Full text of "Summarized proceedings"

PROCEEDINGS

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

TWENTY-FIRST MEETING,

DUBUQUE, IOWA.

AUGUST, 1872.

CAMBRIDGE :

PUBLISHED BY JOSEPH LOVERING.

1873.

EDITED BY

JOSEPH. LOVERING,

Permanent Secretary.

h^h

cambkidoe:
imie3s of john wilson and son.

TABLE OF COKTEKTS.

Page

Officers of the Association .... vi

Local Committee of Dubuque . _ ▼ii

Officers of the Sections viii

Special Committees ix

Officers of the Portland Meeting xi

Meetings of the Association ■ xiii

Constitution of the Association xv

Resolutions of a Permanent and Prospective Character xxi

List of Mambers u xxiu

Members who joined at the Dubuque Meeting xxxix

Members who joined at the Indianapolis Meeting xUi

Address of the Ex-Pkesident, Asa Gray 1

COMMUNICATIONS.
A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

I. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY.
1. On Binary Stars. By Daniel Kirkwood 33

II. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

1. Apparatus for Electric Measurement, with Rules and Directions for its Practical Appli-

cation. By L. Bradley 35

2. On Sympathetic Vibrations, as exhibited in Ordinary ' Machinery. By Joseph

LoVEUiNo 59

8. Compressed Air as a Motor. By William Jordan 63

4. On Zonochlorite, a New Hydrous Silicate from Neepigon Bay, North Shore of Lake

Superior, B. A. By A. E. Foote 65

5 On Soil Analyses and their Utility. By EUGENE W. Hilgaud 66

(iii)

iv CONTENTS.

III. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE.

1. The Delta of the Mississippi; —The Physics of the River, the Control of its Floods, and

the Redemption of the Alluviou. By Caleb G. Forshey 78

2. The Arctic Regions. Atmospheric Theory of an Ameliorated Climate and an Open Sea,

in the Arctic Regions, in Opposition to the Gulf Stream Theory. By William W.
Wheildon Ill

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

I. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1. Explanation of a New Geological Map of New Hampshire. By C. H. IIitchcock . . . 134

2. Recent Geological Discoveries among the White Mountains, New Hampshire. By C. H.

Hitchcock 135

3. The Surface Geology of North-Western Ohio. By N. A. Winchell 152

4. On the Ea.stern Limit of Cretaceous Deposits in Iowa. By C. A. White 187

IL ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

1. On the Relation between Organic figor and Sex. By Henry Hartshorne .... 192

2. Mortality of Fish in Racine River. By P. H. Hoy 198

3. The Old Haarlem and the Latest Brussels Microscopical Prize-Questions. By THEODORE

C. HlLOAUD 199

4. A Critical Review of the Present System of Osteology. With Particular Reference to Pro-

fessor T. H. Huxley's Latest Views. By Theodore C. Hilgard 208

5 On the Difference between the Animal (Sensual) and the Human (Indagative) Intellect.

By Theodore C. Hilgard 216

6. On the Oviducts and Embryology of Terebratulina. By Edward S. Morsb 222

III. ETHNOLOGY.

1. Ancient Mounds of Dubuque and its Vicinity. By H. T. Woodman 225

2. On Certain Peculiarities in the Crania of the Mound-Builders. By J. W. Foster. ... 227

PaI-KUB PRK8K^TKD, BUT ONLY PUBLISHED BY TITLE 256

CONTENTS.

EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.

History of the Meeting 261

Old Members present 261

New Members chosen 261

Number of Papers presented 261

Opening Prayer by Rev. E K. YOUNG 261

Introduction by the Chairman of the Local Committee 262

Welcome, by Honorable W. B. Allison 262

Reply by J. Lawrence Smith, President 265

Time and Place of next Meeting 267

Officers Elected 267

Resolutions Adopted 268

Votes of Thanks 270

Report of JOSEPH Lovering, Permanent Secretary 273

Cash Account of the Permanent Secretary 274

Stock Account of the Permanent Secretary 275

Volumes Distributed to European Institutions 276

Reports of Committees 278

Appendix 280

Errata 291

Index 293

OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

THE DUBUQUE MEETING.

J. Lawrence Smith, President.
Alexander Winchell, Vice-President.
Joseph Lovering, Permanent Secretary.
E. S. Morse, Oeneral Secretary.
W. S. Vaux, Treasurer.

STANDING COMMITTEE.

ex-officio.

J. Lawrence Smith,
Alexander Winchell,
Joseph Lovering,
E. S. Morse,

Asa Gray,
G. F. Barker,
F. W. Putnam,
W. S. Vaux.

AS CHAIRMEN OF THE SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

J. D. Warner, j j. w. Foster.

FROM the ASSOCIATION AT LARGE.

E. J. Cox, g. C. Swallow,

C. C. Gilman, c. a. White,

I. \. Lai'iiam, h. T. Woodman.
(vi)

OFFICKRS OF THE DUBUQUE MEETING.

LOCAL COMMITTEE.

n. T. 'Woodman, Chairman.

Dr. C. A. White, 1st Vice- Chairman.

Dr. Asa Horb, 2d Vice- Chairman.

Samuel Calvin, Local Secretary.
E. D. Cook, Assistant Secretary.
R. A. Babbage, Treasurer.

Austin Adams,
S. P. Adams,
J. E. Ainsworth,
W. P. Allen,
W. B. Allison,
N. C. Amsden,
W. Andrew,
H. B. Baker,
W. Barnard,
J. F. Bates,
C. Baylies,
W. H. Beach,
John Bell,
C. H. Booth,
Dr. Belden,

C. Bittman,
R. Bonson,
W. L. Bradley,
Maurice Brown,

0. A. Brownson, Jr.,
George Burden,
G. Becker,
H. Brinkman,
George W. Burton,
George B. Bush,
Judge Burt,
G. H. Candee,
W. W. Carr,
W. C. Chamberlain,

D. S. Cummings,
J. Christman,
Charles Clarke,
W. B. Clark,

T. P. Coates,
R. E. Collier,
Tom. Connolly,
Dr. William Watson,

C. M. Weatherby,
R. Waller,

J. Beach,

D. N. Cooley,
A. A. Cooper,
George Crane,

D. H. Cunningham,
J. T. Coolidge,
James Cubing,
George C. Dean,
George L. Dickinson,
J. L. Dickinson,

W. H. Day,

E. W. Duncan,

Frank Deuss,

C. H. Eighmy,
J. E. Fairbanks,
J. P. Farley,
W. G. Farrar,
B. B. Fay,
George II. Fry,
George Foster,
R. J. Gibbs,

G. B. Grosvenor,

E. A. Giles,
H. B. Glover,
William Graham,
George Gray,

J. K. Graves,
J. M. Griffith,
Dr. E. A. Guilbert,
Dr. S. H. Guilbert,
M. D. Goble,
M. M. Ham,
H. S. Hetherington,
R. S. Harris,
W. E. Harriman,
William M. Hamlin,
Julius W. Haas,
John Hodgdon,
U. P. Ward,
S. S. Wemott,
V. J. ATilliams,
J. D. Bush,
J. T. Hancock,
A. Heeb,

D. B. Henderson,
Dr. R. L. Hill,
J. N. Hill,
Jerry Howard,
H. Hubert,

J. Herod,
Thomas Hardie,

F. Hinds,

A. F. Jaeger,
Jesse T. Jarret,
George W. Jones,
W. A. Judd,
Otto Junkerman,
James Johnston,
T. M. Irish,
Charles Kretschmer,
A. Kaiser,
J. W. Knight,
Charles Keller,

James Kelly,
A. W. Kemler,
M. Kingman,
H. M. Kingman,
E. Klingenberg,
Peter Kiene,
Kirkendall,

C. C. Lieben,
M. J. La Nicca,
J. H. Lull,

Ed. Langworthy,
Solon Langworthy,
W. P. Large,
James Levi,

D. E. Lyon,
A. B. Lewis,
D. S. Wilson,
George D. Wood,
W. W Woodworth,
R. E. Graves,

L. W. McMaster,
A. McCann,

A. Y. McDonald,
D. A. McKinlay,
H T. McNulty,

B. W. McClure,
John Maclay,

D. A. Mahony,
T. Mason,
John Mehlhop,
J. Merriam,
William Mills,
George W. Mitchel,

E. H. Moore,
M. H. Moore,
J. L. McCreery,
R. Morrill,

D. D. Myers,
Thomas M. Monroe,
J. Michel,

Fred O'Donnell,
John O'Neil,
W. H. Peabody,
A. Palmer,
J. W. Parker,
A. Peaslee,

A. Pettibone,

E. Piekenbrock,

B. B. Provost,
B. A. Powell,
W. W. Pyne,

Wm. Hyde Clark,
Jacob Rich,
L. D. Randall,
W. Rebman,
G. N. Raymond,
C. H. Remington,
William Vandever,
C. WuUweber,
Alexander Young,
E. A. Lull,
J. A. Rhomberg,
J. V. Rider.
W. H. Kobison,
M. S. Robison,
John Robison,

E. D. Ruth,

F. Robinson,
S. Root,

H. Rouse,
W. H. Kumpf,
William Ryan,
W. C. Ryder,

B. B. Richards,
Piatt Smith,

J. W. Smith,

E. R. Shankland,
A. W. Sears,

C. Sadler,

Dr. Joseph Sprague,
P. C. Samson,
H. W. Sanford,

F. W. H. Sheffield,
J. P. Scott,

Dr. G. W. Scott,
O. P. Shiras,
Mark Smith,
W. G. Stewart,
H. L. Stout,
A. Steward,
J. H. Thedinga,
J. U. Thompson,
John Thompson,
S. Turck,
M. M. Trumbull,
A. Trcdway,
George L. Torbert,
F. Udall,
George Young,
II. Zieprecht,
M. M. Walker,
John R. Waller.

OFFICEBS OF THE DUBUQUE MEETING.

OFFICERS OF THE SECTIONS.

SECTION A.

J. D. Warner, Chairman. C. L. Jackson, Secretary.

Sectional Committee.
A. A. Breneman, G. W. Hough, Joseph Ficklin.

SECTION B.

J. W. Foster, Chairman. C. V. Riley, Secretary.

Sectional Committee.
E. B. Andrews, J. G. Morris, A. H. Worthen.

SUB-SECTION C OP SECTION A.

R. II. Ward, Chairman. O. S. Westcott, Secretary.

Sectional Committee.
II. il. Babcock, M. S. Bebb, Robert King.

SPECTAT. COMMITTEES.

SPECIAL COMMITTEES.

A. Committees continued from former Meetings.

1. Committee to report in Relation to Unifor^n Standards in
Wei g Jits, Measures, and Coinage.

F. A. P. Baknahd,
John F. Fkazer,

WOLCOTT GiBBS,

B. A. Gould,
Joseph Henry,

J. E. HiLGAKD,

John LeConte,
H. A. Newton,
Benjamin Peirce,

W. B. ROGEHS,

J. L. Smith,
John Torrey.

2. Committee to 'mem,orialize the Legislature of Missouri in favor
of publishing the residts of the Geological Survey of the State.

James Hall,
Louis Agassiz,
E. T. Cox,
J. D. Dana,

E. W. HiLGARD,

Charles H. FIitchcock,
T. S. Hunt,
W. C. Kerr,

J. P. Lesley,
William E. Logan,
J. S. Newberry,
Richard Owen,
J. L. Smith,
C. A. White,
J. D. Whitney,
Alexander Winchell.

3. Coinmittee to memorialize the Legislature of JVeio York for a
JSfeic Survey of Niagara Falls,

F. A. P. Barnard,
Charles P. Daly,

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI.

James Hall,
William E, Logan,

G. W. HOLLEY.
B

SPECIAL COMMITTEES.

4. Committee to report on the Best Methods of Organizing and
Conducting State Geological Surveys.

G. C. Swallow,

James Hall,

J. S. Newberry,

Alexander Winchell,
T. S. Hunt,
Benjamin Peirce.

B. New Committees.

1. Committee to audit the Accounts of the Permanent Secretary
and the Treasurer.

H. L. EusTis,

Henry Wheatland.

2. Committee to prepare Resolutions of Thanks.

J. W. Foster,
C. S. Forsiiey,
^AsA Gray,
G. W. Hough,

Joseph Lovering,

E. S. Morse,

F. W. Putnam,

G. C. Swallow,

Alexander Winchell.

3. Committee to act with the Standing Committee in Nomination
of Officers for the next Meeting.

Section A.

Thomas Basnett,
A. A. Breneman,
Joseph Ficklin,
G. W. Hough,

Section B.

Henry Hartshorxe,
P. R. Hoy,
George Little,
J. R. Perry.

4. Committee on the Geological Sicrvey of loxoa.

J. W. Foster, G. C. Swallow,

I. A. l^Ai'HAM, Alexander Winchell,

A. H. WoRTIlEX.

OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

THE PORTLAND MEETING.

Joseph Lovering, President.
A. H. WoRTHEX, Vice-President.
F. W. Pdtxam, Permanent Secretary.
C. A. White, General Secretarij.
William S. Vaux, Treasurer.

STANDING COMMITTEE.

Joseph Lovering,
a. h. worthen,
F. W. Putnam,
C. A. White,

J. Laatrence Smith,
Alexander Winchell,
E. S. Morse,
W. S. Vaux.

LdCAL COMMITTEE.

Benjamin King'sbury, Jr., Chairman.
George E. B. Jackson, Treasurer. \ Rev. Charles W. Hayes, Secretary.

John M, Adams,
William Allen, Jr.,
Samuel J. Anderson,
W. II. Anderson,
Clark H. Barker,
Sylvester B. Beckett,

James S. Bedlow,
Stephen Berry,
Rev. Egbert C. BoUes,
A. W. Bradbury,
Bion Bradbury,
Harrison B. Brown,

John B. Brown,
John Marshall Brown,
Hubbard W. Bryant,
Rev. Charles W. Buek,
Henry H. Burgess,
Ur. Charles H. Burr,
(xi)

OFFICERS OF THE PORTLAND MEETING.

James E. Carter,
Francis Chase,
Asa W. II. Clapp,
Cyrus S. Clark,
Nathan Cleaves,
John B. Coyle,
George T. Davis,
William G. Davis,
Woodbury S. Dana,
Henry Deering,
William Deering,
Frederick M. Dow,
Josiah II. Drummond,
Edward W. Elwell,
George F. Emery,
Cyrus H. Farley,
Rev. William H. Fenn,
Francis Fessenden,
Charles S. Fobes,
Dr. Thomas A. Foster,
Franklin Fox,
II. Frank Furbish,
Charles B. Fuller,
Dr. F. li. Gerrish,
Oliver Gerrish,
Rev. William E. Gibbs,
Dr. John T. Gilman,
Charles W. Goddard,
Dr. Seth C. Gordon,
John M. Gould,
William N. Gould,
Willard W. Harris,
Charles II. Haskell,
Rev. William B. Ilayden,
T. C. Hersey,
Rufus II. Ilinkley,
Prof. C. H. Hitchcock,

George S. Hunt,
("harles E. Jose,
Horatio N. Jose,
Russell Lewis,
Charles F. Libby,
H. J. Libby,

Alexander W. Longfellow,
Charles A. Lord,
Prentiss Loring,
Thomas G. Loring,
Abner'Lowell,
John Lynch,
Charles McCarthy, Jr.,
James T. McCobb,
Jacob McLellan,
James S. Marrett,
W. K. Mayo,
Weston F.*Millikin,
William E. Morris,
John Mussey,
Charles B. Nash,
Rt. Rev. H. A. Neely,
Frank Noyes,
Eben N. Perry,
Lewis Pierce,
Luther F. Pingree,
Rev. C. B. Pitblado,
John Porteous,
Stanley T. Pullen,
William L. Putman,
Thomas B. Reed,
Charles M. Rice,
Marshall N. Rich,
Ilobart W. Richardson,
Joseph S. Ricker,
Thomas A. Roberts,
Hosea L. Robinson,

Micah Sampson,
Charles J. Schumacher,
William Senter,
Rev. William H. Shailer,
George F. Shepley,
Ambrose K. ShurtlefF,
Rev. Daniel F. Smith,
James H. Smith,
Lewis B. Smith,
Samuel E. Spring,
Charles A. Staples,
Augustus E. Stevens,
A. P. Stone,
Sewell C. Strout,
Francis K. Swan,
George F. Talbot,
George Thorn,
William W. Thomas, Jr.,
Joseph P. Thompson,
George Trefethen,
George W. True,
Payson Tucker,
Thomas E. Twitchell,
Charles B. Varney,
Albert H. Waite,
Israel Washburn, Jr.,
Nathan Webb,
Walter Wells,
George P. Wescott,
AVilliam A. Winship,
Jacob S. Winslow,
Rufus E. Wood,
Dr. William Wood,
William E. Wood,
William R. Wood.

MEETINGS.

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CONSTITUTIOX OF THE ASSOCIATION *

OBJECTS.

The Association shall be called The American Association
FOR THE Advancement of Science.

The objects of the Association are, by periodical and migratory
meetings, to promote intercourse between those who are culti-
vating science in diiferent parts of the United States; to give
a stronger and more general imjDiilse and a more systematic
direction to scientific research in our country; and to procure for
the labors of scientific men increased facilities and a wider use-
fulness.

MEMBERS.

Rule i. Any person may become a member of the Association
upon recommendation in writing by two members, nomination
by the Standing Committee, and election by a majority of the
members present,

OFFICERS.

Rule 2. The oflficers of the Association shall be a President,
Vice-President, General Secretary, Permanent Secretary, and
Treasurer. The President, Vice-President, General Secretary, and
Treasurer shall be elected at each meeting for the following one ;
— the three first named oflicers not to be re-eligible for the next
two meetings, and the Treasurer to be re-eligiblc as long as the
Association may desire. The Permanent Secretary shall be elected
at each second meeting, and also be re-eligible as long as the Asso-
ciation may desire.

•
* Adopted August 25, 1856, and ordered to go into effect at the opening of
the Montreal Meeting. Amended at Burlington, August, 1807, and at Chicago,
August, 1808.

(XV)

OONSTITITTION

MEETINGS.

Rule 3. The Association shall meet, at such intervals as it may
determine, for one week, or longer ; and the arrangements for it
shall be intrusted to the officers and the Local Committee. The
Standing Committee shall have power to determine the time
and place of each meeting, and shall give due notice of it to the
Association.

STANDING COMMITTEE.

Rule 4. There shall be a Standing Committee, to consist of
the President, Vice-President, Secretaries, and Treasurer of the
Association, the officers of the preceding year, the Permanent
Chairmen of the Sectional Committees, after these shall have been
organized, and six members present from the Association at large,
who shall have attended any of the previous meetings, to be
elected upon open nomination by ballot on the first assembling of
the Association. A majority of the whole number of votes cast,
to elect. The General Secretary shall be Secretary of the Stand-
ing Committee.

The duties of the Standing Committee shall be, —

1. To assign papers to the respective Sections.

2. To arrange the scientific business of the general meetings,
to suggest topics, and arrange the programmes for the evening
meetings.

3. To suggest to the Association the place and time of the next
meeting.

4. To examine, and, if necessary, to ex-clude papers.

5. To suggest to the Association subjects for scientific rej^orts
and researches.

6. To appoint the Local Committee.

7. To have the general direction of publications.

8. To manage any other general business of the Association
during the session, and during the interval between it and the next
meeting.

9. Li conjunction with four from each Section, to be elected
by the Sections for the purpose, to make nominations of officers of
the Association for the following meeting.

10. To nominate jjcrsons for admission to membership.

11. Before adjourning, to decide Avliicli papers, discussions, or
other proceedings sliall l)e ])ul»Hslied.

OF THE ASSOriATIOX. Xvii

SECTIONS.

Rule 5. The Association shall be divided into two Sections,
and as many sub-sections as may be necessary for the scientific
business. When not otherwise ordered the sub-sections sliall be
as follows: Section A. — (1) Mathematics and Astronomy; ("i)
Physics and Chemistry; (3) Microscopy. Sectiox B. — (1) Zo-
ology and Botany; (2) Geology and PalaBontology ; (3) Ethnology
and Archaeology. The two Sections may meet as one.

SECTIONAL OFFICERS AXD COMMITTEES.

Rule 6. On the first assembling of the Section, the members
shall elect upon open nomination a permanent Cliairman and Sec-
retary, also three other members, to constitute, with these officers,
a Sectional Committee.

The Section shall appoint, from day to day, a Chairnian to pre-
side over its meetings.

Rule 7. It shall be the duty of the Sectional Committee of
each Section to arrange and direct the jDroceedings in their Sec-
tion ; to ascertain what communications are offered ; to assign the
oi-der in which these communications shall ap[)ear, and the amount
of time which each shall occupy.

The Sectional Committees may likewise recommend subjects
for systematic investigation by members willing to undertake the
researches, and to present their results at the next meeting.

The Sectional Committee may like^vise recommend reports on
particular topics and departments of science, to be drawn np as
occasion permits, by competent 2>ersons, and presented at subse-
quent meetings.

EEPOETS OF PROCEEDINGS.

Rule 8. Whenever practicable the proceedings shall be repoi'ted
by professional reporters, or stenographers, whose reports are to be
revised by the Secretaries before they appear in print.

papers and communications.

Rule 9. No paper shall be placed in the programme, unless
admitted by the Sectional Committee; nor shall any be read,
unless an abstract of it has been previously presented to the Secre-
tary of the Section, who shall furnish to the Chairman the titles of
papers, of which abstracts have been received.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. C

XVIU COKSTITUTION

Rule. 10. The author of any paper or communication shall
be at liberty to retain his right of property therein, provided he
declare such to be his wish before presenting it to the Associa-
tion.

Rule 11. Copies of all communications, made either to the
General Association or to the Sections, must be furnished by the
authors ; otherwise only the titles, or abstracts, shall appear in
the published proceedings.

Rule 12. All papers, either at the general or in the sectional
meetings, shall be read, as far as practicable, in the order in which
they are entered upon the books of the Association ; except that
those which may be entered by a member of the Standing Com-
mittee of the Association shall be liable to postponement by the
proper Sectional Committee.

Rule 13. If any communication be not ready at the assigned
time, it shall be dropped to the bottom of the list, and shall
not be entitled to take precedence of any subsequent commu-
nication.

Rule 14. No exchanges shall be made between members with-
out authority of the respective Sectional Committees.

general and evening meetings.

Rule 15. The Standing Committee shall appoint any general
meeting which the objects and. interests of the Association may
call for, and the evenings shall, as a rule, be reserved for general
meetings of the Association.

These general meetings may, when convened for that purpose,
give their attention to any topics of science which would other-
wise come before the Sections.

It shall be a part of the business of these general meetings
to receive the Address of the Presideot of the last meeting ; to
hear such reports on scientific subjects as, from their general im-
portance and interest, the S"tauding Committee shall select; also,
to receive from the Chairmen of the Sections abstracts of the pro-
ceedings of their respective Sections ; and to listen to communi-
cations and lectures explanatory of new and important discoveries
and researclies in science, and new inventions and processes in the
arts.

OF TOE ASSOCIATION. XIX

ORDER OF PROCEEDINGS IN ORGANIZING A MEETING.

Rule 10. The Associution shall be called to order by the
President of the precedhig meeting; and this officer having re-
signed the chair to the President elect, the General Secretary
shall then report the number of papers relating to each depart-
ment which have been registered, and the Association consider the
most eligible distribution into Sections, when it shall proceed to
the election of the additional members of the Standing Committee
in the manner before described; the meeting shall then adjourn,
and the Standing Committee, having divided the Association into
Sections as directed, shall allot to each its place of meeting for
the Session. The Sections shall then organize by electing their
officers and their representatives in the Nominating Committee,
and shall proceed to business.

PERMANENT SECRETARY.

Rule 17. It shall be the duty of the Permanent Secretary
t9 notify members who are in arrears, to provide the necessary
stationery and suitable books for the list of members and titles of
papers, minutes of the general and sectional meetings, and for
other purposes indicated in the rules, and to execute such other
duties as may be directed by the Standing Committee or by the '
Association.

The Permanent Secretary shall make a report annually to the
Standing Committee, at its first meeting, to be laid before the
Association, of the business of which he has had charge since its
last meeting.

All members are particularly desired to forward to the Perma-
nent Secretary, so as to be received before the day appointed for
the Association to convene, complete titles of all the papers which
they expect to present during its meeting, with an estimate of the
time required for i-eading each, and such abstracts of their contents
as may give a general idea of their nature.

Whenever the Permanent Secretary notices any error of fact
or unnecessary, repetition, or any other imijortant defect in the
papers communicated for publication in the "Proceedings" of the
Association, he is authorized to connuit the same to the author,
or to the proper sub-committee of the Standing Committee for
correction.

XX CONSTITUTION OF THE ASSOCIATION.

LOCAL COaiMITTEE.

Rule 18. Tlie Local Committee shall be appointed from among
members residing at, or near, the place of meeting for, the ensuing
year; and it shall be the duty of the Local Committee, assisted by
the officers, to make an-angenients and the necessary announce-
ments for tlie meeting.

The Secretary of the Local Committee shall issue a circular in
regard to the time and place of meetings, and other particulars, at
least one month before each meeting.

SUBSCRIPTIONS.

Rule 19. The amount of the subscription, at each meeting, of
each member of the Association, shall be two dollars, and one
dollar in addition shall entitle him tO a copy of the "Proceedings"
of the annual meeting. "These subscriptions shall be received by
the Permanent Secretary, who shall pay them over, after the meet-
ing, to the Treasurer.

The admission fee of new members shall be five dollars, in
addition to the annual subscription ; and no person shall be coh-
sidered a member of the Association until this admission fee and
the subscription for the meeting at which he is elected have been
paid.

Rule 20. The names of all persons two years in arrears for
annual dues sliall be erased from the list of members ; provided
that two notices of indebtedness, at an interval of at least three
months, shall have been previously given.

ACCOUNTS.

Rule 21. The accounts of the Association shall be audited,
a)inu:illy, l)y auditors appointed at each meeting.

ALTERATIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION.

Rule 22. No ariicle of this Constitution shall l)e altered, or
aiiuMidc'd, or set aside, witliout tlie concurrence of three-fourths of
llic members jirescnt, aixl unless notice of the proposed cliange
sli.ill have been given at the preceding annual meeting.

p. E S O L U T IONS

OF A PERMANENT AND rROSPECTIVE CHABACTEK, ADOl'TEI)
AUGUST 19, 1857.

1. No appointment may be made in behalf of the Association,
and no invitation given or accepted, except by vote of the Asso-
ciation or its Standing Committee.

2. The General Secretary shall transmit to the Permanent
Secretary for the files, within two weeks after the adjournment of
every meeting, a record of the proceedings of the Association and
the votes of the Standing Committee. He sliall also, daily, during
the meetings, provide the Chairmen of the two Sectional Com-
mittees with lists of the papers assigned to their Sections by the
Standing Committee.

3. All printing for the Association shall be superintended by
the Permanent Secretary, who is authorized to employ a clerk for
that especial purpose.

4. The Permanent Secretary is authorized to put the " Proceed-
ings" of the meeting to jii'css one month after the adjournment of
the Association. Papers which have not been received at that
time may be published only by title. No notice of articles not
approved shall be taken'in the 2)ublished "Proceedings."

5. The Permanent Chairmen of the Sections are to be con-
sidered their organs of communication with the Standing Com-
mittee.

6. It shall be the duty of the Secretaries of the two Sections to
receive copies of the papers read in their Sections, all sub-sections

. included, and to furnish them to the Permanent Secretary at the
close of the meeting.

7. The Sectional Committees shall meet not later than nine a.m.
daily, during the meetings of the Association, to arrange the pro-
grammes of tlieir respective Sections, including all sub-sections,

(xxi)

XXll PERMANENT RESOLUTIONS.

for the following day. No paper shall be placed upon these pro-
grammes which shall not have been assigned to the Section by
the Standing Committee. The progi-ammes are to be furnished
to the Permanent Secretary not later than eleven a.m.

8. During the meetings of the Association, the Standing Com-
mittee shall meet daily, Sundays excepted, at nine a.m., and the
Sections be called to order at ten a.m., unless otherwise ordered.
The Standing Committee shall also meet on the evening preceding
the first assembling of the Association at each annual meeting, to
arrange for the business of the first day; and on this occasion three
shall form a quorum.

9. Associate members may be admitted for one, two, or three
years, as they shall choose at the time of admission, — to be elected
in the same way as permanent members, and to pay the same dues.
They shall have all the social and scientific privileges of members,
without taking part in the business.

iO. No member may take part in the organization and business
arrangement of both the Sections.

MEMBERS

I OF TIIK

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Abbe, Cleveland, Washington, District of Columbia (16).
*Adams, C. B., Amherst, Massachusetts (1).
*Adams, Edwin F., Charlestown, Massachusetts (18).

Adams, Samuel, Jacksonville, Illinois (18).

Agassiz, Alexander E. R., Cambridge, Massachusetts (18).

Agassiz, Louis, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1).

Aiken, W. E. A., Baltimore, Maryland (12).

Ainsworth, Frank B., Plainfield, Indiana (20).

Albert, Augustus J., Baltimore, Maryland (12).

Alexander, Stephen, Princeton, New Jersey (1).

Allen, Joel A., Cambridge, Massachusetts (18).

Allen, Zachariah, Providence, Rhode Island (1).

Alvord, Benjamin, Washington, District of Columbia (17).
*Ames, M. P., Springfield, Massachusetts (1).

Andrews, Ebenezer, Chicago, Illinois (17).

Andrews, E. B., Columbus, Ohio (7).

Andrews, Joseph II., Chicago, Illinois (17).
*Appleton, Nathan, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Atwater, Elizabeth E., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Atwater, Samuel T., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Austin, E. P., Cambridge, Massachusetts (18).

Aver^, Alida C, Poughkeepsie, New York (20). '

XoTE. — Names of dece!U<ed members are marked with an asterisk [ * ]. Tlie fifjuro at the cud
of each name refers to the meeting at which the election took place.

(wiii)

MEMBERS OF

Balicock, George, Troy, New York (19).
Biibcock, Henry II., Cliicago, Illinois (17).
*B;iclie, Alexander D., Washington, District of Columbia (1)

Bacon, John, Jr., Boston, Massachusetts (1).
*Bailey, J. W., West Point, New York (1).
Bailey, Loring W., Frederickton, New Brunswick (18).
Baird, Lyman, Chicago, Illinois (17).
Baird, S. T., Washington, District of Columbia (1).
Bannister, Henry M., Washington, District of Columbia (17]
Bard well, F. W,, Lawrence, Kansas (13).
Barker, G. F., New Haven, Connecticut (13).
Barnard, F. A. P., New York, New York (7).
Barnard, J. G., New York, New York (14).
Basnett, Thomas, Ottawa, Illinois (8).
Bassett, George W., Vandalia, Illinois (20).
Batchelder, J. H., Salem, Massachusetts (18).
Batchelder, J. M., Cambridge, Massachusetts (8).
*Beck, C. F., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).
*Beck, Lewis C, New Brunswick, New Jersey (1).
*Beck, T. Romeyn, Albany, New York (1).
Bell, James D., New York, New York (20).
Bell, Samuel N., Manchester, New Hampshire (7).
Benjamin, E. B., New York, New York (19).
Bethime, Charles J. S., Port Hope, Canada (18).
Bickmore, Albert S., New York, New York (17).
Bicknall, Edwin, Cambridge, Massachusetts (18).
Bill, Charles, Springlield, Massachusetts (17).
*Binney, Amos, Boston, Massachusetts (1).
*Binney, John, Boston, Massachusetts (3).
Blake, Eli W., Providence, Rhode Island (15).
Blake, Eli W., New Haven, Connecticut (1).
*]51anding, William, Rhode Island (1).

Blatchford, Eliphalet W., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Blatchley, S. L., New Haven, Connecticut (19).

Boadle, John, Iladdonfield, New Jersey (20).

BoUes, E. C, Salem, Massachusetts (17).

Bolton, H. C, New York, New York (17).
*Bomford, George, Washington, District of Columbia (1;.

Bontencou, R. B., Troy, New York (19).

Bouve, Thomas T., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Bowditcli, Henry I., Boston, Massachusetts (2).

Bowen, Chauncey W., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Bowen, James II., Cliicago, Illinois (17).

IJowen, Silas T., Indianapolis, Indiana (20).

Boynton, Susan P., Lynn, Massachusetts (19).

Brackett, C. F., Brunswick, Maine (19).

Hradliy, L., Jersey (-'ity, New Jersey (15).

THE ASSOCIATION.

Breneman, A. A., Agricultural College, Pennsylvania (20).

Brevoort, J. Carson, Brooklyn, New York (1).

Brewer, W. H., New Haven, Connecticut (20).

Briggs, A. D., Springfield, Massachusetts (13).

Briggs, D. H., Norton, Massachusetts (18).

Briggs, S. A., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Brighani, Charles H., Ann Arbor, Michigan (17).

Bross, William, Chicago, Illinois (7).

Brown, Kobert, Jr., Cincinnati, Ohio (11).

Brown, ^Irs. Robert, Jr., Cincinnati, Ohio (17).

Brush, George J., New Haven, Connecticut (11).

Bryan, Oliver N., Marshall Hall P. 0., Maryland (18).

Buchanan, Kobert, Cincinnati, Ohio (2).

Burbank, L. S., Lowell, Massachusetts (18).

Burden, Henry, Jr., Troy, New York (19).

Burgess, Abby L., Oxford, Ohio (20).
*Burnap, G. W., Baltimore, Maryland (12).
*Burnett, Waldo I., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Bush, Stephen, Waterford, New York (19).

Bushee, James, Worcester, Massachusetts (9).

Butler, Thomas B., Norwalk, Connecticut (10).

Canby, William M., Wilmington, Delaware (17).
♦Carpenter, Thornton, Camden, South Carolina (7).
♦Carpenter, William M., New Orleans, Louisiana (1).

Carrier, Joseph C, Notre Dame, Indiana (20).

Case, Leonard, Cleveland, Ohio (15).

Case, L. B., Richmond, Indiana (17).
*Case, William, Cleveland, Ohio (6).

Caswell, Ale-xis, Providence, Rhode Island (2).

Cattell, William C, Easton, Pennsylvania (15).

Chadbourne, P. A., Williamstown, IMassachusetts (10).

Chandler, William H., New York, New York (19).

Chanute, 0., Lawrence, Kansas (17).

Chapman, F. M., Chicago, Illinois (17).
♦Chapman, N., Philadelpliia, Pennsylvania (1).

Chase, Pliny E., Ilaverfurd, Pennsylvania (18).

Chase, R. Stuart, Haverhill, Massachusetts (18).
♦Chase, S., Dartmouth, New Hampshire (2).
♦Chauvenet, William, St. Louis, Missouri (1).

Chesbrough, E. S., Chicago, Illinois (2).
♦Clapp, Asahel, New Albany, Indiana (1).

Clark, John E., Yellow Springs, Oliio (17).
♦Clark, Joseph, Cincinnati, Ohio (5).

Clarke, F. W., Boston, Massachusetts (18).
♦Cleveland, A. B., Cambridge, Massachusetts (2).

Coffin, James H., Easton, Pemisylvania (1).
A.A. A. S. VOL. XXI. U

MEMBERS OF

Coffin, John H. C, Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Coffinberry, W. L., Grand Rapids, Michigan (20).

Cogswell, George, Bradford, Massachusetts (18).

Colbert, E., Chicago, Illinois (17).
*Cole, Thomas, Salem, Massachusetts (1).
*Coleinan, Henry, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

CoUett, John, Eugene, Indiana (17).

Cook, George IL, New Brunswick, New Jersey (18).

Cooke, Caleb, Salem, jNIassachusetts (18).

Cope, Edward D., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (17).

Copes, Joseph S., New Orleans, Louisiana (11).
*Corning, Erastus, Albany, New York (6).

Cox, Edward T., Indianapolis, Indiana (19).

Cramp, J. M., Wolfville, Nova Scotia (11).
*Crosby, Thomas R., Hanover, New Hampshire (18).

Culver, Howard Z., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Cummings, John, Wob urn, Massachusetts (18).

Cnmmings, Joseph, Middletown, Connecticut (13).

Curtis, Josiali, Boston, Massachusetts (18).

Cutting, Hiram A., Lunenburg, Vermont (17).

Dall, William H., Washington, District of Columbia (18).
Dalrymple, E. A., Baltimore, Maryland (11).
Dana, James D., New Haven, Connecticut (1).
Danforth, Edward, Albany, New York (11).
Davis, James, Boston, Massachusetts (1).
Davis, N. S., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Dawson, J. W., Montreal, Canada (10).
Day, F. H., Wauwatosa, Wisconsin (20).
*Dean, Amos, Albany, New York (6).

Dean, George W., Fall River, Massachusetts (15).
*Dearborn, George H. A. S., Roxbury, Massachusetts (1).
*Dekay, James E., New York, New York (1).

Delano, Joseph C, New Bedford, Massachusetts (5).

De Laski, John, Vinalhaven, Maine (18).

Devereux, J. H., Cleveland, Ohio (18).
*Dewey, Chester, Rochester, New York (1).
*Dexter, G. M., Boston, Massachusetts (11).

Dinwiddle, Robert, New York, New York (1).

DixwcU, Epes S., Cambridge, Massachusetts (1).

Dodd, C. M., Williamstown, Massachusetts (I'J).

Doggett, Kate N., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Doggctt, William E., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Doughty, John W., Newburgh, New York (19).

Drownc, Charles, Troy, New York (6).
♦Ducatel, J. T., JSaltimore, Maryland (1).
*I)iimoiit, A. II., Newport, Ithode Island (14).

THE ASSOCIATIOX. XXVU

♦Duncan, Lucius C, New Orleans, Louisiana (10).

Duncan, T. C, Chicago, Illinois (17;.
*Dunn, 11. P., Trovidencc, Rlioile Ishuul (14).
Dyer, Elisha, rroviileiice, Riioilf Island ('J).

It*.
hi

Eaton, D. G., Brooklyn, New York (lU).

Eaton, James II., Beloit, Wisconsin (17).

Edgar, George M., Eranklin, Kentucky (20).

Edwards, A. M., Newark, New Jersey (18).

Einibeck, William, St. Louis, Missouri (17).

Elleuwood, Charles N., San Francisco, California (18).

Elliott, EzekielB., Washington, District of Columbia (10).

Elwyn, Alfred L., Philadelpliia, Pennsylvania (1).

Emerson, Benjamin K., Amherst, Massachusetts (19).

Emerson, George B., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Emerton, James H., Salem, Massachusetts (18).

Englemann, George, St. Louis, Missouri (1).

Engstrom, A. B., Burlington, New Jersey (1).

Ennis, Jacob, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (19).

Eustis, Henry L., Cambridge, Massachusetts {'2).

Evans, Asher B., Lockport, New York (19).
*Everett, Edward, Boston, Massachusetts (2).
*Ewing, Thomas, Lancaster, Ohio (5).

Fairbanks, Henry, St. Johnsbury, Vermont (14).

Farmer, Moses G., Salem, Massachusetts (9).

Farnham, Thomas, Buffalo, New York (15).

■Fcllowes, K. S., New Haven, Connecticut (18).

Fenton, AVilliam, ^lilwaukie, Wisconsin (18).

Ferrell, William, Cambridge, Massachusetts (11).

Ferris, Isaac, New York, New York (G).

Feuchtwanger, Louis, New York, New York (11).

Ficklin, Joseph, Columbia, Missouri (20).

Fishback, W. P., St. Louis, Missouri (20).

Fisher, Clark, Trenton, New Jersey (19).

Fisher, Davenport, Annapolis, Maryland (17).

Fisher, Mark, Trenton, New Jersey (10).
*Fitch, Alexander, Hartford, Connecticut (1).

Fitch, Edward II., Ashtabula, Ohio (11).

Fitch, O. IL, Ashtabula, Ohio (7).

Fletcher, Ingram, Indianapolis, Indiana (20).
*Forbush, E. B., Buffalo, New York (lo).

Ford, S. W., Troy, New York (10).

Forsyth, Robert, Tn.y, New York (19).

XXVm MEMBEES OF

Foster, Henry, Clifton, New York (17).
Foster, John, Schenectady, New York (17).
Foster, J. W., Chicago, Illinois (1).
*Fox, Charles, Grosse Isle, Micliigan (7).
Freeman, H. C, La Salle, Illinois (17).
Frothingham, Frederick, Buffalo, New York (11).

Garman, S. W., Holly Springs, Mississippi (20).

Gavit, John E., New York, New York (1).
*Gay, Martin, Boston, Massachusetts (1).
*Gibbon, J. H., Charlotte, North Carohna (3).

Gill, Theodore, Washington, District of Columbia (17).
*Gillespie, W. M., Schenectady, New York (10).

Oilman, Daniel C, Oakland, California (10).
*Gilraor, Eobert, Baltimore, IMaryland (1).

Glazier, Sarah M., Clielsea, Massachusetts (IG).

Goessman, C. A., Amherst, Massachusetts (18).

Gold, Theodore S., West Cornwall, Connecticut (4).

Goodell, Abner C, Jr., Salem, Massachusetts (18).
*Goukl, Augustus A., Boston, Massachusetts (11).
*Gould, B. A., Boston, Massachusetts (2).

Gould, B. A., Cambridge, Massachusetts (2).
*Graham, James D., Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Gray, Asa, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1).
*Gray, James H., Springfield, Massachusetts (6).

Green, Traill, Easton, Pennsylvania (1).
*Grcene, Benjamin D., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Greene, Dascom, Troy, New York (17).

Greene, Francis C, Easthampton, Massachusetts (11).

Greer, James, Dayton, Ohio (20).

Gregory, J. J. H., Marblehead, Massachusetts (18).
♦Griffith, Robert E., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

Grhues, J. S., Waukegan, Illinois (17).

Grinnan, A. G., Orange Court House, Virginia (7).

Grlswold, John A., Troy, New York (I'J).

Guyot, Arnold, Princeton, New Jersey (1).

♦Ilackley, Charles W., New York, New York (4).

Ilailley, fJeorge, Buffalo, New York (6).

Iliigen, Hermann A., CamJiridge, Massachusetts (17).

llaldunum, S. S., Columbia, Pennsylvania (1).
*llale, Enoch, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

THE ASSOCIATION.

Ilalc, WiUhini H., Albany, New York (1',)).
Hall, Bfiijainiii II., Troy, New York (VJ).
Hall, Ceor^'e K., Cleveland, Ohio (19).
Hall, James, Albany, New York (1).
Hall, L. B., Windsor, Vermont (18).
Hall, N. K., Buffalo, New York (7).
Hambly, J. B., Portsmouth, Kliode Island (18).
Hamcl, Thomas E., Quebec, Canada (18).
Hamlin, A. C, Ban<ior, Maine (10).
Hanaman, C. E., Troy, New York (1'.)).
Hance, Ebenezer, Morrisville, Pennsylvania (7).
Hanover, M. D., Cincinnati, Ohio (13).
*Hare, Robert, Philadelphia, Penn.sylvania (11).
*Harlan, Joseph G., Haverford, Pennsylvania (8).
♦Harlan, Richard, Piiiladelphia, Pennsylvania (1).
♦Harris, Thaddeus W., Cambridge, Massachusetts (1).
Harrison, B. F., Wallingford, Connecticut (11).
*Hart, Simeon, Farmington, Connecticut (1).
Hart, William H., Troy, New York {VJ).
Hartshoriie, Henry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (12).

Harvey, Charles W., Greensburg, Indiana CiO).

Hawkins, B. W., New York, New York (17).
*Hayden, H. H., Baltimore, Maryland (1).
Hayes, George E., Buffivlo, New York (15).
*Hayward, James, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Hedrick, B. S., Washington, District of Columbia (19).

Heimstreet, John W., Troy, New York (19).

Henry, Joseph, Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Ililgard, Eugene W., Oxford, Mississippi (11).

Hilgard, Julius E., Washington, District of Columbia (4).

Ililgard, Theodore C, St. Louis, Missouri (17).

Hill, S. W., Hancock, Lake Superior (G).

Hill, Thomas, Portland, Maine (3).

Ilinrichs, Gustavus, Iowa City, Iowa (17).

Hitchcock, Charles IL, Hanover, New Hampshire (11).
♦Hitchcock, Edward, Amherst, Massachusetts (1).
♦Ilolbrook, J. E., Ciiarleston, South Carolina (1).

Holley, A. L., Troy, New York (19).

Holley, George W., Niagara Falls, New York (19).

Holley, Miss E. P., Niagara Falls, New York (20).

Holmes, Thomas, Merom, Indiana (20).

Homes, Henry A., Albany, New York (11).
♦Hopkins, Albert, WiUianistown, Massachusetts (19).

Horribin, William T., Cohoes, New York (19).

Ilorsford, E. N., Cambridge, Massachusetts (1).
♦Horton, William, Craigville, New York (1).

Hough, Franklin B., Lowville, New York (4).

Hough, G. W., Albany, New York (15).
♦Houghton, Douglas, Detroit, Michigan (1).

MEMBERS OF

House, John C, Waterford, New York (19).

Ilovey, Edmund 0., Crawfordsville, Indiana (20).

Hovey, Mary F., Crawfordsville, Indiana (20).

Howe, E. C, Yonkers, New York (19).

Howell, Robert, Nichols, New York (G).

Hoy, Philo R., Racine, Wisconsin (17).

Hubbard, Oliver P., New Haven, Connecticut (1).

Hubbard, Sara A., Chicago, Illinois (17).
*Hubbert, James, Richmond, Province of Quebec (16).

Humphrey, D., Lawrence, Massachusetts (18).

Humphreys, A. W., New York, New York (20).
*Hunt, E. B., Washington, District of Columbia (2).
*Hunt, Freeman, New York, New York (11).

Hunt, George, Providence, Rhode Island (9).

Hunt, T. Sterry, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Huntington, J. H., Hanover, New Hampshire (19).

Hyatt, Alpheus, Salem, Massachusetts (18).

Hyatt, James, Bangall, New York (10).

Hyatt, Jonathan, ]\Iorrisania, New York (19).

*lves, Thomas P., Providence, Rhode Island (10).

Jackson, C. L., Cambridge, Massachusetts (20).

Jasper, G. A., Charlestown, Massachusetts (18).

Jenks, J. W. P., Middleboro', Massachusetts (2).

Jillson, B. C, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania (14).
*Johnson, W. R., Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Johnston, John, Middle town, Connecticut (1).
*Jones, Catesby A. R., Washington, District of Columbia (8).

Joy, C. A., New York, New York (8).

Keely, G. W., Waterville, Maine (1).

Kellogg, Giles B., Troy, New York (19).

Kellogg, Justin, Troy, New York (19).

Kennedy, Mary R., St. Louis, Michigan (19).

Kerr, W. C, Raleigh, Nortli Carolina (10).

Kimball, J. P., New York, New York (15).

King, Mary B. A., Rochester, New York (15).

Kirkpatrick, James A., Philadelphia, Pemisylvauia (7^

Kirkwooii, Daniel, Blooinington, Indiana (7).

Kite, Thomas, Cincinnati, Ohio (5).

THE ASSOCIATION'.

Klippart, John II., Columbus, Oliio (17).
Kncel.ind, Samuel, Boston, Massiuhusetts (20).
Knickerbocker, Charles, Cliicago, Illmois (17).

Lambert, Thomas TJ., Charlestown, Massachusetts (18).

Langley, S. P., Allegheny, Pennsylvania (18).

Lapham, Increase A., Mihvaukie, Wisconsin (3).
♦Lasel, Edward, Williamstown, Massachusetts (1).

Lattimore, S. A., Rochester, New* York (15).

Lawrence, Edward, Charlestown, Massachusetts (18).

Lawrence, George N., New York, New York (7).

Lea, Isaac,*Plnladelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

Leakin, George A., Baltimore, Marjdand (17).

Leckie, Robert G., Actonvale, Quebec (19).
♦Lederer, Baron von, Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Lennon, W. H., Brockport, New York (lU).

Lesley, Joseph, Jr., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (8).

Lesley, J. P., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (2).
*Lieber, Oscar M., Columbia, South Carolina (8).
♦Lincklaen, Ledyard, Cazenovia, New York (1).

Lindsley, J. B., Nashville, Tennessee (1).
*Linsley, James H., Stafford, Connecticut (1).

Little, George, Oxford, Mississippi (15).

Locke, Erie, Indianapolis, Indiana (20).

Locke, Luther F., Nashua, New Hampshire (7).

Lock wood, Samuel, Freehold, New Jersey (18).

Logan, William E., Montreal, Canada (1).

Lombard, Benjamin, Chicago, Illinois (17).

Loomis, Elias, New Haven, Connecticut (1).
♦Loosey, Charles F.. New York, New. York (12).
♦Lothrop, Joshua R., Buffalo, New York (15).

Lovering, Joseph, Camljridgc, ^Massachusetts (2).

Lupton, N. T., Tuscaloosa, Alabama (17).

Lyman, B. S., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (15).

Lyman, Chester S., New Haven, Connecticut (14).

Lyon, Henry, Charlestown, Massachusetts (18).

Maack, G. A., Cambridge, Massachusetts (18).
Mac Arthur, Charles L., Troy, New York (19).
Maclntire, Thomas, Indianapolis, Indiana (20).
Mack, David, Belmont, Massachusetts (18).
Malone, David R., Edinburg, Indiana (20).
Marcy, Oliver, Evanston, Illinois (10).
Marden, George II., (.'harlestown, Massachusetts (18).

XXXU MEMBERS OF

,*Marsh, Dexter, Greenfield, Massachusetts (1).
*Matlier, William W., Columbus, Ohio (1).

Mauran, J., New York, New York (2).

Mayer, Alfred M., Iloboken, New Jersey (19).

Mayhew, D. P., Ypsilanti, Michigan (13).

Maynard, George W., Troy, New York (10).

McCagg, Ezra B., Chicago, Illinois (17).

McClellan, R. II., Troy, New York (19).
*M'Conihe, Isaac, Troy, New York (4).

McMurtrie, Horace, Boston, Massachusetts (17).

McNeil, J. A., Grand Rapids, ^Michigan (18).

McRae, John, Camden, South Carolina (3).

McWhorter, Tyler, Aledo, lUinois (20).
*Meade, George G., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (15).

Means, A., Oxford, Georgia (5).

Meehan, Thomas, Germantown, Pennsylvania (17).

Meek, F. B., Washington, District of Columbia (6).

Meigs, James A., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (12).

MendenhaU, T. G., Columbus, Ohio (20).

Merritt, George, Indianapolis, Indiana (20).

Metcalf, Caleb B., Worcester, Massachusetts (20).

Minifie, William, Baltimore, Maryland (12).

Mitchell, Maria, Poughkeepsie, New York (4).

Mitchell, William IL, Florence, Alabama (17).

Monroe, William, Boston, IMassachusetts (18).

Moore, Joseph, Richmond, Indiana (20).

Morison, N. II., Baltimore, Jlaryland (17).

Morley, Edward W., Hudson, Ohio (18).

Morris, John G., Baltimore, Maryland (12).

Morris, Oran W., New York, New York (19).

Morse, Edward S., Salem, Massachusetts (18).

Morton, Henry, Hoboken, New Jersey (18).
*Morton, S. G., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

Myers, W. H., Fort Wayne, Indiana (17).

Nason, Henry B., Troy, New York (13).
Nelson, Cleland K., Annapolis, Maryland (12).
Newberry, J. S., New York, New York (5).
Newcomb, Simon, Washington, District of Columbia (13).
Nev/man, John S., Indianapolis, Indiana (20).
♦Newton, E. H., Cambridge, New York (1).
Newton, Hubert A., New Haven, Connecticut (6).
Newton, Joim, Mary -Esther, Florida (7).
Nichols, Charles A., Providence, Rhode Island (17).
Nichols, William U., Boston, Massacliusetts (18).
Nickel, George D., Connellsvillc, Pennsylvania (19).

THE ASSOCIATION. XXXlll

*Nicollett, J. N., Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Niles, W. H., Cambridge, Massachusetts (IG).
•Norton, J. P., New Haven, Connecticut (1).

Norton, W. A., New Haven, Connecticut (G).

*Oakes, William, Ipswich, Massachusetts (1).

O'Donnell, Emma, Lansingburg, New York (19).

Ogden, Alahlon D., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Ogden, W. B., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Oliver, James Edward, Ithaca, New York (7).
*01msted, Alexander F., New Haven, Connecticut (4).
*01msted, Denison, New Haven, Connecticut (1).
*01msted, Denison, Jr., New Haven, Connecticut (1).

Ordway, John M., Boston, Massachusetts (9).

Orton, Edward, Yellow Springs, Ohio (19).

Orton, James, Poughkeepsie, New York (18).

Osborne, A. 0., Waterville, New York (19).

Osborne, Ada M., Waterville, New York (19).

Packard, A. S., Jr., Salem, Massachusetts (IG).

Page, Peter, Chicago, Illinois (17).

Paine, Cyrus F., Rochester, New York (12).

Paine, Nathaniel, Worcester, Massachusetts (18).

Painter, Minshall, Lima, Pennsylvania (7).
♦Parkman, Samuel, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Parmelee, Dubois D., New York, New York (15).

Parry, Charles C, Washington, District of Columbia (6).

Parvin, Theodore S., Iowa City, Iowa (7).

Patton, William W., Chicago, Illinois (18).

Peck, W. A., Troy, New York (19).

Peckham, S. F., Providence, Rhode Island (18).

Peirce, Benjamin, Cambridge, INIassachusetts (1).

Peirce, B. 0., Beverly, Massachusetts (18).

Perkins, George H., Burlington, Vermont (17).

Perkins, George R., Utica, New York (7).
•Perkins, Henry C, Newburyport, Massachusetts (18).

Perkins, Jr., S. E., Indianapolis, Indiana (20).

Perkins, Maurice, Sclienectady, New York (15).
*Perry, John B., Cambridge, Massachusetts (IG).
*Perry, M. C, New York, New York (10).

Phelps, Almira L., Baltimore, Maryland (13).

Phelps, Charles E., Baltimore, .Maryland (13).

Phippen, George D., Salem, ^Massachusetts (18).

Pickering, Edward C, Boston, Massachusetts (18).
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. E "

XXXiv MEMBEKS OF

Pierce, H. A., Lansingburg, New York (19).
*Plumb, Ovid, Salisbury, Connecticut (9).
*Pope, Cliarles A., St. Louis, Missouri (12).
*Porter, John A., New Haven, Connecticut (14).

Pourtales, L. F., Wasliington, District of Columbia (1).

Pratt, William H., Davenport, Iowa (17).

Pruyn, J. V. L., Albany, New York (1).
*Pugh, Evan, Centre County, Pennsylvania (14).

Pumpelly, Kaphael, Cambridge, Massachusetts (17).

Putnam, Adelaide M., Salem, Massachusetts (19).

Putnam, F. W., Salem, Massachusetts (10).

Quinche, A. J., Oxford, Mississippi (20).

Quincy, Edmund, Jr., Boston, Massachusetts (11).

Rauch, J. H., Chicago, Illinois (11).
Raymond, R. W., New York, New York (15).
Read, Ezra, Terre Plaute, Indiana (20).
Redfield, John H., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).
*Redfield, William C, New York, New York (1).
Rice, William N., Middietown, Connecticut (18).
Richardson, F. C. A., Chicago, Illinois (20).
Riley, Charles V., St. Louis, Missouri (17).
Ritchie, E. S., Boston, Massachusetts (10).
Robertson, Thomas D., Rockford, Illinois (10).
Rochester, Thomas F., Buffalo, New York (15).
Rockwell, Alfred P., New Haven, Connecticut (10).
*Rockwell, John A., Norwich, Connecticut (10).

Rockwell, Joseph P., Boston, Massachusetts (17).

Rogers, Fairman, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (11).
*Rogers, James B., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

Rogers, Robert E., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (18).

Rogers, W. B., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Rood, 0. N., New York, New York (14).

Roosevelt, Clinton, New York, New York (11).

Rumsey, Bronson C, Buffalo, New York (15).

Runkle, J. D., Boston, Massachusetts (2).

Russell, L. W , Providence, Rhode Island (20).

Kutliorford, Louis M., New York, New York (13).

Ryerson, Joseph T., Chicago, Illinois (17).

THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

SafforJ, J. M., Lebanon, Tennessee (6).
Safford, Truman II., Chicago, Illinois (13).
Samson, George W., New York, New York (18).
Sanders, Benjamin D., Wellsburg, West Virginia (19).
Saunders, William, London, Canada (17).
Scammon, J. Young, Chicago, Illinois (17).
Schanck, J. Stillwcll, Princeton, New Jersey (4).
Schott, Charles A., Washington, District of Columbia (8).
Scudder, Samuel H., Boston, Massachusetts (13).
Seaman, Ezra C, Ann Arbor, Michigan (20).
Seely, Charles A., New York, New York (18).
Senter, Harvey S., Aledo, Illinois (20).
*Seward, William H., Auburn, New York (1).
Seymour, W. P., Troy, New York (19).
Shaler, N. S., Cambridge, Massachusetts (19).
Sheafer, P. W., Pottsville, Pennsylvania (4).

Sheldon, Edwin II., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Sherwood, Andrew, Mansfield, Pennsylvania (18).

Sias, Solomon, Charlotteville, New York (10).

Sill, Elisha N., Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (6).
*Silliman, Benjamin, New Haven, Connecticut (1).

Silliman, Benjamin, New Haven, Connecticut (1).

Silliman, Justus M., Easton, Pennsylvania (19).

Sloan, John, New Albany, Indiana (20).

Smith, J. Lawrence, Louisville, Kentucky (14).
♦Smith, J. v., Cincinnati, Ohio (5).

Smith, James Y., Providence, Rhode Island (9).
*Sniith, Lyndon A., Newark, New Jersey (9).

Smith, RoUin A., Fond-du-Lac, Wisconsin (18).

Snell, Eben S., Amherst, Massachusetts (2).
♦Sparks, Jared, Cambridge, Massachusetts (2).

Squier,E. G., New York, New York (18).

Stanard, Benjamin A., Cleveland, Ohio (G).

Stearns, R. E. C, San Francisco, California (18).

Steiner, Lewis II., Frederick City, Maryland (7).

Stephens, W. H., Lowville, New York (18).

Stevens, R. P., New York, New York (18).

Stimpson, Frederick E., Bostort, Massachusetts (18).

Stimpson, Thomas M., Peabody, Massachusetts (18).
♦Stimpson, William, Chicago, Illinois (12).

Stockwell, Joim N., Cleveland, Ohio (18).

Stone, Samuel, Chicago, Illinois (17).

Storer, D. H., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Storer, Frank II., Boston, Massachusetts (13).

Storke, Helen L., Auburn, New York (19).

XXXvi MEMBERS OF

Stougliton, T. M., Factory Village, Massachusetts (18).
Strawbridge, William C, Elk- View, Pennsylvania (19).
*Sullivant, W. S., Columbus, Ohio (7).
Swallow, G. C, Columbia, Missouri (10).
Swasey, Oscar F., Beverly, Massachusetts (17).

♦Tallmadge, James, New York, New York (1).

Taylor, Edward E., Cleveland, Ohio (20).
*Taylor, Richard C, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

Tenney, Sanborn, Williamstown, Massachusetts (17)
*Teschcmacher, J. E., Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Thompson, Aaron R., New York, New York (1).

Thompson, Harvey M., Chicago, Illinois (17).

Thompson, Robert H., Troy, New York (19).
♦Thompson, Z., Burlington, Vermont (1).
*Thurber, Isaac, Providence, Rhode Island (9).

Tillman, Mrs. S. D., Jersey City, New Jersey (20).

Tillman, S. D., Jersey City, New Jersey (15).

Tingley, Joseph, Greencastle, Indiana (14).

ToUes, Robert B., Boston, Massachusetts (15).
*Torrey, John, New York, New York (1).
*Totten, J. G., Washington, District of Columbia (1).

Townsend, Franklin, Albany, New York (4).
*Townsend, John K., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

Townshend, N. S., Avon, Ohio '(17).

Tracy, C. M., Lynn, Massachusetts (19).

Treat, Joseph, Vineland, New Jersey (19).

Trembly, J. B., Toledo, Ohio (17).
*Troost« Gerard, Nashville, Tennessee (1).

Trowbridge, W. P., New Haven, Connecticut (10).
*Tuomey, M., Tuscaloosa, Alabama (1).

Turner, R. S., St. Paul, Minnesota (18).

Tuttle, Albert H., Cleveland, Ohio (17).

Twining, A. C, New Haven, Connecticut (18).
♦Tyler, Edward R., New Haven, Connecticut (1).

Tyson, Philip T., Baltimore, Maryland (12).

Uhler, Philip R., Baltimore, Maryland (19).
Upliam, J. Baxter, Boston, Massachusetts (14).

Vail, HukIi T)., Pliiladelphia, Pennsvlvania (18).
*Vanck've, John W., Dayton, Ohio (1).

THE ASSOCIATION.

Van ilcr Wcyde, P. H., New Vork, New York (17).
Van llorne, W. C, Cliicago, Illinois (lU).
•Vanuxeni, Lardner, Bristol, Pennsylvania (1).
Vaux, William S., Pliihulelpliia, Pennsylvania (1).
Vose, George L., Brunswick, ilaine (lo).

Waddel, John N., Oxford, Mississippi (17).
*\Vadswortli, James S., Genesee, New York (2).
*Wagner, Tobias, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (9).

Walker, Charles A., Chelsea, Massachusetts (18).

Walker, George C, Chicago, Illinois (17).

Walker, J. II., New Orleans, Louisiana (19).
*Walker, Joseph, Oxford, New York (10).

* Walker, Sears C, Washington, District of Columbia (1).
*Walker, Timotliy, Cincinnati, Ohio (4).

Walling, II. F., Boston, Massachusetts (16).

Wanzer, Ira, Lanesville, Connecticut (18).

Ward, Ilenry A., Rochester, New York (13).

Ward, R. H., Troy, New York (17).

Warder, Robert B., Cleves, Ohio (19).

Wardwell, George J., Rutland, Vermont (20).

Warner, James D., Brooklyn, New York (18).

Warren, G. K., Washington, District of Columbia (12).

Warren, G. W., Boston, Massacliusetts (18).
*Warren, John C, Boston, Massachusetts (1).

Warren, S. Edward, Boston, Massachusetts (17).

Watson, William, Boston, Massachusetts (12).

Webb, Benjamin, Jr., Salem, Mijssachusetts (18).
♦Webster, II. B. Albany, New York (1).

* Webster, J. W., Cambridge, Massachusetts (1).
*Webster, M. H., Albany, New York (1).

Webster, Nathan B., Norfolk, Virginia (7).
Wells, Daniel H., New Haven, Connecticut (18).
Wells, George A., Troy, New York (19).
Wendell, August, Troy, New York (19).
West, Charles E., Brooklyn, New York (1).
Wheatland, Henry, Salem, Massachusetts (1).
♦Wheatland, Richard H., Salem, Massachusetts (13).
Wheatle}', Charles M., Phanixville, Pennsylvania (1).
Wheeler, C. G., Chicago, Illinois (18).
Wheeler, T. B., Montreal, Canada (11).
Wheildon, W. W., Concord, Massachusetts (13).
White, C. A., Iowa City, Iowa (17).
Whitfield, R. P., Albany, New York (18).
Whitney, Asa, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1).

XXXViii MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATIOIf.

Whitney, J. D., Cambridge, Massacliusetts (1).

Whitney, Mary W., Walthara, Massachusetts (19).

Whitney, Solon F., Watertown, Massachusetts (20).

Wliittlesey, Charles, Cleveland, Ohio (1).

Wilber, G. M., Pine Plains, New York (19).
*Willard, Emma, Troy, New York (15).

Williams, H. S., New Haven, Connecticut (18).

Williams, Henry W., Boston, Massachusetts (11).

Williams, J. G., Detroit, Michigan (19).

Williamson, R. S., San Francisco, California (12).

Winchell, Alexander, Syracuse, New York (8).

Winchell, N. H., St. Anthony, Minnesota (19).

Winslow, Ferdinand S., Chicago, Illinois (17).
* Woodbury, L., Portsmouth, New Hampshire (1).

Woodworth, John M., Washington, District of Columbia (17).

Wormley, Thomas G., Columbus, Oliio (20).

Worthen, A. H., Springfield, Illinois (5).

Wright, A. W., Williamstown, Massachusetts (14).

Wright, Chauncey, Cambridge, Massachusetts (9).
*Wright, John, Troy, New York (1).

Wurtele, Louis C, Acton Vale, Canada East (11).

AVurtz, Henry, New York, New York (10).

Youmans, E. L., New York, New York (6).
Young, Charles A., Hanover, New Hampshire (18).
* Young, Ira, Hanover, New Hampshire (7).
Young, William H., Troy, New York (19).

This list contains six hundred and fifty-one names, of which one hundred and thirty-four are
of deceased members. The names of those who were chosen at Dubuque, and who have already
joined the Association, have not yet been incorporated into the general catalogue of members, but
are printed separately.

MEMBERS

WHO JOINED AT

THE DUBUQUE MEETING.

Adcock, Robert J., Lenox, Illinois.
Addams, Miss Alice S., Cedarville, Illinois.
Arthur, J. C, Ames, Iowa.

Barrett, Moses, Mihvaukie, Wisconsin.
Bass, George, Noblesville, Indiana.
Beach, W. II., Dubuque, Iowa.
Beach, Myron II., Dubuque, Iowa.
Bebb, Michael, Fountaindale, Iowa.
Bessey, C. E., Ames, Iowa.
Blodgett, James II., Rockford, Illinois.
Bryant, W. M., BurUngton, Iowa.
Bush, Alva, Osage, Iowa.

Carmichael, Henry, Grinnell, Iowa.
Chamberlain, T. C, Wliitewater, Wisconsin.
ColUns, Alonzo, Mount Vernon, Iowa.
Comstock, M. L., Galesbury, Illinois.
Conser, E. P., Sandsprings, Iowa.
Crawford, John S., Galena, Illinois.
Crocker, Susan E., Lawrence, Massachusetts.
Curtis, W. S., Rockford, Illinois.

Darby, John, Miliersburg, Kentucky.
Davenport, Mrs. M. G., Oskaloosa, Iowa.
Do Camp, William D., Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Downer, Henry E., Detroit, Michigan.

Edwards, Tiiomas C, Vineland, New Jersey.
Everett, 0., Dixon, Illinois.

(xx.vix)

xl MEMBERS OF

Faries, "R. J., Wauwatoso, Wisconsin.
Fluegel, Maurice, Quincy, Illinois.
Foote, A. E., Agricultural College, Iowa.
Forsliey, C. S., New Orleans, Louisiana.
Fulton, R. B., Oxford, Mississippi.

Graves, G. A., Ackley, Iowa.
Griffith, E. A., Mount Pleasant, Iowa.

Ilarwood, Grace, Council Hill, Illinois.
Henderson, G. L., Le Roy, Minnesota.
Horr, Asa, Dubuque, Iowa.
Hovey, Mary C, Crawfordsville, Indiana.

Irish, T. M., Dubuque, Iowa.

Jones, William P., Eavenswood, Illinois.

King, Robert, Kalamazoo, Michigan.
King, William F., Mount Vernon, Iowa,
lunner, Hugo, St. Louis, Missouri.
Knepper, C. 0., Waverly, Iowa.
Knight, J. B., New Orleans, Louisiana.
Knox, Otho S., Waterloo, Iowa.

Lambert, T. S., New York, New York.
Leonard, N. R., Iowa City, Iowa.
Loughridge, Albert, Newton, Iowa.
Loughridge, R. H., Oxford, Mississippi.

Mack, William, Salem, Massachusetts.
Mark, Edward L., Fredonia, New York.
McCreery, J. L., Dubuque, Iowa.
Mclsaac, P., Waterloo, Iowa.

Newman, Eliza J., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Nicholson, Thomas, Now Orleans, Louisiana.
Norton, Mary E. B., Rockford, Illinois. •
*Noyes, J. 0., New Orleans, Louisiana.

Ogden, Robert W., New Orleans, Louisiana.
Ostrandcr, L. A., Dubuque, Iowa.

Palfrey, C. W., i^alem, MassacJiusotts.
Palmer, A. B., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Palmer, B. M., New. Orleans, Louisiana.
I'almer, Mrs. L. M., Ann Arbor, Michigan
Parker, J. B., Grand Rapids, Michigan.

THE ASSOCIATIOX. xli

Percival, C. S., Imlependcnce, Iowa.
Preston, W. C, Iowa City, Iowa.
Pulsifer, Sidney, Peoria, Illinois.

Rominger, Carl, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Ross, Alexander Milton, Toronto, Canada.

Safford, Mary J., Chicago, Illinois.
Saunderson, Robert, Burlington, Iowa.
Smith, J. W., Charles City, Iowa.
Starr, William, Ripon, Wisconsin.
Stephens, Julius, Springvale, Illinois.
Steward, A., Dubuque, Iowa.
Stuart, A. P. S., Champaign, Iowa.
Stowell, John, Charlestown, Massachusetts.
Swain, James, Fort Dodge, Iowa.
Swain, Mrs. James, Fort Dodge, Iowa.
Swan, R. W., Grinnell, Iowa.

Taft, Mary A., Springvale, Iowa.

Taft, S. H., Springvale, Iowa.

Thomson, A., Iowa City, Iowa.

Thraslier, William M., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Trowbridge, Mrs. L. II., Kalamazoo, Slichigan.

Warner, H. C, Clairmont, Iowa.
Warqer, Mrs. J. D., Brooklyn, New York.
Waugh, J. W., Lucknow, India.
Welch, Miss G. 0., Lynn, Massachusetts.
Westcott, O. S., Chicago, Illinois.
Wiley, II. W., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Williams, Mrs. E. B., Strawberry Point, Iowa.
Witter, F. M., Muscatine, Iowa.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI.

MEMBERS

WHO JOINED AT

THE i:t;rDIANAPOLIS MEETllN^G.

Abbot, Elizabeth O., Providence, Rhode Island.
Alexander, John S., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Austin, Thomas R., Terre Haute, Indiana.
Aydelotte, William, Sullivan, Indiana.

Barnard, Jehiel, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Bell, Eliza C, Indianapohs, Indiana.

Berry, Daniel M., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Billingsley, J. J. W., Spring Valley, Indiana. •

Bowman, Thomas, Greencastle, Indiana.

Braden, William, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Buckhout, W. A., Agricultural College, Pennsylvania.

Bullard, William M., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Burford, William B., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Carrington, Henry B., Crawfordsville, Indiana.
Carson, James P., New York, New York.
Colgan, Charles J., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Coulson, Mary, Mason, Ohio.

Dana, Charles P., New York, New York.

Davis, F. A. W., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Day, Henry, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Dodge, Anna, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Dolbear, A. Emerson, Bethany, West Virginia.

Edwards, William K., Terre Haute, Indiana.
Elliott, Thomas B., Indianapolis, Indiana.
English, Rose, Indianapolis, Indiana,
(xlii)

MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. xUu

English, William E., Indianapolis, Indiana.
English, William II., Indianapolis, Lidiana.

Farlow, W. G., Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Ferguson, James, Ashboro', Indiana.
Fisher, Clark, Trenton, New Jersey.
Fletcher, William B., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Gilpatrick, John L., Gosport, Indiana.
Gordon, George E., Indianapolis, Indiana.

Ilagar, Albert D., St. Louis, Missouri.
Hawley, C. T., Milwaukie, Wisconsin.
Hawley, R. E., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hill, J. A., Grecncastle, Indiana.
Hobbs, William Henry, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Hopkins, Frederick V., Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Hosford, Charles E., Terre Haute, Indiana.
Hunt, Sarah E., Salem, Massachusetts.
Hunter, Morton C, Bloomington, Indiana.

Kinder, Sarah, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Landon, S. D., Attica, Indiana.
Lyon, James A., Oxford, Mississippi.
♦Lyon, Sidney S., Jeffersonville, Indiana.

McChesney, Joseph H., Cliicago, Dlinois.
McDonald, J. D., Attica, Indiana.
McKeen, William R., Terre Haute, Indiana.
McRae, Hamilton S., Muncie, Indiana.
Mills, Isaac F., Wabash, Indiana.
Mills, Joseph J., Wabash, Indiana.
Minshall, U. W., Terre Haute, Indiana.

Nutt, Cyrus, Bloomington, Indiana.

Owen, Richard, Bloomington, Indiana.

Parker, Lucy II., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Parvin, Theophilus, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Pierce, Henry D., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Poole, Henry S., Nova Scotia.
Poole, Joseph, Attica, Indiana.

Reed, Edmund B., London, Canada.
Robertson, Robert S., Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Rockwood, Ciiarles G., Brunswick, Maine.
Rogers, Joseph G., Madison, Indiana.

xliv MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Salter, James W., Richmond, Indiana.
Scott, Harvey D., Torre Haute, Indiana.
Smith, Eugene A., Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Smith, T. Guilford, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Spencer, John W., Paxton, Indiana.
Stearns, Thaddeus M., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Storrs, Henry E., Jacksonville, Illinois.
Stott, W. T., Franklin, Indiana.
Sutton, George, Aurora, Lidiana.

Tappan, Eli T., Gambler, Ohio.
Taylor, Franklin, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Thomas, Norbourn, Terre Haute, Indiana.
Thompson, James, Bloomington, Indiana.
Todd, Charles N., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Tomlinson, J. M., Indianapolis, Indiana.
Tuell, William B., Terre Haute, Indiana.

Vasey, George, Normal, Illinois.

Wahl, W. H., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Walker, Joseph B., Louisville, Kentucky.
Walker, N. B., Arlington, Massachusetts.
Wardwell, George J., Rutland, Vermont.
Wheat, J. J., Oxford, Mississippi.
Wiley, Philander, Greencastle, Indiana.
WiUiams, W. D., Macon, Georgia.
Wilson, Joseph R., Columbia, South Carolina.
Woodman, H. T., Dubuque, Iowa.
Wright, John C, Indianapolis, Indiana.
WyckofF, William C, New York, New York.
Wylie, Theopliilus A., Bloomington, Indiana.

ADDRESS

PROFESSOR ASA GRAY,

EX-PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Gentlemen of the AiiERicAN Association for the Advance-
ment OF Science : —

The session being now happily inaugurated, your presiding
officer of the hast year has only one duty to perform before he
surrenders his chair to his successor. If allowed to borrow a
simile from the language of my own profession, I might liken the
President of this Association to a biennial plant. He flourishes
for the year in which he comes into existence, and performs his
appropriate functions as presiding officer. When the second
year comes round, he is expected to blossom out in an address
and disappear. Each President, as he retires, is naturally ex-
pected to contribute something from his own investigations or
his own line of study, usually to discuss some pai'ticular scientific
topic*

Now, although I liave cultivated the field of North American
Botany, with some assiduity, for more than forty years, have re-
viewed our vegetable hosts, and assigned to no small number of
them their names and their place in the ranks, yet, so far as our
own wide country is concerned, I have been to a great extent a

* This discourse having been written en route, from scanty notes, far away
from Vjook? or other means of veritication, and printed directly after delivery in
the " American Naturalist," and in the " American Journal of Science and the
Arts," as well as elsewhere, it has naturally happened that some statements
required correction or qualification. A few alterations which seemed to be
needed are now made, and an Appendix is added.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 1

2 ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

closet botanist. Until this summer I had not seen the Mississippi,
nor set foot upon a prairie.

To gratify a natural interest, and to gain some title for address-
ing a body of practical naturalists and explorers, I have made a
pilgrimage across the continent. I have sought and viewed in
their native haunts many a plant and flower which for me had
long bloomed unseen, or only in the hortus siccus. I have been
able to see for myself what species and what forms constitute the
main features of the vegetation of each successive region, and
recoi'd — as the vegetation unerringly does — the permanent char-
acteristics of its climate.

Passing on from the eastern district, marked by its equably dis-
tributed rainfall, and therefore naturally forest-clad, I have seen
the trees diminish in number, give place to wide prairies, restrict
their growth to the borders of streams, and then disappear from
the boundless drier plains ; have seen grassy plains change into
a brown and sere desert, — desert in the common sense, but hardly
anywhere botanically so ; have seen a fair growth of coniferovis trees
adorning the more favored slopes of a momitain range high enough
to compel summer showers; have traversed that broad and bare
elevated region shut ofi" on both sides by high mountains from the
moisture supplied by either ocean, and longitudinally intersected
by sierras which seemingly remain as naked as they were born ;
and have reached at length the westward slopes of the high moun-
tain barrier which, refreshed by the Pacific, bear the noble forests
of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range, and among them trees
which are the wonder of the world. As I stood in their shade,
in the groves of Mariposa and Calaveras, and again under the
canopy of the commoner Redwood, raised on columns of such
majestic height and ample girth, it occuiTcd to me that I could
not do better than to share with you, upon -this occasion, some of
the thoughts which possessed my mind. In their development
they may, perhaps, lead us up to questions of considerable scien-
tific interest.

I shall not detain you with any remarks — which would now be
trite — upon the size or longevity of these far-famed Sequoia trees,
or of tlie Sugar Pines, Incense-Cedar, and Firs associated with them,
of whicli even the prodigious bulk of the dominating Sequoia does
not sensibly diminish the grandeur. Although no account and
no photogra|)hic representation of either species of tlie far-famed
Sequoia trees gives any adequate impression of their singular

ADDRESS OK KX-PKESIDiiNT <U{AY. 3

majesty — still less of their beauty — yet my interest in them di.l
not culminate merely or mainly in considerations of their size and
age. Other trees, in other parts of the world, may claim to be
older. Certain Australian Gum-trees (Eucalypti) are said to be
taller. Some, we are told, rise so high that they might even cast
a flicker of shadow upon the summit of tlie pyramid of Cheops.
Yet the oldest of them doubtless grew fi-om seed which was shed
long after the names of the pyramid-builders had been forgotten.
So far as we can judge from the actual counting of the layers of
several trees, no Sequoia now alive can sensibly antedate the
Christian era.

Nor was I much impressed with an attraction of man's adding.
That the more remarkable of these trees should bear distinguish-
ing apjiellations seems proper enough ; but the tablets of personal
names Avhich are aftixed to many of them in the most visited
groves — as if the memory of more or less notable people of our
day might be made more endui'ing by the juxtaposition — do
suggest some incongruity. When we consider that a hand's
breadth at the circumference of any one of the venerable trunks
so placarded has recorded in annual lines the lifetime of the indi-
vidual thus associated with it, one may question whether the next
hand's breadth may not measure the fome of some of the names
thus ticketed for adventitious immortality. Whether it be the
man or the tree that is honored in the connection, probably either
would live as long, in fact and in memory, without it.

One notable thing about these Sequoia trees is their isolation.
Most of the tree's associated with them are of peculiar species,
and some of them are nearly as local. Yet every Pine, Fir, and
Cyjiress in California is in some sort familiar, because it has near
relatives in other parts of the world. But the Redwoods have
none. The Redwood — including in that name the two species of
"big-trees" — belongs to the general Cypress family, but is sui
generis. Thus isolated sytematically, and extremely isolated geo-
graphically, and so wonderful in size and port, they more than
other trees suggest questions.

Were they created thus local and lonely, denizens of California
only ; one in limited numbers in a few ckoice sjjots on the Sierra
Nevada, the other along the coast range from the Bay of Monterey
to the frontiers of Oregon? Are they veritable Melchizedeks,
without pedigree or early relationship, and possibly fated to be
without descent ?

4 ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

Or are they now coming upon the stage — or rather were they
coming but for man's interference — to Y>\ay a part in the future ?

Or are they remnants, sole and scanty survivors of a race that
has played a grander part in the past, but is now verging to ex-
tinction ? Have they had a career, and can that career be ascer-
tained or surmised, so that we may at least guess whence they
came, and how, and when ?

Time was, and not long ago, when such questions as these were
regarded as useless and vain, — when students of natural history,
unmindful of what the name denotes, were content with a knowl-
edge of things as they now are, but gave little heed as to how they
came to be so. Now, such questions are held to be legitimate,
and perhaps not wholly unanswerable. It cannot now be said
that these trees inhabit their present restricted areas simply be-
cause they are there placed in the climate and soil of all the world
most congenial to them. These must indeed be congenial, or they
would not survive. But when we see how Australian Eucalyptus
trees thrive upon the Californian coast, and how these very Red-
woods flourish upon another continent; how the so-called wild
oat (Avena sterilis of the Old World) has taken full possession of
California; how that cattle and horses, introduced by the Spaniard,
have spread as widely and made themselves as much at home on
the plains of La Plata as on those of Tartary ; and that the cardoon-
thistle seeds, and others they brought with them, have multiplied
there into numbers probably much exceeding those extant in
their native lands ; indeed, when we contemplate our own race,
and our own particular stock, taking such recent but dominating
possession of this New World ; Avhen we consider how the indig-
enous flora of islands generally succumbs to the foreigners which
come in the train of man ; and that most weeds (i.e., the prepotent
plants in open soil) of all temperate climates are not " to the manner
born," but are self-invited intruders, — we must needs abandon
the notion of any primordial and absolute adaptation of plants and
animals to their habitats, which may stand in lieu of explanation,
and so preclude our inquiring any further. The harmony of
Nature and its admirable perfection need not be regarded as in-
flexible and changeless. Nor need Nature be likened to a statue,
or a cast in rigid bronze, but rather to an oi'ganisra, Avith play and
a<la])t:ibility of parts, and life and even soul informing the whole.
Under the former view Nature would be "the faultless monster
which the world ne'er saw," but inscrutable as the Sjihinx, whom

ADDRESS OK EX-PKESIDENT GJtAY. 5

it wore vain, or worse, to (luestion of the wlience aud whither.
Under the other, the perfection of nature, if rehative, is multifo-
rious and ever renewed ; and niucli that is enigmatical now may
find exphmation in some record of the past.

Tliat the two species of Redwood we are contemplating origi-
nated as they are and where they are, and for the part they are
now playing, is, to say the least, not a scientific supposition, nor
in any sense a probable one. Xor is it more likely that they are
destined to play a conspicuous part in the future, or that they
would have done so, even if the Indian's fires and the white man's
axe had spared them. The Redwood of the coast (Sequoia semper-
virens) had the stronger hold upon existence, forming as it did
large forests throughout a narrow belt about three hundred miles
in length, and being so tenacious of life that every large stump
sprouts into a copse. But it does not pass the Bay of Monterey,
nor cross the line of Oregon, although so grandly developed not
far below it. The more remarkable Sequoia gigantea of the Sierra
exists in numbers so limited that the separate groves may be reck-
oned upon the fingers, and the trees of most of them have been
counted, except near their southern limit, where they are said to
be more copious. A species limited in individuals holds its exist-
ence by a precarious tenure ; and this has a foothold only in a
few sheltered spots, of a happy mean in temperature, and locally
favored with moisture in summer. Even there^for some reason
or other, the Pines with which they are associated (Pinus Lamber-
tiana and P. ponderosa), the Firs (Abies grandis and A. amabilis)
and even the Incense-Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) possess a great
advantage, and, though they strive in vain to emulate their size,
wholly overpower the Sequoias in numbers. " To him that hath
shall be given." The force of numbers eventually wins. At least-
in the commonly visited groves Sequoia gigantea is invested in its
last stronghold, can neither advance into more exposed positions
above, nor fall back into drier and barer ground below, nor hold
its own in the long-run where it is, under present conditions ; and
a little further drying of the climate, which must once have been
much moister than now, would precipitate its doom. Whatever
the individual longevity, certain if not speedy is the decline of a
race in which a high death-rate afiiicts the young. Seedlings of
the big trees occur not rarely, indeed, Ijut in meagre proportion to
those of associated trees; and small indeed is the chance that any
of these will attain to "the days of the years of their fathers."

6 ADDRESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GRAY.

" Few and evil " are the days of all the forest likely to be, while
man, both barbarian and civilized, torments them with fires, fatal
at once to seedhngs, and at length to the aged also. The forests
of California, proud as the State may be of them, are already too
scanty and insufficient for her uses. Two lines, such as may be
drawn with one sweep of a brush over the map, would cover them
all. The coast Redwood — the most important tree in California,
although a million times more numerous than its relative of the
Sierra — is too good to live long. Such is its value for lumber
and its accessibility, that, judging the future by the past, it is not
likely, in its primeval growth, to outlast its rarer fellow-species.

Happily man preserves and disseminates as well as destroys.
The species will doubtless be preserved to science, and for orna-
mental and other uses, in its own and other lands ; and the more
remarkable individuals of tlie present day are likely to be sedu-
lously cared for, all the more so as they become scarce.

Our third question remains to be answered : Have these famous
Sequoias played in former times and upon a larger stage a more
imposing part, of which the present is but the epilogue ? We can-
not gaze high uj) the huge and venerable trunks, which one crosses
the continent to behold, without wishing that these patriarchs of
the grove were able, like the long-lived antediluvians of Scripture,
to hand down to us, through a few genei'ations, the traditions of
centuries, and so tell us somewhat of the history of their race.
Fifteen hundred annual layers have been counted, or satisfactorily
made out, upon one or two fallen trunks. It is probable that close
to the heart of some of the living trees may be found the circle that
records the year of our Saviour's nativity. A few generations of
such trees might carry the history a long way back. But the
ground they stand upon, and the marks of very recent geological
change and vicissitude in the region around, testify that not vei'y
many such generations can have flourished just there, at least in
an unbroken series. When their site was covered by glaciers,
these Sequoias must have occupied other stations, if, as there is
reason to believe, they then existed in the land.

I have said that the Redwoods have no near relatives in the
country of their abode, and none of their genus anywhere else.
Perhaps something may be learned of their genealogy by inquiring
of such relatives as they have. There are only two of any partic-
ular nearness of kin ; and they are far away. One is the Bald
Cypress, our southern Cyjiress, Taxodiura, inhabiting the swamps

ADDRESS OF EX-1'RESIDENT GRAY. I

of the Atlantic coast from Maryland to Texas, thence extending —
with, probably, a specific difference — into Mexico. It is well
known as one of the largest trees of our Atlantic forest-district,
and, although it never — except perhaps in Mexico, and in rave in-
stances — attains the portliness of its western relatives, yet it may
equal them in longevity. The other relative is Glyptostrobus, a
sort of modified Taxodium, being about as much like our Bald
Cypress as one species of Redwood is like the other.

Now species of the same type, especially when few, and the
type peculiar, are, in a general way, associated geographically, i.e.,
inhabit the sarae country, or (in a large sense) the same region.
Where it is not so, where near relatives are separated, there is
usually something to be explained. Here is an instance. These
four trees, sole representatives of their tribe, dwell almost in three
separate quarters of the world : the two Redwoods in California,
the Bald Cypress in Atlantic Noi'th America, its near relative,
Glyptostrobus, in China.

It was not always so. In the tertiary period, the geological
botanists assure us, our own very Taxodium or Bald Cypress, and
a Glyptostrobus, exceedingly like the present Chinese tree, and
more than one Sequoia, co-existed in a fourth quarter of the globe,
viz., in Europe ! This brings up the question : Is it possible to
bridge over these four wide intervals of space and the much vaster
interval of time, so as to bring these extraordinarily separated
relatives into connecjjon? Tlie e\'idence "which maybe brought to
bear upon this question is various and widely scattered. I besj^eak
your patience while I endeavor to bring together, in an abstract,
the most important points of it.

Some interesting ficts may come out by comparing generally
the botany of the three remote regions, each of which is the sole
home of one of these genera, i.e., Sequoia in California, Taxodium
in the Atlantic United States,* and Glyptostrobus in China, which
compose the whole of the peculiar tribe under consideration.

Note then, first, that there is another set of three or four pecu-
liar trees, in this case of the Yew family, which has just the same
peculiar distribution, and which therefore may have the same ex-

* The phrase, " Atlantic United States," is liere used tlirou^'hout in contra-
distinction to Pacific United States : to the former of course belongs, botani-
cally and geographically, the valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries uj) to
the eastern border of the great woodless plains, which constitute an intermediate
region.

O ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

planation, whatever that explanation be. The genus Ton-eya,
which commemorates our botanical Nestor and a former President
of this association, Dr. Torrey, was founded upon a tree rather
lately discovered (that is, about thirty-five years ago) in Northern
Florida. It is a noble, yew-like tree, and very local, being, so far
as known, nearly confined to a few miles along the shores of a
single river. It seems as if it had somehow been crowded down
out of the Alleghanies into its present limited southern quarters ;
for in cultivation it evinces a northern hardiness. Now another
species of Torreya is a characteristic tree of Japan ; and one very
like it, if not the same, inhabits the mountains of Northern China, —
belongs, therefore, to the eastern Asiatic temperate region, of which
Northern China is a part, and Jaj^an, as we shall see, the portion
most interesting to us. There is only one more species ot Torreya,
and that is a companion of the Redwoods in California. It is the
tree locally known under the name of the California Nutmeg.
Here are three or four near brethren, species of the same genus,
known nowhere else than in these three habitats.

Moreover, the Torreya of Florida is associated with a Yew; and
the trees of this grove are the only Yew-trees of Eastern North
America; for the Yew of our northern woods is a decumbent
shrub. A Yew-tree, perhaps the same, is found Avith Taxodiura
in the temperate parts of Mexico. The only other Yews in Amer-
ica grow with the Redwoods and the other Torreya in California,
and extend northward into Oregon. Yews are also associated
with Torreya in Japan ; and they extend westward through Mand-
churia and the Himalayas to Western Europe, and even to the
Azores Islands, where occurs the common Yew of the Old World.

So we have three groups of coniferous trees which agree in this
peculiar geographical distribution, with, however, a notable exten-
sion of range in the case of the Yew : first, the Redwoods, and
their relatives, Taxodium and Glyptostrobus, which differ so as to
constitute a genus for each of the three regions ; second, the Tor-
reyas, more nearly akin, merely a difterent species in each region ;
third, the Yews, still more closely related wliile more widely dis-
seminated, of which it is yet uncertain whether they constitute
seven, five, tliree, or only one species. Opinions differ, and can
hardly be brought to any decisive test. However it be determined,
it may still be said that the extreme differences among the Yews
do not 8ur])ass those of tlie recognized variations of the European
Vew, the cultivated races included.

ADDRESS OF KX-PRESIDENT GRAY. 9

It appears to me that these several instances all raise the very
same question, only with dift'erent degrees of emphasis, and, if to be
explained at all, will have the same kind of explanation.

Continuing the comparison between the three regions with
which we ai'e concerned, we note that each has its owni species of
Pines. Firs, Larches, &c., and of a lew deciduous-leaved trees, such
as Oaks and Maples ; all of which have no peculiar significance
for the present ])urpose, because tliey are of genera which are
common all round the northern hemisphere. Leaving these out of
view, the noticeable point is that the vegetation of California is
most strikingly unlike that of the Atlantic United States. They
possess some plants, and some peculiarly American plants in com-
mon, — enough to show, as I imagine, that the difficulty was not
in the getting from the one district to the other, or into both from
a common source, but in abiding there. The priraordially un-
broken forest of Atlantic North America, nourished by rainfoll
distributed throughout the year, is widely separated from the
western region of si:)arse and discontinuous tree-belts of the same
latitude on the western side of the continent, where summer rain
is wanting, or nearly so, by immense treeless plains and plateaux
of more or less aridity, traversed by longitudinal mountain ranges
of a similar character. Their nearest approach is at the north, in
the latitude of Lake Superior, where, on a more rainy line, trees
of the Atlantic forest and that of Oregon may be said to inter-
change. The change of species and of the aspect of vegetation in
crossing, say on the forty-seventh parallel, is slight in comparison
with that on the thirty-seventh or near it. Confining our atten-
tion to the lower latitude, and under the exceptions already
specially noted, we may say that almost every characteristic form
in the vegetation of the Atlantic States is wanting in California,
an<l the characteristic jilants and trees of California are wanting
here.

California has no Magnolia nor Tulip trees, nor Star-anise-tree ;
no so-called Papaw (Asimina) ; no Barberry of the common single-
leaved sort ; no Podophyllum or other of the peculiar associated
genera; no Nelumbo nor White Water-lily; no Prickly Ash nor
Sumach ; no Loblolly-bay nor Stuartia ; no Basswood nor Linden-
trees ; neither Locust, Honey-locust, Coffee-trees (Gymnocladus)
nor Yellow-wood (Cladrastis) ; nothing answering to Hydrangea
or Witcii-ha7,el, to Gum-trees (Xyssa and Li([uidambar), Viliurnum
or Diervilla ; it has few Asters and Golden-rod.s ; no Lobelias; no

A. A. A. S. VOr,. XXI. 2

10 ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

Huckleberries and hardly any Blueberries ; no Epigaea, charm of
our earliest eastern spring, tempering an icy April wind with a
delicious wild fragrance ; no Kalmia nor Clethra, nor Holly, nor
Persimmon ; no Catalpa-tree, nor Trumpet-creeper (Tecoma) ;
nothing answering to Sassafras, nor to Benzoin-tree, nor to Hick-
ory; neither Mulberry nor Elm ; no Beech, true Chestnut, Horn-
beam, nor Ironwood, nor a proper Birch-tree ; and the enumeration
might be continued very much further by naming herbaceous
plauts and others fimiliar only to botanists.

In their place California is filled with plants of other types, —
trees, shrubs, and herbs, of which I will only remark that they are,
with one or two exceptions, as different from the plants of the
eastern Asiatic region with which we arfe concerned (Japan, China,
and Mandchuria), as they are from those of Atlantic North Amer-
ica. Their near relatives, when they have any in other lands, are
mostly southward, on the Mexican plateau, or many as far south as
Chili. The same may be said of the plants of the intervening
great plains, except that northward and in the subsaline vegetation
there are some close alliances with the flora of the stepjies of
Siberia. And along the crests of high mountain ranges the arctic-
alpine flora has sent southward more or less numerous representa-
tives through the whole length of the country.

If we now compare, as to their flora generally, the Atlantic
United States with Japan, Mandchuria, and Northern China, — i.e.^
Eastern North America with Eastern North Asia, half the earth's
circumference apart, — we find an astonishing similarity. The
larger part of the genera of our own region, which I have enumer-
ated as wanting in California, are present in Japan or Mandchuria,
along with many other peculiar plants, divided between the two.
There are plants enough of the one region which have no repre-
sentatives in the other. There are types which appear to have
reached the Atlantic States from the south ; and there is a larger
infusion of sulitropical Asiatic types into temperate China and
Japan ; among these thei'e is no relationship between the two
countries to speak of. There are also, as I have already said, no
small number of genera and some species which, being common
all round or partly round the northern temperate zone, have no
special significance because of their occurrence in these two antip-
odal floras, although they have testimony to bear upon the general
question of geographical distribution. The point to be remarked
is, that mnny, or oven most, of the genera and species which are pc-

ADlHiliSS OK liX-nUCSlDKNT GUAY. 11

ciiliar to North Ainerica :is cDiupuiXMl witli Europe, and 1 ir<;ely
peculiar to Atlantic Xorth America as compared witli the Calitbr-
niaii region, are also represented in Japan and Mandchuria, either
by identical or by closely shnilar forms ! The same rule holds on
a more northward line, although not so strikingly. If we compare
the plants, say of Xew England and Pennsylvania (lat. 45'^-47'^),
with those of Oregon, and then with those of North-Eastem Asia,
we shall find many of our own curiously repeate«l in the latter,
wiiile only a small number of them can be traced along the route
even so fir as the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. And
these repetitions of East American t^^jes in Japan and neighboring
districts are in all degrees of likeness. Sometimes the one is un-
distinguishable from the other; sometimes there is a difference of
aspect, but hardly of tangible character ; sometimes the two would
be termed marked varieties if they grew naturally in the same
forest or in the same region ; sometimes they ai'e what the botanist
calls representative species, the one answering closely to the other,
but with some differences regarded as specific ; sometimes the two
are merely of the same genus, or not (juite that, but of a single or
very few species in each country ; when the point which interests
us is, that this peculiar limited type should occur in two antipodal
places, and nowhere else.

It would be tedious, and, except to botanists, abstruse, to enumer-
ate instances ; yet the whole strength of the case depends upon
the number of such instances. I pro])Ose therefore, if the Associ-
ation does me the honor to print this discourse, to append in a note
a list of the more remarkable ones.* But I would here mention
certain cases as specimens.

Our Rhus Toxicodendron, or Poison Ivy, is very exactly re-
peated in Japan, but is found in no other part of the world,
although a species much like it abounds in California. Our other
poisonous Rhus (R. venenata), commonly called Poison Dogwood,
is in no way represented in Western America, but has so close an
analogue in Jaj)an that the two were taken for the same by Thun-
berg and Linnaeus, who called them both R. Vernix.

Our northern Fox-grape, Vitis Labrusca, is wholly confined to
the Atlantic States, except that it reappears in Japan and that
region.

The original Wistaria is a woody leguminous climber with

* See Appendix, I.

12 ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

showy blossoms, native to the middle Atlantic States ; the other
species, which we so much prize in cultivation, W. Sinensis, is from
China, as its name denotes, or perhaps only fi'om Japan, where it
is certainly indigenous.

Our Yellow-wood (Cladrastis) inhabits a very limited district
on the western slo})e of the Alleghanies. Its only and very near
relative, Maackia, is in Mandchuria.

The Hydrangeas have some species in our Alleghany region : all
the rest belong to the Chino-Japanese region and its continuation
westward. The same may be said of PhiladeljDhus, except that
there are one or two mostly very similar species in California and
Oregon.

Our Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum) is confined to the woods of
the Atlantic States, but has lately been discovered in Japan.* A
peculiar relative of it, Diphylleia, confined to the higher Allegha-
nies, is also repeated in Japan, with a slight diifereuce, so that it
may bai'ely be distinguished as another species. Another relative
is our Twin-leaf (Jeffersonia) of the Alleghany region alone : a
second species has lately turned up in Mandchuria. A relative of
this is Podophyllum, our Mandrake, a common inhabitant of the
Atlantic United States, but found nowhere else. There is one
other species of it, and that is in the Himalayas. Here are four
most peculiar genera of one fiimily, each of a single species in the
Atlantic United States, which are duplicated on the other side of
the world, either in identical or almost identical species, or in an
analogous species, while nothing else of the kind is known in any
other part of the world.

I ought not to omit Ginseng, the root so prized by the Chinese,
which they obtained from their northern provinces and Mand-
churia, and which is now known to inhabit Corea and Northern
Japan. The Jesuit Fathers identified the plant in Canada and the
Atlantic States, brought over the Chinese name by which we
know it, and established the trade in it, which was for many years
most profitable. The exportation of Ginseng to China probably
has not yet entirely ceased. Whether the Asiatic and the At-
lantic American Ginsengs are to be regarded as of the same
species or not is somewhat uncertain, but they are hardly, if at
all, distinguishable.

There is a shrub, Elliottia, which is so rare and local that it is

* Appendix, II.

ADDKKSS OK KX-1'KESIDENT OKAY. llj

known only at two stations on the Savannah ITivfr, in Georgia.
It is of peculiar structure, and was Avithout near rehitive until
one was lately discovered in Japan (Tripetaleia), so like it as
hardly to be distinguishable except by having the parts of the
blossom in threes instead of fours, — a difference which is not
uncommon in the same genus, or even in the same species.

Suppose Elliottia had happened to be collected only once, a
good while ago, and all knowledge of the limited and obscure
locality were lost; and meanwhile the Japanese form came to be
known. Such a case would be parallel with an actual one. A
specimen of a peculiar plant (Shortia galacifolia) was detected in
the herbarium of the elder Michaux, who collected it (as his auto-
graph ticket shows) somewhere in the high Alleghany Mountains,
more than eighty years ago. No one has seen the living plant
since or knows where to find it, if haply it still flourishes in some
secluded spot. At length it is found in Japan ; and I had the
satisfaction of making the identification.* One other relative is
also known in Japan; and another, still unpublished, has just been
detected in Thibet.

Whether the Japanese and the Alleghanian plants are exactly
the same or not, it needs complete specimens of the two to settle.
So fii.r as we know, they are just alike; and even if some difference
were discerned between them, it would not appreciably alter the
question as to how such a result came to pass. Each and every
one of the analogous cases I have been detailing — and very many
more could be mentioned — raises the same question, and would
be satisfied with the same answer.

These singular relations attracted my curiosity early in the
course of my botanical studies, when comparatively few of them
were known, and my serious attention in later years, when I had
numerous and new Japanese plants to study in the collections
made, by Messrs. Williams and Morrow, during Commodore
Perry's visit in 1853, and especially, by Mr. Charles Wright, in
Commodore Rodgers's expedition in 1855. I then discussed this
subject somewhat fully, and tabulated the facts within my reach.f

This was before Heer had developed the rich fossil botany of

' the arctic zone, before the immense antiquity of existing species

of plants was recognized, and before the publication of Darwin's

now famous volume on the " Origin of Species " had introduced

* Allien. Jour. Science, 1867, p. 402 ; Proceed. Amer. Acail., viii. p. 244.
t Mem. Amer. Acad., vol. vi. pp. 377-458 (1859).

14 ADDRESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GRAY.

and familiarized the scientiiic world with those now current ideas
respecting the history and vicissitudes of species with which I
attempted to deal in a moderate and feeble way.

My speculation was based upon the former glaciation of the
northern temperate zone, and the inference of a Avarmer period
preceding and perhaps following. I considered that our oAvn
present vegetation, or its proximate ancestry, must have occupied
the arctic and subarctic regions in pliocene times, and that it had
been gradually pushed southward as the temperature lowered and
the glaciation advanced, even beyond its jiresent habitation ; that
plants of the same stock and kindred, probably ranging round
the arctic zone as the present arctic species do, made their forced
migi'ation southward upon widely different longitudes, and receded
more or less as the climate grew warmer; that the general differ-
ence of climate which marks the eastern and the western sides of
the continents — the one extreme, the other mean — was doubt-
less even then established, so that the same species and the same
sorts of species would be likely to secure and retain foothold in
the similar climates of JajDan and the Atlantic United States, but
not in intermediate regions of different distribution of heat and
moisture ; so that different species of the same genus, as in Torreya,
or different genera of the same group, as Redwood, Taxodium, and
Glyptostrobus, or different associations of forest trees, might estab-
lish themselves each in the region best suited to the particular re-
quirements, while they would fail to do so in any other. These
views implied that the sources of our actual vegetation and the
explanation of these peculiarities were to be sought in, and pre-
supposed, an ancestiy in pliocene or still earlier times, occupying
the higher northern regions. And it was thought that the occur-
rence of peculiarly North American genera in Europe in the ter-
tiary period (such as Taxodium, Carya, Liquidambar, Sassafras,
Negundo, &c.) might be best explained on the assumption of early
interchange and diffusion through North Asia, rather than by that
of the fabled Atlantis.

The hypothesis supposed a gradual modification of species in
different directions under altering conditions, at least to the extent
of pro'lucing varieties, sub-sjiecies, and representative species, as
they may be variously regarded ; likewise the single and local
origination of eacli type, which is now almost universally taken
for granted.

The ri'iiiarkahle facts in regard to the Eastern American and

ADDRESS OF KX-PRESIDENT GRAY. 15

Asiatic floras wliicli tliesc sj)eculatioiis "wore to o\-]ilnin liave since
increased in number, more espeeially thi-oiiuli the ailmirable collec-
tions of Dr. ]\[aximowicz in Japan and adjacent countries, and the
critical comparisons he has made and is still engaged upon.

I am bound to state that, in a recent general work * by a dis-
tinguished European botanist, Professor Grisebach, of Gottingen,
these facts have been emj»tied of all special significance, and the
relations between the Japanese and the Atlantic United States
flora declared to be no more intimate than might be expected from
the situation, climate, and present opportunity of interchange.
This extraordinary conclusion is reached by regarding as distinct
species all the plants common to both countries betw'een which
any differences have been discerned, although such diflferences
would j)robably count for little if the two inhabited the same
country, thus transferring many of my list of identical to that of
representative species ; and then by simply eliminating from con-
sideration the wliole array of representative species, i.e., all cases
in which the Japanese and the American plant are not exactly alike.
As if, by pronoiincing the cabalistic Avord species, the question were
settled, or rather the greater part of it remanded out of the domain
of science; as if, while complete identity of forms implied commu-
nity of origin, any thing short of it carried no presumption of the
kind ; so leaving all these singular duplicates to be wondered at,
indeed, but wholly beyond the reach of inquiry.f

,Xow the only known cause of such likeness is inlieritance; and
as all transmission of likeness is with some difference in individ-
uals, and as changed conditions have resulted, as is well known,
in very considerable differences, it seems to me that, if the high
antiquity of our actual vegetation could be rendered probable, not
to say certain, and the former habitation of any of our species
or of very near relatives of them in high nortliern regions could
be ascertained, my Avhole case would be made out. The needful
fiicts, of which I was ignorant when ray essay was published, have
now been for some years made known, — thanks, mainly, to the
researches of Heer upon ample collections of arctic fossil plants.
These are confirmed and extended by new investigations, by Heer
and Lesquereux, the results of which have been indicated to me by
the latter, t

* Die VegctJitioii der Erde nacli ilircr kliniatisclicn Anordnung. 1871.

t See Appenilix II.

} Reference should also be made to the extensive researches of Newberry

16 ADDRESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GRAY.

The Taxodium, which everywhere abounds in the miocene forma-
tions in Europe, has been specifically identified, first by Goeppert,
then by Heer, with our common Cypress of the Southern States.
It has been found fossil in Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Alaska,
— in the latter country along with the remains of another form,
distinguishable, but very like the common species ; and this has
been identified by Lesquereux in the miocene of the Rocky Moun-
tains. So there is one s})ecies of tree which has come down
essentially unchanged from the tertiary period, which for a long
while inhabited both Europe and North America, and also, at some
part of the period, the region which geographically connects the
two (once doubtless much more closely than now), but which has
survived only in the Atlantic United States and Mexico.

The same Sequoia which abounds in the same miocene forma-
tions in Northern Europe has been abundantly found in those of
Iceland, Spitzbergen, Greenland, Mackenzie River, and Alaska.
It is named S. Langsdorfii, but is pronounced to be very much like
S. sempervirens, our living Redwood of the Californian coast, and
to be the ancient representative of it. Fossil specimens of a sim-
ihir, if not the same, species have recently been detected in the
Rocky Mountains by Hayden, and determined by our eminent
palasontological botanist, Lesquereux ; and he assures me that he
has the common Redwood itself from Oregon in a deposit of ter-
tiary age. Another Sequoia (S. Sternbergii), discovered in mio-
cene deposits in Greenland, is pronounced to be the representative
of S. gigantea, the big tree of the Californian Sierra. If the Tax-
odium of the tertiary time in Europe and throughout the arctic
regions is the ancestor of our present Bald Cypress, — which is
assumed in regarding them as specifically identical, — then I think
we may, with our present light, fairly assume that the two Red-
woods of California are the direct or collateral descendants of the
two ancient species which so closely resemble them. .

upon the tertiary and cretaceous Horas of the Western United States. See
especially Professor Nl wherry's Paper in the " Boston Journal of Natural
History," vol. vii. No. 4, describing fossil plants of Vancouver's Island, &c. ; his
Notes on the Later Extinct Floras of North America, &c., in " Annals of the
Lyceum of Natural History," vol. ix., April, IbtiH ; " Keport on the Cretaceous
and Tertiary Plants collected in llaynolds and Ilayden's yeilowstonc and Mis-
souri Lxploring lOxpedition, 1«5'J-18G0," published in 18t5'J ; and an interesting
article entitled " The Ancient Lakes of Western America, their Deposits and
Drainage," published in " The American Naturalist," Januar}', 1871.

The only document I was able to consult was Lesquercux's Report on the
Fossil Plants, in Ilnydcn's Rojiort of 1872.

ADDRESS OF KX'-PRESIDEXl' CUAV. 17

The forests of the arctic zone in tertiary times contained at
least tliree other species of Seqnoia, as determined by their re-
mains, one of which, from Spitzb'ergen, also much resembles the
common Redwood of California. Another, " which appears to have
been the. commonest coniferous tree on Disco," was common in
Enrjland and some other parts of Europe. So the Sequoias, now
remarkable for their restricted station and niimbers, as well as for
their extraordinary size, are of an ancient stock : their ancestors
and kindred formed a large part of the forests which flourished
throughout the polar regions, now desolate and ice-clad, and which
extended into low latitudes in Europe. On this continent one
species, at least, had reached to the vicinity of its present habitat
before the glaciation of the region. Among the fossil specimens
already found in California, but which our trustworthy palaa-
ontological botanist has not yet had time to examine, Ave may
expect to find evidence of the early arrival of these two Redwoods
upon the ground which they now, after much vicissitude, scantily
occupy.

Difterences of climate, or circumstances of migration, or both,
must have determined the survival of Sequoia upon the Pacific,
and of Taxodium upon the Atlantic coast. And still the Red-
woods will not stand in the east, nor could our Taxodium find a
congenial station in California. Both have probably had their
opportunity in the olden time, and failed.

As to the remaining near relative of Sequoia, the Chinese Glyp-
tostrobus, a species of it, and its vei-itable representative, was
contemporaneous with Sequoia and Taxodium, not only in tem-
perate Europe, but throughout the arctic regions from Greenland
to Alaska. According to Newberry, it was abundantly represented
in the miocene flora of the temperate zone of our own continent,
from Nebraska to the Pacific.

Very similar would seem to have been the fate of a more
familiar gymnospermous tree, the Gingko or Salisburia. It is now
indigenous to Japan only. Its ancestor, as we may fairly call it, —
since, according to Heer, " it corresponds so entirely with the
living species that it can scarcely be separated from it," — once
inhabited Northern Europe, and the whole arctic region round to
Alaska, and had even a representative flirther south, in our Rocky
Mountain district. For some reason, this and Glyptostrobus sur-
vive only on the shores of Eastern Asia.

Libocedrus, on the other hand, appears to have cast in its lot

A. A. A. S. VOr,. XXI. 3

18 ADDRESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GRAY.

with the Sequoias. Two species, according to Heer, were with
them in Spitzbergen. L. decurrens, the Incense Cedar, is one of
the noblest associates of the present Redwoods. But all the rest
are in the southern hemisphere, two at the southern extremity of
the Andes, two in the South Sea Islands. It is only by bold and
far-reaching suppositions that they can be geographically asso-
ciated.

The genealogy .of the Torreyas is still wholly obscure ; yet it is
not unlikely that the yew-like trees, named Taxites, which flour-
ished with the Sequoias in the tertiary arctic forests, are the remote
ancestors of the three species of Torreya, now severally in Florida,
in California, and in Japan.

As to the Pines and Firs, these were more numerously associ-
ated with the ancient Sequoias of the polar forests than with their
present I'ejjresentatives, but in difierent species, ap2:)arehtiy more
like those of Eastern than of Western North America. They must
have encircled the jDolar zone then, as they enchcle the present
temperate zone now.

I must refrain from all enumeration of the angiosj^ermous or
ordinary deciduous trees and shrn,bs, which are now known, by
their fossil remains, to have flourished throughout the polar regions
when Greenland better deserved its name and enjoyed the present
climate of New England and New Jersey. Then Greenland and
the rest of the north abounded with Oaks, representing the several
gi'oups of species which now inhabit both our eastern and 'western
forest disti'icts; several Poplars, one very like our Balsam Poj^lar,
or Balm of Gilead tree ; more Beeches than there are now, a Horn-
beam, and a Hop-Hornbeam, some Birches, a Persimmon, and a
Planer-tree, near representatives of those of the Old "World, at
least of Asia, as well as of Atlantic North America, but all want-
ing in California ; one Juglans like the Walnut of the Old World,
and another like our Black Walnut ; two or three Grape-vines, one
near our Southern Fox Grape or Muscadine, another near our
Northern Frost Grape ; a Tilia, very like our Basswood of the
Atlantic States only ; a Liquidambar ; a Magnolia, which recalls
our M. grandifiora; a Liriodendron, sole representative of our
Tulip-tree ; and a Sassafras, very like the living tree.

Most of these, it will be noticed, have their nearest or their only
living reiM-esentatives in the Atlantic States, and when clscAvhere,
mainly in Eastern Asia. Several of them, or of species like them,
have been detected in our tertiary deposits, west of the Missis-

ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDEXT GHW. 10

sipi>l, by Newberry nn<l Lesquercux. Herbaceous plants, as il
hapjiens, are rarely preserved in a fossil state, else they wouM
probably supply additional testimony to the antiquity of our ex-
isting vegetation, its wide ditl'ub'ion over the northern and now
frigid zone, and its enforced migration under changes of climate*

Concluding, then, as we must, that our existing vegetation is a
continuation of that of the tertiary period, may we suppose that
it absolutely originated then? Evidently not. The pi-eceding
cretaceous period has furnished to Carruthers in Europe a fossil
fruit like that of the Sequoia gigantea of the famous groves, asso-
ciated with Pines of the same character as those that accompany
the present tree ; has furnished to Heer, fi-om Greenland, two more
Sequoias, one of them identical with a tertiary species, and one
nearly allied to Sequoia Langsdorfii, which in turn is a probable
ancestor of the common Californian Redwood ; has furnished to
Newberry and Lesquereux in North America the remains of another
ancient Sequoia, a Glyptostrobus, a Liquidambar which well repre-
sents our Sweet-gum-tree, Oaks analogous to living ones, leaves of
a Plane-tree, which are also in the tertiary and are scarcely distin-
guishable from our own Platanus occidentalis, of a Magnolia and a
Tulip-tree, and "of a Sassafras undistinguishable'from our living
species." I need not continue the enumeration. Suffice it to say
that the facts justify the conclusion which Lesquereux — a scrupu-
lous investigator — has already announced: "that the essential
types of our actual flora are marked in the cretaceous period, and
have come to us after j^assing, without notable changes, through
the tertiary formations of our continent."

According to these views, as regards plants at least, the adap-
tation to successive times and changed conditions has been main-
tained, not by absolute renewals, but by gradual modifications. I,
for one, cannot doubt that the present existing species are the
lineal successors of those that garnished the earth in the old time

* There is, at least, one instance so opportune to tlie present argument that
it shoiihl not pass unnoticed, altliough I had overlooked the record until now.
Onoclea sensilnlis is a Fern peculiar to the Atlantic United States (where it is
common and wide-spread) and to Japan. Professor Newberry identified it
several years ago in a collection obtained by Dr. Hayden of miocene fossil plants
of Dacotah Territory, wliich is far beyond its present habitat. He moreover
regards it as probably identical with a fossil specimen "described by the late
Professor E. Forbes, under the name of Filicites liebridicus, and obtained by
the Duke of Argyll from the Island of Mull."

20 ADDRESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GRAY.

before them, and that they were as well adapted to their sur-
roundings then, as those which flourish and bloom around us are
to their conditions now. Order and exquisite adaptation did not
wait for man's coming, nor were -they ever stereotyped. Organic
nature, — by which I mean the system and totality of living things,
and their adaptation to each other and to the world, — with all its
apparent and indeed real stability, should be likened, not to the
ocean, which varies only by tidal oscillations from a fixed level
to which it is always returning, but rather to a river, so vast that
we can neither discern its shores nor reach its sources, whose on-
ward flow is not less actual because too slow to be observed by
the ephemerm which hover over its surface, or are borne upon its
bosom.

Such ideas as these, though still repugnant to some, and not
long since to many, have so possessed the minds of the naturalists
of the present day, that hardly a discourse can be pronounced or
an investigation prosecuted without reference to them. I suppose
that the views here taken are little, if at all, in advance of the
average scientific mind of the day. . I cannot regard them as less
noble than those which they are succeeding.

An able philosophical writer, Miss Frances Power Cobbe, has
recently and truthfully said : *

" It is a singular fact, that when we can find out how any thing is done,
our first conclusion seems to be that God did not do it. No matter how
wonderful, how beautiful, how intimately complex and delicate has been
the machinery which has worked, perhaps for centuries, perhaps for mil-
lions of ages, to bring about, some beneficent result, if we can but catch a
glimpse of the wheels its divine character disappears."

I agree with the writer that this first conclusion is j)remature
and unworthy, — I will add, deplorable. Through what faults or
infirmities of dogmatism on the one hand, and scepticism on the
other, it came to be so thought, we need not here consider. Let
us hope, and I confidently expect^ that it is not to last; that
the religious faith which 'survived without a shock the notion of
the fixity of the earth itself may equally outlast tlie notion of the
absolute fixity of the species which inhal)it it ; that, in the future
even more tlian in the past, fiiith in an ordei\ Avhich is tlie basis of
science, will not — as it cannot reasonably — be dissevered from
faith in an (Jrdainer, whicih is the basis of religion.

* Darwinism in Morals, in Tlioolngical Review, April, 1871.

ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDEXT GRAY. APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

In the following table the names in the left-hand column are from my
"Manual' of the Botany of the Northern United States," and from Dr.
Chapman's " Floi-a of the Southern United States," the two together com-
prehending the flora of the Atlantic United States east of the Mississippi
River. Alpine plants on the one hand, and subtropical plants on the other,
are excluded.

The entries in the middle column, when there are any, are of identical or
representative species occurring in Oregon or California.

Those in the right-hand column are of such species in Japan, or other
parts of North-Eastern Asia, including the Himalayas and Siberia as far
west as the Altai Mountains.

When these are not identical, or so closely related to the American species
that the one may be said strictly to represent the other, also when genera
or parts- of genera are adduced merely as representing the same type in
these respective regions, the names are included in parentheses.

Species which extend through Europe into North-Eastern Asia, and there-
fore nearly round the temperate zone, are also left out of view, the object
being to exhibit the peculiar relations of the floras of Eastern North
America and Eastern Temperate Asia. The table has been drawn up ofT-
hand, from the means within reach. Probably the examples might be
considerably increased.

ExTRA-Ecp.oi'EAX (Temperate) Genera and Species of the Atlantic United States
(i.e., East of the Mississippi) represented by Identical or strictly Repre-
sentative Species, or else by less intimately related Species (the latter

INCLCDKD in I'ARENTIIESES),

Anemone i'ernsvlvanica.

,, parvi flora.
Ranunculus alismcefolius.

„ Cymbalaria.

„ Gmelini.

„ Pennsylvanicus.

Trantvetteria palmata.
Hylrastis Camidensis.
Trollius Americanus.
Aconitum uncinntum.
Acta.-a spicata, var. rubra.

„ allja.
Cimicifuga Americana.

1. In the Pacijic United States.

Ranunculus alismivfolius.

,, Cj'mbiilaria.

„ Gmelini.

„ Pennsylvanicus

Trantvettaria palmata.

Trollius Americanus var.

Acta;a spicata, var. arguta.

2. In Norih-Lastern Asia, Japan to
Altai and the Himalayas.
Anemone dichotoma = Pennsylvanica.

,, parviflora ?
Ranunculus alismsefolius.

,, Cymbalaria.

„ Gmelini.

„ Pennsylvanicus.

Trantvettaria palmata.
Hydrastis Jesoensis. [Ledeb.

Trollius patulus var. = Americanus,
Aconitum uncinatum ex Hook. f.
Actaja spicata, var. rubra.

„ alba ?
Cimicifuga fcetida, barely occurs in N.

Europe also.

ADDRESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GRAY. APPEXDIX.

Cimicifuga racemosa & cordifolia.

(Cimicifuga data.)

(Cimicifuga Dahurica and § Pityro-

sperma, 3 spp. )

lUicium Floridanum & parviflorum

lUiciura anisatum, religiosum, &c.

Schizandra cocciiiea.

(Schizandra nigra, &c.)

Magnolia, 7 spp.

(Magnolia, 8-12 spp.)

Menispermum Canadense.

Menispermum Dahuricum.

Caulophyllum thalictroides

Caulophyllum thalictroides.

Diphjdleia cymosa.

Diphylleia Grayi.

Jeflersonia diphylla.

Jeti'ersonia = Plagiorhegma dubium.

Podophyllum peltatum.

(Podophyllum Emodi.)

Brasenia peltata.

Nelumbiura luteum.

Nelumbium speciosum.

Stylopliorum diphyllum.

(Stylophorum Japonicum and lactu-

coides.)

Dicentra eximia.

Dicentra eximia or formosa

(Dicentra spp.)

Corydalis aurea.

Corydalis aurea var.

Corydalis aurea var., &c.

Viola Selkirkii.

„ Canadensis.

Viola Canadensis var.

„ Canadensis var.

Claytonia Virgiuica & Carol

miana.

Claytonia lanceolata.

(Claytonia spp., Siberia.)

Elodes Virginica.

„ petiolata.

Tilia Americana (American

type).

Tilia sp., American type, one of which

„ heteroplij-Ua.

reaches Hungary.

Stuartia, 2 spp.

(Stuartia, 3 spp.)

Xanthoxylum spp.

(Xanthoxylum spp.)

Rhus venenata.

Rhus vernicifera, &c.

„ Toxicodendron.

Rhus diversiloba.

„ Toxicodendron.

Vitis Labrusca.

„ indivisa.

„ humulifolia. ■

Ampelopsis quinquefolia.

(Ampelopsis tricuspidata.)

Berchemia volubilis.

(Berchemia racemosa, &c.)

Sageretia Micliauxii.

(Sageretia thea?sans.)

Celastrus scandens.

(Celastrus, 5 spp.)

iEsculus glabra.

iEsculus Chinensis & Hippocastanum.

„ flava and Pavia.

( „ dissimilis.)

„ parviflora.

(iEsculus Californica.)

( ,, Punduana Wall.)

Acer spicatum.

„ spicatum -var.

„ Pennsylvanicum'.

,, tegmentosum.

Negundo aceroides.

Negundo aceroides Cali-
fornicum.

(Negundo cissifolium and spp.)

Wistaria frutescens.

Wistaria Sinensis and spp.

Desmodium, many spp.

(Desmodium, several spp.)

Lespedeza spp.

(Lespedeza spp.)

Rhynchosia spp.

(Rhynchosia sp.)

Ainpliicarpa-a monoica.

(Amphicarpica, 5 spp.)

Thennopsis, 3 spp.

(Thcrmopsis fabacca & sp.)

Thcrmopsis fabacea.

Cladrastis tinctoria.

(Maackia Araurensis.)

Cassia spp.

(Cassia spp.)

Gleditschia triacantba and

mono-

Gleditschia Chinensis, &c.

■spenna.

* 8eo Appendix, U.

ADDPuESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY. APPENDIX.

Neptunia lutca.

Spirica (Noillin) opulifolia.

„ corymbosa.
Neviusa Alabaiuensis.
I Geum inai.'ro|)hylIuin.
Potentilla reniisylvanica.
Rubus tri Horns.
„ slrig;osiis.
Pyrus Ainuricana aucl sambuci-

folia.
Amelauchier Canadensis and vars.

Calycanthus, 3 spp.
Ribes Cynosbati.

„ lacustre.

„ prostratum.
Philadelphus, 2 spp.
Itea Vir^inica.
Ilydranj^i-a, .3 spp.
Astilbe decandra.
Boykinia aconitifolia.

Mitella nuda.
„ dipLylla.

Tiarella cordifolia.
Penthorum sedoides.

Hamanielis Virginica".
Fothergilla aliiifolia.
Heracleum lanatum.
Arcbaiigflica Gmelini.
Sium lineare.
Cryptotiitiia Canadensis.
Archemora, 2 spp. •

Osmorrliiza longistylis and brevi

styli.s.
Aralia spinosa.

„ racemosa.

„ nudicaulis.

„ (Gin«eng) quinquefolia.
Comus Canadensis.
„ fiorida.
„ stoionifera
Diervilla, 2 spp.
Triosteuin, 2 spp.
Viburnum lantanoide'M.

„ dontatum & pubescens.
Mitchella repeiis.
Adenocaulon bicolor.

Spiraja opulifolia.
„ betula^folia.

Geum macrophyiluin.
Potentilla Pennsylvanica.

Rubus strigosus.
Pyrus sambucifolia.

Amelanchier Canadensis

var.
Calycanthus occidentalis.
(Ribes spp.)

„ setosum.

„ laxiflorum.
Philadelpbus, 2 spp.

Boykinia occidentalis and

elata.
Mitella nuda.
(Mitella § Mitellastra, &c.,

spp.)
Tiarella unifoliata.

Heracleum lanatum.
Arcbangelica Gmeliui.

Osmorrhiza longistylis,&c,

Aralia humilis.

Cornus Canadensis.

„ Nuttallii.

Viburnum ellipticura.
Adenocaulon bicolor.

(Neptunia spp.)
(Neillia spp., Himalayas.)
Spinea betulajt'olia.
(Stephanandra, Kerria.)
Geum .laponicum.
Potentilla Pennsylvanica.
Rubus triflorus, var. Japonicas.

„ strigosus.
Pyrus Americana and sambucifolia.

Amelanchier Canadensis var.

(Chimonanthus fragrans.)
Ribes Cynosbati.

„ lacustre.

„ laxiflorum.
Philadelpbus spp.
(Iteaspp.)

(Hydrangea, many spp.)
Astilbe Thunbergii and spp.
(Boykinia ■?=Saxifr. tellimioides

Maxim.)
Mitella nuda, Siberia.
(Mitella § Mitellastra, sp.)

Tiarella polyphydla.

Penthorum sedoides ? = Chinense and

humile.
Hamamelis Japonica, &c.
(Corylopsis spp., &c.)
Heracleum lanatum.
Arcbangelica Gmelini.
Sium cicutjefolium.
Cryptot;cnia Canadensis.
(Peucedanum ? Sieboldii.)
Osmorrhiza longistylis, &c.

Aralia spinosa var.

,, edulis, &c.
( „ cordata.) ,

„ repens. Ginseng, &c.
Cornus Canadensis.
Bentliamia spp.
„ alba.

(Diervilla § Wcigela, spp.)
Triosteum sinuatum and Himalaicum.
Viburnum lantanoides (and related
species).

„ dilatatum, &c.

Mitchella undulata.
Adenocaulon adhserescens.

ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

APPENDIX.

Boltonia spp.

Aster § Biotia, corymbosus, & spp.
„ § Conyzopsis, angustus.

Artemisia Canadensis.

,, biennis.

„ frigida.

Senecio pseudo-arnica.
Nabalus spp.
Cacalia spp.

Mulgedium pulchellum.
Vaccinium § Oxycoccus macro-
carp um.

,, „ erythrocarpum.

„ § Batodendron, 2 spp,

„ § Cyanococcus, 15 spp.

,, ovalifolium.

Chiqgenes hispidula.
Epigsea repens.
Gaultheria procumbens.
Leucothoe axillaris and Catesba^i.

„ racemosa and recurva.
Andromeda § Portuna floribunda.

„ § Pieris spp.

Ciethra, 2 spp.
Menziesia ferruginea, var. globu-

laris.
Rhododendron Catawbiense.

„ maximum.

„ punctatum.

Ehodora Canadensis.
Azalea, 4 spp.
Elliottia racemosa.
Pyrola elliptica.
]Monotropa uniflora.
SUortia galacifolia.

Ilex § Prinos spp.
Diospyros Virginiana.

Aster angustus.

Artemisia Canadensis.
„ biennis.

,, frigida.

Mulgedium pulchellum.

Vaccinum ovalifolium.

Menziesia srlobularis.

Rhododendron Californi-
cum.

(Azalea occidentalis).

(Boltonia spp.)

Aster § Biotia, corymbosus, and spp.
,, angustus = Brachyactis ciliata

Ledeb.
Artemisia Canadensis ? = comniutata.

,, biennis.

„ frigida.
Senecio pseudo-arnica.
(Nabalus ochroleucus, acerifolius.)
(Cacalia spp.)
Mulgedium Sibiricum.
Vaccinium raacrocarpum, forma am-

bigua.*

„ Japonicum (ab erythrocarpo

vix differt.)
( „ § Batodendron, spp.)

( „ § Cyanococcus, one sp. near

Pennsy 1 vanicum. )

„ ovalifolium.
Chiogenes hispidula.
Epigaea Asiatica.
Gaultheria pyroloides.
Leucothoe Keiskei.

( „ Grayana and Tschonoskii.)

(Andromeda § Portuna sp.)
( „ § Pieris spp.)

(Ciethra sp.)
Menziesia pentandra and others.

(Rhododendron brachycarpon.)

( „ Metternichii.)

( „ Keiskei.)

( » spp.)

(.Azalea spp.)

Tripetaleia paniculata and bracteata.

Pyrola elliptica.

Monotropa uniflora.

Shortia galacifolia = Schizocodon uni-

florus.
(Ilex § Prinos spp.)
(Diospyros spp.)

• "Ob flores revera termlnalea, bracteolas Uneari-laaceolatas scariosaa et foliu acuta," Dr. Maximowicz (in
Mel. Biolog. Dia^n. decas 12) refers this to V. Oxycoccus, instead of to V. macrocarpum, which is "semper bene
Uistinctiim florilnn axill.-iribus, bracteolis ovatis foliaceis et foliis obtusis." Hut in one of my specimens the axis
of the umbel is contiiiucd into a leafy shoot, as in V. macrocarpum ; and the bracteolae vary from linear to ovate,
and from thin and scarious to chartaceous or coriaceous in both species : they are never (so far as I know) " foli-
aceous" in V. macrocarpum, but the bractccc sometimes are. The leaves are sometimes acutish in the latter, and
also very obtuse in V. Oxycoccus ; in the Japanese specimens under consideration they are often half an inch
in length. I must add that in the length of the filaments they accord with the character which I assigned to
V. Oxycoccus in the Manual. In fact, a form combining the characters of the two species survives in Japan.

ADDRESS OF EX-PEESIDENT GRAY.

APPENDIX.

Sjnnplocos sp.

(Symplocos spp.)

Tecoma radicans.

Tecoma f^randitlora.

Catalpa bi^nonioides.

Catalpa Kiempferi.

Veronica Virginica.

Callicarpa Americana.

(Callicarpa, 3 spp.)

Pliryma Leptostacliya.

Plirj'ma Leptostachya.

Lycopus Virgin icus.

Lycopus Virginicus.

Lycopus ])arviflorus.

Tfucrium Cfjnadense.

Teucrium Japonicum.

Hedenma, 4 spp.

(Hedeoma sp.)

Lopliaiitlius spp.

Lophanthus spp.

(Loplumtlius sp.)

Scutellaria (nuculisalatis) nervosa.

Scutellaria (nuculis alatis) Guillelmi.*

Halenia deriexa.

Halenia Sibirica, and spp.

Phlox subulata.

( Phlox Douglasii and spp. )

Phlox Sibirica.

Gelsemium sempervirens.

(Gelsemium elegans. )

Mitreola, 2 spp.

Mitreola oldenlundioides.

Apocynum androsamifoliura.

Apocynum androsoemi-
folium.

(Apocynum venetum. )

Amsonin Tabemivmontana.

(Amsonia elliptica.)

Asarum Virginicum & arifolium.

Asarum caudatura.

Asarum variegatum and Rlumei.

„ Canadense.

„ caulescens and Sieboldii.

Phytolacca decandra.

Phytolacca Ka;mpferi, &c.

Corispermum hyssopifolium.

Polygoaum arifolium.

Polygonum perfoliatum.

,, sagittatum.

,, sagittatum and Sieboldii.

Sassafras officinale.

(Lindera triloba, &c.)

Lindera Benzoin, &c.

„ hypoglauca, &c.

Tetranthera geniculata.

(Tethranthera Califor-

(Tetranthera spp.)

Pyrularia oleifera.

nica. )

(PjTularia = Sphserocarya spp.)

- I irurus cemuus.

Saururus Loureiri.

- :;iingia spp.

(Stillingia spp.)

1 I -hysandra procumbens.

Pachysandra terminalis.

I'hmera aqutitica.

Planera Japonica (and Richardi).

Madura aurantiaca.

Madura gerontogaja.

Pilea pumila.

Laportea Canadensis.

Laportea evitata, &C.

Bahmeria cylindrica.

( Ikehmeria spp. )

Parietaria debilis.

Juglans nigra.

(Juglans rupestris. )

(Juglans regia.)

• Sci'TELLARiA GuiLlELMi n. sp. Perilomioides : slender, branched from the base, stoloniferoiis ? leaves
membranuceous, minutely pubescent, crenately dentate, the lower round-cordate and slender-petioled, the others
ovate or oblong with rounded or truncate ,base and short-petioled, the floral similar but gradually smaller ; flowers
solitary in the axils ; peduncles about the length of the calyx ; corolla (" light purple," only three lines long)
hardly more than twice the length of the calyx, its lips of nearly equal length ; nutlets surrounded by an abrupt
and rellexcd denticulate wing, upper face of the disk muricate, the lower as if squamellate. 5. hederacea ? Gray,
In Perry's Japan Exped. iii. p. 310, & Bot. Contrib. Proc. Amer. Acad. viii. p. 370, not of Kunth and BouchO.
It appcjirs from a note by Vatke, in Bot. Zeit., 1872, p. 717, that S. hederacea is identical with the Tasmanian S.
humils, and it-s nutlets were originally described na echinulate-tuberculate, and by implication wingless. So our
plant may be named in honor of Dr. S. W. Williams, who first collected a little of it at SuuoOa, Japan. Better
and fruiting specimenf were gathered on the Loo-Choo Islands, by Charles Wright.
A. A. A. K. VOL. XXI. 4

ADDRESS OF EX-PEESIDENT GEAT. APPENDIX.

Juglans cinerea.
Corylus rostrata.
Betula glaudulosa.

„ niojra.
Alnus maritinia.
Myrica cerit'era.
I'iuus losiiiosa.

„ Strobus.
Abies Canadensis.
Thuja oceidentalis.
Taxodiuin distichum.
Cupressus (Chamiucyparis) thuy-

oides.
Taxiis Canadensis.
Torreya taxifolia.
Arisrema, 3 spp.
Symplocarpus foetidus.

Listera australis.
Arethusa bulbosa.
Pogonia ophioglossoides.
Microstylis ophioglossoides.
Liparis liliifolia.
Cypripedium acaule.
Habenaria virescens.
Aletris farinosa and aurea.
Iris cristiita.
Dioscorea villosa.
Smilax hispida.

„ herbacea and peduncularis.

„ tamnifoha.
Croomia pauciflora.
Trillium grandifiorum.

„ erectum.
Tofieldia glutinosa and pubens.
Helonias bullata.

Chama^lirium luteura.
Zygadenus, 3 spp.
Streptopus roseus.
Prosartes lanuginosa.
Clintonia borealis.
Polygonatum giganteum.
Smilacina trilolia.

„ racemosa.

„ stellata.
Erythronium Auiericanum and

albidum.
Narthccium Americanum.
Scirjjus Eriophorum.
Carex rostrata.

Corylus rostrata var.

Myrica Californica.

Pinus monticola.
Abies Mertensiana.
Thuja gigantea, &c.

C. Nutka^ensis.

Taxus brevifolia.
Torreya Californica.

(Lj'sicliiton Camschats-
ceuse.)

Trillium obovatum.

Zygadenus glaucus, &c.
Streptopus roseus.
Prosartes Ilookeri, &c.
Clintonia uuiflora.

Smilacina racemosa var.
,, stellata.

Erythronium grandifio-
rum.

Juglans Mandchurica, stenocarpa.

Corylus rostrata, var. Mandchurica. .

Betula glaudulosa.

( „ ulmitblia, &c.)

Alnus maritima.

( Myrica Nagi. )

(Pinus densiflora, &c.)

„ excelsa.
Abies Tsuga and diversifolia.
Thuja Japonica.
( Glyptostrobus heterophyllus.)
C. pisifera, obtusa, &c.

Taxus cuspidata.

Torreya nucifera and grandis.

ArisaMiia, 9 spp,

Symplocarpus foetidus '? and Lj'sichi-

ton Camschatscense.
(Listera Japonica, &c.)
(Arethusa Japonica.)
Pogonia ophioglossoides.
(Microstylis Japonica.)
Liparis liliifolia ?
(Cypripedium Japonicum.)
Habenaria fucescens.
Aletris Japonica.
Iris tectorum = cristata Mig.
(Dioscorea spp.)
Smilax Sieboldii.

,, herbacea = Nipponica.
( „ higoensis.)
Croomia pauciflora.
Trillium obovatum.

,, erectum var.
(Tofieldia Japonica and nutans.)
Heloniopsis pauciflora, breviscapa,

Japoinca.
Chamwlirium luteum.
(Zygadenus Japonicus.)
Streptopus roseus.
Prosartes viridescens, &c.
Clintonia Udensis.
Polygonatum giganteum.
Smilacina trifolia.
,, Japonica.

,, Davarioa.

Erj'thronium grandifiorum.

Narthecium Asiaticum.
Scirpus Eriophorum.
Carex rostrata.

ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY.

APPEXDIX.

Carcx stipata.

Carex stipata.

Zizanirt rt(|uatica.

Zizania = Hydropyrum latifolium.

Arundin;iria niacrospcrma.

(Arundinaria Japoiiica.)

Avi'iia striata and Sinithii.

Avena callosa.

Adiantum ju'datum.

Adiantum pcdatum.

Adiantum pedatum.

Pell;ia ;jracilis.

I'elhi'a Stelleri = gracilis.

Aspidiiim iVa^rans.

Aspidium fragrans.

Aspleniuni thelypteroides.

Aspienium thelypteroides.

Camptosonia rliizopbyllus.

Camptosorus Sibiricus.

Onoclea sensibilis.

Osinunda cinnamonea.

Osmunda cinnamonea.

„ Claytoni:ina.

„ Claytoniana.

Lygodium palmatum.

(Lygodium Japonicum.)

Botrychiuin Yirginieum.

Botrychium Virgiiiicum.

Lycopodium lucid iiluin.

Lycopodium lucidulum.

„ dendroideum.

,, dendroideum.

It appears that two-thirds of the middle column is blank ; viz., that only
a tliird of the species or forms which are more or less peculiar to Temperate
Atlantic Xorth America (i.e., east of the Mississippi and south of the Great
Lakes and the St. Lawrence) and to Temperate Eastern Asia, are repre-
sented in Oregon and California. Moreover, eighty of the genera here
treated of are peculiar to North America and Temperate Asia : and sixty-
three (i.e., more than three-quarters) of these are not met with in Western
North Ainerica.

This Table may be compared, or rather contrasted, with the following one.

ADDEESS OF EX-PKESIDENT GEAY. APPENDIX.

Extra-European Plants of Temperate Eastern Asia which are repre-
sented IDENTICALLY OR BY SOME NEAR RELATIVE IN OREGON (SoUTH OF

Lat. 48°) OR California (Arctic- Alpine Plants excluded), but not in
THE Atlantic United States: —

Thaliotnim sparsiflorum.
Ranunculus atlinis.
Coptis occideutalis.

„ brachypetaLa and Teeta.
Aconitum delphinifolium.
Pceonia spp.
Berberis § Mahonia spp.
Epimedium § Aceranthus sp.
Achlys Japonica.
Corydalis piuoniivfolia.
Mahringia urabrosa.
Linum perenne.
Thermopsis fabacea.
Astragalus adsurgens.
Chama3rhodos erecta.
Spiraea callosa.
Rubus spectabilis.
Pyrus rivularis ?
Crata'gus sanguinea.
Rosa Karatschatica.
Photinia arbutifolia.
Saxifraga Sibirica.
Mitella § Mitellnria spp.
Glehnia littoralis.
Oplopanax horrida.
Echenais carlinoides.
I^onicera Maximowiczii.
Gaultlieria adenothrix.
Rhododendron ovatum and semibar-

batum.
Pyrola suba])hy!la.
Villarsia Crista-galli.
Lycopus lucidus.
Boschniakia glabra.
Echiuo.-^perniuin patulum.

„ Redowskii.

Hottuynia cordata.
(iuercus spp.
Castanopsis spp.
Lj'.sicliiton Camtschatcense.
Erytlironium grandifiorum.
Carcx inacroct'pliala.
Triticuin a'giiopoidus.
Elynuis Sibiricus.
Abies Mcnziesii.
Wood ward ia radicans.

Thalictrum sparsiflorum.
Ranunculis affinis.
Coptis occidentalis.
„ asplenifolia.
Aconitum delphinifolium.
(Pa'onia Rossii. )
(Berberis § Mahonia spp.)
( Vancouveria hexandra. )
Achlys triphylla.
Corydalis pa;onia2folia.
Mtt'hringia macrophylla.
Linum perenne.
Thermopsis fiibacea.
Astragalus adsurgens.
Chamajrhodos erecta.
Spiriva Nobleana.
Rubus spectabilis.
Pyrus rivularis.
Crata'gus Douglasii.
Rosa Kamtschatica.
(Photinia serrulata.)
Saxifraga Sibiiica.
(Mitella § Mitellaria spp.)
Glehnia littoralis.
Oplopanax horrida.
Echinais carlinoides.
Lonicera Breweri.
Gaultheria Myrsinites.
Rhododendron albiflorum.

Pyrola aphylla.
Villarsia Crista-galli.
Lycopus lucidus.
Boschniakia glabra.
Echinospernuim patulum.

„ liedowskii.

Anemiopsis Californica.
(Quercus densitlora.)
( Castanopsis chrysophylla. )
Lysichiton Camtsciiatcense.
Erythronium grandillorum.
Carex macrocephala.
Triticum a'gilopoides.
Klymus Sibiricus.
Abies Menziesii.
Woodwardia radicans.

ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY. APPENDIX. 29

The entries are only forty-five; and the representation, when at all close,
is by identical or nearly identical species. Only seven of the genera here
noted are peculiar to North-Eastern Asia and North-Western America : viz.,
Glehnia, Oplopanax, and Lysichiton, each of a single species common to
both coasts ; Achlys, of which there is a Japanese species said to differ from
the American ; Boschniakia, of a common high northern species, and a
peculiar one in California ; Echinais, of one or two Asiatic species, one of
them lately found in California and Colorado, but possibly of recent intro-
duction ; and Castanopsis, a rather large and characteristic East Asian
genus, represented by a single but very distinct species in Oregon and
California.

Small, under the circumstances, as is the number of cognate plants or
forms in these two lloras, it is large in comparison with those which are
peculiar to the United States and Europe, excluding, as before, all Arctic-
Alpine species. The following seem to be the principal : —

Anemone nemorosa, of which there is a peculiar Pacific form, perhaps
reaching the eastern borders of Asia.

Myosorus minimus, which may be a recently introduced plant.

Cakile, a maritime genus.

Saxifraga aizoides.

IJellis integrifolia, which may be compared with the European B. annua.

Lobelia Dortmanna.

Primula Mistassinica.

Ceritunculus lanceolatus, a mere form of C. minimus.

Ilottonia intlata, which represents H. palustris.

Utricularia minor.

Salicornia Virginica, the S. mucronata of Bigelow and probably of La-
gasca also.

Corema Conradi, representing the Portuguese C. alba.

Yallisneria spiralis, which appears to be absent from Northern Asia.

Spiranthes Romanzoviana, with its single station on the Irish coast. It
extends across the American continent well northward, but seemingly not
into the adjacent parts of Asia.

Eriocaulon septangulare, restricted in the Old World to a few stations on
West British coasts.

Carex extensa, C. flacca (or Barrattii), and one or two others.

Cinna arundinacea, var. pendula.

Leersia oryzoides.

Spartina stricta and S. juncea.

Equisetum Telmateia.

Lycopodium inundatum.

Calluna vulgaris, which holds as small and precarious a tenure on this
continent as Spiranthes Romanzoviana does in Europe.

Barely two dozen ; and three or four of these are more or less maritime.
Oidy two or three of tliuiu extend west of the Mississippi Valley.

30 ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY. APPENDIX.

Nartliecium is not in the list, a form or near ally of the European and
Atlantic-American spec'es having been detected in Japan : the genus is
unknown on the Pacific side of our continent.

II.

Since the foregoing tables were prepared, a letter from ]\Ir. Dall (who
has returned from an arduous and successful exploration of the Alaskan
region, made under the authority of the United States Coast Survey)
informs me that his party met with Caulophyllum upon one of the Shumagin
Islands. These islands lie off the southern shore of the peninsula of Alaska,
about in latitude 55°, lon;,ntude 160°. No specimen occurs in the beautiful
collection of dried plants made in this expedition, mainly by Mr. Harring-
ton ; nor indeed any other plants which affect so southern a range as our
Caulophyllum. Yet the plant may well have been rightly identified ; although
it should be seen by botanists before any conclusions are drawn from it. But
the occurrence of an interuiediate station like this would probably lead
Professor Grisebach to rank the North Asiatic Caulophyllum no longer as a
representative species, but as identical with our Atlantic plant, as Micjucl
and Maximowicz, as well as myself, have already done upon evidence
derived from the specimens.

Then, — upon Professor Grisebach's idea that, while identical species are
to be referred to a single origin and the disseverance accounted for through
means and causes now in operation, representative species have somehow
arisen independently under similar climates, — Caulophyllum must be ex-
plained as a case of migration, but Diphylleia (in the same predicament,
only with a perceptible difl'erence between the two plants) as a case of
double origination. So of the Shortia galacifolia and the Schizocodon
uniflorus, of which the corolla and stamens in both are still wanting. If
these, when found, should prove to be exactly alike in the two, the very
diflicult problem of accounting for the world-wide separation under present
circumstances is to be encountered; if a difference appears, the problem is
to consider how, and upon what, similar climates can have acted to have
originated almost identical species upon opposite sides of the world. Pro-
fessor Grisebach's views imply that " each species has arisen under the
influence of physical and other external conditions," and that gradual alter-
ations in a climate somehow produce adaptive " changes in organization;"
wherefore, as the President of the Linnean Society has aptly remarked,*

* Address of George Bentham, Esq., President of the Linnean Society, &c.,
road May 21, 1872.

ADDRESS OF EX-PRESIDENT GRAY. — APPENDIX. 31

" We have a right to a.^k of him, What is the previous organization upon
which he imagines climate to have worked to produce allied species in one
region and representative species in distant regions? " The diU'erence here
between Grisebach's conception and our own is, that we consider climate and
other external conditions to have acted upon common ancestors in each
case ; but he apparently declines to conjecture what they acted upon.

In conclusion I may advert to one instance, in which it would appear,
either that widelij different climates have originated the same or closely
similar species, or else that one and the same species (one of those common
to the United States and Japan) has been dispersed over the globe in a
manner and to an extent that place it beyond the reach of explanations
limited to the results of forces still in activity and means of dispersion still
available. Brasenia peltata inhabits, 1. The Atlantic United States, from
Canada to Texas \, 2. Oregon, or rather Washington Territory, a single
known station at Gray's Harbor, on the Pacific, latitude 47° ; and Clear
Lake, in California, latitude 39° ; 3. Japan ; 4. Khasya and Bhotan, alti-
tude 4-6000 feet ; 5. Australia, Moreton Bay, &c. ; 6. West Africa, in
a lake in Angola !

PROCEEDINGS

DUBUQUE MEETING, 1872.

co]yc]yrD"3sri c AT roNS .

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

I. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY.

1. Ox Binary Stars. By Daniel Kirkwood, of Bloomington,
Indiana.

At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society on the 10th
of May, 1872, it was announced by Mr. Wilson that a discussion
of all the observations of the double star Castor, from 1719 to the
present time, had led to the remarkable conclusion that the com-
ponents are moving in hyperbolas, and consequently that their
mutual relation as members of a system is but temporary. The
fact, if confirmed, will be regarded with great interest; and its dis-
covery will doubtless be followed by a minute and vigilant scrutiny
of other binary systems.

But while such a relation as that discovered by Mr. Wilson had
not been previously suspected, its existence was certainly not alto-
gether improbal)le. As the sun in his progressive motion through
space compels such cometary matter as may come within the
sphere of his influence to move about him in parabolas or hyper-
bolas, so two bodies of the same order of magnitude may be
brought by their proper motions within such ])roximity that their
mutual attraction shall cause each to move about the other in a
hy|)(Tbolic orbit. Such instances, however, would seem to be ex-
A. a. a. s. vol. xxt. 5

34 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

ceptions to the general rule ; as the motion of most binary stars is
nndoubtedly elliptic* ,

The components of Castor are of the magnitudes 3 and 3^
respectively. If we supjDose that each, before the epoch of their
physical connection, was the centre of a planetary system, the
results of perturbation must have been extremely disastrous.
The two stars were at their least distance from each other in
1858.

This alleged discovery of a temporary physical connection
between two fixed stars suggests a number of interesting inquiries.
In the infinitely varied and complicated movements of the sidereal
systems different bodies may be brought into such juxtaposition as
to change, not only the direction of their motions, but also the
orbits of their dependent planets. Some stars, at the rate of
motion indicated by the spectroscope, would pass over an interval
equal to that Avhich sej^arates us from the nearest neighboring
systems in 20,000 years. In view of these facts, the conjecture of
Poisson, that the temperature of the earth's surface at different
ei^ochs has depended upon the high or low temperature of the
portions of space through which the solar system has passed, may
not be wholly improbable.

A j^ossible oi'igin of binary systems is also indicated by Mr.
"Wilson's discovery. The cometary eccentricity of the orbits of
these bodies is well known. In some cases the estimated distance
between the components at the time of their periastral passage is
less than half the radius of the earth's orbit. Now, if at the epoch
of the first nearest approach the radius of either star's nebulous,
envelope was greater than the distance between the centres of the
two bodies, the atmospheric resistance would tend to transform
the parabola or hyperbola, in which the body was moving, into an
ellipse. Each subsequent return would shorten the period until,
in the process of cooling, the stellar atmosphere had so far
contracted as no longer to involve any part of its companion's
orbit.

It would be an interesting question Avhether some of the double
stars, whose apj^arent distance apart has seemed too great to
justify the hypothesis of a physical connection, may not afford
other instances of motion either in parabolas or hyperbolas.

* In the American Journal of Science and Arts, for March, 1864, the writer
called attention to the great eccentricity of the orl)its of binary stars, and at-
tempted an explanation of the fact in accordance with the nebular hypothesis.

rnxsics axd cnEMisxRY. 35

II. niYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

1. Apparatus for Electric Measurement, avith Rules and
Directions for its Practical Application. By L. Brad-
ley, of Jersey City, N.J.

It is about eight years since the writer of this paper undertook
the work of constructing an instrument for the measurement of
resistances, intended to be used daily in regular business, as the
grocer uses his scale-beam. The result, though rude and imperfect,
was still valuable ; for it enabled him approximately to determine
the resistances of all helices and electro-magnets manufactured
and put upon the market by him.

The measurement of resistance was all that was then aspired to,
and the a]»paratus received the name of Anthistometer^ a Greek
derivative, signifying "a measure of resistance."

From that to the present time, he has endeavored, by indefati-
gable exertion and thought, to keep pace with the progress so
rapi<lly making in electrical science, and especially in that of elec-
tric measurement generally.

Instead of a rude and imperfect measure of resistance, he now
presents an apparatus so largely improved, and so well defined in
its applications and capacities, that electricians in all departments
find every desirable means for absolute and correct measurement,
put up in a substantial, compact, cheap, and portable form.

By this, telegraph companies may directly measure the resist-
ance of their lines; also their insulation resistance up to millions of
ohms. They may locate breaks, faults, and crosses, when they
occur; and they may determine the resistance, strength, and elec-
tro-motive force of their batteries.

Metallurgists, engaged in electrolysis, may determine the quan-
tity of metal of any kind deposed by a current in a given time
with great accuracy ; a desideratum to those engaged in electro-
tyP'"g, gil'ling, &c.

Wire manufacturers may readily detcrnune the quality of the
nu'tal they are working up; the specitic resistance and conductivity
of the wire put upon the market, compared with that of pure

36 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AKD CHEMISTRY.

copper, — a matter of great importance to those pm-chasing for tele-
graphic or other electrical purposes.

In short, the capacities of all other instruments combined for
similar purposes are embraced in this one, in a form so compact
and substantial as to be exceedingly convenient, and comparatively-
safe from injury by use or from rough handling.

The apjDaratus consists of his Tangent Galvanometer and his
Rheostat as they have been recently improved.

The Tangent Galvanometer, of most recent construction, is com-
posed of a coilipass dial, five or six inches in diameter, having a
fine steel point in the centre, which supports a needle of a form
peculiar to this invention. Underneath these are placed coils of
several capacities, designed to measure various currents, from those
of great intensity with but little quantity to those of great quan-
tity with but little intensity.

The needle is composed of a thin circular plate of tempered
steel, in the centre of which is fixed an aluminium cup containing
an agate to rest upon the point at the centre of the compass, or it
may be made of three or more oblong plates, riveted upon a flat
ring of aluminium, so trimmed as to form a perfectly circular disk.
From the meridian of the disk long, slender aluminium pointers
extend to denote the degrees of deflection. The needle being
properly polarized, and placed upon the point, obeys every elec-
trical impulse with great celerity. Its weight is scarcely twenty
grains, and in some cases not even half that.

The coils are so placed that the current runs parallel with the
meridian of the needle. They are half an inch or more wider
tlian the diameter of the disk. By this means all parts of the steel
composing the needle are subjected to the same inductive influence
in all its deflections.

It is a condition indispensable in the construction of a true
Tangent Galvanometer, that the current through the coil should
act as uniformly upon the needle in all its deflections as the earth's
magnetism does : a narrow coil under a long needle does not fulfil
this condition ; for, as the extremities of the needle in its deflec-
tions pass more and more away from the coil, the inductive influ-
ence is less and less, as com])ared with the earth's influence.

On the contrary, if we i)lace a very broail coil under a long
needle, the same difliculty occurs, but in the op])Osite direction.
While the nt'edle is on the meridian it is under the inHuence of but
few convolutions in the middle of the coil, but as it is dellected it

PHYSICS AND COEMISTEY. 37

comes under the inriuence of an increasing number of convolutions,
ami therefore the iiiHuenee is more and more increased.

It being evident that the truth lay between these extremes, the
expedient of a needle in the form above described was resorted to,
and with entire success, for in this tlie condition souglit is accu-
rately fulrilled.

Coil No. 1 is composed of very fine copper wire, wound evenly
back and forth oyer the whole width of the coil, and of a suffi-
cient number of layers to give a resistance of 150 or more ohms.

Xo. 2 is of No. 30 wire wound in the same manner, and to 25 or
30 ohms resistance. No. 3 is of two layers of No. 23 wire, giving
from one to two ohms resistance. And No. 4 is a strip of sheet
copper of the width of the coils, and wound three and a half times
round, so that the cun-ent passes four times under the needle : the
resistance of this may be considered as null, or not sufficient to be
noticed or taken into account.

The outer ends of all the coils are connected with a common
screw-cup, wliile the inner ones are connected each with a cup
bearing its proper number.

One, two, or even three of the coils may be dispensed with in
galvanometers for special purposes, according to the function to
Vje performed.

Coil No. 1 is for currents of higli intensity. No. 4 for those of
great quantity, and Nos. 2 and 3 are for mixed or intermediate
currents.

Galvanometers of different styles are made.

The tangential proportionality of these galvanometers has been
tested, on several occasions, in the following manner, with corre-
sponding results in all cases.

Taking galvanometer No. 16, and providing a resistance coil to
be put in circuit with coil 3, to make its resistance precisely equal
to that of coil 2, and then taking the deflection under different
resistances from 10 to 500 ohms, and dividing the tangents of the
mean deflections obtained from coil 2, by those from coil 3, we
have the following quotients : —

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Con. 2.

Coil 3.

Ohms
Inserted.

Mean
Deflection.

Tangents.

Mean
Deflection.

Tangents.

Quotients.

10
100
200
500

78° 55'
Gl° 30'
46° 55'
25° 35'

5.105
1.842
1.069

.4787

56° 50'
28° 40'
17° 50'
8° 12i'

1.530
.5467
.3217
.1442

3.33
3.36
3.32
3.32

Another test made by putting two galvanometers (No. 18 and
No. 9, coil 3) into same circuit, gave the following results : —

Galvanometer No. 18.

Galvanometer No. 9.

Ohms
Inserted.

Mean
Deflection.

Tangents.

Mean
Deflection.

Tangents.

Quotients.

2
12
30
60

73.9°
49.9°
28.3°
15.8°

3.465
1.188
.5704
.2830

68.9°
41.5°
21.7°
11.8°

2.592

.8847
.3979
.2089

1.34
1.34
1.35
1.35

The near uniformity of these quotients gives evidence of very
true Tangent Galvanometers.

The theorem, " The intensity of currents^ as measured by the
Tangent Galvanometer^ is proportional to the tangents of the
angles of deflection^'' may be verified in the following manner : —

Call the terrestrial magnetism, whose tendency is to direct the
galvanometer needle to the magnetic meridian, the unit of direc-
tive force, and let this unit be represented geometrically by the
line A 3/ (Fig. 1), which is the radius of the circle MB M^ — the
line M A 31 representing the meridian. Now, let an electric
current be sent through the galvanometer coil, whose directive
force is precisely equal to the terrestrial force, and Avhose tendency
is to direct the needle in a line perpendicuhir to the meridian, and
let this force be represented by the line A B.

If tlie terrestrial force could now, for a moment, be suspended,
the needle would point due east and west; but the coinl)iiied
action of the two equal forces will direct the needle towards the
point of intersection of the line drawn i)er])enilicularly from M,
and that drawn horizontally from B at 1, which direction cuts

PHYSICS AND CnEMISTBY.

the quadrant at 45*^, the line 31 1 bemg the tangent of 45°,
which is 1.

Now if we augment the intensity of the current through the
coil to twice its present force, which will be 2, and will be repre-
sented by the line A C, the combined forces A ilf and A Cwill
du-ect the needle towards the point 2. If we now lay a protractor
on the circle, we find that the line A 2 cuts it at about 63° 30', of
which the tangent is 2.

We may increase the parallelogram erected upon A Mat pleas-

Tan's

fig.l.

M f A

//h<

.25

.125
M

ure, and the two forces combined will always so balance the needle
between them as to make it point from A diagonally across the
parallelogram to its opposite angle, the height of which is the tan-
gent of tlio angle of deflection.

By inspection of the diagram it is seen that the law holds good
in the subdivisions of the force, as at .5, .25, and .125, — a truth
a<lmitted by all experimenters as to the relations up to 14°.

The Rheostat contains coils whose several resistances range from
TJItc of an ohm to 4U0U ohms, any one or more of whicli may be

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

thrown into the circuit by removing the proper plug or plugs on
the top of the rheostat, so that any resistance may be introduced
from y^ij of an ohm to 10,000 ohms.

In addition to two screw-cups (I. and II.) for connection with
the battery and galvanometer, there are two other screw-cups
(III. and IV.) for the connection of any conductor whose resistance
it is intended to measure ; also a switch. A, so arranged that the
battery cm-rent may be directed at pleasure through the rheostat
or the conductor. The whole apparatus is packed in a morocco
case, nine inches in diameter and seven inches deep, having a
handled strap, rendering it convenient for transportation fi*om
place to place.

The units of electric measurement herein adopted are those of
the British Association, viz. : —

Ohm, Volt, and Veber.

The Ohm is the unit of resistance, and is equal to the resistance of
a prism of pure mercury, one square millimeter section, and 1.0486
meters long, at 0° C.

The Volt is the unit of electro-motive force, which varies but
little from the electro-motive force of a standard Daniell's cell.

The Veber is the unit of strength, or quantiti/, or electro-chem-
ical equivalence of a current, as it is variously called, and repre-
sents that quantity of electricity Avhich flows througli a circuit,
having an electro-motive force of one volt, and a resistance of one
ohm, in one second.

PHYSICS AXn CHEMISTRY. 41

One veber of electricity decomposes —

.0014'2 grains water, or develops
• .000158 grains hydrogen, or

.17:21 c.c. mixed gas, at a temp, of

0°C, and barometric pressr. of 760 "'/,„ .

Hesistance of Conductors.

To determine the resistance of any conductor, attach its extrem-
ities to the screw-cups III. and IV. of the rheostat, one pole of
the battery to B of the galvanometer, and the other to I. of the
rheostat.

The wire leading from II. of the rheostat is connected with
one of the screw-cups 1, 2, 3, 4, of the galvanometer, as may be
required.

For resistance of 1000 ohms or more, the No. 1 screw-cup, with
a compound or intensity battery, is most suitable ; No. 2, from
20 to 1000 ohms ; Xo. 3, from 2 to 20 ohms ; and No. 4, with
a single large cell of battery — or, what is better, two or more
cells arranged for quantity — for very small resistances, 2 ohms
or less.

Before measuring small resistances, it is necessary to balance
the apparatus, as we would a scale-beam before weighing small
quantities. To do this, connect III. and IV. by a short wire, such
as may be used in connection with the thuig to be measured ; the
rheostat being fully and carefully plugged. If, now, on turning
the switch to the right, the needle goes up, it shows that the
short wire does not have resistance enough to balance ; therefore,
a wire of larger resistance must be selected; on the contrary, if
the needle falls back, plugs must be removed sufficient to balance
the needle ; the amount unplugged must be deducted from the
result.

The current is now to be directed through the conductor to be
tested, by turning the switch to the right, and the galvanometer
deflection noted ; the switch is then turned to the left, directing
the current through the rheostat. Plugs are now removed to
introduce sufficient resistance to bring the needle to the same
degree, so that on oscillating the switch back and forth, the needle
remains stationary. The resistance of the conductor is now equal
to the sum of the resistances of the several rheostat coils intro-
duced.

By this method, any resistance may be directly measured from
A. A. A. s. VOT,. \xi.

42 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AST) CHEMISTRY.

y^^ of an ohm to 10,000 ohms. Helices, relays, and other electro-
magnets are measured in tliis way.

Measuring and Testing Telegraph Lines.

In using this apparatus for testing in a telegraph office, great
care should be taken to avoid the disturbing action of masses of
iron, the magnets of instruments, and the currents jDassing through
wires, either under the table or along the walls. All the lines
should frequently be tested for conductivity and insulation, and
the tests recorded in a book kept for that purpose. These records
greatly facilitate the accurate location of faults, whenever it be-
comes necessary to test for them.

Testing for Gonductimty.

This test should be made in fine weather, when the insulation
is good. Have all the relays of the line taken but of circuit,
and the line connected to earth or ground wire, at distant end,
without battery. Arrange the wires as in last diagram (Fig. 2),
putting the line wire and the ground wire to III. and IV. When
the needle is balanced, the resistance unplugged is equal to the
resistance of the line.

No. 9 wire should not exceed 20 ohms per mile of length ; and
No. 8, 17 ohms. Higher resistance than this indicates defective
joints in the line or poor ground connections.

In all these measurements and testings, it is proper to reverse
the direction of the current through the line (which is readily
done by changing places of the connections at I. and II.), and
take the mean of the two results.

Testing for Insulation.

The connections are the same as in the last case, except that
the line is open at the distant end, instead of being " grounded."
If tlie line is not very long, or the insulation is good, the resist-
ance Avill frecpiently be above the range of the ajiparatus. This
may also hai)pen in testing for conductivity on a very defective
wire. In this case another method is adopted.

First arrange the wires as before ; then unplug 10,000 ohms
resistance, using galvanometer coil No. 1, and an intense main
battery. Note tlie deflection obtained through the whole 10,000
olnns resistance, and call this the maximum of the galvanometer.

PHTSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

No\v turn the switch to tlio rij^lit, directiiit; tlic current throngh
the line, which is open, of course, at the distant end. Xote tlie
deflection as before. Tlie tangents of the deflections will each
be invei-sely proportional to the resistance under which it was
produced.

Suppose the deflection Avith the 10,000 ohms to be 30*^, giving
tangent .5774, while that throngh the line is 10'', whose tangent
is .17G3.

Therefore,-

.1763 : 10,000 ohms
i.e., .5774x10.000

.1763

5774 : 32,751 ohms.
32,751 ohms.

This is the insulation resistance of the line ; and this divided
by the number of miles in length gives the insulation resistance
per mile.

It is proper here to caution those using this apparatus against
directing the current from an intense battery through rheostat
coils of low resistance, lest they be spoiled by burning. Forty
cells of Grove's battery would be likely to greatly damage a 50
ohm coil; and perhaps one of a hundred or two hundred ohms, if
the current were directed through it alone. Batteries of no
greater strength should be employed than is necessary to accom-
jdi.sh the work desired; 10 or 20 cells of any sulphate of copper
battery are suflicient for measuring great resistances.

The daily testings of a line should be recorded in a form some-
thin£c like the followino; : —

Maxi-
mum.

10.000
Oiims.

No. 1 WiEE.

No. 2 Wire.

Date.

Conduc-
tivity.
Resistance
Obms.

Insulation.

Conduc-
tivity.
Resistance
Oliiiis.

Insulation.

Deflec-
tion.

Ohms.

Deflec-
tion.

Ohms.

Apl. 1

30°

4050

10°

32,570

5000

30°

10,000

Rain.

44 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Testing for Location of Fcmlts*

The principle iipon wliich the methods of distance-testing
are founded is that of finding the resistance of the Hne wire
between the testing station and the fault, by the methods above
described.

It is very essential that the resistance of each circuit should be
fi'cquently measured and recorded, so that when a fault occurs the
actual resistance of the line per mile may be known.

If the broken line gives a full ground, its resistance, divided by
the resistance per mile, at once gives the distance of the break
from the testing station ; and if the distant station obtains a like
result, the confirmation is complete.

Thus, in a line of 100 miles, if the tests from the two extremities
indicate distances of forty-five and fifty-five miles respectively,
the locality of the interruption is clearly indicated.

As the fault, however, usually gives a very considerable resist-
ance at the point where the line is in contact with the earth, and
the sum of the two resistances, measured from stations at the
opposite ends of the lines, greatly exceed the resistance of the line
itself when perfect, it is usual in such cases to estimate the fault
midway between the two points indicated. Thus, when the
respective resistances indicate eighty-six and twenty-six miles,
the sum of these exceeds 100 miles by twelve, and therefore half
this excess, or six, is deducted from each of the measures ; the
resistance of the fault having been included in each measurement.

When the line is unbroken, but shows a heavy escape or jaartial
ground, sufficient to weaken signals, two methods are available
for determining its locality. The first is that of direct measure-
ment, alternately from each end; the distant end at the same
time being insulated, or, in other woi'ds, left open, as before ex-
plained (p. 42).

In this case the resistance of the fault is measured twice over,
and is rouglily allowed for by the method of calculation above
given.

The Loop Test.

A second and more accurate method, which gives a measure
entirely independent of the resistance of the fault, is known as the
Loop Test. It is only available, however, in cases where there

* Pope's Modern Practice of tlie Ele(;tric Telegraph, pp. 80-82.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

are two or more parallel wires on the same route. In making this
test, let the operator proceed as follows.

Make the length to be tested as short as possible, and have all
the instruments in circuit taken out ; select a good wire similar, if
possible, to the one it is required to test. These wires must then
be connected together in a loop at the nearest available station
beyond the fault, without ground connection. The resistance of
the faulty wire, when perfect, must be ascertained. This may be
taken from previous records, or it may be found by a test taken as
follows.

Connect the apparatus as in the diagram (Fig. 2, also Fig. 4),
putting the loop in place of the resistance, to be measured as
shown in the diagram ; that is, connect the good wire of the loop
to III., and the bad wii-e to IV., and ascertain the resistance as
directed (p. 41).

Fiff. 3.

Having ascertained the resistance of the loop, arrange the con-
nections, as shown in the above diagram (Fig. 3).

Now turn the switch A to the right, and note the deflection ;
then turn it to the left, and unplug resistance until the same de-
flection is obtained ; the resistance unplugged, deducted from the
total resistance of the loop, and divided by 2, is the resistance of
the bad wire between the apparatus and the fault.

For example, suppose the resistance of the loop to be 1000
ohms, and 100 ohms have been unplugged to balance the needle ;
the fault is 450 ohms from IV. Sup)}ose the loop of 1000 ohms is
fifty miles in length, then by proi)ortion —

1000 ohms : 50 miles : : 450 ohms : 22.5 miles.

When there is a fault on a line, and there is but one wire, it

46 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

may be located by the following metbod. Ascertain from former
record tbe normal resistance of tbe line ; call tbis r. Also tbe
resistance of tbe defective line, wben grounded at tbe distant
end, obtained as before directed (p. 42) ; call tbis s. Also tbe
resistance wben ojien at tbe distant end, and call tbis t ; and call
tbe resistance of tbe wire between tbe fault and tbe testing
station cc ; tlien —

a; = s — V (s'^ -f- tr) — {ts -\- rs)

i.e., multijjly s by 5, and t by r, and add tbe products togetber ;
subtract from tbis amount t times s, and r times s ; subtract tbe
square root of tbe remainder from s, and tbe remainder will
give tbe resistance of tbe wire between tbe fault and tbe testing
station.

Tbis test sbould, if practicable, be taken from botb ends of tbe
wire, and greater accuracy is secured by taking tbe mean of several
observations.

To Locate a Cross.

Tbe two wires in contact form a loop ; open botb wires at tbe
nearest available point beyond tbe cross, and measure tbe resist-
ance of tbe loop. Half of tbis will be tbe resistance between tbe
testing-station and tbe cross. Tbe cross itself sometimes bas con-
siderable resistance, wbicb would make its true position somewbat
nearer tban its apparent position.

A cross may also be located by tbe metbod given (p. 45), by
putting one wire as a" ground, wbich will make an escape at tbe
point wbere tbe cross is situated, and wbicb, of course, may be
located in tbe same manner as any otber escape, by eitber of tbe
metbods above given.

Conductivity and Hesistance.

Tbe conductivity of two conductors of tbe same metal are
directly proi)ortional to tbe areas of tbeir transverse sections ; or, if
of round wire, tbey are directly proportional to tbe square of tbeir
diameters. Tlie resistance of tbe same wires are inversely pro-
])ortional to tbe squares of tbeir diameters.

/Specific Conductivity ayid Jiesistance.

The relative specific resistance of two metals may be deter-
mined by taking the resistance of a Avirc of each, of a given length

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 47

ami iliameter; their resistances will denote their relative specific
resistances, or tliey may be corajnited from wires of ditferent
diameters (their lengths being equal), by the following formula: —

D = diameter of standard wire.
R ^=. resistance of do.

d = diameter of wire to be tested.

r = resistance of do.

d- : R :•. D' : r.

i.e.,—

D' R

~d^

Suppose we take as a standard a copper wire, ten feet long, No.
26 by the American gauge (Darling, Brown, and Sharp), whose
diameter by the following table is sixteen mils (thousandths of an
inch), and find its resistance to be .44 ohm, and another wire of
same length, Xo. 30, whose diameter is ten mils ; the square of
the latter is 100, and that of the former 256.

256 X. 44
100 ""

1.13 ohms, therefore, would be the resistance of the No. 30 wire,
if the specific resistances of the metals of which the two wires
are composed are equal ; but on trial Ave find its resistance to be
1.9 ohms.
Assuming 100 as the specific resistance of the standard metal

1.13 : 100 :: 1.9 : 168;

the specific resistance of thi3 tested metal is, therefore, 68 per cent,
gi-eater than tlie standard, i.e., 168 to 100.

Brown and Sharp's sheet metal gauge, which determines the
diameter of a wire to the louff ^^ '^^ inch, is the best measure for
this purpose.

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Table op Diameters of Wires expressed in Mils (thousandths
OP AN inch).

Number.

American Gauge.

Birmingham
Gauge.

{

Number.

American Gauge.

Birmingham
Gauge.

Mils.

MUs.

Mils.

0000

460.

454.

35.89

42.

000

409.64

425.

31.96

35.

364.80

380.

28.46

32.

324.95

340.

25.35

28.

289.30

300.

22.57

25.

257.63

284.

20.10

22.

229.42

259.

17.90

20.

204.31

238.

15.94

18.

181.94

220.

14.19

16.

162.02

203.

12.64

14.

144.28

180.

11.26

13.

128.49

165.

10.02

12.

114.43

148.

8.93

10.

101.89

134.

7.95

90.74

120.

7.08

80.81

109.

. 34

6.30

71.96

95.

5.61

64.08

83.

5.00

•4.

57.07

72.

4.45

50.82

65.

3.96

45.26

58.

3.53

40.30

49.

3.14

Or the following method may sometimes be more available, and
is more exact.

It has been determined (Latimer Clark on Electric Measure-
ment, p. 64) that one nautical mile, 2029 yards pure copper wire
weighing one pound, has at 60° Fahr. 1155.5 ohms resistance,

1 lb. = 7000 Troy grains.

2029 yards : 7000 grains : : 10 yards : 34.5 grains, and 2029 yards
: 1155.5 ohms : : 10 yards : 5.695 ohms.

Therefore,

10 yards pure copper wire, weighing 34.5 grains, has
5.695 ohms resistance.

The resistance of a given length of wire is inversely proper-

PHYSICS AND CHEXnSTRY. 49

tional to its woii^lit ; lience, if ten yards of wire weigh ten times
as much, 345 grains, its resistance will be one-tenth = .57 ohm.

If, on trial, we tind its resistance to be greater, say .07 ohm, its
conductivity is less than the pure coppei*, in the inverse ratio of
the resistance ; that is,

67 : 57 :: 100 : 85,

or the metal has a conductivity of 85, the pure being taken at 100.
Sujtpose ten yards of pure copper weigh 173.4 grains, and have
a resistance of 1.2 ohms.

173.4 grains : 5.695 ohms : : 34.5 grains : 1.133 ohms,

i.e^ 34.5 X 5.695

173:4 = ^•^^^-

For specific resistance,

1.133 : 100 :: 1.2 : 105.91,

and for specific conductivity, the same proportion inversely,

1.133 X 100

1.2

= 94.2.

Therefore, taking both the resistance and the conductivity of pure
copper at 100, the specific resistance of the specimen tested is
105.9, and its specific conductivity 94.2.

For convenience we may take the product of 34.5 grains X
5.695 ohms, 196.4775, as a constant quantity, to be divided by
the weight in grains of any specimen of ten yards of copper wire.
This will give the resistance in ohms, which the specimen would
have if pure. Dividing this (multiplied by 100) by the actual
resistance we have the specific conductivity, or dividing the ac-
tual resistance (multiplied by 100) by this we have the specific
resistance.

Effect of Temperature.

The resistance of copper changes about .208 per cent for each
degree Fahr.,* which is to be added or subtracted as the temper-
ature is below or above 60°. ,

* On Electric Measurement. By Latimer Clark, p. 68.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 7

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

If a wire has 22.73 ohms resistance at 70°, what will it have
at 60° ?

22.73 — (22.73 X .00208 X 10°) = 22.257.

The following table will be found convenient in making correc-
tions for temperature.

Table for Calculating the Resistance op Copper at different

TEMPERATyRES.

To Reduce from Lower Temperature to Higher,
multiply the Resistance by the Number in
Column 2.

To Reduce from Higher Temperature to Lower,
multiply the Resistance by the Number in
Column 4.

No. of
Degrees.

Column 2.

No. of
Degrees.

Column 2.

No. of
Degrees.

Column 4.

No. of
Degrees.

Column 4.

1
1.

1.0021

1.0341

0.9979

0.9670

1.0042

1.0363

0.9958

0.9650

1.0063

1.0385

0.9937

0.9629

1.0084

1.0407

0.9916

0.9609

1.0105

1.0428

0.9896

0.9589

• 6

1.0127

1.0450

0.9875

0.9569

1.0148

1.0472

0.9854

0.9549

1.0169

1.0494

0.9834

0.9529

1.0191

1.0516

0.9813

0.9509

1.0212

1.0538

0.9792

0.9489

1.0233

1.0561

0.9772

0.9469

1.0255

1.0583

0.9751

0.9449

1.0276

1.0605

0.9731

0.9429

1.0298

1.0627

0.9711

0.9409

1.0320

1.0650

0.9690

0.9390

Resistance of batteries.

In deternuning the interior resistance of batteries, the resistance
of the galvanometer coil used, if it has any appreciable resistance,
witli the connections must be known. In taking deflections where
accuracy is required, the direction of the current through the gal-
vanometer should be reverscil, and the mean of the two deflections
•taken ; for we can scarcely foil to observe some diflference.

If we have no adjustable rheostat, we must be provided with
one or more standard coils, whose resistances are correctly known ;

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTBY. 51

one or two ohms is sufficient wlien a single cell is to be measured,
but more when a number of cells are to be measured.

The following formula brings us to a simple and correct rule: —

Let e = electro-motive force.

r = resistance of the battery.

r^= a known resistance to be inserted.

s = strength of current = tan. of deflection.

s^ = tan. of deflection when r^ is inserted.

According to Ohm's law,

e e

= s and

r r -\- r^

Two equations, involving the two unknown quantities e and r,
which, cleared of fractions, become —

e = rs, 1st equation.

e = rs^ -\- T-'s^ 2d do.

Eliminate e by substituting rs of the 1st equation for e of the 2d
equation —

rs = rs^ -\- r^s^, transferring rs^ ;

rs — rs^ = r^s^, and dividing by s — s\ we have

' —s — s''

or the following simple proportion, —

s — s^ : r^ :: s^ : r.

If the galvanometer has resistance, subtract it from the result, and
we have the interior resistance of the batteiy.

Another method is sometimes employed, in which the resistance
of the galvanometer must be null, and the wire of an adjustable
rheostat so large as not to be essentially heated by the current.

- = s = tangent of deflection, and
r °

— = tan. of deflection when a resistance is inserted equal to

the interior resistance.

Therefore, divide the tangent of deflection by 2, and find the

52 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

degree corresponding to this half tangent; then interpose rheostat
coils to bring the needle to the same degree. The resistance thus
interposed will be equal to the interior resistance.

The resistance of two cells of equal strength, or two series of
two or more cells, each of equal strength, may be obtained by-
connecting two like poles of the two together, so that they
neutralize each other, and connecting them by screw-cups III.
and IV., and taking their resistance as we do that of any con-
ductor.

The following method, too, discovered and first used by the
writer is found to be correct and reliable. The cell to be tested
is connected between III. and IV., using two or more cells for the
main battery. The switch being to the left, the deflection caused
by the main battery is noted. On turning the switch to the right,
the force of the cell is added to that of the main battery, and the
deflection is increased. Now reverse the poles of the cell so that
its force opposes that of the main, and the deflection is much
diminished. Add the tangent of the smaller to that of the larger
deflection and divide by 2. Find the degree corresponding to
this mean tangent. Then turn the switch to the left, and introduce
rheostat resistance to bring the needle to the same degree. The
amount introduced will show the resistance of the cell.

Constant Multiplier.

To determine the electro-chemical equivalent of a current by a
tangent galvanometer, it is necessary to find a number by which
the multiplication of the tangent of its degree of deflection will
give the equivalent sought.

This is done in various ways. That recommended and employed
by most authors is by the electrolysis of water in the voltameter^
and the production of its elementary gases, the volume of which,
when pi'operly corrected for temperature, pressure, and moisture, is
directly proportional to the strength of the current.

The correction may be made by the following formula.

v^ = volume of gas observed.

V = vol. corrected for temp., pressure, and moisture.

b^= barometric pressure observed.

b = same corrected for temperature.

e = tension of vapor of water at t° C.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRT.

53'

t =z the numbor of degrees above freezing point,
jf 3 = Regnault's co-efficient of expansion for each degree C.

V =

273 v'
273 + t

b — e

Barometric Correction.

The barometric column is to be corrected for temperature, for
which we may employ the following table, where the scale is of
wood, graduated for millimeters ; or we may multiply the co-
efficient of expansion for 1" C, .00018153, by the number of degrees
C, and the product by the height in millimetei-s, and subtract the
last product from the aj^parent height.

The co-efficient of expansion of glass, for each degree, is .0000092 ;
and of brass, .0000188. Where the scale is of one of these materials,
its co-efficient must be subtracted from that of mercury.

Table for Corkectiox of Barometric Ixdicatioks, measured by wooden
scale in millimeters, calculated from the co-efficient of Regnault, .018153, the
dilation of mercury from 0° C. to 100° C. That for 1° C. is .00018153.

OC.

1V«'

oC.

IVm-

°C.

IVn.-

.00018

.00290

.00563

.00036

.00309

.00581

.00054

.00327

.00599

.00073

.00345

.00617

.00091

.00363

.00635

.00109

.00381

.00654

.00127

.00399

.00672

.00145

.00418

.00690

.00163

.00436

.00708

.00182

.00454

.00726

.00200

.00472

.00744

.00218

.00590

.00762

.00236

.00508

.00781

.00254

.00526

.00799

.00272

.00545

. 45

.00817

Multiply the co-efficient for the number of degrees C. by the
apparent height in millimeters, and subtract the product from the
apparent height.

The following table gives the factor e : —

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Table of the Tension of Aqueous Vapor, expressed in millimeters of
mercury, at 0° C. for each degree from 0° C. to 35° C. (Regnault).

°c.

!
Tension in ""Z^-

°C.

Tension in "/„•

^C.

Tension in "■/„•

4.600

10.457

22.184

4.940

11.062

23.550

5.302

11.906

24.998

5.G87

12.669

26.505 '

6.097

13.635

28.101

6.534

14.421

29.781

6.998

15.357

31.548

7.492

16.346

33.405

8.017

17.391

35.359

8.574

18.495

37.410

9.165

19.659

89.565

9.792

20.888

41.827

Suppose,

■yi = 154 c.c. in 200 minutes.
Ji = 760 ""/m-
b =: 757 „
e =18.5 „
t =z 21° C.

V =

154 X 273 _ 42042
273 + 21 ~294

757 — 18.5 = 738.5

= 143

757

.9755

V = 143 X .9755 = 139.5 c.c. in 200 min.
= .6975 c.c. per minute.
= .01162 „ „ second.

Reducing this to vebers,

.1721 c.c. : 1 veber : : .01162 c.c. : .067518 vebers per second.

Now dividing this product by the mean tangent of the galvan-
ometer deflection under which it was produced, 1.1189,

we have .060343, a constant multiplier,

by which we may multiply the tangent of any deflection of that
same galvanometer, and thereby obtain the equivalent of the
current producing it in vebers jier second.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

We may now oittaiii the weight in grains ])er second of any
metal or element whose salt we may submit to electrolysis, with
tliis galvanometer in circuit, by simply niulti])Iying the tangent of
deflection by this constant, the product by .000158 grains (the
hydrogen equivalent of one veber per second), and this product by
the chemical ccjuivalent of the element.

Suppose a salt of copper has been submitted to the same current
with the voltameter in the preceding example, how much copper
would have been deposited jJer second ?

1.1189 X constant, .060343, X .000158 grs. hydrogen X 31.7,

chem. equivalent of copper,
=: .000338 grs. copper per second.
= .0203 „ „ „ minute.

Multiplying .6975 c.c. per minute by .0292, the copper equiva-
lent of 1 CO., we have the same answer, .0203 grains copi)er per
minute ; thus verifying the calculation.

Hence we have the followins:

Table of Equivalents.

Veber.

Chemical .'. Veber. . Grains Troy per

Equivalent.

' .000158

second.

Hydrogen

1.0

.000158

Water

9.0

.001422

Zinc

32.5

.005135

Cupper

31.7

.005009

Silver

108.0

.017064

Niekel

29.0

.004580

Gold

196.7

.031080

Electro-Motive Force.

We are now possessed of the elements for determining the
electro-motive force of a battery.

Referring to the formula before given (j). 51) for determining
the interior resistance of a battery, and to the applications of Ohm's
law, to be found in all modern books on electricity, we see that

rs = e,

i.e., the wliole resistance in ohms, multiplied by the strength in
vebers, gives the electro-motive force in volts.

56 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Such are the laws of electrolysis, as discovered and laid down
by Faraday, who announced that '•Hhe electrolytic action of a
current is the same in all its parts ; that the same electric current
decomposes chemically equivalent quantities of all the bodies
which are traversed;'''' from which it follows that "^Ae weights
of elements separated in these electrolytes are to each other as
their chemical equivalents ; " and that " the quantity of a body
decomposed in a given time is proportional to the intensity of the
current^

On this is founded the use of Faraday's voltameter, in which
the intensity of a cun-ent is ascertained from the quantity of water
which is decomposed in a given time.* It would seem, then,
reasoning a priori^ that a constant multiplier obtained for a true
tangent galvanometer would give correct and reliable results in
all cases of electrolysis ; that any one engaged in electro-plating
of any kind, having one of these galvanometers in the circuit,
might readily know how many grains of the metal is deposited
per second, by multiplying the tangent of the angle of deflec-
tion by the constant^ and the product by the proper number in
the right hand or fifth column of the foregoing table of equivalents
(p. 55). And so it would be if we were always dealing with ele-
ments that were perfectly pure, and with their salts that were
perfectly neutral ; but such perfection and purity we do not find
in ordinary practice. Results therefore can be taken only as
approximations to truth, which will be more or less remote as our
materials are more or less impure.

In the investigation of these laws, the wi'iter has made a great
number of tests with water voltameters, and those of coj^per,
silver, and gold, the results of which were at first very discour-
aging ; no two being found to agree in their equivalents.

But finally two copper baths, one of sulphate of copper, and
one of nitrate of copper, Avei'e tried. The plates to be used were
first coated with reguline copper, by deiDosition from solutions in
which anodes were used of the purest copper to be obtained.
Now, by using one of such plates as anode and another as cathode,
and occasionally reversing the current until the solutions became
so entirely neutral that the weight of metal lost from the anode
and that gained upon the cathode were equal, and the transport
in the two voltameters were also equal, these Avere therefore
taken as giving correctly equivalent proportions for copper.

* Ganot's Physics, p. 653.

IMIYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 57

But in tlio electrolysis of aeitlulated water by the same current,
it was fouM'I that no such voltameter as is described by Faraday
or other authors would develop a measure of corrected gas suf-
ficient to amount to the same equivalent, — a circumstance evinc-
ing clearly the fiict, that between electrodes of any considerable
si/e a part of the current is conducted without decomposing the
water.

But by fixing two }>ieces of No. 29 platinum M'ire across a glass
tube, of an interior diameter of four-tenths of an inch, and a leygth
of about six inches (the tube being broken and the wires put across
and melted in), a voltameter was at length constructed which
gave, in the same circuit, a volume of gas precisely equivalent to
the copper deposited in the copper voltameters ; and from this true
multipliers are obtained.

In common practice every operator can easily obtain for him-
self the constant multiplier, which, for his own galvanometer
and bath, will determine the amount of work performed by the
current, with as much accuracy as is attainable by weights and
measures.

To do this let h'un take a few articles (such as present large
surfaces in proportion to their weights are best), and accurately
weigh them ; then let them be jdaced in the bath and remain a
suitable time, which must be accurately noted, together with the
mean deflection of the galvanometer. Now let them be accurately
weighed again, and the weight per minute estimated in grains;
dividing the number of grains by the tangent of the mean deflec-
tion the constant sought is found.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI.

A, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTBY.

I-)
o

OQ
H

PHYSICS AND CIIEMISTUY. 59

2. On Sympatuktic Vihuations, as ExiiiaiTEi) in Oudixauy
Macihneky. By Joseph Lovering, of Cambritlge, Mass.

At the meeting of this Association in Burlington, I showed
some experiments in ilhistration of the optical method of making
sensi])le the vibrations of tlie column of air in an organ-pipe. At
the Chicago meeting, I demonslrateil the way in which the vibra-
tions of strings could be studied by the eye in place of the ear,
when these strings were attached to tuning-forks with which they
could vibrate in sympathy ; substituting for the small forks, origi-
nally used by Melde, a colossal tuning-fork, the prongs of which
were placed between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet.
This fork, which interrupted the battery current, at the proper
time, by its own motion, was able to put a heavy cord, thirty feet
in length, in the most energetic vibration, and for an indefinite
time. I propose, at the present time, to speak of those sympa-
thetic vibrations which are pitched so low as not to come within
the limits of human ears, but Avhich are felt rather than heard, and
to show how they may be seen as Avell as felt.

All structures, large or small, simple or complex, have a definite
rate of vibration, dej)ending on their materials, size, and shape,
and as fixed as the fundamental note of a musical cord. They
may also vibrate in parts, as the cord does, and thus be capable of
various increasing i*ates of vibration, which constitute their har-
monics. If one body vibrates, all others in the neighljorhood will
respond, if the rate of vibration in the first agrees with their own
principal or secondary rates of vibration, even when no more sub-
stantial bond than the air unites a body Avith its neighbors. In
this way, mechanical disturbances, harmless in their origin, assume
a troublesome and perhaps a dangerous character, when they enter
bodies all too ready to move at the required rate, and sometimes
beyond the sfthere of their stability.

When the bridge at Colebrooke Dale (the first iron bridge in the
world) was building, a fiddler came along and said to the work-
men tliat he could fiddle their Ijriilge down. The builders thought
this boast a fiddle-de-dee, and invited the itinerant musician to
fiddle away to his heart's content. One note after another was
struck ujion the strings until one was found with which the bridge
was in sympathy. When the bridge began to shake violently,

60 A. MATHEMATICS, PHTSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

the incredulous workmen were alamied at the unexpected result,
and ordered the fiddler to stop.

At one time, considerable annoyance was experienced in one
of the mills in Lowell, because the walls of the building and the
floors were violently shaken by the machinery : so much so that,
on certain days, a pail of water would be nearly emptied of its
contents, while on other days all was quiet. Upon investigation
it appeared that the building shook in response to the motion of
the machinery only when that moved at a particular rate, coin-
ciding with one of the harmonics of the structure ; and the simple
remedy for the trouble consisted in making the machinery move
at a little more or a little less speed, so as to put it out of time
with the building.

We can easily believe that, in many cases, these violent vibrations
will loosen the cement and derange the parts of a building, so that
it may afterwards fall under the pressure of a weight which other-
wise it was fully able to bear, and at a time, possibly, when the
machinery is not in motion ; and this may have something to do
with such accidents as that which happened to the Pemberton
Mills in Lawrence. Large trees are uprooted in powerful gales,
because the wind conies in gusts ; and if these gusts happen to be
timed in accordance with the natural swing of the tree, the effect
is iiTcsistible. The slow vibrations which proceed from the largest
jDipes of a large organ, and which are below the range of musical
sounds, are able to shake the walls and floors of a building so as to
be felt, if not heard, thereby furnishing a background of noise on
which the true musical sounds may be projected.

We have here the reason of the rule observed by marching
armies when they cross a bridge ; viz., to stop the music, break
step, and open column, lest the measured cadence of a condensed
mass of men should urge the bridge to vibrate beyond its sphere
of cohesion. A neglect of this rule has led to serious accidents.
The Broughton bridge, near Manchester, gave way beneath the
measured tread of only sixty men wlio were marching over it.
The celebrated engineer, Robert Stej)henson, has remarked* that
there is not so much danger to a bridge, when it is crowded with
men or cattle, or if cavalry are passing over it, as when men go
over it in marching order. A chain-bridge crosses the river
Dordogne on the road to Bordeaux. One of the Stephensous

* Edin. Phil. Jouni. v. p. 255.

PJIVSICS AXD CnEMISTRT. 61

passc<l ovor it in 184'), :ui<l \\';is so iimcli struck witli its (li'feots,
althouix'i it hail been recently erected, that he notilieil tlie author-
ities in regard to them. A few years allerwards it gave way
when troops were marching over it*

A tew vt?:!'"*^ !is;o, a terrible disaster befell a battalion of French
infantry, while crossing the suspension -bridge at Angiers, in
France. Reiterated warnings were given to the troops to break
into sections, as is usually done. But the rain was falling heavily,
and, in the hurry of the moment, the orders were disregarded.
The bridge, which was only twelve years old, and which had
been repaired the year before at a cost of 17000, fell, and two
hundred and eighty dead bodies were found, besides many who
were wounded. Among the killed or drowned were the chief
of battalion and four other officers. Many of the guns were bent
double, and one musket pierced completely through the body of
a soldier. The wholesale slaughter at the bridge of Beresina,
in Russia, when. Napoleon was retreating from Moscow, in 1812,
and his troops crowded upon the bridge and broke it, furnishes
a fitting parallel to this great calamity.

When Galileo set a }>endulum in strong vibration by blowing
0!i it whenever it was moving away from his mouth, he gave
a good illustration of the way in which small but regularly re-
peated disturbances grow into consequence. Tyndall tells us that
the Swiss muleteere tie up the bells of the mules, for fear that
the tinkle should bring an avalanche down. The breaking of a
drinking-glass by the human voice, when its fun<lamental note
is sounded, is a well-authenticated feat; and Chladni mentions
an innkeeper who frequently repeated the experiment for the
entertainment of his guests and his own profit. The nightingale
is said to kill by the power of its notes. The bark of a dog is
able to cull forth a response from certain strings of the piano.
And a curious passage has been pointed out in the Talmud, which
discusses the indemnity to be claimed when a vessel is l)roken
by the voice of a domestic animal. If we enter the domain of
music, there is no end to the illustrations which might be given
of these sympathetic vibrations. They play a conspicuous part in
most musical instruments, and the sounds which these instruments
produce would be meagre and ineffective without them.

In the case of vibrations which are simply mechanical, without

* Sinileb's Life of Stephenson, p. 31)0.

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTEY.

being audible, or at any rate musical, the following ocular demon-
stration may be given. A train of wheels, set in motion by a
strong spring wound up in a drum, causes a horizontal spindle
to revolve with great velocity. Two pieces of apparatus like this
are placed at the opposite sides of a room. On the ends of the
spindles which face one another are attached buttons about an
inch in diameter. The two ends of a piece of white tajoe are
fastened to the rims of these buttons. When the spindles, with
the attached buttons, revolve, the two ends of the tape revolve,
and in such directions as to prevent the tape from twisting, unless
the velocities are dilFereut. Even if the two trains of wheels

move with unequal velocities, when independent of each other,
the motions tend to uniformity Avhen the two spindles are con-
nected by the tape. Now, by moving slightly the apparatus at
one end of the room, the tape may be tightened or loosened. If
the tape is tightened, its rate of vibration is increased, and, at the
same time, the velocity of the spindles is diminished on account
of the greater resistance. If the tape is slackened, its rate of
vibration is less, and the velocity of tlie spindles is greater. By
this change we can readily bring the fundamental vibration of
the tape into unison with the machinery, and then the tape re-
sponds by a vibration of great amplitude, visible to all beholders.
If we begin gradually to loosen the tape, it soon ceases to respond.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTUY. 63

on account ot the twotoM eUl'ct iilready (U'scribed, until tlio time
comes wlien thr velocity of the niacliiuery accords with the lirst
hannonie of the ta]ie, and the hitter ilivides beautifully into two
vibrating segments with a node at the middle. As the tension
slowly diminishes, the different harmonics are successively de-
Yclope<l, until linally the ta])e is broken up into numerous segments
only an inch or two in length. The eye is as much delighted by this
visible music as the ear could be if the vibrations were audible ; and
tlie ojjtical demonstration has this advantage, that all nuiy see, while
few have musical ears, A tape is j)referred to a coi"d in this ex-
periment, because it is better seen, and any accidental twist it
may acquire is less troublesome. The wood-cuts on the opposite
page represent the apparatus used, drawn on a scale of one inch to
five inches.

3. CoMPRKssED Am AS A MoTOU. By William Jordan, of
Galena, Illinois.

The very alarming and exhausting consumption of the various
kinds of fuel for steam boilers indicates the necessity of turning
our attention to Water Streams as Motors.

But some may think tliis only ideal. This has always been said
of any change proposed by the members of scientific associations,
and their predecessors, for at least fifty years back. All honor to
those far-seeing, sagacious, persevering, investigating, persecuted
men of science, who gave and established the various changes and
improvements, although taunted at the time as mere fools, — the
beautiful principle of the condensing steam-engine being perfected
by Watt. But I remember the oscillating beam made of wood,
and boilers of lead, two inches thick : now for the same purpose
f^ff of an inch of steel plate is used. The introduction of spinning
by power machinery, and the dandy, or hand-loom, now super-
seded by the power-loom, was fiercely opposed by nearly all
parties, but especially by the mistaken operatives. The very impor-
tant sealing-wax and wafers, flint and steel, candies and s].erm
lamps, sedans, pack-horses, slow wagons, and canal-boats liave

64 A, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTET.

almost disappeared. In tlieir place we have railways, telegraphs,
shoe, sewing, and improved agricultural machines. All these con-
veniences were, at their introduction, scoifed at, and had to be
forced into use.

We formerly sought a populous place to make a railway : now
we make one to settle, populate, and enrich a place. Hence the
Northern Pacific. All honor to its promoters.

And now I come to the question of fostering manufactories re-
quiring cheap, safe, abundant, and ready power. However Utopian
it may seem, please allow me to say that I have many pleasing-
dreams, suggestions, and inferences, that, if I am so favored as to
possess the life hereafter, I shall not be debarred from knowing
the situation and social improvements of those left, and in fifty
more years find that nearly all the power used for manufacturing
will be derived from water-streams, currents, and ocean tides, in lieu
of expensive, uncontrolled, and dangerous steam, as at present.

I suggest that there be erected on land, near a swift slougli, at
the nearest place on the Mississippi or other stream, self-regulating,
under-shot water-wheels, or immersed Archimedean screws, or
propellers, with gearing to cylinders, to compress the atmosphere
through a large reserve air-chamber and main pipe or tube, laid
on or under ground to the city, and smaller branch pipes, cut-off
cocks, &c., to the various manufactories. The inducement to
manufacture with power anywhere in the city, without purchasing a
special water-lot, and without fire, heat, or danger from steam-boiler
explosions, would be great ; and the good effect of the liberated
air would have a valuable sanitary effect, by removing the malaria
and vitiated foul gases. After the first outhiy, tlie running ex-
penses would be very little; and, after one example, I think that
city governments Avould see it to be to their advantage and policy
to supjily })ower of this descri])tion gratuitously.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 65

4 Ox ZoxoniT.ORiTE, A New Hydrous Silicate from Neep-
iGON Bay, North Shore of Lake Superior, B. A. By
A. E. FooTE, of the Agricultural College, Iowa.

Ix 18G7, during a natural history excursion through that portion
of British America that borders upon the north shore of Lake
Superior, I examined some minerals in possession of one of the
traders of Hudson's Bay Company.

JMost of these were varieties of quartz, but among them was
what he called a green agate. I succeeded in obtaining a very
small piece from him. This I examined in the winter of 1867 and
1808, and pretty fully satisfied myself that it was something new.
The specimen that I had was too small to admit of quantitative
tests, and I therefore postponed making public my discovery. In
the summer of 18G8 I organized an exploring party of thirteen
men, having for my main object the discovery of the locality of
this mineral. In this I fully succeeded.

It occurs in the amygdaloid trap on the shore of a small island
which lies off the mouth of Neepigon Bay ; the largest bay on the
north shore of Lake Superior.

It is associated with laumonite, stillbite, prehnite, quartz in the
varieties, amethyst, agate, carnelian, copper, datholite, and calcite.
The mineral is found massive, banded with different shades of
dark green. It has a hardness of 6i to 7^, and is quite tough.
Its sj)ecific gravity is 3.113, on the average of 16; highest 3.157,
lowest 3.042. Heate<l in a test-tube, its powder yields water, and
becomes brownish-white. The thin edges fuse with difficulty to a
dark glass.

With borax and the fluxes it gives i-eactions for iron. In IICl
it dissolves, with the separation of silicic acid, as a fine powder.
The spectroscope shows lime and soda, and qualitative tests
prove alumina and iron. The water was determined by igniting
the powflered mineral in a glass tube ten inches long, closed at
one end, and a quarter of an inch in cilibre.

The water was condensed in the tube, and was removed by
evaporation. It was found that less than oue-tonth per cent was
lost by volatilization.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 9

66 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AKD CHEMISTRY.

The average of a number of estimations gave as the percentage
of water 8.7 ; the highest, 12.9 ; the lowest, 7.03.

The hrae, silica, iron, alumina, and soda were estimated by the
ordinary methods detailed in Fresenius. The physical characters
of the mineral seem to me to be so marked as to be sufficient to
indicate a new mineral, and this also is the oi:)inion of Professors
Gustav Rose and Des Cloiseaux, as well as of many others to
whom I have shown it.

On account of its hardness and toughness it is susceptible
of a high polish, and may be used as a gem. I propose the
name " Zonochlorite," from jcor/j, a band, )[).()}nog, green, and litfog,
stone.

5. On Soil Analyses and their Utility. By Eugene W.
HiLGARD, of Oxford, Miss.

In the "American Journal of Science" for September, 1861,
Professor S. W. Johnson published a criticism on the " Soil Analy-
ses of the Geological Surveys of Kentucky and Arkansas," whose
strictures, to a great extent eminently just, appear to have so
impressed the scientific public in this country, that few, if any^
soil analyses have since then been made in connection with any
state or national sui-vey, exce2)ting that of the State of Missis-
sippi, where the work already begun was continued, either by
myself, or under my charge or recommendation, by others. Hold-
ing myself responsible for this departure from the generally
adoi)ted views, I propose in the present paper to discuss specially
l*rofessor Johnson's objections, and to give my reasons for per-
sisting in a course of researcli that has, more than once, secured
for myself and my co-laborers the coinj^assionate symjialhy of
true believers. While I consider the work far from being as
complete as it should )>(', and whereas for tliat, as well as other
reasons, its publication in iletail may be delayed for some time,
yet I think what can now be said of sufficient importance to be
brought before this mectine:.

niTSICS AND CIIEMISTi:V. 67

I propdso, ill this discussion, to maintain tlie mainly practical
8tnn(l[)oint assumed by Professor Johnson himself. I shall there-
fore leave out of consideration the perfonnance of such exhaustive
investiirations of all the physical and chemical properties of the
soil, as have been made in some cases, for sjieeial purposes ; e.g.^
by Professor Mallet, on some of the cotton soils of Alabama. If
the investigation of each soil, to possess practical importance,
requires from three to six months' labor, we may as well, for
practical purposes, consider such researches out of the question
for the present. We want something analogous to tlie metal-
lurgical assay of minerals, as distinguished from their comj)lete
ultimate analysis. So far, therefore, as the agricultural qualities
of a soil may be inferred and approximately estimated by an
experienced eye, I would relieve the chemist from the exact
numerical determination, e.g., of the power of absorbing heat
from the sun, the specific heat, the water-holding power, the
capillary coefficients, &c. However necessary for theoretical
investigations, I hold that, for practical purposes, these labori-
ous determinations may in most cases be dispensed with ; since
from what has already been done, or what can be done with a
few typical soils, we may infer the comparative magnitude of these
coefficients with a sufficient degree of approximation.

The amount of labor bestowed on each soil by Dr. Peter, as
reported in the Kentucky and Arkansas surveys, approaches very
closely the limit beyond which the immediate advantages to be
derived from such knowledge of soils as analysis may impart
would seem, to many, disproportion ed to the expenditure in-
volved. IIow very modest we are truly, when a purely scientific
object is involved, whose immediate practical ai)plication is not
obvious at a srlance ! In what other branch of technical science
would it be thought admissible to proceed without obtaining such
knowledge of the prime materials as chemistry may afibrd, even if
no immediate application of this knowledge be foreseen '? Our
public treasuries are constantly drawn upon for hundreds of thou-
sands of dollars, in behalf of objects of at least questionable use-
ftilness. Yet Professor Johnson seems to have thoroughly satisfied
our state geologists that they are not justified in giving the virgin
soils of their respective States the benefit of such light as chem-
istry may even now confessedly affi.)rd ; apart from the important
general inferences which may fairly be expected to be drawn
hereafter fi()in the history of their cultivation. IIow arc we to

68 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTEY.

advance in our knowledge of soils, if we abandon as hopeless the
determination of their chemical character ? Are the proofs that
have been brought against the utility of soil analyses really of
such a character as to justify so grave an omission? — an omission,
too, which in many cases cannot hereafter be supplied. Even in
the comparatively youthful State of Mississippi, I have found diffi-
culty in obtaining reliable specimens of some soils, whose great
productiveness had led to their cultivation by the earUest settlers,
over the entire area of their occurrence.

I question the propriety of this omission, and the justice of the
testinionhmi paupertatis thus inflicted upon agricultural and ana-
lytical chemistry.

To define my position, I premise that —

1. I fully agree Avith Professor Johnson as to the comparative
uselessness of a single analysis giving the percentages of soil
ingredients found in ordinary cases. It is only when such analy-
sis demonstrates the (/reat abundance, or very great deficiency, of
one or several primarily important ingredients, that, by itself, it
conveys information of considerable practical importance. Note,
that such cases are not altogether infrequent, even in virgin
soils.

2. I agree that an " average soil " is a non ens, except as re-
ferred, comparatively, to a particidar set of soils closely related in
their origin.

3. Also, that the claim of being able to detect the minute differ-
ences caused by cropping without return to the soil is pre-
carious, and perhaps beyond the power of our j^resent analytical
resources.

4. I further admit that, ordinarily, the analysis of soils, long
cultivated, and treated with numures, can give but little and very
partial information as to the condition and composition of the soil;
from the great difficulty, if not impossibility, of obtaining fair
representative specimens.

5. Furthermore, that to designate soils by the names of the
Cretaceous, Carboniferous, or Silurian strata they may happen
to overlie, is very loose practice; since, in most cases, they
are derived from Quaternary deposits, which may or may not
have been influenced in their composition by the subjacent
rocks.

On the contrary I demur, in the first ])lace, to the broad asser-
tion that " it is practically impossible to obtain average specimens

PHYSICS AXD CnEMISTET. 69

of the sdil," as inapplicable to a very large class, especially of
virgin soils, covering large areas with a uniformity of character
corresponding to that of subjacent formations, from which they
have been directly derived, by substantially identical and uniform,
or uniformly variable, processes.

The importance of this exception is not, it is true, very obvious
in the stony fields of New England (such as discouraged Professor
Johnson in his vacation trip to Northern New York), or, in fact, in
any district where a great variety of formations has directly con-
tributed toward forming the soil, and " chunks " of undecomposed
minerals are diffused through it. In such cases, the analysis of the
rock which has predominantly contributed to the mass of the soil
] (roper would be a more correct index of the prevalent character-
istics of the latter, than if itself were taken in hand. And from
such analyses we could at least deduce what ingredients, and in
what form, it would certainly be uselens to add to the soil.

But when we come to the great plains of the West and South-
west, whose soils are consistently derived from widespread Quater-
nary deposits, com]>osed of materials almost impaljKible save as
regards silicious sand ; or even the rolling uplands of the Gulf
States, whose suljsoil stratum of "yellow loam" can only be
diluted, but not otherwise changed, by the admixture of the
underlying drift, leached long ago of every thing soluble in car-
bonated water, or available to plants : the objection based upon
the supposed impossibility of securing representative specimens
becomes obviously untenable ; as I shall hereafter show from the
close correspondence in the composition of soils, and especially
s^isoils, from widely distant portions of the State, derived from
the same geological (Quaternary) stratum.

A word in regard to the "freaks and accidents" mentioned by
Professor Johnson as liable to make sport of the devoted analyst.
Undoubtedly such errors must be ultimately provided against by
multiplication of analyses (not necessarily of the same acre, but of
other corresponding specimens, in the sense mentioned above) ;
and while questioning the efficiency of a bird or squirrel in viti-
ating a projierly taken sample of soil, I must admit the disastrous
consequences which might result if a dog, cow, or horse were
similarly concerned. No specimen of " virgin soil " can, of course,
be obtained where such animals usually do congregate. But, as a
rule, it is not at all difficult to avoid such ))laces ; while the chance
of accidentally hitting upon a si»oradic animal deposit in tlie broad

70 . A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

woods ov prairies is singularly small, and is notably diminished by
the circumstance, that an attentive observer (and none other
should take soil specimens) will be able to distinguish such locali-
ties for years, by the peculiarity of their vegetation.

I will remark, however, that I consider the sampling of a soil,
with a view to securing a representative specimen, as a matter second
in difBculty and delicacy only to the analysis itself; that I rarely
have thonght it worth while to analyze specimens sent by other
than intelligent persons specially instructed by me ; and even then
have frequently had to reject them, from their having obviously
been taken at an improper locality, e.g.^ near a foot-path, by the
side of a fence, on a partially den\;ded hillside or ravine, in the
bed of a run, at the foot of a tree, &c.

The question of depth must, in my view, be left to be deter-
mined by the circumstances of each case, except in so far as the
extreme depth to which tillage may cause the roots of crops to
reach must be Avithin the limits of the samples taken. Of these,
one should ordinarily rejiresent what, under the usual practice of
tillage, becomes the arable soil ; another, the siibsoil not usually
broken into ; a third will in most cases be useful to show what
materials would be reached Avere the land to be underdrained.
As a rule, I have taken no specimens of soil to a less depth than
six inches, and as much deeper as uniformity of color reached, —
for obvious reasons. But in special cases, when important diifer-
ences were suggested by the aspect of the soil and subsoil, they
have been separately examined, at whatever depth the change of
color might occui*.

With soils of the character referred to, samples selected and
taken with due care, and strict attention to thorough intermixture,
both in the field and subsequently in the laboratory, I am unable
to see why even two grammes may not correctly represent the char-
acteristics of a thousand acre tract. Not that every point of that
tract would be likely to give the same percentage result, perhaps;
especially as regards the surfice soil, which might in j)laces be
more clayey or more sandy than the snm]ilc analyzed. Still, the
relative proportimis of the soil im/redicnts, and their degree of
availability^ would remain substantially tlie same; the wider
range and readier penetration of roots in sandier soils making up,
within certain liniits, for the smaller percentage of available in-
gredients in a given bulk, as compared with more clayey ones.

From the fact that the atmospheric surface water nuist, in its

PHYSICS AXD CHEMTSTRT. 71

course, inevitably have a tendency to bring about such inc(|u:ih-
ties, by carryint; forward the finer ]>articles of the soil in larj^er
projjortion than the coarser ones, as Avell as from the greater in-
fluence of vegetation, we shall, in the series of analyses made a
jtostulate by Professor Johnson, expect to find a closer agreement
between those of subsoils than those of surface soils. Such I find
to be very decidedly the case ; so much so, that I habitually look
to the fonner as the most reliable index of a soil's distinctive
character. To this there can be no legitimate objection, when,
as in all the u)>land soils now under consideration, the surface soil
is directly derived from the subsoil, and its depth is less than
thorough culture would give to the arable soil.

As regards the analysis itself, I premise that I have always
found even the most " chemically pure " reagents sold by dealers
quite inapplicable to the purpose of soil analysis. From first to
last, I have prepared or purified these myself; and, as regards the
acids, esjiecially liydrochloric, I have found it necessary to reject,
as a rule, even the purest, after keeping it for a few weeks in a
glass bottle. The same is true, and perhaps in an aggravated
degree, of aqua ammonia3. The severe ordeal of sIoav evajjoration
on a bright jdatinum foil will rarely be passed by ammonia a fort-
night old ; and still less frequently by hydro-sulphide of ammonium.

Armed with 'these, and a multitude of other precautions, usual
and unusual, to secure the utmost possible accuracy ; always treat-
ing the soil with the same large excess of acid of uniform strength,
and precipitating all corresponding precipitates as much as pos-
sible from the same volume of liquid; using none but the best
Bohemian glass, and platinum vessels, and filters specially ex-
tracted, — ojjerating, in short, as uniformly as the nature uf the
materials would permit, I confess I felt considerable confidence
in tlie correctness of my results, until the ex2)eriments made in
Bunsen's laboratory, on the solubility of glass vessels, gave rise to
unjdeasant doubts. On consideration, however, I found that the
(sensibly constant) error so introduced would not, when allowed
for, amount to more than the difierences between two analyses of
one and the same material, or vitiate in any serious degree the
conclusions arrived at. Nevertheless, I shall hereafter, to the
utMKjst possible extent, carry on all operations liable to introduce
eiTors on this score in platinum and porcelain vessels, as advised
by Bunsen.

As regards Dr. Peters failure to determine the amounts of sol-

72 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

uble silex, nitric acid, ammonia, chlorine, and the degree of oxida-
tion of the iron, I agree that the former is desirable, not only
because, whether "essential" or not, some plants do habitually
absorb it in very large quantities, and it might be best to let them
have it ; but also because it is a desirable index of the degree of
decomposition which the soil silicates have undergone. I have
therefore made this determination regularly, by boiling with solu-
tiiju of sodium carbonate. In a series of these determinations, an
unmistakable relation between the soluble silex and the amount
of lime in the soil becomes manifest ; as might, indeed, have been
foreseen.

As regards nitric acid, the consideration suggested by Professor
Johnson himself — viz., that its quantity must be exceedingly
variable, within short periods, in one and the same soil — seems
to me a sufficient dispensation from the laborious determination.

The same holds good, in a measure, for ammonia. Its quantity
varies continually in the soil, as it does in the atmosphere ; its
chief absorbers in the soil are " humus " and clay. Where these
prevail largely, ammonia can scarcely be deficient as a nutritive
ingredient to an injurious extent; albeit, more might doubtless be
beneficially added. Moreover, the characteristic effects of ammonia
on vegetation are sufficiently obvious (in " running to weed ") to
render its determination in virgin soils, laborious and even uncer-
tain as it is, a matter of comparatively Yittle j^ractical consequence,
hoAVCver great might be its theoretical interest.

As for the determination of the degree of oxidation of iron, I
confess I fail to see its practical bearing. When ferric oxide is
present, plants surely can have no difficulty in reducing the modi-
cum they need to a soluble condition. When ferrous oxide exists
to any great extent, it indicates a want of drainage, and manifests
itself both in the color of the soil and in the poisonous effect on
vegetation. But farmers surely do not need the aid of chemical
analysis to tell them that their soil needs drainage and aeration I
A determination made to-day would be of no value to-morrow, if
the soil had been plouglied in the interval.

Finally, Dr. Peter does determine chlorine, in the treatment of
soils with carbonated water; though it is not put down in the
general analysis. However, the soluble chlorides, like the nitrates,
are so constantly liable to variation and, as experience sliows, so
little likuly to be (k-ficieiit in tlie soil, that its omission would not
be a serious practical objection.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 73

A much graver defect is the failure to determine separately the
orijanic matter ("humus") and the chemically combined water;
and to this is o\vin>jf, in a measure, the unsatisfactoriness of the
analyses as regards information on the physical character of the
soils. A large amount of water of hydration indicates, in ordinary
cases, a correspondingly clayey soil, where heaviness in working
may, or may not, be relieved by a large amount of "humus." The
" volatile matter " item, however, gives us no information whatso-
ever on these vitally important points ; and there is, unfortunately,
no simple method by which the determinations in question can
be effected even approximately. That they should form part of
every soil analysis, is obvious, if only on account of the impor-
tance of " humus."

I have attempted to obtain a reliable scale of the different
degrees of " heaviness " of soils, from the determination of their
maximum absorption of hygroscopic moisture at ordinary temper-
atures. I find that at temj^eratures from about -\-T'^ to -\- 21'^,
the amount of aqueous vapor absorbed by a thin layer of soil
exposed to a saturated atmosphere remains very nearly constant,
being for —

Very sandy soils 1.5 to 2.0 per cent.

Loam soils 5.0 to 8.5 „

Clay soils, very heavy .... 12.0 to 15.0 „

there being, of course, all intermediate grades of hygroscopic
power, as well as of " heaviness." It appears that, for this interval
of temperature, the decrease of absolute absorbing power in the
soil, resulting from the rise of temperature, is just balanced by the
increased amount of vapor diffused in the air, — not an unimportant
circumstance, with regard to vegetable life.

There are, however, two soil ingredients which interfere seriously
with the correctness of the estimate as to "heaviness," derived
from the coefficient of absorj)tion, viz., " humus " and ferric oxide.
Buth of these are highly hygroscopic, yet both counteract the
"heaviness" caused by excess of clay. Moreover, there is a class
of soils (viz., fine silicious silts) whose exceeding " heaviness " in
cultivation is much complained of, yet whose absorbent power is
very small.

When, as in the majority of cases, the surface soil has been
directly derived from the subsoil, the disturbing effect of the
"humus" may be sensibly eliminated by comparing, not the soils,

A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXI. 10

74 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

but the subsoils, in tliis resiDect.* As to the ferric oxide, there are
among about two hundred Mississippi soils analyzed but three or
four whose agricultural qualities would have been seriously under-
estimated by a reliance upon the coefficient of absorption alone.

But I do not for a moment admit, that, in a material so complex
both in its composition and mode of action, any one or few data,
whether chemical, physical, or agricultural, may be relied upon to
characterize the soil : or, as Professor Johnson expresses it, " to do
violence to agriculture." So far from this, I consider that a proper
interpretation of the analytical results must take into consideration,
not only all the chemical and physical facts observed on the speci-
men, but all that has been or can be observed in loco, — the loca-
tion, depth, derivation, relations to drainage, &c. ; as well as all
that is known concerning the qualities or j^eculiarities of the soil,
both in its natural state and in ciiltivation. As Professor Johnson
says, it should " forni part of a system of observations and trials ;
must be a step in some research ; must stand, not as an index to
a barren fact, but as the revelator of fruitftil ideas."

Such, precisely, has been my object from the beginning of
my researches on the soils of Mississippi, for sixteen years past.
Clearly, the difl'erence between Professor Johnson's position and
mine is one of degree only ; yet this difference is not a slight one,
since while, as before remarked, I have made, or caused to be made,
some two hundred analyses of soils and subsoils, his classic works
on the growth and nutrition of plants do not contain so much as a
tabular exemplification of the composition of various soils, as re-
sulting from chemical analysis. If, then, " the probabilities of its
uselessness in direct application to practice are so great," as Pro-
fessor Johnson seems to hold, I have committed a grievous error,
and squandered the substance of the State.

I think that the considerations already adduced should plead
measurably in ejctenuation of my course. But I will now state
succinctly what services, in my view, soil analyses may fairly
claim to be capable of performing, when conducted substantially
in the manner, to the extent, and under the conditions defined
above.

I take it for granted that, if in the determination of the mineral
ingredients we were able to distinguish clearly iVom one another
the portion immediately available to plants from that which is in

* In such cases, tlie surface soil is always more sandy than the subsoil.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 75

an unavailable form, we should go far toward accomplishing what
was originally claimed for soil analysis; and this Dr. Peter at-
tempted to do by treatment of the soils with carbonated water.
It cannot be doubted, however, that plants, as well as agricul-
turists, have at their disposal much more powerful, or at least
more energetic, solvents ; and that, therefore, a determination of
those ingredients which may fairly be considered practically within
the reach of agriculture must go deeper tlian does that with car-
bonated water.

Opinions may differ widely as to the proper strength and nature
of the solvent {AufscMiesstingsmittel) to be selected.* Hydro-
fluoric acid, or ignition with the alkaline earths, would evidently
go too far ; as no soil, probably, will ever yield up the whole of
its nutritive ingredients to plants, and fertility is far fi-om being
proportional to the whole amount of potash, phosphoric acid, &c.,
contained therein.

When, however, a 2->artial solvent of uniform strength is used
in all cases alike, and its action continued for the same length of
time, it may fairly be presumed that, as between soils of similar
origin, the amounts so rendered soluble are, in a measure, propor-
tional to the amounts of available nutriment present.

In using hydrochloric acid of the strength 1.11 to 1.12 sp. gr.,
obtained by slow steam distillation of stronger or weaker acid,
rejecting the first and last portions, I have in most cases found
quite a satisfactory agreement between the results so obtained and
the experience of cultivators as to the productiveness and duration
of the respective soils ; always provided, that the difference in the
amounts of inert sand present, of specific gravity, of depth of soil,
&c., were taken into account.

The proviso is important ; but that with a proper local knowl-
edge these allowances can be made, and that in most cases the
information thus gained regarding the nature and treatment of
the soil will be vastly more complete and reliable than the judg-
ment of any number of " old intelligent farmers," my experience
has fully convinced me : witness the egregious mistakes daily
made by such in the selection of new lands. Moreover, a small
minority only of farmers is likely to possess the requisite "age and
intelligence ; " and it is quite important that the multitude of those
less fortunate should have the benefit of all the help science can
give them.

I will adduce but one " odious example " of a widely prevalent

76 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

error in reference to the charaeter of a class of soils, that I have
as yet been unable to eradicate, even from among the " old and
intelligent;" who are unfortunately very much given to theorizing
on inadequate premises. Our prairie soils are notoriously limy;
they are also very "sticky;" and the mud takes the hair^oif the
feet of cattle. Ergo^ every "sticky" clay soil in the State is
called, considered, and treated as a " prairie " soil, especially if the
hardened clods adhering above the hoofs of cattle should carry
the hair with th-em. If such soil is unthrifty, and rusts cotton, it
is because " there is too much lime in it," which " scalds " the seed-
lings. IrP matter of fact, most of these soils are notably deficient
in lime, so as to be most directly and immediately benefited by its
application wherever it has been tried, in accordance with my
suggestion. The lime here acts, probably, as much chemically as
physically ; the clay being rich in potash, as per analysis.* While
the physical defects of these soils are doubtless the main cause
of the crop failures, yet analysis has suggested a remedy which
relieves, for the time being, from the necessity of the more costly
improvements ; lime being comparatively easy of access.

Analogous cases are far from infrequent, both in this and in the
adjoining States ; and I have been led to attach special importance
to the determination of lime in soils, from the (not unexpected)
rule which seems to hold good very generally, viz., that, cmteris
paribus^ the thriftiness of a soil is sensibly dependent upon the
amount of lime it contains ; while, at the same time, in the usual
mode of culture without return to the soil, the duration of fertility
is correspondingly diminished, and its cessation is very abrupt
wherever much lime is present.

It may be said that, after all, this is but what, from data already
known, might have been expected. Granted ; then, cl fortiori^
soil analysis, involving the determination of lime, is of considerable
use in determining the present and future value of soils.

In speaking of the " amount " of lime, I must be understood to
refer, not so much to its absolute percentage, as to its quantity in
comparison with that of potash, which, with phosphoiic acid, is
what all our fertilizers chiefly aim to supply. Their determination
must, of course, be considered of prime importance, since their
absence or extreme scarcity is fatal to profitable fertility ; while,

* See, for example, the article " Heavy Flatwooda Soil," in my Miss. Hep.,
18G0, PI). 271^ '27'J.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTET. 77

when they are present, even thougli immediately available for
absorption to a slight extent only, we possess in lime, ammonia,
&c^ and the fallow, ready and })owcrful means for correcting
their chemical condition.

Here again the practical value of soil analysis is direct and
indisputable. It is of no small interest to know whether the soil
we intend to cultivate contains 75 per cent of potash and 25
of ])hosplioric acid, soluble in II CI, or only the fifth or tenth part
of these amounts. One will bear improvement of all kinds, — will
pay for underdraining, terracing, &c. ; while the other, quite simi-
lar in aspect perhaps, would not, according to Liebig's testimony,
ordinarily be ca]»able of profitable culture.

Again it is well known that the same species of plants may
occui)y soils of widely different quality and value. True, an
attentive observer will in such cases see differences in the mode
of development ; * yet these are often such as to escape ordinary
remark, and grievous disappointments frequently arise from this
source, with new settlers especially. It is of no small importance
to be able to identify^ as well as to distinguish, soils resembling
each other ; and this, soil analysis can undoubtedly do, if there is
any virtue in the law of probabilities even, — admitting all that
may otherwise be said against their reliability.

Even if no other direct benefits than those already mentioned
could be attained by the chemical and mechanical analysis of soils
(which I do not admit, and expect to prove otherwise hereafter) ;
even if we leave out of consideration the addition to our general
knowledge which may fairly be expected to result from extensive
series of such investigations, carried out upon a uniform plan,
whereby accidental errors (whether caused by " birds or squirrels,"
or analytical and other mistakes) will be eliminated ; even thus, I
contend that the practical and theoretical value of soil analyses is
sufficiently great to justify whatever labor and expenditure may
be bestowed upon them by state and national surveys; and that the
neglect with which this branch of research has of late been cus-
tomarily treated is the more to be regretted, as no probable amount
of private effort can accomplish what must, of necessity, be done
on an extended scale, and with the prestige^ voluntary assistance,
and interest, not usually accorded to any but piablic enterprises.
And with due deference to the author of the two volumes whose

* Miss Kep., 18G0, p. 203.

78 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

extraordinary merits no one appreciates more than myself, I call
upon my colleagues in State surveys, especially in the West and
South, to reconsider this subject before it is too late, and a legis-
lative fiat declares their work to be " finished." It is true that the
agricultural colleges must and will take up and continue, as far as
possible, the investigation of the agricultural peculiarities of each
State ; but the special and local experience acquired by those con-
ducting a field survey, as well as their opportunities for extensive
and comparative observation, are unfortunately " not transferable,"
even to the finest quarto report. In order to attain their highest
degree of usefulness, our agricultural colleges should teach, not
merely general principles, together with a sufiiciency of the handi-
craft of agriculture ; but they should be enabled to point out to
each student, with reference to his particular neighborhood, How
Crops Grow, and How Crops Feed.

III. PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE.

1. The Delta of the Mississippi; — the Physics of the
River, the Control of its Floods, and the Redemp-
tion OF THE Alluvion. By Caleb G. Forshey, of New
Orleans, Louisiana.

In the Delta of a river, we may properly embrace all the allu-
vial lands below the point where its first extravasated waters leave
its banks, and may never return till they reach the ocean.

On the right bank of the Mississippi River, three miles below
Cape Girardeau, in Missouri, the high waters escaped over the
banks, })rior to levees, passed into the White Water Lakes and
swamps, connecting with the St. Francis and the. Black Rivers,
and thence down the Wliite River and Arkansas Valleys, the
Bayou Ma^on, Washita, Red, and Atchafalaya Rivers, to the Gulf.
These waters may never again, and often did (or do) never again,
enter the Mississippi.

rUYSlrS OF THE GLOBE. 79

It is, therefore, proper to describe as the Delta all the alluvial
lands on the ^lississippi, and its affluents, below Cape Girardeau *

This Delta,t according to my recently revised calculations, con-
tains 38,706 square miles, including the alluvions of the several
affluents below the point where their waters mingle. The contluent
alluvions of the Ai-kansas and Red Rivers add respectively 500
and 1887 square miles to this great Delta valley.

Such is the fertility, such the climate, and such the productive-
ness of this body of land, that its rescue from submergence, by
annual floods, becomes a matter of the highest moment to Ameri-
can wealth and civilization.

The subjects involved in this problem of reclamation embrace
the Climatology and Physical Geography, the Geology and Physics,
oT the Mississippi Valley and River.

These must be reviewed in outline, in order to enter intelli-
gently upon "The Control of the Floods of the River by Levees."

Climatology and Physical Geography.

The Delta extends across eight and a half degrees of latitude,
from 29"^ to 38^ 30' north. It reaches from the semi-tropical land
of the orange and lemon to the border of the ice-floes that, in

* In the year 1845, Sir Charles Lyell, the distinguished geologist, examined
tlie Mississippi Delta and River. He had limited the Delta to the head of the
Atchafalaya, and gave it an area of 13,600 square miles. He visited the
writer, then residing at Vidalia, and busily engaged in writing a critique upon
his chapter on the " Mississippi Valley," intended for his use. In this paper the
head of the Delta was fixed at Cape Girardeau. Sir Charles insisted upon the
completion of the essay ; and he read it in my name before the British Associa-
tion, and recognized my addition to his Delta. He has, however, in his recent
edition, refixed the liead of tlie Delta at the Atchafalaya (see " Principles,"
new edition).

t The swamps and lakes and sunken lands lying south-west from Cape
Girardeau above the Crowly and Bloomfiold Ridges, sweeping across the White
Water Creek, the Castor, St. Francis, and the Black Rivers, are embraced in
this Delta. In fact, all but about five miles wide for the Crowly and Bloom-
field Ridges, which run down to Helena, — all else to the Black and Wiiite
Rivers, below tlieir junction, down to the Arkansas River basin, and taking a
small portion of its valley. My line runs across to the sources of the Bartho-
lomew, and down its valley, and that of the Ouachita, to Harrisonburg ; tiience
around Catahoula Lake to Red River, up that to Bayou Rapides ; thence
down the Rapides — Bocuf, Cocoarie, Teche, and Vermillion — to the Gulf.
Small arcius of upland appear at various places, but nearly all is below the lino
of levels of the Mississippi at points opposite and east of this line.

80 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEiHSTRY.

rigoi'ous winters, block the channel and arrest navigation of the
river.

Its breadth in longitude has an average of one-tenth its length,
being about sixty miles, though it contracts and expands from
thirty miles in its narrowest width — as at Natchez and at Helena
— to about ninety miles, as at Napoleon and at Manchac to Last
Island.

The Delta is everywhere thridded and thwarted with intei--
locking bayous and navigable channels ; placing every cultivable
acre of its lands immediately upon, or very near to, steamboat
navigation. In this particular it has no parallel known to civil-
ized man. It is estimated that about one-tenth of the whole
area is taken up in channels and water spaces ; and yet such is
their value and importance as to subtract nothing from, but
rather to add largely to, the total value of its measured miles
of land.

The fertility of the soils, both by analysis and experiment, is
of the highest quality ; in fact, it is almost inexhaustible. Accord-
ingly, it produces, in its southern two degrees, the great staples of
rice and sugar in abundance and perfection unknown in any other
portion of North America. In fact, sugar is cultivated only in
the Delta, and south of latitude 31° 30'. In nearly all portions of
the Delta, but more thoroughly in the five degrees north from 31°
(north of Red River), cotton grows in the Delta lands in double
the quantities of the best uplands ; and corn, and sweet and Irish
potatoes, in every portion of the Delta, grow with facility and
abundance, and with a minimum of cultivation. In the northern
border the cereals grow and mature to the satisfaction of the
agi'iculturist. The fruits of the tropical and temperate zones —
oranges, figs, grapes, apples, and peaclies — are duly distributed and
easily grown, each in its proper habitat, over the Delta ; wliile
pecans, the most valuable of all nuts, gi-ow in wild profusion over
the entire alluvial basin.

The remarks as to productiveness are applicable to every acre
not submerged, and not merely to chosen spots, as ui^on the ujd-
lands adjacent on either side.

We may compute then that 22,920,320 acres of actually produc-
tive land are upon this alluvial basin.* In this respect it is probably
the largest body of like fertility known to geography.

* Tliis is exclusive of 3,G1G square miles of irreclaimable marsh, as will appear
beyond.

I'llVSICS OF THE GI.015E.

The forests of the Delta are remarkable for the largeness of the
trees, and the exuberance of folia<;e and vines.

The oaks and the cypress are the leading timber trees, though
many others are used. The live oaks in the southern j)ortion are
large and very abundant, indicating mainly a soil not often inun-
dated. I5ut the cypress trees of vast height and magnitude, and
of unlimited demand, grow best in the lowest swamps, :ind do
greatly redeem and render equally valuable (as cultivable land)
the most impracticable portions of the whole valley. Fifty thou-
sand feet of lumber, clear stuflj from an acre of cypress swamp, is
no unusual product.

So inviting is the temperature of this Delta, during the largest
portion of the year, from the northern limit of the cotton region,
south ; and so j>i-omptly, uniformly, and abundantly do the soils
respond to the labors of the husbandman, that its hundreds of
winding streams were lined with settlers before the war, even
anterior to any certain protection, by levees, from frequent inun-
dation. It was common to say that a loss of two cro])S in ten, by
ovei-tlow, could be better borne than the half crops ])roduced upon
the uplands.

Freedom from the extremes of heat and cold form a great
feature of this Delta; and distinguish it greatly above the allu-
vions of the Nile, the Ganges, the Amazon, and the Orinoco.

The annual mean temperature at New Orleans, Baton Rouge,
Natchez, Yicksburg, Helena, Memphis, and Cairo, show a regular
gradation from 69^ to 45".

The rainfall over the Delta, while it is abundant and well-dis-
tributed, has no extreme exceptions ; but crops are invariably
j>roduced.

Spring.

Summer.

Autumn.

Winter.

Annual Mean.

Inches.

IlKllCS.

laches.

Indies.

Inches.

Memphis ....

11.0

7.5

7. 'J

15.0

41.8

Viekshurg . . .

11.0

12.0

10.5

Hi. 7

50.9

Natchez ....

12.0

11.8

'J.8

15.9

50.3

Baton Rouge . .

13.5

18.4

12.2

15.0

60.4

I'laqiiemiiies . .

15.9

2G.3

S.4

15.7

66.3

New Orleans . .

11.1

10.6

11.8

12.0

51.5?*

Mean . . .

12.4

15.4

lU.o

15.U

53.5

• Some mistake appears in the figures for New Orleans. Tlie rainfall is
Bi.xty-nine inches, I am convinced, by the scale, and by recollection
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 11

82 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

In the lower portion of the Delta, bordering the Gulf, the marsh
lands occupy 7232 square miles of area.

Of tliis portion of the Delta, about one half is reclaimable ; the
other half is irreclaimable, and would serve merely as reservoirs
and water spaces, distributed through the reclaimed lands ; thus
reducing the reclaimable Delta to 35,813 miles.

Of the portion deemed reclaimable north of parallel 30°, about
one-fitlh is now occupied by man, mostly subject to occasional
inundation from the river; the remaining four-fifths, or nearly
30,000 square miles, are utterly uninhabitable Mdthout the protec-
tion of levees against river and sea.

The water spaces, which occupy about one-tenth of the Delta,
are so valuable to the habitable area, that no deduction should be
made from the acres embraced in computing the value of the
lands.

And in the computation of value over such a realm of fertility,
by what measure shall we estimate it? Certainly dollars, or gold,
in any form, will be inadequate to its measure. As well fix a value
on freedom or civilization. To a nation or government like the
United States, an area of this magnitude, lying for 600 miles across
and along the borders of seven States, has no possible valuation
estimable in money.

But when we consider that it will sustain a population of five
millions of human beings, with nearly all the luxuries and all the
comforts of life produced within the Delta itself; and that it will
sustain double that number, or ten millions, with comforts and
necessary wants, more profuse tlian in the denser populations of
Europe, we approach an appreciation of the value of the Missis-
sippi Delta, to the future demands of civilization.

Still as ])roductions are measured, in Hhe census tables, by
dollars, and some a[)proach to the capacity for production may
be computed, we give the figures in a subsequent page, as some
measure or index to the value of the Delta in the nation's wealth.

The Basin.

But the entire Delta lies beneath the level of the Mississippi's
flood Avaters, as inferable from fact, so apparent in its geology,
and from actual measurements across the basin or valley.

The great high waters are so numerous, and the ordinary high
water so completely above the body of tlie cultivable lands in the
Delta, that it were futile to attempt a general cultivation or

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBK. 83

liahitation of tlio allm ion witliout some etTl'Ctual harrier against
the floods.

The sections levelled across the Delta (see " Delta Survey "),
and now carefully digested, reveal the result, that the average
depth of the alluvial level, below the highest water-marks known,
amounts to twelve and a half feet ; and in obtaining this result
the whole marsh region south of latitude 30° is excluded. The
maximum depth is twenty-seven feet.

Hence, if unrestrained by levees, the floods of the Mississippi
River would fill the alluvial basin, to the high-water marks of
the river banks at corresponding latitudes, the alluvial sea would
be six hundred miles long, and sixty miles in average width, and
would have a mean depth of twelve feet six inches. It is there-
fore obvious that there would be no safety for life or property
under such a contingency.

And although the flood might never acquire this maximum
elevation, the records show that in the years 1809, 1811, 1813,
1815, 1823, 1828, 1836, 1844, 1847, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1858, 1859,
18G2, 1865, 1868, and 1871,* the floods approached very near,
within a few inches (less than half a foot at New Orleans, and
k'ss tlian two feet in the river the whole length of the Delta,
where not recently disturbed by cut-offs), of the greatest high-
water mark. And that mark is necessarily above the level of all
the alluvial lands, lying opposite and south of each point of ob-
servation, on the river bank.

This isolated view will give some appreciation of the magnitude
of the work for restraining these floods ; for in all the seasons
named prior to, and including, 1844, the main body of the Delta
Valley was a fresh water turbid sea.

The following is a copy of original Scale, with Extension of
Scale, and insertion of Water Marks and Dates since its produc-
tion, to wit, from 1850 to 1872 inclusive. (August 11, 1872.)

* The high-water marks of the various years, as published by the writer, with
diagram scale, in the " Concordia Intelligencer," in 1841, have been variously
repiated since; and were publislied in the " Deha Survey" of Huniplireys and
Abbot, in IHHO, with additions furnislied by me uj) to iHoO, and by the " Survey "
to iHijO inclusive. It is herewith reproduced, with additions up to the present
year, 1872.

'Si

^c5
to

« PSQ

. o

'a „

CO *^

00 O

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

2 .— ; : — 1859, May 6th.

1ft.

2 ft.— 12

^ 1815, June 22d. Highest mark ever known.

1828, March 26th.
18-19, March 12th.

^ 1823, May 2.'?(1.
= 1813, June 8th.

1824, May 6th.
1844, July 16th.
1847, April 25th.

1836,_May31st^^gg^^ March 16th. 1853, June 7th. 1858, May 9th.
1811, June 4th. Higliest for forty years.
1845, April 8th.

( 1840, June 10th.
I 1809, May 4.
) 1819, May 27th. 1825, May 2d.
1848, June 28th. 1802, April 20th.

1821, Marcli 30th.
1854, April 14th.

— 1830, May 19th.

1826, March 12th. 1814, June 17th.

1822, June 1st. ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^g^^, AprU 8th.
1817, May l.st. 1832, May 17th.

1816, May 2d.
1841, May 30th.

1837, April 30th,
1818, April 20th.
1812, June 15th.

1820, April 5th.

1838, April 16th,
1835, June 3d.

1852, June 15th.
1827, April 26th.

1850, February 26th.
1833, ISIarch 12th.

- 1834, Ajiril 6th.

1860, February Cth.

^5§

c3 I m

e -5

S H 5 g

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 85

Kotel. — Several years the highest mark did not reacli tliis Scale, it was not within two
feet of the highest mark.

Thus— 1829, :^Iay 7th, the water was 2 ft. li In. down.
1839, April 8th^ „ „ 3 ft. 4 In. ,,
184G. June 1st, „ „ 3 ft. Oj in. ,,

Xote 2. — As Red Kiver empties below Vidalia, these reductions would be subject to its
miKlilications, as to date and altitude. Still this is the nearest appro.ximation in
my reaeh. C. G. F.

Carrolton, La., January 1, 1850.

A'ote 3. — 1S.")5, April 7th. Highest water-mark did not reach within 5.9 ft. of the highest
mark of this Scale.

The question boldly put by the settlers upon the Mississippi's
banks was this : " Shall man, or the waters, possess this realm of
fertility?"

Their own answers were modestly made, in the presence of so
sublime an enemy, by the rescue of small portions of land along
the banks of the river ])roper. Small levees were thrown up in
front of New Orleans, and the neighboring portions of the river
banks.

Levee History.

The engineer who laid out the city (of one mile front from
Canal Street to Esplanade) in the year 1717, De la Tour, directed
a dike to be built in front, to protect the city or settlement from
overflow. In 1728, the planters were constructing levees, each
on his own front, for some thirty miles above.

Subsequently, the struggle was gradually maintained, the feeble
attacking party growing stronger and stronger, without any hope
or i)lan of general conquest, for one hundred yeans, till 1828.

The extent of levees then Iniilt reached nearly to Red River,
and to Pointe a la Hache, in all about four hundred miles of levee.
Still the struggle was individual, through the three changes of
government. Lands were granted upon condition of levee con-
struction in front, and thus the planter was left without systematic
aid from government.

After the disastrous flood of 1828, the enterprise of the young
State of Louisiana was aroused to the necessity of some joint
effort, authorized and enforced by law, for the rescue of the front
lands from inundation.

By the years 18oU and 183S, the first great outlets were closeil :
Bullet's Bayou, opening into Lake Concordia, and Bayou L'Argent,
opening into Lake St. John (liolh in Concordia) a few miles above

86 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Natchez. These were closed by parish enactment and tax, and
not by riparian proprietors. And these two works mark the era
of public levee history, undertaken with a view to a system for
the reclamation of the entire alluvium.

Strong opposition was made to this attempt, and the two
pai'ties arrayed themselves for and against the closure of these
outlets.*

The strong advocacy of interest, perhaps, rather than the bias
of true science (for both were champions of the same cause), pre-
vailed in favor of the continuous levees and closure of outlets.
And one after another Bi*uin's Bayou, opening into Biuin's Lake ;
Alligator Bayou and River Styx, leading to Lake St. Joseph;
Bayou Vidal, leading to Tensas ; and Providence, leading to Lake
Providence, were closed. So that by the great flood year, 1844,
every Old River Lake, for six hundred miles up the right bank of
the Mississippi, was effectually closed ; and numerous as were the
breaches in the levees, so newly and inadequately constructed,
not one of the great levees closing these grand outlets gave way.
*Such was the influence of the levees, north of Red River, on
the general surface of the Tensas Basin, that the water-marks
inside the Leveed Basin lacked an average of four feet of the
level attained in 1828. At Trinity, General Liddel's, the differ-
ence was 5.6 inches. At Clark's Bayou, on Lake St. Joseph, the
difference Avas four feet.

These results fortified and stimulated the advocates of levees,
and confirmed the policy of closing outlets ; and although nearly
all the settlers on the interior streams were drowned out, their
stock and much of their fencing swept away, they entered upon
new and more elaborate efforts for perfecting and extending the
levees on the front.

This struggle was continued under a desultory system of levees,
built by parish authority, until the year 1853, when the swamp
lands were made available for levee construction, and the strong
arm of national aid was indirectly felt.

* As a young engineer, the writer stood uiioii the liigli bluffs at Natchez, in
1838, and lool<e(l down upon tiie Concordia plantations, and the vast Mississippi
alluvion, and deemed it worthy tlie amliition of a hero in liis profession to under-
take its rescue. For two years he investigated the question of possibility.
Then, in 1840, he espoused the levee cause, and wrote the first essay he ever
read in favor of the complete closure of all outlets, and the leveeing and reclaim-
ing tlie entire DelUi; and to this day he lias never faltered.

PHYSICS OF TlIK GLOBE. 87

III the year 1849, the State Lesjislature of Louisiana li:iil meino-
riali/.i'd the Conjjress of tlie United States, praying for aid in the
matti'r of proteetion against floods; and basing their argument
for aid mainly upon the interest the General Government had in
the unsold lands >n the Delta.

The response made by the Congress was twofold. The Delta
Survey was ordered to be made by the United States Engineers,
and the swamp lands unsold were donated to the several States;
so that by the year 1853, the several States interested had enacted
laws relating to levees, contemplating the rescue of the entire
Delta.

The survey ordered was undertaken, and for three years con-
tinued, and partial reports Avere made upon its progress ; but the
impression had been confirmed in the minds of the people, that
the great Delta was made for the uses of man, and that a cour-
ageous people could rescue it.

So the progress of levee construction was right onward in s]>ite
of the diversity of jurisdiction, the want of uniform system, and
the repeated crevasses caused by feeble levees, by accident, and
by criminal violence.

In the year 1858, according to Humphreys and Abbot, the line
of levees was complete on the left bank from Pointe a la Ilache
to Baton Rouge; thence to Vicksburg they were not required,
because the river impinges or approaches near the bluffs for this
distance of two hundred miles. From Vicksburg to Horn Lake, the
northern limit of the Mississippi, the line was completed, including
a stupendous levee across the Yazoo Pass, the greatest outlet yet
closed. Thence, to the head of the Delta, no levees were required,
except very short ones for local convenience.

On the right bank, ascending, the line was complete through
Louisiana, and up the Arkansas front to a few miles below the
mouth of the Arkansas. Thence the banks of the Arkansas and
Missouri fronts were well-nigh lined with levees, wherever they
were required, to the heail of the Delta at Cape Girardeau, the
openings above the mouth of the St. Francis amounting to about
twenty-five miles, and those below to about fifteen miles, — forty
miles in all.

These openings were well-nigh closed, and the entire system
grtjatly strengthened and improved by the beginning of the year
1861, when the war interfered and arrested all work upon the
levees.

88 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Physics of the Mississippi River.

The writer takes the liberty at this point to refer to his own
labors, in the early years of investigation of the phenomena of
this unexplored river.

In the year 1849, after eleven years of investigation, chiefly
amateur, and while engaged mainly upon other professional labor,
in reply to a call made by the Senate Committee on Levees
of Louisiana, I prepared a " Memoir upon the Physics of the
Mississippi," in which I collected and condensed, into a few dia-
grams and tables, the results of these labors ; and wrote half a
dozen brief pages of premises, principles, and conclusions ; all of
which were published as a public document ; and the essay was
put to sleep, with the oblivion predestined for State documents.

Having performed a large share of the labors of the Delta Sur-
vey — to secure Avhich Survey my " Memoir " was contributed,
"with others of analogous kind — and having found my work very
warmly acknowledged and commended in a most elaborate work
(which will give immortality to its authors), I find sufficient
merit in my original " Memoir " to reproduce a portion of its text ;
believing, as I do, that its main doctrines were aflirmed by our
subsequent most elaborate treatment of the same questions.

I think, further, that in its density it has the merit of a ready
synopsis of the whole Physics of the Mississippi River.

In treating questions now relating to the practicability of the
complete control of the flood waters, I believe its introduction
liere better than any thing new I could write or substitute.

I offer this explanation — no apology — for tlie resurrection of
the Physics in this connection.

After collating and tabulating the observations and measure-
ments of eleven years, I make the following induction: —

Application of Statistics and Principles.

Reasoning li priori, the following inductions and conclusions seem un-
avoidable : —

(a) The channel of the river is made by the abra.-ive force of its waters.
A greater force would produce a greater chaiuiel, and a less force a less
channel.

(6) The greater the channel for a given quantity of water and inclination,
the less the liability to overflow.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOI'.E. 89

(r) Concentration of force increases abrasive power, and dilTiision of
force reduces it.

(d) Levees confine and concentrate the waters, concentrate and increase
the force, therefore increase the abrasion, thLTcfure enlarge the capacity
of the channel.

(/) If the channel be already greater than necessary for its servitudes,
it would be safe to relieve it of some of its growing force by outlets.

(g) If the channel be too small for its servitudes, it would be wise to
increase the channel-making power, by closing outlets.

18. The Mississippi River discharges a given quantity annually, and this
is divided into daily supplies, with a maximum here in April and May. It
can produce no more.

(a) If this supply be discharged with a greater velocity, it must maintain
a lower level, even if the channel remain unchanged ; for there can be no
more than this quantity to be discharged, and hence the volume discharged
within a month or year must remain the same.

(6) A greater force, with the same volume, implies a greater velocity,
(c) Therefore, the levees which confine the waters and concentrate the
force increase the velocity and depress the level of discharge.

19. (a) From the year 1817 to 1S:,^7 there were no considerable levees
above the mouth of Red River. From 1827 to 1837 the levees were being
extended the whole length of Concordia coast, say two hundred and fifty
miles; and from 1837 to 18i7 we may regard the system of levees as in
full operation for a long distance above and below the point of observation
at Vidalia.

(b) During the first ten years (1817 to 1827) the mean height of the
river's surface, for the year, was six inches above the mean height of the
following ten years (1827 to 1887), while levees were being constructed;
and nine inches higher than the mean height of ten years (1837 to 1817)
under the levee system. This relates to the mean annual height, and is
reduced to the range of CaiTolton.

(c) But the mean high water-mark of these decennial periods is in like
manner reduced, being 4.4: inches lower in the second than in the first
period, and six inches lower in the third.

(d) But we have from the dates of highest water a very unexpected
result ; namely, the date of highest water is later in the second and third
periods than in the first.

The mean dates of culmination are for Vidalia, April 26, April 30, and
May 15, for the three periods, in their order; and the mean of the thirty
years is on May 7.

(e) The common impression, that levees produce earlier high waters,
would ap[)ear to be unfounded ; and this is the conclusion which it seems to
me would be arrived at, from section 18, a, b, c, because the supply cannot

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 12

90 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AKD CHEinSTRY.

be increased or hurried before the rains and thaws of the spring ; and our
levees can have little elFect in hastening the dates of highest water at any
point within the influence of levees. The mean dates of culmination, as
given here, only prove to me that the periods observed are too short to
obtain a fair mean, when the range is from JNIarch 12 to July 16.

Ciit-ojfs. — By application of the principles and reasonings to facts we
shall find : —

(a) That a cut-off shortens the channel, increases the declivity, acceler-
ates the velocity, streiigthens the channel-making power, abrades the banks
and bottom with more vigor, and ultimately produces a lower mean level
than before the cut-off.

(/>) Accordingly, the effect of Shreve's cut-off, at the mouth of Red
River, presented in 1844 these phenomena : — At the cut-off the water was
three feet or more lower than the water-mark of 1828 ; twenty miles above
it was thirty inches lower ; forty miles up it was fourteen inches lower ; at
Vidalia, sixty miles above, it was seven and a half inches lower; and at
Waterproof, ninety miles above, it was three inches lower; and at points
above Waterproof it was regarded as equal to 1828.

These facts were determined by myself at the time, and since ; and care-
fully noted.

(d) We may conclude, hence, that the effect was perceptible about one
hundred miles above, and at least two hundred miles below a cut-off, abridg-
ing the distance of current eighteen miles, and 3.54 feet to the fall of water,
thence to the Gulf; and that it showed a reduction of high-water level both
above and below the cut-off.

21. The Raccourci cut-off has been too recently made (1849) for a full
illustration of the effects. Some have already been severely felt. It short-
ened the distance eighteen miles, with a fall at his;h water of 4.5 feet. The

.... . •

effects in draining the district above it have been realized as anticipated.

Its effect at Yidalia was about 4.5 inches, and expired at a distance of
about one hundred miles. Below, it has not had time to produce the new
channel due to its acceleration, and has raised the water probably in a
slight degree; but not to the mark of 1828 at Bayou Sarah by 2.5 inches.
From the best information I can obtain, the difference is about two inches in
the bend above Carrolton. By changing points of greatest force, and by
increase of that force, it has committed great ravages upon the banks both
above and below the cut-off. It will require but two or three years more,
judging from past experience, to adapt the new channel to the new channel-
maker, when the whole will be discharged at a lower level than before the
cut-off.

22. The matter, as a question of hydrostatics, is settled, that a cut-off
will reduce the level of discharge on botii sides, and the (juestion of policy be
reduced to one ol" cost from abrasion of banks. This should be well weighed

PHYSICS OF THE GLOHK. 91

beforo making a ciit-oll", fnun the sii<MeniU'Ss with which a new force is
applicil. Levees are extemleil so gradually that the oonseijueiices are slow
in being iVlt, and may be guarded against.

23. Ritjimen of Jiicers. — It has recently been advanced by Dr. Lviddell,
"that the river has some normal regimen, and that the ellects of a cut-oif
were to continue the caving in the bends of the river, until the channel
shall obtain its former length, and regain its normal regimen."

(a) I am not awai-e of any law or laws of currents, whether sediment-
bearing or clear, which will warrant such doctrine. Inert mutter can cer-
tainly have no choice of greater or less velocity.

(h) The greater the momentum, of course the greater the power to re-
move obstacles ; and all bends are obstacles.

(c) The weaker a fluent, the easier it is diverted from its course ; and
hence tlie tortuousness of streams with little fall.

(J) The aggregate tendency of a river with alluvial banks, of uniform
power to resist abrasion, is to straighten its channel.

(e) No banks are uniform in this respect, and hence no stream attains or
maintains a straight channel ; but the power to approximate straightness is
increased with the greater declivity, and iiicreased force gained by a cut-off.

State of Levees and their Servitudes.

24. (a) The levees of Louisiana may be regarded as in full operation
for fifty years, for a distance of one hundred miles from Bayou Lafourche
down below the city. These levees have an average height no greater than
those now being erected in the upper portion of the State ; and the highest
water-marks known, whether within the levee districts or not, are no higher
than many points of the land ; and some of the best river plantations present
long reaches without levees.

(/*) The river, therefore, has not raised its bed, nor reached a point of
elevation, in recent years, greater than its level when it deposited its high
grounds.

25. (a) The location of levees below Baton Rouge was chielly made
before those farther above, and consecpiently were placed too near the bank
to admit of the new abrasions, arising from cut-offs, from extended levees,
and from the never-ceasing steam-boat waves.

{b) For this reason they are now being destroyed by caving banks and
by lashing waves.

(c) A period has arrived when these new elements liave cut away the
small battures ; and the higli waters, which the geology of this alluvion shows
to have been frequent, geologically speaking, in past ages, are recurring, and
our levees are wholly unecjual to the task of restraining the waters. Tliere
are those who are not croakers that have foreseen these disasters ; but their

92 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

warnings have not been heeded. Oood levees have not been erected. The
law in this respect has n^er been enforced.

26. (a) The. management of levees has been in the hands of those least
capable of enforcing the law. The districts have been determined by parish
boundaries, and not, as they should be, by the topogrupJiy of the grounds.

(b) The vigilant have often been inundated from the negligence of their
neighbors.

What is the Eemedy for Overflows.

27. (a) I would suggest to lay off the State into levee districts, indicated
by the topography of the grounds, and of each district to make sub-districts
in like manner, with guard levees running back between them.

(6) Let the districts be large enough to occupy the time, attention, and
professional labor of a surveyor of levees. Let there be a chief engineer
of levees, whose duty it shall be to survey and define these districts, and
to nominate to the governor the district engineers, and to be responsible
for their acts, and his own, in heavy bonds.

(c) Let the whole and sole control be placed in his hands, with plenary
powers to enforce the law respecting work upon levees, and to draw from
a fund created for that purpose, in order to have the work performed when-
ever the planter is delinquent.

(cZ) Let the levees be erected, in all cases, one arpent from the river ;
and two or three arpents >vhenever ascertained to be necessary, by a hydro-
graphic survey of the river ; the proprietor having to make such levees in
front as may be desirable or necessary to his interest.*

Remarks on Extract.

In one or move items to which importance attaches, the learned
authors, IIuni2)hreys and Abbot, have dissented from the proofs
furnished that the \Ava\e of high-water discharge had not been
elevated, but ratlier depressed, in the three decades furnished by
me.

Tliey present two additional decades : one of whicli does not
accord with my conclusion ; and the other does, most signally.

Their figures, undoubtedly correct, are, for mean high-water
mark on tlie Carrolton gauge, five decades, from 1811 to 1860,
inclusive : —

* Thus mncli from hibors prior to tlie Delta Survey. " Tlie Physics" was
publislied ill 1800, and received corrections till the i)ai)cr went to press.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 93

1811) 1821) 1831) 1811) 1851)

to M4.Go; to [■ 14.G3 ; to [-14.13; to [-14.73; to [-13.87.
1820) 1830 ) 1840 ) 1850) 18G0)

Leaving out 1855, this last would read 14.20.

Why leave out any year? We should take the years as they
come. Certainly I would not insist that there might not be a
grou)) of consecutive very high waters producing exceptions to
this rule, as between 1840 and 1850 ; nor that such exception
should not be in the opposite direction.

In fact, if my next group of ten years, 1848 to 1857, be taken,
I am vindicated. With my learned critics, I agree that such illus-
trations only give probable, not demonstrative evidence; but I
think their illustration unfortunate in not sustaining well their
criticism.

Again, my proof that the liver rises no higher now than prior
to the construction of levees is based upon the fact, among many
others, "that there are many points on the banks of the river
where the natural surface of the land has never been overflowed
within the memory of man," and certainly that the highest water-
marks of the jjast fifty years have not risen materially above
them.

This is termed a " fallacy " (p. 407) by the authors of the Delta
Survey. And they proceed to show it by reference to the grounds
about the Belleville Foundry, in Algiers.

By careful levels they find this natural surface .3 of a foot below
the high water-mark of 1858.

Certainly it will not be insisted that a flood no dee])er than
.3 of a foot, or four inches, could have deposited the alluvial bed at
the Belleville Foundry. In all probability the waters were one
foot or more in depth for such dej)osits, judging from my great
number of observations of this kind. True, I have seen alluvial
deposit made in rapid currents, up near to the surface, but never
in tranquil currents.

I must claim this illustration as definitely sustaining my view ;
a7id this is demonstration^ not probable evidence.

Nor do I agree that "it is a suflicient answer to conclusions,
based upon such facts, that there never has been a great flood
since levees were built, without the occurrence of a large number
of crevas.'^es below Red River ; and, consequently, that the volume
of a flood has never )>assed New Orleans."

Certainly these able rcasoners will not contend that at any

94 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEinSTRT.

time the crevasses have been equal, in their outlet capacity, to
the entire open banks of 244 miles !

I tbink they will, upon reflection, agree that in every concave
bank there was one, two, or three miles of bank, about four feet
below the flood level; amounting to some forty miles of such
outlet, in addition to forty more miles of half the capacity.

Such were the banks u.nleveed above Red River in my first ex-
perience of floods. Prior to levee history, between Red River
and New Orleans, I believe that the natural outlets exceeded all
the ci'evasses by tenfold, even when you add the Plaquemine
to their capacity. The river's bed at that period had no such
capacity as at present, mejudice.

Our experience in channel changes, since the recent great cut-
oflTs, Raccourci, Palmyra, and Terrapin, seem to disj^rove the hy-
pothesis that the river's bed is " very tenacious and u7iabrasableP

The banks and the bed or bottom of the river easily and rapidly
accommodate themselves to new forces, new servitudes.

I may insert a few diagrams of recent changes, prepared by
General M. Jeff". Thom^json, chief State Engineer of Louisiana, to
illustrate his Annual Report, December, 1871. The dates attached
render needless all comment uj^on the permanence of the Missis-
sippi's bed ; and leave the mind to its own inferences respecting
the effects of the forces, gradually applied by the lateral restraints
of levees, upon the bottom and the banks of the river in providing
for the easy discharge of the waters.

The forces, formerly dispersed over the banks and expanded
upon forests and thickets, are utilized in the /)?'o;:)e?* missio?i of
river currents / viz., the business of cJmnnel-making.

Delta Survey.

The final Report was made by the Engineer Dejiartment of the
Delta Survey, })lanned by Colonel Stephen II. Long and Captain
A. A. Humphreys, and conducted to its completion by the latter
distinguished olficer and engineer, and by his aid and coadjutor.
Lieutenant II. L. Abbot, an able young otticer.

This Rei)ort was so thorough and exhaustive as to leave nothing
untouched ; and the data were spread before the American public
and before the scientific world, ujton which to base a system of
manageinrnt and contrid oi' \\w lloods, and to ivscue the alluvium
in accordance witli the uninsti'ucted amljition of the inliabitants.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 95

The war between the " Outlet Advocates " and the " Thorough
Levee Men " was decided by the Delta Survey in favor of the
levee advocates ; not wholly upon theory, but upon the inijiracti-
cabilityof the outlet doctrine.

Tliese officers, however, make one recommendation for an
outlet, with many doubts and reservations ; and locate it at Lake
Providence, twenty miles south of the Arkansas line, right bank.

No one of the other points considered in the judgment of the
writer was so impracticable as that recommended.

The Herculean efforts afterwards made by the army under
General Grant to open an outlet, even for temporary uses, at that
very j)oint, and the utter failure to make it at all available, have
disposed of this last stronghold of the outlet advocates.

Nothing remains, then, but to put our trust in levees.

Resitlts of this Partial Reclamation.

Before the beginning of the war of secession, there had been
constructed by Louisiana seven hundred and forty miles of levee
on the Mississippi, at a cost of $18,000,000 ; and on the outlets,
Atchafalaya, Plaquemine, and Lafourche, four hundred and forty
miles, at a cost of §5,000,000 ; and in the Red River portion of the
Delta, about fifty miles, at a cost of about §1,000,000 ; by the State
of Arkansas, about one hundred and eighty miles, at a cost of
§1,000,000 ; by Mississippi, about four hundred and forty-four
miles, at a cost of §14,500,000 ; and by the State of Missouri, about
one hundred and forty miles, at a cost of §1,640,000.

This is an aggregate of levee work done by the States and by
the individual inhabitants, of two thousand miles, and at a cost of
$41,140,000 spent in construction. And, in addition to this vast
sum expended in a conflict of more than one hundred and fifty
years, the loss of more than double this sum has been incurred in
the disasters of crevasses and inundations; all wrung from the
sweat of a most valiant industrial race, in the cause of reclamation
and civilization.

Does it not seem, that this is a time for the government to
step in and assume the protection of the area rescued from the
dominion of the waters ? Does not the laborer, in this conflict,
the industrial soldier, whose ancestors for three or four genera-
tions have given their lives to this enterprise, deserve repose and
laurels, for himself and his posterity.

96 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

But the saddest part of the levee history remains to be told!

No sooner had triuinpli been announced than desolation like a
whirlwind came to this iair region, with its ten thousand planta-
tions and its half a million inhabitants.

Wealth, refinement, lofty character, and a type of the most
exalted civilization known to an agricultural people, were found
on almost every stream, lake, and bayou in the-Delta.

Such content, such absence of poverty, crime, and jealousy,
such abundance of all the necessaries and luxiiries of life, as pre-
vailed among the planting population of Louisiana, Mississippi,
and Arkansas on these Delta lands ; and such an excess of produc-
tion over consumption, in spite of the disasters from crevasses and
inundations, it is believed, are unknown in modern history. In
fact, it triumphantly vindicates and justifies the dreams of its most
enthusiastic prognosticators of the early day.

But alas! the Civil War, with its bitter hostilities, came in
1861 ; and before one year had elapsed the tramp of armies, with
fire, sword, and flood, was upon the people ; and within two years
these enormous works, that had cost such a century of toil, were
cut down, as a military necessity^ to overwhelm those who resisted
the federal arms.

The foiir years of the war left a desolation over these ten thou-
sand fair fields, and an annual wilderness of waters, for several
months each year, from the head of the Delta down to the mai-shes
of the sea.

Levee Labors since the War.

The amount of destruction to levees occasioned directly by
military necessity, and the consequent abrasions and increase
from the currents rushing througli the openings thus made, can
never be ascertained. Certain it is that long reaches of crevasse
still remain unclosed ; and that, especially in Missouri and Arkansas,
little attempt has been made to i-e2)lace them, above the mouth of
the Arkansas.

The States of Louisiana and Mississippi immediately addressed
themselves to the task of replacing tlie most important levees;
and, altlioiigli some great o})eniiigs have been deferred on account
of their magnitude, others of the largest kind have been rebuilt,

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 97

and again broken and rebuilt ; and for the reason of extraordinary
caving as a consequence of cut-offs newly made, and other causes,
will have to be again rebuilt, for the third time since the war, to
save the best plantations and some of the largest interests in the
State.

The levees rebuilt since the war in Louisiana, in the four parishes
north of Red River, and in Point Coupee, up to the end of the
year 1870, amount to just 8,135,656 cubic yards at a cost of about
^881,936*

In consequence of the opening in the levee, at Ashton near the
Arkansas line and at Diamond Island bend, the river did not rise
as higli in the district north of Red River as formerly, and the
levees hence were built only to an elevation five feet below the
highest water-marks ; and hence the cost and contents have been
greatly reduced.

General Thompson's Report of 1870-71, as chief State Engineer,
says : —

In my October 26th Report, 1869, I have shown that it would require
5,218,000 cubic yards of earth to place the levees of these parishes in
repair, up to the old grade. But the wear and tear of levees I estimate
to amount to near 2,000,000 cubic yards per year. This year's report con-
firms last ; for this report embraces every defective levee in the five disti'icts,
and calls for 5,111,300 cubic yards.

We have built 2,206,000 yards during this past season, which will leave
2,000,000 more for the Mississippi River, had there been no caving ; but
with new work just rendered necessary we shall require 4,000,000 yards,
including the closure of the Ashton and Diamond Island crevasses.

O. D. Bragdon's " Facts and Figures for the People," January
1, 1872, prepared under the eye of the Governor by his private
Secretary, and certified by the State Auditor, says, " The levee
bonds issued by Louisiana, on which the State pays eight per
cent interest, amount to 18,134,000." Thus: —

Act 35, 1865 $1,000,000

„ 15, 18()7 4,000,000

„ 32, 1870 3,000,000

„ 105, 1870 134,000

$8,134,000

* Flood's Report, of December 31, 1870, makes 4,583,250 cubic yards cost
§2,60y,tjtj(j, giving an average rate of sixty cents per cubic yard (but see JJrag-
don's " Facts and Figures fortlie Teople," p. 42).
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXL 13

98 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

This is a strong comment upon the depreciation of State secu-
rities, when it requires $8,134,000, in bonds, to yield the 14,881,936
actually earned and paid out for the 8,135,656 cubic yards of levee
built. Thus the system of building, under State management,
and with State bonds, makes the cost one dollar per cubic yard.

The present contract with the Levee Company at sixty cents
per yard requires the building of 15,000,000 yards in four years;
upon which the State engages to pay ten per cent annually for
twenty-one years, being entirely unable to pay the principal. In
addition, the State contracts to pay a two-mill tax, for levee
repairs. And this tax, and the ten per cent on the $9,000,000 for
levee construction, are to be collected with the other State taxes
on all the property of the State, for the twenty-one years of the
contract.

Even with these apparently favorable terms, it was found very
difficult to induce capitalists to undertake the task, from fear of
the State's inability to comply with its contract.

Finally the burden was assumed by a few men of large means,
whose whole fortunes lie beneath the levees, and who would be
ruined if the levees ai'e not maintained.

The estimated cubic yards of levees standing in the State in
1860 was as follows : * —

Miles. Cubic Yards.

From Arkansas line to Red River 250 15,000,000

From Red River to Fort Jackson ..... 290 15,000,000

From Baton Rouge to Fort St. Philip ... 200 9,000,000

Total on the Mississippi Banks 39,000,000

Miles. Cubic Yards.

On the Lafourche, both sides 70 3,500,000

On the Atchafalaya, both sides 70 3,000;000

On Red, Black, and Ouchita Rivers .... 200 5,000,000

Making a grand Total of 50,000,000

The amount of work done since the year 1865 is as follows : —

Cubic Yai-ds.

By the Duralde Board, cash contracts 4,674,414

By the Duralde Board, time contracts 2,495,800

By the Oglesby Board 362,350

By the Board of Public Works (Flood) 4,736,265

Total built since 1865 12,268,829

* General Thompson's estimate includes two years' levee building of the pros-
perous days after the Delta Survey, estimate given on pp. 18, 19.

, PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 99

Still reqiiired 5,111,000

Wear and tear for ten years, and the disaster of war

inclusive 17,380,120

This was enhanced, too, by the forces of cut-oflfs.

The labors of the State of Mississippi, in restoring and strength-
ening her levees since the war, are not at this moment in reach,
but are expected in time to furnish an abstract for this paper.
The same may be said of the State of Missouri and Arkansas.

The Oppressive Tax of Levee Support.

These tables, estimates, and detail of labors, are presented to
show how formidable is the undertaking to restore the broken
levees, and how exhausting to the treasury of any single State to
sustain the expense of the abrasive forces brought to bear upon
the levees and the banks of the Mississippi River.

In the case of the State of Louisiana the resources for these
pui-poses were wholly wanting. The State treasury was empty,
and recourse was had to the issue of bonds for this and many other
purposes, proper and improper ; till the over-issue of obligations
depreciated the pa]>er, and made the expense of prosecuting these
works of such vital importance extremely oppressive. In truth,
such is the depreciation at the present time that bonds issued for
any purposes are at half their face value. Her sister States of the
Delta were no better pro\aded with means for protection.

Impressed with the momentous importance of the levee protec-
tion, contemplating the fact that four-fifths of the property in the
State was beneath the level of annual high waters, including the
great commercial emporium of the Mississippi Valley, New Orleans,
men of knowledge undertook the devising of a scheme which
should transfer the business of levee protection to the care and
interests of a jjowerful corporation.

After several years of discussion, and the sanction of the great
commercial conventions, the Legislature of 1871 (February) passed
an Act incorporating a company, and contracted with the same
for the custody, construction, and repair of the State levees for a
period of twenty-one years.

A provision of this Act binds the State annually to assess and
collect, with other taxes of the State, the amounts to be paid to
the Levee Company for their work, as stipulated ; these sums

100 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

to be paid over annually to the Levee Company. Thus secured
in their return revenues, a company of ca2:)italists have entered
upon the great work, and performed nearly one year's service.

The beneficial effects of this method have already been expe-
rienced in the complete protection of the State from inundation
during one high-water season, by the judicious location and rapid
and improved construction of about 2,500,000 cubic yards of
levee.*

Such are the cormorant demands of the levee repairs and con-
struction under the new servitudes of the river banks, that the
taxation demanded to pay for the work done by the company will
amount after the first three years to $1,400,000 per year!

This amount would be a very large sum for the whole State
taxation. But when added to a State debt of indefinite millions,
ichose interest must be paid, the sum is more than the State can
long endure ; and bankruptcy stares her in the face.

Regarding these levees, however, as vital, it is probable this
item will be borne, even if others utterly fail, — at least, during
the period of the State's contract with the Levee Company, or till
relief can be obtained.

But her people turn with the confidence inspired by a just cause,
and ask of the Nation, the Federal Government, to consider
whether they have not ample ground for respectful demand for
entire relief fi-om this stupendous burden.

Is not the enterprise of reclaiming the Delta national, in its
scope and nature?

National Character of Levee Burden.

We have seen, in a previous chapter, the extent of the Delta
covered by levees; and that the alluvial area fronts materially
upon, and forms a large interest in, five States of the Valley of the
Mississippi. And it is here proper to add, that it receives its con-
tributions from no less than twenty-one States and five Territories,

* Fortunately for tlic safety of our many recently built earthworks, the river
did not reach a very high mark, wanting tliree feet at New Orleans of the mark
of 1808-71. But the water stood from five feet to twelve feet against several of
the new w(jrks, constructed with the new improvements ; j'et no seppafje- water
passed throwjli the. Ijarrier prooided ai/uinsl trunspiralion and burroiciiK/ animals. The
natural prejudices against new methods have been dissipated by the results of
these tests.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE.

101

destined soon to be States, and from an area of 1,256,050 * square
miles. This basin of tlie Mississippi and tributaries receives from
the clouds an amount of rain equal to '20.9 inches per year over
the surface of the west or right-hand basin, and of 47.8 inches
over thi' eastern or k'tl-hand basui, including the upper Mississippi.

Thu tutal annual discharge of water u])on this area, as computed
in the Delta Sur\'ey, is 89,400,000,000,000 cubic feet. Of this quan-
tity of rain, the discharge through the channel of the Mississippi
into the Gulf is only tweuty-five per cent, according to the elabo-
rate investigations of the Delta Survey.f

This drainage bears with it the abraded sedimentary mattei's
from every portion of the Valley ; and in process of long ages has
thrown the contributions down upon the Delta above described,
and tilled up the " inland sea," whatever may have been its actual
extent and depth, till the alluvial area extends six hundred miles
seaward from its head^ at Cape iGirardeau, to the bar at South-west
Pass.

It is these contributions of transport material through which

* In in}- plea for a Geological Survey of Louisiana, 1840-41, addressed to Pro-
fessor Riddell, and published in the " Commercial Bulletin," I computed the
Basin of the Mississippi River at 1,300,000 square miles, and preserved the same
in my critique upon Lyell, in 1845-4G ; and again repeated it in my chapter,
"Geology of the Valley," prepared for " Monette's Physical Geography," com-
pleted, but never published. I waive to the Delta Survey, for courtesy, not for
greater accuracy. A geodetic measurement would rather increase than diminish
my figures.

t The subjoined Table, copied from p. 136 of that great work, is the result of
the most searching and widely gathered statistics, digested and condensed as
authority. It will be found convenient of reference, and is therefore presented.

Area.

Annual Rain.

Annual Discharge.

Ratio

S(i. Miles.

Cubic Feet.

per ct.

Uhio

214,000

20,700,000,000,000

5,000,000,000,000

0.25

Missouri . . .

518,000

25,200,000,000,000

3,780,000,000,000

0.15

Upper ^lississippi

160,000

13,800,000,000,000

3,300,000,000,000

0.24

Small tributaries

32,400

3,600,000,000,000

3,240,000,000,000

0.90

Ark. &White Rivers

189,000

13,000,000,000,000

2j000,000,000,000

0.15

Red River . . .

97,000

8,800,000,000,000

1,800,000,000,000

0.20

Yazoo ....

13,000

1,500,000,000,000

1,350,000,000,000

0.90

St. Francis. . .

10,000

1,100,000,000,000

9,990,000,000,000

0.90

Total, exclud'g Red

1,147,000

78,900,000,000,000

19,500,000,000,000

0.25

102 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

the river carves its channel, abrading and lifting the earths and
soils from one place, and precipitating them in another, and
gradually bearing its burden, partly suspended, but tenfold or an
hundred-fold more "pushed" forward on the bottom, down the
channel, and up the bar and over it, into the thousand-fathom
depths of the Gulf.

When the time arrived for man to utilize and occupy the Delta,
it became necessary to confine the waters and their transported
materials to the channel, and hence to contribute them to the sea.
The results as shown above, in the chapter from the Physics, are
well understood ; and the consequences, as shown in the Delta
Survey, entirely manageable.

But the new regimen of the flowing volume is greatly changed
and the servitudes increased, for a threefold reason : —

1. The increased forces during the high- water season, from the
restraints by the levees.

2. The increased forces and changes of channel due to cut-offs.

3. The continued and ever-incx-easing forces thrown against the
banks and the levees by the steam-hodt waves.

Increased Force from Levees.

We have shown that this burden has grown beyond the control
of the States.

Is the interest national from this point of view?

Certainly the Nation's wealth has been largely enhanced by tlie
settlement, upon this Delta, of half a million of agriculturists, and
the productions of the great staples of cotton, sugar, and rice, in
such unexampled abundance.

The cotton produced in the alluvial basin in 1860 amounted to
688,254 bales or 275,301,600 pounds, worth at fifteen cents per
pound $41,295,240.

The sugar produced in Louisiana in 1860 amounted to 460,000
hogslieads, or about 460,000,000 i^ounds, Avorth at seven cents per
pound 632,200,000.

The rice, corn, potatoes, fruits and vegetables, and her stock,
amount by rough estimate to ten millions more; an aggregate of
$83,500,000.

"Restore Louisiana levees alone," says the Congressional Committee on
Levees of 1871, "to tlieir imperfect condition before the war, and we can
make at least the 225,000 tons of su''ar wliich were made in 18G0. We consume

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 103

over 400,000 tons of raw sugars of all kinds ; but the destruction of levees
has sent us to Cul»a and Brazil for this necessary of life. "We pay about
$60,000,000 in gold annually for sugar and molasses over and above the
ten or twelve millions in food, manufactures, and tools, which we export to
those countries. If we produce at home these sugars, our mechanics get
sale for the machinery and fine tools, and they take our sugars in exchange.
The North and the West are interested in these sales. A very few more
years of ])lantation extension would enable us to produce the whole addi-
tional demand, and to save yearly the sixty millions, and export largely to
foreign countries."

The Committee continues : —

" Cotton is the great crop for export, and by cotton is controlled the
exchange of the world. . . .

" In 1868, the crop in the United States, recovering from the disasters
of the war by degrees, produced 2,430,893 bales; in 1869, 3,122,551
bales ; in 1870, 4,352,317 bales ; in 1871, a disastrous year, 3,750,000 bales.
In 1861, Mississippi alone raised 1,202,507 bales, more than one-third upon
her alluvial lands. In 1860, the Yazoo basin produced 220,000 bales.

" Complete our levees, and we rescue ten million acres of the best
cotton land in the world ; raise, besides other valuable staples, seven million
bales yearly of this controlling staple. .

"For these lands are level, and free from stones; and, with a soil easily
tilled, they are adapted to the use of all the improved agricultural ma-
chinery."

The value of the lands embraced in the Delta, as forming an
item of national wealth, becomes very important.

The area computed at 38,70G square miles contains, at six liun-
dred and forty acres to each square mile, 24,771,840 acres.

"What value shall we attach to these acres of more than Egyptian
fertility? Let us analyze, before attaching definite values per
acre, to this empire of Avealth, or of water.

Assuming the 24,771,540 acres to have been worth unreclaimed
$1.25 per acre on the front of the streams of the larger class, to
the tlepth of one mile average on each side, amounting to about
10,000 sections or 6,400,000 acres, the value in money was, before
levees, $8,000,000.

The remaining swamp lauds would not have been bought in
many years at ten cents per acre. These were the prices and
condition of the lands above Red River, up to about 1840. The
total value to the Treasury of the United States by this estimate
was 8,000,000 -j- 1,477,184 = *9,477,184, as the total value of the
Delta, six luuKlred miles long and sixty miles wide.

104 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

History tells us that in 1804 Napoleon I. sold Louisiana, embrac-
ing the Delta and an empire of area beyond it, to President
Jefferson, for $6,000,000, when only an insignificant portion of the
lands had passed into private hands. Let us ask what was the
value of the Delta lands, at the beginning of the War of Secession,
when our levees, feeble though many of them were, had been
extended nearly the whole front of the Delta?

The lands comj)letely reclaimed were worth |30 per acre ; and
these 6,400,000 acres, fronting on the navigable streams, were
justly ai^praised at 1192,000,000; and all the swamp lands not
reclaimed for the plough were worth for their fuel and their tim-
ber, as appurtenant to the arable lands, $10 per acre, and had an
aggregate value of 1147,718,400; and the real value of the whole
area of the Delta lands might be placed at $339,718,400. Levees
raised this value from $9,000,000.

Should this reclamation be completed, in ten years, we are con-
fident, the total value of both the cultivable and uncultivable areas
of swamp lands would double this estimate. And in ten years
from the completion of this work, the value of the landed estates,
if at all estimable in money, would be $780,000,000.

What, then, would be the importance to the people of the United
States in a period of fifty years, if all the alluvial lands in the
Delta are reclaimed and utilized ?

The amount required to put the levees in order, and to keep
them at the grade indicated by Humphreys and Abbot in the
Delta Survey, would appear trivial, and would be returned ten-
fold in a territory, rescued by science, courage, and enterprise
from the former Delta Sea, the most valuable upon the surface of
the globe !

Is not such a work katioxal ?

New Servitudes from Cut-offs.

Four great cut-offs have been made since 1828 ; namely, the
Shreve cut-off* at the moutli of Red River, three hundred miles

* A ciit-ofl' was made at Buncli's Bciul, near and below the Arkansas State
line, latitude 33°, in 1830. The length of the head was about fifteen miles.
There were no levees in that region at the date of tlie cut-off. Tlie cut-offs
below tlic mouth of the Arkansas (some si.v hundred and fifty miles from the
sea), witliin a period recent enougli to Jveep their " old river" lakes close to the
present river cliannel, are wortli attention. Tiiey are fourteen in number and
al)out two luindreil miles in Icmclh.

rilVSICS OF TIIK tJLOIiK. 105

nbnvo tlio niouth, ni.-ulo in 18:51, :ifter tlie flood had subsided; and
IvMOc-ourci cut-off of 1840, at a ])oint only ten miles below the lower
end of the Shreve cut-off. These shortened the river respectively
eighteen and twenty-one miles.

The two cut-offs made above Red River were the Terrapin
Xeck of about twelve miles, made in 1868, at a point about thirty
miles above Vicksburg, or four hundred and fifty miles above New
Orleans; and Palmyra cut-off, twenty-three miles below Vicks-
burg, shortening the river about twenty miles, on this plane. This
was made in 1867.

The total shortening of the river by these four cut-offs (all made
within the levee period of their localities) is about seventy-one
miles ; find the plane of declination has been increased by some
8.4 feet, at the first two cut-offs, three hundred miles from the
mouth of the river, and was increased about eight feet at the
upper two cut-offs, some five hundred miles from the mouth.
This increase of declination bears with it the consequence of in-
creased abrasions on the bends of our river.

Such have been the immediate effects of these cut-offs as to catise
great havoc upon the banks, near the cut-offs, both above and
below; and to destroy plantations, and greatly increase the levee-
making necessity. I again invite attention to the diagrams accom-
panying this paper for illustrations of these devastations.

These cut-offs can scarcely be charged to the people who live
upon the lands, now demanding protection. They have been
made both by natural and artificial causes : the natural, such as
have made fifteen other cut-offs below Mem2)his, and above, between
and below these enumerated ; the artificial causes have all been
personal and individual, except the single Raccourci made by
authority of the Louisiana Legislature.

But, whatever the cause, the effects are upon us, and 7nust be
provided for.

It will be found below that the natural causes of cut-offs find a
powerful auxiliary of the artificial kind, for which the commerce
of the whole West and the Nation are responsible.

Certainly these new servitudes brought to bear ujjon the banks
and levees are, as demonstrated above, beyond the ability of the
peuj)le of the Delta to bear; and we, the people, turn with con-
fidence to the General Government for relief.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 14

106 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AXD CHEMISTRY.

New Servitude from Steamboat Waves.

The claim of the inhabitants of the Delta for national aid rests
upon much stronger grounds than mere })rospective revenues and
jiroductions. These claims come in the form of reclamations.
They are based upon the ^^erpetual and ever-increasing attack
made upon the banks of the river and the levees, by the passing
commerce of no less than twenty-one States and five Territories
— the most productive of the Union — that send their untold
commerce down the river, and receive their imports in return.
The steamers that transport this commerce send their resistless
waves against banks and levees, lashing and abrading them almost
without cessation. Our lower river hardly ever rests. One set
of waves succeeds another ; and each finds its rest, in the equiv-
alent of its forces, transferred to the banks and channel of the
river.

These lashings and abradings, independent of the other causes,
render the task of levee construction more and more oppressive
yearly, until it has become intolerable.

jMeasure of Wave-Forces on Banks, &c.

Let it first be observed that the forces started by a steamer
ploughing the waters are chiefly lateral. The bow of the vessel and
the paddle-wheels throw up Avaves that cannot find movement,
except along the surface ; and even when the paddles strike down-
ward, the displacement is lateral, except at Aery short distances
beneath the di^) of the wheel.

The force is felt downward only at the wheels or ])ropeller ; and
these immediately react and run along the surface to the distant
shores. And since the waters are indefinitely mobile among their
particles, repose for displacement or violence can only be found
against the walls of the channel. The total force exerted against
tlie banks must be the same, whether difl^iised or concentrated,
though tlie abrasions will be materially difierent.

Forces are never lost, though their facility of transmission
is greatest in water, and least in solids, such as the river bank.
And since these banks are composed of material brought and laid

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 107

down where they lie, by these very waters, moving at a velocity
of three feet per secoml, whenever the new forces, brought to l)ear
by greater velocity of wave or current, attack these particles, they
displace thera, and carry them down to lower levels.

Let us take an example.* The steamer " James Howard," of
sitle-wheel construction, and with 1500 tons freight, passed up the
river at near mean high-water gauge at Carrolton, 12.5 feet, —
three feet below maximum. Her rate was about ten miles per
hour against a current of four miles per hour, making a move-
ment of her waves of 10 -\- 4 miles =: 14 miles.

The Avaves of practical value were oblique, 23' to her course on
each side, and could be distinctly counted to about the fifteenth
wave; and I added five for the confused irregular waves that
followed.

Ten of these waves were nearly of the same height, and were
measured by their rise on a roil and a drift-log that <lid not break
tliem.

These Avaves averaged about sixteen inches of height at three
hundred feet behind the vessel; and the remaining ten waves
averaged less than half that height, say six inches. They were
^11 delivered against the banks with the. velocity of the steamer,
plus the rate of the current, say at fourteen miles per hour, or
twenty feet per second.

Without attempting to weigh this force, by computing its
dynamics from these data, I assume that tlie tonnage of the
steamer, multiplied by her velocity,! gives the just practical
result.

It is probable that the "Howard's" own tonnage is more than
half her load, and that 2300 tons would be the weight of boat and
cargo. We have then 4,600,000 lbs. delivered against the banks
of the river, at the rate of ten miles per hour = 14.6 feet per
second.

Now this force is repeated every length the vessel travels ;

* I made a series of observations on steamboat waves for the Delta Survey,
but do not find them in tiie Report. Tiiey were probably found too defective
for use, and n)ay not have been regarded as within the scope of the Survey.
Nor are the.^e, whieli I present, at all satisfactory. They may be in excess of
tlie mean. I shall continue and exhaust the subject in my future labors.

t If the current velocity be added for an ascending boat, it must be sub-
tracted for a boat descending. It is fair therefore to omit it in both, and leave
the forces exerted by the lapse of the current, as a normal servitude, not iu-
volved in the new forces.

108 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

and taking her length at three hundred feet, or one hundred yards,
the force is repeated 176U times in every mile.

Thus the violence done to the banks and levees by one trip
of the "James Howard" is measured by 4,600,000 lbs. X 14.6
X 1760, for each mile of her travel. The aggregate force then,
that is abnormal, applied by this steamer, amounts, in foot
pounds, to 118,201,600,000 lbs. = 60,000,000 tons, or ,3,940,000
horse power.

These quantities are so enormous as to be unappreciable to the
mind unless illustrated by some familiar example : —

A levee of nine feet in height, by our recent formula, say that
of Humphreys and Abbot, with slopes of two and three to one,
contains 1200 cubic yards in every hundred feet, and 3000 lbs.
to the cubic yard. The three hundred feet of levee, eqiial to the
length of the "James Howard," would weigh 10,800,000 lbs., and
the force throtcn against the levee or bank, each trip, by the passing

boat, would be —^—^ — = 34,080,000 lbs. ; more than three times

the weight of the lohole levee !

Thanks to the tenacity of the soils and materials of the banks
of the river, these banks do stand these forces, repeated tifty times
a day under many modified forms; and still they stand almost
miraculously this fearful servitude.

But this is wholly abnormal, and chargeable to the commerce of
the Mississippi Valley.

Commerce of the Mississippi River.

It follows from the conclusions of the last pages, that the
entire tonnage of the river must bo aggregated, in order to make
up the account of the levees against the Western country's com-
merce.

I am indebted to Judge W. M. Burwell, Secretary of the New
Orleans Chamber of Commei'ce, for the items relating to this
commerce woven into these remarks.

PllVSn S OF THI-: GI.OHK.

109

Table I
Arrived and f '/pared at \fito Orleans, 1871.

River Crafts.

Steamboats 6344

Barges . . . . "

Coastwise and Foreign Sailsliips .... 1041

Steamships 1094

Mississippi Barge Line, Eight Tugs and Forty Barges^
Other Barges on Mississippi and Ohio, exchisive of Coal

Trips. Approx. Tonnage.

100,000
10,000

150,000
60,000
32,000
32,000

444,000

Tonnage of Vessels . . . ' 444,000

Table II.

Products Received.

Tons.

Cotton say 1,500,000 bales 375,000

Corn say 4,000,000 bushels 121,000

Flour 1,571,281 barrels 186,000

Tobacco 25,000 hogsheads ....

Sugar (home crop) . 140,000 „ ....

Western Provisions other than Corn

Coal (5,000,000 tons per flat boats, — make no waves,

float on the current)

Other commodities, — Furniture, Lumber, Staves, Lathes,

Hardware, Iron, &c

28,000
154,000
50,000 •

86,000
1,000,000

hiports, 820,000,000.
Estimated at one-fifth other receipts 250,000

Total Freights 1,250.000

Total Vessels 444,000

Total movement Tons 1,694,000

Tims, the tonnage transported on the Missi.ssippi in 1871, by
vessels producing xoaves, amounts in aggregate to 1,094,000. Every
ton and every pound of this freight sent its corresponding ton of
wave against our banks, at an average velocity which, after some
reflection, I have placed at six miles per hour = 8.8 feet per second.

110 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

To appreciate the effect of this prodigious force, we can but
multiply the 1,794,000 tons by 8.8 feet per second, and impute a
force of 15,787,000 tons running currently the entire line of our
banks and levees of 2000 miles, every consecutive point receiving
this force !

It is incredible then, that, in addition to the burdens the levees
originally assumed, of current lapse and occasional Avind-waves,
the levees and banks of the Mississippi River should bear this ser-
vitude ; and that the people who live along these river fronts should
be able to bear the burden of rebuilding and repairing them for ever.

Certainly this burden should be now assumed by those whose
commerce for ever attacks and batters them down.

No power but that of the General Government can reach a
case so ramified, and touching the interests of people in so many
States.

A subsidy from the national treasury, or some very small tax
upon all the commerce that traverses the Delta through this river,
and a like contribution from all the commerce and travel of rail-
roads whose tracks and transportation cross or pass beneath the
protection of these Delta levees, would be adequate to the burden
of levee protection.

The cry for help conies up from a line of more than fifteen
hundred miles of river front ^ levees, and from more than five
hundred additional miles required ; from the millions who culti-
vate in their rear, or stand ready to enter the fertile fields ; from
the six great States of Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Missouri,
Tennessee, and Kentucky.

The response should be loud and j^i'ompt from every producer
or citizen of the Mississippi Valley and tributaries, in the foi'm of
substantial aid — by national legislation, or otherwise — to repair
and build the walls of the channel of their untold oommeroe.

For, every barrel of flour or apples or potatoes, every sack of
grain, every article of furniture, every plough, wagon, or engine,
that travels down tuat river on its way to market, sends its con-
tinual wave to erode the Mississippi banks and levees.

The cause then is eminently National ; and to this great
Nation we appeal, with confident exjjectation that its powerful
arm, now released from all duties but those of peace, good-will,
enlightenment, and civili/.ati(jn, will at once be extended to the
rescue of the noblest area of fertility ever redeemed for the habi-
tation of man.

niVSICS OK TIIK GI.OBK. Ill

In conolusioii, it is duo to tliis auo^iist body of sacants to state
fnuikly tlie motive for tendering, for their perusal and approba-
tion, a paper which iniG;ht be appropriately addressed to the Con-
gress of the United States.

It is well understood by men of knowledge — and our country
abounds with them — that the leaders of the advancing civiliza-
tion of this age are found rather in the arenas of science than of
politics.

I therefore appear before this tribunal for its sanction and appro-
bation, from considerations of science and truth as well as for
reasons of justice and national ])rosperity.

Tendering, then, my contribution, with becoming diffidence,
to this greatest of human enterprises, I solicit for it a fair and
impartial consideration before the Association and its august
audience, — the reading, reflecting, and jirogressing men of the
enlightened world.

2. The Arctic Regions. Atmospheric Theory of ax Amelio-
rated Climate axd ax Opex Sea, ix the Arctic Regions,
Df Opposition' to the Gulf Stream Theory. By William
W. Wheildox, of Boston, Massachusetts.

I. The Gulf Stream Theory.

Geographically the Arctic Regions are yet, as they have
been for the last three hundred years, an object of great interest
to the whole civilized world ; and every thing relating to them, as
an undeveloped and mysterious region, is sure to attract the public
attention. All the resources of commerce and navigation, all the
accomplishments of science, all the means at command of govern-
ments, and the very highest human powers, have been engaged in
numerous efforts at exploration and discovery ; and great results
in science and geography have been their reward. Still the end
and objects in view, in behalf of science, natural history, and

112 A. lIATIlKJrATlCS, PHYSIOS, AND CHEMISTRY.

archaeology, to say nothing of the interests of commerce, have
not been reached : an immense region, full of life and interest,
remains undeveloped and unknown. It is true that the continent
of America, by the overlapping in the longitude of navigators, has
been practically circumnavigated, and this has been accomplished
through the great inside channels of the American Archipelago ;
but not so with the eastern continent, with Spitzbergen or Green-
land. In the efforts that have been made to accomplish the com-
jilete exploration of these regions ; in the attendant and contingent
circumstances, sad and sorrowful as some of these have proved ;
in the known or supposed nature and character of the country, its
deprivations and dangers, its teeming life and terrific natural
phenomena — all of which contribute so largely to the desire to
know more — to know all — is to be found that universal interest
in the subject still manifested and still prosecuted by the most
enlightened nations.

There are at the j^resent time a number of expeditions, more or
less efficient and complete, of public and private character, en-
gaged, or soon to be engaged, in the exploration of the known
and unknown regions around the north pole. Embracing, as these
regions do, some five or six thousand millions of square miles of
the earth's surface, including, it is supposed, an ocean of more
than two thousand miles in diameter, it seems to be almost im-
possible that they should not make some important discoveries.
Our interest as a nation in this subject is sensibly increased by
the fact that a very large portion of what is now our national
territory bounds upon the Arctic Ocean, and many points of his-
torical interest in past efforts of exploration are wdthin our ex-
tended boundaries. Possibly, and excepting for siich legal inter-
pretation as may result from the recognized international law of
jurisdisdiction, our present boundary may reach to the north
pole.

We had tlie privilege at the Meeting of the American Associ-
ation for the Advancement of Science, at Newport, in 1860, of
reading a short paper on the " Open Polar Sea," believed to exist
in the vicinity of the theoretic pole. In this paper an attempt
was made (1) to <liscredit the theory of the influence of the
waters of the Gulf Stream in conveying, to the extent claimed if
to any extent, the heat of the equatorial regions into the Polar
Sea and the known phenomena wliich occur within the Arctic
circle ; and (2) to propose a theory believed to be more in con-

PHYSICS OP THE GLOBB. 113

formity with attained results and admitted scientific principles and
conclusions, than that already before the public. Perhaps it is true,
however, that at the time referred to, when Lieutenant Maury,
of the United States Navy, held an important scientific position
under the government, and urged, mainly on assumed hy])0theses,
the influence of the waters of the Gulf Stream, no complete or
adequate theory was intended to be set up; but it certainly is
true that statements were hazarded and assertions made — since
repeated and enlarged — not merely as if the Gulf Stream theory
was one presented for consideration, but rather as if it had been
fully established and received. These assertions, however author-
ized or seemingly authorized by facts, or sustained by arguments,
went to show that the warm waters of the Gulf Stream reached
the Polar Basin through Smith's Sound and the Spitzbergen Sea,
in both cases as an under-current, beneath the cold wate •, and that,
with a temperature far above that due to the latitude, it kept an
open sea in the vicinity of the pole, and accounted for the various
phenomena already referred to. These were the pretensions of
the theory set forth by its advocates as though absolutely estab-
lished, and spoken of as though universally admitted.

It is our purpose to show in this paper (1) that this theory of
the Gulf Stream — and a similar one applied to the Kuro-Siow,
or Japanese Current — is not sustained by such fiacts as we know,
such evidence as is furnished by explorations, or such arguments
upon assumed hypotheses as have been ofiered in its support;
that if any of its waters do reach the Polar Basin they do not
convey warmth or heat sufficient to keep an open sea in the vicinity
of the pole, produce an ameliorated climate, or account for the
varied phenomena of the Arctic Regions ; and (2) that the atmos-
j)here, by its well-known and admitted system of circulation, carry-
ing heat and moisture from the equatorial regions to the poles of
the earth, is adequate to the accomplishment of the objects indi-
cated and is able to account for and explain the known meteoro-
logical phenomena of the Arctic Regions.

There can be no doubt of the circulation of the air generally as
described, or of the circulation of the waters of the ocean ; but it
does not follow that the circulation of either can establish any
rule or system for the other, and the fact referred to by Captain
Bent, after Lieutenant Maury, that blood circulates in organic life
or the air over and around the earth, proves nothing in regard to
the circulation of the waters of the ocean. Each may havo, :md

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 15

114 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

doubtless does have, its particular system, as each has its particular
laws, all subject to certain general laws, such as gravitation and
the diurnal motion of the earth. So that, although the heated
air of the tropics may reach the Polar Circle, it does not follow
that the warm waters of the Gulf Stream do so, as the advocates
of that theory seem to suppose. If we may reason from the move-
ments of the waters of the ocean to the movements of the atmos-
phere, we may, with the same propriety and the same force, reason
from the movements of the atmosphere to the movements of
the waters, — so that, however this argument may illustrate the
subject, it does not authorize any conclusion beyond the fact
of circulation, and here the assumed argument of analogy ter-
minates.

It is essential to our purpose to ascertain what we know of the
Gulf Stream and the movements of its waters. Our most reliable
knowledge of this stream, and nearly all that we know of it, is
that obtained frcfm the exploitations, observations, and experiments
carried on imder the direction of the United States Coast Survey,
and detailed in the thirteenth volume of the " Proceedings " of this
Association. This information, of course, is more or less familiar
to every scientific reader. The limits of these explorations, it is
well known, are such as to leave the course of the Gulf Stream
beyond longitude 40" west, at the farthest, wholly undetermined,
so that its course, as a current, beyond that point remains uncer-
tain and conjectural. Almost immediately after leaving the
Straits of Florida, Avhere the stream is only about forty miles
wide, it bends to the eastward, between latitude 30° and latitude
40*^ increasing in width, so that on a line perpendicular to the
latitude it is not less than five or six hundred miles wide. We
may add that the statements of Dr. Bache, in the paper referred
to, are confirmed by other authorities on the subject. Mr. Blunt
expresses his belief that the Gulf Stream has no existence beyond
the Western Islands, and that, as a current.) it loses all its equa-
torial heat to the eastward of longitude 40°. Beyond this point,
it is stated, the course of tlie stream has been partially ascertained
by the drift of floating bottles, and also its presence has been
traced much farther to the north by the warmth of the surface
water, and its influence is felt in the climate of the north of
Europe.

Lieutenant Maury, however, goes far beyond any explorations
of tlie Coast Survey in reg.inl to the Gulf Stream. Speaking

PHYSICS OV TllK Gl.OIUC. 115

of the stream, " as far as tlio banks of Newfoundland " (latitude
46'* 34' to 51° 40'), he describes it as follows : —

After having run three thousand miles toward the north [ ? ] it still pre-
serves, even in winter, the heat of summer. With this temperature it
crosses the 40° of north latitude, [then its course must have been south
from Newfoundland,] and there [? ] overflowing; its liquid banks, it spreads
out for thousands of square leagues over the cold waters around, and covers
the ocean with a mantle of warmth that serves so nuicii to niitigate in
Europe the rigors of winter.

Here some authorities consider that the Gulf Stream ends.
They describe it as " running in a north-east direction to about
latitude 36° north (ten degrees south of Newfoundland), when
it crosses the Atlantic, passes west of the Azores, and is lost in
the ocean." But Lieutenant Maury, gathering it together again,
proceeds in his description as follows : —

Moving now more slowly, but dispensing its genial influences more freely,
it finally meets the British Islands. By these it is divided, one part going
into the Polar Basin of Spitzbergen, the other entering the Bay of Biscay,
but each with a warmth considerably above ocean temperature. Such an
immense volume of heated water cannot fail to carry with it beyond the seas
a mild and moist atmosphere. And this it is which so much softens climate
there.

Lieutenant Maury also speaks of *' an under-current setting from
the Atlantic, through Davis's Straits, into the Arctic Ocean,"- as
from the Gulf Stream, and also informs Lieutenant De Haven that
** Wrangell's Polynia, to the north of Siberia, if it exist, probably
owes its freedom from ice to the warm waters of the Gulf Stream,
which run between Spitzbergen and the North Cape, into the
Arctic Ocean."

This theory — if it be such — so absurd and inconsistent that it
is difficult to speak of it, seems really to have been received and
adopted by others, and, perhaps we may say, not examined by
any one. Dr. Hayes, in the revised report of his lecture before
the Smithsonian Institution, says, " The lecturer followed Lieuten-
ant Maury in suggesting that this water receives its lieat from the
tropics, and as a deep sea current Hows northward into the Arctic
Basin." The theory has also recently been enlarged by Captain Silas
Bent, of St. Louis, formerly an assistant under Lieutenant Maury,
and has been applied by him to the Kuro-Siow, or Japanese Current.
He thinks th:it these currents, prolonged to the pole, discharge their

116 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHE^nSTRY.

heat, and "produce an open sea;" and that they constitute the
only practicable avenues by which ships can reach it or the pole.

These several statements as to the course and influence of the
Gulf Stream are conjectural and contradictory; and not long after
some of them were made, in the interest of the proposed expe-
dition of 1859-60, Dr. Bache, at the close of his lecture on the
Gulf Stream before this Association, at Newport, declared that
" the after-progress of this mighty Stream, and of its branches, if
it does divide, remains yet to be traced, and so also its heading
in the Gulf of Mexico."*

It is not impossible that the warm waters of the Gulf Stream
may reach the coast of Norway, — most likely not as a current, —
and enter the Arctic Circle, and peradventure "assault the ice-
girdle that surrounds the Polar Sea," as Captain Bent supposes ;
but the supposition is by no means clearly established. Leaving
the southern branch (if, as Dr. Bache says, " it does divide ") to
form the Sea of Sargasso, if that has any existence, or rejoin the
equatorial current, the important question in this discussion is
whether the waters of the Gulf Stream enter the Polar Basin,
carrying their warmth into that remote sea, some three thousand
miles distant from the point at which Lieutenant Maury says " it
spreads out for thousands of square leagues over the cold waters
around." To do this, it is asserted, two ways are open to it : one
as a surface-current through the great ice-barrier, forming a " gate-
way " into the Polar Basin ; and the other as an under-current,
beneath the ice-girdle, coming to the surface again, giving out its
heat and becoming cold water ; and to these a third way may be
added by following around Nova Zembla and the Asiatic coast
towards Baron Wrangell's supposed Polynia, which was at one
time a favorite theory.f

It is not too much to say that each of these ways has its difficul-
ties, to say nothing here of the conjectural and contradictory
statements made in regard to them. If we dismiss the third prop-
osition, — which has little or no evidence to support it, — the
other two stand to eacli other as the horns of a dilemma : they
directly contradict each other; and the broader the ground of

* Proceedings, vol. xiii., 18G1.

t " Wrangell's Polynia, to the north of Siberia, if it exist, probably owes its
freedom from ice to the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which run between
Spitzbergen and the North Cape into tlie Arctic Ocean." — Man n/'s Instructions
to Lieutenant De Haven.

PHYSICS OF THK GL015E. 117

argument in support of one, the broader the ground of objection
to the other. They probably miglit be safely left to the full force
of the facts, if there are any, and the reasoning of their respective
advocates, whose statements we have quoted. Lieutenant Maury
and Dr. Hayes seein finally to agree in support of the under-
current theory. Captain Bent and perha{is Dr. Peterman to up-
hold the surface-current theory, but it is simj^ly impossible to
reconcile tlieir statements with each other.

It is known that the Gulf Stream becomes so diffused and
" spread out," and so lessened in its velocity, that it is doubtful
if beyond a certain limit, long before any of its waters reach the
coast of Norway, it can properly be called a current. We have
already quoted Mr. Blunt's remark on this subject. He does not
believe in a current or equatorial heat beyond longitude 40° west;
and thinks the set of the sea to the east is that general to the
North Atlantic, and the temperature of the water the general
temperature of those regions. Lieutenant Maury says the stream
loses 50° or Q0° of temperature before it reaches the frozen regions:
this will reduce it to about 25° (below the freezing point of salt
water ! ), and of course it can neither go through the ice or beneath
it, nor maintain Wrangell's Polynia. In the American Cyclo-
paedia it is said, " When the Gulf Stream reaches the coasts of
France, Spain, and Portugal, so expanded and so diminished is
its velocity, that we must resort to the track of bottles thrown
into the ocean, and afterwards picked up, to ascertain its course.''
If so ascertained, it may be simply the drift of the ocean, and not
at all indicative of the Gulf Stream as a current. " In passing to
the higher latitudes of the Arctic Seas," says Judge 'Daley, in his
annual address before the New York Geographical Society, 1870,
" it is so reduced and weakened that Admiral Irminger, of the
Danish Navy, in 1853, between 61° and 63° of north latitude, and
14° 18' west longitude, found that it ran during an observation of
twenty days only at the rate of three and one-tenth nautical miles
per day." It is doubtful if a drift of this nature should be called
a stream or current ; and the distance is more than a thousand
miles from the ice-barrier, under which the stream is to pass or
through which it is to melt its way, in less than a year I

Dr. Kane, believing in the evidence which points to the exist-
ence of a milder climate and an open sea near the pole, is not
disposed " to express an oj)inion as to the intiuence which ocean
currcnt.s may exerl on tliu temperature of these far northern

118 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY,

regions," but asks " whether it may not be that the Gulf Stream,
traced ah-eady to the coast of Nova Zembla, is deflected by
that peninsula into the space around the Pole?" Perhaps so, if
the i^i'emises were so ; but Nova Zembla is an island, and as no
authority is known for the statement that the Gulf Stream has ever
been traced to that point, it seems probable that Dr. Kane meant
Norway, which is a peninsula. Dr. Buist, however, makes the
suggestion that most likely from the coast' of Norway, if the
sti-eam really reaches that coast, it turns back to form a second
great whirlpool, rejoining the original stream near Newfoundland.
In this case it would probably join the polar current, passing along
the east coast of Greenland, around Cape Farewell, up the west coast
of Greenland as far as Cape York, and thence down the east
coast of the United States and under the Gulf Stream through
the Straits of Florida, — supposing it to be known that there is a
current over the whole of this route. It is this current that sup-
plies the natives of Greenland with drift-wood for fuel, and floats
icebergs to the north as reported.

The suggestion of Dr. Buist would also seem to conform to the
movement of the south branch of the Gulf Stream, as probably
also to that of the Japanese Current in the North Pacific Ocean.

An argument has been advanced in favor of the Gulf Stream
theory founded upon the experiments in the temperature of the
water at the surface and at certain depths beneath it, made by Dr.
Scoresby and others, in the Spitzbergen Sea. Dr. Scoresby's ex-
periments were made between latitudes 78" and SC^, at points
varying from thirteen to 761 flithoms, and indicate a gradual
increase of temperature approximating the point of the greatest
density of water, 39'' 5', the highest point reached being 38" at
the depth of 761 fathoms, that being six degrees warmer than at
the surface. These results appear to be confirmed by Caj)taiu
Beechey's account of Captain Buchan's voyage to Spitzbergen, in
1818. In harbor at Magdaleua Bay, in June and July, temper-
ature at the surface and at thirty fathoms, 34*^; at thirty-five
fatlioms, 34" 30' ; at ninety-one fathoms, 36*^ ; at 335 fathoms,
35*^, or one degree warmer than at the surface; at 700 fatlioms,
43°. But it does not appear tliat these observations have any
relation to the Gulf Stream on the norLli-west of Spitzbergen or
in Magdaleua Bay. Some experiments of tliis kind were made by
Commodore Kodgers, on the north-west coast of America, in 1855,
in latitude 72"^. lie found at twenty fathoms ilepth, 35"^ 5'; at

rilVSK S OF THE GLOBE. 119

forty fathoms, 40° 5'. In similar experiments by the Coast Survey,
stated by Dr. Bache, ninety miles from Havana the following
results were obtained : at 575 fathoms, 35° ; 525 fathoms, 40° ;
425 fathoms, 45^ ; 3(i0 fathoms, 50°; fifty flithoms, 75°. Off Cape
Florida, 1200 fathoms, 38°. We do not see that any thing is
j)roved or indicated.

Dr. Buist, afler remarking, " So soon as water is cooled down to
40^, it sinks to the bottom," says : " A striking fact has just been
brought to light : there is a line extending from pole to pole, at
or under the surface of the ocean, where an invariable temperature
of 39° 5' is maintained." The depth of this varies with the lati-
tude : at the equator it is 7200 feet or 1200 fathoms. At latitude
56° it ascends to the surface, the temperature of the sea being
here imiform throughout. North and south of this, the cold water
is uppermost; and at latitude 70° the line of uniforai temperature
descends to 4500 feet or 750 fathoms. This statement is veiy
suggestive, but needs further investigation.

We repeat that the evidence that the Gulf Stream does any
thing more than " run toicards the Spitzbergen Sea," covering
the xVtlantic Ocean " with a mantle of warmth that serves so much
to mitigate in Europe the rigors of winter," as Lieutenant Maury
says, is wanting ; and that, if it is admitted that it strikes the
coast of Norway, either above or below the Arctic Circle, that it
most likely turns and joins what in fact is an outward current
from the Arctic Basin. But suppose it reaches the coast of Nor-
way, with its temperature reduced fifty or sixty degrees, and has
then to pass round Nova Zembla and along the coast of Siberia •
in order to find Baron Wrangell's Polynia, more than a hundred
miles outside of the coast ice; or to pass through the great ice-
belt, or, what will be found quite as difficult, beneath several
hundred miles of ice, how much above 29° will be its temperature
when it reaches the vicinity of the pole or the open sea ? It seems
to us that there is no possibility for the waters of the Gulf Stream,
as such, to enter the Polar Basin. But notwithstanding, if it
should be allowed that these waters do reach the ice-belt and keep
an open channel through it, or after passing beneath the ice have
sufficient heat to keep an open sea around the pole, — improbable,
if not impossible, as these admissions are, — they utterly fail in
this case to afford any explanation of the warm winds and the
great problems in the varied phenomena of the Arctic IJcgions, and
their explanation must be sought for in some other direction.

120 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

But, after all the discussion and controversy on this subject, it
seems quite possible, to say the least of it, that an open sea around
the pole may exist without any aid from the Gulf Stream. Pro-
fessor Agassiz said at Boston, in 1860, that " every thing seemed
to indicate the existence of an open Polar Sea ; if there is no land
there, it is not probable that there is much ice." The words are
full of meaning ; and at the same time he remarked, " The existence
of land in that quarter is counter-indicated." Dr. Hayes subse-
quently admitted, while relying ujjon the Gulf Stream waters to
keep an open sea and* support his general theory, that " it is not
too much to say that so large a surface of water as the Arctic
Ocean cannot be frozen over even during the winter. . . . All
experience shows that it is only near the land that we find the
Arctic waters completely closed." Dr. Rink, we believe, does
not absolutely deny the existence of an open sea, which finds
advocates among so many of the most eminent English explorers.
His language exj^resses doubts of an open sea, " assumed to be
kept open by a branch of the Gulf Stream, from Nova Zerabla
down Smith's Sound to Baflin's Bay ;" but he probably will not
deny that an open sea may exist without the assumption of such
an influence in a space of waters " one-fifth greater than the
Atlantic between Newfoundland and the Irish coast." *

So that, so far as an open sea is concerned, there is no absolute
need of the waters of the Gulf Stream; and this long-questioned
and disputed matter of an open sea, kept open by the influence of
the Gulf Stream, appears to be settled or dissipated ; and the argu-
ment, with those who still object to the oj^en sea, must be, if con-
tinued, to show that an immense ocean — the most boisterous and
turbulent on the globe — may be completely closed with ice of
indefinite thickness; a matter which we think will not be at-
tempted even in view of the long Arctic winter. It would seem
from what has been said tliat the existence of an open sea, as an
established fact, might be safely accepted, with or without atmos-
pheric influence.

Thei'C is another influence generally attributed to the Gulf
Stream, and of course intimately connected with this subject,
of which we may very properly say a few words in this connec-
tion : it is tlie supposed direct influence of the stream u])on the
climate of Europe in high northern latitudes. Dr. Carpenter,

* Hon. Edward Everett, at Boston, 18G0.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 121

who is undoubtedly qu:ilified to give an o|>iiiion on this subject,
while allowing that the waters of the Gulf Stream flow towards
thf Arctic Ivegions in the direction of the Spitzbergen Sea, does
not believe that they are an adequate cause of the well-known
high temperature which prevails in the northern latitudes of
Europe, — then, of course, not of the phenomena of the Arctic
Regions, — but would probably accept the conclusions of Pro-
fessor Agassiz, " that the temperature of the Gidf Stream, in con-
nection with the temperature of the south-west winds blowing
obliquely across the Atlantic, modifies that of the western coast of
Europe," &c.* There is no doubt that the Gulf Stream modifies
the temperature of the Atlantic Ocean, and warms the winds that
blow over it ; but Professor J. Muller finds " a second cause to
which Europe owes its relatively warm climate in this, — that in the
equatorial regions it is bounded towards the south, not by a sea,
but by an extensive continent, Africa, whose vast extent of desert
and sand renders it extremely hot where exposed to the vertical
solar rays. A warm current of air rises continually from the
glowing hot sandy wastes to descend again in Europe " f [or far-
ther to the north].

Chiamisso, the naturalist, who accompanied Kotzebue in his
expedition in 1815-18, develops his views by remarking that
" when we extend our eyes over the globe it appears to us that
the twofold current of the atmosphere from the equator to the
poles, in its upper regions, and from the poles to the equator in
the lower, must bring over Europe from the interior of Africa,
which is scorched by the sun, a current of air far more heated in
proportion than over any other country in the world," He con-
siders the continent lying to the south and south-west of Europe,
between the line and the northern tropic, as a furnace which heats
the air that passes over it and determines its climate; and, in
general, he thinks that continents lying between the equator and
the tropics must give to the more eastern parts of the world
towards the pole a warmer climate than other parts enjoy, though
under the influence of seas similarly placed.

Thus, to account for the modified temperature of North- Western
Europe and North-Western America, we have not alone the warm
waters of the Gulf Stream and the Kuro-Siow, but the warm south

* Report on the Florida Reefs, Coast Survey, 1851.
t Principles of Physics and Meteorology, p. 515.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXI. 16

122 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

and south-west oceanic winds, and the influence of the heated air
of the equatorial regions blowing over them.

In view of what has been said we make the following con-
clusions : —

1. That the course of the Gulf Stream beyond the point indi-
cated, about longitude 70° west, is unknown and uncertain.

2. That if it reaches the Spitzbergen Sea, it is much weakened
as a current and too much reduced in temperature to have any
appreciable effect either upon the air or the water.

3. That if it touches the coast of Norway between latitudes 58°
and 71°, or Nova Zembla between 71° and 76°, it turns back and
joins the polar current or is lost.

4. That it does not enter the open sea around the pole; or if
any of its waters do so, either through the ice-belt or beneath it,
they are not of a temperature sufficient to keep an open sea or
account for the meteorological phenomena of the region.

Note. — The most recent advices from the Spitzbergen Sea,
communicated to the public by Dr. Peterman, make it quite clear
that the space between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla is the great
outlet of the Polar Ocean. "In July and August, of this simimer"
(1872), he writes, " the ice-current held a more easterly course
towards Nova Zembla, and left the western half of the sea free
from ice."

II. The Atmospheric Theory.

The second branch of our subject is contained in the propo-
sition that the atmosphere, by means of the well-known system
of circulation from the equatorial regions to the poles of the
earth, conveying heat and moisture, has the effect to ameliorate
the rigors of the climate in their vicinity ; and specially in
regard to the Arctic Regions, maintains an open sea in the
Polar Basin, and produces and explains on scientific principles
the varied phenomena constantly observed in those high lati-
tudes.

The System of Circulation.

The system of circulation is stated by Dr. Buist as follows: —

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 123

As the constant exposure of the equatorial regions of the earth to the
sun must necessarily engender a vast amount of heat, and as his absence
from the Polar Regions must in like manner promote an infinite accumula-
tion of coll], to fit the entire earth for a habitation to similar races of beings
a constant interchange and communion betwixt the heat of the one and the
colli of the otlier must be carried on. The air, heated near the equator by
the overpowering inlluences of the sun, is expanded and lightened: it as-
cends into upper space, leaving a partial vacuum at the surface to be sup-
plied from the regions adjoining. Two currents from the poles towards the
ecjuator are thus established at the surface ; uhile the sublimated air, dilfusing
Itself by its mobility, flows in the upper regions of space from the equator
towards the poles. Two vast whirlpools are thus established, constantly
carrying away the heat from the torrid towards the icy regions, and thus
becoming cold by contact with the ice carry back their gelid freight to
refresh the torrid zone.

It must not be understoocl, we think, that tlie rising of tlie
heated air from the surface of the earth is confined to the equa-
torial regions. The same thing takes pLice, no doubt, indefinitely
nortli and south of the equatorial space ; and in fact, wherever the
air in contact with the surface of the earth becomes heated, it
rises in the atmosphere, producing cloud, rain, &c., under favoring
conditions, according to the theory of Professor Espy, — rising of
course to lesser heights tlian the warmer air of the torrid zone.
A paper in the American Cyclopaedia also indorses " the gen-
eral higher current all the w^y from the equator to either pole."
Sir John Richardson says, "Aerial and marine currents operate
in both [Arctic and Antarctic Regions] in modifying the cli-
mate." Dr. Franklin, when speaking of the presence of elec-
tricity in tlie Polar Regions, says it is brought " by the clouds
which are condensed there and fall in snow." Mr. Bradley, of
Jersey City, in the nineteenth volume of the " Proceedings " of
tliis Association, says, " In the tropical regions where evapora-
tion is most abundant, there is an upward current which carries
the vapor to a great height, and then setting out both north
and south constitutes tropical currents, which descend in pro-
portion as they reach the higlier latitudes. On reaching a region
sufficiently cold, precipitation of snow or ice in some other form
[ ? ] takes place," &c. Lieutenant Maury declares that " air and
water are the great agents of the sun in distributing his heat
over the surface of the globe, cooling this climate and temper-
ing that."

It is not strange, perhaps, that we should sometimes mistake

124 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHESnSTRY.

the services of one for that of the other ; but in reference to the
phenomena of tlie Arctic Regions the error we charge is that the
agency of the air has been ahnost altogether overlooked, when, as
we think, the evidence shows that it is the chief agency employed
in modifying the rigors of the Arctic climate.

Without extending authorities on this branch of the subject, —
the circulation of the air, — we may append to the statements
already made a brief extract from one of Professor Ennis's papers
on latent heat, in the last volume of the " Proceedings " of this
Association : —

Wlu'n the heated air at the equator rises up, it ascends to the top of the
atmosphere, according to the generally received doctrine, and rapidly passes
to higher latitudes, when it falls and returns to the equator. But, when at
the top of the atmosphere, its temperature must be lowered to correspond
with all Marsh's figures of latent heat ; and when the same air descends to
the earth's surface in higher latitudes, its latent heat raises the extremely
low temperature until the amount of sensible heat is the same again as it
was at the equator, minus what was lost by radiation into interstellar
space.

In view of this circulation of the atmosphere, as stated by dif-
ferent authorities, it would appear that the air of the equatorial
regions, rising to the upper regions of the atmosphere, follows,
with more or less variation by reason of the diurnal motion of
the earth, the lines of longitude, converging at the poles with
varying temperature, varying proportions of moisture, and conse-
quently with varying force. The effects and consequences of this
intermingling must be manifested in the formation of clouds; in
violent and contending winds ; in frequent calms and almost con-
stant fogs; in the falling of snow and rain in large quantities, and
evolving large amounts of latent heat ; and in various other phe-
nomena, such as mirage, mock suns, sudden changes of wind and
temperature, &c.

Warm N^ortherhj Winds.

One of the most common and remarkable of the Arctic phenom-
ena is that of the warm winds generally from the north, which
have hitherto confounded both obsei'vers and theorists ; and so far
it is believed, excepting in the paper presented at NeAvj)ort, in
1860, remained unexplained and unaccounted for. Sir Edward
Parry found at Melville Island, Winter Harbor, that the north

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 125

winds were oftpii warm. The same fact was notcil l)y Dr. Kane,
at ^'an Rensellaer IIarl)or, where the summer winds from tlie
north otU'u l)rou<;lit warm and fojxuy weather. " Tlie direction of
the warmer winds j^oints towards Sititzbergen Sea [across Green-
hind] and the relative colder winds come in a direction from the
northernmost part of continental America." Mr. Schott says,
" The direction points across Washington Land and Kennedy
Cliannel;" and he adds, from the records of Dr. Kane, "It was
found that winds generally tend to elevate and calms depress
the temperature." Dr. Hooker (Transactions Linnaean Society,
1860) says, "It is a well-known fict that the temperature always
rises rapidly with the north (as well as other) winds over all the
Arctic American area." Captain Belcher says, " Of gales I take
no special notice, but here they invariably accompany any undue
rise of the temperature," — rather ]ieihaps produce it. At Una-
lachlect, Norton Sound, Alaska, Mr. F. Whymper says, " During
a portion of the time passed at this place, we had extremely bad
weather, with strong north and north-east winds. The thermom-
eter invariably rose during the prevalence of wind : it stood at
points ranging between -|- 7" and -j- 32° during our stay." Dr.
Kane says, " That strange phonomenon, the warm south and
south-east [north and north-east] winds, which came upon us
in January, did not pass away till the middle of this month
[February]. There is much to be studied in these atmospheric
changes^

It is not necessary to multiply these authorities: the fact of
warm north winds around the whole Arctic Circle, in Siberia as
well as Greenland, is well known ; and, whatever the conditions
or circumstances, are wholly inexplicable on the Gulf Stream
theory.

It seems to have been supposed, and the assumption is still sup-
ported by the advocates of the Gulf Stream theory, that if an
open sea can be established in the manner suggested by them, —
or open water, as its equivalent, — all the phenomena of the
Arctic Regions may be explained by that fact ; but it will prob-
ably appear that this is a great mistake. Open water, which
has been seen by explorers in all parts of the Arctic Regions, in
many cases remote from any possible influence of the Gulf Stream,
proves aV«olutely nothing beyond its own existence, which re-
mains to be accounted f(jr. Dr. Kane, however, ignores the argu-
ment by remarking that, to refer the phenomena to the presence

126 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

of open water, only changes the question ; and the inquiry must
be, "What is the cause of the open water?" Dr. Hayes, who
has uniformly advocated the Gulf Stream theory and followed the
lead of Lieutenant Maury, has heretofore relied upon the presence
of open water, when it could be reached and pi-essed into the
service, for every thing which he could not comprehend, almost it
would seem without seeking any other cause. His experience,
however, in 1860, in recording the terapei'ature while frozen up in
winter quarters, which gave him from the upper deck " a worse
than tropic shower," compelled him to make the following state-
ments: —

1860, November 13. — Worse and worse. The temperature has risen
again, and the roof over the upper deck gives us once more a worse than
tropic shower.

He then states that "the snow next the ice is more sloshy," and
gives the temperatures as follows : at the surface of the snow, 19'' ;
two feet below, 20^ ; snow in contact with the ice, IS'* ; water,
29^. So that no presence of open water at 29'' could have pro-
duced the showers. Again, —

November 14. — The wind has been blowing for nearly twenty-four hours
from the north-east, and yet the temperature holds as before. ... I
HAVE DONE WITH SPECULATION. A warm wind from the mer de glace,
and this boundless reservoir of Greenland frost, makes michief with my
theories, as facts have heretofore done with the theories of wiser men. As
lonj as the wind came from the sea I could find some excuse for the un-
seasonable warmth (p. 182).

At this time Dr. Hayes was frozen in and surrounded by hun-
dreds of miles of ice, and the wihd was blowing towards an open
water space in the south.

With his speculations thwarted and mischief played with his
theories. Dr. Hayes still adhered to the eminent fallacy of open
water, and believed he could find some excuse for his belief as long
as the wind came from the sea, which in this case was blowing
towards it. In a similar case to this, when Captain McClintock
was confounded by the " unseasonable warmth," and found his
" upper deck sloppy," he exclaimed : —

How is it that the south-east wind (north-east true) has brought us such
a very iiigli temperature? Even if it traversed an unfrozen sea, it could
not have derived from thence a higher temperature than 29°. Has it
swept across Greenland, — that vast superficies partly enveloped in glacier,

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 127

partly in snow? No ! it must have been borne in the higher regions of the
atmosphere from the far south, in order to mitigate the severity of this
northern climate.*

But we liave not mentioned all the experience of Dr. Hayes in
1800, for before the end of November, in that year, he found his
theories still more severely tried, as he relates in the following
extraets : —

The temperature had been strangely mild, a circumstance at least in part
accounted for by the open water ; and to ^his same cause was no doubt due
the great disturbance of the air and the frequency of the gales.

We pass over this reference to open water again, as a cause,
witli the remark that Captain McClintock found a much truer one
in his case, if in fact Dr. Hayes does not furnish a truer one in
his own case as he proceeds with his record : —

I have mentioned in the la.-t chapter a very remarkable rise in the ther-
mometer, which occurred early in November ; but a still greater elevation
of temperature followed a few weeks later, reaching as high as 32°, and
sinking back to 15° below zero, almost as suddenly as it had risen. f In
consequence of this extraordinary and unaccountable [?] event, the thaw
was renewed, and our former discomfort, arising from the dampness on the
deck and in our quarters, was experienced in an aggravated degree.
During two days [November 28 and 29] we could use no other fire than
was necessary for the preparation of our meals and for melting our necessary
supply of water. To add to our astonishment, a heavy fall of snow was
followed by a shower of rain, a circumstance which I had not previously
witnessed in this latitude, except in the months of July and August, and
then scarcely more rain fell than on the ])resent occasion.

The depth of snow precipitated during this period was likewise remark-
able, — the aggregate being thirty-two (32) inches. In one single day
nineteen (19) inches were deposited; greater by five inches than the
entire accumulation of the month in 1853-4 at Van Rensellaer Harbor.
The total amount of snow which had fallen up to the 1st of December was
forty-eight (48) inches. Being so far north of the line of maximum snow,
I was the njore surprised, as my former experience a[)peare(l to have shown
that the region of Smith's Sound was almost wholly free from nubilous
deposits. (Hayes, pp. 193, 194.) J

• McClintock, pp. 63, 64.

t In Captain McClintock's case the temperature of the air rose to 32° and fell
back to 7° below zero, which of course is inexplicable on the open water
hypothesis.

X " The difference l)etween the observed and mean temperature of all liours
during which snow (or rain) fell were likewise made out for each month of the

128 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

We have made these quotations from Dr. Hayes, partly for the
reason that they are the most recent. His experience as here
recorded is in several respects similar to that of other explorers in
the Arctic Regions, many of them at a different season of the
year ; for it must be borne in mind that passing the winter in the
vicinity of 80'^ north latitude is a modern experience, at least
among navigators. Captain Ross mentions the fact of rain follow-
ing a fall of snow at least three times in 1818; but these were in
July and August, in which months, it seems, Dr. Hayes had
witnessed the same j^henomena, so far as we remember without
recording them.

A very remarkable case, not however without its parallel, is
reported by Captain Beechey, as follows : —

On the 26th [June, 1818] we had a fall of snow, and at noon, for the
first time since crossing the Arctic Circle, a shower of rain, which although
the summer was so far advanced covered every rope in ice as it fell.

In this case the temperature of the falling water, and of course
the region of the atmosphere from which it fell, was higher than
the temperature of the air at the surface of the sea. This is of
very common occurrence in the northerly portions of the temper-
ate zone, and through New England, when the trees are covered
with ice, presenting one of the most brilliant scenes of a New
England winter.

Dr. Hartwig, in the " Polar World," page 27, speaks of the
warm wind and rain as follows : —

Even in the depth of a Siberian winter, a sudden change of wind is able
to raise the thermometer from a mercury-congealing cold to a temperature
above the freezing point of water ; and a warm wind has been known to
cause rain to fall in Spitzbergcn in the montli of January.

But the experience of Captain Parry, in his great slclge expe-
dition in 1827, particularly referred to in a former paper, is yet to

year. These hours are warmer on tlie average, in the winter months, by 13°,
than tlie corrcspondint^ mean temperature, the numbers decreasing regularly
from winter to summer, and reversing in June to — 1°. On the average during
tlie year, the sensible heat during precipitation was 7° 1'." — Charles A. Scliott,
Proc. Am. Ass., vol. xiii p. 2lJ'J.

In the circumstances detailed by Dr. Hayes, with such a remarkable fall of
snow the " sensible heal during precipitation " must have been very lanjcly above
the average.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 129

be mentioned. lie exporiencotl frequent clianges from snow to
rain of the most sicfniticunt character. On the 3(1 of July, after
reconling rains ahnost every day, when in latitude 82*^ 3' 19", he
says tl»e snow had changed to a heavy rain, and had produced
even greater eftt'ct than the sun in softening the ice. On the next
day he was again annoyed by a heavy rain, the thermometers
in the shade marking 35'' and 36*^ ; and in reference to the fre-
quent rains, at a point further north than ever reached before,
Cajitain Parry says: —

It is a remarkable fact that we had alreaily [first week of his journey]
experienced more rain in the cour.se of this summer than during the whole
of seven previous summers taken together, though passed in latitudes from
seven to fifteen degrees lower than this.

So he was as much disappointed by the " nubilous deposits " as
Dr. Hayes was in Smith's Sound.

Mr. Schott also, like Dr. Hayes, proposed to account for the
warm winds experienced by Dr. Kane in Rensellaer Harbor, in
January, 1855, by " supposing them to have originated over a
water area, partially open (this water would have a surface tem-
perature of 29"^ F.)" By the phrase, " water area partially
open," is probably meant open water. It would seem, however,
that Dr. Kane had little reason to believe in the open water
hypothesis for the production of warm winds of a temperature
of 32^ as already recorded, whatever his predilections may have
been. After passing the month of December, with the mercury
from 45° to 57° below zero, he refers to the presence of open water
thirty-five miles distant, as follows : —

January 12, 1855. — In reviewing our temperatures, the monthly and
annual means startle me. Whatever views we may have theoretically as to
the distribution of heat, it was to have been expected that so large a water
area but thirty-five miles to the south-west by west of our position would
tell upon our records ; and this supposition was strengthened by the in-
creasetl fall of snow, which was clearly due to the neighborhood of this
water. [ ? ]

The open water was south of Cape Alexander, and probably
had nothing to do with the snow.

Upon the evidence presented in the foregoing pages, avc think
it is safe to conclude that the reported warm win»ls — blowing
generally from the north and apjiarently over extensive icy re-

A. A. A. 8. VOL. XXL 17

130 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

gions, of a very much higher temperature than the open water —
cannot be attributed to that source. In the region of the Gulf
Stream, the temperature of the water must be at SC to raise the
temperature of the air to 32* ; but this relation of cause and effect
in the same degree could hardly be expected in the Arctic Regions.
To us it seems impossible : we cannot conceive, over a considerable
space, of any approximation to it, and have always regarded the
idea of a warm wind from a surface of open water, without any
actual knowledge of its temperature or the temperature necessary
under the circumstances to produce it, as an eminent absurdity,
lacking peradventure the elements of possibility. If the need of
open water is peremptory, as some theorists appear to regard it,
why not take the open sea, believed to exist in the central por-
tions of the Arctic Basin, at once, and refer to that phenomena
that cannot be explained or accounted for by open spaces, chan-
nels, ports, or walrus-holes in the ice, about which it is well
known there is no permanency of continuance? But even here
an open sea of 36^* would foil to produce an atmosphere of the
required temperature to the height of a ship's deck above the
surface.

So that, as Dr. Kane suggested, the open water, not accounting
for the warm wind or any wind, remains to be accounted for. It
is hardly too much to say that open water in the Arctic Regions
has been seen everywhere and by every explorer by land or sea.
Baron Wrangell, in 1823, thought he saAV an " immeasurable,
ocean;" but Dr. Kane suggested that he forgot for the moment
how narrow are limits of human vision on a sphere. This was in
latitude TC 51'. Sir John Franklin, on Garry Island, at the mouth
of Mackenzie River, latitude 69° 14', says "the sea appeared in all
its majesty, entirely free from ice." Captain Kellett, in 1849,
latitude 71° 5', sailed through streams and floes for two days, and
said the heavily packed ice " seemed to be broken by a water line
on the northern horizon."

From the time of Barentz, in 159G, open water has been reported
by navigators where it was not generally looked for, and has often
been assumed to be either the open sea itself or leading into it.
"The Dutch fishermen above and around Spitzbergen pushed
their adventurous cruises through the ice into open spaces varying
in size and form with the season and the winds ; and Dr. Scoresby
alludes to such vacancies in the floes as pointing in argument
to a freedom of movement from the north, inducing open water

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 131

in the neighborhood of the pole." " So, still more recently," saya
Dr. Kane, " Captain Penny proclaimed a sea in Wellington Sound,
on the very si)ot where Sir Edward Belcher has since left his
frozen ships; and my predecessor, Captain Inglefield, from the
mast-liead of liis little vessel announced an ojyen Polar Basin
but titteen miles oli' from the ice which arrested our progress the
ne.xt year."

Open water of itself, as we have said elsewhere, proves nothing.
On the very page that Dr. Kane reported the discovery by INIortou
of an open sea, it occurred to him that that might prove as illusory
as the rest have done ; and he says, " How far it may extend,
whether it exists simply as a feature of the immediate region, or
as part of a great unexplored area communicating with the Polar
Basin, may be questions for men skilled in scientific deductions,"
In a note, he adds, " Whether it does or does not communicate
with the Polar Basin, we are without facts to determine. I would
say, however, as a cautionary check to some theories in connection
with such an open basin, that the influence of the rapid tides and
currents in destroying ice by abrasion can hardly be realized by
those who have not witnessed their action. It is not uncom-
mon to see such tidal sluices remain open in the midst of winter.
Such, indeed, are the Polynia of the Russians, the stromhols
of the Greenland Danes, and the familiar open holes of the
whalers."

Whatever may be the cause of open water, whether local or
otherwise, it ceitainly is not the Gulf Stream, but rather the
winds, tides, and currents, as suggested by Dr. Kane ; and their
existence is entirely compatible with the nature and character,
as far as known to us, of the Arctic Ocean. Sir Edward Parry,
in 1827, who travelled over the ice from Spitzbergen to latitude
82° 45', did not find open water, excepting channels and holes;
but he did find ponds of fresh water on the ice which had been
much larger than when he discovered them, and these were the
result of the rain that he had encountered on his trip. He was
disappointed in not seeing "solid fields of unbroken ice which
every account had led us to expect in a much lower latitude,"
but found it rotten and unsafe as he proceeded, and the whole
excursion shows that if he could have gone farther he would have
found the end of the ice and the open sea.

Wo might extend these remarks and illustrations indefinitely,
and brinir totrether innumerable facts and statements, — such as

132 A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

relate to the ii-regularities of the winds towards the pole; the
frequency of calms, greater in number than all the winds com-
bined ; continued fogs and heavy mists, not the mere result of
local causes; the location of the poles of cold; the formation of
glaciers, by means of the rains ; the absence or comparative
sparseness of snow on the Spitzbergen and Greenland Moun-
tains ; the foils of rain, " which produced even greater effect than
the sun in softening tlie ice;" — all of which go to illustrate
the nature and character of the climate and meteorology of the
Arctic Regions, and seem to demonstrate the applicability of
the theory here proposed for the solution of the phenomena
recorded.

" Peterson tells me," says Captain McClintock, " the same
warm south-east (north north-east true) wind suddenly sweeps
over Uppernavik in mid-winter, bringing with it abundance of
rain."

This warm wind, constantly blowing, and rain, in some form
of manifestation, are the experience of the Arctic Regions.

It is this warm wind that produces snow, and changes the fall
to rain in summer and winter.

It is this warm wind and rain that melts the snow on the moun-
tains, and softens the ice more than the heat of the sun.

It is this warm wind and rain that cover a ship's rigging and
hull with a heavy coating of ice, as described.

It is this warm wind that forms clouds and fogs so con-
stantly, and brings with it electricity, — perhaps for the aurora
borealis.

It is this that forms ponds of fresh water on the ice in the
north.

This it is, as Captain McClintock believed, — and not mere
spaces of open water among the ice-fields, enveloped with a
temperature far below zero, — that " mitigates the severity of
the climate."

This it is — the current of air from the equatorial regions in
the system of circulation already described, cliarged Avith heat
and nu)isture, of different degrees of temperature — that pro-
duces all tlie meteorological plienomena of the Arctic Regions,
including mirage, mock sun, &c., as well as storms, fogs, and
winds.

This it is, too, — tlie filling of moisture and emission of latent
heat in the Iiighesl northern regions around the pole, — that.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE. 133

wliatover m:iy bo the auxiliary effect of other influences, if any
exist, keeps an open sea, wherever it would otherwise be closed.

This it is, too, tliat locates the j^oles of cold so fur south of the
theoretic pole of the earth.

This, in short, is the Atmospheric Theory, and this it is
that establishes the fact of an ameliorated climate in the Arctic
Kejiious.

134 B. NATUEAL HISTORY.

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

I. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1. Explanation of a New Geological Map of New Hamp-
shire. By C. H. Hitchcock, of Hanover, N. H.

(Abstract.)

This map is constructed upon the scale of two and a half miles
to the inch. The topographical part has been laboi'iously com-
piled by H. F. Walling, from all existing sources, which are chiefly
these: — 1. Coast Survey maps and triangulation. 2. Triangu-
lation by E. T. Quimby, under the direction of the Geological
Survey. 3. Map of the Northern Boundary, by Colonel J. D.
Graham, made by the United States after the ratification of the
Treaty of 1842 with Great Britain. Colonel Graham's astronom-
ical observations gave the same figures for latitudes and longitudes
as those subsequently deduced by the Coast Survey. 4. Ten
County maps, constructed after odometer surveys. 5. Maps of
Connecticut River, Winnii^iseogee Lake, and others too numerous
to mention.

It is expected that this map, showing as it does minutely the
natural toi^ographical features of the country, with all the vil-
lages, roads, railroads, &c., will form the basis of the Geological
Map to be inserted in the Final Report upon the Geology of the
State.

A previous paper has given in detail the formations among the
"White Mountains. The scale of tlie map will enable us to show
them all, with many other details in the south part of the State.

In general they may be grouj^ed as follows : —

I. Eozoic.

1. Laurentian, including {a) porphyiitic gneiss ; {h) White Moun-
tain series, or andalusite gneiss ; (r) Bethlehem, or talcose gneiss ;

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 135

((I) gneiss of Lake "Winnipiseogee Basin ; (e) gneiss on both flanks
of the porphyritic variety in the south part of the State, sub-
(livideil by bands of quartzite, — this carries the Concord and
Fitzwilliam granites, and is probably the beryl-bearing series also ;
(/") ran<;e of gneiss between Whitefield and Milan, considerably
hornbleiidic.

2. ^^on'an, including (a) common granite ; (b) trachytic gran-
ite ; (c) four bands of folsite, both lal)radorite and orthoclase.

3. JExeter syenites^ inchiding those cutting the Norian at Water-
ville, Mount Monadnock, opposite Colebrook, Red Hill, &c.

4. Iluronian. The talcose schist series along Connecticut
Kiver, and in the north part of Coos County.

5. Older Cambrian ? Includes Coos and Merrimack groups,
and probably the " Calciferous Mica Schist" of Vermont Survey.

II. Paleozoic.

Helderberg limestone.
Clay slates.

2. Recent Geological Discoveries among the White Moun-
tains, Xew Hampshire. By C. H. Hitchcock, of Hanover,
N. H.

At the Troy Meeting (1870) I had the honor to present to the
Association a brief sketch of the Geology and Topography of the
Mount Washington Range. The coniniunication was of a verbal
character, and no abstract of it prepared for publication. I ex-
hibited a model of this main range, upon the scale of one hundred
and forty rods to the inch horizontally, and five hundred feet to
the inch vertically, upon which different colors indicated the dis-
trihution of the principal varieties of rock. The area there repre-
sented was coni))rised between the Saco, Ellis. Peabody, and INIoose
Rivers; and the forniatiuns consisted of the andalusite or Wliite
Mountani gneiss, granite of three kinds, traps, and the andalusite

136 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

slate or Coos group. The opinions that had been entertained by
previous explorers, in regard to the age and structure of the White
Mountains, received a brief notice ; and a new theory of the
structure of the Washington range was presented. The main
range was considered to be an inverted anticlinal, much disturbed in
a later period by a powerful force, exerted nearly at right angles
to the direction of the original compressing agency.

The name of White Jlovntain Series or Hocks is proposed in
my Report to the Secretary of State, in 1869, as a general term
for all the older gneissic and granitic rocks occupying the moun-
tain area, and the principal part of the State, east of the newer
series of schists and slates along Connecticut River, described as
the Coos group. The first of these terms is a general one, which
may be restricted in application as our knowledge of the forma-
tions becomes more definite. Both in 1869 and 1870 I insisted
that the White Mountain series of andalusite gneiss and the
andalusite slates represented two very different geological periods,
the latter being the most recent, and thought to be of the same
age with the staurolite schists along Connecticut River.

Since 1870, my researches have been extended over the White
Mountain area west and south of the Washington range, among
quite a difierent series of rocks. The region is entirely a forest
and mountainous country, whose exploration is conducted with
extreme difficulty. Our conclusions differ greatly from those of
any earlier writer, and they spring directly from the observations
in the field. Geologists may differ from me in referring these
rocks to the periods I shall name hereafter, but they will be satis-
fied tliat their sequence is pro})erly made out.

As a matter of convenience, I will specify the several discoveries
in the order in wliich they presented themselves to me. Mr. J. H.
Huntington, my assistant, has toiled diligently among these moun-
tains, and has contributed largely to the development of the struc-
ture, as we now understand it.

I. Discovery of the Norian System.

In his address before the Association last year, at Indianapolis,
on retiring from the j)resi(lential chair, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt re-
marked that the Labradurian or Norian system, "although occupy-
ing a considerable area in the Adirondack region, is not certainly
known in the Appalachian range." Not more than a day later it

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 137

was my |>riviloge to staiul uj)on a X^nian area of several scjuare
mik's in extent, in the town of Waterville; and since that time
the system has been discovered in seven or eight other locahties:
so that the remark of Dr. Hunt, true when uttered, is no longer
correct, A brief sketch of this locality in Waterville will be of
interest. Near the east line of the town of Waterville is a high
mountain, called " Ti-ipyramid," for the reason that from an oval
base three conical ]ieaks rise to nearly the same height, the highest
being 4086 feet (Guyot) above mean tide water. The course of
thesfe summits is ten or fifteen degrees west of north. From Cho-
corua and Kiarsarge ^Mountains the northern cone seems farther away
from the middle than the southern one, and there are two subordi-
nate elevations each side of the centre. Bond gives four peaks on his
map corresponding to Tripyramid, the two southern 4400 feet each,
the others 4300 and 4000 feet above the sea. The whole mountain
mass is isolated, and is therefore quite projuinent. The southern
peak is about three miles westerly from Passaconnaway, in Albany,
and four from Whiteface, in Sandwich, both of nearly the same
altitude ; while Osceola, on the boundary line between Waterville
and Allen's grant, is 4397 feet above the ocean, and not less than
six miles away. The Grafton County map improperly calls Tri-
pyramid Passaconnaway ; and, misled by this authority, many
j)ei*sons have fallen into error in their descriptions of localities.
Eastman gives no name to this peak on his ma|).

The notable storm ending October 4, 1869, gave rise to a
remarkable freshet upon the south-western slope of the most
southern of these pyramids. The mountain side seems to have
been covered by spruces growing above loose blocks carpeted
abunilantly with moss, very much as is common all over the
White Hills wherever the climate permits temperate vegetation
to flourish. No valley furrowed the slope ; and it seems difficult
to understand why the. waters should have accumulated so enor-
mously at this point, and nowhere else in the neighborhood, if we
may judge by the effects produced, — especially since the bare
mountain side, exposed at this time, has rendered the area con-
spicuous as a landmark fifty Tnile5* away. It were easy to iinagine
that some atmospheric disturljances had collected the waters from
a circle having a diameter of a mile, and discharged them in a
narrow stream upon the forest beneath. Clouds are sometimes
said to " iMirst," when their contents are poured very quickly into
some limited area, most usually when a tornado or rapidly formed

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXXI. 18

138 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

nimbus flits by. Yet soraetliing of a. similar character will best
explain the phenomena displayed in Waterville during this never-
to-be-forgotten storm.

Almost immediately after the storm, this locality was visited by
Professor G. H. Perkins, Ph.D., of the University of Vermont,
Rev. M. T. Runnels, of Sanbornton, and Charles Cutter, of Camp-
ton. Professor Perkins wrote a description of the changes wrought
in the country, tind ])ul)lished it in the "American Journal of
Science" (II. a'oI. xlix. p. 158). As he made careful estimates of
distances in the ui)j)er part of the mountain, I will use his figiu'es
in the paragraph that follows.

The sliding commenced about forty rods from the summit, a little
one side of the highest ]>oint. The beginning of the bare earth is
only a rod in width. The breadth increases gradually for fifty or
sixty rods. For the following seventy rods down hill it widens
rapidly, attaining at one hundred and thirty rods' distance a width
of twenty-five or thirty rods. Thirty-six rods lower the breadth
is seventeen rods. The course is nearly straight to this point —
one hundred and sixty-six rods — when it begins to curve towards
the north-west instead of continuing south-westerly, and eighty
rods below is what Professor Perkins regarded as the termination
of the slide. The waters excavated a gorge through the boulder
clay or "hard pan" of the country, after passing the Elbow, often
twenty-five feet deep, the material being almost as firm as solid
rock. The whole course thus far mentioned is two hundred and
forty-six rods, of a general fusiform outline, with the lower end
curved to one side. The inclination of the debris is often as much as
forty-five degrees, perhaps higher for a dozen yards, and generally
somewhat less. The underlying ledges appear in two or three
places, but do not exhibit any marks or scratches made by the
sliding mass.

The curve at the bottom of the hill is nearly a right angle, and
was determined by the configuration of the land, for directly in
the way of the slip there is a low ridge covered by a forest. Were
the phenomenon a true slide, the materials must have been arrested
by tliis obstacle. But no more earth lies before this obstruction
than along any |)art of tlie two or three miles' distance of the steep-
est descent below. Tlie forest must therefore have been torn up
by a prodigious freshet, — trees, earth, and rock fragments mingling
with the water, as it all a licjuid mass, winding through the curved
valley of a stream, and excavating a dec])er channel below the

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 139

turn in its diroction. In a clearing of fifty acres at the base of the
mountain, called " Beckytown," great piles of rubbish, rocks, and
trees accumulated, while only earth was transported farther.

For nearly two miles below the Elbow mentioned above, the
current descended rapidly, occasionally depositing gravel in pro-
tected nooks, Avhich, with other sloping surfaces, may be called
terraces. Quite high up is an interesting excavation in the form
of a notch, where one side is long, slo])ing gradually, and the
other steep and short. Half way down the stream — which may
appropriately be termed Norway Brook, on account of the name
of the formations traversed by it — the water falls precipitantly
over a ledge of the dark Xorite rock. Elsewhere the valley is like
that of any mountain torrent.

This locality is easily accessible. During the summer a stage
runs from Plymouth to Greely's Hotel, in Waterville, a distance of
twenty miles. From this summer resort the first of the Norite
ledges is less than two miles, over a well-defined footpath, and
passing near a picturesque cataract. Mr. Greely can direct visitors
to these rocks.

The locality was first visited in a scientific way by Dr. Perkins,
in 1869, who did not recognize the Labrador feldspar. In May,

1870, Mr. J. H. Huntington went up the stream, bringing back
specimens of the dark rock, which he suspected might be labra-
dorite. He carried a fragment of it to Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, of
Montreal, for examination. Dr. Hunt's analysis showed the pre-
dominant mineral to be labradorite, in a letter dated March 21,

1871, and addressed to Mr. Huntington.*

My first visits to this locality were made August 18 and 19,
1871 ; also, September 20, in conij)any with Professor J. D. Dana.
A short article, descriptive chiefly of this locality, appeared in the
" American Journal of Science," for January, 1872, written by
myself, followed by analyses of the labradorite and chrysolite by
Mr. E. S. Dana. As the principal rock proved to be an aggregate
of labradorite and chrysolite, an assemblage of minerals not here-
tofore described, Mr. Dana proposed to designate it by the name
of Ossiptjte^ after the tribe of Indians indigenous to this part of
the State.

In ascending from " Beckytown," the first rock met with is

* See Report of the Geological Survey of the State of New Hampshire,
for 1«71.

140 B, NATURAL HISTORY.

"trachytic granite." This I called "gneiss with nodular oi'tho-
clase," in my first sketch, with seams or strata dipping (by com-
pass) 80° south, 70° west. In no other locality do the scales ot
mica arrange themselves in planes nearly vertical to the jointed
surfaces. A careful examination of this granitic rock in numerous
localities leads to the conclusion that it is a true erupted granite,
and not a gneiss ; though it is possible the present case may be
an exception: If so, it would be connected directly with the
porphyritic gneiss of Cascade Brook.

The first ledge of ossipijte appears a few rods higher up. Its
junction with the granite is concealed by drift. Similar ledges
occur for a mile, some exposures being sixty or seventy feet long.
The rock seems to be stratified, the planes dipping about twenty
degrees northerly.

This dark rock is abruptly succeeded by a gi'ay syenite-appear-
ing rock, being sometimes labradorite and mica, with hornblende ;
then orthoclase, labradorite, and mica, with scarcely any horn-
blende. The line of junction is irregular, averaging north 20° east,
and cutting the strata. Cavities in the strata have been filled by
injected masses of this syenite. For these reasons, we believe
this rock to have been eruptive. Perha})s an eighth of a mile
higher up, we find an interesting assemblage of coarse crystals of
whitish labradorite, hornblende, titanic iron, mica, and epidote.
This is at the " Notch."

These ledges disintegrate very rapidly. Large nodules of the
eyenitic rock, less liable to decomposition, are scattered through
the mass; and there are geodic cavities containing orthoclase,
albite, quartz, and rarely stilbite. The " Notch " is produced by
the erosion of a ferruginous band, resembling a stratum, and dip-
ping both east 15° south, and east 35° north. Above the Notch,
as far as the " Elbow," there is a recurrence of the finer-grained
syenite, containing geodes and feldspathic veins. At the Elbow
there is a somewhat different mineral combination, extending to
the top of the Pyramid. Quartz is rare, but there are two kinds
of feldspar. Mica is abundant, and some specimens show horn-
blende. The same minerals occur in the geodic masses, as below;
also actinolite, amethyst, and others yet undetermined.

Two analyses of one of the feldspars by C. A. Seely gave the
following results : silica, 50.2 ; alumina, 28.8 ; iron oxide, trace ;
lime^ 7.4 ; soda, 8.54; potash, 0.6. A jiartial determination of
another specimen gave: silica, 57. G; alumina and iron oxide,

GEOLOGY AXD GEOGRAPHY. 141

not separated, 24.6 ; lime, 3.2. Tliese analyses are suggestive
of atidem'te.

Upon the north-east side of Tiipyraniid, Mr. iruntinrrton found
a similar order of ledges in ascending that tributary of Swift
River, called Sabba Day Brook. Near the mouth of this stream
there is a cataract falling over the common granite of the country.
The same appears a mile higher up. The same rock is found on
Down's Brook, another tributary of Swift River, passing very
nearly along the line between Waterville and Albany. The tra-
chytic granite was not observed here, possibly because we had not
learned the importance of distinguishing it at the time of the
visit. But, higher up Sabba Day Brook, Mr. Huntington found
compact labradorite in places apparently devoid of chry?olite,
and fragments whose cleavable crystals showed the play of colors
usually seen in this species. Higher up the mountain, the north
Tripyraniid, the syonitic rocks of the slide reappear. Farther
south the labradorite passes up into a breccia apparently overlying
gneiss.

The rocks adjacent to this Xorian area are the trachytic granite
at Beckytown, on Norway Brook, and probably on the north, sirfOe
specimens of it have been brought from Flume Brook, two miles
distant ; common granite to the north-east ; gneiss on the east ;
and porphyritic gneiss on the south. The latter crops out upon
Cascade Brook, about a mile south of the Norian. The ridge
between has not been examined. This gneiss dips 75° north 20°
east, and most likely lies underneath the labradorite rocks uncon-
formably. These porphyritic ledges seem to be the northern end
of continuous exposures all the way from Fitzwilliam, ninety
miles distant, if not from Massachusetts. The breadth is some-
times fifteen miles. Hence the labradorite rocks seem to rest con-
formably upon the trachytic granite, to have been cut across by
the syenite, and to overlie uncomformably the other formations
adjacent. With this ])oint settled, it is easy to determine the
relative asjes of all the formations concerned.

The importance of this discovery may be best appreciated by
remembering that the presence of the lime feldspars aifords a
strong ])resumption that these rocks are Eozoic, and not meta-
morj)hic Paleozoic formations. It seems to be generally admitted
by geologists that these feldspars are confined to the older rocks,
except as found in eruptive traj)pean and volcanic masses. The
Labrador system was first formally separated from the Lau-

142 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

rentian by Sir W. E. Logan, in his Report of 1865, though the
pi'oposal liad been shadowed forth in earlier reports. It is called
the Upper Laxirentian or Labrador. Dr. Hunt subsequently
proposed the name of JVbrian, from Norway, instead of Labrador.
The Canadian geologists supposed this system to underlie the
Huronian, though the two groups had never been found in imme-
diate contact. They are positive that it is more recent than the
Laurentian, as it overlies the earlier gneisses unconformably.

With this history before us, it is not strange that we began to
take a deep interest in tracing out the relations of these Norian
rocks, as well as to accept the conclusions presented above, in
regard to the value of lime feldspars in determining geological
age. The felsites have since been discovered in several localities,
but almost always possessing a slight dip. Regarding all the
compact feldspars as belonging to one system, though differing
chemically, the series may be divided into four parts.

First, the ossipyte, or other coarse aggregations of labradorite
with hornblende or other minerals ; second, a dark, compact lime
felsite, verging into one of similar aspect, but hardly a labradorite.
That from the Lafayette range represents the first of these vari-
eties. The following is its composition : silica, 52.01 ; alumina,
26.60; iron peroxide, 4.20; lime, 13.30; soda, 3.50 ; potash, 0.65.
Total, 100.26.

The second of these varieties may be represented by a specimen
from Mount Lyon (Cape Horn) in ^Northumberland. The follow-
ing is its composition : silica, 62.2 ; alumina, 28.0 ; iron oxide,
trace; lime, 4.6; soda, 3.34; potash, 6.0. This is like an ordi-
nary potash felsite. These two kinds cannot be distinguished from
each other optically.

Third, crystalline felsites of light color, often reddish and most
probably orthoclase. There are mountain masses of this kind, as
exemplified upon Mount Carrigain and Twin Mountain.

Fourth, comi)act red felsite, resembling orthoclase. One of
them from Albany gives the following percentages : silica, 64!90 ;
aluMiina, 8.80 ; iron oxide, 12.60 ; magnesia, 2.37 ; lime, 3.50 ; soda,
4.24; poliish, 6.25. Another from the north of Waterville gave for
alkali dclcniiiiiatioiis : soda, 3.959; potash, 6.525. There is no
reason to suj)pose that any of tlie red felsites I'ound by us differ
essentially from ortliodase in comjiosition.

The localities of these felsites may be briefly mentioned: 1.
Waterville, as described above ; 2. Albany, upon Mount Chocorua,

GEOLOGY AXD GEOGRAPHY, 143

and 3. Little Deer Brook. Tlie last is connected with an inter-
esting conglomerate, ])artly composed of two varieties of felsite
and partly of andalusite rocks. 4. Loon Poml, in Woodstock.
5. Mount Carrigain. G. Twin Mountain range. The felsites
occur cliiefly south of the summit of the north peak, and north of
the east branch of the Pemigewasset. 7. Lafayette range. 8.
Blount Tom, near the Crawford House. 9. A few miles from
the summit of Mount Washington, in the valley of Dry River.
An examination and analysis of this rock shows it to be almost
exactly like that from Waterville, analyzed by Dr. Hunt. 10.
Sable Mountain, in Jackson. IL The largest of all, extending
from Mount Starr King, in JeiFerson, to Northumberland. Two
]>eaks in Xorthumberland are actually separated from the main
area by an intervening band of argillaceous quartzite. This area
of perhaps sixty square miles is full of sharp, precipitous peaks;
and, though often oidy a mile from a railroad, the primitive
forest has never been removed from them, so poor is the soil.
"Wherever exposed, the ledges decompose rapidly, and hence one
might by a hasty examination overlook the true mineralogical
character of these felsite summits. Perhaps, on account of ready
decomposition, it is very rare to see any boulders of this felsite in
any of the settled districts, otherwise attention would have been
directed to them long ago.

II. Relatioxs of the Granites.

Mount Lafayette is the culminating point of a narrow ridge,
about five miles long, capped horizontally by lime felsite, except at
one low and narrow place, where it has been worn away. The thick-
ness of the felsite is not more than two hundred or three hundred
feet. Passing down the west side of this range, say next the
Flume, one passes over two kinds of granite, aiTanged in two
immense sheets, like conformable formations underneath the
felsite. This arrangement may be best appreciated by inspecting
the annexed section from Mount Liberty to Mount Flume, passing
through the celebrated gorge in Lincoln called the " Flume," F.
Mount Liberty is at (7, and Mount Flume at -4, 2250 feet above
7^, which is 1849 feet above mean tide water. In ascending, one
passes over say six hundred feet thickness of a common granite,
and above that over about one thousand feet thickness of the
trachytic granite, before coming to the felsite.

144

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

The constituents of the common granite are the ordinary ortho-
clase, mica, and quartz. The minerals are rather coarse, usually
one-fourth of an inch in length, and never more than an inch.
The orthoclase is often flesh-colored to red, and is the most abun-
dant of the constituents. The quartz is smoky, translucent, some-
times roughly crystallized, though commonly amorphous. The
mica is black, and the least abundant of the three, but existing in
considerable quantity. Nearly horizontal joints traverse the mass,
besides others that are perpendicular.

The trachytic granite abruptly replaces the common variety in
ascending. It lias a strongly trachytic or semi-porphyritic aspect.
It is chiefly feldspar, proved by analysis to be orthoclase, in
rounded crystals imbedded in a granitic paste ; the former being
the chief part of the mass. Sometimes pieces of quartz are scat-
tered among the feldspar crystals. The rock is often characterized
by a film of manganese, perhaps coloring an entire mountain

a. Felsite. b. Trachytic Granite, c. Common Granite.

mass. In different parts of the mountains this trachytic rock
varies slightly, — perhaps becoming more compact, as in Albany,
or more micaceous, as near Mount Osceola.

Throughout the White Mountains, at least south of the Lower
Ammouoosuc River, it is easy to distinguish these two varieties
of granite, and they invariably hold the same relative position to
each other everywhere. It is as easy to know the mineral charac-
ter of these mountains from a knowledge of the rock at their bases,
as that of the high mounds about Dubuque where we have the
succession of Trenton, Galena, and Maquoketa, or Lorraine. For
if the basal layer is common granite, we are sure to find first the
trachytic variety, then coarse labradorite or ossipyte, and then
finer lime felsites, followed by others, according to the altitude.
To prove this statement, I need oidy refer to the Lafayette and
Twin Mountain ranges where the whole series is exposed, or to
Mount Osceola where only the two granites appear.

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHT. 145

If tliose granites behaA'c like a stratified formntion, of course
the question is at once raised whether they should not be regarded
as true strata. The answer cannot be given from position merely,
since it is not uncommon to find sheets of trap or lava holding a
perfectly analogous position. We have preferred to think of the
While Mountain country at the end of the Laurentian period as
an immense basin, upon wliicll there was an overflow of common
granite. Being liquid, it spread itself out like water, assuming a
horizontal surface. After a while there was an eruption of trachy-
tic granite, which spread itself in the same Avay. Subsequently
the felsites were formed above them, conformably. It would be
natural to regard these granites and the felsites as belonging to
one period, the Norian. The limits of this system have not been
fixed ; and it seems as if in New Hampshire it should commence
with the common granite, and end with the red orthoclase felsite.

As these formations still preserve the nearly horizontal arrange-
ment, it would appear that the region has not been much disturbed
since the deposition of the felsite, certainly not enough to incline
the strata at any considerable angle. Other considerations indicate
that the principal upheaving agency acted in an earlier period.

III. The Laure^ttiajt.

If the felsite series is of the age of the Upper Laurentian or
Labrador of Logan, then by the law of superposition the strata
underneath the common granite are Lower Laurentian. Obser-
vation showed us, at this phase in the development of the White
Mountain structure, two gneisses and a breccia underneath the
granite sheet.

The most important is the '•'■ Porphyritic gneiss^'' or granite
sometimes. This is a gneiss having large crystals, usually one
and a half inches long, of orthoclase, arranged in layers in the
mass, with the longer axes parallel to one another. These we
conceive to be the strata. Tlie formation is immensely develoj)ed
in the State. Perhaps three ranges of il occur in the White
Mountains. The principal one passes from Cnnpton, up tlie
Pemigewasset valley and the Kinsman-Moosilauk range to the
north part of Franconia. Another mass of it, four or five miles
long, crops out in Littleton and Bethlehem, apjjarciitly connected
with the Franconia end of the range beneath the " Bethlehem
gneiss." Another range is overlaid in Waterville by the Xorian,

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 19

146 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

but appears again in a small outlier at the base of Mount Carri-
gain.

The descriptions of the Laurentian rocks in Canada and Europe
make mention of large quantities of porphyritic gneiss ; hence we
feel warranted in referring these lower schists to the Laurentian
system. We have yet found nothing older in the State.

The " Bethlehem gneiss " overlies the porphyritic variety. This
rock is characterized by the presence of chlorite, or else the green
pinite which constitutes the principal ingredient of the so-called
talcose schists of Northern New England. The rock is generally
very granitic; i.e., the strata are not easily made out. The
formation lies between Littleton and Randolph, and has in gen-
eral an east and west strike ; while the dip is nearly perpen-
dicular.

The breccia referred to this period occupies two small areas in
Franconia, joining the common granite at the " Basin." It holds
abundantly fragments of porphyritic gneiss and ordinary gneisses,
but no pieces either of the common or trachytic granites. The
two areas are separated by the common granite, which seems
therefore to overlie it.

IV. Relations of the White Mountain Gneiss.

While these explorations were in progress in the field, Dr. T.
Sterry Hunt, of Boston, devoted his attention to the study of
the relations in age of the three great gneissic areas of New York
and New England, and embodied his conclusions in the Presi-
dential Address delivered at Indianapolis, in 1871. I need only
refer to the character and place of his " White Mountain series."
He used the term in a diiferent sense from that alluded to at the
outset. He included all the schists, both gneisses and non-feld-
spatliic layers, containing either the minerals andalusite, staurolite,
or cyanite, or that class of silicates of alumina devoid of alkalies.
And he referred the age of the series to the Cambrian., not far
from the ])eriod of the Potsdam sandstone. Our observations
enable us to subdivide this series, in accordance with our original
definition (see ante)., and confidently to refer the lower division
to the Laurentian system ; wliile tlie non-leldspatliic ])ortion lies
above the Norian, and may hold the jtosition ascribed by Dr.
Hunt to the whole White Mountain series, in his very able and
learned address.

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPnY.

147

The triitli flashed upon us while studying the strata along Dry
(or Blount Wasliington) River, four or five miles south of the Tip
Top House. Passing from any part of the main ridge (from
Mount Washington to Jackson) into this valley, we see only the
common gneiss of the mountains, often carrying bits of andalusite.
The dij) is high to the north-west, and there are minute contor-
tions. Thei'e are several varieties : common granitic beds, mostly
quartzite, and a gneiss reminding one of the porphyritic variety.
These same members were observed upon two tributaries of Dry
River, one rising fi-om the notch between Mount Pleasant and
Mount Franklin, the other ti'om the notch between Mount Clin-
ton and Mount Jackson. Between the mouths of these tributaries
an ossipyte, Avith other labradorite rocks, crops out. An analysis
of the labradorite, carefully removed from the ossipyte, shows it
to be composed of silica, 51.50 ; alumina, 25.90 ; peroxide of iron,
5.00 ; lime, i.'ld ; soda, 2.95 ; potash, 0.50. Total, 100.14. The

White Mountain Gneiss.

labradorite rocks assume the form of a shallow synclinal, lying
upon the upturned edges of the White Mountain series, as shown
in the accompanying figure. The dip is greatest on the lower end
of the outlier, and the quartzite variety underlies it there. The
junction between the two formations was carefully studied at the
upper end, w^here it is of the most importance to see their relative
positions. The lime feldspars clearly rest upon the gneiss, and
the line of junction was followed up a stream a considerable
distance.

This outlier is not more than one and one-half miles in length
along the river. We have not yet explored the forests on the
two banks, but do not think it is as broad as long. The section is
also interesting because it shows that the granites were produced
in the interval between the deposition of the gneiss and the for-
mation of the lime feldsjjars. It also indicates that the principal
epoch of elevation among tlie White MouTitains preceded the

148 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

Norian period, or at the close of the Laurentian. This statement
presupposes what must be inferred from this section in regard to
the age of the White Mountain gneisses, that they may be Lau-
rentian. It is easy, therefore, to divide the Laurentian of the
White Mountains into three parts : first, the porphyritic ; second,
the andahisite gneiss ; and third, the Bethlehem gneiss. There
are, doubtless, other well-marked divisions whose characters can
be best made out after comparing the rocks of the northern
with those in the southern part of the State.

By studying the map — not here reproduced — the White
Mountain series is seen to be cut oif entirely by the granites
west of Jackson. But there are several small outliers of the
gneiss in the midst of the granite, usually in the lowest parts
of valleys. A good example may be seen about a mile above the
junction of Mount Washington and Saco Rivei's. Mountains of
granite rise one or two thousand feet upon both sides of the river,
but close by the water is a quarter of an acre of the quartzose variety
of the gneiss, showing precisely the same dip and strike as where it
was last seen higher up, before the interposition of the^ granite. A
view of these phenomena immediately suggested that the schists
were not actually cut oif as might be supposed, but the granite
simply overflowed them like water over the floor of a hydrographic
basin, leaving hei-e and there an island. Under these circum-
stances, deep excavations would also uncover small patches of the
rocky floor, as in this instance.

This suggestion may throw great light upon the distribution of
granite. All of us, who have studied the granites of New Eng-
land, have been puzzled by the immense areas of this rock appear-
I ing at the surface. To relieve the difficulty occasioned by the

immense amount of granitic material, provided it descended deep
into the crust, it has been supposed that it would be found ex-
tensively inter-stratified with schist, or else that the observations
required correction. If we suppose the granite may often exist
as a comparatively thin overflow, like volcanic areas, the difticulty
is removed. It would neither be found in such enormous quantity
as supposed, and the observations as to its area may be received
as correct.

GEOLOGY AXD GEOGRAPHY. 149

V. The Breccias of Mounts Kiarsarge and Mote.

Recent explorations show tlint Mounts Kiarsarge and Mote are
nuK'h like each other in mineral composition. At their founda-
tion is the common granite. Next comes a thin sheet of trachytic
granite, presumably less than two hundred feet. The labradorite
does not succeed next, but a clay slate upon Kiarsarge. There
are two small outliers of this rock, upon opposite sides of the
mountain, neither of them a mile long. Higher up the rocks, on
both elevations, are breccias, at first almost entirely composed of
fragments of slate, and afterwards the number of slate fragments
diminishes. . The paste sometimes resemble trachytic granite.
The Mote Mountain mass contains fragments of clay slate, andalu-
site slate, red felsite, and labradorite. Hence the epoch of eruption
must have been subsequent to the formation of the clay slate
(supposed Cambrian).

In Albany there is an irregular area of a greenish granite, over-
lying the trachytic variety, and beneath the breccia. A similar rock
occurs on the Hancock Branch of the Pemigewasset, and probably
elsewhere, as our attention has only just been called to it. The
Albany area is represented upon the map. It may be that this
third species of granite was erupted at the time of the breaking up
of the slate. Further explorations are needed to make its history
thoroughly understood. The largest part of the area occupied by
this variety lies between Mounts Chocorua and Passaconnaway.

Order of the Formations.

We may then conclude the following to be the proper order of
the formations in the White Mountain area : —

1. The poii^hyritic gneiss of Bethlehem and Littleton, the range
from Franconia to the south part of the State, an outlier along
Sawyer's River south of Mount Carrigain, and the range passing
south-westerly from Waterville. These may be grouped in two
parallel ranges, the country between and to the north being occu-
pied by newer groups. There is also limited evidence of the ex-
istence of a third range to the west of both those mentioned.

2. The White Mountain series of gneisses and mica schists
carrying andalusito probably succeed. A difierence in the strike
of those two groups in Thornton suggests the possibility of an
interval of time between their respective depositions.

150 B. NATURAL HISTORT.

3. The Bethlehem gneiss rests unconforraably upon the first-
mentioned rock. Its relations to the second series are yet un-
known. All these groups are probably of Laureutian age. They
seem to have been elevated before the commencement of the
following period. Perhaps the era of disturbance is represented
by-

4. A singular breccia, not yet seen away from Franconia. It
occupies two areas, one on each side of the Pemigewasset valley.
The fragments are mostly of porjihyritic gneiss, with schists sup-
posed to be of the second series. The areas are separated by
the common granite, which was probably ejected in the follow-
ing period, since none of its fragments appear in the adjoining
breccia.

5. The Norian series. These, as already mentioned, consist of
(a) common granite ; {b) trachytic granite ; (c) ossipyte ; {d)
compact labradorite felsite ; {e) dark compact orthoclase felsite ;
(/') red compact and crystalline orthoclase felsites.

6. Period of the eruption of the syenites of Tripyramid, Red
Hill, &c.

7. There seems to be a blank in the direct sequence of events
after the eruption of the syenites. A clay slate succeeds the
Norian directly in the vicinity of the Crawford House ; and were
this the only locality where the lower and upper layers appear in
contact, there would exist no evidence of the immen.se thicknesses
of schists which have probably been intercalated at this horizon.
In Stark and Northumberland, a dark silicious rock, somewhat
argillaceous, more or less suggestive of the slates of Mounts Tom,
Webster, and Willey, lies adjacent to the felsites, but standing
vertically, and usually at a lower level. Supposing the slaty
rocks of Willey and Stark of about the same age, and both sub-
sequent to the Norian group, their j)resent position may j^erhaps be
'explained thus. The older Laurentian and the felsite deposits may
have been very firmly established, so as not to suffer great dis-
turbance. But the forces of u])heaval continuing to act, they may
have been brought nearer to each other by lateral action, yet'not in
such a way as to tilt the strata. The consequence would have been
the crowding and upheaval of the strata formed in the basins
between the earlier hills. These latter being near togetlier, the
slates may have been thrown upon their edges witliout disturbing
the horizontality of the former. This view will not indicate how
long a time ela])sed between tlie close of the Norian and tlie

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 151

beginning of the Cods (or slate) periods. Our explorations reveal
not loss tlian three great groups v\'hich it is reasonable to suppose
filleil this interval of time. They are (1) a range of gneiss between
Whitofield and Errol ; (2) another gneiss running south from
Landaff; and (3) the green schists of the Ammonoosue and Con-
necticut valleys, called " Quebec " in my first report, but perhaps
better referable to the Iluronian of Canada. To prove this to
be the proper place of these great groups will require further
study.

8. The place of the clay slates of Mounts Tom, Willard, Kiar-
sarge, tfcc. Closely connected with them are the andalusite slates
or schists found along the carriage-road up the east side of Mount
Washington. Tliese may be referred to the Cambrian, from litho-
logical resemblances.

9. Other disturbances followed. This was most likely the era
of the eruption of the greenish granites of Albany ; certainly the
time when the breccias of Mounts Kiarsarge and Mote accumu-
lated from the breaking down of the Coos rocks. These slates
show marks of powerful disturbance near Conway, and also upon
Mount Washington.

10. The latest period of unrest among the mountains, of which
any evidence is afforded, is indicated by the presence of highly
inclined Helderberg limestones in Littleton, beyond the proper
area of the White Mountains. The mountains, however, must
have moved westerly in order to elevate these Devonian rocks.
The ])eriod is probably the one considered by most previous
authors as the time when the White Mountains themselves were
projected into the air, at the close of the Paheozoic age.

The complete history of the White Mountain area would require
some notices of the Glacier or Drift Period. The lateness of the
hour will prevent the elucidation of this chapter in the history.

Thus our explorations have brought to light the existence of
ten distinct periods, whose records can be traced upon the
scarred sides of these highest mountains in New England. No
jH'evious essay speaks of more than two. If our limited oppor-
tunities have led to such unexpected results, what may we not
look for when the geological structure of the entire metamorphic
area of New England has been carefully studied ! It is strange
that this interesting region has been so thoroughly neglected by
geologists.

152 B. NATURAL HISTORY,

3. The Surface Geology of North- Western Ohio. By N.
WiNCHELL, .of St. Anthony, Minnesota.

The Geological Survey of Ohio, now in progress, has brought
under careful and systematic observation one of the most favor-
able fields for the study of the phenomena of the Post-Tertiary.
Its most interesting feature is the series of long and nearly par-
allel ridges which are traceable across the country, sometimes for
a distance of over a hundred miles, commonly known as lake-
ridges, sweeping far toward the south and west, and entering the
States of Indiana and Michigan. It is a circumstance peculiarly
favorable for the study as well as for the preservation of these
ridges through their long continuity, that the geological confor-
mation of the rocky surface below is uniformly smooth throughout
the whole of the district which they traverse. The rocks have,
in North-Western Ohio and North-Eastern Indiana, in general,
one common character. They are the limestones ranging from
the Niagara to the Blach Slate, including both. These are spread
over double their usual superficial area of outcrop by the occur-
rence of an anticlinal axis — of which the Niagara forms the arch —
which runs south-westward from the west end of Lake Erie,
nearly uniting with the Cincinnati axis of upheaval. The Salina,
which by its erosible character has played an important part in
determining the location of some of the great lakes of Central
North America, is found wanting in the geological series in Ohio,
south and west of Lrike Erie. It has a feeble existence round
the shores on the south, giving rise to some of the deepest inden-
tations of coast; but it is very soon replaced by that member of the
nelderherg, known as the WaterUme in the Reports of the Ohio
Geological Survey, thus forming an unbroken chain of calcareous
rocks of very uniform hardness, including the Niagara, the Water-
lime, the Corniferous (Lower and Ui)per), and the Hamilton. To
this list must be added the Blade Slate, the endurance of which
under the forces of the glacial epoch entitles it to be ranked with
the most persistent of the ]>ala)ozoic formations.

This series of rocks occupies the surface of most of the Fourth
Geological District of Oliio ; i.e., from the Sandstone area in the
central portion of the State, westward to and across the boundary

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPnY. 153

line into tlu' State of Iinliauii, and a strip along the Avcst end of
Lake Erie extending into Michigan.

The whole of this tract is a vast phiin of uniform and monoto-
nous cliaracter. It was originally densely wooded, with the excep-
tion of a few flat tracts now known as prairies, which were too
wet throughout the germinating season of the year to permit
the growth of trees. It is now being cleared, drained, and occu-
pied by fiu-mers. The " Clift" Limestone " here, unlike its appear-
ance in other parts of the country, is unw'orthy of its ancient name.
It never rises in clijfs. There are no sudden changes of level.
The drainage of the country is almost entirely independent of the
tortuosities of the geological boundaries. The whole district is
a vast tabida rasa, on which the history of the Post Tertiary is
written without those perplexing and disguising variations which
have very often misled the student who would ]-ead it in more
rocky and broken places. This is particularly true over the areas
of the Niagara and Water limestones. While the rock itself
does not rise in abrupt escarpments, nor sink in deej) depressions,
there is, besides a general slope of the surface toward the valley
of Lake Erie, a series of ridges and undulations, pertaining to the
drift, which have had a marked influence in olivine: direction to the
streams.

By the term drift is meant every thing which lies on the rocky
surface, including boulders, gravel, sand and clay, whether strati-
fied or unstratified, of whatever thickness, and whether separate
or mixed.

By the term unmodified drift is meant that drift Avhich lies as
the glacier deposited it, whether stratified or unstratified. If strati-
fied and assorted, it was done by streams of water issuing immedi-
ately from the ice of the glacier, or by water choked and confined,
in pools or lakes round the foot of the glacier.

3Iodified drift is that which has subsequently been submerged,
and its arrangement and character essentially changed. It may
be stratified or unstratified. The drift of the Bluff Formation of
the Mississippi Valley, and all alluvium of smaller streams, as well
as the sand which lies about the shores of the great lakes, are ex-
amples of modified drift.

By the term hardpan is meant that portion of the unmodified
drift which embraces gravel, boulders, sand, and clay, hetero-
geneously mixed, generally plastic, and impervious to water. The
boulders of this clay, in North-Westeru Ohio, almost invariably

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXL 20

154

NATURAL HISTORY.

show glaciated surfaces. It has sometimes been called "boulder
clay."

In this discussion of the Surface Geology of North-Western
Ohio, we shall accept the glacier theory of Professor L. Agassiz
as the only satisfactory way to explain the various phenomena
there disclosed. It is believed that the simple apj^roach, pro-
longed presence, and slow retreat of a glacier covering the region
under consideration, will account for all its drift phenomena; and
that there is in North-Western Ohio no evidence either of the
Champlain or the Terrace Epochs, as those terms have been de-
fined and applied to States further east.

In this discussion the subject will be divided in the following
way: —

I. The Character of the Drift in general.

(a) Where consisting entirely of hardpan.

(b) Where the surface is laminated.

II. The Moraine Ridges.

(a) The /St. Johris Ridge.

a. Its location.

^. Its external form.

y. Its contents.

8. Its altitude above Lake Erie.

e. Its origin.

{h) The Wabash Bidge.

a. Its location.

^. Its external form.

y. Its contents.

8. Its altitude above Lake Erie.

e. Its origin.

a. Its location.

^. Its external form.

y. Its contents.

8. Its altitude above Lake Eric.

e. Its origin.

GEOLOGY AND GEOGKAPHY. 155

(d) The TuM Wert B'ulge.

a. Its location.
, pi. Its external form.

y. Its contents.

5. Its altitude above Luke Erie.
e. Its origin.

(e) The Jilanchard liidge.*

a. Its location.

^. Its external form.

J'. Its contents.

d. Its altitude above Lake Erie.

e. Its origin.

{/) Tlie Belmore Midge.

a. Its location.

li/. Its external form.

y. Its contents.

8. Its altitude above Lake Erie.

s. Its origin.

III. The Lacustrine Area.

(«) Evidences of submergence, — their altitude.

a. " Limestone ridges."

/3. Ozars.

y. Laminated clays.

8. Cause of this submergence.

^. The presence of the glacier.

IV. Glacier Marks, — their Direction.

V. No evidence of the Champlain Epoch.
VI. No evidence of the Terrace Epoch.

* In the Ohio Geolo<rical "Reports for 1871, this ridge is named the Lcipsic
Rifli/e, because of its chief development and favorable exposure in sections by
the operations of the railroad at that place, in Putnam County, Ohio. But
observations made in the season of 1872 proved that its development there was
confined to the inner margin only of a greater and wider moraine, which deflects
the Blanchard River from flowing north direct to Lake Erie ; and the name
Blanchard Ridye has been substituted to coyer the wiiole moraine.

156 B. NATUKAL HISTORY.

I. The Character of the Drift in General.

(a) Where consisting entirely of Hardpan.

In general, it is true to say that North -'Western Ohio is covered
loith hardpan drift. It lies on the rock, and it rises to the surface
forming the soil. Wells penetrating it get no water, except from
seepage, before reaching the stratum of gravel which often inter-
venes between it and the rock. Its thickness varies from twenty-
five to one hundred feet. It is impervious to water, and serves in
many instances as the confining stratum for the water of artesian
wells. The slope of the surface being very gradual, and uniformly
toward the main axis of the Lake Erie valley, such artesian wells
are found in many widely separated parts of the district under
consideration. The water' rises generally not over ten feet above
the surface, and proceeds from the depth of fifty to. a hundred
feet. This hardpan drift lies like a thick and heavy mantle on
the rocky surface, covering it from sight to the height of over six
hundred feet above the level of Lake Erie. It extends to and
beyond the water-shed between Lake Erie and the Ohio River;
but toward the south it becomes more gravelly and gives place to
knolls and ridges, which consist mainly of stratified materials.
While the mass of the hardpan is clay, it embraces great quantities
of stones, gravel and boulders. The boulders, although not
wanting at any horizon in the mass, are yet more abundant near
the bottom. They are generally of foreigu origin, embracing
representatives of the Huronian, Laurentian, and trappean rocks
of Canada and Northern Michigan ; but they are apt also to con-
sist largely of fragments from the rock in situ. It has been ob-
served that, while the former are scattered throughout the hardpan
from top to bottom, the latter ai'e usually seen only near the
bottom, or in such positions as to leave no room to doubt that
they lay originally below the hardpan, or near its base, and have
been made to appear superficial by the removal of the clay and
overlying drift. They are all apt to show one or more glaciated
surfaces.

Sometimes, in penetrating this lianlpan deposit, isolated, lentic-
ular beds of assorted materials are met before reaching the bottom.
They are also occasionally seen in the banks of streams, where a
fresh section may show a haiidsdmc obli(pu' stratification of gravel

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 157

or saml. Such bculs of stratificMJ inatorials, t'lubraced in the hard-
pau, are more ami more frequent toward the south, or in those
regions conti!j:uous, east, west, or nortli, wliieh liave a rouglier rock
surface, or which rise too liigh to have been subjected to the same
forces as those whidi operated to bring about the surface features
of the Fourth District.

(l)) Where the Surf (ice is laminated.

In some parts of the Fourtli District, the limits of wliich are
not yet accurately ascertained, the surface of the drift is finely
laminated in horizontal strata. These stratified beds have some-
times a tliickness of over twenty-five feet, but are not known to
exceed thirty. They consist principally of fine clay and sand.
The layers of clay may be three or four inches in tliickness, but
the layers of sand are generally less than an inch. It seems diffi-
cult in some instances to detei-mine the thickness of either the
clay or the sand beds, one j^assing into the other with impercep-
tible changes. These beds embrace no boulders, stones, or gravel.
Their junction with the hardpan below is marked by irregularities.
The stratification becomes obli(jue instead of horizontal. It is
sometimes wavy and curled, the beds being wra})ped about and
in other ways enclosing small masses of hardpan containing gravel
and stones. Sometimes the hardpan rises suddenly in the midst
of this stratification, nearly or quite to the surfiice of the ground,
the beds showing but little distortion, but losing themselves grad-
ually in the confused mass. This condition of the surface of tlie
drift in North- Western Ohio prevails along the main watercourses,
like the Maumce and the Sandusky Rivers. It is beautifully ex-
posed at Toledo, where the steam dredge has made a way for tlie
steam car into the city from the north. It is also exposed in the
"Blue Banks," near Fremont, as well as at numerous other places
along the banks of those rivers. This is not the uniform, nor
even the usual, condition of tlie surface of the drift even along the
main drainage valleys ; and at j)laces remote from these streams
it is apt to be altogether wanting, the hardpan rising to tiie
surface.*

* For (letailcrl descriptions and sections illustrating the junction of tlie strati-
fied with the unstratificd drift, see the Ohio Gcotogicul Kcports, under " The
Drift in NorLh-Wesleru Ohio," lb71.

168 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

This of course is a subject of speculation and hypothesis, but
it has been the source of some of the warmest discussions in strictly-
scientific circles during the past forty years. The glacier hypoth-
esis of Professor L. Agassiz is however now very generally ac-
cepted by geologists, especially of the younger class; and it is
the only hypothesis which will account for the surface geology of
North- Western Ohio. The action of the glacier has been invoked
to account for the glaciated surface of the rock, and to some
extent for the transportation of northern boulders. The present
condition of the drift, however, has been ascribed to a subsequent
submergence beneath an ocean, or inland lake of fresh water, with
imaginary boundaries and fictitious barriers. Over this sea, ice-
bergs floated, bearing the materials of the vast drift-sheet, which
being dropped in the Avaters are supposed to have been distributed
and arranged by waves and currents as we now see them. Omit-
ting now various considerations which militate against the iceberg
theory, it seems reasonable to suppose the grinding progress of the
glacier would be ample to produce and to bear along the fine as
well as the coarse portions of the drift.

Toward the close of the Glacial Epoch, after the great sheet of
continental dimensions had retired from Ohio, leaving only the
valleys and fiords filled with moving ice, it may be supposed that
a local glacier filled and continued to pass up the St. Lawrence
valley, deriving its origin and impetus from the Laurentian high-
lands of Canada. It is suflicient to say that it has been ascertained
that the ice moved up that valley in the south-westerly direction,
thrusting itself up on the northern slopes of the States of Ohio
and Indiana. This valley properly embraces these slopes, and
includes the areas of Lakes Erie and Ontario. The New England
and New York highlands, with their north-eastern extension into
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, probably gave the impulse to the
south-westerly flow of the ice, diverting it from its normal north-
south direction. From the north it received constant additions,
and it escaped in a southerly direction over its southern barrier
wherever it could find egress. Some streams passed over New
EiiglamK rcacliing the ocean; one went down the Lake Chaniplain
and IludsDU ITivlt valk'v; otlicrs dug llie lloi'd lakes in Central
New York; one exca\ated deej» llie Cuyahoga valley; but, the

GEOLOGY A XI) GKOr,n.\I'll V. 159

foot of the main mass of ice was ])r(itrii(lcil up into the cul-de-sac
of the Maumee valley, where no shale-beds existed to permit the
excavation of narrow lakes -or deep river cliannels. Here, at tliis
period of the ice age, its force was spent. Let us for a moment
consider what would be the condition of such a moving, ploughing
field of ice, but only in its relations to the drill which it bore
along. Where was the detritus which subsequently made the
hardpan ? It cannot have been as a whole under the glacier, for
the long unitbnnity of the glacier-marks points to the immediate
presence of the graver in the form of a solid frozen mass, holding
the boulders to their places. It must have been either frozen
within the ice of the glacier, distributed through it from top to
bottom, or it must have lain on the top. Finq dust and detritus
will accumulate on the top of glacier ice even in the steep descents
of the Alps, and on the mer de glace where no boulders can mingle
with it. The violence of storms in those mountain regions is said
to be very great, gusts of wind carrying dust and sand over the
mountain ridges, and, sweeping through the valleys, strewing the
surface with foreign matter. Were it not that this is annually
covered with a new fall of snow, thus producing the alternations
of dirt and ice, which have caused some discussion touching the
internal structure of Alpine glaciers, we cannot say how thick the
dirt accumulated Avould not become. Reference may also be made
to the occurrence of " sand pyramids " on the surface of Alpine
glaciers described by Professor L. Agassiz. Now the St. Lawrence
glacier differed from Alpine glaciers, and fi-om all glaciers that
have been studied by man, in two very important particulars : 1st,
Instead of passing down steep descents, by which the fine materials
would be lost in the streams of turbid water which would run
over it and from it, the St. Lawrence glacier ascended — at least
after it received form and direction in the St. Lawrence valley —
a gentle incline, and occupied a broad valley which received a
number of streams carrying their own freshet fZeir/s. 2d, Instead
of descending suddenly below the level of perpetual ice, and so
thawing out rapidly, the St. Lawrence glacier passed southward
beyond the latitude of perpetual glaciation, actually ascending
instead of descending as it entered a warmer climate. These cir-
cumstances served to prolong the stream of ice, and to retain the
finest parts of the drift. The surface of the glacier was the level
of the country. The surface of glaciers in the Alps sinks away
by the melting of the ice from five to ten feet annually. The St.

%
160 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

Lawrence glacier must have suffered in the same way. All accu-
mulations frozen within the ice would therefore tend to become
superficial, and to ride on the surface of the glacier. In that way
it would become covered with a sheet of drift consisting both of
fine and coarse materials in a confused mixture. Whatever may
have been the position of this detritus in latitudes further north,
for some miles before the ice-sheet became too attenuated to main-
tain its progress it must have been mainly on the top of the ice.
As fast as the ice-sheet was conti'acted, this even spreading of un-
assorted drift was allowed to rest slowly down on the rocky surf ice,
covering the glacial marks and preserving them from obliteration.
Wherever water was sufficient to assort the drift in the act of
deposition, the clayey constituents were washed out and beds of
stratified gravel and sand were formed.

II. The Moraine Ridges.

In North -Western Ohio are six long and continuous ridges,
popularly known and regarded as ancient lake beaches. They have
a great similarity in form, direction, and sometimes in contents, to
beaches ; and their general conformity to the shape of the coast-
line of the west end of Lake Erie probably suggested the beach
theory for their explanation.

It must be admitted also that some geological observers and
writers have accepted the beach theory of their origin, and have
given them a place in the closing events of the Terrace Epoch. This,
we believe, has been done inconsiderately. Sir Charles Lyell, in his
" Travels in North America," was exceedingly reserved in his ex-
pressions of opinion as to their cause. Yet after making a traverse
of similar ridges north fi'om Toronto, he soys: "The hypothesis
which attributes sucli ai)pearances to the successive breaking down
of the barriers of an ancient lake or ocean of fresh water has now
been very generally abandoned, from the impossibility of conceiv-
ing Avhere in North America, as in the west of Scotland, the lands
ca]>able of damming up the waters to sucli heights could have been
situated; or how, if they ever existed, they could have disappeared,
while the levels of the ancient beaches remained undisturbed."
He concludes by saying that he considers " the ridges and other
marks of ancient water levels between Toronto and L:ike Simcoe
as referable, some of theiu, to ancient beaches and lines of cliff
formed on the margins of channels of the sea ; others, including

GEOLOOT AND (JKOGUAPnY. IGl

some of the loftiest rul^j^os, as liaving originated in banks or bars
of sand formed not at the extreme edge of a body of water, but at
some distance from tlic shore, in proportion as the water obtained
a certain shallowness by the upheaval of the land." Colonel
Charles Whittlesey considci's those ridges on the south side of
Lake Erie, at Cleveland, and east of that city, as sand-bars formed
by the joint action of waves and currents near the shore of that
lake when it stood higher than it does now. Professor J. S. New-
berry adopts the beach theory to explain these ridges, and regards
them as evidence of extensive subsidence of the continent below
the sea. Mr. G. K. Gilbert was the first, we believe, to question
this explanation, and to suggest that two, at least, of the ridges
in North-Western Ohio are caused by "buried terminal mo-
raines."

During the season of field-work of 1871, and to the present
time in the season of 1872, considerable attention has been given
to the location, form, and contents of these ridges. They are fully
and sjjecially described in the Ohio Geological Reports, not yet
}niblished, with diagrams and sketches to illustrate the arrange-
ment of the materials of which they are composed. At this time
nothing can be given but a general description, referring to those
reports for confirmatory details.

(a) The St. Johnh Midge,
a. Its Location.

This is so named from the village of St. John's, in Auglaize
County, wliore it has a remarkable development. It enters Au-
glaize County from the north-east, or rises so as to become dis-
tinguishable in the north-west quarter of* Wayne Township. It
continues in a south-westerly direction past the village of St.
.lohn's, crossing the Dayton and Michigan Railroad at Botkin's
Station. The village of New Bremen is a little south of the sum-
mit of this ridge. Chickasaw and Carthagena are each about a
mile north. It forms a barrier along the north side of the Wabash
in the south-western part of Mercer County, preventing its direct
How northward till it finally passes the ridge at Fort Recovery.
Further 'west, in Indiana, it is believed to govern the direction of
the Salanioine River, although it has not Iteen examined in that
State. In Auglaize Township. Allen County, it seems to coalesce
witli the Wabash Ridge, the twt) producing wliat is know n tliere,

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 1*1

162 B. NATURAJL HISTORY.

and especially at Maysville, as the great dividing ridge, since it
actually forms the summit of the watershed between Lake Erie
and the Ohio River.

/3. Its External Form.

In Allen and Auglaize Counties the external form of this ridge
is that of a rolling and bluffy strip of land, rising from the level
of the adjoining clay flats sometimes to the height of forty or fifty
feet. In Shelby and Mercer Counties it is less noticeable, some-
times sinking away so as to be observable only by the use of the
spirit-level. Its direction, however, even in these low places, is
indicated by the line of gravel-pits which have been opened in
the low mounds which it forms. Its width is generally about
half a mile, but may be a mile.

y. Its Contents.

It consists essentially of the coarser parts of the drift. The
immediate surface, except in the most rolling parts, is of brown
clay hardpan, which forms the soil, and differs very little from the
subsoil of the flat tracts on either side. It is, however, apt to be
more gravelly, and sometimes large stones and boulders are seen
on the surface. Where the surface is very broken, it is very gravelly
and even stony. This covering of hardpan is aj^parently thicker
in the low parts of the ridge, or where it sinks away so as to be
less noticeable. Below the hardpan, gravel and sand in oblique
and handsome stratification are met with. In this gravel and
sand are occasional places which show a mixture of gravel and
sand, without stratification or assortment, yet with no clay. Some-
times also, in the midst of this confused mixture of gravel and
sand, may be seen a collection of stones and boulders, from the
size of a few inches in diameter to two or three feet. These may
all be confined to the space of two or three cubic yards, and may
have mixed with them some coarse gravel. They may hold any
position in relation to the rest of the ridge and its contents. Tliey
may underlie or overlie beds of coarse or fine gravel or of sand,
or mixed beds of coarse gravel and fine sand with no assortment.
TJiey have been seen sometimes to lie in a kind of Asedge-shaped
pocket, pointing upward, with alternations of beds of coarse and
fine gravel or sand placed on cither side, or on only one side, the
latter showing some assortment and stratification. In rare in-
stances, balls aii<l irregular masses of hardpan clay of a foot or a

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 163

yard in diameter liave been seen imbedded and embraced in beds
of sand and tjravcl, which latter would in that case be generally
stratified about, and accommodated to the exterior of, the hardpan
mass. It is not known to what depth this gravel and sand ex-
tends. It at least is known to be the immediate cause of the
ridge, since where it is wanting the ridge is low or almost lost.
It is most likely, liowe\'cr, that a continuous deposit of the same
kind of materials, in the form of a ridge, lies below the hardpan
in tlie whole extent of the St. John's Ridge, resting on the rock,
and that under favorable circumstances the deposition was greatly
increased at certain places.

(5. Its Altitude above Lake Erie.

The following list of elevations above Lake Erie will convey a
general idea of the height of the St. John's Ridge above that
lake, and will show the variations of level to which it is liable. It
must be admitted, however, that these figures require some allow-
ance for the effect of railroad grading, and the uncertainties of
single barometrical measurements. The altitude, 490 feet, at St.
John's is considerably above the usual height of the ridge, since it
there has a remarkable development.

Elevations ox the St. John's Ridge above Lake Erie.

St. John's, summit of hill (6. K. Gilbert, by barometer)* . 490 feet.
St. Jolm's, main street, below tlio hotel, north of the hill . 435 „
St. John's, surface of a little stream west of the village . . 394 „
[The last are by Locke's level from Gilbert. These
three elevations are all within the village, and show
an extreme difference of 9G feet between the base and
the top of the ridge.]
Botkin's Station, Dayton and Michigan Railroad .... 441 „

New Bremen, Miami Canal 38Gf „

. New Bremen, Fremont and Indianapolis Railroad (J. 11.

Klippart) 4G5 „

Its average elevation in the State of Ohio seems to be about
425 feet above Lake Erie. Between St. John's and New Bremen
it descends toward the west over one hundred feet.

* In August, 1872, this hill was remeasured by aneroid barometer con-
necting with the depot at Wapakoneta, with the following result: summit of
the hill, 504 feet ; street in front of the Bitler House, 433 feet ; surface of
stream west of the village, 893 feet.

164

NATURAL niSTORT.

E. Its Origin.

Astronomical causes, which have been ably discussed by Mr.
James Croll, of Scotland, and by others, must have produced in
the retreat of the ice of the Glacial Epoch a halting motion. At
the time that the St. Lawrence glacier was hardly yet defined as
an independent local stream of ice, even when the foot of the ice-
sheet of perhaps continental width was situated where the St.
John's Ridge runs, a period of greater cold supervened, causing a
stop in the retreat of the ice-foot, and a consequent accumulation
of the detritus which the ice brought forward, at that point. Now
if it be remembered that whatever the condition of the climate,
whether one of increasing warmth or of stationary temperature,
the foot of a glacier must always give off water, the product of its
own dissolution, it can easily be seen that all along the foot of the
glacier in North-Western Ohio, where no inequalities in the rocky
surface would have brought the water into valleys having a north-
south direction, there would have been a constant, gentle discharge
of water, which would have produced some effect on the drift.
That efiect would have been greatest where the water was most
abiindant. The effect of running water on a plastic mixture of clay,
sand, gravel, and boulders, the materials of the ghicial detritus, is
necessarily to wash out the clay. If tliere be a slow and constant
deposition of such materials at the same point, there will neces-
sarily be a cleanly washed and assorted accumulation of such
coarse materials as the Avater has not the force to carry away.
These conditions are all fulfilled along the ice-foot, and they must
have operated to produce the series of gravel knolls and ridges
which have been named the St. John's Ridge.

Allusion has already been made to the remarkable development
at this ridge at St. John's in Auglaize County. At that place
there must have been an extraordinary flow of water. By refer-
ence to the geological map of the State of Ohio (not yet pub-
lished) it will be seen that the Niagara limestone is suddenly
protruded northward in the form of a narrow tongue or wedge-
shaped area, covering the eastern portion of Auglaize and the
south-eastern portion of Allen Counties. It occurs as :m anti-
clinal, dij)ping to the east and west, and passing under the Watcr-
lime in both directions. Com|)ared witli the Waterlime it is a
more enduring rock, and everywhere in North-Western Ohio, as
elsewhere, it is the most conspicuous nu-ndjer of the CHf Lime-

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 165

stmie Group, and foi-ms the surface rock where it rises highest
anil is exposed most. Tlie effect of sncli n persistent obstruction
beneath tlic glacier must liave been to fracture the ice profoundly,
those parts toward the east and toward the west settling gently
away from the uplifted centre. Into those crevasses the drift
would fall, and through them streams of water would flow. The
result would be an extraordinary accumulation of coarse and as-
sorted drift materials, which, after the complete withdrawal of
the ice, would lie in irregular knolls and short ridges in places
where such streams formerly existed. This is the origin of a great
many short but steep and narrow gravel ridges in the North-
Westeni States, outside of Ohio, which are known locally as
" Devils' P>acks," or " Hogs' Backs." The writer has seen them in
Jackson and Ingham Counties, in the State of Michigan, and in
the valley of the Fox River, Wisconsin, south of Green Bay.
There is a fine one in Auglaize Township, Allen County, Ohio,
and a number in Taylor Creek Township, in Hardin County.
They rise generally from twenty-five to forty feet, with slopes as
steep as such materials can be piled. On either side there is
usually a low, swampy tract, from three to ten rods wide, or some-
times of indefinite width and form, the ridge being in some cases
not more than twenty feet across on the summit. The largest
boulders are sometimes seen on the very top of the ridge. Similar
short ridges have been described as occurring in the State of
Maine.

It is proper to add to this description of the St. John's Ridge,
that its normal direction is more south-easterly, and that its pas-
sage northward into Allen County and its apparent union with
the Wabash Ridge, near Maysville, may be due to the disturbance
caused by the underlying Niagara, its real existence and location
further east in Logan and Union Counties being obscured by the
advent of the Corniferous in Logan County, which operated in the
same way as the Niagara in Auglaize County. A ridge of hard-
pan drift crosses Union County between Mill Creek and Big
Darby Creek. Newton, in Union County, is located on it. It
contains little or no stratified gravel or sand, although it is pene-
trated often over sixty feet in digging wells.

166 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

(b) The Wabash Bidge.

a. Its Location.

This ridge is so named from the Wabash river which flows
along the south side of it for several miles in Mercer County,
Ohio, and in Jay County, Indiana. It crosses Mercer County,
forming the north bank of the great artificial reservoir, to St.
Mary's, in Auglaize County, where it is crossed by the St. Mary's
River ; thence north-easterly to section 29, Moulton, Auglaize
County, where it is cut by the Auglaize River; thence still north-
easterly to Maysville, it forms a barrier to the northward floAV of the
same stream ; thence east and south-east it forms the north boundary
of the Scioto Marsh, and a barrier against the Scioto River, through
Hardin County. It then turns north-easterly, but its location is
not evident through the township of Grand, in Marion County.
It becomes conspicuous again as a barrier against the lower por-
tion of the Little Sandusky River in Wyandot County, and
along tlie north-west side of the Broken Sword Creek iti Wyan-
dot and Crawford Counties. In the north-eastern part of Craw-
ford County it becomes lost in the general drift, — at least it has
not been traced further east.

(3. Its External Form.

Its surface is much less broken by knobs and bluffs than that
of the St. John's Ridge. It rather has the appearance of a gentle
swell in the general surface, or a great wave stretching across the
counties from one to two miles in width. Sometimes, in approach-
ing it, it is invisible to the eye, the ascent is so gi'adual; yet its
geological and topographical characters are so uniform and per-
sistent, that it serves to divert from their natural courses the
principal streams of North-Western Ohio throughout a distance
of about one hundred and fifty miles, leading them diagonally
across the slope of the country ; sometimes turning theni from
the Lake Erie Valley, across the great watershed of the State,
into tlie Ohio River. Throughout this distance it is crossed by
tliree streams, the St. Mary's, the Auglaize, and the Sandusky,
but only after having withstood them till, on tlie ])rinciple of the
Arcirnaedes screw, they surmounted it diagonally.

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 167

y. Its Contents.

At St. Mary's antl near "\Vai)akoneta, gravel is taken from tliis
ridge ; and it probably lias a nucleus of gravel throughout its
extent, although it shows far less gravel than the St. John's Ridge.
It everywhere consists superficially of the common hardpan of the
country. Wells have sometimes penetrated it a hundred feet,
passing through the brown and blue hardpan only, and obtaining
very little water. It is probably due to its clayey nature that it
operates so effectually in governing the direction of the drainage
of the country. It is noticeable that it is only known to con-
tain gravel where it is crossed by the St. Mary's and Auglaize
Rivers.

6. Its Altitude above Lake Erie.

The following points of elevation on the Wabash Ridge indi-
cate its average height in Ohio to be about 360 feet above Lake
Erie. If the doubtful elevation at Celina be discarded, this ridge
shows a descent toward the west, between Kenton and St. Mary's,
of forty-seven feet.

Celina (J. II. Klippart) 395 feet 1

Wapakoneta (two miles north), Dayton & Michigan Railroad 350 „
Wapakoneta (two miles north-west on the ridge), aneroid

from depot 343 „

St. Mary's (by the Miami Canal, plus thirty feet) .... 321 „

Maysville, Hardin County (one mile soutli) „

Kenton (two miles north), C. S. and C. Railroad .... 368 „

e. Its Origin.

The origin of this ridge must have been the same as that of the
St. John's Ridge ; yet it is evident the ice was giving off far less
water than during the formation of that ridge, leaving the drift
brought forward by the glacier very nearly as it existed on
the ice before deposition on the rock. It marks a period either
of absolute rest in the amelioration of the climate, when the ice-
foot was stationaryfor a long time at the same latitude, or a short
recurrence of greater cold, when the ice-foot was thrust further
south, jdoughing up the drift before deposited, and heaping it into
a long ridge or moraine. The latter sujiposition would account
for a feebler flow of water.

168 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

a. Its Location.

This ridge is named from the St. Mary's River, the com'se of
which it determines for more tlian fifty miles, nearly tliirty of
which are in the State of Ohio. In the same manner it prevents
the St. Joseph River from taking its most direct course to the
Manmee Valley for about the same distance. They crossed it only
at Fort Wayne, Indiana, where their united waters, coming fi'om
opposite directions, broke through the barrier, the resulting river
taking the name of Maumee, and returning between the St. Joseph
and St. Mary's in a direct course to Lake Erie. The St. John's
and the Wabash Ridges have not been traced and located, and
probably cannot be, in their north-westward course in Indiana and
Michigan. The great field of ice then probably covered the whole
country north of those ridges, the St. Lawrence glacier not yet
having taken independent direction. But when the St. Mary's
Ridge was laid down, the foot of the St. Lawrence glacier had
become defined as an independent margin, progressing and retreat-
ing according to the conformation of the great valley it occuj^ied,
and the climatic influences on the great ice-field further north
which fed it. Hence we find it shaped with a certain relation to
the present Lake Erie coast, and conforming to it in its main
outline, even into the State of Michigan. Its location through
Defiance and Williams Counties was ascertained by Mr, G. K.
Gilbert, formerly of the Ohio Geological Corps, in 1869 and 1870.
It is cut by the Miami Canal about two miles south of Spencer,
in Allen County, the excavation being known as " the big cut."
It thence turns a little north-easterly, and is passed by the Au-
glaize River near Fort Amanda. It is also crossed by the Ottawa
River, about four miles south-west of Lima ; thence north-east it
fomis a barrier to the Ottawa River, to the county line between
Allen and Hardin Counties; thence easterly it passes along the
north side of Hog Creek Marsh, an<l about a mile south of Wil-
liamstown, in Hancock County. East of Williamstown its location
is not known with certainty ; but it jirobably runs more north-
easterly from this place, along the north-west feide of the Tymochtee
Creek to its junction with the Sandusky, to McCutchenville in
Wyandot County, and ]\Ielm(»re in Seneca County.

GE0LO«".Y AND GKOtlUAl'llY. 160

(3. Its External Form.

The form of this ridge is very similar to that of the "NVabash
Kitlge. It is like a dead wave on the surface of the ocean, hanlly
])erceptible to the eye on account of its smoothness, but revealed
bv its olfoct on every thing that encounters it. It is most notice-
able in Mercer County, and in the State of Indiana, where it forms
a very jirominent ridge, having a width of half a mile or more.

From Fort "Wayne, Indiana, eastward, the St. Mary's jMoraine
has a V shape, the apex pointing toward the west, one arm lying
along the north side of the St. Mary's River, and the other passing
more eastwardly through New Haven (a quarter of a mile south),
a little south of Besan(;on, and entering Ohio in the south-west
quarter section 31, Benton, Paulding Count}', about half a mile
south of the Van Wert Ridge. Thence south-eastwardly, the north
margin of the St. Mary's Moraine runs through Convoy, in Van
AVert County, and through sections 17, 18, 22, and 23, in Pleasant
Township, in the same county, beyond which place it has not been
identified. This north margin of the St. Mary's Moraine is very
noticeable about Fort Wayne, and as far east as Tully Township,
in Van Wert County. It gradually loses its distinctness in passing
toward the east. It consists, like the south margin, of hardpan
drift, differing in no respect from the common drift of tlie whole
district. Its descent toward the north is sudden, and in amount
from five or six feet south of Van Wert, to ten feet in Tully
Township, south of the Bear Swamp, and thirty feet at New
Haven, Indiana. At Fort Wayne its junction with the south
arm of the V between the St. Mary's and Maumee Rivers gives
rise to a very greatly increased elevation. It is there over forty
feet, and appears like an old bank of the Maumee River. Indeed,
the impression prevails that it is an ancient river-bank, and the
laud lying between the foot of this bench and the brink of the
real river bank is known as the " second bottoms," the " first bot-
toms" being the flat loamy land immediately bordering the river,
and marking the heii^ht of the extreme freshet floods. The "first
bottoms" consist of sandy loam, with much decomposing vegetable
material, the alluvium of the stream ; but the " second bottoms "
lie twenty to twenty-five feet higher, and consist of har<l|)an clay,
the soil being heavy and stiff. The exposed sections of the river
bank reveal the contents of the " second bottoms," wherever the
" first bottoms " are wanting. At Fort Wayne a fresh section of

A. A. A. S. vol.. XXXT. 22

170 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

the " second bottoms " on the right bank of the Maumee, shows
the pecuUar characters of tlie hardpan drift ah-eady described.
This bench, which forms the inner margin of the St. Mary's
Moraine, rises still higher ; and instead of following the course of
the stream, of which it is popularly supposed to be an old bank, it
strikes out at a considerable angle away from the river, gradually
fading out till it is lost. South of Van Wert, where it reaches its
most eastern observed point, it is more than thirty miles from the
Maumee River in a direct line, and ninety-seven feet above it.
South from the summit of this bench the surface has no descent,
but spreads out in a vast table-land, on which are sometimes
extensive prairies and swamps. The bcncli itself is sometimes
known as a ridge. Indeed, the " ridge road " uniting Fort Wayne
and Van Wert sets out on it from Fort Wayne, following it about
ten miles, when it changes to the Van Wert JRiclge, which lies
nearly parallel and about a mile further north. It passes from one
to the other two or three times between the two cities. On the
north side of the Maumee a similar bench occurs, descending to
the south-east, having about the same height as on the south side.
Toward the north spreads out a flat of clay land, with a little
descent to the north. This flat extends as far as to the St. Joseph
River, where the outer periphery of the same great moraine sets
against the waters of that stream. This moraine here also has
a \/ shape, but with a sharper apex, which lies at Fort Wayne,
between the St. Joseph and the Maumee, the arms extending
north-eastwardly. No detailed examination has yet been made
of this moraine north of the Maumee River.

y. Its Contents.

A little gravel is taken fi-ora this ridge near Lima and near
Shanesville; but it consists for the most part of hardpan. It
shows nothing but hardpan, mth stones and boulders in wells
which penetrate it. The common gravelly hardpan soil forms
the surface. It consists of hardpan only, to the depth of twenty
feet, where the Miami Canal cuts it near Spencer. It rises in con-
spicuous hardpan hills near Fort Wayne, Indiana, Cast of the
depot of the Toledo, Wabash, and Western Railway.

(5. Its Altitude above Luke Erie.

The following ])oiiils of elevation on the St, Mary's Ridge have
been ascertaiiuMl. The lowcsi [.uiiii on \\\v ridge is at Fort

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 171

"Wayne, Imliana, wlu-i-o it has its gi-eatest distance from Lake
Erie. It rises in Ijuth directions from that point. In this respect
it corresi)onds with the St. John's and the Wabash Ridges. Tlieir
lowest phices are in the axial line of the great valley which they
diversify.

Elevations on tue St. Mary's Ridge above Lake Erie.

Hudson, Michigan, L. S. and M. S. Railroad 354 feet.

Crossing of tlie Air Line of L. S. and M. S. Railroad, west

of Bryan 300 „

Crossing of Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, west of Bryan

(S. W. Hartwell, C.E.) 329 „

Fort Wayne, Indiana, Depot Toledo, Wabash, and Western

Railroad* 204 „

Fort Wayne, summit of moraine, one mile east of depot

(Aneroid) 229 „

Fort Wayne, two miles east of Toledo, Wabash, and West-
ern Depot (Locke's level from Railroad) 24G „

Fort Wayne, two miles east of Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and

Chicago Depot t 237 „

Spencer, two miles south (Miami Canal, plus twenty-five feet) 299 „

Lima, two miles south, Dayton and Michigan Railroad . . 322 ,,

Hog Creek Marsh, north one mile (Aneroid) t 341 ,,

£. Its Origin.

This ridge must have been formed by the motion of the St.
Lawrence glacier and the deposition along the foot of an increased
amount of glacial drift, during a period of greater cold than that
immediately preceding, so that its margin remained stationary
at nearly the same point for a long period of time. The prepon-
derance of the south-westerly motion over the southerly, according
to the direction of the great valley, is here first observable in the
greater development of this moraine about Fort Wayne than at
points further east.

{d) The Van Wert Ridge.

a. Its Location.
This is so named from the city of Van Wert, Ohio, through

* The profile of the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Ciiicago Railroad makes the
Union Depot at Fort Wayne thirty-one feet higher than the Toledo, Wabash,
and Western.

t This is from the level of the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago Railroad,
reduced to the base line of Lake Erie, according to the profile of the Toledo,
Wabasli, and Western Railroad.

172 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

which it passes. It enters Ohio from the north, in the north-west
corner of Fulton County, with a course nearly south-west. It
passes through West Unity, Bryan, Williams Centre, and Hicks-
ville ; and entering Indiana it may be traced, by way of Maysville,
to a point on the north side of the Maumee River, about three
miles below Fort Wayne, where it is intersected by that stream.
It reappears on the south side about three miles north-east of Xew
Haven, Indiana. West of that point, to its intersection by the
Maumee, it is buried in lake sand, and its location is entirely lost.
It is here known as the Irish Ridge, and for about a mile a road
runs on it. It soon enters an undeveloped tract of country, no
road following it, but by careful search it has been followed con-
nectedly for a distance of six miles east from New Haven. It is
then known to pass along the south side of the Bear Marsh, both
in Indiana and Ohio, a distance of ten or fifteen miles. In Van
Wert County a public road is located on it, passing through Van
Wert; although the road in some j^laces leaves the Van Wert
Ridge, and runs on the north margin of the St. Mary's Moraine.
Thence east this ridge passes through Delphos, Columbus Grove,
Pendleton, Webster, and Benton, nearly to Findlay, where its
identity is lost in the succeeding Blan chard Moraine.

/3. Its External Form.

This is the outer of those two ridges described by Mr. G. K.
Gilbert in the May number of the "American Journal of Science
and Arts," in 1871, and regarded by him as ancient lake beaches.
Its form differs considerably from those ridges already described.
While it has as much gravel as the St. John's Ridge, or perhaps
more, in proportion to its size, it is much narrower, and has little
or no influence in determining the direction of streams. In this
respect it differs fi-ora the Wabash and St. Mary's Ridges even
more than it does from the St. John's Ridge. It rarely presents
a greater width than fifteen rods, while it usually is not over five.
It has a remarkable uniformity of contour, size, and direction. It
has a gentle slope from the summit in opposite directions, and its
height is usually about twelve feet. It is crossed by streams at
various angles, and in all its course it is not known to deflect any
river or creek from the most direct descent over the general slope
of the country. Wherever it is crossed by a stream, it sinks away
for some rods, or for a mile or two on either side, before reaching
the banks. It cannot be found in either direction, above or below;

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 173

but it simply si'ttk'S away slowly into tlio tlatncss of tho surrouiid-
iiiLT country. Tho road, instead of being gravelly, becomes heavy
with a tenacious i-lay.

In a number of j daces this ridge is doubled for a few miles, the
two parts each having as great a development and uniformity of
size and direction as the main ridge, wliere it consists of a single
eminence. This is the case on the north side of the Maumee, near
its intersection by that river. It is not known how far the two
parts run as independent ridges toward the north-east, but they
are each well developed for some distance from the river. At that
place the Maysville "ridge road" is located on the inner ridge, or
that most distant from the inner margin of the St. Mary's Moraine.
Yet on the soutli side of the Maumee, in Van "Wert County, the
road is generally on the outer of these ridges, wherever it is
doubled, or on that one nearest the inner margin of the St. Mary's
Moraine. Where the Van "Wert Ridge consists of two parts, the
subordinate member rises and falls independently of the other,
and has never been known to blend with it. They are usually
separated less than half a mile, and have been noticed not to run
strictly parallel.

y. Its Contents.

The Van "Wert Ridge consists emphatically of gi-avel and sand,
embracing the coarser parts of the drift, as stones and boulders.
The great bulk of the whole is gravel, in handsome oblique stratifi-
cation. Boulders are rarely found. In a few places also the ridge
has been penetrated to the depth of over thirty feet without meet-
ing much gravel. In those cases the common hardpan only is
passed through, as in wells on either side of the ridge. Generally,
gravel is met within two or three feet of the surface. Hundreds
of little excavations have been seen by the road-side, in this ridge,
for the use of the fine gravel it afibrds. It usually extends not
over fifteen or twenty feet in depth. Immediately below it, the
common hanlpan of the country is met. If Avells find no water
in this gravel, they are necessarily sunk below the hardpan, some-
times more than forty feet. Lying on the gravel, and forming the
immediate surface of the ridge, is a gravelly hardpan, which is
.almost impervious to water, and becomes compact and stift if used
for a public highway. Hence, as the gravel lies in a slight de))res-
sion in the general surface of the hardpan, it is enclosed in u
covered trough, and acts as a vast natuial tile-drain to collect

174 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

and. hold the surface water. Hence it is that this gravel is found
almost invariably to contain water at the depth of less than ten
feet. Hence it is also that artesian wells are sometimes obtained
along the sides of the ridge by penetrating the impervious covering
of the gravel, although sometimes not more than three or four
feet.

6. Its Altitude above Lake Erie.

Points on the Van Wert Ridge.

Gorham Township, Fulton County (J. H. Klippart) . 220 to 225 feet.

West Unity, Williams County (J. H. Klippart) 230 „

Pulaski, Williams County (J. II. Klippart) 200 „

Bryan (Air Line Railroad level) 196 „

Near New Haven, north side of the Maumee (Aneroid from

Railroad) 202 „

Near New Haven, " Irish Ridge," at crossing of Toledo,

Wabash, and Western Railroad ... 195^ „

Van Wert, Van Wert County (Pittsburg, Port Wayne, and

Chicago Railroad) 213 „

Delphos (Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago Railroad). . 211 „
Columbus Grove (Dayton and Michigan Railroad level) . . 194 „

This ridge, unlike the St. John's, Wabash, and St. IMary's Ridges,
seems to lie nearly horizontal, showing very little descent on ap-
proaching the Maumee River. It is probable that the elevations,
given above at West Unity and in Gorham ToAvnship, were taken
from the inner margin of the St. Mary's Moraine, which rises
about thirty feet higher than the Van Wert Ridge. For further
notes on the relations of these two ridges in Defiance County, see
the Geological Reports of Ohio, under "Geology of Defiance
County." The average height of the Van Wert Ridge above
Lake Erie is about two hundred feet.

£. Its Origin.

It will be noticed that this ridge is but a short distance inside
of the inner margin of the St. Mary's Moraine. Its sharpness, its
narrowness, and its very gravelly character are features in wliicli it
strongly differs from it, and from the St. John's and Wabash Ridges
before describe<l. While the St. Mary's Ridge can unhesitatingly
be ascribed to the retarded retreat of the ice-foot, thus hea])ing up
a greater tliickncss of glacial drift throughout a belt about ten
miles wide, the Van Wert Ifidgc senilis to be due to a different
kind of alacicr-actioii. 'I'lie ice-toot sciMus to have retreated sud-

GEOLOGY AND GKOGRAl'UY. 175

denly, from one to two mik'S from the inner niar<;in of the St.
Mary's Moraine, when for sumo reason an unusual amount of
water was jireeipitated from the ice on the ah-eady deposited
drift along its margin, carrnng away the finer materials not only
from the up])er portion of that Avhich was already thrown down,
but also from that being thrown down at that })lace. The gravel in
the Van Wert Ridge lies above the great mass of hardpan, while
the gravel of the St. John's and St. Mary's Ridges lies on the
rock, Mith hardpan only above it. After this increased flow of
water had spent itself," the ice-foot resumed again, or continued,
its rapid retreat toward Lake Erie, throAving down a much thinner
drift-sheet than it did on the outside of the Van Wert Ridge.
This belt of thin drift covers the northern portion of Van Wert
County and the whole of Paulding, as far as the Auglaize River,
a distance of about thirty miles in the line of motion of the ice
along the axis of the Maumee Valley. Further east this thin belt
becomes narrower, tapering to a point absolutely (so far as it lies
north of the Van Wert Ridge), at Findlay, in Hancock County.
Tt is noticeable in Putnam County, where the drift south of the
Blanchard River is less than half as thick as it is north of the
same stream.

(e) The Blanchard Ridge.

a. Its Location.

This moraine is so named from the Blanchard River which it
deflects from the most direct course to the Maumee, carrying it
diagonally across the slope of the country, a distance of more than
forty miles. In a similar manner it governs the direction of Bean
Creek and Tifiin River, on the north side of the Maumee, making
them flow south-west instead of south-east, the general slope of
the surface being in the latter direction. It runs into Michigan,
and Adrian is probably located on it. East of Findlay, Ohio,
the direction of the Blanchard Ridge remains about the same, but
it is not satisfactorily known through Seneca County. South of
its intersection by the Maumee its inner margin is better known
than its outer, and is often marked by a public road. It passes
through Ayersville, where it is .covered with later lake sand, south
of the Medary Swamp, in Putnam County; through Leipsic Sta-
tion, on the Dayton and Michigan Railroad, to MoConib, Xnu

176 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

Buren, and Fostoiia. It crosses the Sandusky River about a mile
north of Tiffin. Further east it is not known.

(3. Its External Form

Is similar to that of the St. Mary's Moraine : it is, however, not
so evenly laid down. It is more frequently gravelly, and diversi-
fied with short, well-marked gravel moraines like the Van Wert
Ridge. One in Putnam County runs north-westerly from near
Gilboa for a distance of about five miles. There is a succession
of such gravel ridges about Leipsic, and on all sides of the Medary
Swamp in the same county. The inner margin of this moraine
not infrequently has the form as well as the contents of a sharp,
gravel moraine. It is so in many places between Van Buren and
Fostoria, and east from Ayersville ; but the width of the whole
moraine is from six to ten miles, and its general surface is nearly
flat. Its inner mai'gin is more marked than the outer, the descent
being so sudden that it constitutes a continuous shoulder in the
surface, and often takes the name of rid(/e, its height being some-
times nearly twenty feet. In other places this descent is more
gradual, and is broken up into a strip of rolling and gravelly land.

y. Its Contents.

This ridge consists of hardpan drift, with those local modifica-
tions which were brought about by greater wash fi-om the glacier
at certain points or at certain times. It is on the whole, however,
perfectly comparable to the St. Mary's Ridge already described.

d. Its Altitude above Lake Erie.
The following points are located on its inner margin : —
Elevations on the Blanchard Ridge above Lake Erie.

Section 18, Richland, Defiance County (Toledo, Wabash,

and Western Railroad) . 172 feet.

Leipsic Station (Dayton, and Michigan Railroad) .... 188 „

Fostoria (Lake Erie and Louisville Railroad)

Fostoria (Baltimore and Ohio Railroad) 194 „

Fostoria (J. li. Klippart) 200 „

Watson's Station (C. S. and C. Railroad)

Near Tiffin (J. 11. Klippart) 210 „

Wauseou (Air Line of the L. S. and M. S. Railroad) ... 199 „

e. Its Origin.

The Blanchard Moraine is believed to be due to tlie same cause
as the St. Mary's and the Wabash Moraines. It is noticeable,

lii

QEOLOGT AND GKOOEAPnY. 177

however, tliat tlie inner in:irii,'in of tliis THorainc is more markcil, ami
traceable furtlier east than tliat of the St. Mary's Moraine. ln<leed
its southern sweep in Ohio is much more prominent, especially, as
alreatl}' noted, on its inner margin, which is often thrown up in a
conspicuous gravelly ridge, with a descent in both directions. The
Maumee and the Sandusky are the only streams that cross it. Its
marked development through the northern part of Putnam and
Hancock and the central part of Seneca Counties seems to indicate
an increase in the north-south force, Avhile yet there is no noticeable
loss of motion toward the south-west. In general this moraine has
the same relation to the great St. Lawrence Valley, but it seems to
have been crowded toward the south so as to absorb the eastern
extension of the Van Wert Ridge which terminates in it at Find-
lay. These focts point to the probable existence of a contcmpo-
i-aneous glacier descending the Lake Huron Valley and crowding
upon the foot of the St. Lawrence glaciei*, gi\'ing it greater develop-
ment toward the south.

(f) The Belmore Ridge.

a. Its Location.

This is so named from the village of Belmore, in Putnam County,
Ohio, through which it passes. South of the Maumee River,
which crosses it in section 17, Richland Township, Defiance
County, its position is well known; but on the north, through
Defiance and Fulton Counties, its course is so near the inner
margin of the Blanchard Moraine, and the two are so frequently
covered with lake sand, that they have been separately identi-
fied in but few places. There is no doul)t that in some places
north of the Maumee they actually run together, the two forming
a single ridge. This seems to be the case further north through
Lenawee and Washtenaw Counties, in the State of Michigan.
This ridge is first known, Avhether consisting of one or both, in
the south-western j^art of Macomb County, in the State of Michi-
gan. It passes through the village of Plymouth, is cut by the
Huron River about two miles east of Ypsilanti, and continues to
Ridgeville, in Lenawee County. A short distance south of Ridge-
ville it is covered with loose lake sand, from which it emerges and
runs for some distance with perfect distinctness toward LenaM'ce
Junction, in which locality it is again confused by the same means;
and its point of exit from the State is not i'ully known. A ridge
which superficially shows nothing but connnon hardpan ai)pears in

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 23

178 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

Amhoj Township, Fulton County, Ohio, entering the State from
the north-east a mile and a half west of Metamora. It has not
been traced connectedly to Delta, in the same county; indeed,
perhaps could not be on account of the abundance of lake sand
which is spread irregularly over much surface, but a similar ridge
appears at Delta, and thence runs south- westwardly to West Barre,
Ridgeville, and the point of crossing of the Maumee River in
Richland Township, Defiance County. South of the Maumee it
shows at once a tendency to duplication, one part running to
Ayersville, and so on south-easterly, as already described, being
the inner margin of the Blanchard Moraine ; and the other run-
ning in about the same direction to Belmore, where the two ridges
have their greatest separation, a little over four miles. East of
Belmore, the Belmore Ridge runs separately to Pickensville in
Hancock County, thence north-easterly in a line parallel with the
inner margin of the Blanchard Moraine, and about three and a
half miles north of it, to Eagleville in Wood County. East of
Eagleville it has only been traced about five miles. Through
Seneca County it has not been located, but it is probably the same
as that known in the eastern part of Sandusky County and fur-
ther east as the North Ridge.

(3. Its External Form.

This ridge has the form of the Van Wert Ridge. T^Hicrc it is
distinct from the Blanchard Moraine, it is from five to ten feet
high, and from six to fifteen rods over. It is generally very con-
stant, and uniform in its height and direction, only disappearing,
like the Van Wert Ridge, in the vicinity of streams. It otiers
little or no impediment to the descent of the surface drainage over
the country in accordance with the principal slope. In some
places it is better developed than in others, and gives rise to a
broken surface which spreads laterally over a space of twenty or
thirty rods. It has not been observed to be itself doubled ; yet
it has not been sufficiently examined to prove the contrary. It
forms the foundation for a splendid gi-avel road, which is always
dry even in the wettest seasons, when the clay roads adjoining on
either side are absolutely impassable.

y. Its Contents.

It consists of gravel, \\itli occasional stones ami lioulders; yet
in some places it is ot" li;ir(l]iaii. At Delta, on IVIr. Sjx'ucer's farm.

GEOLOGY AND GEOGBAJPHY. 179

it occurs as a low, inferior ridijc, consisting more especially of
stom's and boulders, running near the base of the hardjjan of the
Blanchard Moraine.

6. Its Altitude above Lale Erie.

But few elevations have been obtained on this ridge, but enough
to indicate its accord with the St. Mary's Ridge in being lower at
the Mauiuee than at points further li'om the axis of that valley.
Its average altitude above Lake Erie seems to be about one hun-
dred and fit\y feet.

Elevations on the Belmore Ridge above Lake Erie.

Two miles east of Ypsilanti, Micliigan (Ypsilanti Station,

lo5ft.-f 15 ft., Micliigan Central Railroad) 170 feet.

Lenawee Junction (L. S. and M. S. Railroad) 142 „

Lenawee Junction (by the preliminary survey of 1837) . . 154 „

Delta, Fulton County, Ohio (Air Line of L. S. & M. S. Railroad) 145 „
Three and a half miles east of Defiance (Toledo, Wabash,

and Western Railroad) 166 „

Relmore (Dayton and Michigan Railroad) 160 „

E. Its Ori(jin.

It will \)Q noticed that this moraine follows a great moraine in
the same way as the Van Wert Ridge. In both cases the groat
moraine which precedes consists almost entirely of liardpan, Avith
gravel and stratified deposits buried deep. It is true also that in
both cases the gravel moraine which closely follows consists of
stratified gravel overlying the principal mass of the hardpan.
They seem not only to have a similar relation to the great moraine
preceding, but also to have had a similar origin. No such sharp
gravel ridges follow the St. John's and the Wabash Ridges. The
intervals by which the St. John's, the Wabash, and the St. Mary's
Ridges are separated are very nearly equal. The occurrence of
these gravel moraines indicates the advent of a disturbing element
in the hitherto regular halts of the ice-foot. The retreat Avhich
followed the first amounted to about thirty-five miles before an-
other period of cold intervened to bring on another great moraine.
The retreat of the ice-foot, after the second gravel moraine (the
Belmore Ridge) was formed, was continued beyond the limits of
Ohio before another halt occurred, and its location is not known.
The observed intervals then are about as the numbers : —

15 : 15 : 2 : 35 : 3^ : x.

180 B. NATUBAL HISTORY.

III. The Lacusteine Area.

(a) JEJvidences of Submergence, — their Altitude.

That considerable portions of North- Western Ohio, North-East-
ern Indiana, and South-Eastem Michigan have been submerged
since the deposition of the hardpan drift, cannot be denied. There
are evidences of the presence of Lake Erie scattered over a wide
tract, up to an altitude of two hundred feet above its present level.
Mr. G. K. Gilbert has, in the article already referred to, fully
demonstrated that the outlet of Lake Erie was at one time through
the valley of the Wabash, the limestone rim of Niagara, at Hunt-
ington, Indiana, then setting limit to the height of its waters.
Over that barrier it was compelled to pass. The evidences of its
extending to that elevation consist of: —

a. "Limestone Ridges."

These are slight eminences consisting of the limestone rock of
the country, rising a few feet above the general surface, from
which the drift has been entirely washed off, leaving the rock
bare, and wrought into those fantastic forms which result from the
breaking of waves and the action of frost on all rocks along the
shores of the lakes or of the ocean. These ridges ai-e most com-
mon in Wood, Sandusky, Seneca, and Lucas Counties, all lying
within the last of the moraine ridges. About these ridges boul-
ders of northern origin are very abundant. While they may be
found occasionally in all parts of the district under consideration,
lying on the surface, they are by no means common. Theu"
specific gravity alone would carry them to the bottom of a ])lastic
mass like the drift-sheet, when undergoing the inixing motion in-
cident to the movement of the glacier. They are found to prevail
specially at the bottom of the hardpan, although they are found
throughout that deposit from bottom to top. When the gentle
action of water and winds was brought to bear on this (le2)osit,
which may have been at the moment of its deposition by the
glacier, the easily transportable parts were sifted out and carried
away to be deposited by constant currents in horizontal lamina-
tions over the adjoining surfaces, or by the buffeting of waves, in
the absence of constant currents, to be piled uji as b.irs and beaches
near the margin of that oversj)reading sheet of water. In this

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 181

manner the prominent places were levelled offj and the low places
were filled up. In the former, the immovahle boulders were left
on the sui-faee of the denuded rock; in the latter, the surface was
covered with a very fine laminated sand and clay, or with massive
banks of beach sand with no visible stratification. The boulders
on these "limestone ridges" are very often grouped about the
base of the ridge, encircling it in a belt, with very few lying on
the top.

/3. Ozars and Beaches.

North-Wcstem Ohio, although in gcncrnl a vast level tract, yet
has undulations of surface due primarily to the form of the surface
of the rock underlying, which may be invisible to the eye of the
traveller, after the spreading of the diift, but which would cause
shallows and sand bars to diversify the lake bottom. These and
the moraine ridges would be the first barriers to the unbroken
advance of waves. There are many places where the latter have
formed the nucleus for the accumulation of drifting sand, and, by
the constant breaking of waves, for the formation of ozars. There
are others where they seem to have sei'i'cd for some time as
beaches for short intervals. Accumulations of light yellow sand,
in the form of knolls from five to fifty feet high, are found through-
out the country up to the height supposed to have been the limit
of Lake Erie. These sand accumulations sometimes take the
form also of long ridges, which have a rough, undulating exterior,
and run for a number of miles in the same direction. They
are found, however, to have no uniformity of direction among
themselves except when their nuclei first had such uniformity.
Such sand is very often accumulated to an astonishing amount
on the tops of the limestone ridges; the boulders round the
base, and ])erhaps an exj)osure of the rock in situ, indicating the
cause of the accumulation. In character this sand is loose, homo-
geneous, and yellow. It contains no gi'avel, boulders, or coarse
materials of any kind, except where they have been forced upon
it by other means, and shows no stratification. Sometimes, espe-
cially in the vicinity of the Maumee River, iu Henry County, and
also throughout much of Fulton and Defiance Counties at points
remote from that river, it is spread very evenly over the surface,
covering many square miles. In the case of the limestone ridges,
when sand covers them, the trailing of the sand shows the resultant
of all forces acting upon it to have been toward the south or
south-west.

182 B. NATUKAX HISTORY.

y. Laminated Clay.

As has already been remarked, in some parts of the district
under consideration, and notably along the Maumee River, and
at some places along the valley of the Sandusky River, the great
sheet of hardpan is overlain by a laminated clay, which contains
no boulders and no gravel. Although the denudation of the
prominent parts, of the original di'ift surface by the action of waves
and cun-ents may have supplied material for some portion of this
laminated deposit, yet it is not believed to have been the source
of the greater portion. The location of the principal portion of
these laminated clays along the drainage valleys, — as the Maumee
and the Sandusky, — as well as their thickness and extent, will not
admit of their reference to those accidental and often remote and
isolated denudations. Tliis lamination is believed to be due to
the action of those streams on the drift at the moment of its depo-
sition. When the foot of the St. Lawrence glacier stood at Fort
Wayne, the escaping water mitst have had little or no effect in
s})reading the drift laterally in the form of laminations over the
surface, the outlet being, probably, at that time, through the valley
of the Wabash. The St. Mary's River — and the St. Joseph also,
if it may be supposed then to have had an existence — would find
easy escape thro.ugh the same channel, and there would be but
little standing water in the form of a lake to act on the drift at
that point. Hence these surfoce laminations have not been seen
at Fort Wayne ; on the contrary, the immediate banks of the
Maumee consist there of the typical hardpan. When, however,
the ice-foot had retreated to Defiance, and there halted for a period
of time, the action of the rivers, coming from higher land, and
uniting there to form the beginning of Lake Erie, and especially
of the Auglaize and Tiffin, would be to stratify the surface of the
drift along the margin of the ice. The only })ortion of the St.
Lawrence Valley not tlien filled with glacier-ice would be that
portion between Defiance and Fort Wayne. It was probably to
a great extent filled with tlie water brought in by the St. Mary's,
St. Josepli, Auglaize, and Tiffin Rivers. Its outlet must still have
been l>y the Wabash Valley. It is a fact that at Defiance, and
over a hell live or si\ miU-s wide running north and south fi'om
that city ;il<iiig the outsidi' ol'thc great Blanchard Moraine, the
surfice of" the drift is finely assorleil and laminated, the resulting
clay being too fine for easy agriculture. There are here also evi-

GEOLOGY AND GKOGRAPnY. 183

dences of beach action in the fomi of yellow sand. In nome
places along the Tiffin River this light sand shows an oblicjue
lamination due to currents. Indeed, there are very slight changes
and insensible gradations, seen in travelling over the country near
Defiance, in the characters of these two deposits, the fine tough
clay sometimes becoming a little sandy, and making a fine loam ;
the loam finally acquiring gi-avel stones, and passing into a hard-
pan soil again. These instances of the blending of the cliaracters
of these three separate features of the drift show the narrowness
of the field in which the different forces producing them were
confined. The glacier was bringing forward the crude cUhris of
the hardpan. The Auglaize and the Tiffin were busy with their
freshet currents in carrying off the fine parts to spread them over
the surface of the drift already deposited, and the standing water
of the lake was buffeting with its waves against the Avork of both,
and covering them with fine sand, or mixing them all so as to
make each almost unidentifiable. Below Defiance, at Perrysburg
and Toledo, the action of the Mauraee alone is seen in the same
kind of laminations. At this time the lake must have been low-
ered by some other outlet, so as to give the Maumee a chance for
existence.

6. Cause of this Submergence.

It is easy to see the cause of this submergehee of Noi*th-Western
Ohio below the water of Lake Erie, in the freezing uji of all its
other outlets. It is a fiict that the present outlet of the St. Law-
rence Valley is far to the north ; and it is reasonable to supjjose
that the hold of the glacier on those outlets would be last relin-
quished. Mr. M. C. Read, of the Ohio Survey, has suggested an
ancient outlet of Lake Erie through Central Ohio. Its altitude
compared with that through the Wal)ash Valley is not known.
It is furthermore evident that the level of the lake would not be
stationary at any point for a long period. If it depended on the
shifting of the ice at its outlet, it would be likely to rise and fall
according to the severity of the climate. This will account for
the absence of well-marked beaches.

In the same manner the former outlet of Lake Michigan through
the valley of the Des Plaines River must have been due to the
occupancy of its present outlet, through the Straits of Mackinaw,
by the ice of the retreating glacier.

184

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

IV. Glacier Marks, — their Direction.

In every case observed, the direction of glacier scratches coin-
cides with and corroborates the supposed motion of ice up the

Mauniee Valley.

Within the Blanchard Ridge.
Location. Formation.

South-east end of Put-in-Bay Island "Watcrlime.

Half mile north of Genoa, Ottawa
County.

West line of Sandusky County, bed
of Portage River.

Sect. 9, Harris, Ottawa County.

South-west quarter Sect. 35, Jack-
son, Sandusky County.

South-west quarter Sect. 19, Pleas-
ant, Seneca County.

Sect. 29, Pleasant, Seneca County. Niagara (dip north-east

10°).

North-west quarter Sect. 7, Portage,
Wood County.

North-west quarter Sect. 12, Free-
dom, Wood County.

South-west quarter Sect. 9, Free-
dom, Wood County.
• South-east quarter Sect. 30, Free-
dom, Wood County.

Otsego, Wood County.

Waterlime.

Waterlime.
Waterlime.

Waterlime.

Niagara.

Waterlime.

Waterlime.
Lower Corniferous.

Otsego, Wood County.
Otsego, Wood County.
Whiteford, Monroe County, Mich.

Lower Corniferous.
Lower Corniferous.
Waterlime ■?

Direction.
South 62° west.

South G0° west.

South 53° west.
South 18° west. "

South 55° west.

South 56° west.

South 44° west.

South 50° west.

South 50° west.
South 65°— G8°

west.
South 08° west.
South 60° west.
South 81° west, &

south 90° west.

Between the Blanchard and the Van Wert JRidges.

Findlay, Hancock County.
Findlay, Hancock County.
Findlay, Hancock County.

Sect. 30, Blanchard, Putnam Co.

Sect. 13, Sugar Creek, Putnam Co.

Sect. 31, Auglaize, Paulding County Upper Corniferous.

Between the Van Wert and the St. Marij'.
North-east quarter Sect. 23, Seneca,

Niagara (slope cast 30°).
Niagara (level surfivce).
Niagara (in the Blanch-
ard R. level surface).
Waterlime.
Waterlime.

South 45° west.
South 40° west.

South 40° west.
South 28° west.
South 50° west.
South 48° west.

Ridges.

Seneca County.

Waterlime.

South 5° east.

Note. — These marks are crossed and erased by the next

GEOLOGY AXD GEOGRAPHY. 185

Location. Formation. Direction.*

North-east quarter Sect. 23, Seneca,

Seneca County. AVaterlime. South 2.3° west.

Sect. 1, Amanda, Hancock County. Niagara. South 32° west.

North-west quarter Sect. 34, Craw-
ford, Wyandot County. Waterlime. South 20° west.

Sect. 24, Crane, Wyandot County. Waterlime. South 5° west.

Sect. 15, Amanda, Allen County. Waterlime. South 35° west.

Between the St. Mary's and the Wabash Ilidyes.

Sect. 13, Marseilles (west of the vil-
lage), Wyandot County. Niagara. South 10° west to

south 10° east,
some being due
north & south.

Between the Wabash and the St. John's Ridges.

North-west quarter Sect. 26, Grand

Prairie, Marion County. Upper Corniferous. North and south.

V. No Evidence of the Champlaen^ Epoch.

Above the altitude of the outlet by way of the Walxash Valley,
the writer has seen no CA'idence of submergence below Lake Erie.
The laminated clays, the denuded rock surfaces, and the superficial
yellow sand, are entirely wanting above about two hundred feet.
Tlie drift shows its glacier origin, as already explained, without
the modifying action of lake water. If the Champlain Epoch can
be understood to mean the submergence of certain portions of the
St. Lawrence Valley incident to the blocking up of its northern
outlet by the retreating foot of the glacier, it is necessary to admit
its existence in North-\yestern Ohio. But it is believed those
who advocate the Champlain and Terrace Epochs, and who would
spread them over the whole north-west and the continent, will not
agree to that circumscribed limit. By them it is believed the con-
tinent has been submerged, in some places by fresh water, and in
others by salt, subsequent to the depo.sition of the drift ; and that
the prevailing waters acted on the drift, assorting and arranging
it as we find it. Others ascribe the origin of the drift directly to
this submergence, supposing it to consist of stratified clays through-

* All these observations may be corrected to the true ^Meridian by deducting
2° 15' easting, that being the average variation of the needle in North- Western
Ohio in the sunnnerof 1871.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 24

186 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

out. Others imagine icebergs floating over this lake, freighted
with stones, boulders (and clay?), to have brought the whole from
northern regions. With the most, if not the whole, of these
Chaynplam JSaptists the drift is supposed to have originated in
some way during the prevalence of the water.

We only wish to say that in North-Western Ohio there is not
only no evidence of such a submergence, but it is not necessary
to suppose it, to account for any of the jshenomena of the drift.
If the glacier and all its consequences be admitted, nothing further
is necessary. Indeed the most indubitable proof of the glacier
origin of the drift, and of nearly all of its features, may be read
from the drift itself.

VI. No Evidence of the Terrace Epoch.

As there is no evidence of the Champlain Epoch in North-
Western Ohio, so there is none of the Terrace Epoch. These
two are supposed to complement each other. x\s the Champlain
Epoch waned, the Terrace Epoch advanced. The standing of the
ocean at higher levels caused the rivers to run at greater altitude,
and to widen their beds. As the ocean receded the river beds
were deepened and narrowed, leaving terraced banks. This may
be the cause of terraced banks, where they exist, but the streams
of Central and North-Western Ohio have not terraced banks. In
the area covered by the St. Lawrence glacier in North-Western
Ohio, the banks of the streams are worn evenly down to the sur-
face of the rock and consist of drift materials only, the water not
yet having excavated channels in the rock itself. But in Centi'al
Ohio, outside the area covered by the latest period of glaciation,
the streams are much older, and have in some cases dug channels
in the rock to the depth of thirty or even sixty feet before reach-
ing their ])rescnt levels. In neither case is there any series of
terraces or benches marking so many halting-places in the process
of erosion.

GEOLOGY ANT) GEOGRAPHY. 187

4. Ox THE Eastern Limit of Cretaceous Deposits in Iowa.
By C. A. White, of Iowa City, Iowa.

At the Cliicago Meeting of this Association I liad the honor to
announce the existence of Cretaceous strata in Guthrie County,
Iowa, where they rest unconfonnably upon the Coal Measures, the
locaUty lying about eighty miles eastward from the Missouri River,
and about forty miles west of the city of Des Moines. I have sub-
sequently examined other Cretaceous strata in BroAvn and Red-
wood Counties, in South-Western Minnesota, where they rest
unconfonnably upon rocks of Azoic age.

So far as I am aware, these are the most easterly localities in
the interior region of North America at which strata of Creta-
ceous age have been actually observed in situ. The Cretaceous
rocks first mentioned are referred to the division, which in my
Report on the Geology of Iowa, I have named the Nishnabotany
sandstone, and the latter, to the division called Inoceramus beds in
the same report. All these, as well as all the Cretaceous rocks
hitherto known in the interior region, eastward from Eastern
!N'el)r:iska and Dakota, are referred to the "Earlier Cretaceous"
of Meek and Hayden.

I have now to announce discoveries of Cretaceous fossils and
fragments of strata containing them, in the drift of Iowa, at other
points much further eastward ; the collections which have been
made at different localities containing specimens which belong to
several of the most characteristic types of that period, especially
of its later epochs.

During the year 1870 my attention was called to the existence
of these fossils in the drift of Howard County, Iowa, by Mr. John
T. Smith, of Lime Springs, and a few months ago I visited the
locality indicated, in company with him.

It is found in a railroad cut just north-west of the village, which
is less than five miles south of the northern boundary of Iowa.

The fossils and fragments of strata are found in the ordinary,
compact, bluish clay of the unaltered driil, twenty or twenty-feet
beneath the surface of the soil.

The collections have not yet been critically studied, but the
following statement of the genera represented in the one made
at Lime Springs will give a general idea of its character : —

188 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

2.
3.

Squaloid teeth, of the genus Otodus.

Teeth of Saurocephahis f

Bones, teetli, and scales of Teliost fishes

Helemnitella.

5.
6.

Ammonites (two species).
N^atica f f

Dentaliiim.

Ostrea,

Inoceramus.

10.

Leda f

11.
12.

Cytherea.
Corbula.

Mr. P. Mclsaac, of Waterloo, Black-Hawk County, Iowa, has
lately found a Beleninitella in the unaltered drift near that city
in addition to the Ammonite he found there a few years ago.
The Belemnitella is of the same species as those found in Howard
County, sixty miles directly north. The fish-teeth have been sub-
mitted for examination to my friend. Professor O. H. St. John,
who writes me as follows concerning them : —

All the squaloid teeth belong to the genus Otodus of Agassiz, and may
represent three species, but I suspect they are but so many forms of one
species ; this relationship can be determined only by examination of a much
larger suite of specimens, since the teeth vary so much in shape and size,
from different ^^ortions of the jaws. I have not been able to determine
their specific identity, though they are somewhat like 0. appendiculatus,
Ag., a form originally made known from the European Chalk formation,
and with which later Cretaceous and Tertiary teeth from this country have
been identified — I do not presume to say upon what authority. With some
of the latter your specimens are intimately related, perhaps identical. You
have two or three fragments of teeth (one nearly perfect) which are prob-
ably the same, generically, as those from the New Jersey Greensand and
later deposits, known as Saurocephalus.

All these teeth evidently belong to a later epoch than the chalky beds on
the Big-Sioux River, near Sioux City, the fishes of which have a much
stronger resemblance to those forms of the the Chalk of Europe than have
the specimens under consideration, while the scpialoid teeth among the latter
bear the most intimate reseml)lance to certain forms of Otodus from the
Cretaceous rocks of Alabama. Hence I conclude your specimens have
been derived from deposits of the Later Cretaceous, probably equivalent to
the Alabama fish-bearing Cretaceous strata. That they are very late Creta-
ceous forms there can be no doubt, from the fact of their close relationship
to the teeth found in the Eocene of the Old World. I am not prepared to

GEOLOGY AND GEOGEAPHY. 189

show how close this relationship is, although the first sight of your little col-
lection strongly suggested their Eocene age.

Although all the specimens forming the subject of this memoir
liave been found in the diift, they have been found at such local-
ities and under such circumstances as to leave no doubt in the
mind of the writer that the Cretaceous sea once extended as far
eastward, between the forty-second and forty-fourth parallels of
latitude, as the ninety-second degree of longitude west from
Greenwich. This is nearly two hundred miles further eastward
than any Cretaceous deposits were known, in the interior region
of Xorth America at the time I commenced my official examina-
tion of the Geology of Iowa, in 1866. What gives additional
interest to these discoveries is the fact that the fossils doubtless
belong to a Mesozoic Epoch as late as any yet recognized in any
part of North America, and much later than that of any Creta-
ceous strata of Iowa, or of any of the adjacent parts of Nebraska
and Dakota, hitherto known. It is true the deposition of late
Cretaceous deposits only, in the region indicated, requires the
assumj)tion that a subsidence took ])lace there during that period,
but a similar condition of other strata is found in South-Western
Mmnesota, where the Inoceramus beds, as before stated, rest upon
the Azoic rocks, the older Nishnabotany sandstone being absent
there, but present about one hundred and fifty miles to the south-
westward.

None, of the strata in which these fossils were originally depos-
ited have, as before intimated, been found w situ; but fragments
of them, and also the material of the drift to which they have
evidently in part given origin, show that they were soft and friable
like most of the Cretaceous rocks of the great interior region.
Consequently they were readily disturbed and removed by the
forces in operation during the Glacial Ejjoch.

While much of the material of these strata was doubtless trans-
ported to great distances, and its character as such thus obliterated,
delicate fossils, as well as soft and friable fragments of the strata,
are found embedded in the gravelly clay so slightly eroded as to
forbid tlie belief that they have been transported to any consider-
able distance from the place of their origin. The fragments of
'Strata referred to have been recognized, so flir, only at Lime
Springs, but their presence there, as well as the condition in
which they are fuund, inspires the confident hoj»e that we may yet
find some of these Cretaceous strata in situ in that vicinity.

190 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

These discoveries also suggest that we should scan more closely
than ever before, not only the character and contents of the drift
of Central and Eastern Iowa, but also some of the strata of the
same regions, especially the sandstones, to determine with cer-
tainty whether some of them may not be of Mesozoic age.

On page 98, volume I. of my Report on the Geology of Iowa,
I have the following remarks, which in some degree anticipated
the discoveries announced in this memoir : —

Mr. P. Mclsaac, of Waterloo, Iowa, has shown me a specimen of Cre-
taceous Ammonite which he found in the drift near that place, and a frag-
ment of a Baculite has been found in the drift near Iowa City. Some
shark's teeth have been found in the drift of South-Eastern Iowa, and
supposed by others to have originated in a northern prolongation of the
Gulf-border Tertiary formations, but it seems not improbable that they
originated in Cretaceous strata to the north-westward, and were transported
thither during the Glacial Epoch ; although it is not to be denied that they
approach more nearly to Tertiary, than to Cretaceous forms.

The shark's teeth here mentioned were supposed to have been
transported thither from some locality in North- Western Iowa or
South-Western Minnesota, where Cretaceous strata were known
to exist, because it was not then supposed that any strata of that
age ever existed further eastward, in the interior region, than the
ninety-fourth degree of longitude, and it was thought probable
that the southerly-moving drift-currents might have been suf-
ficiently deflected to the eastward to carry them there. ^ From
the slight opportunity I have had to examine the teeth here re-
ferred to, I am led to regard them as of the same species as some
of those found at Lime Springs.

From the last named locality to the south-eastern corner of
Iowa the direction is so nearly south, we cannot doubt that the
teeth found at the latter point may have been carried thither from
the former, by a drift-current; but the most easterly known Cre-
taceous strata of South-Western Minnesota are too much to the
westward of Lime Springs to allow us to suppose, even in the ab-
sence of corroborative proof to the contrary, that the Cretaceous
fossils of that locality may have originated at a point so far west-
ward, because all the facts hitherto observed show that the general
direction of the drift-currents which })assed over this part of the
great interior region did not vary much from south.

It is probable that that the Cretaceous fossils found in the drift
of Black-IIawk County may have originated near where they are

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 191

found, but that county boing directly south of Howard, thoy may
liave been carried thither from that more northern region by a
drill-current.

Shoukl it be denied that the Cretaceous fossils and fragments
of strata found in Howard County . are from strata ori<rinally
deposited in that vicinity, the only alternative would be to assume
that they have been carried thither by drift-currents. Following,
is a condensed statement of the facts supporting the former propo-
sition and o])posing the latter: —

1. All known Cretaceous strata of the interior region north of
the latitude of Howard County are too directly and too far to
the westward to allow us to sujipose that any drift' current could
have traversed lines having a direction so much to the eastward.

2.* Those Cretaceous strata are not known to contain any of
the species found in Howard County.

3. No boulders of the Sioux quartzite have yet been detected
in the drift of Howard County, although it is found in situ over
a large part of South-Western Minnesota. That region is also,
in part, occupied by the Cretaceous strata just referred to. If
south-easterly moving drift-currents had existed there, they would
have earned material from both these kinds of rocks to Howard
County as they were carried into all Western Iowa by southerly
moving currents.

4. In the drift, accompanying the fossils of Lime Springs, are
found fragments of the palreozoic rocks which occupy only the
region to the north and east of that locality, showing that they
must have been brought there by either southerly or soutli-westerly
moving drift-currents. Therefore the Cretaceous material accom-
panjing them must also have been brought by the same cuiTents,
if by any. If they were brought by tliese currents (which is not
likely), that alone Avould establish the fact of the great eastward
extension of the Cretaceous sea, which it is the object of this
memoir to prove.

5. Many of the Lime Springs' fossils are delicate, but they are

* Since tliis article was read before the Association, I have received from Mr.
J. C. C. lloskins, of Sioux City, a quantity of fossils from the Cretaceous strata
in that vicinity and further north. Among these are teeth belonging to the
genera I'lyrltodus and Olodits, the latter very closely related to those of that
genus found at Lime Springs, but probably specitically difterent. In any case
these specimens of Otodiis thus associated show the existence of forms, in
" Earlier Cretaceous " strata, that were hitherto supposed to have their earliest
imit in the latest strata of Cretaceous, or the earliest of Tertiary, age.

192 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

not broken nor eroded, and fragments of the soft and friable strata
containing them are not comminuted, while the accompanying
fragments of palaeozoic strata are all hard, and show evidence of
such attrition as would have comminvtted the softer material, if it
had been subjected to the same forces.

6. The immense energy of the drift forces and the softness of the
material of the Cretaceous strata believed to have been deposited
in the region of Howard County, seem to be sufficient to account
for their almost entire obliteration ; while they were still further
obscured by the great accumulation of drift material which pre-
vails in that reaion.

II. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

1. On the Relation between Organic Vigor and Sex. By
Henry Hartshorne, of Philadelphia, Penn.

The observations of Thomas Meelian upon the relations of sex
in plants, published in the " Transactions of the American Associ-
ation for Advancement of Science," and elsewhere, are entitled
to the attentive consideration not only of botanists but also of
students of general biology. In his papers of 18G8, 1869, and
later, Mr. JMeehan has endeavored to show that " it is the highest
types of vitality only whicli take on the female form." * His facts
have referred mainly to (Joniferm and Amentacece, although not
confined to them.

The hesitation felt by many minds in regard to the acceptance
of the above proposition has originated chiefly from the familiarity
of the principle that "there is a certain degree of antagonism
between the nutritive and the generative functions, the one being
executed at the expense of the other;" along with the weight of
some very familiar facts concerning the generally greater size

* Proc. of Anicr. Assoc, for A<lvano. Science, 1809, p. 260.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 193

and muscular stroiiytli of tlie mak' ajuong animals (with a iV-w
exceptions, as in certain raptorial birds and arachnida) as well
as tlio ecjually general superiority of male birds in voice and
plumage.

Some of the facts in regard to plants cited in the papers referred
to may possibly bear a different, even an opposite, interpretation
to that given by Mr. Meehan. In his example of the larch, for
instance, when we notice that after surviving several years of the
repeated production of female flowers, the branches or spurs
" bear male flowers and die," * is it not possible that the demand
for organic force required in the evolution of male flowers causes
their exhaustion? In another placet ^^i"- Meehan sjieaks of "the
loss of power to branch," which in the Scotch pine, "the formation
of male flowers induces." This view might comport, at least,
with the ordinary statements of physiologists, as represented by
Dr. Carpenter J who refers to the contrast between Algoe, in which
indi^'idual construction is especially active, while the fructifying
organs are obscure, and fungi, in which almost the whole plant
seems made up of reproductive organs, upon the maturing of
which the plant ceases to exist. This contrast between nutrition
and reproduction appears again in the larval and perfect stages
of insect life ; the one being devoted to nutrition and the other
to reproduction. Is there any doubt that, in the dahlia and other
Compositae, cultivation alters fertile florets of the disk into barren
florets of the ray ? The gardener's common use of the principle
of limiting nutrition for the increase of reproduction is alluded
to by Mr. Meehan in his paper of 1870, § in speaking of a branch
being " partially ringed to produce fruitfulnessP

But my j)ur])Ose in the present paper is especially to call atten-
tion to a few well-known facts in the animal kingdom, of a char-
acter somewhat analogous to those dwelt upon above concerning
plants ; which conspire with these, in suggesting that some qualifi-
cation or addition may be required to the ordinary statements
concerning the relations between nutrition and reproduction, or
at least as to those between organic vigor and sex.

Take the instance of the common hive-bee (Apis mellifica).
According to the observations of Dzierzon, Von Siebold, Leuck-

* Proc. of Amer. Assoc, for Advanc. Science, 1869, p. 1257.
t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila., 1869, No. 2, p. 122.
\ Principles of Comparative Physiology, p. 147.
§ Proc. of Amer. Assoc, for Advanc. Science.
A. A. A. S. vol.. XXI. 25

194 B. NATURAL HISTORY,

art, and Tegetraeier upon hive-bees, and of F. W. Putnam, J.
Wyman, and Gerstiecker upon humble-bees, it appears that there
is a regular gradation in rank, so to speak, of bee offspring, accord-
ing to the method of their production. First and loAvest in the
hive-bee series are the males or drones. These may be sometimes
produced by an unfertilized working bee ; commonly, by a queen
bee from ova not fertilized with spenn-cells, which cells, as obser-
vation and experiment both have shown, may be for a long time
detained in the siDeraaotheca charged with them. A queen whose
fecundation has been delayed till she is older than usual, is apt to
yield only drone offspring. The next stage in rank is that of the
worker, or undeveloped female. Every one knows the remark-
able effect of nutrition upon its characters ; a change of cell and
food elevating it to the full endowments of a queen. Putnam and
Gerstaecker* have noticed among humble-bees what are called
"large queen larvae," intermediate between the workers and the
perfect queens ; and W)^nan has suggested that the earlier or later
period of impregnation may determine this difference ; those first
impregnated becoming queens, then the large queen larvae, next
the workers, last the males.

Now among the Aphides as well as to a certain extent in some
MoUuscoida, Coelenterata, &c., we find a class of facts, different
from these but yet allied to them. Taking Huxley's summary of
the history of aphidian parthenogenesis,! it seems that the num-
ber of successive viviparous pseudovan broods is " controlled by
temperature and the supply of food. The agamic viviparous in-
dividuals are regarded by Steenstrup and others as non-sexual.
If sexual, they must be considered as females undeveloped. At
all events, the coming on of cold weather begins the production
of males as well as females. Packard's expression is that " the
asexual Aphis and the perfect female may be called dimorphic
forms." Of the three forms, then, that one whose production
especially attends the conditions of the lowest vitality is the
male.

But another class of facts of a quite different kind may be con-
sidered in this connection ; involving higher animals and even man
himself. I refer to the history of monstrosities. Double monsters
(of which some remarkable human instances have been exhibited

* Packard's " Guide to the Studj" of Insects," p. 119.
t Linnasan Transactions, xxii., p. 198.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 195

within a few years in this country) are always of one sex and
iieurh/ always of the female sex.* There is reason to exchide
from this ehiss of true double monsters cases like that of the
Siamese Chang and Eng, who may be regarded as really twins
with two complete bodies abnormally united together.

Now, why should a double fa'tus nearly always have the female
sex? The bearing of this question upon that which we have just
been discussing appears, when we consider the true theory of
double monsters. Under the close investigations of St. Hilaire,
Virehow, Yrolik, Fisher, and others,! it has been made quite
evident that they result liot at all from the fusion of tw' o embryos
into one, but, on the contraiy, from the ahnormul fssion of a smgle
ovum, under excess of formative force. The point for us now to
notice is the nearly constant association of this profusion of de-
velopmental force with femininity of sex.

Regarding the actual function of this force (however we may
designate it, as, e.g.., life force, organic force, bio-plastic force, <fec.)
as being the formation of plasma with attendant cell-multiplication
or vegetative repetition., it would appear that this is precisely what,
in plants and animals, may be the especial feminine endowment.
The two directions or modes of manifestation of this organic force
are individual construction and reproduction. These may, there-
fore, be in inverse proportion to each other, simply because the
energy or material consumed in tlie one process is taken from the
other ; and yet, while a certain limitation of fo^od and temperature
favors reproduction, rather than individual nutrition and construc-
tion, a greater lowering of these conditions of vitality will retard,
arrest, or degrade both jirocesses. According to ISIeehan's inter-
pretation of his facts concerning plants, one effect of this lowering*
retardation, or degradation is the production of the male rather
than the female sex. Some facts, at least, in the animal kingdom,
as we have seen, support the same view ; but to give a statement
of this kind the form and validity of a law would require a much
more extensive survey of correlated facts. At all events, we do
not find the frequent superiority of the masculine sex in certain
particulars in the higher animals necessarily incompatible with

* G. J. Fisher, Trans. Med. Soc. of New York, 1865-1868. Against this I find
only a vague expression of W. Vrolik (Cyclop, of Anat. and Thysiol., Art.
rera/ofo^y, p. 946) that "some sorts" of double monsters are more frequently
male.

t Goodell, Philada. Med. Times, June 15, 1871.

196 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

this ; since this superiority prevails usually in apparatus not of the
functions of the vegetative or organic nfe, but of animal life or of
relation ; as of intellectioti, motor power, and voice. Beauty of
plumage in birds, while we naturally attribute to it a certain
superiority, may not, in the scientific sense, unequivocally have this
character. If it should be conceded that it has, "we must then
regard its general predominance in males as one of the difficul-
ties in the way, at present, of any extended or final generaliza-
tion upon the subject.

Another possible application of the same course of reasoning
is, in regard to the law of increase of human population. Ex-
tended observation has shown a constant preponderance of male
over female births. In Europe, according to reUable authority,*
the average proportion is, 106 males to 100 females. But, this
difierence of sex is less by three per cent in illegitimate births ;
that is, in the latter, where vital energy may be supposed to abound
above the average (sexual propensity over-riding prudence and
morals, and thus attesting its own strength) there are three per
cent more than the average number of females boi'n.t More to
the purpose, perhaps, may be the fact that, of children still-bom
there are, the world over, about 100 males to 75 females; and,
further, that the mortality in male children during the first part
of life considerably exceeds that of females. Under one month
of age, for example, in England, 1000 males die for 765 females ;
in Belgium, the proportion is 1000 to 749. J During the first year
of life, in Kentucky, Dr. Sutton has ascertained § that of every
100 dying, 57 are males and 43 female. This excess of male mor-
tality continues until puberty, and returns again after the dangers
peculiar to female life are passed; so that after sixty years the
probability of long life is greater with women than with men.
There are more very old women than there are very aged men.
It is at least allowable to interpret these facts as being favorable
to the idea of greater viability, i.e., purely vital or organic energy,
belonging to the female sex.

Less directly connected with the same view are some other facts
concerning population winch have a practical interest. Statistics

* Wynne, Vital Statistics, p. 76.

t Tlie relative mortallli/ of illegitimate children is determined by causes acting
at or near the time of birth, long after the fixation of sex.

\ British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, April, 1857, p. 348.
§ Wynne, Vital Statistics, p. 126.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 197

of soiiu' parts of tlic Unitcil States have boen, especially by the
imiiiiries of Dr. Xathan Allen, of Lowell,* shown to indieate
(.liniinution in the proliticacy of American women, as compare<l
with foreign immigrants. Examining, e.g., the records of New
York City for 1870, we find that, wdiile the mimber of deaths of
natives is nearly donble that of foreigjiers, the number of births
of children buth of whose parents iive foreign is almost /bi«* to one
of those whose parents are both native. For so great a difference
there must be a cause. Dr. Allen ascribes it to a deviation from
the normal harmony of development of all the organs and func-
tions, owing to unsanitory modes of living amongst women, as
well as men, in this country. That the general physiological
balance which constitutes standard health is on the whole most
favorable to continued and vigorous reproduction, is probable ;
yet the special kind of disturbance of balance which tends to
inteifere with productiveness, needs to be pointed out. Is it not
probable, in view of the facts alluded to in this paper, that it in-
volves an excessive increase of activity in those functions farthest
removed from the nutritive, — which are most of all animal as
contrasted with the vegetative, are indeed at the opposite pole
as it were, from the latter. These are the functions of the brain
and nervous system. Precocity, in the intellectual and emotional
nature, is common in both sexes in this country; over-intensity,
activity, and excitement of mind, in business, dissipation, and
even in religion, are characteristically American. Thus it w'ould
seem that tlie vital organic energy is impaired ; and one impor-
tant manifestation of this may be the lessened and lessening pro-
ductiveness of American women. It cannot yet be said, however,
that the facts upon this subject are so definite as to allow us to
deduce an unquestionable conclusion.

* Transactions of American Medical Association, 1870, p. 381.

198 B, NATURAL HISTORY.

2. Mortality of Fish in Racixe River, By P. H. Hoy, of

Racine, Wisconsin.

During the summer and autumn of 1871, the minnows, Albur-
nus riihellus^ Agassiz, became so numerous that, in calm weather,
at w^hich time these little fish swim near the surface, they could
be seen in such immense shoals that they produced a spattering
in the water closely resembling a shower of rain fiilling. As the
dense mass moved along, if opposed by a stick, or other slight
obstacle, the fish nearest the surface Vould leap over the object,
it being almost impossible for them to go under in consequence
of the solid mass of fish moving beneath.

Other fish, bass, pickerel, suckers, tatfish, &c., were also numerous ;
most of these larger fish subsisted, almost entirely, on the little
delicate and tender minnows.

On the first of December, the river, being unusually low, froze
over ; the ice thus early formed became twelve inches in thickness
by Christmas. A slight rise in the river occurring about this time
filled every crevice underneath the ice, and this water freezing closed
up all air chambers. Immediately it was observed that the fish
crowded to any opening made in the ice. So eagerly did the min-
nows crowd, in great distress apparently for want of oxygen, that
they literally shoved numbers out of the water upon the surrounding
ice. Death soon followed. The great number that thus perished
rendered the water of the river horribly oiFensive.

By the middle of January all other fish, bass, perch, &c., below
the rapids also died ; caused, probably, by the poison communi-
cated to the water by the multitude of decaying minnows. A fact
going to prove this positioU is, that there are none of this species
of Alburnus found above the rapids, the river being at this point
obstructed by aperies of dams ; and here, too, where the niimioics
do not occur, other species of fish continued in good health, there
being no unusual mortality.

From the middle of January the water in the river, below the
rapids, became so horridly stinking that those manufactories situated
along the river were compelled to use agents, — tar, carbolic acid,
chlorides, <fec., — either to decompose or cover up the stench caused
by generating steam from this liquid mass of putrefaction.

ZOOLOGY AND HOTANV. 199

When tlie ice broke up in the spring, tliousnnds of barrels of
fish were swept out into the lake, and great masses heaped up on
the beach, near the mouth of the harbor, by the waves.

I examined many specimens of these dead fish, but could detect
no evidence of disease. They appeared in good condition ; the
minnows were especially fat.

Perhaps the most interesting fact in connection with this fish
mortality is, that many minnoAVS sunk, and there became covered
with the soft river mud, where, in the short space of six months,
they became sertxipetrified. The change closely resembled, if it was
not, adipocerine. These fish, however, became lighter than water,
so that they rose and floated off; while the flesh of ruanimcds in-
creases in weight by being converted into adipocerine. ]May it
not be that fish undergoing the change differ essentially from
mammals ? *

3. The Old Haarlem and the Latest Brussels Microscop-
ical Prize-Questioxs. By Theodore C. Hilgard, of St.
Louis, Missouri.

The microscopic flxcts recorded in the opening of this paper
form part of a communication read before the New Orleans Acad-
emy of Science, and })artially i)ublislied in the scientific column
of "The New Orleaiis Picayune," February 11, 1872.

The second part, concerning prize-questions, has a direct bear-
ing upon subjects and results as yet unknown in Europe, but
exhaustively experimented upon and published in the scientific
press of Amei-ica. Of three original constituent papers (discussed
at the Chicago Meeting in 18G8) of my tripartite Essay on "Micro-
8C0])ic Circuits of Generation, Infusorial, Zymotic, and Bryogen-
etic," the first part was published in the " American Journal of
Arts and Sciences," and reprinted in the " Journal of the London

* Specimens were exhibited, and distributed to eminent clieniists for
analysis.

200 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

Microscopical Society." The two others were published in the
" Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science," 1870 and 1871.

The first appearance of organisms in any fermenting liquid is
tluit of the naked saltatory molecules, called (or at least subsumed
as) Monads (^xsei^fZo-genus) by Ehrenberg, and vibrios, or vihrionic
molecules by myself.

They compose the yeast-diastase of Liebig, and their chemical
constitution is that o^ flesh.

Any small particle of fungous dust, a fragment of a fungous
fibril, especially of the common lacteal, bread and apple-mould
(which likewise is the ferment of all putrid corruption), will bodily
dissolve into a vibrionic, molecular gelatine, of blackish color, when
alighted in or on fermentible material. No fungus has a cellulose
or papery fibre, coat, or cell. Searching for " cellulose" in a mass
of yeast-cells argues a thorough misunderstanding. The adult
fermentic fungus, moulding and corrupting our bread and flesh,
consists of cells, but not of " cellulose," and so does the fermentive
" yeast-cell " likewise. It is a grave and fatal mistake to ascribe
fermentation of starch into sugar, and of sugar into either alcohol
or lactic acid, &c., to the {coated) yeast-ce?^s. Whenever sugar,
&c., has to be converted, the yeast-cell at once dissolves its coat
into a nutritious gelatine, prolapsing its vibrionic (commutative
or trxAj fermentive) molecules, as will appear on making the check
or test experiment.

The primitive yeast, likewise, consists of a nebida of growing^
vibratile molecules.

Liebig denied the yeast to be present in putrid cadaverous cor-
ruption, because his microscopist saw no cells, and he himself saw
no cellulose membranes, which, by the way, the yeast itself never
possesses. The well-known extracellular, as well as intracellular
vibrionic particles, or diastase, Pasteur's school claimed for ani-
mals, — " snakes, snapping up vibrios." What species of serpents
those were, truly "more subtle than any animal made" (adult ani-
mal), is left in the dark. The vibratile tail, or scourge of all prim-
itive life-molecules, might indeed be claimed as the very "finest of
all serjjents " yet ; finer than any true animal whatever. As it is,
it forms an active instrument of flagellation upon convertible,
digestible, or fermentible liquids.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANTT. 201

Without these spermoid serpeiitine particles, no living tissue can
be formed.

A single vibrio will sometimes directly enlarge and assume a
cell coat as an individual yeast-cell ; but, in most cases, during the
process of actual cadaverous corruption, no less than during the
true fermentic process of converting sugar, &c., into alcohol, or
lactic acid (accompanied by the evolution of carbonic acid), no cell
whatever need be formed. I have repeatedly fermented grape juice,
and simple corn meal with water, not allowing, however, of any
drying up at the borders of the vials. In all these cases the lactic
as well as alcoholic, and the fearfolly miasmatic, putrid fermen-
tation, as of flesh or moss spawns (which is likewise a gangren-
OKS one), no less than the offensive butyric acid, &c., corruption
(as of mashes, swill, distilleries, levees, and the cane refuse), all
were enacted without the presence or formation of the ultimate
cells of the yeast, that only hoard up the fungous material on hand,
and redissolve in fermentible liquids.

The process of the vibrionic concatenation (or, inosculation in
single file, of the 2)rimitive fermentic molecules) has been partly
observed by Pasteur, as well as Ilallier. Ehrenberg described this
(corruptive) yeast molecule not inaptly as " monas crepusculum," —
a "hazy, nebulous monad," a carnivorous (!) animal, inhabiting, as he
gives it, chiefly " St. Petersburg, Berlin, and other European capitals."

The naked "monads" or vibrios which lengthwise joined in
single-file — a process unknown to him — he describes as " ophido-
monas " (or snake-monad), as it is found violently revolving, like
an archimedean screw. These are Pasteur's serpents ; snapping
up vibrios. They inosculate by pairs after much spinning or
churning, so to speak, and then join other longer or shorter files,
or parts of weltering coils, adding to their length. This well-
known process has once more been misconstrued, by Cohn, into a
" transverse division,"

So soon as a few vibrios or primitive flagellate molecules be-
come united, the vibratory halo which surrounds each one singly
at once disappears, except at the ends, which are actively twirling
tlie little frustule, curve, or coil around, and are seen delving
against any slimy material they may meet in tlieir way. It is
thus that they become entangled, involved, or enveloped in any
gelatine, or in spoiled meat (immersed through a bung-hole), and
in which they stick fast and are easily got rid of by extracting
tlieiu with the meat.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 26

202 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

After a little while, when apt to encyst, they "become still,"
e.g., adhering to the glass slips between which they were bred, by
way of experiment. They then are seen to become a little dilated,
or, as it were, dropsical, exude a delicate cell-menihrane, and now
represent a little fibre. In fermentible liquids, the worm-like, drop-
sical fibrils rapidly segment and ramify oifinto beads ; thus consti-
tuting the yeast-cells. The latter again multiply and elongate into
moulds, fibrils, and floritions. In stagnating or impure flowing
water, these slim fibres, of about 1-40,000 of a line in thickness,
collect into the prancing, fluctuating, dirty tassels observed in the
street gutters of cities, &c., and, although themselves inodorous,
they exhale the rank gangrenous, or the infectious butyric, miasmas
which at once seem to affect the fermentible contents of the blood
and liver more especially.

With respect to the latter action upon our system (easily realized
by breeding those effluvia in a little corked bottle), we need no-
wise assume a specific jJ^rasite ; but merely an altered action of
our own, " specific " organization ! As for the propagative action
of certain effluvia, we have a similar function in the action of fire,
kindling organic substances. In organic bodies, an action once
started will oftentimes be apt to run like a wild-fire until it ceases
to find nourishment. But there are other " kindling " substances
than fire — i.e., heat and oxygen — alone. Nitro-glycerine, an
organic com2^ound, will explode at the touch of resinous substances.
The conimunicatio7i of the action is all that is required. Our
whole system itself being a regenerative as well as self-decom-
posing or excretory one, its "regenerative action" might be
directed perversely ; or the equivalents, hoarded up, be fired by
a " specific fire."

Fire, indeed has ever been a symbol of contagion. " Kindling''''
conveys to the present day the idea of contagion in the Gennan
language. Inorganic bodies are ultimately, in their last particles,
uniform, or compact, so to speak. Their uniform reaction upon
physical agents constitutes the " chemical property." Uniform
reaction, uniform being, is called dynamostatic condition, properly
80 as compared with the aeriform, or 2^n6umostatic, reaction of
matter; the liquid or hyd)'0-static and the static actioji of inertia,
as in solids, to ^)ersj.9< in the sense of the force communicated (in
a straight line). Static jyersistence is the character of inert matter,
persisting as such into unlimited time and space (" stat " terra in
ceternum). Inorganic matter will only l)urn, if sufiicient heat, or

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 203

Other -vrork done or bestowed, e.^., by pulverizing or refining it
into separate particles, be siij)eraclded. Thus sulphur, e.g., will not
burn, except by adding all the equivalent heat, or so much work
of pulverization (as in the manufacture of sulphuric acid the sul-
phur is burned by setting a pulverized portion on fire). Sulphur
will burn copper in a ruby-red flame, when rasped down and
heated; but neither they nor phosphorus, either, will, in a low
temperature, 'Z:j"«(7/(g. This " kindling," or spontaneous continu-
ation of the 2^)'0cess of oxydizing carbon, in burning, is exclusively
the property of orgastic matter ; and it is, moreover, the fandor-
incntal common feature of all plants, as well as atiimals, to render
up carbonic acid gas.

The specific heat of all animal bodies is due, as is well known,
to their process of respiration, whether by lungs, gills, or insects'
tracheae. All absorb oxygen and render up carbonic acid gas by a
peculiar process of a low combustion : due to the slow, propagative
firing of carbon stored in their tissues. (It is hence predicable, in
the strictest, literal sense of the word, that their breath sloicly
ignites, or '■'■kindles charcoaV)

It was solely on the basis of an absolute and quite an unpardon-
able sin of omission, viz., neglect of the normal or of the check
experiment, that of late half a hundred of pretended " specific "
fungi have been claimed as " parasites, producing so many specific
diseases." Let it at once be stated as a historic fact that- the
normal process of fungous decay (or corruption) of stools and
offals, as of flesh and blood, had hitherto never been studied. In
adopting, publishing, and. still worse, enforcing by legal enact-
ments the recognition of certain supposed characteristic or " spe-
cific" fungi, no one ever asked or dared inquire what is the
inevitable normal corruption of the flesh. This condemns the
whole system at once, and even the late dementi given to such
foregone assumptions, e.g., about a so-called " cholera fungus,"
wliich is normally evolved upon all healthy discharges no less
than on diseased or morbid ones, actually came too late. That
check ought to have been required before sending a committee to
liunt for it to the jungles of India, who found no distinctive fungus
at all. But that that fungus is only the common fermentive yeast
or moidd of our larder, no one could say but who had examined
it in its continuous development, by growing it reversely and
conversely, under the microscope. To call these somi-licpiid,
naked, sarcode bead-strings a " saccharomyces," after so many

204 B. JfATUEAL HISTORY.

names (from Elirenberg forward) had been given, appears as a
mere redundancy of diction, if not as a want of deference due
to eminent priorities ; particularly if once more a new specific
name is given, as a so-called species and genus, that, however, had
never yet been traced^ and thus far required to he demonstrated^
as all assertions of peculiar features, claimed, require to be brought
to this " crucial " test of contradistinctive experimental com-parison,
before they can claim deserving any publicity whatsoever. The
fundamental rule, to first establish the normal feature before a
" distinctive " character can be allowed, is constantly neglected.

This, however, is by no means intended as derogatory of well-
authenticated scientific experience concerning parasitic diseases —
of whatever nature — both on plants and animals.

As for modern researches concei'ning putrefaction, we must be
careful on what evidence the statements are based. I extract the
following statement of Cohn — a much-quoted observer — on the
Characters of Bacteria, as represented in the " Scientific Record "
of one of our leading monthlies for August, 1872. He states: —
1. "Bacteria are cells." Such, indeed, has always been the dis-
tinctive feature of bacteria, against 7idked molecules, to be possessed
of a cell-coat. 3. " Bacteria-cells multiply by transverse division."
This holds good, e.g., of the terminal (true) bacteria of the matted
(mother-of-vinegar) vibrio-files, that form the white scums, or vapj^a;
and also for some of the multifarious, retrograde bacterial develop-
ments from submerged penicillium and oidium,-joints of the Yeast-
Fungus, as depicted in Fig. 11 of Plate, and j3. 298 in " Proceed-
ings," 1870 ; phenomena most easily realized by breeding or exam-
ining the respective 2yhases, under the onicroscope. 6. "The bacteria
ai-e the only organisms which produce putrefaction." This involves
one of the gravest errors of diagnoses. The single or concaten-
ated " monads " or vibrios enacting (or, at least, mostly exclusively
present at) the work of j)utrefaction are essentially naked ; but
surrounded by a whirring halo. The apparent o})tic rim ( — not
a cell-coat I — ) disappears, except at the terminal ones, so soon
as they are duly adapted into file by concatenation {not, by
division). Coatless moloculcs are not classed as " bacteria."

7. "They heap up into ])almella-like masses (zoogloea)." This
involves no less than ybwr diagnostic qiiid-pro-quos.

(a) It is the vibrioiiic chains, which curdle up, e.g., into the
glutinous mothcr-of-viuegar. (b) His zoogloea is the same as
Klob's, viz., an endogenetic discharge from oidium-joints, — Fig.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANTT. 205

11, " ZjTiiotic Fungi." (c) The original true " Zoogloea" Dvjard.
are tlie trabecular embryonic pellets of the oxytricha-phase of
Vorticello-Plauarian grubs (see "American Journal of Arts and
Sciences," vol. ii., August, 1871 ; and " Zymotic Fungus," p. 298).
{e) Furthennorc, Palmellaceje, so-called, are a form of moss-spawns
or Chloruspenuea3 Ilarv. ; of a chlorophylline nature and of green
color. Besides all this, —

" He thinks he has abundant evidence to prove that bacteria and
2Knk-iUho)i are independent of each other, and that the former
cannot [sjc] be produced fi-om the latter."

The various modes which Nature evidences in her operations can be
inferred from Plate of " Zymotic Fungus," Fig. 11, and text, p. 298.

From the " Scientific Record " of the same widely circulated
monthly ("Harper's") we copy the following paragraph, in as
e\'ident and direct connection with Mr. Cohn's difficulties or
failures, as was the old prize-question of the Holland Society,
Amsterdam (see end), concerning Kuetzing's more instructive
work on chlorospermous spawns: —

" As a memorial of its deceased member, Mr. Antoine Joseph Spring,
an eminent Belgian botanist, who died at Liege on the 17th of January, at
the age of fifty-seven, the Academy of Sciences of Belgium has added the
following to the prize-questions of 1874 : The polymorphism of the mush-
rooms is attracting more and more the attention of botanists and physiol-
ogists, and seems suited to furnish new elements for the solution of the
problem of life in general. First, a succinct and critical summary of the
known observations of the polymorphism of the Mucedinaj is demanded ;
second, an exact determination, even if based upon a single species, of
what relates, first, to the proper nature of the plant (its specific energy),
and second, to the exterior (the conditions of its development) ; third, the
positive proof or disproval of the fact that the fungi of ferments, such as
micrococcus, palmella, mycodermi, &c., under any circumstances, can be
transformed into the higher fungi."

Ad 3. {a) Palmella is a chlorospermous {pseitdo-) genus ; and
as such it could never have truly entered into competition, {b) If
a " mycoderm can be transformed into the higher fungi," then that
luycodenn belonged to — and was itself — the fungus in ques-
tion, not a "higher" one any more than the hen is a "higher"
^m^than the egg! The lucky G^^dipus would here be caught by
this Sphinx in a glaring contradictio in adjecto, and eo ipso lose
his claim on his laurels !

Ad 2. Xo plant can exist without external conditions. The

206 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

" specific energy " is utterly inseparable from " conditions of devel-
opment," and therefore cannot be separately treated.

jid 1. For sufficient proof in point of observed developments and
organology (rather than the merely diagnostic "polymorphism"), it
is needless to refer onr readers to my previous communications on the
very Yeast-Fungus (or Mucedineje series itself). A self-siistammg
series of observations is always more reliable than any series of
failures, — of diagnostic slips and " negative " evidence !

A most instructive case of similar nature is involved in the
following, originally forming an appendix to my last year's publi-
cation on " The Fresh Water Algse as the Spawns of Mosses."
As a just tribute to authors who can claim certain priorities, I now
olfer it for the consideration of the rational microscopic investi-
gator.

Valuable observations, indeed, had partially been made, and
certain important results no doubt been arrived at, e.g., by Pro-
fessor G. Kuetzing; and Professor W. P. Schimper's excellent
monograph on Moss-Developments ("Recherches sur les Mousses,"
Strasbourg, 1848) has been mentioned before. A great many of
the developments, above described, had been independe^itly dis-
covered by Euetzing / but his prize essay fell almost still-born fi-om
the press, partly on account of an entangling alliance between sub-
jective, fictitious identities, of merely diagnostic fi'aming (such as,
e.g., of pseudo-'-'- genus Protococcus ") on the one, and Natures
identities (of objective merit) on the other hand ; partly, however,
on account of the barbarous Greek terminology — of the Compo-
site style — which even at the present age more than any thing
else obstructs the way to a clear understanding of what is to be
gained by it.

A very fair idea of the multifarious collateral developments,
incident to certain spawns of Lichens and of Mosses, can indeed
be gleaned, even from a single plate, e.g.. Table Q, of his crowned
prize-essay : " Die Umwandlung uiederer Algenformen," &c. (in
" Natuurkundige Verhandelingen," &c., Haarlem, 1841). The
works of Kuetzing, Scliiinjier, and Harvey, having remained inac-
cessible to mo beibre I had juyself finished my researches on such
subjects, the amount of corroborative evidence herein conveyed
forms so many self-sustaining, independent equations, mathemati-
cally speaking.

A most interesting error of question (by foregone diagnostic

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 207

assertion) will be readily detected in the wording; of the original
]>rize-qucstion itself, as couched by the Holland Society, Amster-
dam. To Avit : —

"According to some botanists, alga; [ ? ] of a very simple structure are
averred to develop, under favorable circumstances, into very different
plants [ ! ] which belong to genera much higher elevated in the scale of
organic beings [ ! ] ; whereas the same algiu in default of such favor-
able conditions were fertilized* and reproduced in their original form.
The Society considers, that if these observations could be rendered unim-
peachable, and if the transition of two organic bodies \_sic] into one another
could be proven to a certainty, an immense progress would have been
achieved in the study of such bodies," «&c.

Did the Society actually mean to ignore the conversion of the
organic body of the egg into that of the hen? — of the calf into
the heifer and cow — nay, of the body of the ham into that
of Prince Hamlet (if need should be), even hi/ xoay of asshn-
ilation ? Does not the bulb reproduce the original form as well
as the seed ? Could tlie adult be called a "higher genus " '? "Was
not the value of such " genus," " scale," or " body," an imjMcit
error of question in each single case ?

Starting from a foregone conclusion, by assuming the essential
identity of any green cell lying loose (as a postulated "genus
Protococcus"), Kuetzing unfortunately infers the genetic imity
of all the rest, because he was unable in each case to account
for its distinctive origin (or "nature," proper). But things are not
to be held identical, simply because our means of discrimination
fail us as in all very small or very distant objects.

He therefore "very simply" claims a generation without a gen-
eration — euphemistically called " originarian ! " — for his ideal
punctifonn Protococcus, the advent of which he could not trace
" because no seed could be synall enough to produce such forms;" —
a furegone tenet, based on habitual ideas of seed and semen.

Without detracting from the merit of the objective observations
(faulty though the subjective logic was), we here literally tran-
scribe from p. 29, § 33 of his crowned Essay, a summary of results
gained : —

" § 33. So far as color, size, and external cell -substance are concerned,
the synaptic phase passes througli the same tertiary grades as the eiidogoa-

• Tlie true distinctive feature, involved, was tiie seemingly (('.'•., precon-
ceived) " sexual " or '• ii-"texual transfusion of contents : a process of tissue-genesis.

208 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

imic and gonimic secondary grades. Here, too, we therefore distinguish
the microsynaptic and macrosynaptic, the achromatic-synaptic and chro-
matic-synaptic,the myxodermatinic-, pachydermatinic-, and leptodermatinic-
synaptic."

We recommend this as a study, and our classifying co-tempo-
raries may profit by his example I

4. A Critical Review of the Present System of Osteology.
With Particular Reference to Professor T. H. Hux-
ley's Latest Views. By Theodore C. Hilgard, of St.

Louis, Missouri.

In his lately published "Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebi-ated
Animals," Professor T. H. Huxley complains of the inefficiency of
the present system of accepted " homologies " respecting the ex-
tremities in different classes, &c.

On page 37 he states : —

The pelvis possesses no osseous element corresponding with the clavicle ;
but a strong ligament, the so-called Poupart's ligament, stretches from the
ileum to the pubis in many Vertebrata and takes its place.

This might be claimed as the climax of a failure to adapt the
present conventional system to the minutiae of detail.

All comparative osteologists present at the last Meeting, at
Indianapolis, even those from across the ocean, have competed in
denouncing the present system of so-called homologies, as leading
to Lm})ossible or incom})atible consequences.

That actual homologies exist to an hitherto unknown degree,
if, legitimately^ i.e., consistently, traced by immediate connections
of tra7isitional forms / that in the entire Vertebrate System all
bones can be coordinately and respectively located, by incontro-
vertible, connected evidence, I have already demonstrated in my

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 209

last year's paper " On the Numeric Relations of the Vertebrate
System." *

•Wherever we have a uniform law of type, there we are a))t to
confound homologies — or identical oryans — with analogies or
partial identity of features ordy.

It is only by a method of strictly continuous discriminative
comparison that we can distinguish between total identities or
homologies and the various special features only partially held in
common.

The chief deficiencies of the present system, as embodied in its
technical lanyuaye^ can be briefly specified as follows : —

1. Neglect oi Emhryological Considerations: with respect to
(«) sternal organization, {b) occipital development, (c) embryo-
logical composition of neural as well as haemal rib-arches, of the
cranium in particular; also with regard to ((/) typical correlation
o^ extremital fabrics inter se, (e) of ribs inter se, (f) of ^i7^arches
as " haemal " arches ; distinct from (y) " visceral " arches or facial,
carniferous lobes of embryology,

2. Failiny to proceed from indubitable cofinections, coexisting
parts have not been accounted for comjiletely, distinctively, and
comparatively. Analogous parts have been misinterpreted for

* The proof-sheets of that paper not having reached me in time, it has hap-
pened that, apart from other inconsiderable errata, the following seem to require
emendation : — •

Page 308, last line, read, arch-beams (for "arches ").
„ 309, first line, read, that being cemented, &c.

§ 3, line 3, observed, among fungi, &c. § 5, line 3, pollinary gland(&c.).
„ 311, § 2, line 2, not the "hajraal," &6. Line 5, fauces — the tyrap., &c.
Line 6, lachrymal ones (chounce), [not c/oaca/] . § 3, line 2, hiatus
of the neur., &c. § 4, line 1, itUracted, or incurrent, &c.
„ 312, line 4, appressed [not oppressed]. § 2, line 4, In the cat-fish, they
[not : cat, first it] resemble the carapace of a turtle. Line 9,
joining the neural spine, as in the turtle. '

„ 813, line 2, In birds, the strong, pillar-shaped prop of the shnnlder-blade is
the true clavicle. Line 8, (ribs). The third element, or trans-
versals (coracoids) are conspicuous, movable, transverse spars,
like jib-booms. 1l\\q fourth, &c. § 4, line 4 from below, "/u/x
tymjiani," &C.
„ 314, § 4, Their type, &c. Line 4, pteryrjoidea, &c. § 5, line 7, and front-
ing, &c. § 7, line 5, " antrum " and " tuberositas max." Line 5,
bel. maxillae, &c.
„ 316, § 3, line 4, cochlea;, strung with a spiral harpsichord of vibratory
chords of smooth muscular fibre. § 4, line 3, (inter- vertebral).
§ 5, line 3, Astraa — Maeandrina, &c.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 27

210 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

homologous ones, and analogous features been expropriated by
forced loans from settlements otherwise provided for. The com-
ponent parts of mammarian crania have not been properly identified
in the other Orders ; so that a true system of comparative craniology
does noioise exists e.g., between Mammals and Fishes.

{a) In Embryology, the "animal" (dorsal) leaf or sheet represents
by its median duplicature the dorsal or Pleural fissure from the
ethmoid to the caudal bones; and by its ovate border, subse-
quently clenched together sidewise, in front, the entire anterior
hiatus from the ethmoidal bones (or the septum) to the anus is
produced.

All bones being developed from within this animal sheet symmet-
rically on either side, it follows that no median series of bones can
anteriorly exist except originally conjugate by pairs. The same
applies to the dorsal or "neural" sutures. All vertebral blocks
consist of a pair of rib-heads of the neural spine (see young hog,
&c.) that by a superior and inferior ossification of the j^nmitive
(axial and intervertebral) chondroid discs are soldered to a cen-
tral, pentagonal prism, such as we actually find them 'denuded at
the base of the skull and in the odontoid process, e.g., of turtles.
The latter prism or process being supernumerary to those of the
epistrophean and atlas vertebrsB, it claims its position as the first
{intercondylar) cranial prism.; deficient in loco, so soon as (in
Reptiles) the fii'st nuchal vertebra is being slipped forward, out of
line, as an atlas.

The prismatic centre-piece is originally hollow, as in Fishes, and
seems to represent a homologue of the hollow stipe of Crinoids;
whereas the joints of corals seem to represent the ossified primi-
tive ("intervertebral") chondroid discs themselves. It hence
follows that, both in the dorsal and frontal mid-li7ie sutures, 7ione
but a conjugate series of ossifications can exist / and that, in all
cases, all the occipital as Avell as sternal organizations, of Mammals,
Birds, and Saurians, have to be considered as bifid ossifications;
as are the bifid sternal plates (or 2}lastro?i) of turtles,* and the bifid
(dursal as well as ventral) homologous jf?« 5 of Fishes. In tiutlcs,
the clavate (cleidoid) rib-heads are strictly honu)logous to those of
birds in particular ; their sutured plates, or rib-blades proper, ex-
panded and joined into a carapace analogous to tlie neural one of

* Professor Huxley says, p. 174, § 4, " There are no sternal ribs, and no trace
of true sternum has yet been discovereil in the t'hdouia." His " Op. O." fig.
60, is the petrosal ; " ISq." the mastuid, the " Ep. 0." of fig. 44 (piscine).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 211

tlie cranium; wliile on tlieir free ends (tiilterculum) the anguli
costaruni (the transverse element of eaeh rib) are jtjinted rearward
as in the analogous cephalothorax of the cat-fish, and are syin]»hy-
sized with their j)artners from the otlier side across the dorsal mid-
line, as by way of analogy the transverse j)rocesses of the hips of
Mammals (pitbis) and those of the shoulder of Birds (true coracoids
ov furcida! — the well-known "wish-bone") meet across the front
suture.

Laterally, the rib-blade carapace of turtles is bordered by a
close-knit seam of tabulate, marginal elements ; analogously so
reproduced in the gill-arches of the cat-fish, as the fourth or
" cartilage " element. The fifth conjugate series^ or sternum^ re-
mains to be accounted for ; and as such we have to claim the plas-
tron, or ventral plates, by mathematical necessity!

A conjugate series of sternal ossicles is likewise present in cases
of ectropium cordis and all similar cases of an opening in the anterior
mediastinum ; as well as in the analogous case of the breast-plates
of Crinoids, sea-urchins, and star-fishes. There the bordering
digital ribs, e.^., of the (incurrent) carniferous lobes or labials ("vis-
ceral lobes or arches") of the Asterias aurantiaca conjugately meet
from either side, closing over the "rays" (or interlabial hiatus) by
a duplicate scries of so-called sternal ossicles.

{b) As for the duplicate (or conjugate) and by no means "odd"
(Owen) ossification points of the occipital squama, they are bi-
seriate, and eight in number. I have heretofore exhibited the
proofs of this fact in a number of fetal skulls. The same squama
(called an "odd or supernumerary key-stone" by Owen, and a
" supra-occipital" by others) in Fishes forms a porcate, eight-facet-
ted, rhombic plate, which, as in Mammals, is on either side sup-
ported by a trifurcate condylar beam (called an " ex-occipital ") ;
its head and blade both touching the basal prism (withdrawn in
all the 2yidm,onic, higher classes to allow of nuchal rotation) and
its transversal or jugular process turned rearward (Cyprinoids;
buffalo-fish). The occipital neural rib-head is here not developed
into a condylar joint — as a matter of course — although distinctly
present ; as likewise in the consecutive petrosal, alisphenoid, optic,
and ethmoidal beams respectively.

In young Ruminants (such as the sheep for example) the whole
temporal attachment (meatus, squama, and mastoid) can be easily
severed from the arcuate system of the barrel-shaped era iiiian, left
entire. Allowing for the missing cross-divisions of its rhombic

212 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

occipital squama (that, however, are easily discovered, e.g.^ in young
Rodents and the infant skull), five consecutive belts are readily
distinguished : the condylar, petrosal, alisphenoid, optic, and eth-
moid, affording passages for the locomotor, acoustic, sympathetic
(glossoi^haryngeal, dislodged), optic, and olfactory tracts succes-
sively and respectively. In Cyprinoids, the same are fully devel-
oped in a flight oi five consecutive side-beams. The top, or vault
pieces of the first (condylar) and second (petrosal, hearing the
semi-irabedded, serai-cii'cular canals) are subsumed in the loAver and
upper semi-circles of the occipital squama, respectively ; and the true
temporal bones we find crosswise inserted, as in 3Iam7nals, between
the occipital, petrosal, sphenoidal, frontal, and parietal bones. It
is there we have to look for them, and there we find them !

(c) The temporal fulcrum or attachment in Cyprinoid fishes
forms a perfect simile to a mammarian hip or pelvis attached to
the neural spine ; the squama (postfrontal) an ileum, so to speak,
the dove-tailed meatus-bone an ischium, the conic-crescented mas-
toid (" epiotic ") a pubis, leaving a foramen obturatum of its kind on
the temple. The squama unites, in forming a temporal acetabulum
for the reception of the true incus (" tympanic pedicle " or " hyo-
mandibular"), with the true meatus osseous [nowhere recognized] !
To the true (ileoid) squama temporalis, overlapping the orbit, we
find attached the fifth (crista) ossicle as the zygomatic intercalary
of higher animals (Rodents) ; and behind the prop or meatus-bone
the requisite " tuberositas " intercalary (as on the ischium) a little
sherd can be easily identified forming a digastric fossa.

The piscine temporal attachment has never been properly
located or identified by modern comparative anatomists ! On the
contrary, Owen has drawn on its three main components, the
meatus, squama, and mastoid, to frame the supposed requisite
" transverse processes " of the cranial neural spine. The former,
however, are distinctly located as the jugular process of the con-
dylar belt or side-slab; the otoconite of the petrosal and the
spinous sphenoidal processes respectively : all being provided for
in their proper places.

{d) A simple reference to a fetal or juvenile mammarian pelvis
(dog, &c.), and even to tliat of half-adult Man, will at once suflice
to show its quinque-])iiYX\ic composition, on cither side (apart from
the contingent sacral or vertebral axis). It invariably consists of
a^rojt> or ischium, a Wt«fe or ileum, a transverse uncinate jirocess
or pubis, a sejunct tuber ischii and a Bej)arate crista ileiy likewise.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 213

Correspondingly, we find in each perfect shoulder a 8houlder-7>rop
or clavicle (the pillar-bone of Birds' shoulders) ; a shoulder-blade ;
a shuulder-/iOoX' or "coracoid" (transversal); an acromion, and a
77iar(/inal plate, as so many separate ossifications, peculiarly promi-
nent in extinct Saurians, &c.

That the shoulder-prop or pillar bone of birds is the true clavicle,
becomes at once manifest by the comparison with the clavicle of
Manunals with a carinate sternxmi, — such as the mole, <fec. It has,
however, been viciously interpreted for a " coracoid," and thus be-
come the main source of confusion.

Professor Huxley himself justly insists to claim the pillar-bone
of the bird-shoulder as the analogue of the ischium. The ischium,
then, is " the true clavicle of the pelvis!!'' Q.E.D.

The three co-extant "cranial extremities" — the palato-max-
illary, the hyo-tympanic and masseteric or temporali-m.aiuUbiilar —
have yet to be severally identified and their homologies and analo-
gies properly collocated.

All have a fulcral attachment, of the scapular or coxal (pelvic)
ty^tQ ; each consisting, collaterally and respectively, of a prop, a
blade, a transverse hook, a ridge and end. The transverse pro-
cesses of the pelvis and shoulder have been pointed out in the
foregoing as the pubis and coracoids respectively, and therefore
the extremital levers cannot be considered as their " transversals"
(as some authors will have it). The shoulder ring of Fishes
typifies a pair of disjointed ribs, as it were, each consisting of a
skate-shaped pjrop or abutment ; a long hlade meeting its partner
underneath by its free end (or " tuberculum costae," in ribs). It
bears a loose transverse spar or coracoid, and is onward joined by a
fourth and a fifth piece, the latter suspended from the mastoid (or
epiotic) of the temporal fabric. In buffalo-fishes, the analogy of the
respective parts of the shoulder with those of an aviary pelvis is
striking. In the trout, the analogy of the shoulder-beams to a rib ;
in the cod, the parallelism of the scapular, opercular, and jialatal
fabrics inter se is very marked.

If in Birds we cause the elbows of a skeleton to meet at the
sternum from either side, the palatal apparatus of the same bird
will fonn its exact counterpart in miniature, by way of analogy.

We here see, at the base of the skull, a stout proj) — called ^'■os
ipiiidratum'''' — issuing into a slanting slab, which, forming an
elbow, meets its partner from the other side at the sphenoidal base
of the skull, — the part which in Mammals is occupied by the ex-

214 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

ternal and internal pterygoid processes. Each miniature elbow
issues — as seen in large bird-skulls — into two separate slats, as
into a radius and an ulna, on a delicate scale. The interior partners
become confluent as a true vomer ; which hence, as in all other
cases, is truly bipartite.

Cuvier claims the mesial ethmoidal prism of fish-skulls, i.e., the
lamina perpendicularis, crista galli, &c., for a vomer. The hands
to this palatal prehensile are formed by the digital rays, cemented,
in Birds, into one solid bill ; but completely sejunct in all Fishes,
particularly so in the esocine forms.

In all juvenile skulls of large aquatic birds we find the temporal
constituents (meatus, squama, and mastoid) all in their respective
places as with Mammals.

We likewise find the tympanic ossicles — the incus, malleus, and
stapes — all enclosed within the channelled meatus-bone.

We find the os quadratwn in the place of the external pterygoid
process at the base of the skull. As such ice hence have to claim
it, having located all the rest, likewise.

Professor Huxley resumes an old quid-pro-(pio^ by calling the
(palatal) quadrate bone by the name of its tympanic neighbor —
not homologue — "malleus" [p. 77]. The incus is collaterally
present in Birds, likewise, beside the quadrate. Their common
temporal (cleidoid) analogue is the meatus-bone.

The shoulder-prop, so to speak, of the palatal abutment, hence,
is the quadrate hone ; its humerus, the internal pterygoid process ;
its forearm, the semi-vomer and os palatinum respectively.

In Birds, the mandible, being dislodged from the temporal at-
tachment, swings on the palatal prop instead, and this continues
down in all the lower Vertebrata ; whereby the chelonian " quad-
rate " can be easily identified as being anchylosed with the meatus.
The palatal prop or os quadratum has a " zygomatic " blade for
its (palatal) shoulder-blade, in Fishes provided with a doid)le
layer or acromion, so to speak. It is called the "preopercular"
bone, and the transverse process thereto belonging is invariably
present in the shape of a hamvlus^ wedged in behind the quadrate
prop.

In Fishes, as in rattle-snakes, the Avhole palatal fabric of one
side is widely spread apart Iroiii its partner of the other side.
The cod-fish aflbrds a fine exanij)le of the first or humeral spar
proceeding from the <|ua<lrate prop and issuing into separate
palatal and vomeral slats, widely apart Irom their partners of the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 215

other side. In snakes, <fec., the zygomatic appears agglutinated to
the palatal humerus (or internal pterygoid process).

In Fishes, the hyo-tympanic bones remain to be accounted
for. We can now safely verify the interpretation given by older
comparative anatomists, who claim the tympanic pedicle for an
incus, the opercle for a malleus, as a blade ; a transverse anterior
slat (motapterygoid) for the stapes; the two bones joining or top-
ping oif the opercular m:vlleus, as fourtli and fifth ossicles, respec-
tively, for a falx tijmpani and true styloid process. From the
latter propend, in Mammals, the strong hyoid beams ; the " oper-
cular fin " whereof we find changed into the concave cartilages
the external, internal, and Eustachian ear-ducts, true to the
popular interpretation of tlie opercular apparatus as (true) ^'■f sh-
ears.''''

{e) In Fishes, the component parts of ribs — head, blade,
transversal process, the equitant "spinal" series, and th€ (bifid)
mesial-fin series — all remain so many separate spines or osseous
splinters. The peg, wedge, or cog shaped rib-heads being fre-
quently connate with, or adpressed, or immersed into the hour-
glass shaped vertebral prisms, they have been construed into
"transverse processes;" whereas they truly represent the hcpmal
, cajntular portions of vertebral block-pieces; as with higher Verte-
brata the neural capitula become anchylosed.

(f) The gill-arches of Fishes, five in number, represent so
many anterior pairs of ribs or cranial hagmal arches, in which,
however, the component parts are more massive, and also synchon-
drosed, as in the ribs of higher animals.

In number they correspond to the^^ye cranial neural belts, — (the
motor, acoustic, sphenoidal, optic, and olfactory ones). In Fishes
three sejunct basal prisms of the cranium are observable : one
specially underlying the ethmoidal arches, and forming the true
lamina perpendicularis ; and one specially underlying the condylar
or ex-occipital slabs. In Mammals we find four distinct ones on
the cranial base, and a supernumerary one on the spinal column :
the odontoid prism or process which claims its true position as the
first basal (intercondylar) cranial element. The corresponding five
pair of gill-arches, as so many hjemal arches of the cranium, are pro-
vided with as many vascular (or " hcemal ") loops of veins and
arteries. They are essentially distinct from the " visceral lobes," or
"visceral arches" (of the embryonic facial hiatus), in which the
osseous cranial extremities — the palatal, maxillary, hyo-tympanic

216 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

bones, &c. — are developed. Both the gill-arches and visceral or
facial lobes (labials) are collaterally present in Fishes, as a matter
of course.

{g) The five vascular loops, encircling the fish-gills, are also
perceptible in an embryonic condition, about the thyreoid region
in fetal Mammalia, &c., and in adult monstrosities are found de-
veloped in the chest (mediastinum) of man. (See Tiedemann's
Artery Tables.) The gill-arches themselves are gradually seen
transforming into a laryngeal apparatus. The rear arch of Corvina
Oscula clearly exhibits the thyreoid form. In turtles, the arch-
beams form the incipient frame of a future larynx, respiration being
withdrawn from the fringed gills into the glandular lungs.

It is hence evident that the vascular loops or gill-arches can
nowise be identified with the " visceral arches," so-called by im-
proper comparison.

A detailed accoimt of the visceral analocjies and homologies
will be given hereafter, as indicated in last year's paper on " Nu-
meric Relations," &c.

5. On the Difference between the Animal (Sensual) and
THE Human (Indagative) Intellect. By Theodore C.
HiLGARD, of St. Louis, Missouri.

The most comprehensive terra descriptive of intelligent capaci-
ties is doubtless that which we call understanding.

Understanding realizes ultimates from the ])oint of view of
principles; efiects from that of causes ; comj)lex and vital phe-
nomena from that of the law or uniform common features, in con-
tradistinction to the specific, particular, or characteristic features.

In all these provinces, embracing the entire domain of Mather-
matics, Logic, Physics, and Morality, the understanding consist
in the genetic construing, or developing of the comp)lex from the
simple, and of the tmknoion from the known.

It is thus a genetic, or creatorial, energy of the mind, cort^re-
he7idi7ig the multijjle by the xcnit.

ZOOLOGY AXD HOTAXV. 217

Certainly the knowledge of logu'al coijency, and of hiddt-n
causes, for known complex ettects; as well as the anahjtic dls-
cusi^iotu, whether of magnitudes and numbers into factors, or of
qualities into simpler laws, are entirely alien to the brute intel-
lect.

How, then, is this comprehensive (and hence co})iprehensory)
stand-point gained ?

If we are to consider physical science (or the judgment of
jjhysical impressions and realities) as the construing of effects
from primary forces, — or (in default of true principles) from sim-
pler efft'cts, called "causes," — then all associated or complex sen-
sorial impressions require to be resolved (or " analyzed " ) into
optional component factors (or coefficients, mathematically speak-
ing), to be severally subjected to, and suscejitible of, explanatory
causes yet to be elicited or "construed."

Whenever we reason from the known to the unknown, there
are only two kinds of "premises" possible from which we can
jiroceed in reasoning: —

1. We either proceed from known or granted causes and prin-
ciples into necessary effects, i.e., ultimates necessarily and with
strict cogency thence " following " or flowing. Or —

'1. We proceed from given compound cases, requiring the un-
known causal explanation yet to be devised, suggested or con-
jectured, and introduced in order to effect an understanding.

Ad. 1. In the case of proceeding from granted principles into
consequences (the " syllogistic " process), we have, in each step we
take, to bring the given principles to hear upon such ultimates, so
as to cover the case effectually.

This effectual utilizing of the principle by combination, or its
synthetic drift conducting toward the particular effects held in
view, in each case requires its being enacted as a free creation of
the human mind.

And when once so conducted as actually to bring the finnciples
eflectually to bear, it is by logical test, trial, proof, or scrutiny that
the cogency or logical consistency of such synthetic combinations
can be ascertained.

liut Logic does not itself create the argument. The argument,
likewise, had first to be conceived or posited, framed or devised. If
actually brought to bear, it amounts to nothing short of a logical
tinticipation, or a logical " intuititjti."

'i'lie same npiilies ti> all mental ilevices brought to bear in inalh-
A. A. A. s. vfii.. xxi. lis

218 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

ematical analysis and synthesis, before the actual computation can
be carried out.

Ad. 2. In the understanding of sensorial phenomena (or objective
reality), we are compelled to proceed from the known compound
or complex sensorial flict (as premises) into the (required but)
unknown causal explanation.

The cxphmatory exegesis of given plienomena (i.e., the intuitive
conception of simj:>ler causes) the Englisli language invariably dis-
criminates from logical deductions, by the term of an inference.
Practically, an inference is a so-called " hypothesis," suggestively
introduced as an explanatory cause for given facts as j^remises.

It is very plain that such is the actual practical distinction held
by universal usage as regards "inference," being used to imply
any causal surmise.

It is the more to be regretted that English and American lexi-
cographers alike have never yet succeeded in discriminating
between this special meaning of tlie word " inference," as dis-
tinct from other surmises and conclusions.

A deduction or syllogistic consequence naturally folloios, con-
clusively, from granted princijiles. An inference, on the contrary,
has to be made v)herever an explanation has to he supplied. The
distinction is of the highest importance. " Conclusions" are either
cogent, consequential ones ; or else they are explanatory ones, —
optional inferences, requiring proof as being unsafe, and only
suggested as possible, but not really demonstrated by way of syl-
logistic proof.

It is quite essential that safe ground should be held separate
from unsafe groxind, logical necessities held apart from optional
views embraced or suggestively mooted.

And this essential distinction is embodied as a technical term
in the English popular diction probably alone among modern
languages.

Plausible explanatory suggestions, it may be argued, are mostly
derived from analogies. What are analogies ? Analogies are
partial identities between different totals. Animals, it is true, are
likewise seen to act as if guided by analogical reasoning. That
analogy, however, is a complex one, and not actually subjected to
an aHabjsis. It is thus that "training" beconu^s possilile, l)y
merely accidental, complex associations, typically and jtermanently
impressed on the brute mind, without a discrimination into corn-
j)Oiient factors; i.e., without supplying &Q\>Q.r'At\i,\n\{ hidden, a/ M6-c'a',

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 219

or (liscrimiiiatiiiLj the necessary features from the accitlental or
concoiuit.uit t)iK's.

If, as we (hiily tlo, we suj)iily separate causes, motives, or con-
ditions, by inference, we must first be able to discuss or resolve the
xchole into separate phenomena, i.e., into optional, simpler consider-
ations or necessary '' categories " of the mind and sensorial per-
ceptions.

It is thus, e.(/., that we can resolve our perception of eyesight
into the consciousness, e.[/., of light, shade, color, and into the
judgment of form and distance.

The latter, again, we can construe, on necessary postulates and
real conditions given, into an anatomic and geometrical coarrange-
ment, of prismatic fibres conveying light-impressions, with certain
muscular or motor fibres, whose separate action thereby appears
identified in habitual visual judgment, on the same plan as that of
brute training by habitual and unfailing sensorial association.

Therefore, as Ave cannot introduce the distinctive causal surmise,
or inferential explanation — whether by analogy or not — without
having first separated the plienomena into simpler considerations
or categories, it is actually to this peculiar power of analytic dis-
cussion, or " discrimination " of factors, that we owe the human
faculty of conceiving of phenomena by laws, or sit?)j)l{fied, causal
points of view.

It is thus that by discrimination, as a peculiarly human gift, light
is introduced into darkness, — intelligence among the sensorial
imj)ressions.

An inference or suggested explanation, when once brought to
bear so as to cover the ground, and verified by experiment, is thus
far, and otdy thus far, trustworthy. It is then called " an induc-
tion." Induction is inference duly brought to bear and borne out
by the event, so far as attempted or carried out.

So long as the supposed cause cannot be directly proved to exist,
so long the explanation is inferential, hy]tothetical, and although
probably true, eo ipso it remains — doubtful.

We are essentially ignorant of the fundamental origin of differ-
ences of Quality. When mathematical problems have been re-
solved to tlie unit, which is the "key" and measure of all numeric
ideas, the truth is intrinsically evident. But whereas we are not
yet enabled to trace all causes to the Cause of Causes, wherever
Cause — i.e.. Quality — is concerned we have to revert to infer-
ential explanation or so-called " hypothesis.^^

220 B, NATURAL HISTORY.

Newton's alleged motto, '•'•Hypotheses non jingo^'' is but a logical
or psychological mistake. So long as we cannot prove xcihy matter
must or should " gravitate," — true though it be, — r so long as a
presumed Quality is involved, so long it remains a true hypoth-
esis! In point of fact, Newton "fixed" the greatest hypothesis
■yet on record!

Step by step, proceeding from the complex to the simple, the
explanatory or intelligent idea has to be intuitively created or
" anticipated ; " not only in the strict sense of scientific investiga-
tion, but in the daily occurrences which siu'round us. That we
actually exercise this intuitive discrimination with some degree of
success is evident froni the fact that we are invariably surprised
when we discover that we have been " mistaken."

In no other known case the faculty of analytic discrimination, as a
fundamentally distinctive property exercised by the human intel-
lect, becomes so supremely evident as in the domain of mathemati-
cal reasoning.

Of this faculty we have not yet observed a trace in animal
existence. The geometrical operations of the bee remain typically
stereotyped, like a physical necessity, not as an intelligent act of
conscious mathematical logic.

It is in the particular province of mathematical analytic and
synthetic logic, that the proof can be given that there is one
inalienable intelligent law or logical necessity, independent of
individual opinions, sensorial 2:)roofs, or personal convictions what-
ever.

Infinite fractions cannot be rendered sensorially convincing or
cogent, because each numeric fraction absorbs the same measure
of time, to be realized, represented or expressed. Hence infinite
time would be required to prove the possibility or the actual, ^?wYe
amount of any such fraction.

If we could realize all smaller fractions in a time corresponding
to their minuteness, we could come to an end in a given time.

It is thus plain that sensorial thinking, or a conscious ideal
representation at a temporal rate, forms an insui'mountable barrier
to conceiving of the infinite and the so-called "incommensurable"
magnitudes, which are nevertheless strictly gauged by, and de-
pendent on, one another.

For example, as Arago aptly suggests, it is easily demonstrable
for all liuinan intelligences — and there is only one, uniformly
cogent, consistent, and absolutely impersonal human logos — that

ZOOLOGY AM) 150TANV. lilil

the diagonal of a geometrical square, called o/^c, is the actual
geometrical sqxtare root of two ; since a square, erected on such
a diagonal, embraces just four halves = two wholes. This can-
not he proven to the senses, but only to the common sense;
which, in this and all true mathematical cases, is absolute and
undeniable.

The fundamental boon of Discriiiiinalion for the ])urj)OSO of
analytic understanding is chiefly initiated and exercised l)y a
comparison of cases submitted. It is the stepping-stone of all
science.

Comjiarison confronts the materials, in order to —

1. Discriminate ;

2. Unify the uniform features, as the hnc ; and

3. Separate the individual, distinctive., or characteristic ones.
Where causes remain <X jrriori unknown, as in the Biological

Sciences (seeing that creation of life lies outside of experiment),
we can only operate by eliciting " laws " or uniform fundamental
facts and features, and all this in science can only be done by an
analytical comparison, a joosten'on / not by denominational, diag-
nostic postulates a priori.

Now all these branches of the inductive mathematical, the
physical, and biological understanding (each of Avhich is inac-
cessible to the brute mind), are one and all subsumed under the
idea of a quantitative, qualitative, and biological Comparative
Analysis of Phenomena., im the fundamentally distinctive — dis-
criminative., exegetic, and C7'eative — attribute of one intuitive and
godlike Mind.

There can be no doubt that animals conceive (and by training
can be made to conceive) of apparent cause and effect by cotitrast.
Contrast, or comparison, simplifies the problem ; it brings apparent
cause and effect to bear, and in the force of contrast lies the in-
citement to all discrimination, generally speaking.

"Where is the distinctive feature, then, which adapts the human
mind to progress in contrast or analysis f

It is evidently requisite that there should be a voluntary memory.,
reproducing otherwise vague totalities of experience in categorized
forms, as " casesP

It is by voluntary memory that similar cases can be brought to
hi'iir., to institute the analytic comparison. Cases can l)e collected,
accumulated, discussed, or assumed, withoict being j^i'esent to the
stnst's : at the mental prompting of a categoric feature.

222 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

Analysis hence can progress by means of mental record last-
ingly impressed and resuscitated at will or pleasure, hy categories.

From this categoric mentor y., then, the faculty o^ judgment pro-
ceeds.

It is evidently this accumulative, optional revival of memory,
by '■'■points,^'' which is deficient in the animal mind.

It is hence truly predicable that there is a triune faculty of the
human mind. Will, Memory, and Judgment; the latter proceeding
from the two former as a Unit of discuimixative reason.

6. On the Oviducts and Embryology of Terebratulina.
By Edward S. Morse, of Salem, Massachusetts.

For several years past I have made a special study of the
Brachiopoda. The publication of the results of these investiga-
tions has been purposely delayed, till I could incontestably demon-
strate the genital nature of the Cuvierian hearts, so plainly shown
to be oviducts by Hancock and Huxley, and till something at least
could be given of the embryology of some brachiopod. For these
two matters I have visited Eastport, Maine, for the third time,
and now my heretofore fruitless endeavors have been met with
success.

The results of these observations were communicated at the
10th of June Meeting of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory.

I had before seen the ciliary lining of the oviducts in Lingula
and Terebratulina, but I wished to see the eggs in their actual
passage through the tubes. This I have now repeatedly observed
in Terebratulina. The eggs were seen discharged from the sinuses
in the pallial membrane, afterward floating freely in the perivis-
ceral cavity ; the eggs were then seen gathered at the trumpet-
shaped mouth of the oviduct, and have been watched as they Avere
slowly passing through the tube and have been caught as they
were discharged at the external orifice. These eggs have then

ZOOLOGY AXD HOTAXY. 223

Ix'cn follovred in their development until tliey assninod the form
ot' ;i lU'c'ply animlatc'il embryo, eomposetl of four distinct rings,
which had a marked vermian contraction upon each other. At
this stage they appeared to be attaching themselves by the caudal
segment. During the latter part of this examination my embryos
were unfortunately lost. I had not the necessary appliances to
keep the water at the frigid temperature to which they were accus-
tomed, and the increased U-'mperature of the water led to a raj)id
development of Paramiecia, and other infusoria, and my poor
embryos were ruthlessly eaten up. I have, however, nearly three,
hundred outlines of the embryos during their development, a few
of which are presented with this brief communication. Next year,
it is hoped, a complete history of their development will be made,
as many things have been observed in their pro})er management
of which I shall profit in my next attemf)t.

There were also discovered prominent glands at the external
openings of the oviducts in Terebratulina, which 1 have every
reason to believe represent the testes. These glands surrounded
the external orifice of the oviducts, Avhich protruded somewhat
from the anterior walls of the body, and the glands were invari-
ably found filled with spermatozoa.

P""rom Eastport, Maine, I hurried to the St. Lawrence, with the
hopes of securing some data regarding the embryology or early
stages of another brachiopod found there, Ji/iijnchonella psittacea.
I was altogether too late tor this, but had the pleasure of studying
Rhtjnchondla alive, to note the ciliary action in the oviducts
driving currents outward, and to establish the coiTectness of
Owen's supposition that the arms of Riiynchonella can be pro-
truiled. A jar of specimens dredged by Dr. P. P. Carjienter,
who kindly accompanie<l me from Montreal, was left standing
undisturbed for twenty-four hours, when one of the specimens
jinjtruded its arms their entire length from the partially opened
shells. I poured the sea-water carefully out, atid suddenly jioured
in the strongest alcohol, and the specimen is now jireserved in
this exerted position.

2-24

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

ETHNOLOGY. 'SJ.0

Explanation of Plate.
Genitals.

Figure 1. Glandular organs supposed to be testes, seen from below.

„ 2. Portion of left oviduct witli its relation " to the supposed testis.
a. Oviduct, h. Its external opening, c. Testis.

„ 3. Left oviduct as it appears from the front through perivisceral wall.
a. Oviduct, b. Its external opening, c. Internal opening, d. Ova-
ries in pallial membranes, e. Left divaricator muscle, f.f.f. Eggs
entering, passing through, and escaping from oviduct.

„ 4. Right oviduct seen from behind, a. Intestine, bb. Anterior occlusor
muscles, c. Oviduct, d. Internal mouth of oviduct held in the
ilio-p.arietal band, " like a landing net in its loop." e. Ilio-parietal
band. /. Ventral mesentery. ^. Accessory heart of Hancock.

„ 5. External orifice of oviduct.
Note. — The severed portion of intestine is thrown into folds, in consequence of
contraction of the outer wall of intestine.

Embryology.

Figures 1 to 12, showing various stages of embryo.

„ 6 and 8, partial side views.

„ 7 and 11, side view.
Figure 12, partial end view.

in, ETHNOLOGY.

1. Ancient Motjnds of Dubuque and its Vicinity. By II.
T. "Woodman, of Dubuque, Iowa.

The mounds and other ancient eartliworks of North America
are fur more abundant than is generally supposed, from the fact
that, while some are quite large, the greater part of them are small
and inconspicuous. Along nearly all of our western water-courses
that are large enough to be navigated with a canoe, the mounds
are almost invariably found, crowning the bare points and head-
lands of the bluffs which border the narrower valleys, so that
when one finds himself in such positions as to command the grand-

A. A.A. S. VOL. XXI. 29

226 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

est views of oi;r river scenery he may almost always discover that
he is standing upon, or in close proximity to, some one or more of
these traces of the labors of an ancient people. Some of these
mounds can now be seen from the streets of our city, but a greater
number have become obscured from view by the encroaching
growth of forest trees. Hundreds of them are thus hidden along
the valleys and bluffs of our great Mississippi River and its tribu-
taries, but the greater part may yet be traced by careful obser-
vation.

It is not only upon the points and headlands that these mounds
are found, but they also exist in great numbers upon the broader,
upper terraces in the valleys.

The terraces are such as Professor White refers to the Terrace
Epoch, having doubtless been ancient flood-plains of the adjacent
streams; but they are now far above the reach of their highest
floods. They furnish the most convenient sites for the valley towns
of the white race, and we often find that convenience or senti-
ment had induced the mound-builders also to choose precisely the
same sites for their earthworks. The result is that a large number
of mounds in such positions are not only obscured by the growing
towns, but are ruthlessly destroyed every year.

It is for this reason that I wish to call the attention of this Asso-
ciation to some of the mounds that once occupied, and now in part
occupy, the ground in and around the city of Dubuque, and to
preserve in its publications a record of them ; but it is not my pur-
pose to enter into any discussion of their origin nor of the uses for
which they were constructed.

Large numbers of these mounds have been destroyed by the
building of our city : how many I do not know, for it is true that
a majority of persons do not recognize their true character even
if living in daily contact with them. Indeed, so far as I know, no
jjerson had either publicly or privately recognized the group I am
about to describe, although located within the corporate limits of our
city, until they Avere discovered by myself, and their existence made
known to the public through the medium of one of our newspapers
only a few months ago. This group is located within the northern
limit of the city, adjacent to the narrow body of water knoAvn by
the local name of Lake Peosta, and about fifty feet above its sur-
face.

They arc circular, or nearly so, except the three larger ones
along the edge of the terrace fiicing the cast, the Mississippi River

ETHNOLOGY. 227

and the lake before racntioncil. Thoy arc almost invariably fifteen
paces apart from centre to ci'ntre, the smaller ones being fn^n two
to two and a half feet high and about twenty feet in diameter.
The material of which they are composed is the ordinary alluvial
soil of the terrace. They are seventy in number, and are now
shaded by a pleasant oak grove of comj)aratively recent growth.

What is most remarkable about this group of mounds is their
number and the great regularity of their arrangement, being
arranged in straight or slightly cuVved lines (some of them being
])arallel), and their nearly uniform distance apart, namely, about
litleen paces.

That the shape, size, and position of the larger mounds in rela-
tion to the others, together with the arrangement of nearly all in
lines with almost uniform interspaces, formed part of the plan of
their builders, cannot be doubted; but the knowledge as to what
that plan had reference doubtless perished with those that con-
structed them.

No other traces of man or his works have as yet been discovered
in connection with them, but only a few rods to the northward
and eastward of the limits of the group I discovered fragments
of the ancient pottery and several flint arrow-heads some years
ago.

2. Ox Certain Peculiarities in the Crania of the Mound-
Builders. By J. W. Foster, of Chicago, Illinois.

While the individual ^'ariations in the crania of a particular
race are so great as to present intermediate gradations all the w^ay
from one extreme to another, thus forming a connecting link be-
tween widely separated races, yet, in a large assemblage of skulls,
derived from a particular race, there is a general conformation, a
predominant type, which appears to have been constant as far
back as human records extend ; to have been unattected by Ibod,
climate, or personal pursuits ; and which has been regarded among
the surest guides in tracing ethnic affinities. Hitherto our knowl-

228 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

edge of the Mouncl-buiklers' crania has been exceedingly scant, —
restricted to less than a dozen specimens, which, if authentic,
clearly indicate for the most part the Indian type. The results of
my observations, made at different points, have led me to infer
that they were characterized by a general conformation of parts,
which clearly separated them from the existing races of man, and
particularly from the Indians of North America.

I propose to discuss these distinctive characters, based on crania
derived from points somewhat widely asunder :
I. From the region of Chicago, Illinois.
II. From the region of Merom, Indiana.

III. From the region of Dubuque, Iowa.

The similarity of type in these crania, apart from the similarity
in weapons of wai-fare, pottery, personal ornaments, and earthworks,
would indicate a homogeneous people distributed over a wide
area.

I. From the Region of Chicago.

A portion of the crania described in this paper was collected
from two groups of low mounds about five miles apart, situated
on the banks of the Des Plaines River. Dr. Stimpson — now
deceased, but whose memory will be honored by every cultivator
of science in this country — was first atti'acted to one of these
groups by observing circular trenches investing knolls two and
one-half feet above the surrounding plain, which led him to believe
that they were artificial; and, under his direction, Mr. Charles
Kennicott, assisted by Dr. Durham, entered upon their exploration.
There were portions of eleven skeletons found in the first group,
but they were so far decayed that only one skull and three frontal
bones sufliciently well preserved to admit of measurement and
comparison were obtained.

The other group of mounds, situated near Haas's Park, yielded
human remains which evidently belonged to two distinct epochs.
In them were found well-marked Indian skulls, in a condition
slightly changed, and two skulls evidently belonging to Half-
breeds, — thus showing that, up to a comparatively recent time,
these mounds had been used as places of sepulture by different
races. In addition to these evidences of recent entombment,
were found, far gone in decomposition, quite a number of crania
presenting features which readily distinguished them from those
of the Indian and Ilalf-breed. These relics have a high value,

ETHXOLOGT.

229

as without doubt tlicy are tlie authentic skulls of the mound-
buililors.

The best preseiTcd skull belonging to this pre-historic race
was taken from what is called " Stirapson's IMound," one of the
group first described. The gelatinous matter had been dissolved
away ; and the bony matter, as saturated with moisture, presented
a soft spongy mass, exceedingly fragile, which, when dried, readily
adhered to the tongue. The soil was not unfavorable to the

./*..

Fig. 1 = |. — Skull from Stimpson's Mound*

a Superciliary ridge and glabella.

h Coronal suture.

c Apex of lanibdoidal suture.

(/ Occipital protuberance.

e Squamosal suture.

/ Position of the foramen magnum. t

preservation of human remains, being a fine loam which, when
]>acked, resisted the leaching of the waters. To these remains,
then, we may assign a very considerable antiquity.

* The dotted line inside shows the contour of the Australian skull — the lowest
of existing races ; the outer dotted line, that of the European, — the highest.

t As these points, in the suhscqueni illustrations, will bear the same letters,
the names will not be repeated.

230 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

This skull is imperfect, the left parietal being wanting, and also
the base, and therefore will not be the subject of minute descrip-
tion. There are, however, a few general points displayed, which
will be found characteristic to a greater or less degree of the
crania subsequently represented, to which I would direct atten-
tion :

1. The low development, both in the anterior and posterior
regions at the apex of the coronal (b) and that of the lambdoidal
suture .(c), as well as the low frontal eminences, whereby the form
of the Gothic arch is given to the profile view.

2. The obliquity of the line which starts from behind the fora-
men magnum, and runs to the occipital crest (b).

3. The tendency at the union between the parietal and squamous
bone (e) towards a straight line.

4. The projection of the nasal bones beyond the general outline
of the skull.

5. The occipital crest as forming the posterior extremity of the
skull.

6. The vertical parietal walls, the deeply notched orbital pro-
cesses, and the bulging out of the zygomatic arches (not repre-
sented in the figure) in an extraordinary degree, as compared with
the European skull.

Many of these characteristics, which are not conspicuous in a
well-developed European skull, indicate an approach towards
the lower animals of the anthi'opoid tyjie; but still, between the
lowest form of the one and the highest form of the other, there
is a broad chasm which cannot be spanned by intermediate grada-
tions.

The measurements of this skull will be given in a tabulated
form. In its general outline it is Orthoccphalic. In brain capacity
it is about that of the Borreby skull of Denmark, — figured by
Huxley, — which is referred to the Stone Age; a time just suc-
ceeding the last great physical changes in Europe, and when Man
was the contemporary of tlie Urus and Bison, but not of the Hairy
Elephant and Rhinoceros. This Danish skull, Avith the cxcejttion
of the famous Neanderthal skull, is of the lowest conformation
yet observed in Europe ; and, when compared with the Stimpson
skull, there will be found a striking ])aralk'lism in their general
outlines, — the latter rising a little higher at the vertex, and re-
ceding a little in the region of the superciliary ridges, and at the
base in the line of df. Wliile otiier Danish skulls of the Stone

ETHNOLOGY. 231

Age cxliibit a higlier development, other mound-builclers' skulls,
as I shall show, are more depressed.

The " Keunic'ott Mound " yielded three frontal bones, — the only
j)arts of the skeleton capable of preservation, — which were also
indicative of a low type. In two instances there was a rajiid
narrowing in the temporal region ; the plates were extraordinarily
thick ; the superciliary ridges were massive, standing out like
ropes ; the orbital processes were profoundly notched ; and the
frontal bone was much prolonged towards the coronal suture.
Fig. 2, reduced one-half, represents one of these bones. No one,
I think, can view this fragment of a skull, with the superciliary

Fig. 2. — Frontal portion of a skull from " Kennicott's Mound," near Chicago.

a a Superciliary ridges.
b Coronal suture.

ridges projecting far beyond the general contour, both laterally
and in front, and the low, flat forehead, with its thick, bony walls,
without coming to the conclusion that its possessor was a ferocious
brute. The prize-fighter of this day might envy such a frontis-
l)iece, adapted to withstand any amount of pommelling, or almost
even to turn a musket-ball.

The Haas's Park mounds yielded two crania, which were too
imperfect to give all the salient points. One is represented by a
I'urt of the frontal and parietal bones, and is characterized by the
almost entire absence of a forehead. The nasal bones are pro-

232

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

longed from the point of union with the frontal bones, like the
beak of a bird, or the superior jaw of a gar-pike. The bony-
plates are of almost pasteboard thinness ; the orbital rings are
sharp and delicate ; the sutures are imperfectly joined ; and there
is an absence of frontal sinuses, which are supposed to be formed
only after puberty, — so that the skull evidently belonged to a
young person.

This is, undoubtedly, the most remarkable skull hitherto ob-
served, affording the nearest approximation to the anthropoid
forms. It is so far anomalous that I shall hereafter omit to com-
pare it with existing types. Granting all of the effects of pressure,

Fig. 3 = i- — Child's skull, from Haas's Park.

a Glabella.

b Coronal suture.

V Vertex.

whether artificially applied or the result of superincumbent earth
after burial, still it is difficult to bring it within the reasonable
bounds of conjecture as to our ideas of the conformation of what
a human cranium, in its widest deviation from a supposed type,
ought to be.

There was another skull, fragmentary in character, having about
the same contour as that from the " Stimpson Mound," Avhich I
have not deemed it necessary to figure.*

* That portion of this paper descriptive of the mound-builders' skulls found
in the valley of the Des Plaines, and the generalization as to the former exist

ETIIXOI-OGT.

233

II. Fkom the Mouxds ix the Region of ]\Ierom, Ixdiaxa.

For tlio skulls recovcvO(I in the exploration of these inoumls I
am indebted to Dr. II. F. Harper, of that jjlaee, wlio very kindly
placed them in my possession.

This sknll has about the same brain capacity as that from Stimp-
sou's Mound (Fig. 1), rising a little higher in the vertical region,

Fig. 4 = ^. — Profile view of a mound-buikler's skull, from Merom, Indiana.

and bulging out at the fi-ontal eminences and supra-orbital ridges.
It is a good illustration of what I regard as typical of the mound-
builder's skull, — the Gothic arch outline; the very considerable

encc on this Continent of an anomalous race, cliaracterizeil by a remarkably
depressed forehead, was submitted by me to the Chicago Acatlemy of Sciences,
in the winter of 18G'J-70 ; and the subsequent discoveries which have been made
but confirm me in the views originally entertained as to the low type of the
raound-builders' skulls. The specimens unfortunately perished in the great
fire of October 8, 1871.

A. A. A. S. Vor.. XXI. 30

234

B. NATURAL HISTORY,

space between the occipital crest and foramen magnum ; the
approach in the squamosal suture to a horizontal line ; and the
great development of tlie occipital crest, forming the extreme
posterior part. The back view shows the pyramidal form, caused
by the flattening of the parietal plates ; and the zygomatic arches,
as seen in the vertical view (not represented), sweep out beyond
the general contour.

In Figure 5, the frontal eminences are more conspicuous ; the
superciliary ridges are less developed; the space between the

Fig. 5 = ^. — Profile of mound-builder's skull, from Merom, Indiana.

foramen maginnii and occipital crest is less; but still tlie latter
point forms the posterior extremity, and tlie squamosal suture
ap|)roaclies a straiglit line.

If we regard a high forehead as the index of mental power, — a
feature which is due to the retreat of the facial bones, and therefore
indicating a divergence in the development in these parts from the
corresponding ])arts in the lower animals, — we liave in Fig. 5,
an example inlelloctually above tliose previously described. Tlic

ETHNOLOGY.

235

fafi.'il angle is loss acute, and the brain capacity is greater; but
still, in these respects, this skull falls I'ar beluw that of the avera'^rc
Teuton.

Fig. G diifers from the preceding illustrations, being of a less
elongated form, but has other characteristics which link it to
the race of mound-builders, such as the wide interval between
the points df, and its posterior occipito-cxtremity. The frontal
sinuses arc inconspicuous; and there is a deficiency of develop-
ment, judged by the European standard, in the frontal and

Fig. 6 = 4. — Profile of a niound-buihk'r's skull, from Merom, Indiana.

l)arietal regions. That it belonged to a mature individual is in-
ferred from the f ict that the coronal suture is nearly obliterated.
The parietal walls are flattened, and the vault is pyramidal. The
left lobe of the cerebrum is unduly developed, as will be seen by
reference to the vertical view (Fig. 14), but not more so than is
to be seen in European skulls at this day.

In Fig. 7, repi-esenting the fragmentary portion of a skull, ex-
tending from the posterior margin of the foramen magnum to the
coronal suture, we have a lower devclo])Uient than in the famous
Borreby skull from Deniuark.

236

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

In the posterior view (Fig. 8), it will be seen that there is an
extra suture just above the occipital ridge, c 1, giving origin to
what anatomists call the Ossa Wormensia. This peculiarity I
observe in the skull of a Flathead now before me, and traces of
the former existence of such a suture I detect in many of the
mound-builders' skulls which I have figured. While this AVormian
bone is not uncommon in European skulls, it is an interesting
inquiry whether it is not of more frequent occurrence in the lower
races of mankind.

Fig. 7 = ^. — Fragment of a mound-builder's skull, from Merom, Indiana.*

The above profile views of four skulls from this region liave
certain j)oints of resemblance among themselves, and also as com-
pared with those which I have already described.

When my attention was first directed to these low forms, I
tried to argue that they were the result of artificial j)ressure, or
that, in their long entombment, they had become warped and dis-
torted. Had I seen but a single specimen, I might have said that

* Tilt- dotteil Ihiu ri'iirfscnts the contour of tlic Neaiulertlial skull.

ETHNOLOGY.

237

it was aiionialons, tiiat it bc-Iongcd to an idiot; but wliun I liiid
the same typical characters pervading the crania iVoni widely
separated points, and that in their outlines they are symmetrical,
I am led to the irresistible conclusion that these characters are

coiiLi'enital.*

Fig. 8 = i. — Posterior view of tlie same, showing the "Ossa Wormensia."

In the exploration of the mounds in the valley of the Kankakee,
near La}»orte, Indiana, by a party of "which Dr. Iligday formed
one, a single cranium only was taken out entire, which he regards
in some respects as remarkable.

" Anteriorly," he remarks, " this skull is not only very low, but

* I have but a single specimen — from MM"om — wliicli dearly slious the
cITects of artificial pressure. It is a large skull, and a flattened plane occupies
the space between the occipital crest and the vertex. The surface for the
muscular attaclmients, unlike most of the other specimens, is very much rough-
ened. Whetiier tiiis flattening resulted accidentally from strapping to the cradle-
board in infancy, or from pressure deliberately applied, I am not prepared lo
say; perhaps the latter. In this case the flattening is in the occipital region,
and therefore entirely different from the usage which prevails among the Flat-
heads of the North-west Coast. This flattening has given an undue e.\imiision
to the parietals, amounting to a deformity.

238 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

also extremely narrow ; while posteriorly the space of the cere-
bellum is very much depressed and small, the occipital bone being
jflattened from its base upwards and forwards, so as to encroach
greatly on the space which in well-developed skulls is occupied
by the posterior lobes of the cerebrum. The extremely deficient
development, which can be much better appreciated by an exami-
nation than by a description, explains the possibility of a skull
having at once diameters of such respectable length and capacity,
and yet being so extremely small (sixty inches). That this skull
is that of an adult, is evident from the jiarietal consolidation of
some of its sutures ; and that it is not a dwai-f or an idiot, we must
infer from its possessor having had the honor of a mound being
built over his remains." *

III. From the Mounds in the Region of Dubuque, Iowa.

The mounds in this vicinity are by no means conspicuous in
size, and are destitute of those long lines of circumvallation which
so often invest those of the Ohio Valley.

During the present session of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (1872), at this place, several of these
mounds have been opened, and have yielded the remains of human
skeletons far gone in decomposition. Three skulls were secured
sufficiently preserved to afiford a correct idea of their contours, one
of which passed into the j^ossession of Mr. Oliver N. Ryan, of
Marshall Hall, Maryland, and two were secured by Mr. F. W.
Putnam, of the "American Naturalist." Mr. Ryan has kindly
furnished me the data for descidbing the skull in his ]iossession.
It was exhumed by Dr. Augustus Campbell, of Dubuque, from a
mound about twelve feet high, at Dunleith, Illinois, opposite that
city. The corpse was buried about two feet below the surface,
and was covered with wood and stone. AjDpended is a figure
of this skull, whicli is one of the most anomalous ever found.

Although this skull is fi-agmentary, sufficient remains to enalile
us to protract its general outlines. In brain capacity it is as low
as the Neanilcrthal skull ; and that it belonged to a mature in-
dividual is inferred from the fiict that all the sutures are closed.
It diftc'rs from the Neanderthal skull in this: tliat wliile in the
former tiiere is a i)ro(ligi()Us development of the superciliary ridgeH,

* rruoceilings Cliicago Acadfiny of Sciences, 1870. j

ETUXOLOGT.

230

sucli :i.s Imvc never before been observed in a human cranium, in
the hatter they are not uniluly jn'ominent. It has a marked resem-
bhince in its contour to that from Haas's Park, near Chicago (Fi;^.
3), but is a little more depressed in the frontal region. The
nasal bones, as in that specimen, form a bird-like appendage, though
not quite so conspicuously marked.

The Neanderthal sknll, it need hardly be observed, affords the
ni'arest a])proach hitherto observed to the confines of that gulf
which separates man from the anthropoid types.*

d,'

Fig. 9 = |. — Fragment of a mounJ-builder's skull, from Dunleith, Illinois. t

* As this paper is passing through the press I acknowleilge the receipt of
photographs of two characteristic mouml-biiildcrs' skulls, prcserveil at Milwau-
kee, with a descriptive note, from my valued friend Dr. Laphani. Tlii.s testi-
mony as to the former existence of an anomalous race hy so cool and accurate
an observer as Dr. L., I regard the more valuable, since he was inclined to
believe, in his "Antiquities of Wisconsin," that the mounds were heaped up by
the ancestors of the Redman.

"Two skulls of the ancient mound-builders, preserved at Milwaukee, po.ssess
characteristics confirming the views lately advanced by you, first at tiie Meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Duljuque,
1872, and again in the ' American Naturalist ' for December. One of these
skulls, from a mound at Wauwatasa, has a breadth of seventy-eight per cent of

t The dotted line represents the outline of the NcauiliTtiiai skull.

240 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

In a review of this nature courtesy requires that I recognize
the hibors of my predecessors ; and I must say that, with a single
exception, in the figures heretofore given of mound-builders' skulls
I fail to recognize the typical characters. Squier and Davis, in
their admirable work, profess to have collected but one skull which
they regarded as authentic of the mound-builders, but any com-
parative anatomist, on referring to their plate, will instantly recog-
nize it as of the Indian type.

Dr. Morton justly describes it as "perhaps the most admiral>ly
formed head of the American race hitherto discovered. It pos-
sesses the national characteristics in perfection, as seen in the
elevated vertex, flattened occiput, great interparietal diameter,
ponderous bony structure, salient nose, large jaws, and broad
face." *

Comparing this skull with those which I have figured, it will be
seen that the Scioto skull differs widely from the true mound-
builder's skull in its most characteristic features.

Morton gives figures of two supposed mound-builders' skulls,
one of which was furnished by the late Dr. Troost from a mound

its length, and would be ranked as Orthocejihalic, or regularly formed head. It is
so much flattened behind as to suggest the possibility of artificial compression
when young. The other skull has a breadth of only seventy per cent of its
length, and therefore ranks as a DollcocephaUc, or long-head. The peculiar
characteristics, indicating a low grade of humanity common to both, are a low
forehead, prominent superciliary ridges, the zygomatic arches swelling out be-
yond the walls of the skull, and especially the prominence of the occipital ridge.
The anterior portion of these skulls, besides being low, is much narrowed,
giving the outline, as seen from above, of an ovate form.

" It seems quite probalile that men with skulls of this low grade were the
most ancient upon this Continent ; that they were the first to heap up those
curiously shaped mounds of earth -which now so much puzzle the antiquary ;
that they were gradually superseded and crowded out by a superior race, who
adopting many of their customs continued to build mounds and to bury tlieir
dead in mounds already built. Hence we find mound-builders with skulls of
this ancient form associated with others of more modern type.

"The discovery of these skulls with characteristics so much like those of the
most ancient of prehistoric types of Europe would seem to indicate that if
America was peopled by emigration fi-om the Old World, that event must have
taken place at. a very early time, — far back of any of which we have any
record." — Private Correspondence.

I regret that I cannot give figures of these skulls, but hope to be able to
do so hereafter.

* Morton, Crania Americana, p. TIO, pi. xx.xix.

BTHNOLOGT.

241

near the junction of the Broad, French, and Holstein Rivers in
Tennessee, represented in Figure 10.

This skull is remarkable for its great vertical and parietal diam-
eter and its elevated occiput, characters which do not belong to

Fig. 10 = i- — Supposed mound-builder's skull from Tennessee.

the skulls which I have described. The following are the measure-
ments : longitudinal diameter, 6.6 inches ; parietal, 5.6 ; frontal,
4.1 ; vertical, 5.6 ; internal capacity, 87.5 cubic inches. The left

Fig. 11 = J. — Supposed mound-builder's skull from the Upper Mississippi.

portion of the middle lobe of the brain-case is distorted, which
may have resulted from the individual, in infancy, having been
strapped to a cradle-board.

A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI.

242 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

The second example, given by Morton,* is of a skull from a
mound on the upper Mississippi, one hundred and fifty miles above
the mouth of the Missouri, represented in Fig. 11.

The skull from the Grave Creek Mound, West Virginia, figured
by Morton and reproduced in Schoolcraft's work, is of the Indian

tyi^e.

Lapham, in his " Antiquities of "Wisconsin," has figured a skull
from a mound, which has some of the characteristics of the Flat-
head.

Classification of Skulls.

In the classification of skulls, comprehending the relation of
breadth to length, those which are less than seventy-three to one

Fig. 12. Fig. 13.

Vertical views of mound-builders' skulls, from Merom, Indiana.

hundred are called long, or Dolicocephalic ; those Avhose propor-
tions are less than seventy-four and seventy-nine to one hundred
are medium, or OrtJwcephalic ; and those whose proportions reach
eighty and eighty-nine to one hundred are Brachiocephalic. The
mound-builders' skulls which I have examined differ on the one
hand from the Indian type, which is Brachycephalic, and from the
Teutonic, on the other, which is Dolicocephalic. They are inter-
mediate, or Orthocephalic, as will be aiii)arent from the above
figures, reduced to one-fourth the natural size.

Fig, 12 is a vertical view of the skull represented in Fig. 4, and
Fig. 13 of that represented in Fig. 5. The vertical view repre-

* Ibidem, p. 229, pi. ri.

ETHNOLOGY. 243

scntcd in Fig. 14 is the skull represented in Fig. 6. The latter
approaches the short-head form ; and wliile the corresponding walls
are not symmetrical, there is nothing to indicate artificial distor-
tion. In Figs. 12 and 13 the relation of breadth to length is
about seventy-three to one hundred, and in Fig. 14 it reaches
seyenty-four to one hundred. This ellipsoidal form, or, in other
words, this deviation from the great interparietal diameter, which
is characteristic of the Indian type, and which gives to the savage
his ferocious and untamable character, is a broad distinction which
cannot be overlooked. From these examj^les of a want of con-
formity in craniological development, apart from other evidences.

Fig. 14. — From Merom, Indiana.

I think we are justified in drawing the conclusion that the mound-
builders were not the ancestors of the North American Indians.

The question arises, Avhether this singular conformation of skull
is congenital, or the result of artificial pressure. We know that
the Flatheads and Chenooks of the Columbia River indulge in
this usage at the present day, and there is reason to believe that
other tribes did formerly. But with regard to the mound-builders'
skulls, it may be said that, while the volume of the brain is small,
the brain-case is as symmetrical as that of the European. Where
artificial pressure is resorted to, as pointed out by Morton, the
brain in volume is not diminished, but is extraordinarily developed
in those parts of the case where the pressure is not applied, and
hence we have the most grotesque distortions. The course of
every bandage is marked by a corresponding cavity in the bony

244 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

structure. This is illusti*ated in the following figure, the original
of which was furnished me by Dr. W. H. Boyd.

The distortion of this skull, as seen in the profile, is enormous ;
but in the vertical view, not given, it is still more exaggerated,
the left parietal wall bulging out like a great tumor. There were
apparently two bandages applied to effect this distortion, — one
across the fi'ontal bone, just above the superciliary ridges, and one
just back of the coi'onal suture.

Fig. 15 = J. — Skull of a Flathead, in the Museum of the Chicago
Medical College.

Distinctive Characters.

The skulls which I have described possess peculiarities which
ally thenx more nearly with the Mongolian race than with the
Negro or European. They belong in one respect to what Dr.
Prichard calls the Pyramidal type, but in other respects they
present characters yhich are sui generis. The pyramidal form,
seen in cross section, arises from the peculiar conformation of
the malar bones, giving an outward sweep to the zygomatic
arches.

I append a synopsis of what I regard as the distinctive charac-
ters of the mound-builder's skull, selecting for the purpose the one
represented by Fig. 4, which belongs to neither the lowest nor
the higliest forms ; and that the reader may compare these pecu-
liarities with those of the idiot, as given by TTumphry, T shall, as

ETHNOLOGY. 245

far as convenient, follow his order of description.* It is to be
regretted that in all my specimens, with a single exception, the
facial bones are wanting.

In examining this skull in its general outlines the observer is
struck by the scantiness of brain capacity, seen in the narrow fore-
head, the receding frontal bone, and a similar recession in the
region of the lambdoidal suture, which give to the vertex an
undue prominence, and to the longitudinal arc an outline approach-
ing in foi"m a Gothic arch.

That portion of the occipital bone behind the foramen magnum,
instead of being continued in a nearly straight line, as seen in the
European skull, curves up to the occipital crest. The occipital
condyles are small, and " the basilar portion of the occipital bone
ascends with unusual obliquity from them." " The foramen mag-
num and the other foramina for nerves at the base are compara-
tively large ; the foramina for vessels, as well as the grooves for
the sinuses, are, on the other hand, comiDaratively small." The
post-glenoid process, as in the Negro, is strongly marked ; the
occipital crest is highly ridged, and arched convexly like the
figure '-^^^, and the point where these arches intersect forms

* " The skull of the idiot," says Humphry, " presents in many respects an
approximation to the skull of the lower animals, especially that of the ape, in
the following particulars : the facial hones are proportionately large ; the bram
case is contracted in every direction, more particularly in front and above,
causing lowness and narrowness of the forehead, but also behind and below ; the
space behind the foramen magnum is small, and the bone slopes obliquely
upward from it to the occipital crest; the foramen itself partakes somewhat of
this slant ; the occipital condyles are small and preternaturally convex, and the
basilar portion of the occipital bone ascends with unusual obliquity from them ;
the temporal fossae are deep; the temporal ridge is well marked and ascends to
a comparatively high level, and this, together with the flattening of the parietal
bones, and the prominence of their sagittal portion, constitute? an approxima-
tion to a 'sagittal crest.' The line of union of tlie temporal witli the parietal
bones is straighter than usual, and the post-glenoid process is ratiier more
marked. The frontal bone projects far backward, in the situation of the anterior
fontanelle between the parietals-; the posterior and middle cerebral fossa; are
shallow. . . . The foramen magnum and the other foramina for nerves are
comparatively large ; the foramina for vessels, as well as the grooves for the
sinuses are, on the other hand, comparatively small. The cranial bones are
generally thick, and the sutures early obliterated.

" The orbits are comparatively large, their anterior outlines are oblique, and
the superciliary ridges prominent and project beyond the general width of the
cranium." — A Treatise on the Human SkeUton, by G. W. Humphry, Lecturer on
Surgery, in the Cambridge, England, University Medical School, p. 233.

246 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

the extremity of the skull ; the temporal fossae are deep, and the
temporal ridge is prominent ; the apex is about midway between
the coronal and lambdoidal suture ; the parietal plates, instead of
swelling into a rounded outline, are flattened ; the suture connect-
ing the squamous bones with the parietal is less convex than in the
European, and in this respect approaches that of the chimpanzee
and the lower animals, in whom it is nearly straight ; the super-
ciliary ridges are strongly marked, and project beyond the general
contour of the brain-case; and the glabella forms the extreme
point of the anterior portion of the skull. The orbits, where
bovmded by the superciliary ridges and the nasal septum, owing
to the deep supra-orbital notch, are of a quadrangular shape ; the
frontal eminences are very slight, wdiich makes the superciliary
ridges more conspicu^ous and the forehead more retreating ; and
the zygomatic arches swell out beyond the parietal walls, which
in the European skull so far overhang as to conceal them in the
vertical view. From this point of observation it may be said that
all the exterior prominences are visible, — the occipital protuber-
ance, the zygomatic arches, and the superciliary ridges.

The ffontal bone is of great strength, and slopes backward, en-
croaching on the parietals, and giving origin to a low forehead.

In the lower animals this bone becomes nearly horizontal, and is
placed behind the eyes. " In proportion," says Humphry, " as the
cranial portion slopes backward, so do its facial buttresses — the
nasal and angular processes — slant forwards ; and in proportion
as the brain is well developed, and the cranial part of the bone is
upright, so are the facial processes directed perpendicularly down-
wards. In the lower animals, for instance, they grow directly
forwards, in the lower races of mankind they grow downwards
and forwards, and in the best formed human skulls they grow
almost vertically downwards."

Such are the characters which seem to predominate in the
mound-builders' skulls, — characters which distinguish thenr from
the Negro on one hand and the Teuton on the other. Individual
variations occur, as might be expected, for we are not to supi)ose
that all have been cast in a single mould. All the specimens indi-
cate a low intellectual organization, little removed from that of
the idiot.

On comparing the figure witli a European skull, these anatom-
ical traits will be apparent by contrast, particularly the increased
development of tlie frontal and parietal regions, the outward

ETHNOLOGY. 247

curving of the occiput, the horizontality of the line between the
occipital ridge and the foramen magnum, and the convexity of the
squamosal suture.

It is the preponderance of the brain-case over the facial portion
of the head, that gives to man his superiority as compared with the
lower animals ; and we estimate the intellectual force and capacity
for improvement in the several races of men by the same standard.
The skull, in size and outline, has a general conformity to the
enclosed brain ; the bony walls take their shape from the nervous
tissue, as the shell of the oyster is shaped to accommodate its
living tenant. The brain is undoubtedly the seat of mental activ-
ity ; and, without indorsing phrenology in all its details, we may
affinn that a particular form of skull is indicative of particular
traits of character. We place the seat of the intellectual faculties
in the anterior lobe ; of the proj^eusities which link us to the
brute, in the middle lobe ; and of those which appertain to the
social affections, in the posterior lobe. The predominance of any
one of these divisions in a people would stamp them as either
eminently intellectual, or eminently cruel, or eminently social.

The mound-builders, assuming these skulls to be typical, were
doubtless neither eminent for great \irtues nor great vices, but
were a mild, inoffensive race, who would fall an easy prey to a
crafty and cruel foe. Under the guidance of a superior mind, we
can imagine that they would be content to toil, without weighing
deliberately the nature or amount of the reward. Like the Chinese,
they could probably imitate, but not invent ; and, secure from the
irruption of enemies, they would in time develop a rude civiliza-
tion.

The Indian possesses a conformation of skull which clearly sep-
arates him from the pre-historic mound-builder, and such a con-
formation must give rise to different mental traits. His brain, as
compared with the European, according to George Combe, differs
widely in the proportions of the different parts. The anterior lobe
is small, the middle lobe is large, and the central convolutions on
the anterior lobe and upper surface are small. The brain-case is
box-like, with the corners rounded off; the occiput extends up
vertically ; the frontal ridge is prominent ; the cerebral vault is
pyramidal ; the interparietal diameter is great ; the superciliary
ridges and zygomatic arches sweep out beyond the general line
of the skull ; the orbits are quadrangular ; the forehead is low ;
the cheek-bones high; and the jaws prognathous. #His character,

248 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

since first known to the white man, has been signalized by treachery
and cruelty. He repels all efibrts to raise him from his degraded
position; and whilst he has not the moral nature to adopt the
virtues of civili'zation, his brutal instincts lead him to welcome its
vices. He was never known voluntarily to engage in an enter-
prise requiring methodical labor ; he dwells in temporary and
movable habitations ; he follows the game in their migrations ; he
imposes the drudgery of life upon his squaw ; he takes no heed
for the future. To suppose that such a race threw up the strong
lines of circumvaUation and the symmetrical mounds which crown
so many of our river-terraces, is as preposterous, almost, as to
suppose that they built the pyramids of Egypt.

Wees there an Autochthonous Hace having this /orm of Skull?

In the results of archteological explorations at other points on
this hemisphere, we have evidence of the existence of nations
whose skulls had many of the distinctive features which appertain
to those of the mound-builder.

Dr. Lund, a distinguished Swedish naturalist, many years ago,
in the bone caves of Minas Geraes, Brazil, found the remains of
men associated with those of extinct quadrupeds under cu-cum-
stances which led him to believe that the whole were contempo-
raneous. In his communication to the Geographical and Historical
Society of Brazil, an abstract of which was forwarded to Dr. Mor-
ton by Lieutenant Strain, he says : —

The question then arises, Who are these people? Of what race, and
what their intellectual perfections ? The answers to these questions are,
happily, less difficult and doubtful. He examined various crania, in order
to determine the place they ought to occupy in anthropology. The narrow-
ness of the forehead, the prominence of the zygomatic bones, the maxillary
and orbital conformation, all assign to these crania a place among the
characteristics of the American race, and it is known that the race which
approximates nearest this is the Mongolian ; and the most distinctive and
salient character by which we distinguish between them is the greater de-
pression of the forehead in the former. In this point of organization, these
ancient crania show not only the peculiarity of the American race, but this
peculiarity, in many instances, is in excessive degree, even to the entire dis-
aiypearance of the forehead.

We know that the human figures found sculptured on the ancient monu-
ments of Mexico, represent, for the greater part, a singular conformation
of head, being #ithout forehead, the crania retreating backward immediately

ETHNOLOGY. 249

above the superciliary arch. This anomaly, which is generally ascriljcd to
an artificial disfiguration of the head or taste of the artist, now admits of a
more natural explanation, it being proved by these authentic documents
that there really existed in this country a race exhibiting this anomalous
conformation. The skeletons, which were of both sexes, were of the ordi-
nary height, although two of them were above the common stature. These
heads, according to the received opinion in craniology, could not have occu-
pied a high position intellectually.*

Upon the altar-tablets and bas-reliefs of Copan and Uxraal, in
Central America, as reproduced by Catherwood, we have this
type of skull delineated by artists who had the skill to portray the
features of their race. These artists would not select the most
holy of places as the groundwork for their caricatures. This form,
then, pertained to the most exalted personages.

Humboldt and Bonpland were the first to draw attention to this
remarkable configuration of skulL The former, as far back as
1808, thus stated:—

This extraordinary flatness is found among nations to whom the means
of producing artificial deformity are totally unknown ; as is proved by
the crania of Mexican Indians, Peruvians, and Atures, brought over by M.
Bonpland and myself, of which several were deposited in the Museum of
Natural History of Paris. f

Mr. Pentland supposed this conformation to be congenital, and
states that this view was confirmed by Cuvier, Gall, and many
celebrated anatomists. Tiedemann's -expressions are : " A careful
examination of these skulls has convinced me that their peculiar
shape cannot be owing to artificial pressure. The great elonga-
tion of the face and the direction of the plane of the occipital
bone are not to be reconciled with this opinion, and therefore we
must conclude that the peculiarity of shape dej^ends on a natural
conformation." Knox says : " The form of the head I speak of is
peculiar to the race ; it may be exaggerated somewhat by such
means (pressure), but cannot be so produced."

Sir Robert Schomburgk found, on some of the aflluents of the
Orinoco, a tribe known as the Frog Indians, whose heads were
flattened by nature. A child was born while he was with them,
which he saw an hour after its birth, that had all the charactcr-

* Journal Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelpliia, 1844.
t rolitical Essays, vol. i. p. 159.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 82

2b0 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

istics of the mother's tribe ; " and the flatness of its head, as com-
pared with tlie heads of other tribes, was remarkable." *

Rivero and Tschudi, whose researches in South America com-
mand confidence, believe that the artificial disfigurement of the
skull, which prevailed among the Inca-Peruvians, owed its origin
to the prior existence of an autochthonous race, having this pecu-
liarity ; and they further state that it is seen in the fcetus of Peru-
vian mummies.

Retzius, contrary to the opinion of Morton, has shown that the
ancient Peruvians and the Huanchas of Tschudi were Dolico-
cephali (although he regards their skulls as much disfigured by
artificial compression) ; while the Aztecs belonged to the Brachy-
cephali. He has further shown that this practice of artificial
deformation, instead of being confined to this continent, was in
vogue among some of the Oriental nations, among the Swiss Lake-
dwellers, and that it still exists in France, f

Upon the question whether this peculiarity, if the result in the
first instance of artificial pressure and persisted in for generations,
would become congenital, the following authorities may be cited.
" In all changes which are produced in the bodies of animals by
the action of external causes, the effect terminates in the indi-
vidual; the offspring is not in the slightest degree modified by
them." t

"Nothing," says Dr. Prichard, " seems to hold true more gen-
erally, than that all. acquired conditions of body, whether produced
by ai't or accident, end with the life of the individual."

Darwin would probably account for this peculiarity on the
ground of Sexual Selection. §

These authorities would indicate that there was a conformity in
the craniology of the earlier races on this hemisphere, embracing
the primeval people of Brazil, the Huanchas of Peru, the Plat-
form-builders of Mexico, and the Mound-builders of the Mississippi
Valley.

The Peruvian skull, as compared with the Indian, is deficient in
capacity, being, according to Morton, no greater than that of the

* Journal Royal Geographical Society, xt. pp. 53-54.

t Ilotzius, In relation to the Form of the Human Skull, passim.

J Lawrence, Lectures, &c., p. 430. For the compilation of many of these
authorities, I am indebted to Mr. S. F. Haven, " iVrchaJology of the United
States" (Smithsonian Contributions).

§ Descent of Man, chap. viii.

ETHNOLOGY. 251

Hottentot or New Hollander. In measuring 155 crania of the
former, they gave but seventy-five cubic inches for the bulk of
the brain, while the Teutonic crania gave ninety-two inches. The
average between the Peruvian and Intlian is nine inches in favor
of the latter.*

How is it, then, it has been asked, that with this low mental
power, these Peruvians should have been able to construct such
stupendous works, and develop a very considerable civilization,
while the Indian, with far greater volume of brain, exhibits such
slight constructive power, and has resisted all attempts to elevate
his condition? Mr. J. S. Phillips has attempted to answer this
question : —

The intellectual lobe of the brain of these people, if not borne down by
such overpowering animal propensities and passions, would doubtless have
beea capable of much greater efforts than any with which we are acquainted,
and have enabled these barbaric tribes to make some progress in civiliza-
tion. . . . The intellectual and moral qualities of the Mexicans and
Peruvians are left more free to act, not being so subordinate to the propen-
sities and violent passions. f

Below, I give the contours of the most anomalous skulls referred
to in this paper, reduced to a uniform scale (Fig. 16).

So great is the range of variation in the crania of the living
tribes of men that it is unsafe to pronounce upon their average
capacity except from an examination of a large collection. Thus
for but few authentic mound-builders' skulls have been exhumed,
and they indicate that that race must have ranked intellectually
below the lowest types of Australia and New Caledonia.

Leaving out the Engis skull which shows a good degree of
development, it may be said that the earliest types of man are
inferior, as indicated by the Neanderthal skull, as well as by those
recovered from the Danish and British tumuli, to say nothing of
the strange human jaw found by Dupont in Belgium, which ap-
proaches those of the anthropomorphous apes, and another jaw of
analogous traits found by the Marquis de Yibraye in France, both
of which are supposed to be referable to the dawn of the human
period. There is notliing to indicate modern degeneracy, whether
applied to the intellectual or ])hysical capacity of the Teutonic
race. So far from it, there are strong grounds for believing that

* Morton's Crania Americana.

t Appendix to Morton's Physical Type of the American Indian.

252

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

our remote ancestors lived in brutal barbarism, with modes of
thought and daily pursuits far different from those of the educated
and much-planning man of to-day ; and that, through a state of
progression, long continued, often checked, but still acquiring
strength to advance, a portion of the human family have been
able to attain a high degree of civilization, — a civilization which
implies intellectual culture and an ability to render the forces of
nature subservient to human wants and conveniences.

Fig. 16. — Comparative size of dijBTerent skulls.

Contour of European skull.

„ that from Stirapson's Mound, No. 1.

„ tliat of the Neanderthal skull.

,, that from the Dunleith Mound, No.

,, the Chimpanzee skull.

a The glahella.
b The occipital crest.

That the investigator may comprehend the relative rank which
the mound-builder occupied in what I may call the scale of human-
ity, I give the following table of measurements of the crania of
the superior and inferior races of mankind, as -they exist at this
day ; those from the United States being taken from "The Military
and Anthropological Statistics of the War of the Rebellion," jnib-
lishcd by the Sanitary Commission, under the editorsliip of Dr.
B. A. Gould, and those from foreign sources being reproduced from
Iluxley : —

ETHNOLOGY.

253

Table op Mbasukements.

Distance between co

ndjloid

processes.

Note. — If the hair and scalp were

13
3

•3

removed, the circumference would

O^ *J

be reduced from one to one and

o 3

•n

a g

one-half inches.

a -3

£ 3

o
o.
o

g §

S °

•i-o

White Soldiers

22.13

11.31

13.31

11.82

14.48

Iroquois

22.48

12.08

13.71

11.58

14.45

Mulattoes

22.00

12.34

14.11

12.24

13.55

Negroes

21.91

10.98

13.95

11.55

14.40

In the following table, while giving the measurements of English
and Australian skulls, as well as of those known as the Eiigis and
Neanderthal skulls belonging to a pre-historic race, I also append,
for the purpose of comparison, the measurements of the true
mound-builders' skulls described in this paper : —

Table of Measurements.

Nationality.

English

21.

13.75

12.50

4.40

7.87

5.33

Australian (No. 1). .

20.50

13.

12.

4.75

7.50

5.40

(No. 2). .

22.

12.50

10.75

3.80

7.'.)0

5.75

Engis, Belgium . . .

20.50

13.75

12.50

4.75

7.75

5.25

Neanderthal, Prussian

Empire ....

23.

12.

10.

3.75

5.75

Merom, Indiana (No. '4)

20.50

12.87

11.25

7.25

5.50

„ (No. 5)

20.62

12.87

12.

3.87

7.37

5.37

„ (No. 6)

19.50

12.50

11.62

4.37

0.62

5.62

(No. 7)

21.

13.50

12.50

4.12

7.12

Chicago, Illinois (No. 1)

20.25

12.50

3.80

7.60

5.75

Laporte, Indiana . .

18.50

10.50

10.30

3.80

G.50

254 B. NATURAL HISTORY.

A. The horizontal circumference in the plane of a line joining the glabella with

the occipital protuberance.

B. The longitudinal arc from the nasal depression along the middle line of the

skull to the occipital tuberosity.

C. From the level of the glabello-occipital line on each side, across the middle

of the sagittal suture to the same point on the opposite side.

D. The vertical height from the glabello-occipital line.

E. The extreme longitudinal measurement.

F. The extreme transverse measurement.

Note. — Professor Jeflfreys Wyman, Curator of the Peabody Museum of
American Archaeology, in his "Fourth Annual Report" (1871), vrhich has
fallen under my notice since the text of this paper has been prepared, thus
speaks of the collection of Mound-crania from Kentucky, made by the late
S. S. Lyon, under the joint patronage of that Museum and the Smithsonian
Institution : —

" A comparison of these crania with those of the other and later Indians
shows that they have certain marked peculiarities, though these are better
appreciated when the two kinds are placed side by side, than from anj' tables
of measurement or verbal descriptions.

" The twenty -four crania measured show a mean capacity of 1,313 centimes,
which is greater than that of the Peruvians, but less than that of the North
American Indians generally (viz., 1,376 c. c, or 84 cubic inches). They differ,
also, from those of the ordinary Indians in being lighter, less massive, and in
having the rough surface on the muscular attachments less strongly marked.
The top of the head shows a moderately angular or roof-shaped arrangement of
the parietal bones, and tiie sides are vertical. In proportions, they present very
considerable variations amongst themselves. Assuming the length of the skulls
to be 1.000, the breadth ranges from 0.712 to 0.950 of the length. The average
proportion is 0.857, which places them in the short-headed group. This result
is influenced, but not to any great extent, by the fact that the crania have been
somewhat distorted by a flattening of the occiput. In the majority, this flatten-
ing is very slight, and is indicated by a nearly plane surface just above the pro-
tuberance, and which would not materially diminish the length of the skull.
Tiie position of the foramen magnum is quite far back. We have shown else-
where that in the North American Indians generally it is further back than in
the Negro and other races with which they have been compared. In the Mound-
crania the distance of the anterior edge of the foramen magnum from the occi-
put is only 0.372 the long diameter of the skull. This position can be only
partially due to distortion, since in three skulls, in which the foramen was
farthest back, the occiput was not in the least flattened."

The flattening of tlie tibia; has been found to prevail ^mong the skeletons
belonging to the pre-historic nations of the Old World, presenting in this respect
a resemblance to tlie corresponding bones of the ape. Dr. Wyman recognizes
this peculiarity in a large series of bones obtained from tlic mounds ot Kentucky,
Tennessee, and Michigan, and from tiie shell-heaps of Florida, lie, however,
remarks that " this can hardly Ijc considered a race character, since it is found
in only about one-third of all the individuals observed." (Fourth Annual
Report, pp. 21, 22.)

ETHNOLOGY. 255

Dr. II. F. Harper recognized the same peculiarity in the skeletons recovered
from the mounds of Merom, Indiana. He remarks : " I have six tihi:u in my
possession which were taken from a mound, besides tlio fragments sent you,
which were the most flattened of any. By measurement, all have a transverse
diameter of from ten to fifty per cent less than the antero -posterior, while the
extremities are enlarged transversely, as in our race. Two of the six are
shorter and heavier than the others, and are curved anteriorly and full half an
inch or more out of line. These two have also a transverse diameter almoit
equal to the antero-posterior one." — Private Memoranda.

TITLES

C O M M U N I C A T I O ]S^ S/

A. MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

1. A Discussion of the Forces op Expansion and Con-

traction. By J. D. Warner.

2. An Hypothetical Explanation of Expansion. By J. D.

Warner.

3. A New Projection of the Sphere, Convenient in many

Physical Investigations. By Thosias Basnett.

4. The Direction of Energy. By H. F. Walling.

5. Simple Apparatus for Students for Quantitative

Demonstrations in the Physical Laboratory. By G.

HiNRICHS.

6. On a Compensating Clock Pendulum. By W. L. Coffin-

be kry.

7. On the Law, of Probability as Applied to the Deter-

mination OF Mental Exertions. By G. Hinrichs.

8. The Force at any Point of the Surface of a Rotating

Fluid Ellipsoid of Three Unequal Axes, under the
Action of the Gravity of its own Particles and
THE Accompanying Centrifugal Force. By R. J. Ad-
cock.

* Tlie following papers were also read : of some, no copy lias been received
for pul)li(;atioii ; of others, it was voted that the title only should be printed.
No notice, even by title, is taken of arlicles not approved.

titles of coidiunications. 257

9. Diagram of a New Cluster of Stars, with Remarks.
By Thomas Basnett.

10. Description of the Prikting Chronograph at the Dudley

Observatory. By G. W. Hough.

11. Planetary Motion and Solar Heat. By Charles E.

Phelps.

12. Solar and Lun^r Photography. By Joseph Winlock.

13. The Temperature of the Sun. By H. F. Walling.

14. On Binary Stars. By Daniel Kjrkwood.

15. On a Field-Stage for Clinical Microscopes. By R. H.

"Ward.

16. Outlines of a Plan to construct a Large Telescope

FOR Special Observations. By Thomas Basnett.

17. Remarks on the Magnifying Powers of Objectives. By

R. H. Ward.

18. On a New Object Cabinet. By R. H. Ward.

19. A Description of a New Binocular Stand. By A. H.

TUTTLE.

20. Refraction Tables modified and expanded from Bessel's

Formula, to be used without Logarithms, Computed

WITH THE ScHEUTZ TABULATING EnGINE. By G. W.

Hough.

21. Description of the Polescope, an Optical Instrument.

By C. G. Wheeler.

22. A Chemical Theory of Electricity. By H. F. Walling.

23. On "the so-called Velocity of the Electric Current

OVER Telegraph Wires. By G. W. Hough.

24. Demonstration op Magnetic Apparatus. By T. C. Hil-

GARD.

25. The Conversion of the Sulphates of Potash and Soda

into Carbonates in the Moist Way. By J. Lawrence
Smith,
a. a. a. s. vol. xxi. 33

258 titles of communications.

26. The Use of Lead in the Sulphate of Coppek Batteet.

By G. W. Hough.

27. The Distribution of the Ruby and Sapphire in the

United States, with Exhibitions op some Specimens
FROM Montana. By J. Lawrence Smith.

28. The Value op Laboratory Work in Connection with

THE Teaching of Chemistry, together with a Brief
Sketch of the Chemical Laboratory of the Iowa
State Agricultural College. By A. E. Foote.

29. An Account of an Iron Meteorite that was seen to

FALL in South Africa. By J. Lawrence Smith.

30. On the Production op Spiegeleisin, eisibodying a Paper

by Hugh Hartmann. By J. W. Foster.

31. On the Dynamical Condition of the Three States op

Aggregation. By G. Hinrichs.

32. On the Ultimate Analysis of Coal. By E. T. Cox.

33. Simple Arsenic Apparatus for the Certain Detection

op Minute Traces of Arsenic in Toxicological Inves-
tigations. By G. Hinrichs.

34. Pyrite on the Lateral Edges of Calcite Scalenohe-

DRA. By G. Hinrichs.

35. The Use of Automatic Instruments for Registering

Meteorological Phenomena. By G. W. Hough.

36. A Brief Statement op Effects op the Thunder Storms

of July and August of the Present Year in the
Vicinity op Boston. By W. W. Wheildon.

37. The Relation of the United States Coast Survey to

the Geological and Topographical Survey op the
States. By Benjajiin Pierce.

38. Climatic Changes in the Salt Lake Valley. By P. A.

Chadbourne.

39. Hypsometrical Data op some of the North-Western

Statks. By Alexander Winchell.

titles of communications. '259

40. The Friction of the Progressive Motion of Water in
THE Tide Wave, being less than the Friction of
THE Return Under-Current upon the Bottom, the
Tide Wave does not lengthen the Day. By

J. D. Warner.

B. NATURAL HISTORY.

1. Coal, and some of its Special Uses. By E. B. Andrews.

2. Classification of the Rocks of Iowa. By C. A. White.

3. Characteristics of the Mineral Deposits in the Cot-

tonwood Districts of Iowa. By P. A. Chadbourne.

4. Glacial Deposits of Northern Ohio. By John B.

Perry.

5. Origin op Limestone in the Coal Measures. By E. B.

Andrews.

6. Some Observations in Topographical Geology in North

Carolina. By W. C. K-Err.

7. On the Geological Age op the Coal of Wyoming. By

E. D. Cope.

8. A Fossil Horse from the Drift of Iowa — (Metacarpal

Bone). By J. W. Foster.

9. Elephas Indianapolis: a New Specees of Fossil Ele-

phant. By J. W. Foster.

10. Peculiarities op Structure in the Wings of Certain

Hymenoptera. By O. S. Wescott.

11. Tornaria, the Young Stage of B.vlanoglossus. By

Alexander Agassiz.

260 TITLES OF COMMUNICATIONS.

12. On the Oviducts of Brachiopods. By E. S. Mouse.

13. Organisms in Drinking Water. By H. W. Babcock.

14. On the so-called Sexual Characters of Copepoda.

By A. H. Tuttle.

15. Media for the Preservation of Entomostraca. By O.

S. Wescott.

16. Observations on Living Rhynchonella. By E. S. Morse.

17. On Zoological Barriers, with Special Reference to

South America. By James Orton.

18. On the Gigantic Mammals of the Genus Loxolophodon.
. By E. D. Cope.

19. Circulation in Insects. By Robert King.

20. On the Eocene Genus Synoplotherium. By E. D. Cope.

21. On a New Genus in the Lepidopterous Family Tineid^,

WITH Remarks on the Fructification of Yucca. By
C. V. Riley.

22. Respiration in Plants. By Robert King.

23. On some Ancient Carved Stones from New England.

By F. W. Putnam.

24. Good Wine, a Social and National Good. By G. C.

Swallow.

25. DOLIOLIUM AND APPENDICULARIA FROM NaRRAGANSETT BaY.

By Alexander Agassiz.

EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS

THE DUBUQUE MEETING, 1872.

HISTORY OF THE MEETING.

The Twenty-first Meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science was held at Dubuque, Iowa, commencing
on Wednesday, August 15, and continuing to Tuesday evening,
August 21.

One hundred and sixty-four names are registered in the book
by members who attended this meeting. One hundred and twelve
new members were chosen, of whom ninety-tAvo have already signi-
fied their acceptance by paying the entrance-fee and annual assess-
ment, and, when practicable, signing the constitution. One hundred
and one papers were presented, most of which were read, and some
of them discussed at length.

The general sessions of the Association were held in the Con-
gregational Church. Section B met in this Church, and Section
A in the Universalist Church. The Standing Committee and
Permanent Secretary found ample accommodation in the Fa9ade
Building.

At about ten o'clock, a.m., on Wednesday, the members were
called to order by the President, Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, who made
a few appropriate remarks, and then invited the Rev. E. K. Young
to ask the Divine guidance and blessing upon the meeting. The
Association proceeded next to complete the organization of the
meeting, by choosing the additional members of the Standing
Committee, agreeably to the provision in the constitution. Then
the Association adjourned, to meet in sections; Section B remaining

262 HISTORY OF THE MEETING.

in the place of general meeting, and Section A assembling in the
Universalist Church. After each section had been organized by
the election of Chairman, Secretary, and Sectional Committee, it
proceeded at once to the reading of papers.

At eight o'clock in the evening there was a formal reception of
the Association by the Local Committee. H. T. Woodman, Esq.,
Chairman of the Local Committee, called the meeting to order,
and announced that Hon. W. B. Alhson, United States Senator
elect, would welcome their distinguished guests to the City ol
Dubuque. Senator Alhson then made the following address : —

Mk. President, Gentlemen and Ladies, Members op the
American Association for the Advancement or
Science : —

The Committee having the arrangements in charge have as-
signed to me the pleasing duty of welcoming you to our city,
and extending to you the hospitalities of its citizens.

Since the announcement of your coming was first made, all our
people have looked forward to the occasion as an eventful one in
our history.

We extend to you this cordial greeting and sincere welcome,
not for yourselves alone, but because you are the distinguished
representatives of the best thought and the highest culture of the
age in which we live ; because you are of that army of toilers
who have done so much to advance the material interests of our
country, and to accelerate its march among the civiHzed nations
and peoples of the earth. It has been your mission, and the mis-
sion of such as you, to change old customs and habits ; to unsettle
old opinions, theories, and beliefs ; to destroy ancient follies, prej-
udices, and superstitions ; to inform and improve everywhere ; to
direct inquiry, study, and investigation into all things; to advance
every nation and every people to a higher plane of thought and
action.

Under our system of government no shackles or fetters are
placed upon your investigations : the great truth is recognized that
the State has no concern with the opinions of men. Here Science,
with her bold, inquisitive spirit, has established her riglit to inves-
tigate all subjects after her own fashion and according to her own
method ; has enthroned herself in our schools of learning, colleges,
and universities, and is working her way steadfastly and firmly

HISTORY OF THE MEETITNTG. 263

into our common-school system. And our own countrymen, thus
guided, are entitled to their full share of the honors of discovery,
invention, and improvement.

We cannot show you here, in our young North- West, old tem-
ples or ancient works of art, the accumulation of centuries of
civilization ; nor even the magnificence to be found in older por-
tions of our owii country. But we have an intelligent, economical,
and industrious population, building and adorning as their means
accumulate, and accumulating with an energy and rapidity unknown
in older communities.

They all bid you welcome to our city and to the hospitality of
their homes.

Though we are comparatively young as a State, Nature here as
elsewhere is old ; and, as you delight in its study, you will find
many interesting subjects of inquiry and contemplation, whether
it be among the crevices of our rocks, the rocks themselves, or
among the fugitive boulders that have floated to us from distant
regions, or among our extensive coal-fields, or over the broad ex-
panse of the prairies that extend far away to the west of us, covered
with indigenous plants and flowers, — each and all will be to you
subjects of interest. Arrangements have been made for excursions
and trips into the interior to enable you to conduct these observa-
tions and studies.

We look to you and your associates to encourage and aid us, in
the future, in making our young State a great commonwealth for
the hajipy abode of millions of Christian men and women, working
as you work, though in varied channels, for the continued growth
and advancement of our race.

You come among us strangers. We hope to treat you as friends,
and that your stay may be pleasant and profitable to yourselves, as
I am sure it will be to us. And I trust that when we part it will
be with mutual pleasant recollections.

Professor Asa Gray, the retiring President of the Association,
bowed to the honorable speaker when he had finished, and relin-
quished to his successor. Professor J. Lawrence Smith, the privilege
of replying, which he did, as follows : —

It is with pleasure that I return to the citizens of Dubuque,
through you, the thanks of tlie American Association for tlie Ad-
vancement of Science for the cordial invitation to hold our nu'ctiiig

264 HISTORY OF THE MEETING.

here this year, and for the still more cordial greeting that we have
received since coming into your city. Yet it Avas nothing but
what we expected ; for while the march of empire is westward,
hospitality and all its sister virtues tread with steady step in the
front ranks of that march. In the vestibules of the houses of old
Rome, it was common to inscribe upon the floor " Salve," and I be-
hold in the countenances of all the people of Dubucpe, man, woman,
and child, the same word, " Welcome,"

In a community where we have never been before, it may be
well to say a word or two in relation to the objects and aims of
this Association, which are not fully understood by the public. The
object of this Association is to search for truth, and thereby to
elevate and to improve mankind, which is the end of all truth,
whether religious, moral, or scientific ; and the members of this
Association are active toilers in the pursuit of it, piling up truth
upon truth in the erection of that great temple of science, whose
author and finisher is God, and whose cap-stone will not be laid
imtil the end of time. We are in one sense like those who toiled
upon the temple of Solomon, some fashioning the stone, others
shaping timber, yet others making the metals, but no one knowing
the ultimate uses to which the several parts are to be applied, untU
the architect puts them in their respective places. Then the beauty
and harmony of design become apjjarent to even the most xintu-
tored eye. As it took many difierent craftsmen to erect the temple
of Solomon, so it requires many different scientists to perfect the
various parts of their temple, each intent upon his particular work
without any inquiry as to how or where it is to be placed ; the
astronomer, chemist, geologist, &c., working in separate spheres,
but recognizing the mutual dependence of one on the other. This
Association is looked upon by many who come to the meetings as
intended to furnish, in some shape, popular lectures. So far from
this being the case, the various subjects brought forward and dis-
cussed are of the most technical character, understood by only a
few of the members of the Association. And it is too often asked
in these cases of what use is all this or that ? To such I can
reply in the words of Coleridge, " What is the use of a new-born
child ? "

As we look for the use of the new-born child in its development
into a full-grown, vigorous man or woman, so do we look at any
new-born fact that has no immediate application. Out of the
development of this fact may, possibly, spring some great and

HISTORY OF THE MEETING. 265

important application that may revolutionize the whole face of
society.

When I arrived in the city I took up one of your city news-
papers, and read that workmen were putting up poles and wires
along one of the alleys. What, I miglit have asked, was the use of
them ? Oh, you would have told me, it was that the proceedings
of the Association might be printed the same day in New York
City ; or, it was in order, if need be, to send a despatch to Calcutta
to ascertain how much hotter it is there to-day than in Dubuque.
A similar answer I might give to those cui bono men ; I could say
to them, " Of AVhat use was it that a hundred years ago an Italian
placed the legs of a dead frog on some zinc plates ? " and yet out of
that insignificant scientific fact has grown a system of communica-
tion that has revolutionized the world, and saves millions of lives
every year; for the railroads of the country are all oj^erated by
them. This shows to you and to every one that no man should
scorn any truth, no matter how apparently small it may be.

Again, gentlemen, I thank you, and hand you over to the re-
tuing President, who will enlighten and entertain you with, I have
no doubt, a very floioery address.

At the close of Dr. Smith's remarks. Dr. Gray deUvered his
address (as retiring President), which is printed in full in this
volume.

President Gray remarked, in conclusion, that the only duty on
his part remaining undone was to ask the Association to welcome
the President elect, Professor J. Lawrence Smith, of Louisville, to
the chair.

President Smith, on assuming the chair, said: —

I am sensible of the honor conferred upon me by the Association,
and particularly do I deem it an honor when your [to Professor
Gray] mantle Mis upon ray shoulders. In 1871 a son of Massa-
chusetts took this chair. In 1872 a son of South Carolina takes
it. It is not the first time that a son of South Carolina and a son
of Massachusetts have been shoulder to shoulder. God grant that
it may not be the last !

During this meeting of the Association, the Standing Committee
met regularly every morning at nine o'clock ; the Association con-

A.A. A. 8. VOL. XXI. 34

266 HISTORY OF THE MEETING.

vened at ten o'clock, and, after the transaction of general business,
it adjourned to meet immediately in Sections. For most of the
time two Sections (A and B) were found sufficient, but on one day
Sub-section C (Microscopy) held a session in the Fa9ade Building.
On Thursday evening, August 16, Professor E. S. Morse gave a
lecture before the members of the Association, skilfully illustrated
on the blackboard; and on Saturday evening, August 18, Colonel
C. G. Forshey read his paper on the " Physics of the Mississippi
River." These general meetings, as well as those of the sections,
were largely attended by the citizens of Dubuque, who took gi-eat
interest in the meeting. The working members of the Association
have always been reluctant to encroach upon the short time allotted
to the annual meeting, by making excursions even of a partly
scientific character, especially as many were of such a character
as would only interest a portion of them. On this account expe-
ditions were made, this year, to localities in the neighborhood, by
those especially interested, without interrupting the sessions of the
sections. Some took a trip, by invitation of Mr. Woodman, to
the Indian mounds in the vicinity of Eagle Point. Some accepted
the invitation of Mr. Graves, President of the Chicago, Clinton, and
Dubuque Railroad, to make an excursion in the direction of Belle-
vue, and enjoy the opportunity aiforded for seeing the river beach,
the overhanging blufis, and the geological structure of the country.
Others, again, visited Griswold & Co.'s Mine, entered the Spar
Cave, and saw the furnace of Brunskill and Coates in operation.

On Monday evening, August 20, the members of the Association,
and the ladies who accompanied them, were . handsomely enter-
tained by the ladies of Dubuque, at the Lorimier House. The
whole of Tuesday, August 21, was devoted to a general excursion
to McGregor, arranged by President Graves of the River Railroad.
Most of tlie members of the Association, with their ladies, and in
company with many gentlemen and ladies of Dubuque, in all to the
number of three hundred, joined in this pleasant trip. The com-
pany travelled by raih'oad as far as the Pictured Rocks, where they
alighted, to make an examination of these geological curiosities,
of which they received explanations from Professor A. II. Winchell
and Dr. A. C. White. The remainder of the journey to McGregor
was made by the way of the river, in two steamers, united together
by cables. The boats first went a mile down the river, so that a
view might be obtained of the wonderful Lotxis^ which grows here
in great luxuriance, some of the leaves being almost two feet in

HISTORY OF THE MEETING. 267

diameter. The boats then steamed up the river, passing Prairie
du Chien, and around the islands near McGregor, making a h\n(l-
ing, at three o'clock, p.m., at McGregor. Here the members were
received by Mayor Clark and escorted to Cambrian Hall, whei-e a
bountiful lunch was provided for them by the ladies of McGregor.
Ex-Governor Merrill was introduced by the Mayor, who said a few
hearty words of welcome, and then called upon Rev. W. M. Faw-
cett to ask the Divine blessing \ipon those Avho were going to
partake of what had been liberally provided. After the pains of
hunger had been assuaged, some informal speeches were made by
Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, Colonel J. W. Foster, Professor Joseph
Lovcring, Professor E. S. Morse, Professor Asa Gray, Professor G.
C. Swallow, and Colonel C. G. Forshey. The company returned
all the way by railroad to Dubuque, where they amved at six, p.m.,
exceedingly gratified by the great jileasures of the occasion.

The Association voted to hold its next meeting at Portland,
Maine, beginning Wednesday, August 20, 1873. The officers
elected for the next -meeting are : —

Professor Joseph Lovering, of Cambridge, Mass., President;
Professor A. H. Worthen, of Springfield, 111., Vice-President;
C. A. White, Esq., of Iowa City, General Secretary ; W. S.
Vaux, Esq., of Philadelphia, Treasurer. Professor Joseph
Loyeeing having resigned the office of Pennanent Secretary,
which he has held during fourteen sessions of the Association,
F. W. Putnam, Esq., of Salem, was elected Permanent Secretary
for two years, commencing with the next meeting.

268 RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED.

RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED.

Whereas^ It has come to our knowledge during this meeting of
the Association, that the work of the geological survey of Iowa,
so well and ably begun and conducted by Professor Hall and Dr.
White, is susjDcnded ; and,

'Whereas^ It apj)ears from what has been done and published
that there still remain unfinished those minute and detailed ex-
aminations which are so necessary to render the work complete
and most useful to the agricultural, mining, mechanical, and com-
mercial interests of the State ;

Mesolved^ That in the judgment of this Association the interests
of the great State of Iowa demand the completion of the survey,
under the direction of Dr. White, in a manner and style commen-
surate with the present advanced state, of geological science, and
the material progress of this great Commonwealth.

Mesolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair
to memorialize the Governor and Legislature of Iowa with the
view of securing this result.

WJiereas, A surplus from the so-called "Chinese Indemnity
Fund " amounting now, as is believed, to about $450,000, remains
in possession of the government of the United States, and it is
the opinion of competent judges that this surplus belongs in law
and equity to the United States ; and.

Whereas, A Bill is now pending in Congress which proposes to
appropriate this surplus for the education of Americans and Chinese
in the languages, literatures, and sciences of the respective nations,
to lacilitate commercial, diplomatic, and scientific intercourse be-
tween the two peoples, and for the increase and diffusion of knowl-
edge among men ;

Mesolved, Tliat the American Association for the Advancement
of Science lieartily indorses tlie purpose of the aforesaid Bill to
devote to the uses of education and science in China any portion
of the so-called " Chinese Indemnity Fund " which may equitably
remain in tlie possession of the government of the United States.

RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED. 269

Resolved, That the Standing Committee be requested to inquire
into the expediency of compiling a general index of the printed
" Proceedings " of the Association, under the general direction of
the Permanent Secretary, to be published for the use of the mem-
bers of the Association.

Hesolved, That the Association authorize the Permanent Secre-
tary to print 250 copies annually of the Constitution, By-Laws, and
List of Members, to be distributed at the opening of each meet-
ing-

Resolved, Tfiat the Association regrets the absence of a signal
station at Dubuque, a place that has recognized the importance of
meteorological observations, and has kept records of this nature
for twenty years ; and that the Association respectfully requests
the War Dej)artmeut to establish one here if practicable.

Resolved, That the Standing Committee accept the resignation
of Professor Joseph Lovering as Permanent Secretary of this
Association ; and, in accepting that resignation, do du-ect his suc-
cessor to enter upon the records of this Association the expression
of our thanks for the courtesy, ability, and untiring industry with
which he has discharged the duties of his office during a period of
fourteen meetings.

270 VOTES OP THANKS.

VOTES OF THANKS.

Hesolved, That the hearty thanks of this Association are hereby
tendered to the citizens of Dubuque for the generous i^rovision
made for the present meeting, and for the unstinted hospitality
with which they have welcomed us to their homes ; and to the ladies
of Dubuque for theu' courteous reception of the Association at the
Lorimier House.

Resolved, That the American Association is most of all indebted
to the Local Committee for the success of the Dubuque meeting.
In their energetic and untiring labors and generous contributions
we recognize a noble devotion to science, and a chivalric confidence
in the ability and progress of the central region of the Republic.
We tender them our hearty thanks in the name of American
Science.

Hesolved, That the thanks of the Association are pre-eminently
due to the Trustees of the Congregational and Universalist Socie-
ties of Dubuque for their kindness in allowing us their churches
for the purposes of this Association.

Hesolved, That while acknowledging the courtesy and valuable
aid of the members of the Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, we
would also recognize the energy and ability shown in the prepara-
tion of their valuable collection, which is destined, we trust, in
time, to rival the museums of the older and larger cities. In part-
ing with the kindly and cultivated citizens of Dubuque, we hope our
visit may prove to have stimulated new zeal in the members of the
Institute in their scientific labors. And be it further resolved that
a full set of the " Proceedings " of the Association be presented
to the Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences.

Hesolved, That the thanks of the Association be given to the
Directors of the Chicago, Dubuque, and Minnesota Railroad, and
to its President, Mr. J. K. Graves, for their liberality in providing
transportation for the members on the excursion of to-day. Also,

VOTES OF THANKS. 271

to Mr. Lawler, for tlie use of his steamboats in s\xrveying the bluffs
and circumnavigating the islands of the Mississipi)i ; and to the
ladies of McGregor for their bountiful entertainment, prepared by
their hands and graced by their presence.

Hesolved, That while we regret our inability to avail ourselves
of the proffered hospitality of the citizens of Monticello, Iowa, of
Independence, Iowa, and of the farmers of Delaware County, Iowa,
who have invited us to participate in the festivities of their Har-
vest Home anniversary; and while we are compelled to deny our-
selves the pleasure we would have doubtless enjoyed, we return the
sincere thanks of the Association to our good friends of the above-
named localities who have so kindly remembered us, and assure
them that we fully apiDreciate the characteristic spuit of generosity
that prompted theii' invitations.

Hesolved, That the thanks of the Association are due to the
Officers of the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad, and of
the Chicago, Clinton, and Dubuque Railroad, and of the Chicago,
Dubuque, and Minnesota Railroad, for the courtesies extended to
the members of this Asscwjiation ; and especially to the two last,
in arranging special trains for their accommodation, without ex-
pense, to visit points of interest in the vicinity of Dubuque.

Hesolved, That the Association gi-atefully acknowledges the
generous offers of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Raih'oad
to convey the members over theii* roads to and from San Francisco
at greatly reduced fares. Although the Association was prevented
fi'om holding this session on the shores of the Pacific, it desires
none the less to record its sense of the liberality which rendered
the acceptance of the invitation from California practicable. .

Hesolved, That the thanks of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science be returned to the Dubuque Mannerchor
for their cordial welcome.

Hesolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to
the Dubuque Rowing Club for their liberal expenditure of muscle
in behalf of the Ichthyological and Entomological part of Sec-
tion B.

272 VOTES OF THANKS.

Hesolved, That the thanks of this Association are hereby ten-
dered to the press for the wide and favorable notice given of the
proceedings of this meeting ; and that they acknowledge especial
obligations to the reporters of the Dubuque Dailies, of the " New
York Tribune," the " New York World," the " Chicago Tribune,"
" Chicago Evening Post," the Chicago " Inter-Ocean," and the
" St. Louis Democrat," not only for the very full and accurate re-
ports of the papers and discussions of the Association, but also for
their uniformly courteous and friendly criticisms.

Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be presented to
the retiring Officers, viz., the President and Vice-President, the
Permanent Secretary and General Secretary, for the very able and
successful manner in which they have performed the duties of
their several offices.

REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY. 273

REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY.

The following report comprises the business whicli has been
done for the Association during the interval between the first day
of the Indianapolis Meeting (August 16, 1871), and the first day
of the Dubuque Meeting (August 15, 1872).

An unusually large number of copies of the Troy and Indianapolis
volumes of " Proceedings " has been distributed to members. The
list of Foreign Academies to which the " Proceedings " are sent
is increased every year. The Indianapolis volume was ready for
distribution on the first day of the present month, and has been
sent by mail, prepaid, to all entitled to receive it. The delay in
publication proceeds, partly from the necessity of sending proof-
sheets over the whole country, some of which may not find the
authors at home ; and partly, from the neglect of authors to furnish
a copy of their papers, at an early date, for publication. Many
valuable pa])ers are not sent at all, and some arrive too late even
for the requirements of the slowly printed volume.

The financial condition of the Association is as follows: —

Between August 16, 1871, and August 15, 1872, the income of
the Association was twenty-four hundred and eighty-three dollars
and fifty cents ($2,483.50).

Of this amount sixty-four dollars and fifty cents (164.50) accrued
from the sale of the printed " Proceedings," and the remainder
from the admission fees and the annual assessments.

The expenses of the Association, during the same interval,
amounted to twenty-three hundred and forty-one dollars and sixty-
four cents (§2,341.64), which may be apportioned thus : —

Cost of paper, printing, and binding for the volume of Indian-
apolis " Proceedings " §1,527.06

Charges connected with the Troy Meeting 159.00

Salary of the Permanent Secretary (five hundred dollars) . . 500.00

For circulars, postage, stationery, express, &c 155.58

The particular items may be found in tlie cash account of the

Secretary, which is herewith submitted as a part of his report.

The balance in the Treasury of the Association, August 16, 1871,

is seventeen hundred and eighty-two dollars and forty-six cents

($1,782.46).

Joseph Lovkring,

DuBDQUE, August 15, 1872. Permanent Srarlary.

A. A. s. vor.. XXI. 35

274

CASH ACCOUNT Or THE PERMANENT SECEETAKT.

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276 STOCK ACCOUNT OP THE PERMANENT SECKETAET.

List of European Institutions to which Copies of Volume XX. of
THE Proceedings of the American Association were distributed
BY the Permanent Secretary in 1872.

Stockholm, — Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien.
Copenhagen, — Kongel. danske Vidensk. Selskab.
Moscow, — Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes.
St. Petersburg, —^ Academie Imperiale des Sciences.
„ „ Kais. Russ. Mineralogische Gesellschaft.

„ „ Observatoire Physique Centrale de Russie.

„ „ Jardin Imperial de Botanique.

Pulkowa, — Observatoire Imperiale.
Amsterdam, — Academie Royale des Sciences.

„ Genootschap Natura Artis Magistra.

„ Zoological Garden.

Haarlem, — Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wettenschappen.*

„ La Societe HoUandaise des Sciences.

Leyden, — Musee d'Histoire Naturelle.

„ The University Library .f

Utrecht, — Institut Royal Meteorologique des Pays-Bas.
Altenhurg, — Natm-forschende Gesellschaft.
Berlin, — K. P. Akademie der Wissenschaften.

„ Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde.

■Bonn, — Natm'hist. Verein der Preussisch. Rheinlandes, &c.
JBrilnn, — Naturforschenden Vereius.

Dresden, — K. L. C. Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher.*
Franchfurt, — Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Freiburg, — Koniglich-Sachsische Bergakademie.
• Gottingen, — Ivonigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Hamburg, — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Hannover, — Die Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Konigsberg, — Konigliche-Physikalish Okonomischen Gesellschaft.
Leipsic, — Koniglich-Saclisisclie Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Munich, — K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Posen, — Naturwissenscliaftlicher Verein. X
Prag, — K. Bohm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Stuttgart, — Verein fiir Vaterliindisclie Naturkunde.
Vienna, — K. Akademie der Wissenschaften.
„ K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft.

„ Geologisclien Reichs;uist:ilt.

„ Osterreichische Gcsi-IlsdiMlt fiir Meteorologie.

* Also Vol. ii.

t Also Vols, xiii., xiv., xv., and xvi.

X Also Vols. X., xi., xii., xiii., xiv., and xvi.

STOCK ACCOUNT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETABY. 277

Vie)ina, — K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft.

„ Verein zur Verbreitung Naturwissensch. Kentnisse.

Basel, — Naturforscliende Gesellschaft.
Bern, — Allgemeine Sch weizerische Gesellschaft.

„ Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Geneve, — Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Xaturelle.
Lausanne, — Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Neiichdtel, — Societe des Sciences Naturelles.
Zurich, — Xaturforschende Gesellschaft.
Bruxelles, — Acadeinie Royale des Sciences, &c.
Liege, — Societe Royale des Sciences.
Bordeaux, — Societe Linneenne.
Cherbourg, — Society Academique.
Z>iJo)i, — Academic des Sciences, &c.

Lille, — Societe Rationale des Sciences, de rAgric, et des Arts.
Jlontjyellier, — Academic des Sciences et Lettres.
Paris, — Institut de France.
„ Societe Philomatique.

„ Societe Meteorologique de France.

Strassburg, — Kaiserl. Universitats- nnd Landes- Bibliothek.*
Genoa, — Societa di Letturi e Conversazioni Scientifiche.
Milan, — Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere.
Borne, — Osservatorio Astronomico del Collegio Romano.
Turin, — Accademia Reale delle Scienzie. '

„ Pubblicazioni del Circolo Geographico.

Madrid, — Real Academia de Ciencias.
Cambridge — Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Dublin, — Royal Irish Academy.
Edinburgh, — Royal Society.

Liverpool, — The Literary and Philosophical Society.
London, — Board of Admiralty.
„ East India Company.

„ Museum of Practical Geology.

„ Royal Society.

„ Royal Astronomical Society.

„ Royal Geographical Society.

„ Royal Institution of Great Britain.

Manchester, — Literary and Philosophical Society.

„ Natural Hist. Soc. of Northumberland, Durham, &c.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, — The Tyneside Naturalist's Field-Club.
Oxford, — Radcliffe Observatory.
Batavia, — Societe des Arts et des Sciences.
* Also Vols. xvii. and xix.

278 EEPOETS.

REPORTS.

The following is the report of the Committee of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in regard to holding
the meeting of 1872 at San Francisco.

At the session of the Association, held at Indianapolis in 1871,
the following resolutions were passed : —

1st, That the next meeting be held at San Francisco, on the
first Monday in August, 1872, if, in the opinion of the Standing
Committee, satisfactory arrangements could be made.

2d, That if the arrangements could not be made satisfactory to
the Committee, that the meeting should be held in Dubuque,
Iowa, at the usual time ; viz., on the third Wednesday in August.

Immediately on the adjournment of the Association, steps were
taken by the individual members of the Committee to see what
could be done with the directors of the railroads for conveying the
members of the Association to San Francisco. While this was
doing, we received a letter from San Francisco, dated October
6th, as follows : —

" We have not received any official notices of the acceptance of
our invitation, but acting on your note to me, unofficially noting the
fact, I have been directed by the trustees to open correspondence
with railroad officials. East, to get the best rates we can for guests.
I am going for twenty free passes both ways for your distribution
to the foreign guests you may invite, and such of your members as
you may designate. I may not succeed in getting that many, but,
if we get half of them, we intend to raise a fund to pay for the
other half.

" We would be glad if you invited, say six or ten from Europe,
including Tyndall, Huxley, and Hooker. I intend to open negotia-
tions with steamship lines from Europe on the subject of half
fares for them, and will advise you of the result."

Other letters of a similar nature were received, and encouraged
your Committee in tlieir labors, who finally succeeded in making
favorable terms with the railroads ; viz., for the round ti"ip for mem-
bers of the Association from Omaha to San Francisco and back,
$64, and half rates on the roads east of Omalia. Some of the details
concerning tlie manner of paying the fare were not satisfactory;
but, as they in no wise altered the amount, this could have been

BEP0ET8. 279

accommodated. We then commenced making arrangements vriih
the Ocean Steamers, and inviting foreign guests as requested.
After proceeding thus far, we sent several communications to San
Francisco, but, by reason of misdirected letters, or snow blockade,
we did not receive answers to these communications. About this
time a telegram was received from the President of the California
Academy of Science and the Director of the Geological Survey to
say that, in their opinion, the meeting in San Francisco should be
deferred to another year. Consequently your Committee accepted
the cordial invitation which continued to be extended to us from
Dubuque by both letters and telegrams. In conclusion, we would
say that, if much has been lost in not going to San Francisco,
more has been gained in coming to Dubuque, for nothing could
excel the overflowing kindness of the people of this small but
enterprising city of the great State of Iowa.

Asa Gray.

Joseph Lovering.

J. Lawrence Smith.

{For the Coimnittee.)

The Committee fonnerly appointed to report on a Revision of
the Constitution, if such revision was deemed necessary by them,
after due consideration reported as follows : —

Your Committee to report if any Revision of the Constitution
of the Association is required, beg to report that, after a careful
study of the Constitution and Resolutions of the Association, they
find that no change is necessary, as the points to which the vote
of the last meeting called their attention are fully provided for.
But they also beg to report that they find several violations of the
Constitution of common occurrence, and that they think a strict
adherence to it to be of vital importance to the Association.

F. W. Putnam. ,

G. C. Swallow.

[For the Committee.)

280 APPENDIX.

APPENDIX

Scientific Excursion aceoss the State or Iowa, By Wil-
liam W. Wheildon.

At the conclusion of the sessions of the Association, on Mon-
day, August 26th, and after the return of the members from the
social and festive visit to the city of McGregor, on the Upper Mis-
sissippi River, on Tuesday, — which combined river and railroad
travel with extraordinary scientific interest, — a more extensive
excursion was arranged by the Illinois Central Railroad Company,
from Dubuque to Sioux City and back again. Such members of
the Association as desired to join in the excursion were kindly
furnished with the necessary tickets for the purpose, and the
"Section" — as we felt that we might call it — left Dubuque on
Wednesday morning, the 28th. The section comprised about
forty in number, and included many prominent and active mem-
bers of the Association, and several ladies, who had been attending
its meeting. There were five or six State geologists, a number of
botanists, and others, all interested in the study of natural history
and the pursuits of science.

The excursion proposed was directly across the State of Iowa,
from the Mississippi River on the east, to the Big Sioux and ]\Iis-
souri Rivers on the west, a distance of tliree hundred and twenty-
seven miles ; and many inducements were presented, calculated to
make the excursion both interesting and profitable to the party,
and promotive in some degree of the cause of science. Tlie meet-
ing of the Association, just concluded, is the first Avhich it has held
west of the Mississippi River, — a region embracing by far the
largest portion of our country ; and the rich valley lying between
the two great continental rivers, before they become united into one
stream, hardly leas than tliat larger region lying beyond the Mis-

APPENDIX. 2^1

souri, was almost wholly unknown, SO far as personal observation
goes, to the members of the Association. The recent history of
this region — and none other is open to us, unless it be to some
extent geologically — is to be found scattered through many vol-
umes of more or less value, and in the public documents of the
government, which are generally accessible to those who desire to
be particularly acquainted with it. The city in which the Asso-
ciation held its sessions is less than a hundred years old, having
been settled by the French Canadians in 1786, — then barely enti-
tled to be called an outpost of civilization ; and now it numbers a
population of more than twenty thousand persons, possessing, as
indicative of the taste and intelligence of the people, a museum of
natural history and kindred sciences, and a public library. Of
course, these simple statements carry with them the evidence of a
general advancement in wealth and refinement, — all of which,
without needless display of any kind, combined to render this
meeting of the Association of the most gratifying character.
The attentions bestowed upon the Association and the kindness
shown to its members, as well as the large attendance upon its
sessions, we feel justified in saying, are regarded as manifesting
a high appreciation of its purposes and a respect for its mem-
bers, alike comphmentary to them and not less honorable to the
city.

In this excursion the Section was favored with the company of
Dr. C. A. White, of the Iowa State University, and State Geol-
ogist ; * and in order to follow to some extent the rules of the Asso-
ciation, as applied to its working sections, Dr. White Avas elected
chairman ; and to him was intrusted not only the general direction
of the party, but, we may say, its edification also. Familiar as he
is with the geography and the geology of the State, its rivers,
lakes, mines, quanies, and prairies, it appeared to be a . pleasure
to him to give any information in regard to these which might
suggest itself to him or be desired by the party ; so that, in point
of fact, Dr. White lectured to his attentive and interested audience
during the entire journey of two days across the State, and, as for
that matter, nearly all the way back, until we parted with him at
Fort Dodge.

* Dr. White's elaborate work on the GeolAgy of the State has been published
in two large and elegant volumes, illustrated with maps, diagrams, ami draw-
ings ; and is a very valuable addition to the works of its character and class.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 36

282 APPENDIX.

With the usual occurrences and incidents of travel over this new
and peculiar country, so destitute of those features which in New
England characterize the landscape, — ^ hills and vales, and forests
and rocks, — our stop23ing-place for the night was at the city of
Fort Dodge, on the Des Moines River, 192 miles from Dubuque.
We were at this place about a thousand feet above the level of the
sea, and 444 feet above the Mississippi River at Keokuk.

Fort Dodge and its neighborhood compose an extremely inter-
esting region, both historically and scientifically. After the trans-
fer of the vast country west of the Mississippi River, included
in the Louisiana purchase in 1803, to" the United States, one of
the military posts for the protection of the surveying parties was
established at this point on the Des Moines River, in 1849. The
barracks used by the troops, when the region was in possession of
the Indians, are still standing within the streets of the present city ;
and one of the veterans of that period who served under General
Mason (Major Williams), and was at one time acting military
governor over an almost boundless territory, still resides in the
city.

The Section were received by the citizens of Fort Dodge, in a
most generous and hospitable manner, into their hearts and homes.
In the evening there was a reception at the residence of Mrs.
Swain, a member of the Association, at which an oj^portunity of
meeting with some of the citizens of the place was affoi'ded and
enjoyed.

The next morning, Thursday, 29th, was devoted to a scientific
exploration of the neighborhood, — mine and quarry, forest and
river. Carriages were provided by the citizens for all the members
of the Section, and some of them accompanied the party in their
explorations. Among the places visited were the limestone quar-
ries and kilns, the coal mines, the river, and Lizard Creek ; and,
chiefest of all, the famous gyj^sum quarries, known hereabouts as
the birtliplace of that audacious imj)osition, tlie " Cardiif Giant."
From among the hills and groves, wliich undulate and beautify the
river banks, we passed over a few miles of elevated prairie ground,
and entered the canyon, for it is almost that, in which the gypsum
beds are visible in the bhifls upon either side of it. Through this
gorge, or narrow valley, runs the Soldier Creek, in its suimner glory,
babl^ling or foaming or spreading itself thinly over a smooth sandy
surface ; and we had to cross it (of course fording it) no less than
six times in a hundred rods. It has been running through this

APPENDIX. 283

valley, impetuous in its littleness though boisterous at other sea-
sons, for ages, and may undoubtedly be said to have " worked its
passage " through the soft gypsum deposits. The stream itself was
lovely ; and, while its banks were green and beautiful, its comi)an-
ionship was pleasant and inspiring. Stopping in full view, though
far above us, of the position whence the Cardiff giant was blocked
out. Dr. White interested the Section in a description of the gyp-
sum field, its extent, and the quality and the uses of the article.
It has been used to some extent in Fort Dod^e as a buildino^ ma-
terial, and arrangements are in progress to furnish a supply of plas-
ter of Paris from it for the purposes of agriculture and the arts. It
is not probable that it will be much used for statuary hereafter.
The gyi^sum beds of the Des Moines River ^nd its tributaries are
said to be the largest and most valuable in the country, and the
only beds of any economical value in this or the adjoining States.
Its peculiarity is its remarkable pui'ity and freedom from grit, so
that it is hewn Avith axes and hatchets, sawed with a common
wood-saw, and blasting-holes, when necessary, are made with a
common carpenter's auger ; yet as a building material, though it
may be cut and defaced with a penknife, it retains its beauty of col-
oring and its durability nearly as well as marble. It may be sawed
into slabs or blocks of any size ; and, when calcined and gi-ound as
plaster of Paris, it is applicable to the highest purposes of art, as
well as to ordinary agriculture.

Returning from the gypsum quarries, we crossed the Des Moines
River, and from the bluffs of its western shore obtained some line
views of the city, the river, and the. surrounding country. Our
visit proved to be highly satisfactory, socially and scientifically,
not only to the members of the Section, but not less so to the citi-
zens of Fort Dodge, and will be pleasantly remembered by all.

At 3.40 P.M., we left our friends at Fort Dodge, and in a car
kindly provided for our party, proceeded on our way to Sioux City.
Our route for the whole distance of one hundred and thirty-five
miles was over the open and apparently boundless prairie, unbroken
by an elevation and almost unrelieved by tree or shrub, save the
rank weeds of the prairie. The weather was warm and pleasant,
and particularly favorable for the most extended views over the
prairie, which, especially towards the north, seemed like the upeu
ocean ; and visions of the broad swell of the sea scarcely recpiired an
effort of the imagination. For a distance of more than fifty miles,
the track of the railroad was as straight as an arrow ; and, looking

284 APPENDIX.

back from the rear of the train, a very slight grade, hardly more
than the curvature of the earth, we might imagine, could be
observed. The praii'ie was not entirely new to the party, except-
ing in its apparent boundlessness ; but it still seemed strange to
those in whose minds " the idea of a wilderness was indissolubly
connected with that of a forest." Beyond the Ohio River, " the
traveller, as he wanders successively over Indiana, Illinois, Mis-
souri, and the vast wilderness lying beyond, is astonished at the
immensity of the great plain, the verdure, the beauty, of its Avide-
spread meadows." In our case nothing could be more interesting
than the broad praii'ie views, oj^ening from all the Avindows of the
car, during a ride of more than a hundred miles, which may
scarcely be said to be diversified with a few tx'ees, and a few houses,
a river or two, a lake or two, and for most of the time the visible
horizon bounding the landscape. Many times as we have seen
them, lived upon them, studied them, we never look upon these
boundless prairies without wonder at their vast extent, theu- mar-
vellous fertility, their beautiful green covering, brilliant with flow-
ers and instinct with life in so many forms.

Notwithstanding the apparently level coiintry over which we
had travelled for two days, we had risen to an altitude of more
than fifteen hundred feet above the sea, and had as imperceptibly
dropped down again to two-thirds of that elevation. The summit
level in our journey was passed near Storm Lake, — a spot made
memorable with blood in Indian history, and whose peculiarity
is that its waters flow from oj^posite ends into diflerent streams.

After a very agreeable and interesting journey during the after-
noon, our Section reached its destination and western limit, at
10.15 P.M., unexpectedly, as we were surprised to learn, to the
citizens. We had passed since leaving Dubuque, in the three
hundred and twenty- seven miles over this comparatively new
country, more than forty stations, each , of which of course rejire-
sents the town, and frequently constitutes all there is of a settle-
ment. It seems that we were expected at four o'clock in the
afternoon, at which hour a public reception had been arranged,
carriages provided for the use of the i>arty, and there would also
have been a gathering in the evening ; all of wliich, with what-
ever benefits might have occurred, were lost to us and to them
by our delay. We found ample and elegant accommodations at
the Hubbard House, — a large and princely hotel, — and received
the visits of some of the prominent citizens during the evening.

ArpEXDix. 285

Our chairman, Dr. "White, in consultation with tlic citizens, marie
the necessary arrangements for the movements of the party for the
following day. •

Friday, August 30. — This morning after breakfast, the Section
assembled in the drawing-rooms prepared for the excursions of the
day. Cari-iages were placed at their disposal, and Dr. White
organized the com2:)anies and arranged the excursions. Parties
sallied out in different directions around the city, and the whole
neighborhood was visited. The Big Sioux River Avas crossed into
the territory of Dakota, and the Missouri River, at a point below,
into Nebraska; and short rides were taken in each, chiefly of
interest to the botanists of the party. The celebrated bluff named
after the first settler of the city, Brughier, was visited, and from
this point Avas seen the junction of the Sioux River with the Mis-
souri. The geologists had ample and enjoyable opportunities of
visiting the cretaceous formations of this region, and numerous
specimens were obtained by them. Quite a number of sjiecimens
of small fishes were also obtained fi-om the river by our ichthyolo-
gists, and not a few moths and bugs. Floyd's River was crossed,
and the bluff three miles below the city, where Floyd was buried
at the time of Lewis and Clarke's expedition, was seen, but not
visited. Some of the highest eminences in the State are to be
found a few miles north of this city, on the Sioux River, 1500 feet
above the level of the sea; and fi'om these the views are pictu-
resque and beautiful, including innumerable bluffs in all directions,
groves of trees, the courses of the two rivers, and the great level
valley lying between them.

The region around Sioux City was found to be very interesting,
historically, geologically, and geographically ; and much pleasure
and profound scientific interest were enjoyed by the party, espe-
cially that portion of it which had the privilege of listening to the
instructive remarks and exjilanations of Dr. White. It is hardly
too much to say that the bluffs, rivers, forests, quarries, and even
the swamjis in the neighborhood of the city, were visited by the
geologists, botanists, ichthyologists, and bug-hunters of the ])arty ;
and wherever there was fine scenery to be found, upon the bluffs
and along the rivers, there some of our esthetic members were sure
to be seen.

In the evening, after the excursions of the day, the Section re-
assembled in the drawing-rooms of the Hubbard House, comjiared
notes of the day's exploits, and received the calls of many of the

286 APPEiTOix.

citizens with their ladies. At an early hour, the company was
called to order by the chairman, Dr. White, and committees
appointed to prepare resolutions, expressive of the sense of the
company, for the invitation extended to them by the railroad com-
pany and the attentions received from the citizens of Sioux City.
Subsequently, Prof. Perry, from the first named committee, reported
the following : — .

Whereas, The Illinois Central Railroad Company has kindly
favored such members of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science as wished to make an excursion westward
with free tickets from Dubuque to Sioux City, and back again ;
therefore,

Hesolved, That we tender our most hearty thanks to the said
railroad company, and in particular to the General Superintendent
and to G. N. Candee, Esq., for their kind and untiring efforts to
promote our comfort and pleasure during the excursion.

Mr. W. W. Wheildon, from the second committee on the recep-
tion and entertainment at Sioux City, reported the following reso-
lutions, and all were unanimously adopted by the meeting and
published in the local napers : —

Hesolved, That the thanks of the Section, individually and
collectively, be presented to the citizens of Sioux City for the
attention and kindness bestowed on the occasion of our visit to
this city and its interesting vicinity ; and, further,

Hesolved, That, recognizing their generous conduct as an evi-
dence of interest in the cause of science on the part of the citizens
of Sioux City, it is especially grateful to us, and will be regarded
as an encouragement in future efforts for the advancement of
science in this and all sections of the country.

After completing the business, the remainder of the evening was
passed in very agreeable social intercourse witli the citizens and
ladies of the place, all of whom expressed their gratification at the
visit of so large and respectable a body of scientists, and that the
Association had honored the State by holding its first meeting
west of the Mississippi within its limits.

APPENDIX. 287

The Retuen.

Saturday, August 31. — Having accomplished, as for as seemed
practicable, the objects of the visit to Sioux City, this morning the
members of the Section took the cars on their return. Passing
again over the beautiful prairie, they reached Fort Dodge at noon,
and were welcomed by their friends and invited to a dinner pro-
vided by the ladies of the city. The repast was served at the Fort
Dodge House, and a number of ladies and. gentlemen belonging to
the city were present. At the conclusion of the dinner a vote of
thanks for the kindness and attentions received was adopted ; and
much mutual good feeling was expressed at parting.

Visit to Springvale.

A number of our party, having accepted the invitation of Rev.
S. H. Taft, President of the Board of Trustees of Humboldt Col-
lege, at Sj^ringvale, tendered in behalf of the citizens, carriages
were now in readiness to convey them to that i)lace. Humboldt
College is the latest educational institution of its class in the State,
as Springvale is also one of its youngest municipalities. The town
lies about sixteen miles north of Fort Dodge, and nearly at the
point of junction of the east and west branches of the Des Moines
River. The ride across the intervening country in the afternoon,
quite in contrast with our extensive railroad journey ings, was a
perfect pleasure.

We were received at Springvale with warm hearts and every
exj^ression of welcome, in the homes of the people ; and in the
evening there was a public reception at " Russell Hall," with the
somewhat remarkable addition, as we thought, of a musical baud.
We thought perhaps the influence of " the Jubilee " had been felt
even in these remote settlements. The exercises of the evening
consisted of an address of Avelcome by Rev. Mr. Taft and remarks
by Dr. White, Prof Perry, Mr. Putnam, and Mr. Wheildon. Tlie
hall was filled to its utmost capacity, the people were very mucli
interested, and the band furnished excellent music for the occasion.
Later in the evening the band tendered a serenade to their visitors,
and nothing was omitted to render the occasion i)lcasant and
agi-eeable.

By arrangement of the two religious societies in tlie town, I'rol.

288 APPENDIX.

Perry, on the following day and evening, delivered his two
discourses on the Mosaic Creation and the Noachian Flood, in
Russell Hall, to very crowded assemblies. They were particularly
interesting and instructive, and gave great satisfaction. One of the
clergymen announced his intention of preaching upon the subjects
presented to the consideration of the jieople by the scientists on
the next Sabbath.

On Monday, the scientists visited Plumboldt College and other
points of interest in the neighboi'hood ; and in the evening the
people assembled again to hear a lecture by Mr. Putnam, of Salem,
on Fishes, and this gentleman presented his subject in a popular
and interesting manner, illustrating the discourse with living speci-
mens taken from the river in the vicinity.

On Tuesday, the party visited the oolite quarries and lime kilns,
the point of land in Dakota City where the two branches of the
river form a junction, and the admirable grounds belonging to the
college. In the evening a lecture was delivered by Mr. Wheildon,
on the Origin of the Races of Men, supporting the Bible account of
the creation of man, controverting the idea of numerous creations,
and expressing some views adverse to the Darwinian speculations.
As on the previous evenings, the hall was crowded, many of the
auditors coming considerable distances. At the conclusion of his
discourse, Mr, Wheildon read a vote of the scientists expressing
their thanks for the kindness and hospitality received ; and the
meeting passed a vote of thanks to the lecturer.

Here, it may be said, the public proceedings of our party closed.
Many of the members had already left Springvale, and on Wednes-
day morning, September 4th, the remainder returned to Fort
Dodge an/:! took the cars for Dubuque ; and there the excursion
ended, each day having been passed happily and pleasantly. We
had crossed and re-crossed the State, had visited many localities of
historical and geological interest, had seen the beauty of the sce-
nery and the richness of the soil, and measured, as far as the eye
could reach, the almost bo\indless and beautiful prairies. This
State, and perhaps all the States east of the Rocky Mountains,
which are drained by tlie Missouri and Mississippi Rivers and their
tributaries, are of similar geological character, composed for the
most part of stratified rocks and drift. The rocks are altogether
of marine origin, and are filk'd with remains of slicUs, corals, &c.,
as the coal fields are with vegetable remains. Minerals of various
kinds, especially galena in the neighborhood of Dubuque, are found

APPENDIX. 289

in different parts of the State, and more or less in all the ])rairie
States, but of course not as in the mountainous regions farther
west. Although the rocks must have been deposited in liorizontal
layers, they are rarely found anywhere in this condition, so that
not only the coal deposits, but nearly all other formations, crop out
at the surface or are exposed in the river valleys. The advantao'cs
afforded by these conditions are especially fovorable to geological
observation and promotive of the progress of the science, as the
relative position of these formations and the peculiar fossil remains
which characterize them, accurately determined, are essential to
the claims of geology as a science. American geology is already
recognized abroad ; and the labors of American geologists, in their
ample and open fields, have contributed, and are now contributing
largely to the advancement of the science.

The excursion of the Section, formed impromptu and almost
without previous acquaintance among its members, and the
attentions received at Fort Dodge, Sioux City, and Springvale,
various and generous and inspiriting as these were, will be long
remembered and cherished as among the pleasantest experiences
of their lives. The whole excursion was enjoyed, not merely in its
scientific pursuits, satisfactory as these were, but quite as much in
its social activities and intercourse. These grew upon the party,
both ladies and gentlemen, daily, and made the termination of. our
journeyings an undesired consummation. Of the same character,
to some extent, wei'e the friendships formed in the cities visited,
where the kindnesses received seemed to teach us not only that —

" One touch of nature makes the whole workl kin,"

but that we were of one country and one people.

But to these words of pleasure, recreation, and friendship, — so
fully realized by all the members of the party, — the Avord of sad-
ness must be added. We felt that the social enjoyments of our
party must terminate, that many of us might not meet again; but
we did not dream, when we sepnrated, that one who had taken so
active a part in the doings of the Association and of the Section
during the excursion, as Prof J. E. Pkrry, — whom we all hoped
to meet again, — would be removed from his sjihere of labor and
usefulness, and called up higher, even before all our party had
reached their homes. Although he did not appear to be as stmng
in health as we could have wished, he shrunk Irom no <;ff<)rt ; and
we fear that the readiness with which he complie<l with the

A.A. A. S. VOL. XXI. 37

290 APPENDIX.

wishes of others may have tasked his energies of mind and body
too severely.

Prof Perry had interested all our members in the learned and
elaborate discourses delivered by him at Dubuque and rej^eated at
Springvale, and we had enjoyed his conversation and companion-
ship during the Avhole excursion. His quiet and gentlemanly bear-
ing had attracted the observation and secured the respect of all
the party, and we may truly say that none more sincerely than
they mourn his early and sudden death.

In concluding this narrative of the longest and, in some respects,
most practical excursion yet made by the members of our Associa-
tion, we may be permitted to express the opinion that, whether it
shall ever be repeated in any other direction or not, much good in
the cause of science and scientific observation cannot fail to result
from this, in the new and comparatively unexplored region visited.
The people everywhere manifested the most lively and gratifying
interest in the subjects of scientific inquiry, as the whole commun-
ity appeared to do at Dubuque, and left no means unemployed to
assist the members of the Section in the pursuit of tlieir peculiar
studies. Not only was a spirit of hospitality and friendliness
invoked in our aid, but, as in the city where our meeting had been
held, a desire was manifested by many to continue the investiga-
tions and observations initiated by their visitors, and follow in the
paths of study in some small degree opened to their enlightened
apprehension. " The pursuits of science," says Dr. Dick, " are
fitted to yield a positive gratification to every human mind. It
presents to view processes, combinations, metamorphoses, motions,
and objects of various description calculated to arrest the attention
and to astonish the mind far more than all the romances and tales
of wonder that were ever invented by the human imagination.
In order to make science advance with accelerated steps, and to
multiply sources of mental enjoyment, we have only to set the ma-
chinery of the human mind in motion, and to direct its movements
to those objects Avhich are congenial to its native dignity and its
high distinction."

In the true spirit of our Association, — the advancement of
science, — we entered upon this excursion; and thosx? who have
enjoyed its pleasures are encouraged in the belief that it has not
failed to leave ])leasant remembrances in its paths, and perchance
sown soma seed that may hereafter give evidence of the hopes that
insiiired it.

ERRATA.

On page 130, line 16, for ports read pools.

152, „ 2, for N. Wlnchell read N. 11. Winche/I.

163, „ 27, for 96 read 106.

163, „ 38. for 433 read 443.

163, „ 39, for 393 read 403.

(201)

INDEX.

Account of the Permanent Secretary, Cash,

274.

of the Permanent Secretary, Stock, 275.

AdJre.^s of Asa Gray, 1.

of W. B, Ail'ison, 262.

Air a.s a .Motor, Compres.sed, 63.
Allison, lion W. B , Address of, 262.
Analyses, and their Utility, On Soil, 66.
Ancient Mounds of Dubuciue and its Vicinity,

225.
Appendi.x, 280.
Arctic Regions, On the. 111.
Astronomy, Mathematics and, 33.
Atmospheric Theory of an Open Arctic Sea,

111.

Binary Stars, On, 33.

Botany, Zoology and, 192.

Bradley, L. . On .Apparatus for Electric Measure-
ment. 35.

Brussels I'lize Questions, On the Old Uaarlem
and the Latest, 199.

Cash Account of the Permanent Secretary,

27-1.
Chemistry, Physics and, 35.
Committee of the Dubuque Meeting, Local,

■ of the Dubuque Meeting. Standing, vi.
• of the Portland Meeting, Local, xii.
of the Portland Meeting, Standing, xi.

Committees, Special, ix.
Cominuuications, Number of, 261.

, Titles of. 256.

Constitution of the .\ssociation, xv.

, Report on the Revision of the, 279.

Crania of the Mound-Builders, Peculiarities

in, 227.
Cretaceous Deposits in Iowa, on the E;istern
Limit of, 187.

Delta of the Mississippi, On the, 78.

Deposits in Iowa, On the Eastern Limit of Cre-
taceous, 187.

Discoveries among the White Mountains, Recent
Geological, 135.

Dubuque and its Vicinity, Ancient Mounds
of, 225.

, Meeting at, 2'il.

Meetini;, Executive Proceedings of, 261.

=— Meeting, Officers of, vi.

Meeting, Scientific Proceedings of, 33.

Electric Measurement, Apparatus for, 36.

Embryology of Terebratuliua, On the Oviducts
and, 222.

Ethnology, 225.

European Institutions to which " Proceedings "
are distributed. 276.

Excursion across the State of Iowa, Scientific,
280.

Executive Proceedings of the Dubuque Meet-
ing, 261.

Fish in Racine River, Mortality of, 193.
Foote, A. E., On Zouochlorite, a New Uydrous

Silicate, 65.
Forshey, 0. G., On the Delta of the Mississippi,

78.
Foster, J. W., On Peculi.arities in the Crania

of the Mound-Builders. 227.

Geological Discoveries among the M'hite .Moun-
tiiins, 1.35.

Geological Map of New Ilampshire, Explana-
tion of a New, 134.

Geology and Geography. 1.3+.

Geology of North- Western Oliio, 1.'j2.

Gray, Asa, Address of. 1.

Gulf Stream Theory of an Open Arctic Sen,
111.

294

INDEX.

Haarlem and Latest Brussels Prize Questions,
Ou the Old. 199.

Hartshorne, Henry, On the Relation between
Organic Vigor and Sex. 192.

Hilgard, E. W , On Soil Analyses, 66.

Hilgard, T. C, On Microscopical Prize-Ques-
tions, 199.

, Review of the Present System of Oste-
ology, 208.

, On the Difference between the Animal

and the Ilunian Intellect, 216

History of the Dubuque Meeting, 261.

Hitchcock, 0. H., Explanation of a New Geo-
logical Map of New Hampshire, 13-1

, Recent Geological Discoveries among

the White Mountiiiiis, 135-

Hospitalities extended to the Association, 266

Hoy, P. H., Mortality of fish in Racine Kiver,
198.

Human Intellect, On the Difference between
the Animal and the, 216.

Huxley, Review of his Latest Views of Oste-
ology, 208.

Institutions, American, to which " Proceed-
ings" are distributeil, 275.

, European, to which " Proceedings " are

distributed, 276.

Intellect, Ou the Difference between the Ani-
mal and the Human, 216.

Jordan, William, Compressed Air as a Motor,
63.

Kirkwood, Daniel, On Binary Stars, 33.

Lecture by E. P. Morse, 266.

List of Institutions to which "Proceedings"

are distributed, 275, 276.
Local Committee, Address in behalf of, 262.

Committee of Dubuque, vii.

Committee of Portland, xii

Lovering, .Joseph, Permanent Secretary, Cash

Account of, 274.

, On Sympathetic Vibrations, by, 59.

, Report of, 273.

, Stock Account of, 275.

Machinery, Sympathetic Vibrations in, 59.
Map of New Hampshire, Kxplanatiou of a New

(icniogical. 131
.Matliemalics, Physics, and Chemistry, 33.
Measurement, Apparatus for Klectric, 35.
Meeting, Dubuque. Officers of, vi.

^ I'urtland, Officers of. 267.

, PortliiTnl. Tune of 267.

, .^cieutilic Proceedings of Dubuque, 33.

Meetings of the As.wcialion, xiii, xiv.
Microscopical I'ri/.e-Questions, Ou the Old

Haarlem and Latest Hrus.sels, 199.
Missi.ssippi, on the Delta of, 78.
Morse, E. S , Lecture by, 266.

Morse, E. S., On the Oviducts and Embryology

of Terebratulina, 222.
Mortality of Fish in Racine River, 198.
Motor, Compressed Air as a, 63.
Mound-Builders, Peculiarities in the Crania of,

227.
Mounds of Dubuque and its Vicinity, Ancient,

225.

Natural History, 134.
Neepigon Bay, On Zonochlorite from, 65.
New Hampshire, Explanation of a New Geo-
logical Map of, 134.
Number of Members in .\ttend.ance, 261.

of New Members chosen, 261.

of Papers registered, 261.

Officers of the Dubuque Meeting, vi.

of the Portland Meeting, xi.

Obio, Geology of North-Western, 152.

Organic Vigor and Sex, Ou the Relation be-
tween, 192.

Osteology, Review of the Present System of,
208.'

Oviducts and Embryology of Terebratulina,
On, 222.

Papers presented. Number of, 261.

read but not published, Titles of, 256.

Physics .and Chemistry, 35.

. Communications in, read but not pub-
lished. 256.

of the Globe, 78.

Portland Meeting, Time of, 267.

Meeting. Officers of, 267.

President tiray's Address, 1.

Proceedings of the Dubuque Meeting, Exec-
utive, 261.

of the Dubuque Meeting, Scientific, 33.

, to what Institutions distributed, 275,

R,acine River. Mortility of Fish in, 198.

Regions, On the Arctic, 111.

Report of .Toseph Lovering, Permanent Secre-
tary. 273,

ou the Meeting at San Francisco, 278.

on llevision of the Constitution, 279.

Resolutions adopted. 268.

Response of .). Lawrence Smith, 263.

Review of the Present System of Osteology,
208.

Rules ol a Permanent Character, xxi.

Scientific Excursion across the State of Iowa,

280.
Secretary, Peruinnent, Cash Account of, 274.

. Permanent, Report of, 273.

, Pcrmiinent. .Stock Account of, 275.

Sex, Ou the Relation between Organic Vigor

and, 192.
Smith, .1. Lawrence, Response of. 263.
Soil Analyses and their Utility, 66.
Stars, On' Binary, 33.

Stock, rermanent Secretary's .\ccount of, 275.
Sympathetic Vibrations, On, 59.

INDEX.

295

Terebratulina, On the Oviducts nnj Embry-
oloj^y of, 222.

Theory of an Open Arctic Pea. Atmospheric,
&V., 111.

Time of I'orthmd .Meefinjr, 207.

Title,") of Conimuuicatious, read but not pub-
lished, 256.

Vibrations, On Sympathetic, 59
Vigor^and Sex, On the Kelation between Or-
ganic, 192
Volumes dl.-itributed, 275.

on Hand, 275.

Votes of Thanks, 27U.

Wheildnn, W. W., Scientiflc E.\cursion acrona
the State of Iowa, 280.

, The .Arctic Ri'uinns, 111.

White, {!. A., On tlie KiLsterii Limit of Creta-
ceous Deposits ill low.i, 1S7.

M'hite Mountains, Recent (jeological Discoveries
amon^r. ig.j.

Wiiiclicll, N. U., The Surface Geology of North-
Western Ohio, 102.

Woodman, II. T., .Am-ient Mounds of Dubuiiue
and its Vicinity, 225.

Zonochlorite, A New Ilvdrous Silicate, Co.
Zoology and Dotauy, 192.

Cambridge : Press of John Wilson and Son.

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