89
17.86
17.82
17.78
17-74
17.71
17-67
68
18.16
18.12
18.08
18.04
18.00
17-97
17-93
69
18.42
18.38
18.35
18.31
18.27
18.23
18.19
70
18.68
18.65
18.61
18.57
18.53
18.49
18.45
7i
18.95
18.91
18.87
18.83
18.79
18-75
18.71
72
19.21
19.17
19-13
19.09
19.05
19.01
18.97
73
19.48
19.44
19.40
19.35
19-31
19.27
19.23
74
19.74
19.70
19.66
19.62
19.57
19.53
19.49
75
20.00
19.96
19.92
19.88
19.84
19.80
19-75
76
20.27
20.22
20.18
20. 14
2O. TO
20.06
20. 01
77
20.49
20.45
20.40
20.36
20.32
20.27
78
20.75
20.71
20.66
2O.62
20.58
20.54
79
20.97
20.93
20.88
20.84
20.80
80
IX.
POUNDS SOLIDS PEE CUBIC FOOT IN SUGAE
SOLUTIONS.
Calculated for Wiechmann . Sugar Analysis, from the following
data taken from Everett : Physical Units and Constants. 3d edition
1886.
1 cubic centimetre of water at 17.5° C. weighs 0.9987605 grms.
1 cubic foot = 28316 cubic centimetres.
1 kilogramme — 2.2046212 Ibs.
Hence 1 cubic foot of water at 17.5° C. weighs 62.3487 Ibs.
FORMULAE.
I. 62.3487 X Specific Gravity of Sugar Solution.
TT Besult obtained by I. x Degree Brix
~iocr
= Pounds Solids per Cubic Foot.
154
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
IX.
Degree
Baume.
Degree
Bnx.
Specific
Gravity.
Lbs. solids
in i cu. ft.
Degree
Baume.
Degree
Bnx.
Specific
Gravity.
Lbs. solids
in i cu. ft.
0.0
O.O
.OOOOO
0.000
26.5
47-7
1.22019
36 . 289
0-5
0.9
.00349
0.563
27.0
48.7
1.22564
37.215
1.0
1.8
.00701
I.I30
27-5
49.6
1.23058
38-056
i-5
2.6
.01015
1.638
28.0
50.5
1.23555
38.903
2.0
3-5
.01371
2.212
28.5
51-5
1.24111
39-852
2-5
4-4
.01730
2.791
29.0
52-4
1.24614
40.712
3-0
5-3
.02091
3-374
29-5
53.4
I.25I77
41.677
3-5
6.2
.02454
3-960
30.0
54-3
1.25687
42.552
4.0
7.0
.02779
4.486
30.5
55-2
I . 26200
43-434
4-5
7-9
.03146
5.081
31.0
56.2
1.26773
44.421
5-0
8.8
.03517
5.680
31.5
57-2
I.2735I
45.418
5-5
9-7
.03889
6.283
32.0
58.1
1.27874
46.322
6.0
10.6
.04264
6.891
32-5
59.1
1.28459
47.335
6.5
ii. 5
.04641
7.503
33-0
60.0
1.28989
48.254
7.0
12.4
.05021
8.119
33-5
61.0
1.29581
49.283
7-5
13-2
.05361
8.671
34.0
61.9
I.30H7
50.217
8.0
14.1
.05746
9.296
34-5
62.9
1.30717
51-264
8-5
15-0
.06133
9.926
35-0
63-9
1.31320
52.319
9.0
15-9
.06522
10.560
35-5
64.9
1.31928
53-384
9-5
16.8
.06914
11.199
36.0
65.8
1.32478
54-350
10. 0
17.7
.07309
11.842
36.5
66.8
1.33093
55-432
10.5
18.6
.07706
12.491
37-0
67.8
I-337I2
56.523
II. 0
19-5
.08106
I3.I44
37-5
68.8
1-34335
57.624
ii. 5
20.4
.08509
13.801
38.0
69.8
i . 34962
58.735
12.0
21.3
.08914
14.464
38.5
70.7
1-35530
59-742
12.5
22.2
.09321
15-132
39-o
7L7
1.36164
60.871
13.0
23-1
.09732
15.804
39-5
72.7
1.36803
62.009
13-5
24.O
. IOI45
16.482
40.0
73-7
i - 37446
63-158
14.0
24.9
. 10560
17.164
40.5
74-7
1.38092
64.316
14-5
25.8
.10979
17.852
41 .0
75.7
1.38743
65.484
15-0
26.7
.11400
18.545
41.5
76.7
1-39397
66.662
15-5
27.6
.11824
19-243
42.0
77-7
1.40056
67.850
16.0
28.5
.12250
19.946
42-5
78.8
1.40785
69.169
16.5
29.4
. 12679
20.655
43-0
79-8
1.41452
70.378
17.0
30.3
.I3HI
21.369
43-5
80.8
1.42123
7L598
17-5
31.2
•13545
22.088
44.0
81.8
1.42798
72.829
18.0
32.1
• 13983
22.812
44-5
82.8
1.43478
74.070
18.5
33-o
.14423
23-543
45-o
83.9
1.44229
75-447
19.0
33-9
. 14866
24.278
45-5
84.9
1.44917
76.710
iQ-5
34-8
.15312
25.020
46.0
85.9
1.45609
77.985
20. o
35-7
.15760
25.766
46.5
87.0
1.46374
79.398
20.5
36.6
.16212
26.519
47-0
88.0
1.47074
80.695
21.0
37-6
.16717
27.362
47.5
89.1
1.47849
82.134
21.5
38.5
.17174
28.127
48.0
90.1
1.48558
83.454
22.0
39-4
.17635
28.897
48.5
91.2
1.49342
84.919
22.5
40-3
.18098
29.674
49.0
92.3
1.50130
86.397
23.0
41.2
.18564
30.456
49-5
93-3
1.50852
87.753
23-5
42.2
. 19086
3L333
50.0
94-4
1.51649
89.256
24.0
43-1
.19558
32.128
50.5
95-5
1.52449
90-773
24-5
44.0
.20033
32.929
51.0
96.6
1.53254
92.303
25.0
44.9
.20512
33-737
51-5
97.7
i . 54068
93-850
25-5
45-9
.21046
34.641
52.0
98.8
1.54890
95-4I3
26.0
46.8
•2I53I
35.462
52.5
99.9
I-557II
96.987
X.
FACTORS FOE THE CALCULATION OF CLER.
GET INVERSIONS.
Calculated for Wiechmann : Sugar Analysis, by the formula :
100
Factor =
142.66 - -
156
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Temperature.
Factor.
Temperature.
Factor.
10°
0.7257
21°
0.7567
II
0.7291
22
0.7595
12
0.7317
23
0.7624
13
0-7344
24
0.7653
14
0.7371
25
0.7683
15
0-7397
26
0.7712
7.6
0.7426
27
0.7742
17
0-7454
28
0.7772
18
0.7482
29
0.7802
19
0.7510
30
0.7833
20
0.7538
J
XL
DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SUGAR.
German Government: Law of July 9, 1887.
158
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XI.
Mgr.
Sucrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Sucrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Sucrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Sucrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
40
79.0
73
145.2
106
208.6
139
269.1
41
81.0
74
147.1
107
210.5
140
270.9
42
83.0
75
149.1
108
212.3
141
272.7
43
85.2
76
I5I.O
109
214.2
142
274-5
44
87.2
77
153-0
1 10
216.1
143
276.3
45
89.2
78
155-0
III
217.9
144
278.1
46
91.2
79
156.9
112
219.8
145
279.9
47
93-3
80
158.9
H3
221.6
146
281,6
48
95-3
81
160.8
114
223.5
147
283.4
49
97-3
82
162.8
115
225.3
148
285.2
50
99-3
83
164.7
116
227.2
149
286.9
51
101.3
84
166.6
H7
229.0
150
288.8
52
103.3
85
168.6
118
230.9
151
290.5
53
105.3
86
170.5
119
232.8
152
292.3
54
107.3
87
172.4
120
234-6
153
294.0
55
109.4
88
174-3
121
236.4
154
295-7
56
111.4
89
176.3
122
238.3
155
297-5
57
II3-4
90
178.2
123
240.2
I56
299.2
58
II5-4
9i
180.1
I24
242.O
157
300.9
59
117.4
92
182.0
125
243-9
158
302.6
60
II9-5
93
183.9
126
245-7
159
304-4
61
121.5
94
185.8
127
247-5
1 60
306.1
62
123-5
95
187.8
128
249-3
161
307.8
63
125.4
96
189.7
129
251.2
162
309.5
64
127.4
97
191.6
130
252.9
163
3"- 3
65
129.4
98
193-5
131
254-7
164
313-0
66
131.4
99
195-4
132
256.5
165
314.7
6?
133-4
100
197-3
133
258.3
1 66
316.4
68
135-3
IOI
199.2
134
260.1
167
318.1
69
137.3
102
2OI. I
135
261.9
168
3I9-9
70
139-3
103
202-9
I36
263.7
169
321.6
7i
141.3
104
204.8
137
265.5
170
323.3
72
143.2
105
206.7
138
267.3
XII.
DETERMINATION OF INVERT-SUGAR.
VOLUMETRIC METHOD.
(Using Fehling's Solution.)
5 grammes to 100 cubic centimetres.
Divide 1.00 by the number of cubic centimetres used of above
solution, and multiply result by 100.
160
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XII.
Number
of c.c.
used.
Per cent ol
Invert-
Sugar.
Number
of c.c.
used.
Per cent of
Invert-
Sugar.
Number
of c.c.
used.
Per cent of
Invert-
Sugar.
Number
of c.c.
used.
Per cent of
Invert-
Sugar.
I
100.00
26
3-85
51
.96
76
•32
2
50.00
27
3-70
52
.92
77
•30
3
33-33
28
3-57
53
.89
78
.28
4
25.00
29
3-45
54
•85
79
.27
5
20.00
30
3-33
55
.82
80
•25
6
16.67
31
3-23
56
•79
81
•23
7
14.29
32
3.13
57
• 75
82
.22
8
12.50
33
3-03
58
.72
83
.20
9
ii. ii
34
2.94
59
.69
84
.19
10
10.00
35
2.86
60
.67
85
.18
ii
9.09
36
2.78
61
.64
86
.16
12
8.33
37
2.70
62
.61
87
•15
13
7-69
38
2.63
63
•59
88
.14
H
7.14
39
2.56
64
•56
89
.12
15
6.67
40
2.50
65
•54
90
. 11
16
6.25
4i
2.44
66
•52
9i
.10
17
5-88
42
2.38
67
•49
92
.09
18
5-55
43
2-33
68
•47
93
.08
19
5.26
44
2.27
69
•45
94
.06
20
5.00
45
2.22
70
•43
95
.05
21
4.76
46
2.17
71
.41
96
.04
22
4-55
47
2.13
72
•39
97
•03
23
4-35
48
2.08
73
•37
98
.02
24
4.17
49
2.04
74
•35
99
.01
25
4.00
50
2.OO
75
•33
100
.OO
XIII.
DETERMINATION OF INVERT-SUGAR.
GRA VIMETRIG METHOD.
(Using Fehling's Solution.)
HEKZFELD, HILLER, MEISSL.
162
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XIII.
R:I.
Z = 200 mg.
i75 mg.
150 mg.
125 mg.
loo mg.
75 mg.
So mg.
o : 100
56.4
55-4
54-5
53-8
53-2
53-0
53-0
10 : go
56.3
55-3
54-4
53-8
53.2
52-9
52.9
20 : 80
56.2
55-2
54-3
53-7
53.2
52-7
52.7
30 : 70
56.1
55-1
54-2
53.7
53.2
52.6
52.6
40 : 60
55-9
55-o
54-1
53.6
53.1
52.5
52-4
50 : 50
55-7
54-9
54-o
53.5
53-1
52.3
52.2
60 : 40
55-6
54.7
53-8
53-2
52.8
52.1
51-9
70 : 30
55-5
54.5
53-5
52.9
52.5
51.9
51.6
80 : 20
55-4
54-3
53-3
52-7
52.2
51.7
51-3
90 : 10
54-6
53.6
53-1
52.6
52.1
51.6
51-2
91 :g
54-1
53.6
52.6
52.1
51.6
51.2
50.7
92 : 8
53-6
53.i
52.1
51-6
51.2
50.7
50.3
93 : 7
53-6
53-i
52.1
51.2
50.7
50.3
49.8
94 :6
53-1
52.6
51-6
50.7
50.3
49.8
48.9
95 =5
52.6
52.1
51-2
50.3
49-4
48.9
48.5
96 -.4
52.1
51-2
50-7
49-8
48.9
47-7
46.9
97 :3
50.7
50-3
49.8
48.9
47-7
46.2
45-1
98 : 2
49.9
48.9
48.5
47.3
45-8
43-3
40.0
99 :i
47-7
47-3
46.5
45.1
43-3
41.2
38.1
XIV.
DETERMINATION OF INVERT-SUGAR.
GRA VIMETR1C METHOD.
(Using Soldaini's Solution.)
PKEUSS.
164
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XIV.
fMgr.
Invert-
Sugar.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Invert-
Sugar.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Invert-
Sugar.
Mgr.
Copper.
5
18.8
23
76.0
41
130.7
6
21.9
24
79.1
42
133-6
7
25.2
25
82.2
43
136.5
8
28.4
26
85-3
44
139-5
9
31.6
27
88.5
45
142.4
10
34-9
28
91.4
46
145.4
ii
38-1
29
94-5
47
148.3
12
41-3
30
97.6
48
I5I.2
13
44-5
31
100.6
49
I54-I
14
47-7
32
103.6
50
157.0
15
50.9
33
106.6
55
I7L3
16
54-o
34
109.7
60
185.5
17
57-2
35
112.7
65
2OO.4
18
60.3
36
II5-7
70
2I3.I
19
63.5
37
118.7
75
226.6
20
66.6
38
121. 8
80
240.0
21
69.7
39
124.8
22
72.9
40
127.8
XV.
DETERMINATION OF DEXTROSE.
From E. Wein, Tabellen zur Quantitativen Bestimmung der
Zuckerarten.
F. ALLIHN.
166
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XY.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
IO
6.1
58
29.8
106
54-0
154
78.6
II
6.6
59
30.3
107
54.5
155
79. 1
12
7-1
60
30.8
1 08
55-o
156
79-6
13
7.6
61
31-3
I09
55.5
157
80. 1
14
8.1
62
31-8
no
56.0
158
80.7
15
8.6
63
32-3
III
56.5
159
81.2
16
9.0
64
32.8
112
57-0
1 60
ST. 7
17
9-5
65
33-3
H3
57-5
161
82.2
18
10. 0
66
33-8
114
58.0
162
82.7
*9
10.5
67
34-3
H5
58.6
163
83.3
20
II. 0
68
34-8
116
59-i
164
83.8
21
n-5
69
35-3
117
59-6
165
84-3
22
12. 0
70
35-8
118
60. i
166
84.8
23
12.5
71
36.3
119
60.6
167
85-3
24
13-0
72
36.8
1 20
61.1
168
85.9
25
13-5
73
37.3
121
61.6
169
86.4
26
14.0
74
37-8
122
62.1
170
86.9
27
14-5
75
38.3
123
62.6
171
87.4
28
15-0
76
38.8
124
63.1
172
87.9
29
15-5
77
39-3
125
63.7
173
88.5
30
16.0
78
39-8
126
64.2
174
89.0
31
16.5
79
40.3
I27
64.7
175
89.5
32
17.0
80
40.8
128
65.2
176
9O.O
33
17-5
81
41-3
I29
65.7
177
90.5
34
18.0
82
41.8
130
66.2
178
9I.I
35
18.5
83
42.3
131
66.7
179
91.6
36
18.9
84
42.8
132
67.2
180
92.1
37
19.4
85
43-4
133
67-7
181
Q2.6
38
19.9
86
43-9
134
68.2
182
93-1
39
20.4
87
44-4
135
68.8
183
93-7
40
20.9
88
44.9
136
69-3
184
94-2
4i
21.4
89
45-4
137
69.8
185
94-7
42
21.9
90
45-9
138
70.3
186
95-2
43
22.4
9i
46.4
139
70.8
187
95-7
44
22.9
92
46.9
140
7i-3
188
96.3
45
23-4
93
47-4
141
, 71.8
189
96.8
46
23-9
94
47-9
142
72-3
190
97-3
47
24.4
95
48.4
143
72-9
191
97.8
48
24.9
96
48.9
144
73.4
192
98.4
49
25-4
97
49.4
145
73.9
193
98.9
50
25-9
98
49-9
146
74.4
194
99-4
51
26.4
99
50.4
147
74-9
195
100.0
52
26.9
IOO
50.9
148
75-5
196
100.5
53
27.4
101
51-4
149
76.0
197
IOI.O
54
27-9
102
5L9
150
76.5
198
101.5
55
28.4
103
52.4
151
77-o
199
IO2.O
56
28.8
104
52.9
152
77-5
200
102.6
57
29-3
105
53-5
153
78.1
201
103.2
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
167
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
202
103.7
250
129.2
298
155-4
346
I82.I
203
104.2
251
129.7
299
156.0
347
182.6
204
104.7
252
130.3
300
156.5
348
183.2
205
105.3
253
130.8
301
I57-I
349
183-7
206
105.8
254
I3I-4
302
157-6
350
184-3
207
106.3
255
I3I-9
303
158.2
35i
184.9
208
106.8
256
132.4
304
158.7
352
185.4
209
107.4
257
133-0
305
159-3
353
186.0
210
107.9
258
133-5
306
159.8
354
186.6
211
108.4
259
I34-I
307
160.4
355
187.2
212
109.0
260
134.6
308
160.9
356
187.7
213
109.5
26l
I35-I
309
161.5
357
188.3
214
IIO.O
262
135.7
310
162.0
358
188.9
215
no. 6
263
136.2
311
162.6
359
189.4
216
in. i
264
136.8
312
163.1
360
190.0
217
in. 6
265
137-3
313
163.7
361
190.6
218
112. 1
266
137.8
314
164.2
362
igi.I
219
112.7
267
138.4
315
164.8
363
191.7
220
113.2
268
138.9
3l6
165-3
364
192.3
221
II3-7
269
139-5
3T7
165.9
365
192.9
222
II4-3
270
140.0
318
166.4
366
193.4
223
114.8
271
140.6
319
167.0
367
194.0
224
"5-3
272
I4I.I
320
167-5
368
194.6
225
II5-9
273
I4I.7
321
I68.I
369
I95-I
226
116.4
274
142.2
322
168.6
370
195-7
227
116.9
275
142.8
323
169.2
371
196.3
228
117.4
276
143-3
324
169.7
372
196.8
229
118.0
277
143-9
325
170.3
373
197.4
230
118.5
278
144.4
326
170.9
374
198.0
231
119.0
279
145.0
327
171.4
375
198.6
232
119.6
280
145-5
328
172.0
376
199.1
233
120. I
281
146.1 ,
329
172.5
377
199.7
234
I2O.7
282
146.6
330
I73-I
378
200-3
235
121. 2
283
147.2
331
173-7
379
2OO.8
236
I2I.7
284
147-7
332
174.2
380
201.4
237
122.3
285
148.3
333
174.8
38i
202.0
238
122.8
286
148.8
334
175-3
382
202.5
239
123.4
287
149.4
335
175-9
383
203.1
240
123.9
288
149.9
336
176.5
384
203.7
241
124.4
289
150.5
337
177.0
385
204.3
242
125.0
290
I5I.O
338
177.6
386
204.8
243
125-5
291
151.6
339
178.1
387
205.4
244
126.0
292
152. I
340
178.7
388
206.0
245
126.6
293
152.7
34i
179-3
389
206.5
246
I27.I
294
153-2
342
179.8
390
2O7.I
247
127.6
295
153-8
343
180.4
391
207.7
248
I28.I
296
154-3
344
180.9
392
208.3
249
128.7
297
154-9
345
181.5
393
208.8
168
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Dextrose.
394
209.4
412
219.9
430
230.4
447
240.4
395
2IO.O
413
220.4
431
231.0
448
241.0
396
210.6
414
221.0
432
231.6
449
241.6
397
211. 2
415
221.6
433
232.2
450
242.2
398
2II.7
416
222.2
434
232.8
45i
242.8
399
212.3
417
222.8
435
233.4
452
243-4
400
212.9
418
223.3
436
233.9
453
244.0
401
213-5
419
223.9
437
234.5
454
244.6
402
2I4.I
420
224.5
438
235.1
455
245.2
403
214.6
421
225.1
439
235.7
456
245-7
404
215.2
422
225.7
44°
236.3
457
246.3
405
215.8
423
226.3
441
236.9
458
246.9
406
216.4
424
226.9
442
237-5
459
247-5
407
217.0
425
227.5
443
238.1
460
248.1
408
217-5
426
228.0
444
238.7
461
248.7
409
2I8.I
427
228.6
445
239.3
462
249-3
410
218.7
428
229.2
446
239.8
463
249.9
411
219-3
429
229.8
XVI.
DETERMINATION OF L^VULOSK
From E. Wein, Tabellen zur Quantitativen Bestimmung der
Zuckerarten.
LEHMANN.
170
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XVI.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Laevulose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Laevulose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Laevulose.
Mgr.
Copper.
T Mg,f-
Lsevulose.
20
7-15
68
35-21
116
64.21
164
94.17
21
7.78
69
35-8i
117
64.84
165
94.80
22
8.41
70
36.40
118
65.46
1 66
95-44
23
9.04
71
37.00
119
66.09
167
96.08
24
9.67
72
37-59
1 20
66.72
168
96.71
25
10.30
73
38.19
121
67.32
169
97-35
26
I0.8l
74
38.78
122
67.92
170
97-99
27
n-33
75
39.38
123
68.53
171
98-63
28
11.84
76
39.98
124
69.13
172
99.27
29
12.36
77
40.58
125
69-73
173
99.90
30
12.87
78
41.17
126
70-35
174
100.54
31
13.46
79
41-77
127
70.96
175
IOI.I8
32
14.05
. 80
42-37
128
7I-58
176
101.82
33
14.64
81
42-97
I29
72.19
177
102 . 46
34
15-23
82
43-57
130
72.81
178
103.11
35
15-82
83
44- 1 6
131
73-43
179
103-75
36
16.40
84
44.76
132
74.05
180
104.39
37
16.99
85
45.36
133
74.67
181
105.04
38
T7-57
86
45 -96
J34
75.29
182
105.68
39
18.16
87
46-57
135
75-91
183
106.33
40
18.74
88
47-17
136
76-53
184
106.97
4i
19.32
89
47.78
137
77-15
185
107.62
42
19.91
90
48-38
138
77-77
1 86
108.27
43
20.49
9i
48.98
139
78.39
187
108.92
44
21.08
92
49-58
140
79.01
188
109.56
45
21.66
93
50.18
141
79.64
189
no. 21
46
22.25
94
50.78
142
80.28
190
no.86
47
22.83
95
51-38
143
80.91
191
111.50
43
23.42
96
51.98
144
8i-55
192
112.14
49
24.00
97
52-58
145
82.18
193
112.78
50
24-59
98
53-19
146
82.81
194
113-42
5i
25.18
99
53-79
147
83-43
!95
114.06
52
25.76
100
54-39
148
84.06
196
114.72
53
26.35
IOI
55-oo
149
84.68
197
115.38
54
26.93
102
55.62
150
85-31
198
116.04
55
27-52
103
56-23
151
85-93
199
116.70
56
28.11
104
56-85
152
86.55
200
117.36
57
28.70
105
57.46
153
87.16
201
118.02
58
29.30
106
58-07
154
87.78
202
118.68
59
29.89
107
58.68
155
88.40
203
119-33
60
30.48
108
59-30
156
89.05
204
119.99
61
31.07
109
59- 91
157
89.69
205
120.65
62
31.66
no
60.52
158
90-34
206
121.30
63
32.25
III
61.13
159
90.98
2O7
121.96
64
32.84
112
61.74
160
91.63
208
122.61
65
33.43
H3
62.36
161
92.26
209
123.27
66
34-02
114
62.97
162
92.90
2IO
123.92
67
34-62
H5
63.58
163
93-53
211
124.58
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
171
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Lsevulose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Laevulose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Lsevulose.
Mgr.
Copper.
Mgr.
Lsevulose.
212
125.24
256
154- 91
300
185-63
343
216.97
213
125.90
257
155.65
301
186.35
344
217.72
214
126.56
258
156.40
302
187.06
345
218.47
215
127.22
259
157.14
303
187.78
346
219.21
216
127.85
260
157.88
3°4
188.49
347
219.97
217
128.48
26l
158.49
305
189.21
348
220.71
218
129.10
262
159.09
306
189.93
349
221.46
219
129.73
263
159.70
307
190.65
350
222.21
2 2O
130.36
264
160.30
308
I9L37
35i
222.96
221
I3I-07
265
160.91
309
192.09
352
223.72
222
I3L77
266
161.63
310
192.81
353
224.47
223
132.48
267
162.35
311
193.53
354
225.23
224
I33-I8
268
163.07
312
194.25
355
225.98
225
133.89
269
163.79
313
194.97
356
226.74
226
134.56
270
164.51
314
195.69
357
227.49
227
I35-23
271
165.21
315
196.41
358
228.25
228
135.89
272
165.90
316
197.12
359
229.00
229
136.89
273
166.60
317
197.83
360
229.76
230
137.23
274
167.29
318
198.55
361
230.52
231
137.90
275
167.99
319
199.26
362
231.28
232
138.57
276
168.68
320
199.97
363
232.05
233
139.25
277
169.37
321
200.71
364
232.81
234
139.92
278
1 70 . 06
322
201.44
365
233-57
235
140.59
279
170.75
323
202.18
366
234.33
236
141.27
280
171.44
324
202.91
367
235.10
237
141.94
28l
172.14
325
203.65
368
235-86
238
142.62
282
172.85
326
204.39
369
236.63
239
143.29
283
173-55
327
205.13
370
237-39
240
143-97
284
174.26
328
205.88
37i
238.16
241
144.65
285
174.96
329
206 . 62
372
238.93
242
I45.32
286
I75.67
330
207 . 36
373
239.69
243
146.00
287
176.39
331
208. 10
374
240.46
244
146.67
288
177.10
332
208.83
375
241.23
245
147-35
289
177.82
333
209.57
376
241.87
246
148.03
290
178.53
334
210.30
377
242.51
247
148.71
291
179.24
335
211.04
378
243-I5
248
149.40
292
179-95
336
211.78
379
243-79
249
150.08
293
180.65
337
212.52
380
244.43
250
150.76
294
181.36
338
213.25
38i
245-34
251
I5L44
295
182.07
339
213.99
382
246.25
252
152.12
296
182.78
340
214.73
383
247.17
253
I52.8I
297
183.49
341
215.48
384
248.08
254
153-49
298
184.21
342
216.23
385
248.99
255
I54.I7
299
184.92
XVII
DENSITY OF WATER AT THE TEMPERATURES
FROM 0° TO 50° CENTIGRADE, RELATIVE
TO ITS DENSITY AT 4° CENTIGRADE.
KOSETTI.
Based on results obtained by Kopp, Despretz, Hagen, Matthies-
sen, Kosetti.
173
174
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XVII.
Temperature:
Degrees Centi-
grade.
Density of Water rela-
tive to its Density at
4° C.
Temperature :
Degrees Centi-
grade.
Density of Water rela-
tive to its Density at
4°C.
0°
0.99987
25°
0.99712
I
0.99993
26
0.99687
2
0.99997
27
o . 99660
3
0.99999
28
0.99633
4
I.OOOOO
29
0.99605
5
0.99999
30
0.99577
6
0.99997
31
0.99547
7
0.99993
32
0.99517
8
0.99989
33
0.99485
9
0.99982
34
0.99452
10
0.99975
35
0.99418
n
0.99966
36
0.99383
12
0.99955
37
0.99347
13
0.99943
38
0.99310
14
0.99930
39
0.99273
15
0.99916
40
0.99235
16
0.99900
4i
0.99197
17
0.99884
42
0.99158
18
0.99865
43
0.99118
iQ
0.99846
44
0.99078
20
0.99826
45
0.99037
21
0.99805
46
0.98996
22
0.99783
47
0.98954
23
0.99760
48
0.98910
24
0.99737
49
0.98865
50
0.98819
XVIII.
COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES.
175
176
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
XVIII.
CENTIGRADE, FAHRENHEIT, REAUMUR.
Centi-
ffrade.
Fahren-
heit.
Reaumur.
Centi-
grade.
Fahren-
heit.
Reaumur.
Centi-
grade.
Fahren-
heit.
Reaumur.
o
00
212
80
0
53
0
127.4
42.4
0
6
42.8
4.8
99
210.2
79.2
52
125.6
41.6
5
41
4
98
208.4
78.4
51
123.8
40.8
4
39-2
3-2
97
206.6
77.6
50
122
40
3
37-4
2.4
96
204.8
76.8
49
I2O.2
39-2
2
35-6
1.6
95
203
76
48
II8.4
38.4
i
33-8
0.8
94
201.2
75.2
47
II6.6
37-6
0
32
0
93
199.4
74-4
46
II4.8
36.8
— i
30.2
-c.8
92
197.6
73-6
45
113
36
— 2
28.4
-1.6
91
195.8
72.8
44
III. 2
35.2
— 3
26.6
-2.4
90
194
72
43
109.4
34-4
—4
24.8
-3-2
89
192.2
71.2
42
IO7.6
33-6
-5
23
-4
88
190.4
70.4
41
105.8
32.8
-6
21.2
-4.8
87
188.6 69.6
40
104
32
-7
19.4
-5-6
86
186.8 68.8
39
102.2
31.2
-8
I7.6
-6.4
85
185 68
38
IOO.4
30.4
-9
I5.8
-7.2
84
183.2 67.2
37
98.6
29.6
-10
14
-8
83
181.4
66.4
36
96.8
28.8
— ii
12.2
-8.8
82
179.6
65.6
35
95
28
— 12
10.4
-9.6
81
177.8
64.8
34
93-2
27.2
-13
8.6
-10.4
80
176
64
33
91.4
26.4
-14
6.8
— II. 2
79
174.2
63.2
32
89.6
25.6
-15
5
— 12
78
172.4
62.4
87.8
24.8
-16
3.2
-12.8
77
170.6
61.6
30
86
24
-17
1.4
-I3.6
76
168.8
60.8
29
84.2
23.2
-18
0.4
-14.4
75
167
60
28
82.4
22.4
— 19
— 2.2
-15.2
74
165.2
59-2
27
80.6
21.6
—20
-4-
-16
73
163.4
58.4
26
78.8
20.8
— 21
-5-8
-16.8
72
161.6
57.6
25
77
20
— 22
-7-6
-17.6
159.8
56.8
24
75.2
19.2
-23
-9.4
— 18.4
70
158
56
23
73-4
18.4
-24
— II. 2
-19.2
69
156.2
55-2
22
71.6
I7.6
-25
-13-
— 20
68
154.4
54-4
21
69.8
16.8
-26
— 14.8
— 20.8
67
152.6
53-6
20
68
16
-27
-16.6
— 21.6
66
150.8
52.8
19
66.2
15-2
-28
-18.4
— 22.4
65
149
52
18
64.4
14.4
-29
— 20.2
— 23.2
64
147.2
51.2
17
62.6
13-6
-30
— 22
-24
63
145.4
50.4
16
60.8
12.8
—31
-23.8
— 24.8
62
143.6
49.6
15
59
12
-32
-25.6
— 25.6
61
141.8
48.8
14
57-2
II. 2
-33
-27.4
— 26.4
60
140
48
13
55-4
10.4
-34
— 29.2
— 27.2
59
138-2
47.2
12
53-6
9.6
-35
-31
-28
58
136.4
46.4
II
51.8
8.8
-36
-32.8
-28.8
57
134.6
45-6
10
50
8
-37
-34-6
— 29.6
56
132.8
44.8
9
48.2
7.2
-38
-36.4
-30-4
55
131
44
8
46.4
6.4
— 39
-38.2
-31.2
54
129.2
43-2
7
44.6
5.6
-40
-40
-32
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
177
XVIII.
FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE, REAUMUR.
Fah-
ren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Reaumur.
Fah-
ren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Re'aumur.
Fah-
ren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Reaumur.
•
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
212
IOO
80
165
73.89
59- "
118
47.78
38.22
211
99-44
79-56
164
73-33
58.67
117
47.22
37.78
210
98.89
79.11
I63
72.78
58.22
116
46.67
37.33
209
98.33
78.67
162
72.22
57-78
H5
46.11
36.89
208
97.78
78.22
161
71.67
57-33
114
45.55
36.44
207
97.22
77-78
1GO
71.11
56.89
H3
45
36
206
96.67
77.33
J59
70.55
56.44
112
44.44
35.56
205
96.11
76.89
158
70
56
III
43-89
35-11
204
95-55
76.44
157
69.44
55-56
110
43-33
34.67
2O3
95
76
156 68.89
55-11
109 42.78
34-22
202
94.44
75.56
155
68.33
54.67
108 42.22
33.78
201
93.39
75-11
154
67-78
54-22
107 41.67
33-33
200
93-33
74.67
153
67.22
53-78
106
41.11
32.89
199
92.78
74.22
152
66.67
53.33
105
40.55
32-44
198
92.22
73./8
151
66.11
52.89
104
40
32
i97
91.67
73.33
150
65.55
52.44
103
39-44
31-56
196
91.11
72.89
149
65
52
102
38.89
31.11
T95
90-55
72.44
148
64.44
51-56
IOI
38.33
30.67
194
90
72
147
63-89
51.11
100
37.78
30.22
193
89.44
7L56
146
63-33
50.67
99
37-22
29.78
192
88.89
71.11
i45
62.78
50.22
98
36.67
29-33
191
88.33
70.67
144
62.22
49.78
97
36.11
28.89
190
87.78
7O.22
i43
61.67
49-33
96
35-55
28.44
189
87.22
69.78
142
61.11
48.89
95
35
28
188
86.67
69.33
141
60.55
48.44
94
34-44
27.56
187
86.11
68.89
140
60
48
93
33.89
27.11
1 86
85-55
68.44
i39
59-44
47.56
92
33-33
26.67
185
85
68
138
58.89
47.11
9i
32.78
26.22
184
84.44
67-56
i37
58-33
46.67
90
32.22
25-78
183
83-89
67.11
136
57-78
46.22
89
31.67
25.33
182
83-33
66.67
i35
57-22
45.78
88
31-11
24.89
181
82.78
66.22
134
56.67
45-33
87
30-55
24.44
180
82.22
65.78
i33
56.11
44.89
86
30
24
i79
81.67
65.33
132
55-55
44-44
85
29.44
23-56
178
8i.ii
64.89
131
55
44
84
28.89
23. n
177
80.55
64.44
180
54-44
43-56
83
28.33
22.67
176
80
64
129
53.89
43-n
82
27.78
22.22
i75
79-44
63.56
128
53-33
42.67
Bi
27.22
21.78
i74
78.89
63.11
127
52.78
42.22
80
26.67
21-33
i73
78.33
62.67
126
52.22
41.78
79
26.11
20.89
172
77-78
62.22
125
51-67
41.33
78
25-55
20.44
171 I 77.22
61.78
124
51.11
40.89
77
25
20
170 ! 76.67
61.33
123
50.55
40.44
76
24.44
19.56
169 76.11
60.89
122
50
40
75
23-89
ig.II
168 75.55
60.44
121
49-44
39-56
74
23.33
18.67
167
75
60
120
48.89
39-n
73
22.78
18.22
166
74.44
59.56
119
48.33
38.67
72
22.22
17.78
178
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Fah-
ren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Reaumur.
Fah- >
ren- \
heit.
Centi
grade.
Reaumur.
Fah-
ren
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Reaumur.
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
71
21.67
17.33
33
0.55
0.44
— 4
— 20
-16
70
21. II
16.89
32
0
0
-5
-20.55
— 16.44
*9
20-55
16.44
31
-0.55
—0.44
-6
— 21. II
— 16.89
•68
20
16
30
— I. II
-0.89
— 7
— 21.67
-17-33
<>7
19.44
15-56
29
-1.67
-1.33
-8
— 22.22
-17.78
•66
18.89
15-11
28
— 2.22
-1.78
—9
-22.78
— 18.22
<>5
18.33 ! 14.67
27
-2.78
— 2.22
-10
-23.33
-18.67
<>4
17-78
14.22
26
-3-33
-2.67
— II
-23-89
— 19.11
63
17.22
13-78
25
-3-89
-3-ii
— 12
— 24.44
— 19.56
62
16.67
13-33
24
-4.44
-3-56
-13
-25
— 20
61
16. ii
12.89
23
— 5
— 4
— 14
-25.55 |-20.44
60 is.S'S
12.44
22
-5.55
—4/44
— 15
— 26.11 1 — 20.89
59 15
12
21
— 6. ii
-4.89
-16
— 26.67
-21-33
58
14.44
11.56
20
-6.67
-5-33
-17
— 27.22
— 21.78
57
13.89
II. II
19
-7.22
-5.78
-18
— 27.78 —22.22
56
13-33
10.67
18
-7.78
-6.22
-19
-28.33 -22.67
55
12.78
10.22
17
-8-33
-6.67
— 20 —28.89 —23.11
54 12.22
9.78
16
-8.89
-7.II
— 21 1—29.44
-23.56
53
11.67
9-33
15
-9.44
-7.56
— 22
-30
-24
52
n. ii
8.89
14
— 10
-8
-23
-30.55
-24.44
5i
10-55
8.44
13
-10.55
-8.44
-24
-31.11
-24.89
50 10
8
12
— ii. ii
-8.89
-25
-31.67
-25.33
49
9-44
7-56
II
— 11.67
-9-33
-26
-32.22
-25.78
48
8.89
7. ii
10
— 12.22
-9.78
-27
-32.78
— 26.22
47
8-33
6.67
9
— 12.78
— 10.22
-28
-33-33
— 26.67
46
7.78
6.22
8
-13.33
— 10.67
-29
-33-89
-27.11
45
7.22
5.78
7
-13.89
— II. II
!-30
-34-44
— 27.56
44
6.67
5-33
6
— 14.44
— 11.56
1 ~~3i
-35
-28
43
6. ii
4.89
5
-15
— 12
1 -32
-35-55
-28.44
42
5-55
4.44
4
-15-55
-12.44
-33
— 36. ii
— 28.89
4i
5
4
3
— 16. ii
— 12.89
-34
-36-67
-29.33
40
4.44
3.56
2
— 16.67
-13-33
-35
-37-22
-29.78
39
3-89
3- ii
I
-17.22
-13.78
-36
-37.78
— 3O.22
38
3-33
2.67
0
— 17.78
— 14.22
-37
-38.33
— 30.67
37
2.78
2.22
— i
-I8-33
-14.67
-38
-38.89
-31.11
36
35
2.22
1.67
1.78
1.33
— 2
-3
— 18.89
-19.44
-15-11
-I5-56
-8
-39-44
—40
-31.56
-32
34
I. II
0.89
XIX.
TABLES FOR CONVERTING CUSTOMARY AND
METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY.
OFFICE OF STANDARD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
T. C. MENDENHALIi, Superintendent.
WASHINGTON, D.C., 1890.
[Authorized Reprint.]
180
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
CUSTOMARY TO METRIC.
Inches
LINEAR.
Feet Yards
Miles
CAPACITY.
Fluid
drams TJ-, •,
to milli- ™* Quarts
to milli-
to
to
to kilo-
litres or t°U^f,f
to
Gallons
metres.
metres.
metres.
metres.
SSSi "-•
litres.
to litres.
metres.
I
_
25.4000
0.304801
0.914402
1.60935
X
= 3-70 29.57
0.94636
3.78544
2
=
50.8001
0.609601
1.828804
3.21869
9
= 7-39 59-15
1.89272
7-57088
3
=
76.2001
0.914402
2 • 743205
4.82804
'3
= 11.09 88.72
2.83908
11.35632
4
=
101.6002
i .219202
3.657607
6-43739
4
— 14.79 118.30
3-78544
15.14176
5
6
=
127.0002
152.4003
1.524003
i . 828804
4.572009
5.486411
8.04674
9-65608
1
= 18.48 147-87
= 22.18 177-44
4.73180
5.67816
18.92720
22.71264
7
=
177.8003
2.133604
6.400813
11.26543
7
= 25.88 207.02
6.62452
26.49808
8
=
203 . 200^
2.438405
7.315215
12.87478
8
= 29.57 236.59
7-57088
30.28352
9
*
228.600^
2.743205
8.229616
14.48412
9
= 33-28 266.16
8.51724
34.06896
SQUARE.
WEIGHT.
square ^ed-6
centi- metres
metres.
Square
yards to
square
metres.
Acres
to hec-
tares.
Grains Avoirdu-
<£»*-• sELs
Avoirdu-
pois Troy
pounds to ounces to
kilo- grammes,
grammes.
i
_
6.452
9 290
0.836
0.4047
i
= 64.7989 28.3495
0-45359
31.10348
2
=
12.903
18.581
1.672
0.8094
2
= 129.5978 56.6991
0.90719
62 . 20096
3
—
!9-355
27.871
2.508
1.2141
3
= 194.3968 85.0486
i . 36078
93.31044
4
—
25.807
37.161
3-344
1.6187
4
= 259.1957 113.3981
1.81437
124.41392
—
32-258
46.452
4.181
2.0234
5
= 323.9946 141.7476
2.26796
155.51740
6
=
38.710
55-742
5-OI7
2.4281
6
= 388.7935 170.0972
2.72156
186.62089
7
=
45.161
65.032
5.853
2.8328
7
= 453-5924 198-4467
3-I75I5
217.72437
8
—
51.613
6.689
3-2375
8
= 5I8-39I4 226.7962
3.62874
248.82785
9
=
58-065
83.613
7-525
3.6422 g
= 583-1903 255.1457
4-08233
279-93I33
CUBIC.
Cubic
inches
Cubic
Cubic
Bushels
to
feet to
yards to
to
cubic
cubic
cubic
hecto-
centi-
metres.
metres.
litres.
metres.
i
2
=
16.387
32-774
0.02832
0.05663
0.765
1-529
0.35242
0.70485
i chain =
i square mile =
20.1169
259
metres,
hectares.
3
=
49.161
0.08495
2-294
1.05727
i fathom =
1.829
metres.
4
—
65.549
0.11327
3-058
1.40969
i nautical mile =
1853.27
metres.
5
=
81.936
0.14158
3-823
i .76211
i foot = 0.304801 metre,
9.4840
58 log.
6
7
98-323
114.710
0.16990
o. 19822
4-587
5-352
2.11454
2.46696
i avoir, pound =
15432-35639 grains =
453.5924277 gram,
i kilogramme.
8
=
131.097
0.22654
6.116
2.81938
9
=
147.484
0.25485
6.881
3.17181
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
181
METRIC TO CUSTOMARY.
LINEAR.
Mettres Metres M(*res
inches. tofeet' yar°ds.
Kilo-
metres
to
miles.
CAPACITY.
Millili-
^ubicf Cent»- Litres Deka- Hekto-
metres QUcirts. V ** , v^
to fluid ounces- >ns- bush
drams.
i
2
a
39-3700
78.7400
3.28083
6.56167
i .093611
2. 187222
0.62137
1.24274
i
2
= 0.27
= 0.54
0.338 1.0567 2.6417 2.8375
0.676 2.II34 5-2834 5.6750
3
=
118. noo
9.84250
3.280833
1.86411
3
= 0.81
I.OI4 3.1700 7.9251 8.5125
4
SB
157.4800
I3-I2333
4-374444
2.48548
4
= i. 08
1.35^ 4.2267 10.5668 11.3500
5
6
-
196.8500
236.2200
16.40417
19.68500
5-468056
6.561667
3.10685
3.72822
x.35
= 1.62
1.691 5.2834 13.2085 14.1875
2.029 6.3401 15.8502 17.0250
I
__
275.5900
314.9600
22.96583
26.24667
7.655278
8.748889
4-34959
4.97096
I
= i. 80
= 2.16
2.368 7.3968 18.4919 19.8625
2.706 8.4534 21.1336 22.7000
9
=
354-3300
29.52750
9.842500
5-59233
9
= 2.43
3-043 9-5Ioi 23.7753 25.5375
SQUARE.
WEIGHT.
Square
centi-
metres
to
Square
metres
to
Square
metres
to
Hec-
tares to
Milli-
grammes
Hecto- Kilo
Kilo- ^ammes gramm"es
grammes *J«L«x to pounds
square
inches.
square
feet.
square
yards.
acres.
to grains, to grains. ?o~0~~7' avoirdu-
L av. ' P°is'
i
_
0.1550
10.764
1.196
2.471
i
= 0.01543
15432.36 3-5274 2.20462
2
=
0.3100
21.528
2.392
4.942
2
= 0.03986
30864.71 7-0548 4-40924
3
=
o . 4650
32.292
3-588
7-413
3
= 0.04630
46297.07 10.5822 6.61386
4
=
0.6200
43-055
4.784
9.884
4
= 0.06173
61729.43 14.1096 8.81849
5
=
0.7750
53-819
5.980
12.355
5
= 0.07716
77161.78 17.6370 11.02311
6
—
0.9300
64-583
7.176
14.826
6
= 0.09259
92594.14 21.1644 13.22773
7
SB
i .0850
75-347
8.372
17.297
7
= 0.10803
108026.49 24.6918 15.43235
8
—
1.2400
86.111
9-568
19.768
8
= 0.12346
123458.85 28.2192 17.63697
9
=
1-3950
96.874
10.764
22.239
9
= 0.13889
138891.21 31.7466 19.84159
CUBIC.
WEIGHT.— (Continued.)
Cubic
centi-
metres
to cubic
inches.
Cubic
deci-
metres
to cubic
inches.
Cubic
metres
to cubic
feet.
Cubic
metres
to cubic
yards.
Quintals to
pounds av.
SE -~ $•
j
—
0.0610
61 .023
35-3I4
1.308
j
= 220.46
2204.6 0.03215
2
=
o. 1220
122.047
70 . 629
2.616
2
= 440.92
4409.2 0.06430
3
=:
0.1831
183.070
105.943
3-924
3
661.38
6613.8 0.09645
4
=r
0.2441
244-093
141.258
5.232
4
= 881.84
8818.4 0.12860
5
as
0.3051
3°5 •1I7
176.572
6.540
= I 102 . 30
11023.0 0.16075
6
=
0.3661
366.140
211.887
7.848
6
= 1322.76
13227.6 0.19290
7
=
0.4272
427.163
247.201
9.156
7
= 1543-22
15432.2 0.22505
8
=
0.4882
488.187
282.516
10.464
8
1763.68
17636.8 0.25721
9
=
0.5492
549-210
317.830
11.771
9
= 1984.14
19841.4 0.28936
INDEX.
Acidity, determination of ;
Acids, organic » 84
Acids, organic, schemes of analysis - 85
Alkalinity, determination of 30
Analyses, reports on sugar 98
Analysis-schemes for organic acids 85
Angle of rotation 6
Ash, determination of. method of carbonization 79
Scheibler's method 77
«« " Von Lippmann's method 78
Ash, quantitative analysis of sugar 79
Average samples, preparation of 24
B
Balance, hydrostatic 29
Balances, examination of ;.; = 21
• " qualities of good 21
Baume hydrometer 13
scaleof 14
" " testing 15
Bodenbender and Scheller's method 74
Brix (Balling) hydrometer . . 13
scaleof 14
testing 15
C
Calculation of the weight of solids and liquids from their specific gravity 107
Cane-juice analysis, report on 102
Casamajor's method of determining the exponent 40
Cellulose, pure, determination of 96
Chandler and Bicketts, method of 51
Circular polarization 2
Clerget's inversion method 44
Color, determination of 25
Colorimeters 26
Control-tube , 11
Covers of polariscope tubes, examination of 13
183
184 INDEX.
D
PAGE
Decolorization of dark sugar solutions 34
Densimetric degrees 14
Density of solutions, determination of 26
Dextrose in sugar, gravimetric method of determination 54
" " qualitative tests for « 49
" " quantitative methods of determination 51
Dextrose solution for standardizing Fehling's solution. 68
Dry Substance, equivalents on 41
Dutch standards 25
Duty on sugar, United States of America 106
E
Equivalents on dry substance 41
Exponent 38
F
Fehling's solution, formula of 65
Flasks, graduation of 18
G
Glass spheres, for density determinations 28
Graduated glass vessels, verification of 19
Graduation of flasks 18
H
Hot polarization, method of 51
Hydrometers, varieties of 13
" range of scales of 14
" methods of testing 15
Hydrostatic balance, Mohr's 29
I
Inversion, Clerget's method of 44
Invert-sugar, Bodenbender and Scheller's method of determination 74
" " Fehling's method of determination 66
" " Meissl-Herzf eld's method of determination 69
" " Soxhlet's method of determination 65
" " qualitative examination for 64
" " quantitative determination of 65
L
Laevulose, Sieben's process for destruction of 59
Light, polarization of 1
Literature on sugar-analysis, references to 110
INDEX. 185
M
PAGE
Methyl-blue test for invert-sugar 64
Mohr's hydrostatic balance 2(.
Molasses, sampling of 24
N
Nitrogenous substances, list of 84
Nitrogen, total, determination of 95
Non -nitrogenous organic substances, determination of 96
listof 84
Normal weights 5
0
Opalescence in sugar solutions 34
Optically inactive sugar , 101
Organic acids, list of 84
" " schemes of analysis 85
Organic non-sugar, determination of 83
P
Payen-Scheibler's rendement determination 102
Polarimeters, see polariscopes 3
Polariscopes 3
" adjustment of 6
" examination of 9
" principle of construction 3
Polariscope- covers, examination of 13
Polariscope-tubes, examination of 13
Polarization, circular . . . i 2
Polarization of light 1
Preparation of solutions for polariscope 34
Quartz-plates 11
" " measurement of 1J
Quartz, right-rotating and left-rotating. &
Quotient of purity 38
" " true and apparent 40
R
Raffinose, determination of 46
" literature on determination of 47
Reducing-sugar, nature of 101
Rendement, calculation of, in various countries 105
" Payen-Scheibler method of determination 102
Reporting sugar-analyses , 98
Rotation, angle of , 6
186 INDEX.
S
PAGE
Saccharimeter, adjustment of 6
Saccharimeter-degrees, equivalence of 6
Saccharimeters, examination of 9
" optical parts of 4
" scales of 5
Sampling sugars and molasses 23
Sample, preparation of average 24
Schmitz's table for use in testing saccharimeters 10
Sieben's process for destruction of laevulose 59
Soldaini's solution 74
Specific-gravity flask 26
Specific-gravity hydrometer, scale of 14
testing of 15
Spherometer, construction and use of 11
Stammer's colorimeter 26
Sucrose, gravimetric determination of 42
' ' optical determination of, with balance 33
" optical determination of, without balance 36
" dextrose, and laevulose, determination of 60
" in presence of dextrose 49
" in presence of raffinose 46
Sugar-analysis, literature on 110
Sugar-mite, detection of 82
Sugars, total, determination of 42
Sulphurous oxide, test for 32
Suspended impurities, determination of 80
Synonyms in nomenclature 108
T
Table I. Relation between specific gravity, degrees Brix and degrees
Baume, for pure sugar solutions from 0 to 100 per cent 115
II. Corrections for temperature in determinations by the specific-
gravity hydrometer .... 129
III. Corrections for temperature in determinations by the Brix hy-
drometer , 131
IV. Factors: arranged for specific-gravity determinations 133
V. Factors: arranged for Brix determinations 135
VI. Estimation of percentage of sugar by weight, in weak sugar
solutions , 137
VII. " Hundred Polarization" 139
VIII. For use with solutions prepared by addition of one-tenth volume
of basic acetate of lead 143
IX. Pounds solids per cubic foot in sugar solutions. 153
X. Factors for the calculation of Clerget inversions 155
INDEX. 187
PAGE
Table XI. Determination of total sugar ................................ 157
XII. Determination of invert-sugar: volumetric method. (Using
Fehling's solution.) ...................................... 159
XIII. Determination of invert-sugar: gravimetric method. (Using
Fehling's solution.) ............................ . .......... 161
XIV. Determination of invert-sugar: gravimetric method. (Using
Soldaini's solution.) ...................................... 163
XV. Determination of dextrose ................................ 165
XVI. Determination of laevulose ............... . ................. 169
XVII. Density of water at the temperatures from 0° to 50° Centigrade,
relative to its density at 4° Centigrade ..................... 173
XVIII. Comparison of thermometric scales .......................... 175
XIX. Tables for converting customary and metric weights and meas-
ures ...................... ............................. 179
Thermometers, conversion formulae .................................... 21
" verification of ......................................... 20
Total sugars, determination of ......................................... 42
V
Ventzke's method of determining exponent ............................ 39
Verification of graduated glass vessels .................................. 19
Verification of thermometers .......................................... 20
W
"Water, determination of
"Weights, verification of
Woody fibre, determination of
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
OF THE
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Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo, $3 00
Downing, Cottages Svo, 2 50
Hints to Architects ....Svo, 200
Freitag's Architectural Engineering Svo, 2 50
Gerhard's Sanitary House Inspection 16mo, 1 00
Theatre Fires and Panics , 12mo, 1 50
Hatfield's American House Carpenter Svo, 5 00
Holly's Carpenter and Joiner ISmo, 75
Kidder's Architect and Builder's Pocket-book Morocco flap, 4 00
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration Svo, 5 00
Monckton's Stair Building — Wood, Iron, and Stone 4to, 4 00
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence Svo, 6 00
Sheep, 6 50
Worcester's Small Hospitals — Establishment and Maintenance,
including Atkinson's Suggestions for Hospital Archi-
tecture 12mo, 125
World's Columbian Exposition of 1S93 4to, 2 50
ARMY, NAVY, Etc.
MILITAKY ENGINEERING— ORDNANCE — PORT CHARGES — LAW, ETC.
Bourne's Screw Propellers 4to, 5 00
Bruff's Ordnance and Gunnery Svo, 6 00
Buckuill's Submarine Mines and Torpedoes Svo, 4 00
Chase's Screw Propellers Svo, 3 00
Cooke's Naval Ordnance Svo, 12 50
Cronkhite's Gunnery for Non-com. Officers ISmo, morocco, 2 00
Davis's Treatise on Military Law Svo. 7 00
Sheep, 7 50
De Brack's Cavalry Outpost Duties. (Carr.). . . .ISmo, morocco, 2 00
Dietz's Soldier's First Aid 12mo, morocco, 1 25
* Dredge's Modern French Artillery 4to, half morocco, 20 00
" Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building,
World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. .4to, half morocco, 10 00
Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships Svo, 5 00
Dyer's Light Artillery 12mo, 3 00
Hoff s Naval Tactics Svo, 1 50
Hunter's Port Charges Svo, half morocco, 13 00
Ingalls's Ballistic Tables Svo, 1 50
2
Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire 8vo, 4 00
Mahau's Advanced Guard 18rno, $1 50
Mabau's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.).8vo, balf morocco, 7 50
Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places 12mo, 2 00
Mercur's Elements of the Art of War 8vo, 4 00
Metcalfe's Ordnance and Gunnery 12mo, with Atlas, 5 00
Murray's A Manual for Courts-Martial 18mo, morocco, 1 50
" Infantry Drill Regulations adapted to the Springfield
Rifle, Caliber .45. 18mo, paper, 15
Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying 8vo, 2 50
Powell's Army Officer's Examiner 12mo, 4 00
Reed's Signal Service 50
Sharpe's Subsisting Armies 18mo, morocco, 1 50
Very's Navies of the World 8vo, half morocco, 3 50
Wheeler's Siege Operations 8vo, 2 00
Wiuthrop's Abridgment of Military Law 12mo, 2 50
Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene 12mo, morocco, 2 50
Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.. 12mo, morocco flaps, 2 50
' " first edition 1 00
ASSAYING.
SMELTHTG — ORE DRESSING— ALLOYS, ETC.
Fletcher's Quant. Assaying with the Blowpipe.. 12mo, morocco, 1 50
Furrnan's Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 00
Kunhardt's Ore Dressing 8vo, 1 50
* Mitchell's Practical Assaying. (Crookes.) 8vo, 10 00
O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 00
Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying. 8vo, 3 00
Thurston's Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes 8vo, 2 50
Wilson's Cyanide Processes 12mo, 1 50
" The Chlorinatiou Process 12mo, 150
ASTRONOMY.
PRACTICAL, THEORETICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE.
Craig's Azimuth 4to, 3 50
Doolittle's Practical Astronomy 8vo, 4 00
Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50
Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy 8vo, 3 00
White's Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy 12mo, 2 00
3
BOTANY.
GARDENING FOR LADIES, ETC.
Baldwin's Orchids of New England 8vo, $1 50
London's Gardening for Ladies. (Downing.) 12mo, 1 50
Thome's Structural Botany 18mo, 2 25
Westermaier's General Botany. (Schneider.) 8vo, 2. 00
BRIDGES, ROOFS, Etc.
CANTILEVER — DRAW — HIGHWAY — SUSPENSION.
(See also ENGINEERING, p. 6. )
Boiler's Highway Bridges Svo, 2 00
* " The Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 00
Burr's Stresses in Bridges 8vo, 3 50
Crehore's Mechanics of the Girder 8vo, 5 00
Dredge's Thames Bridges 7 parts, per part, 1 25
Du Bois's Stresses in Framed Structures 4to, 10 00
Foster's Wooden Trestle Bridges '. 4to, 5 00
Greene's Arches in Wood, etc 8vo, 2 50
Bridge Trusses 8vo, 250
" Roof Trusses Svo, 125
Howe's Treatise on Arches Svo, 4 00
Johnson's Modern Framed Structures .4to, 10 00
Merriman & Jacoby's Text-book of Roofs and Bridges.
Part I., Stresses Svo, 250
Merriman & Jacoby's Text-book of Roofs and Bridges.
Part II., Graphic Statics, Svo, 2 50
Merrimau & Jacoby's Text-book of Roofs and Bridges.
Part III., Bridge Design Svo, 2 50
Merriman & Jacoby's Text-book of Roofs and Bridges.
Part IV., Continuous, Draw, Cantilever, Suspension, and
Arched Bridges Svo, 2 50
*Morison's The Memphis Bridge. Oblong 4to. 10 00
WaddelPs Iron Highway Bridges Sv.o, 4 00
De Pontibus (a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers).
Wood's Construction of Bridges and Roofs Svo, 2 00
Wright's Designing of Draw Spans Svo, 2 50
4
CHEMISTRY.
QUALITATIVE — QUANTITATIVE — ORGANIC — INORGANIC, ETC.
Adriance's Laboratory Calculations 12mo, $1 25
Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis Svo, 3 00
Austen's Notes for Chemical Students .12mo, 1 50
Bolton's Student's Guide in Quantitative Analysis Svo, 1 50
Classen's Analysis by Electrolysis. (HerrickandBoltwood.).8vo, 3 00
Crafts's Qualitative Analysis. (Schaeffer.) 12mo, 1 50
Drecbsel's Cbemical Reactions. (Merrill.) 12ino, 1 25
Fresenius's Quantitative Cbemical Analysis. (Allen.) Svo, 6 00
Qualitative " " (Jobnson.) Svo, 300
(Wells) Trans. 16th.
German Edition Svo, 5 00
Fuerte's Water and Public Health , 12mo, 1 50
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis 12mo, 1 25
Hammarsten's Physiological Chemistry. (Maudel.) Svo, 4 00
Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan). 12mo, 1 50
Kolbe's Inorganic Chemistry 12mo, 1 50
Ladd's Quantitative Chemical Analysis 12mo.
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle. ) Svo, 3 00
Mandel's Bio-chemical Laboratory 12ino, 1 50
Mason's Water-supply Svo, 5 00
" Analysis of Potable Water. (In the press.}
Miller's Chemical Physics Svo, 2 00
Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry 12rno, 1 50
Morgan's The Theory of Solutions and its Results 12rno, 1 00
Nichols's Water-supply (Chemical and Sanitary) Svo, 2 50
O'Brine's Laboratory Guide to Chemical Analysis Svo, 2 00
Perkins's Qualitative Analysis 12mo, 1 00
Pinner's Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) 12mo, 1 50
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels Svo, 3 00
Ricketts and Russell's Notes on Inorganic Chemistry (Non-
metallic) Oblong Svo, morocco, 75
Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions. ..." Svo, 2 00
Schimpf s Volumetric Analysis 12mo, 2 50
Spencer's Sugar Manufacturer's Handbook . 12mo, morocco flaps, 2 00
" Handbook for Chemists of Beet Sugar House.
12mo, morocco, 3 00
5
Stockbridge's Rocks aud Soils 8vo, $2 50
Troilius's Chemistry of Irou 8vo, 2 00
"Wells's Qualitative Analysis 12rno.
Wiechmann's Chemical Lecture Notes 12mo, 3 00
Sugar Analysis 8vo, 2 50
Wulling's Inorganic Phar. and Med. Chemistry 12nio, 2 00
DRAWING.
ELEMENTARY — GEOMETRICAL — TOPOGRAPHICAL.
Hill's Shades and Shadows and Perspective 8vo, 2 00
MacCord's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 00
MacCord's Kinematics 8vo, 5 00
" Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 400
Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50
Reed's Topographical Drawing. (II. A.) 4to, 5 00
Reid's A Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo. 2 00
" Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Mechanical Design.
8vo.
Smith's Topographical Drawing. (Macmillan.) 8vo, 250
Warren's Descriptive Geometry 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50
Drafting Instruments. 12mo, 1 25
Free-hand Drawing ; 12mo, 1 00
" Higher Linear Perspective 8vo, 3 50
" Linear Perspective 12mo, 100
" Machine Construction. 2 vols., 8vo, 7 50
Plane Problems , 12mo, 125
" Primary Geometry 12mo, 75
Problems and Theorems 8vo, 2 50
" Projection Drawing 12mo, 1 50
Shades and Shadows 8vo, 3 00
Stereotomy— Stone Cutting 8vo, 250
"VVhelpley's Letter Engraving 12mo, 2 00
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
ILLUMINATION— BATTERIES— PHYSICS.
Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics (Magie). . . . 8vo, 4 00
Barker's Deep-sea Soundings 8vo, 2 00
Benjamin's Voltaic Cell 8vo, 3 00
" History of Electricity 8vo 300
6
Cosmic Law of Thermal Repulsion 18nio, $ 75
Crehore aud Squier's Experiments with a New Polarizing Photo-
Chronograph 8vo, 3 00
* Dredge's Electric Illuminations. . . .2 vols., 4to, half morocco, 25 00
Vol. II 4to, 7 50
Gilbert's De magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50
Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 00
Michie's Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light, 8vo, 4 00
Morgan's The Theory of Solutions and its Results 12mo, 1 00
Niaudet's Electric Batteries. (Fishback. ) 12mo, 2 50
Reagan's Steam and Electrical Locomotives 12mo, 2 00
Thurston's Stationary Steam Engines for Electric Lighting Pur-
poses 12mo, 1 50
Tillman's Heat 8vo, 1 50
ENGINEERING.
CIVIL — MECHANICAL— SANITARY, ETC.
tfHee also BRIDGES, p. 4 ; HYDRAULICS, p. 8 ; MATERIALS OP EN-
GINEERING, p. 9 ; MECHANICS AND MACHINERY, p. 11 ; STEAM ENGINES
AND BOILERS, p. 14.)
Baker's Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00
Baker's Surveying Instruments . . ; 12mo, 3 00
Black's U. S. Public Works 4to, 5 00
Brook's Street Railway Location 12mo, morocco, 1 50
Butts's Engineer's Field-book 12mo, morocco, 2 50
Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 7 50
Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 00
Church's Mechanics of Engineering — Solids and Fluids. .. .8vo, 6 00
" Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 200
Crandall's Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 50
Crandall's The Transition Curve. 12mo, morocco, 1 50
* Dredge's Penn. Railroad Construction, etc. . . Folio, half mor., 20 00
* Drinker's Tunnelling 4to, half morocco, 25 00
Eissler's Explosives — Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00
Gerhard's Sanitary House Inspection 16mo, 1 00
Godwin's Railroad Engineer's Field-book. 12mo, pocket-bk. form, 2 50
Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50
Howard's Transition Curve Field-book 12mo, morocco flap, 1 50
Howe's Retaining Walls (New Edition.) 12mo, 1 25
Hudson's Excavation Tables. Vol. II ; 8vo, $1 00
Button's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 00
Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 6 00
Johnson's Stadia Reduction Diagram. .Sheet, 22£ X 28£ inches, 50
" Theory and Practice of Surveying 8vo, 4 00
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book 12mo, morocco, 5 00
Kiersted's Sewage Disposal 12mo, 125
Kirkwood's Lead Pipe for Service Pipe 8vo, 1 50
Mahan's Civil Engineering. (Wood.) 8vo, 5 00
Merriman and Brook's Handbook for Surveyors. . . .12mo, mor., 2 00
Merriman's Geodetic Surveying 8vo, 2 00
" Retaining Walls and Masonry Dams 8vo, 2 00
Mosely's Mechanical Engineering. (Mahan.) 8vo, 5 00
Eagle's Manual for Railroad Engineers .12mo, morocco, 3 00
Patton's Civil Engineering 8vo, t 7 50
Foundations 8vo, 500
Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France 12mo, 1 25
Ruffner's Non-tidal Rivers 8vo, 1 25
Searles's Field Engineering 12mo, morocco flaps, 3 00
" Railroad Spiral 12mo, morocco flaps, 1 50
Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry. . .8vo, 1 50
Smith's Cable Tramways 4to, 2 50
" Wire Manufacture and Uses 4to, 3 00
Spalding's Roads and Pavements 12mo, 2 00
" Hydraulic Cement 12mo, 200
Thurston's Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 00
* Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book. ..12mo, mor. flaps, 5 00
* " Cross-section Sheet, 25
" Excavations and Embankments 8vo, 2 00
Laying Out Curves 12mo, morocco, 2 50
Waddell's De Pontibus (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers).
12mo, morocco, 3 00
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00
Sheep, 6 50
Warren's Stereotomy — Stone Cutting 8vo, 2 50
Webb's Engineering Instruments 12mo, morocco, 1 00
Wegmann's Construction of Masonry Dams 4to, 5 00
Wellington's Location of Railways 8vo, 5 00
Wheeler's Civil Engineering 8vo, $4 00
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00
HYDRAULICS.
WATEK- WHEELS — WINDMILLS — SERVICE PIPE — DRAINAGE, ETC.
(See also ENGINEERING, p. 6.)
Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein
(Trautwine) 8vo, 2 00
Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 4 00
Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems 12mo, 2 50
Fennel's Treatise on the Winds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. . .8vo, 4 00
Fuerte's Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50
Ganguillet&Kutter's Flow of Water. (Bering & Trautwine. ).8vo, 4 00
'Hazeu's Filtration of Public Water Supply 8vo, 2 00
Herschel's 115 Experiments 8vo, 2 00
Kiersted's Sewage Disposal 12mo, 1 25
Kirkwood's Lead Pipe for Service Pipe . „ 8vo, 1 50
Mason's Water Supply 8vo, 5 00
Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics. 8vo, 4 00
Nichols's Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary) 8vo, 2 50
Ruffner's Improvement for Non-tidal Rivers 8vo, 1 25
Wegmann's Water Supply of the City of New York 4to, 10 00
Weisbach's Hydraulics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00
Wilson's Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00
Wood's Theory of Turbines 8vo, 2 50
MANUFACTURES.
ANILINE — BOILERS— EXPLOSIVES— IRON— SUGAR — WATCHES-
WOOLLENS, ETC.
Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis '. . .8vo, 3 00
Beaumont's Woollen and Worsted Manufacture 12mo, 1 50
Bollaud's Encyclopaedia of Founding Terms 12mo, 3 00
The Iron Founder 12mo, 250
Supplement 12mo, 250
Booth's Clock and Watch Maker's Manual 12mo, 2 00
Bouvier's Handbook on Oil Painting 12mo, 2 00
Eissler's Explosives, Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers 18mo, 1 00
Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures 8vo, 5 00
9
Metcalf s Steel— A Manual for Steel Users 12mo, $2 00
Reiraann's Aniline Colors. (Crookes.) Svo, 2 50
* Reisig's Guide to Piece Dyeing Svo, 25 00
Spencer's Sugar Manufacturer's Handbook 12rno, in or. flap, 2 00
" Handbook for Chemists of Beet Houses.
12mo, inor. flap, 3 00
Svedelius's Handbook for Charcoal Burners 12mo, 1 50
The Lathe and Its Uses Svo, 6 00
Thurston's Manual of Steam Boilers Svo, 5 00
Walke's Lectures on Explosives Svo, 4 00
West's American Foundry Practice. 12mo, 2 50
" Moulder's Text-book 12mo, 250
Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Svo, 2 50
Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills Svo, 2 50
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
STRENGTH — ELASTICITY — RESISTANCE, ETC.
(See also ENGINEERING, p. 6.)
Baker's Masonry Construction Svo, 5 00
Beardslee and Kent's Strength of Wrought Iron Svo, 1 50
Bovey's Strength of Materials Svo, 7 50
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of Materials Svo, 5 00
Byrne's Highway Construction Svo, 5 00
Carpenter's Testing Machines and Methods of Testing Materials.
Church's Mechanics of Engineering — Solids and Fluids Svo, 6 00
Du Bois's Stresses in Framed Structures 4to, 10 00
Hatfield's Transverse Strains Svo, 5 00
Johnson's Materials of Construction Svo, 6 00
Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 7 50
" Strength of Wooden Columns Svo, paper, 50
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration Svo, 5 00
Merrirnan's Mechanics of Materials Svo, 4 00
Strength of Materials 12mo, 1 00
Pattou's Treatise on Foundations Svo, 5 00
Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France 12mo, 1 25
Spaldiug's Roads and Pavements 12mo, 2 00
Thurston's Materials of Construction Svo, 5 00
10
Tburston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., 8vo, $8 00
Vol. I. , Non-metallic 8vo, 2 00
Vol. II., Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50
Vol. III., Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes 8vo, 2 50
Weyraucb's Strength of Iron and Steel. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 1 50
Wood's Resistance of Materials 8vo, 2 00
MATHEMATICS.
CALCULUS— GEOMETRY — TRIGONOMETRY, ETC.
Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, 1 50
Ballard's Pyramid Problem 8vo, 1 50
Barnard's Pyramid Problem 8vo, 1 50
Bass's Differential Calculus 4 12mo, 4 00
Brigg's Plane Analytical Geometry 12rno, 1 00
Cbapman's Theory of Equations 12mo, 1 50
Chessin's Elements of the Theory of Functions.
Compton's Logarithmic Computations 12mo, 1 50
Craig's Linear Differential Equations 8vo, 5 00
Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, 1 50
Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo, 1 75
" Synthetic Geometry. 8vo, 150
Johnson's Curve Tracing 12mo, 1 00
" Differential Equations — Ordinary and Partial 8vo, 3 50
" Integral Calculus 12mo, 1 50
" " " Unabridged.
" Least Squares. . . 12mo, 1 50
Ludlow's Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.) 8vo, 2 00
Trigonometry with Tables. (Bass.) 8vo, 3 00
Mahan's Descriptive Geometry (Stone Cutting). 8vo, 1 50
Merrimau and "Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo, 5 00
Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 00
Parker's Quadrature of the Circle 8vo, 2 50
Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus,
2 vols. inl, 12mo, 2 50
Differential Calculus 8vo, 300
" Abridgment of Differential Calculus 8vo, 1 50
Searles's Elements of Geometry 8vo, 1 50
Totten's Metrology 8vo, 2 50
Warren's Descriptive Geometry 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50
' ' Drafting Instruments 12mo, 1 25
" Free-hand Drawing 12mo, 1 00
" Higher Linear Perspective 8vo, 3 50
" Linear Perspective 12mo, 1 00
" Primary Geometry 12mo, 75
11
Warren's Plane Problems. 12mo, $1 25
" Plane Problems 12mo, 125
11 Problems and Theorems 8vo, 2 50
" Projection Drawing .12mo, 1 50
Wood's Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 00
" Trigonometry .12mo, 1 00
Woolf's Descriptive Geometry Royal 8vo, 3 00
MECHANICS-MACHINERY.
TEXT-BOOKS AND PRACTICAL WORKS.
(See also ENGINEERING, p. 6.)
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 1 2mo, 2 50
Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes 12mo, 2 00
Carpenter's Testing Machines and Methods of Testing
Materials 8vo.
Chordal's Letters to Mechanics. 12mo, 2 00
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00
Notes and Examples in Mechanics Svo, 200
Crehore's Mechanics of the Girder Svo, 5 00
Cromwell's Belts and Pulleys 12mo, 1 50
Toothed Gearing 12mo, 150
Compton.'s First Lessons in Metal Working 12mo, 1 50
Dana's Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 1 50
Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making 12mo, 2 00
Dredge's Trans. Exhibits Building, World Exposition,
4to, half morocco, 10 00
Du Bois's Mechanics. Vol. I., Kinematics 8vo, 3 50
Vol. II., Statics 8vo, 400
Vol. III., Kinetics 8vo, 3 50
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist 18mo, 1 00
Flather's Dynamometers 12mo, 2 00
Rope Driving 12mo, 200
Hall's Car Lubrication 12mo, 1 00
Holly's Saw Filing 18mo, 75
Johnson's Theoretical Mechanics. An Elementary Treatise.
(In the press.)
Jones Machine Design. Part I., Kinematics Svo, 1 50
" " Part II., Strength and Proportion of
Machine Parts.
Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 7 50
MacCord's Kinematics Svo, 5 00
Merriman's Mechanics of Materials Svo, 4 00
Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures Svo, 5 00
Michie's Analytical Mechanics Svo, 4 00
12
Mosely's -Mechanical Engineering. (Mahan.) 8vo, $5 00
Ricbards's Compressed Air 12mo, 1 50
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00
Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 8 00
The Lathe and Its Uses 8vo, 6 00
Thurston's Friction and Lost Work 8vo, 3 00
The Animal as a Machine 12ino, 1 00
Warren's Machine Construction 2 vols., 8vo, 7 50
Weisbacb's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.)..8vo, 5 00
" Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part I.,
Sec. I. (Klein.) 8vo, 500
Weisbach's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part I.,
Sec. II. (Klein.) 8vo, 500
Weisbach's Steam Engines. (Du Bois.) , 8vo, 500
Wood's Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00
" Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 125
Supplement and Key 1 25
METALLURGY.
IRON — GOLD— SILVER — ALLOYS, ETC.
Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 3 00
Egleston's Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50
Metallurgy of Silver 8vo, 7 50
* Kerl's Metallurgy— Copper and Iron 8vo, 15 00
* " " Steel, Fuel, etc 8vo, 1500
Kunhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, 1 50
Metcalf Steel— A Manual for Steel Users 12mo, 2 00
O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 00
Thurston's Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50
Alloys 8vo, 250
Wilson's Cyanide Processes 12mo, 1 50
MINERALOGY AND MINING.
MINE ACCIDENTS — VENTILATION — ORE DRESSING, ETC.
Barringer's Minerals of Commercial Value. . . .oblong niorocco, 2 50
Beard's Ventilation of Mines 12mo, 2 50
Boyd's Resources of South Western Virginia 8vo, 3 00
Map of South Western Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00
Brush and Penfield's Determinative Mineralogy 8vo, 3 50
Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, 1 25
" " " " paper, 50
" Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 00
Dana's American Localities of Minerals 8vo, 1 00
13
Dana's Descriptive Mineralogy. (E. S.) ... .Svo, half morocco, $12 50
" Mineralogy and Petrography (J.D.) 12mo, 2 00
" Minerals and How to Study Them. (E. S.) 12nio, 1 50
" Text-book of Mineralogy. (E. S.) Svo, 3 50
^Drinker's Tunnelling, Explosives, Compounds, and Rock Drills.
4to, half morocco, 25 00
Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms Svo, 2 50
Eissler's Explosives — Nitroglycerine and Dynamite Svo, 4 00
Goodyear's Coal Mines of the Western Coast 12mo, 2 50
Hussak's Rock- forming Minerals. (Smith.) Svo, 2 00
Ihlseng's Manual of Mining Svo, 4 00
Kunhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe , Svo, 1 50
O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 2 00
Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of Minerals and
Rocks. (Iddings.) Svo, 500
Sawyer's Accidents in Mines Svo, 7 00
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils Svo, 2 50
Walke's Lectures on Explosives .Svo, 4 00
Williams's Lithology Svo, 3 00
Wilson's Mine Ventilation 16nio, 125
" Placer Mining 12mo.
STEAM AND ELECTRICAL ENGINES, BOILERS, Etc.
STATIONARY— MARINE— LOCOMOTIVE — GAS ENGINES, ETC.
(See also ENGINEERING, p. 6.)
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50
Clerk's Gas Engine t 12mo, 400
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers ISmo, 1 00
Hemeii way's Indicator Practice 12mo, 2 00
Hoadley's Warm-blast Furnace Svo, 1 50
Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector Svo, 1 50
MacCord's Slide Valve Svo, 2 00
* Maw's Marine Engines Folio, half morocco, IS 00
Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00
Peabody and Miller's Steam Boilers Svo, 4 00
Peabody's Tables of Saturated Steam Svo, 1 00
" Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine Svo, 5 00
Valve Gears for the Steam-Eugiue Svo, 2 50
Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Royal Svo, 2 50
Pupiu and Osterberg's Thermodynamics 12nio, 1 25
Reagan's Steam and Electrical Locomotives 12mo, 2 00
Rontgen's Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) Svo, 5 00
Sinclair's Locomotive Running 12mo, 2 00
Thurston's Boiler Explosion .12mo, 1 50
14
Tlitirston's Engine and Boiler Trials 8vo, $5 00
Manual of the Steam Engine. Part I., Structure
and Theory, 8vo, 7 50
" Manual of the Steam Engine. Part II., Design,
Construction, and Operation 8vo, 7 50
2 parts, 12 00
" Philosophy of the Steam Engine 12mo, 75
" Reflection on the Motive Power of Heat. (Caruot.)
12mo, 1 50
" Stationary Steam Engines 12mo, 1 50
" Steam-boiler Construction and Operation 8vo, 5 00
Spangler's Valve Gears 8vo, 2 50
Trow bridge's Stationary Steam Engines 4to, boards, 2 50
Weisbach's Steam Engine. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 500
Whitham's Constructive Steam Engineering 8vo, 10 00
Steam-engine Design 8vo, 6 00
Wilson's Steam Boilers. (Flather.) 12mo, 2 50
Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, etc 8vo, 4 00
TABLES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
FOR ACTUARIES, CHEMISTS, ENGINEERS, MECHANICS— METRIC
TABLES, ETC.
Adriance's Laboratory Calculations 12mo, 1 25
Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis.. 8vo, 3 00
Bixby 's Graphical Computing Tables Sheet, 25
Compton's Logarithms 12mo, 1 50
Crandall's Railway and Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 50
Egleston's Weights and Measures 18mo, 75
Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25
Hudson's Excavation Tables. Vol. II 8vo, 1 00
Johnson's Stadia and Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 25
Ludlow's Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.) 12mo, 2 00
Thurston's Conversion Tables 8vo, 1 00
Totten's Metrology 8vo, 2 50
VENTILATION.
STEAM HEATING — HOUSE INSPECTION — MINE VENTILATION.
Baldwin's Steam Heating 12uio, 2 50
Beard's Ventilation of Mines. 12mo, 2 50
Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo, 3 00
Gerhard's Sanitary House Inspection Square 16mo, 1 00
Mott's The Air We Breathe, and Ventilation 16ino, 1 00
Reid's Ventilation of American Dwellings 12mo, 1 50
Wilson's Mine Ventilation 16mo, 1 25
15
niSCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS.
Alcott's Gems, Sentiment, Language Gilt edges, $5 00
Bailey's The New Tale of a Tub , 8vo, 75
Ballard's Solution of the Pyramid Problem 8vo, 1 50
Barnard's The Metrological System of the Great Pyramid. .8vo, 1 50
Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 00
Emmon's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountains. .8vo, 1 50
Ferrel's Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 4 00
Haines's Addresses Delivered before^the Am. Ry. Assn. ..12mo. 2 50
Mott's The Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound . . Sq. 16uio, 1 00
Perkins's Cornell University Oblong 4to, 1 50
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 8vo, 3 00
Rotherham's The New Testament Critically Emphasized.
12mo, 1 50
The Emphasized New Test. A new translation.
Large 8vo, 2 00
Totten's An Important Question in Metrology 8vo; 2 50
Whitehouse's Lake Mceris Paper, 25
* Wiley's Yosemite, Alaska, and Yellowstone 4to, 3 00
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT=BOOKS.
FOR SCHOOLS AND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to Old Testament.
(Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00
Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar 12mo, 1 25
" Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New Edition). 8 vo, 300
Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 00
Letteris's Hebrew Bible (Massoretic Notes in English).
8vo, arabesque, 2 25
Luzzato's Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Language and the
Talmud Babli Idioms 12mo, 1 50
MEDICAL.
Bull's Maternal Management in Health and Disease 12mo, 1 00
Hammarsteu's Physiological Chemistry. (Man del.) 8vo, 4 00
Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food.
Large mounted chart, 1 25
Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo, 2 00
Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Ox 8vo, 6 00
Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50
Worcester's Small Hospitals — Establishment and Maintenance,
including Atkinson's Suggestions for Hospital Archi-
tecture 12mo, 1 25
16
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