ft ^
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
FOR THE FORTY-FIFTH MEETING
HELD AT
BUKFALO, N. Y.
AUGUST, 1896.
SALEM :
PLTBLISHED BY THE PKRMANENT SECRETARY.
January, 1897.
TiDITKD BY
Frederic W. Putnam.
Permanent Secretary.
"Cbc Salem press.
Salem, iMass.
1897.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Oilicei-s of the Buffalo Meeting v
Members of the Council for the Buffalo Meeting vi
Special Committees of the Association vii
Local Committee of an-angements lor the Buffalo Meeting .... viii
Meetings and Officers of the Amer. Association of Geologists and Naturalists x
List of Meetings of the Association xi
Officers of the Meetings of the Association xii
Act of Incorporation xx
Constitution . ' xxi
Members of the Association
Patrons xxx
Corresponding Members xxxi
Members xxxi
Surviving Founders Ivi
Honorary Fellows ' . . . . Ivii
Fellows Ivii
Deceased Members Ixxxii
IN GENERAL SESSION.
Address by Edward W. Morlet, the Retiring President ... l
SECTION A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY.
Officers of Section A . . ■
Titles of Papers Read
SECTION B. PHYSICS.
Officers of Section B
Address of Vice President, Cakl Leo Mees
Titles of "Papers Read
SECTION C. CHEMISTRY.
Officers of Section C
Address of Vice President, William a. xoves
Titles of Papers Read
Fourteenth Report of committke on Indexing Chemical Litera-
ture
Resolutions and Reports
(iii)
■24
■25
28
29
49
54
55
71
81
IV CONTENTS.
SECTION D. MECHANICAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING.
Officers of Section D S4
Address of Vice President, Frank O. Marvin S.>
Titles of Papers Read 97
SECTION E. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Officers of Section E 100
Address of Vice President, Benjamin K. Emerson .... lOl
Titles of Papers Read 1-27
Commemorative Meeting of the Sixtieth Anniversary of James
Hall's connection avith the Geological Scrveyof New York 128
Subsection of Pleistocene Geology 129
Resolutions of the Section 131
SECTION F. ZOOLOGY.
Officers of Section F 134
Address of Vice President, Theodore Gill 1.35
Titles of Papers Read 167
SECTION G. BOTANY.
Officers of Section G 170
Address of Vice President, N. L. Britton 171
Titles of Papers Read 185
SECTION H. ANTHROPOLOGY.
Officers of Section H 190
Address of Vice President, Alice C. Fletcher 191
Titles of Papers Read . . . . , 211
Resolutions, in Memory of Captain Bourke 215
Resolutions 215
SECTION I. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SCIENCE.
Officers of Section I 21S
Address of Vice President, W. R. Lazenby 219
Titles of Papers Read 235
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
Report of the General Secretary' 237
Report of the Permanent Secretary 259
Report of the Treasurer . 262
Cash Account of the Permanent Secretary" 264
INDEX.
^4)
OFFICERS
OF THE
BUFFALO MEETING.
PRESIDENT.
Edward D. Cope of Philadelphia.
VICE PRESIDENTS.
A. Mathematics and Astronomy — Alex. Macfarlaxe of South
Bethlehem, Pa.
B. Physics — Carl Lko Mees of Terre Haute, lud.
C. Chemistry — W. A. Noyes of Terre Haute, Ind.
D. Mechanical Science and Engineering— Frank 0. Marvin of
Lawrence, Ivans.
E. Geology and Geography— Ben. K. Emkrson of Amherst, Mass.
F. Zoology— Theoi)Ori<; Gill of Washington, D. C.
G. Botany— N. L. Britton of New York, N. Y.
H. Anthropology — Alice C. Fleicher of Washington, D. C.
I. Social and Economic Science— William R. Lazenby of Co-
lumbus, Ohio.
PERMANENT SECRETARY.
F. W. Putnam of Cambridge, Mass. (Office Salem, Mass.)
GENERAL SECRETARY.
Charles R. Barnes of Madison, Wis.
SECRETARY OF THE COUNCIL.
Asaph Hall, Jr., of Ann Arbor, Micli.
SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
A. Mathematics and Astronomy— Edwin B. Frost of Hanover,
N. H.
B. Physics — Frank P. Whitman of Cleveland, Ohio.
C. Chemistry— Frank P. Venable of Chapel Hill, N. C.
D. Mechanical Science and Engineering— John Galbraith of
Toronto, Can.
E. Geology and Geography— William North Rice of Middletown,
Conn.
F. Zoology — 1). S. Kellicott of Columbus, Ohio.
G. Botany — George F. Atkinson of Ithaca, N. Y.
H. Anthropology— George H. Perkins of Burlington, Vt.
I. Social and Economic Science— R. T. Colburn of Elizabeth,
N. J.
TREASURER.
K. S. Woodward of New York, N. Y.
(5) (V)
MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL
FOR THE
BUFFALO MEETING.
Past Presidents. — James Hall of Albanj^ ; B. A. Gould of Cambridge;
Simon Newcomb of Washington ; O. C. Maesh of New Haven ; George
F. Barker of Philadelphia; George J. Brush of New Haven; J. W.
Dawson of Montreal ; Chas. A. Young of Princeton ; J. P. Lesley
of Philadelphia; Edward S. Morse of Salem; Samuel P. Langley of
Washington; J. W. Powell of Washington; T. C. Mendenhall of
Worcester; George L. Goodale of Cambridge; Albert B. Prescott
of Ann Arbor ; Joseph LeConte of Berkeley ; William Harkness of
Washington; Daniel G. Brinton of Media; Edward W. Morley of
Cleveland.
Vice Presidents of the Springfield Meeting.— 'Edgah Frisby of Wash-
ington ; W. LbConte Stevens of Troy ; William McMurtrie of Brook-
lyn; William Kent of Passaic; Jed. Hotchkiss of Stamiton; Lkland
0. Howard of Washington; J. C. Arthur of Lafayette; F. H. Gushing
of Washington; B. E. Fernow of Washington.
Officers of the Buffalo Meeting. — E. D. Cope of Philadelphia; A. Mac-
FARLANE of South Bethlehem ; C. L. Meks of Terre Hailte ; W. A. No yes
of Terre Haute; F. 0. Marvin of Lawrence; B. K. Emerson of Amherst;
T. Gill of Washington ; N. L. Britton of New York ; A. C. Fletcher of
Washington; W. R. LAZENBYof Columbus; F. W. Putnam of Cambridge;
C. L. Barnes of Madison; A. Hall, Jr., of Ann Arbor; E. B. Frost of
Ha,nover; F. P. Whitman of Cleveland; F. P. Venable of Chapel Flill;
John Galbraith of Toronto; W. N. Rice, of Middletown; D. S. Kklli-
COTT of Columbus; G. F. Atkinson of Ithaca; G. H. Perkins of Bur-
lington; R. T. CoLBURN of Elizabeth; R. S. Woodward of New York.
From the Association at Large. — To hold over until successors are
elected. A fellow elected from each section. — E. W. Hyde of Cincinnati
(A.); Edward L. Nichols of Ithaca, N. Y. (B) ; E. A. de Schweinitz
of Washington (C) ; Thomas Gkay of Terre Haute (D) ; Arthur Hol-
LicK of New York (E) ; C. L. Marlatt of Washington (F) ; L. JNI. Un-
derwood of New York (G) ; Franz Boas, New York (H) ; W. H. Hale
of Brooklyn (I).
(vi) (6)
SPECIAL COMMITTEES OF THE ASSOCIATION.^
1. Auditors.
Emory McClintock, Morristowji, and B. A. Gould, Cambridge.
2. Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature.
H. Cakkixgton Bolton, Chairman, F. W. Clarke, a. K. Leeds, II. W. Wiley,
J. W. Langley, a. li. Pkescott, Alfred Tuckerman.
3. Committee on the Association Table in Biological Laboratory at
Woods Holl.
Vice Presidents of Sections F and G, aud C. O. Whitman, Chicago.
4. Committee on the Policy of the Association.
The President, Chairman, The Permanent Secretary, R. S. Woodward, T.
C. Mendenhall, Jas. Lewis Howe, Mansfield Merriman, H. L. Fairchild,
C S. MiNOT, C. E. Barnes, Franz Boas, Wm. H. Brewer.
5. Committee on Standards of ^Measurements.
T. C. Mendenhall, Chuirmun, W. A. Rogers, E. L. Xichols, E. S. Woodward,
H. A. Roland, H. S. Carhart. With power to add to its number.
6. Committee on Standard Colors and Standard Nomenclature of Colors.
O. X. Rood, Chairman, W. LeConte Stevens, William Hallock.
7. Committee on the Association Library.
ALFRED Springer, Chairman, A. W. Butler, W. L. Dudley, T. H. Norton,
Thos. French, Jr.
8. Committee for the study of the White Bace in America.
X). G. Brinton, Chairman, J. Mc K. Cattell, W. W. Xewell, W. J. McGee,
Franz Boas.
9. Committee to cooperate with the National Educational Association re-
garding the Teaching of Science in the Secondary Schools.
R. S. Tarr, Chairman, H. S. Carhart, A. S. Packard, C. F. Maberry, C. E. Bessey.
10. To represent the Association as Member of the American Advisory
Board on an Liternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
A. S. Packard.
11. Delegates to the Liternational Geological Congress in
St. Petersburg in 1897.
Edward D. Cope, James Hall, B. K. Emerson, W. N. Rice, C. D. Walcott
With power to fill any vacancy.
1 All Committees are expected to present their reports to the Council not later than
the third day of the meeting. Committees sending tlieir reports to the Permanent
Secretary one month before a meeting can liave them printed for use at the meeting.
(7) (Vii)
LOCAL COMMITTEES
FOR THE
BUFFALO MEETING
GENERAL COMMITTEE OF ARRANGEMENTS.
Hon. Edgar B. Jewett, Chairman.
Eben Pearson Dorr, Secretary.
And otherc: as given on page 31 of Daily Programme.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
Hon. Edgar B. .Jewett, Chairman.
Eben Pearson Dorr, Secretary.
And others as given on page 32 of Daily Programme.
FINANCE COMMITTEE.
Dr. Lee H. Smith, Chairman.
Williasi C. Cornwell, Treasurer,
And otlicri* as given on page 33 of Daily Programme.
COMMITTEE ON PRINTING.
Ottomar Eeinecke, Chairman.
Eben Pearson Dorr, Secretary.
And others as given on page 33 of Daih' Programme.
COMMITTEE ON EXCURSIONS AND ENTERTAINMENT.
William C. Cornwell, Chairman.
Frederick K. Mixer, Secretary.
And others as given on page 33 of Daily Programme.
COMMITTEE ON MAILS AND TELEGRAPH.
Frank C. Perkins, Chairman.
A. C. TERRY, Secretary.
And others as given on page 33 of Daily Programme.
(viii) (8)
LOCAL COMMITTEES. IX
COMMITTEE ON RAILROADS.
Edson J. Weeks, Chairmim.
Harry Parry, Secretary.
And others as given on page 34 of Daily Prograninie.
LADIES' RECEPTION COMMITTEE.
Mrs. Robert p. Wilson, Chairman.
Mrs. Lucien Howe, Vice-Chairman.
Mrs. LiLi' Lord Tifft, Secrelary.
And otliers as given on page 34 of Daily Programme.
COMMITTEE ON ROOMS AND PLACES OF MEETING.
Hon. H. p. Emerson, Chairman.
Frederick A. Yogt, Secretari/.
And others as given on page 34 oi Daily Programme.
COMMITTEE ON HOTELS AND LODGINGS.
Dr. Lee H. Smith, Chairman.
Dr. Chauncey p. Smith, Secretary.
And otliers as given on page .35 of Daily Pi-ogramme.
RECEPTION COMMITTEE.
Hon. Chas. Daniels, Chairman.
AViLLiAM H. Gratwick, Secretary.
And others as given on page 3.t of Daily Programme.
9)
MEETINGS A. A. G. N.
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(10)
MEETINGS.
PLACE.
DATE.
MEMBERS
IN ATTEND-
ANCE.
I KUMHEK OF
MEMBERS.
1.
Philadelphia
Sept. 20, 1848
?
461
2,
Cambridge
Aug. 14, 1849
p
540
3.
Charleston
Mar. 12, 1850
?
622
4.
New Ilaren
Aug. 19, 1850
9
704
5.
Cincinnati
May 5, 1851
87
800
H.
Albany
Aug. 19, 1851
194
769
7.
Cleveland
July 28, 1853
V
940
8.
Washington
April 26, 1854
168
1004
9.
Providence
Aug. 15,1855
166
605
10.
2nd Albany
Aug. 20, 1856
381
722
11.
Montreal
Aug. 12,1857
351
046
12.
Baltimore
April 28, 1858
190
962
13.
Springfield
Aug. 3, 1859
190
862
14.
Newport
Aug. 1, 1860
135
644
15.
Buffalo
Aug. 15, 1866
79
637
16.
Burlington
Aug. 21,1867
i^5
415
17.
Chicago
Aug. 5, 1868
259
686
18.
Salem
Aug. 18,1869
244
511
19.
Troy
Aug. 17, 1870
ISS
5.{6
20.
Indianapolis
Aug. 16, 1871
196
668
'21.
Dubuque
Aug. 15' 1872
164
610
22.
Portland
Aug. 20, 1873
195
670
23.
Hartford
Aug. 12,1874
224
722
24.
Detroit
Aug. 11,1875
165
807
26.
•2nd Buffalo
Aug. 23,1876
215
867
26.
Nashville
Aug. 29,1877
173
953
27.
St. Louis
Aug. 21,1878
134
962
28.
Saratoga
Aug. 27, 1879
256
1030
29.
Boston
Aug. 25, 1880
997
1555
30.
2nd Cincinnati
Aug. 17, 1881
500
1699
31.
2nd Montreal
Aug. 23, 1882
937
1922
32.
Minneapolis
Aug. 15, 1883
328
2033
33.
2nd Philadelphia
Sept. 3, 1884
1261*
1981
34.
Ann Arbor
Aug. 26, 1885
364
1956
35.
3d Buffalo
Aug. 18, 1886
445
1886
36.
New York
Aug. 10, 1887
72!)
1956
37.
2nd Cleveland
Aug. 14, 1888
342
1964
38. -
Toronto
Aug. 2 6, 1889
424
1952
39.
2d Indianapolis
Aug. 19.1890
364
1944
40.
2d Washington
Aug. 19,1891
653t
2054
41.
Rochester
Aug. 17, 1892
456
2037
42.
Madison
Aug. 17, 1893
290
1939
43.
Brooklyn
Aug. 15, 1894
488
1802
44.
2d Springfield
A ug. 28, 1895
368
1913
45.
4th Buffalo
Aug. 24, 1896
333
1890
♦Including members of the British Association and other foreign guests,
flncluding twent3--four Foreign Honorary members for the meeting.
(11)
(xi-)
OFFICERS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
[The number before the name is that of the meeting; the year of the
meeting folloAvs the name; the asterisk after a name indicates that the
member is deceased.]
PRESIDENTS.
1. f Wm. B. Rogers,* 1848.
I W. C. Redfield,* 1848.
2. Joseph Kenry,* 1849.
8, 4, 5. A. I). Bache,* March meet-
ing, 1850, in absence of Jo-
seph Henry.* August meet-
ing, 1850. May meeting, 1851.
6. Louis Agassiz,* August meet-
ing, 1851.
(No meeting in 1852).
7. Benjamin Pierce,* 1853.
8. James D. Dana,* 1854.
John Torrey,* 1855.
10. James H.vi>l, 1856.
11, 12. Alexis Caswell,* 1857, in
place of J. W. Bailey,* de-
ceased. 1858, in absence of
Jeffries Wyman.*
13. Stephen .•\lexaxder,* 18.59.
14. Isaac Lea,* 1860.
(No meetings for 1861-65).
15. F. A. P. Barnard,* 1866.
16. J. S. Newberry,* 1867.
17. B. A. Gould,* 1868.
18. J. W. Foster,* 1869.
19. T. Sterry Hunt,* 1870, in the
absence of Wm.Chauvenet.*
20. Asa Gray,* 1871.
21. J. Lawrence Smith,* 1872.
22. Joseph Lovering,* 1873.
23. J. L. LeConte,* 1874.
24. J. E. HiLGARD,* 1875.
25. WiLLi.\M B. Rogers,* 1876.
(xii)
26. Simon Newco.mk, 1877.
27. O. C. Marsh, 1878.
28. G. F. Barker, 1879.
29. Lewis H. Mohgan,* 1880.
30. G. J, Brush, 1881.
31. J. W. Dawson, 1882.
32. C. A. Young, 1883.
33. J. P. Lesley, 1884.
34. H. A. Newton,* 1885.
35. Edward S. Morse, 1886.
36. S. P. Langley, 1887.
37. J. W. Powell, 1888.
38. T. C. Mendenhall, 1889.
39. G. Lincoln Goodale, 1890.
40. Albert B Prescott, 1891.
41. Joseph LeConte, 1892.
.42. WiLLiAiM Harkness, 1893.
43. Daniel G. Brinton, 1894.
44. E. W. MORLEY, 1895.
45. Edward D. Copk, 1896.
46. Wolcott Gibbs. 1897.
(12)
OFFICERS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
XUl
VICE PRESIDENTS.
There Avere no Vice Presidents until the 11th meeting when there was a
single Vice President for each meeting. At the 24th meeting the Associa-
tion met in Sections A and B, each presided over by a Vice President. At
the 31st meeting nine sections were organized, each Avith a Vice President
as its presiding officer. In 1886, Sectioii G (Microscopy) was given up.
In 1892, Section F was divided into F, Zoology; G, Botany.
1867-1874.
11. Alexis Caswell,* 1857, acted
as President.
12. John E. Hoi.brook,* 1858, not
present.
13. Edward Hitchcock,* 1859.
14. B. A. Gould,* 1860.
15. A. A. Gould, *1866, in absence
of R. W. Gibbes.
16. WOLCOTT GiBBS, 1867.
17. Charles Whittlesey,* 1868.
18. Ogden N. Rood, 1869.
19. T. Steury Hunt,* 1870, acted
as President.
20. G. F. Barker, 1871.
21. Alexander Win'chell,* 1872.
22. A. H. WORTHEN,* 1878, not
present.
23. C. S. Lyman,* 1874.
1875-1881.
Section A. — Mathematics, Fhysics
and Chemistry. 24
H. A. Newton,* 1875. 25
C. A. Young, 1876. 26
R. H. Thurston, 1877, in the 27
absence of E. C. Pickering. 28
R. H. Thurston, 1878. 29
S. P. Langley, 1879. 30
Asaph Hall, 1880.
"William Harkness, 1881, in
the absence of A. M. Mayer
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Section B. — Natxiral History.
J. W. Dawson, 1875.
Edward S. Morse, 1876.
O. C. Marsh, 1877.
Aug. R. Gkotk, 1878.
J. W. Powell, 1879.
Alexander Agassiz, 1880.
Edward T. Cox, 1881, in the
absence of George Engel-
MANN.*
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
26.
27.
Chairmen of Subsections, 1875-1881.
Subsection of Chemistry.
S. W. JoHXSOX, 1S75.
G. F. Barker, 187(i.
N. T. LUPTON,* 1877.
F. W. Clarke, 1878.
F. W". Clarke, 1879, in the absence
of Ira Remsen.
J. M. Ordway, 1880.
G. C. Caldwell. 1881. in the absence
of W. R. Nichols,*
Subsection of Microscopy.
R. H. Ward, 1876.
R. H.Ward, 1877.
R. H. Ward, 1878, in the absence of
G. S. Blackie.*
28.
29.
30.
E. W. Morley, 1879.
S. A. Lattimore, 1880.
A.B. Hervey, 1881.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
30.
Subsection of Anthropology.
Lewis H. Morgan,* 1875.
Lewis H. Morgan,* 1876.
Daniel Wilson.* 1877, not present.
United with Section B.
Daniel Wilson,* 1879.
J. W. Powell, 1880.
Garrick Mallery,* 1881.
Sxibsection of Entomology.
J. G. Morris, 1881.
(13)
XIV
OFFICERS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
31
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
Vice Presidents
Section A. — Mathematics and
Astronomy.
W. A. Rogers, 1882, in the
absence of Williaji Hark-
XESS.
W. A. Rogers, 1883.
H. T. Eddy, 1884.
William Harkxess, 1885, in
the absence of J. M. Van
Vleck.
J. W. GiBBS, 1886.
J. R. Eastmax, 1887, in place
of W. Ferrel,* resigned.
Ormond Stoxe, 1888.
R. S. Woodward, 1889.
S. C. Chaxdlkr, 1890.
E. W. Hyde, 1891.
J. R. Eastmax, 1892.
C. L. DOOLITTLE, 1893.
f G. C. CoMSTOCK, 1894.
I Edgar Frisby, 1894.
Edgar Frisby, 1895, in place
of E. H. HoLDEX, resigned.
Alex. Macfarlaxe, 1896 in
OF Sectioxs, 1882-
Section C — Chemistry.
31. H. C. Bolton, 1882.
32. E. W. Morley, 1883.
33. J. W. Laxgley, 1884.
34. X. T. Luptox,* 1885, in absence
of W. R. XlCHOLS.*
35. H. W. Wiley, 1886.
36. A. B. Prescott, 1887.
37. C. E. MuxKOE, 1888.
38. W. L. DCDLEY,. 1889.
39. R. B. Warder, 1890.
40. R. C. Kedzle. 1891.
41. Alfred Sprixger, 1892.
42. Edward Hart, 1893.
43. T. H. NoRTOX, 1894.
44. Wm. McMurtrie, 1895.
45. W. A. Xoyes, 1896.
46. W. P. ilASOX, 1897.
place of Wm. E. Story, re-
31.
signed.
32.
46.
W. W. Bem.\x, 1897.
Section B. — Physics.
33.
34.
31.
T. C. Mexdeniiall, 1882.
35.
32.
H. A. RowLAXD, 1883.
36.
33.
J. Trowbridge, 1884.
37.
34.
S. P. Laxgley, 1885, in place
38.
of C. F. Brackett, resigned.
39.
35.
C. F. Brackett, 1886.
36.
W. A. Anthony, 1887.
37.
A. A. Michelsox, 1888.
40.
38.
H. S. Carhart, 1889.
41.
39.
Clicvelaxd Abbk, 1890.
42.
40.
F. E. NiPHER, 1891.
43.
41.
B. F. Thomas, 1892.
44.
42.
E. L. Nichols, 1893.
45.
43.
Wm. a. Rogers, 1894.
46.
44.
W. LeCoxte Stevens, 1895.
45.
Carl Leo Mees, 1896.
4(;.
Carl Barus, 1897.
(14)
Section D. — Mechanical Science
and Engineering.
W. P. Trowbridge,* 1882.
De Volsox Wood, 1883, ab-
sent, but place was not filled.
R. H. Thurston, 1884.
J. Burkitt Webb, 1885.
0. Chaxute, 1886.
E. B. Coxe, 1887.
C. J. H. WoopBURY, 1888.
James E. Dkntox, 1889.
James E. Dentox, 1890, in
place of A. Beardsley, ab-
sent.
Thomas Gray, 1891.
J. B. JOHXSOX, 1892.
S. W. RoBixsox, 1893.
Mansfield Merriman, 1894.
William Kent, 1895.
Frank 0. Marvix, 1896.
JoHX Galbkaith, 1897.
OFFICERS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
XV
Vice Presidents of Sections, continued.
Section E. — Geology and Geography;.
31. E. T. Cox, 1882.
32. C. H. Hitchcock, 1883."
33. N. H. WiNCHELi., 1884.
34. Edavaud Okton, 1885.
35. T. C. Chambermn, 1880.
36. G. K. Gilbert, 1887.
37. George H. Cook,* 1888.
38. Charles A. White, 1889.
39. John C. Branner, 1890.
40. J. J. Stevenson, 1891.
41. H. S. Williams, 1892.
42. Charlks D. Walcott, 1893.
43. Samuel Calvin, 1894.
44. Jed. Hotchkiss, 1895.
45. B. K. Emerson, 1896.
46. I. C. White, 1897.
Section F. — Biology.
31. W. H. Dall, 1882.
32. W. J. Beal, 1883.
33. E. D. Cope. 1884.
34. T. J. BuRiiiLL, 1885, In the ab-
sence of B. G. Wilder.
35. H. P. Bowditch, 1886.
36. W. G. Farlow, 1887.
37. C. V. KiLEY,* 1888.
38. George L. Good ale, 1889.
39. C. S. MiNOT, 1890.
40. J. M. Coulter, 1891.
41. S. H. Gage, 1892.
Section F. — Zoology.
42. Henry F. Osborn, 1893.
43. J. A- LiNTNEK, 1894, in place
of S. H. Scudder, resigned.
44. L. 0. Howard, 1895, in place
of I). S. Jordan, resigned.
45. Theo. Gill, 1896.
46. G. Brown Goode,* 1897.
Section G. — Microscopy.
81. A. H. Tuttle, 1882.
32. J. D. Cox, 1883.
33. T. G. Wormley, 1884.
34. S. H. Gage, 1885.
(Section united with F in 1886.)
Section G. — Botany.
42. Charles E. Bessey, 1893.
.„ r L. M. Underwood, 1894.
I C. E. Bkssey, 1894.
44. J. C. Arthur, 1895.
45. N. L. Bkitton, 1896.
46. G. F. Atkinso.v, 1897.
Section H. — Anthropology.
31. Alexander Win cheli.,* 1882.
32. Otis T. Mason, 1883.
33. Edward S. Morse, 1884.
34. J. Owen Dorse y,* 1885, in
absence of W. H. Dall.
35. Horatio H.\le, 1886.
36. D. G. Brinton, 1887.
37. Charles C. Abbott, 1888.
38. Garrick Mallery,* 1889.
39. Frank Baker, 1890.
40. Joseph Jastrow, 1891.
41. W. H. Holmes, 1892.
42. J. Owen Dorsey,* 1893.
43. Franz Boas, 1894.
44. F. H. Gushing, 1895.
45. Alice C. Fletcher, 1896.
46. W J McGee, 1897.
Section I. — Economic Science and
Statistics.
31. E. B. Elliott,* 1882.
32. Franklin B. Hough,* 1883.
33. John Eaton,* 1884.
34. Edward Atkinson, 1885.
35. Joseph Cumjhngs,* 1886.
36. H. E. Alvord, 1887.
37. Charles W. Smiley, 1888.
38. Charles S. Hill, 1889.
39. J. Richards Dodge, 1890.
40. Edmund J. James, 1891.
41. Lester F. Ward, 1892, in
place of S. Dana Horton,*
resigned.
42. William H. Brewer, 1893.
43. Henry Farquhar, 1894.
44. B. E. Fernow, 1895.
45. W. L. Lazenby, 1896.
46. R. T. COLBURN, 1897.
(15)
XVI
OFFICERS OF THE MEETINGS OF THK ASSOCIATION,
SECRETARIES.
General Secretaries, 1848-
1. Waltek R. Johnson,* 1848.
2. Eben N. Horsford,* 1849, in
the absence of Jeffries
Wyman.*
3. L. R. GiBBS, 1850, in absence
of E. C. Herrick.*
4. E. C. Herrick,* 1850.
5. William B. Rogers,* 1851, in
absence of E. C. Herrick.*
6. William B. Rogers,* 1851.
7. S. St. John,* 1853, in absence
of J. D. Dana.*
8. J. Lawrence Smith,* 1854.
9. WOLCOTT GiBBS, 1855.
10. B. A. Gould,* 1856.
11. John LeConte,* 1857.
12. W. M. Gillespie,* 1858, in ab-
sence of Wm. Chauvenet.*
13. William Chauvenet,* 1859.
14. Joseph LeConte, 1860.
15. EliasLoomis,* 1866, in the ab-
sence of W. P. Trowbridge*
16. C. S Lyman,* 1867.
17. Simon Newcomb, 1868, in
place of A. P. Rockwell,
called home.
18. O. C. Mahsh, 1869.
19. F. W. Putnam, 1870, in ab-
sence of C. F. Hartt.*
20. F. W. Putnam, 1871.
21. Edward S. Morse, 1872.
22. C. A. White, 1873.
23. A. C. Hamlin, 1874.
24. S. H. ScUDDEii. 1875.
25. T. C. Mendknhall, 1876.
26. AUG. R. Grote, 1877.
27. H. C. Bolton, 1878.
28. H. C. Bolton, 1879, in the ab-
sence of George Little.
29. J. K. Rees, 1880.
30. C. V. Riley,* 1881.
31. William Saunders, 1882.
32. J. R. Eastman, 1883.
33. Alfred Springer, 1884.
34. C. S. MiNOT, 1885.
35. S. G Williams, 1886.
36. William H. Pbttee, 1887.
37. Julius Pohlman, 1888.
38. C. Leo Mees, 1889.
39. H. C. Bolton, 1890.
40. H. W. Wiley, 1891.
41. A. W. Butler, 1892.
42. T. II. Norton, 1893.
43. H. L. Fairchild, 1894.
44. Jas. Lewis Howe, 1895.
45. Charles R.Barnes, 1896.
46. A. Hall, jr., 1897.
Permanent Secretaries, 1851-
5-7. Spencer F. Baiud,* 1851-3.
8-17. Joseph Lovering,* 1854-68.
18. F. W. Putnam, 1869, in the
absence of J. Lovering.*
19-21. Joseph Lovering,* 1870-72.
22-23. F. W. Putnam, 1873-74.
24-28. F. W. Putnam, 1875-79.
29-33. F. W. Putnam, 1880-84.
34-38. F. W. Putnam, 1885-89.
39-43. F. W. Putnam, 1890-94.
44-48. F. W. Putnam, 1895-99.
Assistant General Secretaries^
1882-1887.
J. R. Eastman, 1882.
Alfred Springer, 1883.
C. S. MiNOT, 1884, in the ab-
sence of E. S. Holden.
S. G. Williams, 1885, in the
absence of C C. Abbott.
W. H. Pettee, 1886.
J. C. Arthur, 1887.
Secretaries of the ConnciL 1888-
37. C. Leo Mees, 1888.
H. C. Bolton, 1889.
H. W. Wiley, 1890.
A. W. Butler, 1891.
T. H. Norton, 1892.
H. Lkroy Fairchild, 1893.
Jas. Lewis Howe, 1894.
Charles R. Barnes, 1895.
Asaph Hall, jr., 1896.
D. S.Kellicott, 1897.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
OFFICKKS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
XVH
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Secretaries of Section A. — Mathemat-
ics, Physics and Chemistry, 1875-81.
r S. P. Langley, 1875.
It. C. Mendenh.\ll, 1875.
A. W. Wright, 1876.
H. C. Bolton, 1877.
F. E. NiPHER, 1878.
J. K. Rees, 1879.
H. B. Mason, 1880.
E. T. Tappan, 1881, in the ab-
sence of John Trowbridge.
Secretaries of Section B. — Natural
History, 1875-81.
24. Edward S. Morse, 1875.
25. Albert H. Tuttle, 1876.
26. William H. Dall, 1877.
27. George Little, 1878.
28. William H. Dall, 1879, in
the absence of A. C. Weth-
ERBY.
29. Charles V. Riley,* 1880.
30. William Saunders, 1881.
Secretaries of Subsections, 1875-81.
Subsection of Chemistry.
24. F. W. Clarke, 1875.
25. H. C. BoLTOK. 187().
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
30.
P. Schweitzer, 1877.
A. P. S. Stuart, 1878.
W. R. Nichols,* 1879.
C. E. MUNROE, 1880.
Alfred Sprjnger, 1881, in the ab-
sence of II. B. Warder.
Subsection of Entomology.
B. P. Mann, 1881.
Subsection of Anthropology.
24. F. W. Putnam, 1875.
25. Otis T. Mason, 1876.
26. 27. United with Section B.
28, 29,30. J. G. Henderson, 1879-81.
Subsection of Microscopy.
23. E. VV. MORLEY, 1870.
26. T. O. SOMMERS, Jr., 1877.
27. G. J. EngelmaN'N, 1878.
28. 29. A. B. Hervev, 1879-1880.
30. W. H. Seaman, 1881, in tlie absence
of S.P. Sharples.
Secretaries of the Sections, 1882-
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Section A. — Mathematics and
Astronomy.
H. T. Eddy, 1882.
G. W. Hough, 1883, in the ab-
sence of W. W. Johnson.
G. W. Hough, 1884.
E. W. Hyde, 1885.
S. C. Chandler, 1886.
H. M. Paul, 1887.
C. C. DOOLITTLE, 1888.
G. C. Comstock, 1889.
W. W. Beman, 1890.
F. H. Bigelow, 1891.
WiNSLOw Upton, 1892.
C. A. W.\LDO, 1893, in the
absence of A. W. Phillips.
J. C. Kershner, 1894, in place
of W. W. Bemjvn, resigned.
Asaph Hall, jr., 1895, in place
of E. H. Moore, resigned.
Edwin B. Frost, 1896.
J. McMahon, 1897.
a. a. a. s. vol. xlv b
Section B. —Physics.
31. C. S. Hastings, 1882.
32. F. E. Nipher, 1883, in the ab-
sence of C. K. Wead.
33. N. D. C. Hodges, 1884.
34. B. F. Thomas, 1885, In place
of A. A. MiCHELSON, resigned.
35. H. S. Carhart, 1886.
36. C. Leo Mees, 1887.
37. Alex. Macfarlank, 1888.
38. E. L. Nichols, 1889.
39. E. M. Avery, 1890.
40. Alex. Macfarlane, 1891.
41. Brown Ayres, 1892.
42. W. LeConte Stevens, 1893.
43. B. W. Snow, 1894.
44. E. Merritt, 1895.
45. Frank P. Whitman, 1896.
46. F. Bedell, 1897.
(17)
XVlll
OFFICERS OP THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Secretaries of the Sections, continued.
Section E. — Geology and Geography.
H. S. Williams, 1882, in the
Sectio n C. — Chemistry .
31. Alfred Springer, 1882.
32 r J. W. Langley, 1883.
t W. McMurtrie, 1883.
33. H. Cahmichael, 1884, in the
absence of E. B. Warder.
34. F. P. DUNNINGTON, 1885.
35. W. McMurtrie, 1886.
36. C. S. Mabery, 1887.
37. W. L. Dudley, 1888.
38. Edward Hart, 1889.
39. W. A. NoYES, 1890.
40. T. H. Norton, 1891.
41. Jas. Lewis Howe, 1892.
42. H. N. Stokes, 1893, in the ab-
sence of J. U. Nep.
43. Morris Loeb, 1894, in place
of S. M. Babcock, resigned
^^ f W. P. Mason, 1895.
X W. 0. Atwater, 1895.
45. Frank P. Venable, 1896.
46. P. C. Freer, 1897.
Section D. — Mechanical Science and
Engineering.
31. J. BurkittWebb, 1882, in the
absence of C. R. Dudley.
32. J. BURKITT Webb, 1883, pro
tempore.
33. J. BuRKiTT Webb, 1884.
34. C. J. H. Woodbury, 1885.
35. AVllliam Ivent, 1886.
36. G. M. Bond, 1887.
37. Arthur Beardsley, 1888.
38. W. B. Warner, 1889.
39. Thomas Gray, 1890.
40. William Kent, 1891.
41. O. H. Landreth, 1892.
42. D. S. Jacobus, 1893.
43. John H. Kinealy, 1894.
44. H. S. Jacoby, 1895.
45. John Galbraith, 1896.
46. J. H. Flather, 1897.
(18)
31.
absence of C. E. Dutton.
32. A. A. JuLiEN, 1883.
33. E. A. Smith, 1884.
34. G. K. Gilbert, 1885, in the
absence of H. C. Lewis.*
35. E. W. Claypole, 1886.
36. W. M. Davis, 1887, in the ab-
sence of T. B. COMSTOCK.
37. John C. Branner, 1888.
38. John C. Branner, 1889.
39. Samuel Calvin, 1890.
40. W J McGee, 1891.
41. R. D. Salisbury, 1892.
42. W. H. HoBBs, 1893, in place of
R. T. Hill, resigned.
43. Jed. Hotchkiss, 1894, in place
of W. M. Davis, resigned.
44. J. Perrin Smith, 1895.
45. W. N. Rice, 1896, in place of
A. C. Gill, resigned.
46. C. H. Smyth, 1897.
Section F.— Biology, 1882-92.
31. William Osler, 1882, In the
absence of C. S. Minot.
32/ S. A. Forbes, 1883.
33. C. E. Bessey, 1884.
«
34. J. A. Lintner, 1885, in place
of C. H. Fernald, resigned.
35. J. C. Arthur, 1886.
36. J. H. CoMSTOCK, 1887.
37. B. H. Fernow, 1888.
38. A. W. Butler, 1889.
39. J. M. Coulter, 1890.
40. A. J. Cook, 1891.
41. B. D. Halsted, 1892.
Section F. — Zoology.
42. L. 0. Howard, 1893.
43. John B. Smith, 1894, in place
of Wm. Libby, jr., resigned-
44. C. W. Hargitt, 1895, in place
of S. A. Forbes, resigned.
45. D. S. Kellicott, 1896.
46. C. C. Nutting, 1897.
OFFICERS OP THE MEETINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
XIX
Secretaries of the
Section G. — Microscopy, 1882-85.
31.
32.
33.
34.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
Robert Bkowx. jr., 1882.
Carl Skiler, 1883.
ROMYN Hitchcock, 1884.
W. H. Waxmsley, 1885.
Section G. — Botany.
B. T. Galloway, 1893, in tlie
absence of F. V. Coville.
Charles R. Barnes, 1894.
f B. T. G.\LLOWAY, 1895.
I M. B. Waite, 1895.
George F. Atkinson, 1896.
F. C. Newcombe, 1897.
Sections, continued.
Stewart Culin and W.
"W. TooKER, 1895, in place
of Anita N. McGbe re-
signed.
G. H. Perkins, 1896, in place
of J. G. BouRKE,* deceased.
H. I. SraTH, 1897.
Section H. — Anthropology.
OtisT. Mason, 1882.
G. H. Perkins, 1883.
G. H. Perkins, 1884, in the ab-
sence of W. H. Holmes.
Erminnie a. Smith,* 1885.
A. W. Butler, 1886.
Charles C. Abbott, 1887, in
absence of F. W. Langdon.
Frank Baker, 1888.
W. M. Bkauchamp, 1889.
Joseph Jastrow, 1890.
W. H. Holmes, 1891.
W. M. Beauchamp, 1892, in
place of S. Culin, resigned.
Warren K. Moorehead, 1893.
A. F. Chamberlin, 1894.
44.
45.
46.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Section I. — Economic Science and
Statistics.
/ Franklin B. Hough,* 1882.
I J. Richards Dodge, 1882.
Joseph Cummings,* 1883.
Charles W. Smiley, 1884.
Charles W. Smiley, 1885, in
absence of J. W. Chickering.
H. E. Alvord, 1886.
W. R. Lazenby, 1887.
Charles S. Hill, 1888. .
J. Richards Dodge, 1889.
B. E. Fernow, 1890.
B. E. Fernow, 1891.
Henry Farquhar, 1892, in
place of L. F. Ward made
Vice-president.
Nellie S. Kedzie, 1893.
Manley Miles, 1894.
W. R. Lazenby, 1895, in place
of E. A. Ross, resigned.
R. T. COLBURN, 1896.
Archibald Blue, 1897.
TREASURERS.
1. Jeffries Wyman,* 1848. 8.
2. A. L. Elwyn,* 1849.
3. St. J. Ravenel,* 1850, in the 9-19.
absence of A. L. Elwyn.* 20-30.
4. A. L. Elwyn,* 1850.
5. Spencer F. B.urd,* 1851, in 32-42.
absence of A. L. Elwyn.* 43-46.
6-7. A. L. Elwyn," 1851-1853.
J. L. LeConte,* 1854, in ab-
sence of A. L. Elwyn.*
A. L. Elwyn,* 1855-1870.
William S. Vaux,* 1871-
1881.
William Lilly,*1882-1893.
R. S. Woodward, 1894-97.
(19)
COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.
IN THE YEAR ONE THOUSAND EIGHT HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-FOUR.
AN ACT
To Incorporate the " American Association for the
Advancement op Science."
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Eepresentatives, in General Court
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:
Skction 1. Joseph Henry of Washington, Benjamin Pierce of Cam-
bridge, James D. Dana of New Haven, James Hall of Albany, Alexis
Caswell of Providence, Stephen Alexander of Princeton, Isaac Lea of
Philadelphia, F. A. P. Barnard of New York, John S. Newberry of Cleve-
land, B. A. Gould of Cambridge, T. Sterry Hunt of Boston, Asa Gray of
Cambridge, J. Lawrence Smith of Louisville, Joseph Lovering of Cam-
bridge and John LeConte of Philadelphia, their associates, the officers
and members of the Association, known as the " American Association
for the Advancement of Science," and their successors, are hereby made
a corporation by the name of the " American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science," for the purpose of receiving, purchasing, hold-
ing and conveying real and personal property, which it noAv.is, or hereafter
may be, possessed of, with all the powers and privileges, and subject
to the restrictions, duties and liabilities set forth In the general laws
which noAv or hereafter may be in force and applicable to such corpo-
rations.
Section 2. Said corporation may have and hold by purchase, grant,,
gift or otherAvise, real estate not exceeding one hundred thousand dol-
lars in value, and personal estate of the value of tAvo hundred and fifty
thousand dollars.
Section 3. Any two of the corporators above named are hereby
authorized to call the first meeting of the said corporation in the month
of August next ensuing, by notice thereof "by mail," to each member of
the said Association.
Section 4. This act shall take effect upon its passage.
House of Representatives, March 10, 1874.
Passed to be enacted,
John F. Sanford, Speaker.
In Senate, March 17, 1874.
Passed to be enacted. March 19, 1874.
Geo. B. Loring, President. Approved,
W. B. Washburn.
Secretary's Department,
Boston, April 3, 1874.
A true copy, Attest :
David Pulsifer,
Deputy Secretary of the Commonwealth.
(xx^ (20)
CONSTITUTION
OF THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADYANCEMENT OF
SCIENCE.
Incorporated by Act oi tlie Genera! Court of the Commouwealth of Massachusetts
Objects.
Article 1. The objects of the Association are, by periodical and mi-
gratory meetings, to promote intercourse between tliose who are culti-
vating science in difierent parts of America, to give a stronger and more
general impulse and more systematic direction to scientific research, and
to procure for the labors of scientific men increased facilities and a
wider usefulness.
Mbmbers, Fellows, Patrons and Honorary Fellows.
Arp. 2. The Association shall consist of Members, Fellows, Patrons,
Corresponding Members and Honorary FelloM's.
Art. 3. Any person may become a Member of the Association upon
recommendation in writing by two members or fellows, and election by
the Council. Any incorporated scientific society or institution, or any
public or incorporated library, may be enrolled as a member of the
Association by vote of the Council by payment of the initiation fee;
such society, institution or library may be represented by either the
President, Curator, Director or Librarian presenting proper credentials
at any meeting of the Association for which the assessment has been
paid.
Art. 4. Fellows shall be elected by the Council from such of the
members as are professionally engaged in science, or have by their labors
aided in advancing science. The election of fellows shall be by ballot
and a majority vote of the members of the Council at a designated
meeting of the Council.
Art. 5. Any person paying to the Association the sum of one thou-
sand dollars shall be classed as a Patron, and shall be entitled to all the
privileges of a member and to all its publications.
(21) (xxi)
XXn CONSTITUTION.
Art. G. Honorary Fellows of the Association, not exceeding three
for each section, maybe elected; the nominations to be made by the
Council and approved by ballot in the respective sections before election
by ballot in General Session. Honorary Fellows shall be entitled to all
the privileges of Fellows and shall be exempt from all fees and assess-
ments, and entitled to all publications of the Association issued after the
date of their election. Corresponding Members shall consist of such
scientists not residing in America as may be elected by the Council, and
their number shall be limited to fifty. Corresponding Members shall be
entitled to all the privileges of members and to the annual volumes of
Proceedings published subsequent to their election.
Art. 7. The name of any member or fellow two years in arrears for
annual dues shall be erased from the list of the Association, provided
that two notices of indebtedness, at an interval of at least three months,
shall have been given ; and no such person shall be restored until he has
paid his arrearages or has been reelected. The Council shall have pow-
er to exclude from the Association any member or fellow, on satisf ac-
tor)' evidence that said member or fellow is an improper person to be
connected with the Association, or has in the estimation of the Council
made improper use of his membership or fellowship.
Art. 8. No member or fellow shall take part in the organization of,
or hold office in, more than one section at any one meeting.
Officers.
Art. 9. The officers of the Association shall be elected by ballot in
General Session from the fellows, and shall consist of a President, a
Vice President from each section, a Permanent Secretary, a General Sec-
retary, a Secretary of the Council, a Treasurer, and a Secretary of each
Section; these, with the exception of the Permanent Secretary, shall be
elected at each meeting for the following one and, with the exception of
the Treasurer and the Permanent Secretary, shall not be reeligible for
the next iavo meetings. The term of office of Permanent Secretary
shall be five years.
Art. 10. The President, or, in his absence, the senior Vice President
present, shall preside at all General Sessions of the Association and at
all meetings of the Council. It shall also be the duty of the President
to give an address at a General Session of the Association at the meet-
ing following that over which he presided.
Art. 11. The Vice Presidents sliall be chairmen of their respective
(22)
CONSTITUTION. XXUl
Sections, and of their Sectional Committees, and it shall be part of their
duty to give an address, each before his own section, at such time as the
council shall determine. The Vice Presidents may appoint temporary
Chairmen to preside over the sessions of their sections, but shall not
delegate their other duties. The Vice Presidents shall have seniority in
order of their continuous membership in the Association.
Art. 12. The General Secretary shall be the Secretary of all General
Sessions of the Association, and shall keep a record of the business of
these sessions. He shall receive the records from the Secretaries of
the Sections, which, after examination, he shall transmit with his own
records to the Permanent Secretary within two weeks after the adjourn-
ment of the meeting.
Art. 13. The Secretary of the Council shall keep the records of the
Council. He shall give to the Secretary of each Section the titles of
papers assigned to it by the Council. He shall receive proposals for
membership and bring them before the Council.
Art. 14. The Permanent Secretary shall be the executive officer of
the Association under the direction of the Comicil. He shall attend to
all business not specially referred to committees nor otherwise constitu-
tionally provided for. He shall keep an account of all business that he
has transacted for the Association, and make annually a general report
for publication in the annual volume of Proceedings. He shall attend to
the printing and distribution of the annual volume of Proceedings, and
all other printing ordered by the Association. He shall issue a circular
of information to members and fellows at least three months before
each meeting, and shall, in connection Avith the Local Committee, make
all necessary arrangements for the meetings of the Association. He
shall provide the Secretaries of the Association with such books and sta-
tionei-y as maybe required for their records and business, and shall pro-
vide members and felloAvs with such blank forms as may be required for
facilitating the business of the Association. He shall collect all assess-
ments and admission fees, and notify members and fellows of their
election, and of any arrearages. He shall receive, and bring before the
Council, the titles and abstracts of papers proposed to be read before the
Association. He shall keep an account of all receipts and expenditures
of the Association, aud report the same annually at the first meeting of
the Council, and shall pay over to the Treasurer such unexpended funds
as the Council may direct. He shall receive and hold in trust for the
(.23)
XXIV CONSTITUTION.
Association all books, pamphlets and manuscripts belonging to the Associ-
ation, and allow the use of the same under the provisions of the Constitution
and the orders of the Council. He shall receive all communications ad-
dressed to the Association during the intervals between meetings, and
properly attend to the same. He shall at each meeting report the names
of fellows and members who have died since the preceding meeting.
He shall be allowed a salary which shall be determined by the Council, and
may employ one or more clerks at such compensation as may be agreed
upon by the Council.
Akt. 15. The Treasurer shall invest the funds received by him in such
securities as may be directed by the Council. He shall annually present
to the Council an account of the funds in his charge. No expenditure of
the principal in the hands of the Treasurer shall be made without a unan-
imous vote of the Council, and no expenditure of ^the income received
by the Treasurer shall be made without a two-thirds vote of the Council.
The Treasurer shall give bonds for the faithful performance of his duty
in such manner and sum as the Council shall from time to time direct.
Art. 16. The Secretaries of the Sections shall keep the records of
their respective sections, and, at the close of the meeting, give the same,
including the records of subsections, to the General Secretary. They
shall also be the Secretaries of the Sectional Committees. The Secre-
taries shall have seniority in order of their continuous membership in
the Association.
Art. 17. In case of a vacancy in the office of the President, one of
the Vice Presidents shall be elected by the Council as the President of the
meeting. Vacancies in the offices of Vice President, Permanent Secre-
tary, General Secretary, Secretary of the Council, and Treasurer, shall
be filled by nomination of the Council and election by ballot in General
Session. A vacancy in the office of Secretary of a Section shall be filled
by nomination and election by ballot in the Section.
Art. 18. The Council shall consist of the past Presidents, and the Vice
Presidents of the last meeting, together with the President, the Vice Pres-
idents, the Permanent Secretary, the General Secretary, the Secretary of
the Council, the Secretaries of the Sections, and the Treasurer of the cur-
rent meeting, with the addition of one fellow elected from each Section
by ballot on the first day of its meeting. The members present at any
regularly called meeting of the Council, provided there are at least five,
(24)
CONSTITUTION. XXV
shall form a quorum for the transaction of business. The Council shall
meet on the clay preceding each annual meeting of the Association, and ar-
range the programme for the first day of the sessions. The time and place
of this first meeting shall be designated by the Permanent Secretary.
Unless otherwise agreed upon, regular meetings of the Council shall be
held in the Council room at 9 o'clock, a.m., on each day of the meeting of
the Association. Special meetings of the Council may be called at any time
by the President. The Council shall be the board of supervision of the
Association, and no business shall be transacted by the Association that
has not first been referred to, or originated with, tlie Council. The
Council shall receive and assign papers to the respective sections ; ex-
amine and, if necessary, exclude papers ; decide which papers, discus-
sions and other proceedings shall be published, and have the general
direction of the puijlications of the Association; manage the financial
affairs of the Association ; arrange the business and programmes for
General Sessions; suggest subjects for discussion, investigation or re-
ports; elect members and fellows; and receive and act upon all invita-
tions extended to the Association and report the same at a General Ses-
sion of the Association. The Council shall receive all reports of Special
Committees and decide upon them, and only such shall be read in General
Session as the Council shall direct. The Council shall appoint at each
meeting the following sub-committees who shall act, subject to appeal to
the whole Council, until their successors are appointed at the folloAving
meeting: 1, on Papers and Reports; 2, on Members; 3, on Fellows.
Art. 19. The Nominating Committee shall consist of the Council, and
one member or fellow elected by each of the Sections. It shall be the
duty of this Committee to meet at the call of the President and nominate
the general officers for the following meeting of the Association. It shall
also be the duty of this Committee to recommend the time and place for
the next meeting. The Vice President and Secretary of each Section shall
be recommended to the Nominating Committee by a sub-committee con-
sisting of the Vice President, Secretary, and three members or fellows
elected by the Section.
Mektings.
Art. 20. The Association shall hold a public meeting annually, for one
week or longer, at such time and place as may be determined by vote of
the Association, and the preliminary arrangements for each meeting shall
be made by the Local Committee, in conjunction with the Permanent Sec-
retary and such other persons as the Council may designate.
(25)
XXVI CONSTITUTION.
Art. 21. A General Session shall be held at 10 o'clock, a. m., on the
first clay of the meeting, and at such other times as the Council may di-
rect.
Skctions and Subsections.
Art. 22. The Association shall be divided into Sections, namely :— A'
Mathematics and Astronomy; B, Physics; C, Chemistry, including its ap-
plication to agriculture and the arts ; D, 3Iechanical Science and Engineer-
ing; E, Geology and Geography ; F, Zoology ; G, Botany ; H, Anthropology ;
I, Social and Economic Science. The Council shall have power to consol-
idate any two or more Sections temporarily, and such consolidated Sec-
tions shall be presided over by the senior Vice President and Secretary
of the Sections comprising it.
Art. 23. Immediately on the organization of a Section there shall be
three fellows elected by ballot after open nomination, who, with the Vice
President and Secretary and the Vice President and Secretary of the pre-
ceding meeting shall form its Sectional Committee. The Sectional Com-
mittees shall have power to fill vacancies in their own numbers. Meetings
of the Sections shall not be held at the same time with a General Session.
Art. 24. The Sectional Committee of any Section may at its pleasure
form one or more temporary Subsections, and may designate the officers
thereof. The Secretary of a Subsection shall, at the close of the meeting,
transmit his records to the Secretary of the Section.
Art. 25. A paper shall not be read in any Section or Subsection until
it has been received from the Council and placed on the programme of the
day by the Sectional Committee.
Sectional Committees.
Art. 26. The Sectional Committees shall arrange and direct the busi-
ness of their respective Sections. They shall prepare the daily programmes
and give tliem to the Permanent Secretary for printing at the earliest
moment practicable. No titles of papers shall be entered on the daily pro-
grammes except such as have passed the Council. No change shall be
made in the programme for the day in a Section without the consent of
the Sectional Committee. The Sectional Committees may refuse to place
the title of any paper on the programme ; but every such title, with the
abstract of the paper or the paper itself, must be returned to the Council
with the reasons why it was refused.
Art. 27. The Sectional Committees shall examine all papers and ab-
stracts referred to the Sections, and they shall not place on the programme
(26)
CONSTITUTION. XXVU
any paper inconsistent ■\vitli the cliaracter of tlie Association ; and to tliis
€nd they have power to call for any paper, the character of which may
not be sufficiently understood from the abstract submitted.
P.\PERS AND Communications.
Art. 28. All members and fellows must forward to the Permanent
Secretary, as early as possible, and when practicable before the conven-
ing of the Association, full titles of all the papers which they propose to
present during the meeting, with a statement of the time that each will
occupy in delivery, and also such abstracts of their contents as will give
a general idea of their nature ; and no title shall be referred by the Coun-
cil to the Sectional Committee until an abstract of the paper or the paper
itself has been received.
Art. 29. If the author of any paper be not ready at the time assigned,
the title may be dropped to the bottom of the list.
Art. 30. Whenever practicable, the proceedings and discussions at
General Sessions, Sections and Subsections shall be reported by pi'ofes-
sional reporters, but such reports shall not appear in print as the official
reports of the Association unless revised by the Secretaries.
Printed Proceedings.
Art. 31. The Permanent Secretary shall have the Proceedings of each
meeting printed in an octavo volume as soon after the meeting as possible,
beginning one month after adjournment. Authors must prepare their
papers or abstracts ready for the press, and these must be in the hands of
the Secretaries of the Sections before the final adjournment of the meet-
ing, otherwise only the titles will appear in the printed volume. The
Council shall have power to order the printing of any paper by abstract
or title only. Whenever practicable, proofs shall be forwarded to authors
for revision. If any additions or substantial alterations are made by the
author of a paper after its submission to the Secretary, the same shall be
•distinctly indicated. Illustrations must be provided for by the authors of
the papers, or by a special appropriation from the Council. Immediately
on publication of the volume, a copy shall be forwarded to every member
and fellow of the Association who shall have paid the assessment for the
meeting to which it relates, and it shall also be offered for sale by the
Permanent Secretary at such price as may be determined by the Council.
The Council shall also designate the institutions to which copies shall be
distributed.
(27) •
xxviu constitution.
Local Committee.
Art. 32. The Local Committee shall consist of persons interested in
the objects of the Association and residing at or near the place of the pro-
posed meeting. It is expected that the Local Committee, assisted by the
officers of the Association, will make all essential arrangements for the
meeting, and issue a circular giving necessary particulars, at least one
mouth before the meeting.
Library of the Association.
Art. 33. All books aud pamphlets received by the Association shall be
in the charge of the Permanent Secretary, who shall have a list of the
same printed and shall furnish a copy to any member or fellow on appli-
cation. Members and fellows who have paid their assessments in full
shall be allowed to call for books and pamphlets, Avhich shall be delivered
to them at their expense, on their giving a receipt agreeing to make good
any loss or damage and to return the same free of expense to the Secre-
tary at the time specified in the receipt given. All books and pamphlets
in circulation must be returned at each meeting. Not more than five books,
including volumes, parts of volumes, and pamphlets, shall be held at one
time by any member or fellow. Any book may be withheld from circula-
tion by order of the Council. [The Library of the Association was, by
vote of the Council in 1895, placed on deposit in the Library of the Uni-
versity of Cincinnati, Ohio. Members can obtain the ijse of books by
writing to the Librarian of the University Library, Cincinnati, Ohio.]
Admission Fee and Assess.ments.
Art. 34. The admission fee for members shall be five dollars in addi-
tion to the annual assessment. On the election of any member as a fellow
an additional fee of two dollars shall be paid.
Art. 35. The annual assessment for members and fellows shall be three
dollars.
Art. 36. Any member or fellow who shall pay the sum of fifty dollars
to the Association, at any one time, shall become a Life Member, and as
such, shall be exempt from all further assessments, and shall be entitled
to the Proceedings of the Association. All money thus received shall be
invested as a permanent fund, the income of which, during the life of
the member, shall form a part of the general fund of the Association ; but,
after his death, shall be used only to assist in original research, unless
otherwise directed by unanimous vote of the Council.
(28)
CONSTITUTIOX. XXIX
Art. 37. All admission fees and assessments must be paid to the Per-
manent Secretary, who shall give proper receipts for the same.
Accounts.
Art. 38. The accounts of the Permanent Secretary and of the Treas-
urer shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the Council.
Alterations of the Constitution.
Art. 39. No part of this Constitution shall be amended or annulled,
without the concuiTence of three-fourths of the members and fellows
present in General Session, after notice given at a General Session of a
preceding meeting of the Association.
(29)
MEMBERS
OF THE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCES
PATRONS
Thompson, Mus. Elizabeth, Stamford, Conn. (22).
Lilly, Gkx. William, Mauch Chunk, Pa. (28). (Died Dec. 1, 1893.)
Herrman, Mrs. Esthkr, 59 West o6th St., New York, N. Y. (29).
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.^
Warington, Robert, F.R.S., Rothamsted, Harpenden, England (40). C
MEMBERS.*
Abbe, Cleveland, jr., 2017 I St., Washington, D. C. (44). E
Abraham, Abraham, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Adams, C. E., M.D., Ballentine Gym. New Brunswick, N. J. (43). F
Aitkin, Miss Clara I., 210 Madi.son St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (40). H
Aitkin, Miss Helen J., 210 Madison St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (40). E H
Alden, Jno., Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass. (36).
'The numbers in parentheses indicate the meeting at which the member was elected.
The black letters at the end of line indicate the sections to which members elect to be-
long. The Constitution requires that the names of all members two or more years in
arrears shall be omitted from the list, but their names will be restored on payment of
arrearages. Members not in arrears are entitled to the annual volume of Proceedings
bound in paper. The payj/ieni of ten dollars at one time entitles a member (o the subse-
quent volumes to which he may be entitled, bound in cloth, or by the payment of twenty
dollars, to such volumes bound in half morocco.
^ Persons contributing one thousand dollars or more to the Association are classed
as Patrons, and are entitled to the privileges of members and to the publications.
The names of Patrons are to remain permanently on the list.
' See Article vi of the Constitution.
* Any Member or Fellow may become a Life Member by the payment of fifty dollars.
The income of the money derived from a Life Membership is used for the general pur-
poses of the Association during the life of the member; afterwards it is to be used to
aid in original research. Life Members are exempt from the annual assessment, and
are entitled to the annual volume. The names of Life Members are printed in small
capitals in the regular list of Members and Fellows.
(xxxi) (31)
XXXll MEMBERS.
Aldis, Owen F., 230 Monadnock Block, Chicago, 111. ;^41). H
Aldrich, Prof. William Sleeper, AVest Virginia Univ., Morgautown,
W. Va. (43).
Allderdice, Wm. H., P. A. Engineer, U. S. Navy, care Navy Department,
Washington, D. C. (33). D
Allen, Miss Augusta A., 42 Coulter St., GermantoAvn, Pa. (44). 6
Allen, J. M., Hartford, Conn. (22). D
Allen, Prof. Thomas G., Armour lust., Chicago, 111. (43). C
Allen, Walter S., 34 So. Sixth St., New Bedford, Mass. (39). C I
Anderson, Alexander P., University of Minnesota, Miuneapolis, Minn.
(45). G
Andrews, E. R., Rochester, N. Y. (41).
Appleby, Prof. William R., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (43).
D E
Appleton, Rev. Edw. W., D.D., Ashbourne, Montgomery Co., Pa. (28).
Appleton, Prof. William H., Ph.D., Svrarthmore College, Swarthmore,
Pa. (43). H E
Archambault, U. E., P. 0. Box 1944, Montreal, P. Q., Can. (31).
Avchbold, Dr. George, 65 Prospect Place, E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y.
(40).
Arms, Miss Jennie M., 18 W. Cedar St., Boston, Mass. (44). F
Atkinson, Jno. B., Earlington, Hopkins Co., Ky. (26). D
Atwood, Dr. Charles, Moravia, N. Y. (45). G
AvKRY, Samuel P., 4 E. 38th St., New York, N. Y. (30).
Ayer, Edward Everett, Room 12, The Rookery, Chicago, III. (37 j. H
Ayres, Horace B., Allaniiichy, N. J. (40).
Backus, Truman J., LL.D., Pres. Packer Inst., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Bacon, Chas. A., Beloit, Wis. (36). A
Baker, A. G., Springfield, Mass. (44).
Baker, O. M., 499 Main St., Springfield, Mass. (44).
Balch, Samuel W., Yonkers, N. Y. (43).
Balderstou, C Canby, Westtown, Chester Co., Pa. (33). B
Baldwin, Herbert B., 215 Market St., Newark, N. J. (43).
Baldwin, Miss Mary A., 28 Fulton St., Newark, N. J. (31). E H I
Bancroft, Alonzo C, Elma, Erie Co., N. Y. (41).
Banes, Charles H., 1107 Market St., Philadelphia, Pa. (31). D
Bangs, Lemukl Boi/roN, M.D., 127 E. 34th St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Bannan, John F., North Andover, Mass. (44). G
Barber, 1). H., P. O. Box 83, Springville, Linn Co., Iowa (37).
Barbour, Prof. Ervin H., Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. (45). E
Barclay, Robert, A.M., M.D., 3211 Lucas Ave., St. Louis, Mo. (30).
Barge, B. F., Mauch Chunk, Pa. (33).
Barker, Mrs. Martha M., 26 Eleventh St., Lowell, Mass. (31). E H
15arker, Mrs. Mary E., CoUiusville, Conn. (45).
Barnard, Charles, 866 Carnegie Hall Studios, West 56th St., New York,
N. Y. (43).
(32)
MEMBERS. XXXm
Barnett, Miss Katie Porter, Madison, Georgia (44). A H
Barnhart, Arthur M., 185 Monroe St., Chicago, 111. (42).
Barrows, David Prescott, Clareraont. Los Angeles Co., Cal. (43). H
Barrows, Walter B., Agricultural College, Ingham Co., Mich. (40). F
Barton, Prof. Samuel .M., Kernstown, Va. (48). A
Bascom, Miss Florence. Bryn Mawr Coll., Bryn Mawr, Pa. (42). E
Bastiii, Edson Sewell, The Philadelphia Coll. of Pharmacy, Philadelptiia,
Pa. (39).
Bausch, Henry, P. O. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (41).
Baxter, James N., care H. E. and C. Baxter, cor Division and Bedford Sts.,
Brooklyn, N. Y. (3(1).
Bay, J. Christian, Bacteriologist of the Iowa State Board of Health,
Ames, Iowa (42). 6
Baylies, Bradford L.B., M.D., 418 Putnam Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Beach, Spencer Ambrose, N. Y. Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. (41).
G
Bean, Thos. E., Box 441, Galena, 111. (28). F
Becher, Franklin A., 406 Irving Place, Milwaukee, Wis. (41). I A
Beckwith, Miss Florence, 394 Alexander St., Rochester, N. Y. (45). ft
Bell, Miss Clara, Springfield, Mass. (43).
Bkll, C. M., M.D., 320 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. (3C).
Banner, Henry (40). A
Bennett, Henry C, 256 W. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. (43).
Berry, Daniel. M.D., Carmi, White Co., 111. (41). BCE
Beveridge, David, loAva Alliance, Des Moines, Iowa (33). I
Biddle, James G., 944 Drexel Building, Philadelphia, Pa. (39).
Bien, Julius, 140 Sixth Ave., New York, N. Y. (34). E H
Bigelow, Willard Dell, Chem. Div., Dept. of Agric, Washington, D. C.
' (44). C
Bisgar, Hamilton F., M.D., 170 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio (40). B F
Billings, Edgar F., 165 High St., Boston, Mass. (44). C
Birge, Prof. EdAV. A., Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis. (42). F
Biscoe, Prof. Thomas Dwiglit, 404 Front St., Marietta, Ohio (41). ft
Bishop, Hkbeii R., Mills Building, New York, N. Y. (36).
BlacUmar, Abel E., 1074 Bergen St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Blair, Mrs. Helen Quinche, 409 Broadway, Cincinnati, Ohio (40). C
Blake, Edwin Mortimer, 230 Washington Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Blatchford, Eliphalet W., 375 No. La Salle St., Chicago, 111. (17). F
Bielle, Albert M., M.D., 342 S. Fourth St., Columbus, Ohio (37). F
Bmsh, W. G., Niles, Mich. (33). B D
Hodine, Donaldson, Prof, of Zoology and Geology, Wabash Coll., Craw-
fordsville, Ind. (45). E F
Bogne, Rev. Horace P. V., Avon, N. Y. (41). H I
Booraem, J. V. V., 204 Lincoln Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (36).
Horner, William, The Majestic, 52 and 54 Walton Place, Chicago, 111. (44).
Bourland, Addison M., M.D., Van Buren, Ark. (29). C E F
B.)Uton, Chas. L., M.S., 2909 Park Ave., St. Louis, Mo. (40). A D
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. C (33)
XXXIV MEMBERS.
Bovvditch, Charles P., 28 State St., Boston, Mass. (43). H
Bowers, Miss Virginia K., 61 3(1 St.. Newport, Ky. (27). FH B C
Bowker, R. R., 28 Elm St., New York, N. Y. (43). B
Boynton, May O., Ph.B., 69 North Prospect St., Burlington, Vt. (44). C
Br.\Ckenridge, Geo. W., San Antonio, Texas (41). I
Brackett, S. H., St. Johnsbnry, Vt. (43).
Bradley, Arthur C, Newport, N. H. (43).
Bradley, Charles S., P. 0. Box 259, Avon, N. Y. (40).
Bradley, M. J., 36 Hart St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Bradley, Milton, Springfield, Mass. (44). B
Bram-well, Geo. W., 335 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (43). D
iBrayton, Miss Sarah H., M.D., Evanston, 111. (33).
Breckenridge, Prof. Lester P., Champaign, 111. (41).
Brewster, Mrs. Mary S., Monntainville, Orange Co., N. Y. (13).
Brice, Judge Albert G., 19 Camp St., New Orleans, La. (32). H
Briggs, Thomas B., 115 E. 73d St., New York, N. Y. (43).
Brigham, Prof. Albert P., Hamilton, Madison Co., N. Y. (41).
Britton, Wiley, Kansas City, Kansas (40). F
Bromwell, Wm., Port Deposit, Md. (40).
Brooks, Prof. VV Ml. P., Amherst, Mass. (38). CF
Brown, Henry A., Westport Point, Mass. (38). I
Brown, Jonathan, 390 Broadway, Somerville, Mass. (29).
BroAvn, Samuel B., Morgantown, W. Va. (40). E
Brundage, Albert H., Ph.G., M.D., 1153 Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
F G H
Brush, Geo. W., M.D., 2 Spencer Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). B H
Bryant, Miss D. L., 998 Spring Garden St., Greensboro, N. C. (42). E ■
Buckingham, Ciias. L., 195 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (28).
Bnffum, Prof. Burt C, State Univ., Laramie, Wyo. (42). G
Bull, Prof. Storm. Madison, Wis. (44). D
Bur lie, Arthur N., A.B., Principal of Monson Academy, Monson, Mass.
(44).
Burr, Mrs. Laura E., Commercial Hotel, Lansing, Mich. (34). B
Burt, Milo Cudwortli, Amherst, Mass. (44). C
Bnrwell, .Artliur W., Ph.D., 208 Superior St., Cleveland, Ohio (37).
Calkins, Dr. Marsiiail, Springfield, Mass. (29).
Cannon, George L., jr., High Scliool, Denver, Col. (39). F H
Card, Fred W., Prof, of Horticulture, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
(45).
Carpenter, Mrs. Benjamin, 50 Cedar St., Chicago, 111. (41). H
Carpenter, Ford A.,.U. S. Weather Bureau, San Diego, Cal. (44). B
Carpenter, Geo. O., jr., care St. Louis Lead and Oil Co., St. Louis, Mo.
(29).
CAitrER, Jame,s C., 277 Lexington Ave., New York, N. Y. (36).
Carter, John E., Knox and Coulter Sts., Germantown, Pa. (33). B H
Cary, Albert A , 28 Cliff St., New York, N. Y. (36). D
(34)
MEMBERS. XXXV
Cary, Mrs. Elizabeth M. L., Baftalo, N. Y. (45;. E
Cliadbourn, Erloii K., Lewiston, Me. (29).
Chase, Frederick L.. Yale Univ. Observ., New Haveu, Coun. (43).
Chase. ]{. Stuart, 53 Summer St., Haverhill, Mass. (18). F
Chester, Commander Colby M., U. S. X., U. S. Naval Academy, Aiina|iolis,
Md. (28). E
Child, C. D., Ithaca, N. Y. (4-t). B
Christian, Ira W., Nobksville, Ind. (39).
Chrystie, Wm. F., Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, N. Y. (36).
Church, Koyal Tyler, Turin, Lewis Co., N. Y. (38). DF
Clancy, Michael Albert, 1426 Corcoran St., Washin-^loii, D. C. (40). H
Clapp, Geo. H., 116 Water St., Pittsburg, Pa. (33). H C
Clark, Alex. S., AVestlield, N. J. (33).
Clark, Edward, 417 Fourth St.. Washington, D. C. (40).
Clarke, John Mason, Ass't State Geol. and Paleontologist of N. Y., State
Hall, Albany, N. Y. (4.")). E
Clark, Jo.seph E., M.D., 184 Clinton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). A E
Clark, Oliver Durfee, 590 Halsey St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (41). F E
Clark, S. Wellman, M.D., 110 Mercer St., Jersey City, N. J. (44). H
Clarke, Sherman, 805 Wilder Building, Rochester, N. Y. (4 1). C
Clark, Thomas H., 22 Lancaster St., Worcester. Mass. (40).
Clark, Wm. Brewster, M.D., 50 E. 31st St., New York, N. Y. (33). F C
Clough, Albert L., S. B., Box 14, Manchester, N. H. (4.j). B
Cluett, J. W. Alfred, Troy, N. Y. (43).
Cobleigh, Wm. Merriam, K.M., Bozeman, Mont. (45). C
Cochran, C. B., Food Inspector to State Board of Agric, 51+ South High
St., West Chester, Chester Co.. Pa. (43). C
CoK, Henky W.,M.D., Oregonian Building. Portland, Oregon (32). H F
Coffin, Amory, Phoenixville, Chester Co., Pa. (31). D
Coit, J. Milner, Ph.D., Saint Paul's School, Concord, X. H. (33). B C E
Colgate, Abner W., Morristown, N. J. (44).
Colie, Edw. M., East Orange, X. J. (30). E I
Collie, Prof. Geo. L., Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. (42). E
Collin, Rev. Henry P., Coldwater, Mich. (37). F
Colton, Buel P., Normal, IMcLeau Co., 111. (34). F
Comstock, Dr. T. Grisvvold, 3401 Washington Ave., St. Louis, Mo. (29).
F H
Conant, Miss E. Ida, 42 West 48th St., New York, N. Y. (33). H I F
Couklin. Prof. Roland E., A.M., Enreka College, Eureka, 111. (-12). F
Cook, Dr. Charles D.. 133 Pacific St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (25).
Cook, Melville 1'., Greencastle, Ind. (45). 6
Coon, Henry C, M.D., Alfred Univ., Alfred Centre, N. Y.(29). B C F
Cope, Thos. P., Awbury, Germantown, Pa. (33). I
Copeland, Edwin Bingham, Monroe, Wis. (45). 6
Coquillett, Daniel William, Dep"t of Agric, Washington, D. C. (43). F
Corbitt, James II.. L^niversity of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. (44).
Corcoran, Dr. Luke, Maple St., Springfield, Mass. (44). H
(35)
XXX VI MEMBERS.
CoweU, Jno. F., Buffalo, N. Y. (35).
Cowles, Alfred H., 656 Prospect St., Cleveland, Ohio (37). B,C
Cowles, James Lewis, Farmington, Conn. (44).
Cox, Charles F., Pres. Council Scientific Alliance of New York, Grand
Central Depot, New York, N. Y. (43).
Crafts, Kobert H., 2329 So. 6th St., Minneapolis, Minn. (32). I B
Craig, John, Horticulturist, Experimental Faruis, Ottawa, Ontario, Can.
(41).
Crawford, John, Leon, Nicaragua, C. A. (40). E H
Crawley, Edwin S., Ph.D., Springfield Ave., Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia,
Pa. (45).
Crehore, Mary L., care Wm. W. Crehore, Hackensack, N. J. (43). B
Crowell, a. F., Woods HoU, Mass. (30). C
Cruilishank, James, LL.D., 206 So. Oxford St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (36).
Cunningham, Francis A., 1618 Wallace St.. Phihvdelphia, Pa. (33). DEB
Cunningham, Prof. Susan J., Swarthmore College, Swartlimore, Pa. (38). A
Cuntz, Johannes H., 325 Hudson St., Hobol^en, N. J. (36).
Curtis, William E., Post Buildiug, Washington. D. C. (40). H I
Cutler, Dr. Andrew S., Kankakee, HI. (32). I E
Daly, Hon. Charles P., 84 Clinton Place, New York, N. Y. (36). E H
Daniells, Prof. William W., Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis. (42). C
Davenport, Prof. Eugene, Dean of the Coll. of Agric, Univ. of HI.,
Champaign, 111. (39).
Davidson, R. J., Experiment Station, Blacksburgh, Va. (40). C
Davis, Abial B., A.M., 129 East Lincoln Ave., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. (44). A
Davis, Bradley Moore, Dep't of Botany, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
(45). G
Davis, G. C, Agricultural College, Mich.- (43).
Davis, J. C. Bancroft, 1621 H St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40).
Davis, J. J., M.D., 1119 College Ave., Racine, Wis. (31). F G
Davison, John M., 60 Oxford St., Rochester, N. Y. (38). C
Dean, Seth, Glenwood, Iowa (34). D
Deane, Walter, 29 Brewster St., Cambridge, Mass. (44).
DeCourcy, Bolton Waller, 911 North 10th St., Tacoma, Washington (41)
I D
Deeds, Edward A., Denison Univ., Granville, Ohio (45). B
DeForest, Henry S. (32). H I
Deghu6e, Joseph A., 247 Harrison St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (40). C
Delafleld, Maturin L., jr., Fieldston, Riverdale, New York, N. Y. (43). G
Densmore, Prof. H. D., Beloit, Wis. (41). G
Dewey, L. H., Dept. of Agric, Washington, D. C. (40). F
Dittenhoefer, A. J., 96 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (36).
Dodge, Charles Wright, M.S., Universitv of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.
(39). F
Dodge, Melvin Gilbert, Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y. (42). C
Dodge, Philip T., Tribune Building, New York, N. Y. (44). B D
(36)
MEMBERS. XXXVll
Dodge, Wm. C, 116 B St.. N. E., Washiiigtou, D. C. (40). H
Doty, P. A., 211 Park Ave.. Patersou, N. J. (43). D
Doubleday, H. H., 715 H St., N.W., Washiiigtou, D. C. (40). H
Doughty, John W., 165 Johnston St., Nevvburgh, N. Y. (19). E
Dow, Mrs. Frederick C, North Elm St., Manchester, N. H. (42). E F G H
Drescher, Williijald A. E., P. O. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (41). F
Druinmond, Isaac Wymau, Ph.D., 436 W. 22iid St., New York, N.Y. (36).
Dryer, Chas. R., Fort Wayne, Iiid. (38). E
Dudek, Miss Katie M., 54 W. 55th St., New Yorii, N. Y. (36). E
Duffy, Rev. James S., 474 Sackett St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Duggar, Beujiimiu Minge, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (45).
Du Pre, Prof. Daniel A., WoffordCoUege, Spartanburg, S. C. (28). B C E
Durand, Elias J., Ithaca, N. Y. (41). F
Durfee, W. F., Birdsboro, Berks Co., Pa. (33). D C B A E I
Dyar, Harrison G., A.M., Ph.D., 243 W. 99Lh St., Xew York, N. Y. (43).
Dyer, Clarence M., Lawrence, Mass. (22).
Edelheim, Carl, 253-259 N. Broad St., Pliiladelpliia, Pa. (33).
Edson, Hubert, Patieison, La. (40).
Edwards, J. W., P. O. Box 282, Rico, Col. (32).
Edwards, W. F., 535 Boylston St., Seattle, Wash. (33). B C
Ekeley, Prof. John B., The Cathedral School of Saint Paul, Garden City,
L. I. (42). C
Ellms, Joseph Wilton, Framingham Center, Mass. (44). C
Elmer, Howard N., St. Paul, Minn. (32). D I
Emery, Frank E., No. Caro. Experiment Station, Agric. and Median. Coll.,
Raleigh, N. C (38). F
English, Geo. L., 733 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (36).
EsTES, Dana, Bi-ookliiie, Mass. (29). I H
Evans, Alexander W., M.D., 12 High St., New Haven, Conn. (4.j) 6
Evans, Samuel G., 211 Main St., Evansville, Ind. (39). F
Evers, Edward. M.D , 1861 North Market St., St. Louis, Mo. (28).
FH
Ewell, Marshall D , M.D. , Rooms 618 and 614, Ashland Block, 59 Clark St.,
Chicago, 111. (40).
Fairchild, B. T., P. 0. Box 1120, New York, N. Y. (36).
Fairchild, Gen. Lucius, 302 Monona Ave., Madison, Wis. (42). I
Fairfield, W. B., U. S. C. and G. Survey, Washington, D. C. (40). E
Falconer, Wm., Glen Cove, Queens Co., N. Y. (29).
Fearey, Thomas Healey, 901 D. S. Morgan Building, Buffalo, N. Y. (45). B
Felt, Ephraim Porter, Northboro, Mass. (44). F
Fernald, F. A., 72 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. (43). C
Fireman, Peter, Ph.D., The Columbian Univ., Washington, 1). C. (45).
Fischer, E. G., U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washiu^iton, D. C.
(40). A
Fisher, Geo. E., 37 and 39 Wall St.. New York, N. Y. (37).
(37)
XXXVUl MKMBKKS.
Flanders, Charles S., Fraukiin, Mass. (42). E
Fletcher, C. R., 82 Equitable Bnildiiifr, Boston, Mass. (29). C E
Floody, Rev. Robert John, Sc.M., S.T.U., South Ashburuliam, Mass.
(44). H
Focke, Theodore M., 80 So. Professor St., Oberlin, Ohio (44). B
Forwood, Dr. W. H., Soldiers' Home, Washington, 1). C. (40).
Frankforter, Prof. Geo. B., The Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
(43). C
Freeman, Prof. T. J. A., Woodstock Coll., Howard Co., Md. (33). B C
Freley, Prof. Jasper Warren, Wells Coll., Aurora, Cayuga Co., N. Y.
(45). B E
Frick, Prof. John H., Central Wesleyan Coll., Warrentoii, Mo. (27). E FB A
Fries, Dr. Harold H., 92 Reade St., New York, N. Y. (40). C
Frisbie, J. F., M.D., Box 4.55, Newton, Mass. (29). E H
Frothixgha:m, Mhs. Lois R., Milton, Mass. (31). F A I
Fuller, Chas. G., M.D., 38 Central Music Hall, Chicago, HI. (35). F
Fuller, Levi K., Brattleboro, Vt. (.34). D A
Fuller, Melville W., LL.D., Chief Justice U. S.. 1800 Mass. Ave., Wash-
ington, D. C. (40).
Furbish, Miss Kate, 13 Lincoln St., Brunswick, Me. (44). 6
Gable, George D., Ph.D., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. (40). A B
Galloway, Prof. Thomas Walton, IMissouri Valley Coll., Marshall, Mo.
(45). F G
Gardner, Rev. Corliss B., Ripley, N. Y. (29). A B I
G.\Ri.AND, James, 2 Wall St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Garman, Harrison, Lexington, Ky. (38).
Garnett, Algernon S., M.D., Hot Springs, Ark. (23).
Gamier, Madame Laure Russell, 116 W. •59th St., New York, N. Y. (40).
Gates, Nelson J., 1141 Dean St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Gault, Franklin B., Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho (43).
Gause, Frederick T., 128 Pearl St., New York, N. Y. (40).
Gay, Miss E. J., 214 1st St., S. E., Washington, D. C. (44). H
Genth,Fred. A., Lansdowne, Del. Co., Pa. (32). C E
Georgeson, Charles C, M.Sc, Manhattan, Kan. (42). I
Gerrodette, Frank Honore. Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (45).
H E I
Getman, Frederick H., 196 Atlantic St., Stamford. Conn. (45). B
Gibbons, John T., M.D., U. S. N., 1297 Bushwick Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
(43). E
Gil.son, George Fredom, Pleasanton, Alameda Co., Cal. (41). H
Glexny, William H., .jr., Buflalo, N. Y. (25).
Golden, Miss Katherine E., Lafayette, Ind. (42). G
Goldsborough, W. E., M.E., 164 Columbia St., Lafayette, Ind. (44). D
Goodnow, Henry R., 95 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y. (32). B
Goodridge, E. A., M.D., 85 Maine St., Flushing, N. Y. (36).
Goodyear, William H., 222 E. 69th St., New York, N. Y. (43).
(38)
MEMBERS. XXXIX
• 4
Gottlieb, J. Adelphi, A.M.. M.l)., Sc.D., 304 \V. 104th St., New York,
N. Y. (43). CEFGHI
Gould, Sylvester C, Manchester, N. H. (22). A B E H
Grabau, Amadeus W., S.B., Mass. Inst. Technology, Boston, Mass. (45).
Graef, Edw. L., 58 Court St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (28). F
(iraf, Louis, Van Buren, Crawford Co., Ark. (30). E F H
Green, Edgar Moore, M.l)., Easton, Pa. (36).
Greene, Prof. Edward Lee, Univ. of Cal., Berkeley, Cal. (42). G
Greene, G. K., 195 West 1st St., New Albany, Ind. (38).
Greene, Jacob L., Pres. Mut. Life Ins. Co., Hartford, Conn. (23).
Greene, Jeannette B., M.D., Sci.D., F.E.C., 5G W. 55th St., New York,
N. Y. (33). F E C
Green, Milbrey, M.I)., 5G7 Columbus .\ve., Boston, Mass. (2!)).
Greenleaf, John T., Owego, N. Y. (33). F
Greenleaf. R. P., M.D., 803 Market St., Wilmington, Del. (31). B F
Greve, Theodor L. A., M.D., 260 W. 8th St., Cincinnati, Ohio (30).
Griscoin, Wni. W., Haverford College P. O., Pa. (33). BCD
Grower, George G., Ansonia, Conn. (43). B D
Gruener, Hippolyte, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio (44).
Gulliver, F. P., Norwich, Conn. (40). E
Gunckel, Lewis W., care The Seybold Machine Co., Dayton, Ohio (41). H
Gurley, Wui. F. E., Danville, Vermilion Co., 111. (37). E
Guthe, Karl E., Ph.D., Instructor in Physics at the Univ. of Mich., 36
Kingsley St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (45). B D
Hacker, William, General Offices, Peun. R. R. Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (33).
F E
Hagemann, John, 125 Rusk St., Houston, Texas (29). C
Hagar, Stansbury, 372 AVashington Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Haight, Stephen S., C.E., 1266 Clover St., West Farms, New York, N. Y.
(31). D
Hale, George D., 5 Gibbs St., Rochester, N. Y. (41).
Hall, James P., 6 Poplar St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (40). A B
Hall, Winfleld S , M.D., Northwestern Univ. Medical School, 2421-2431
Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. (40).
Halstead-, D. B., 335 Washington Ave.. Brooklyn, N. Y. (48).
Hammon, W. H., Forecast Official, Weather Bureau, San Francisco, Cal
(37). B
Harmon, Miss A. Maria, 189 Maclaren St., Ottawa, Ontario, Can. (31). H F
Harper, Henry Winston, M. D., Univ. of Texas, Austin, Texas (45). C
Harrington, Prof. Mark W. , Pres. Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
(40). B
Harris, Prof. Elmo G., Missouri School of Mines, RoUa, Mo. (43).
Harris, Miss Emma G., Woonsocket, R. I. (44). H FE
Harris, I. H., Waynesville, Warren Co., Ohio (30). E H
Harris, Mrs. Robert, Buckingham Hotel, New York, N. Y. (36).
Harrison, Caleb N., 1010 N. Arlington Ave., Baltimore, Md. (42). A B
(39)
Xl MEMBERS.
Harrison, Miss Carrie, U13 N St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (42). 6
Harrison, Edwin, 520 Olive St., Room 620, St. Louis, Mo. (11). E
Hart, C. Porter, M.U., Wyoming, Hamilton Co., Ohio (30). F
Hart, Rev. Prof. Samuel, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (22). A
Hartz, J. D. Aug., College Point, N. Y. (43).
Harvey, A. P., Kirkwood, Mo. (40).
Hatliaway, Nath'l, New Bedford, Mass. (30). C
Haven, Franklin, jr.. New England Trust Co., Boston, Mass. (29).
Hays, Joseph A., Ph.G., 147 So. 18th St.. Pittsburgh, Pa. (44). B C G H
Hays, Prof. U'illet M., Saint Anthony Park, Saint I'aul, Minn. (45).
Haywood, Prof. John, Otterbein Univ., Westerville, Ohio (30). A B
Head, W. R., 5407 JeflVisoii Ave., Hyde Park, Cliicago, 111. (38). E
Hedge, Fred. H., Public Library, Lawrence, Mass. (28). F H
Hediick, Henry B., A.B., Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, D. C. (40).
Henderson, Mrs. Alice Palmer, 2301 Clinton Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
(42). H
Hendricks, Henry H., 49 Cliff St., New York, N. Y. (30).
Henry, Chas. C, M.D., 56 Clark St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Hershey, Oscar H., Galena, Stone Co., Mo. (42). E
Hertzberg, Prof. Constantine. 181 S. Oxford St., Brooklyn, N. V. (29).
BF
Hexamkh, C. John, C.E., 419 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (33). C B
Heyer, Wm. D., IG South Reid St., Elizabeth, N. J. (33). B D
Hice, Richard R., Beaver, Beaver Co., Pa. (41). E
Hicks, Gilbert II., 2221 15th St., N. W , Washington, D. C. (43).
Higbee, H. H., Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. (43).
Higley, Warren, 120 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (43).
Hill, John Edward, Brown Univ., Providence, R. I. (44). D
Hinton, John H., M.D., 41 West 32nd St., New York, N. Y. (29). F H
Hitchcock, Miss Fannie R. M., 300 William St., E. Orange, N. J. (35). F
Hoadley, Geo. A., A.M., Sw.'utlnnoi'e Collese, Swarthmore, Pa. (40).
Hobbs, Prof. Perry L., Western Reserve Medical College, Cleveland,
Ohio (41). C
Hodge, J. M., Big Stone Gap, Va. (29). D E
Hodges, Julia, 139 W. 41sl St., New York. N. Y. (36). E FH
Hodskins, Miss G. A., Springfield, Mass. (44). F6
Hoe, Mks. R., jr., U E. 36th St., New York. N. Y. (36).
Hoe, Mrs. Richard M., 11 E. 71st St.. New York, N. Y. (36).
Hoeltge, Dr. A., 322 Lime St., Cincinnati, Ohio (30).
Hoffman, The Rev. Eugene Aug., D.D., Dean of Gen. Tlieol. Seminary,
426 W. 23d St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Holden, E. F., 530 W. Onondaga St., Syracuse, N. Y. (43). A
Holden, L. E., The Ilollenden, Cleveland, Ohio (32).
HoLDEX, Mks. L. E., The Hollenden, Cleveland, Ohio (35).
HoUey, George W.. Ithaca, N. Y. (19). B I
Hollingsworth, Jno. E., Austin. Texas (40).
Hollinshead, Warren H , Vanilerbilt Univ., Nashville, Tenn. (37).
(40)
MEMBERS. Xli
Holmes, W. Newton, rrilcliett Scliool Inst., Glas.i^ovv, Mo. (36).
Holstein, Geo. Wolf, Albany, Shackelford Co., Texa.s (28). E H
Holt, Henry, 29 West 23d St., New York, N. Y. (29).
Holton, Henry D., Brattleboro, Vt. (44). I
Hoinburg, Frederick, 40 Clll'ton Ave., Cincinnati, Oliio (31)). C
Homer, Chas. S., jr., of Valentine & Co., 245 Broadway, New York, N. Y.,
(29).
Hood, Gilbert E., Lawrence, Mass. (29). H E B
Hood, William, 512 Van Ness Ave., San Francisco, Cal. (35). D
Hooker, Prof. Henrietta E., Mt. Holyoke Coll., South Hadley, Mass.
(45) G
Hooper, Prof. Franklin W., Curator Brooklyn Inst., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Hopkins, A. D., Kxper. Station, Morgautown, W. Va. (42). F
Hopkins, Prof. A. J., Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. (44). C
Hopkins, Grant S., Itliaca, N. Y. (41). F
Hopkins, Thos. C, Geologist, State College, Centre Co., Pa. (38). E
Horr, Asa, M.D., 1311 Main St., Dubuque, Iowa (21). B E
Horsford, Miss Cornelia, 27 Craigie St., Cambridge, Mass. (43). H
Hoskins, William, La Grange, Cook Co., 111. (34). C
Hotchkiss, Homer J., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (45). B
Hough, Romeyn B., Lowville, N. Y. (37).
Howe, Lucien, M.D., 183 Delaware Ave., cor. Huron St., Buffalo, N. Y.
(45).
Hoyt, James T., Temple Court, Beekman St., New York, N. Y. (38).
A H
Hudson, George H., Plattsburgh, Clinton Co., N. Y. (31). F
Hume, Alfred, C. E., University, Miss. (39). A
Humphrey, Daniel, M.D., Lawrence, Mass. (18). F H
Humphrey, James Ellis, Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. (44). 6
Hungerford, W. S., care W. Ames & Co., Jersey City, N. J. (43). D
Hunt, J. H , M.D., 1085 Bedford Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Hunt, Richard M., Metropolitan Building, 1 Madison Ave., New York,
N. Y. (36).
Hunt, Miss Sarah E., Salem, Mass. (20).
Hunter, Prof. Joseph Rufus, Richmond Coll., Richmond, Va. (45). C
Huntington, Elon, 762 N. St. Paul St., Rochester, N. Y. (41). B E
Huntington, F. W., Montclair, N. J. (45). B
Hurd, E. O., Plainville, Hamilton Co., Ohio (30). EF
Hutchinson, Wm. M., M.D., 207 Clinton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (40). C B
Hyde, B. T. B., 20 W. 53d St., New York, N. Y. (43). D
Hyde, E. Francis, 522 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. (43). A
Hyde, Frederick E., M.D., 20 W. 53d St., New York, N. Y. (43). E
Hyde, Frederick E., jr., 20 W. 53d St., New York, N. Y. (43). H
Iles, George, 5 Brunswick St., Montreal, Can. (31). I
Ingham, Wm. A., 320 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (33). EI
Innes, Murray, care O. D. Copper Mining Co., Globe, Arizona (45).
(41)
xlii
MEMBEKS.
Irwell, Lawrence, 7G West Tnpper St., Buffalo, N. Y. (45). F
Ives, Frederick E., 2750 N. 11th St., Philadelphia, Pa. (4-1). B
Ives, James T. B., Philadelphia, Pa. (43). E
James, Bushrod W., M.D., N. E. cor. 18th and Green 8ts., Philadelpliia,
Pa. (29). F
James, Darwin R., 220 Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
James, Mrs. Darwin R., 22G Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
James, Davis L., 131 West 7th St., Cincinnati, Ohio (30). F
Jefferis, Wm. W., 1836 Green St., Philadelphia, Pa. (33). E
Jenks, Wm. H., Brookville. Pa. (88).
Jenner, Cliarles H., Prof, of Natural and Applied Sciences, Brockport,.
N. Y. (41). ABD
Jennings, Walter L., 900 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. (45).
Jesunofsky, Lewis N., U. S. Weatlier Bureau, Charle.ston, S. C. (3(;). B
Jewett, Dr. Frederic A., 282 Hancock St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Johnson, Henry Clark, 27 and 29 Pine St., New York, N. Y. (42). I
Johnson, Dr. Henry L. E., 1400 L St., N. W., Washington. D. C. (40)..
F
Johnson, Lorenzo N., Boulder, Col. (39). F
Johnson, Nels, Manistee, Mich. (41). AB
Johnson, Ro.swell Hill, 2.34 Highland Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. (44). FH'G
Jones, Prof. Forrest R., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (42). D
Jones, Prof. Frederick S., The Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
(45).
Jones, Paul M., D.Sc, Nasliville, Tenn. (40). E F
Jordan, Whitman H., Director N. Y. Agric. E.\per. Station, Geneva, X. Y. '
(45).
Kedzie, John H., Evanston, 111. (34). B
Keeler, Aaron Benedict, 70 N. Pearl St., Buffalo, N. Y. (45) I
Keep, Wm. J., Detroit, Mich. (37).
Keith, Walter J., Ph.D., State College, Pa. (44). C
Kelley, Henry S., 208 Wooster St., New Haven, Conn. (36). D C
Kelley, John Harris, Bentonville, Ark. (44). C
Kellogg, David S., M.D., Plattsburgh, N. Y. (29). H
Kellogg, John H , M.D., Battle Creek, Mich. (24). F
Kendriek, Prof. Arthur, Rose Polj'technic Inst., Terre Haute, Ind. (45). B
Kennedy, Dr. George Golding, Roxbury, Mass. (40). F
Kennedy, Harris, 284 Warren St., Roxbury, Mass. (40). E F
Kern, Josiah Quincy, Ph.D., P. O. Box 265, Treasury Dept., Washington,
I). C. (40). I
Kinder, Miss Sarah A., 28 Lockerbie St.', Indianapolis, Ind. (39). H
King, A. F. A., M.D., 1315 Mass. Ave., N. W., Washington, D. C. (29).
F H
King, Miss Ada M., 8 Briggs Place, Rochester, N. Y. (39). E I
King, Miss Harriet M., Salem, Mass. (28).
Kingsbury, Prof. All)ert, Durham, N. H. (43). D
(42)
MEMBERS. xUii
Kingsbury, Benj. F., Itliaca, N. Y. (45). F
Kinner, Hugo, M.D., 1517 South Seveiilh St., St. Louis, Mo. (21). F H
Kirkpatrick, Walter G., 2102 West End Ave., Nashville, Tenn. (41).
Kittredge, Miss H. A., North Andover, Mass. (37). F
Klie, G. H. Carl, M.D., 5100 No. Broadway, St. Louis, Mo. (39). C F
Kneeland, Stillmau F., LL.D., 110 Berkeley PI., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). I
Knight, Chas. H., M.D., 20 W. 31st St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Knight, Prof. Charles M., 219 So. Union St., Akron, Ohio (29). C B
Knox, Wilra, Society for Savings Building, Cleveland, Ohio (38).
Koons, B. F., Storrs, Conn. (43).
Kost, John, LL.D., Adrian, Mich. (34). E
Koues, Mi.ss Elizabeth L., The Cathedral School of Saint Mary, Garden
City, N. Y. (41). I
Kr^csy, Prof. B61a, Gyor, Hungary (41). C
Kuhne, F. W., 19 Court St., Fort Wayne, Ind. (38). A F
Ladd, G. IC, Bradford, Mass. (39). E
La Forge, Lawrence, Alfred Univ. Observ., Alfred, N. Y. (43).
Lambert, Preston A., 215 S. Center St., Bethlehem, Pa. (41). A
Lampard, Henry, 102 Shuter St., Montreal, Can. (40). C D E
Landero, Carlos F. de, Ass't Director, Pachuca and Real del Monte
Mining Co., Pachuca, Mexico (36). C B
Lang, Prof. Henry R., Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn. (41). H
Langmann, Gustav, M.D., 115 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Lasche, Alfred (39). CFG
Latham, Woodville, 32 E. 21st St., New York, N. Y. (48).
Law, Benedict W., Pasadena, Cal. (45). E
Lawrance, J. P. S., Past Ass't Engineer, U. S. N., Navy Yard, Norfolk,
Va. (35). D
Lawrence, Harry E., Rochester Univ., Rochester, N. Y. (44). B
Laws, Miss Annie, 100 Dayton St., Cincinnati, Ohio (30). I
Leavitt, R. G., Easthampton, Mass. (44). B
Lee, Mrs. William, 1382 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. (36).
Leeds, James S., 109 Produce Exchange, New York, N. Y. (41).
Leiter, L. Z., 81 South Clark St., Chicago, 111. (40).
Lemp, William J., cor. Cherokee and 2nd Carondelet Avenue, St. Louis,
Mo. (27).
Leslie, Geo. L., Prin. High School, Rock Island, 111. (40).
Lewis, Geo. S., jr., Springfield, Mass. (44). 6
Lewis, Joseph Volney, Prof, of Geol. and Mineral., (Uemson College, S.C.
(45). E C
Lewis, Wm. J., M.D., 145 W. 43d St., NeAv York, N. Y. (33). F E
Lincoln, Prof. David F., M.D., 18 Sidney Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (41).
Lindenkohl, Adolphus, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,
D. C. (40). E
Lindsay, Alexander M., Rochester, N. Y. (41).
Livermore, Mrs. M. A. C. 1569 Mass. Ave., Cambridge, Mass. (29). F
(43)
Xliv MEMBERS.
Loeser, Gustav, Fulton St., opp. De Kalb Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Loewy, Benno, 206 and 208 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (41).
Logan, F. G., 2919 Prairie Ave., Chicago, 111. (42). H
Logan, "Walter S., 58 William St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Lomb, Adolph, P. O. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (41).
Lomb, Henry, P. O. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (41).
Lomb, Henry C, P. 0. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (43).
Lonsdale, Elston H., Ass't Missouri Geol. Survey, JeflFerson City, Mo.
(41). E
Lord, Benjamin, 34 W. 28th St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Lord, Prof. H. C, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio (44). A
Lovejoy, Frederick W., 348 Hancock St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Low, A. A., Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). A
Lowell, Aug., 60 Stale St., Boston, Mass. (29).
Lowman, John H., M.D., 345 Prospect St., Cleveland, Ohio (37).
Ludlow, Wm., Lt. Col. U. S. A., care War Dep't, Washington, D. C (33).
D B
Lufkin, Albert, Newton, Iowa (31). D E
Lull, Richards., Amherst, Mass. (43). FH
Lund, James, 142 Hawthorne St., Maiden, Mass. (45).
Lyman, Benj. Smith, 708 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa. (15). E
Lyman, Henry H., 74 McTavish St., Montreal, P. Q., Can. (29). F E
Lyon, Edmund, 110 So. Fitzhugh St., Rochester, N. Y. (41).
MacArthiir, Charles L., Troy, N. Y. (39).
McCammou, Gen. Joseph K., 1420 F St., Washington, D. C (40).
McCartney, Dr. James H., 138 East Main St., Rochester, N. Y. (41). B
McClinlock, A. H., Wilkes Barre, Pa. (33). H
McCIintock, Frank, Grand Junction, Col, (43). A B D
McCormick, L. M., Curator Glen Island Mus. Nat. Hist., Glen Island,
N. Y. (43) .
McCulloch, Champe Carter, jr., Ph.D., M.D., Fort Ringgold, Texas (39).
E
Mac Dougal, Daniel T., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (44). G
McFadden, Prof. L. H., Westerville, Ohio (32). B C
McFarland, Robert W., LL.D., Oxford, Ohio (33). A
McGee, Miss Emma R., Farley, Iowa (33). H
McGiffert, James. 169 8th St., Troy, N. Y. (44). A
MacGregory, A. C, 36 Fremont St., Springfield, Mass. (43).
McHenry, Prof. B. F., Union Clirislian College, Merom, Ind. (39). A E
McLean, T. C, Lieut. U. S. N., New Hartford, Oneida Co., N. Y. (33).
McMillan, Smith B., Signal, Columbiana Co., Ohio (37).
McMillin, Emerson, 40 Wall St., New York, N. Y. (37).
McPherson, Prof. Wm., Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio (45). C
McWilliams, D. W., 39 So. Portland Ave., Brooklyn. N. Y. (43).
Macdougall, Alan, 32 Adelaide St. East, Toronto, Ontario, Can. (38). D H
Macfarlane, Dr. John M., Lanstlovvne, Del. Co., Pa. (41). F
(44)
MEMUKRS. xW
Magruder, Wra. T., Ohio State Univ., Coluiubns, Ohio (37).
Malliuckrodt, Edw., P. O. Sub-station A, St. Louis, Mo. (29). C
Malone, Rev. Sylvester, 69 So. 3d St., Broolilyn, N. Y. (43).
Mann, Abram S., Rochester, N. Y. (39). E
Mann, Albert, Ph.D., Ohio Wesleyan Univ., Delaware, Ohio (43). F 6
Mann, Thomas Wm., 35 Hampden St., Holyoke, Mass. (44). D
Manning, Charles H., U. S. N., Manchester, N. H. (35). D
Manning, Warren H., Brookline, Mass. (31). FHE
Mapes, Charles Victor, 60 W. 40th St., New York, N. Y. (37). C
Marble, Manton, 532 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. (36).
Marble, J. Russel, Worcester, Mass. (31). C E
Mar1)le, Miss Sarah, W^oonsocket, R. I. (29). C
Marindin, Henry Louis, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wasliington»
D. C. (40). E
Markley, Joseph L., Ph.D.. 50 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (40).
Marple, Charles A., 717 W. Chestnut St., Louisville, Ky. (39). B
Marsden, Samuel, 1015 North Leffenwell Ave., St. Louis, Mo. (27).
AD
Mateer, Horace N., M.D., Wooster, Wayne Co., Ohio (36). F E
Mathews, Miss Mary Elizabeth, Lake Erie Seminary, Painesville, Ohio-
(41). F
Mattison, Joseph G., 20 West 14th St., New York, N. Y. (30). C
Mattoon, Laura I., Springfield, .Mass. (44). F
Maxwell, Henry W., 70 First Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. ('43).
Maynard, Geo. C, 1227 19th St., Washington, D. C. (35). B D
Maynard, Prof. Samuel T., Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. (38).
Maynard, Washburn, Lieut. Com'd U. S. N., Bureau of Ordnance, Navy
Dep't, Washington, D. C. (33). B
Means, John H., Cal. State Mining Bureau, 24 Fourth St., San Francisco,.
Cal. (38). E
Meeds, Alonzo D., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (42).
Meehan, Mrs. Thos.. Germantown, Pa. (29).
Mellor, Chas. C, 77 Fifth Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. (38).
Merrick, Hon. Edwin T., P. O. Box 606, New Orleans, La. (29). E A
Merrill, Miss Harriet Bell, 449 Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis. (43 j. F
Merrill, Mjs. Winifred Edgerton, Ph.D., 2 Sprague Place, Albany, N. Y.
(35). A
Merrow, Miss Harriet L., Kingston, R. I. (44).
Merry weather, George N., cor. 6th and Race Sts., Cincinnati, Ohio (30^.
FH
Metcalf, Oiu.ando, 424 Telephone Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. (35). D
Miller, Prof. Arthur M., State College, Lexington, Ky. (45). E
Miller, Prof. Dayton C, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland. Ohio
(44). B
Miller, Edgak G., 213 E. German St., Baltimore, Md.(29). E F A
Miller, Prof. Frank E., Westerville, Ohio (44). A
Miller, John A., 2500 Park Ave., Cairo, III. (22). D
(45^
Xh'i MEMBERS.
Minns, Miss S., 1-t Louisburg Square, Boston, Mass. (32).
Mittiiig, E. Kennarcl, 416 Huron St., Chicago, 111. (40).
Mixer, Fred. K., 427 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. (35). E
Mohler, John F., Dickinson Coll., Carlisle, Pa. (44). B
Molson, John H. R., Montreal, P. Q., Can. (31).
Moody, Lucius W., New Haven, Conn. (43). H
Moody, Mrs. Mary B., M.D., Fair Haven Heights, New Haveii, Conn.
(25). E F
Moore. Burton E., Lincoln, Xeb. (41). B
Moore, Clarence B., 1321 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa. (44). H
Moore, Geo. D., Ph.D., Polytechnic Inst., Worc«;ster, Mass. (40).
Moore, Prof. Willis L., Chief of Weather Bureau, Dept. of Agric, Wash-
ington, D. C. (44). B
Morehead, J. Turner, Spray, N. C. (44). C
Morgan, Wm. F., Short Hills, N. J. (27).
Moseley, Edwin L., A.M., High School, Sandusky, Ohio (34).
Moss, Mrs. J. Osborne, Sandusky, Ohio (35). F
Moulton,Prof. Chas. W., Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (44). C
Mowry, Wra. A., 17 Riverside Square, Hyde Park, Mass. (29). I
Moxom, Philip Stafford, D.D., Springfield, Mass. (44). H I
Muckey, Floyd S., care W. Hallock, Columbia College, New York (44). B
Muir, John, Martinez, Cal. (22).
Mulford, Miss A. Isabel, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo. (45).
G
Mulliken, Samuel P., 46 High St., Newburyport, Mass. (43).
Munson, Prof. Welton M., Maine State College, Orono, Me. (41).
Murphy, Edward, M.D., New Harmony, Ind. (39). C
Myer, Mrs. Isaac, 21 E. 60th St., New York, N. Y. (44).
Myers, William S., S.B., F.C.S., Rutgers Coll., New Brunswick, N. J.
(43). C
Myrick, Herbert, Springfield, Mass. (44).
Nardroft', Ernest R. von, 360"^ Tompkins Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (44). B
Needham, James G.. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (45). F
Neft', Peter, jr.. Consulting Eng. and Supt., The Arctic Machine Mfg. Co.,
10 West St., Cleveland, Ohio (34) B
Nelson, Julius, Ph.D., Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. (43).
Nelson, Wm., Rooms 7 and 8, Paterson Nat'l Bank, Paterson, N. J. (42).
Nesmith, Ileury E., jr., 28 South St., New York, N. Y. (30). B F C
Newson, Jolm F., Ass't Prof. Geol., Univ. of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.
(44). E
Nichols, Austin P., 4 Highland Ave., Haverliiil, Mass. (37).
Nichols, Miss Mary A., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (45).
Niven, William, 853 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (44).
Norton, Prof. Wm. H., Mt. Vernon, Iowa (39). E
Nourse, Prof. David 0., Blacksburgh, Va. (43).
Noyes, Miss Mary C, Ph.D., Lake Erie Seminary, Painesville, Ohio (43).
Nunn, R. J., M.D., 119 York St., Savannah, Ga. (33). B H
(46)
MKMBEKS. Xlvii
O'Connor. Joseph, 146 Frank St., Kochester, N. Y. (41 .
OUls, Prof. George D., Aniher.st, Mass. (38). A
O'Neill, Wm. Lane, Downing Building, New York, N. Y. (43).
Orleman, Miss Daisy M., M.D., Peekskill Military Acad., Peekskill, N. Y.
(40). F
Osborne, Amos O., Waterville, Oneida Co., N. Y. (19). E
O.sgooil, Joseph B. F., Salem, Mass. (31).
Ostrauder, Mrs. Sarah E.. 910 Lafayette Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
O'SuUivan, Rev. Denis T., S.J., 27 and 29 W. Kith St , New York. N. Y.
(40). B A
Oviatt, David B., Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. (40). D
Oweu, Prof. D. A.. Franklin, Ind. (34). E
Page, Dr. Dudley L., 46 Merrimack St., Lowell, Mass. (33). F
Pack, Mrs. Nellie K., 46 Merrimack St., Lowell, Mass (33). F
Palmer, Dr. Edward, care F. V. Coville, Dep't of Agric, Wu.siiingtou,
D. C. (22). H
Park, Dr. Roswell, Pres. Buff. Soc. Nat. Hist., 510 Delaware Ave., Buffalo,
N. Y. (45). H
Parker, Hari'iet P.. 2 Grace Court, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Parker, Herschel C, 21 Fort Greene Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Parks, C. Wellmau, U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D. r. (42).
Parks, Prof. R. M., Bedford, Ind. {39). C
Parmelee, H. P., Charlevoix, IMich. (42). H E
Parsons, Jno. E (36).
Patten, John, care The E. 1). Onion Ice Co., Baltimore, Md. (43).
Patterson, Mrs. Flora Wambaugh, Ass't Pathologist, Dep't of Agric,
Washington. D. C. (44). C
Patterson, Geo. W.. jr., Ann Arbor, Mich. (44).
Patterson, Prof. James L , Union Coll.. Schenectady, N. Y. (45).
Patton, Horace B., Golden, Col. (37). E
Paul, Caroline A., M.D., Vineland, Cumberland Co., N. J. (23).
Payne, Frank Fitz, Meteorological Office, Toronto, Ontario, Can. (38;.
Peale, Albert C, M.D., U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (36). E
Peck, Mrs. Emma J., 44 Billings Park, NeAvton, Mass. (40).
Peck, Mrs. John H., 3 Irving Place, Troy, N. Y. (28).
Peck, W. A., C.E., 1051 Clarkson St., Denver, Col. (19). E
Peckham. Wheeler H., Drexel Building, Wall St., New York. N. Y.
(36).
Pedi'ick, Miss Catherine F., Lawrence, Mass. (43).
Peirce, Cyrus N., D.D.S., 1415 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (31). F
Peirce, George James. Botanical Dep't, Tlie Univ. of Indiana. Blooming-
ton, Ind. (44). G
Pell, Alfred, Highland Falls, N. Y. (36).
Ph-.inaxs, Arthur, 14 State St., Hartford, Conn. (31). B A
Perkins, Frank K., Principal Grammar School No. 26, Gates Ave., near
Ralph, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
(47)
Xlviii MEMBEKS.
Perry, Hon. Andrew J., 30 First Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Petitdidier, O. L., Mt. Ciirmel, 111. (39). ABD
Pettee, Rev. J. T., Meriden, Conn. (31)).
Pettegrew, David Lyman, P. O. Box 1004, Worcester, Mass. (44). A
Pfister, Joseph Clement, 240 Sixth Ave. (Roseville), Newark, N. J. (43).
Phillips, Orville P., University, Los Angeles Co., Cal. (43).
Pickett, Dr. Thos. E., Maysville, Mason Co., Ky. (25). H F
Pickett, W. D., Wise, Big Horn Co., Wyo. (41). D I
Pierce, Josiab, jr., 922 Equitable Building, Baltimore, Md. (40). E
PxERREPONT, Hexry E., 21(5 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Pike, J. W., Mahoning, Portage Co., Ohio (29). EOF
Pilling, J. W., 1301 Mass. Ave., Washington, D. C. (40).
Pillsbury, J. E., Lieut. U. S. N., 225 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, jMass.
(33). E B
Pinney, Mrs. Augusta Robinson, 350 Central St., Springfield, Mass. (44).
FG
Pitkin, Lucius, 138 Pearl St., New York, N. Y. (29).
Pitt, Prof. William H , 2 Arlington Place, Buffalo, N. Y. (25).
Place, Edwin, Terre Haute, Ind. (33). B
Pollard, Charles Louis, 1839 r.th St., N. W., Washington, T>. C. (44). Q
Pomeroy, Charles Taylor, cor. Passaic & Reynolds Ave's, East Newark,^
N. J. (43).
Pope, Edward S., 235 Blackford St., Indianapolis, Ind (39).
Porteous, John, 176 Falmouth St., Boston, Mass. (22).
Porter, Miss Edna, 77 Bryant St., Buffalo, N. Y. (41). F G
Porter, Prof. James Madison, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. (45). D
Post, Prof. Charles M., Alfred Centre, N. Y. (39). B
Potter, Mrs. Charles B., Ill Spring St., Rochester, N. Y. (41). H
Potter, Rev. Henry C, 804 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (29).
Potter, Henry Noel, 111 Spring St., Rochester, N. Y. (41). B
Potter, 0. B., 20 Lafayette Place, New York, N. Y. (36).
Prang, Louis, 45 Centre St., Roxbury, Mass. (29). D
Price, J. Sergeant, 709 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (33).
Proctor, Miss Edna Dean, Framingham, Mass. (44). H
Proctor, Miss Mary, 29 E. 4Gth St., Ncav York, N. Y. (43). A
Pi-osser, Col. Win. F., North Yakima, Yakima Co., Washington (26). EI
Pruyn. John V. L., jr., Albany, N. Y. (29).
Pulsifer, Mrs. C. L. B., Newton Centre, Mass. (33).
Putnam, Chas. P , M.D., 63 Marlborough St.. Boston, Mass. (28^.
Putnam, Miss Elizabeth D., 2013 Brady St., Davenport, Iowa (45).
Putnam. Henry Cleveland, Eau Clair, Wi.s. (43).
Pntnam, Joseph E., 123 State St., Rochester, N. Y. (45). B
Pynchon, William Harry Chichele, Trinity Coll., Hartford, Conn. ('44). E.
Quick, Robert W., Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. (43).
Rand, C. F., M.D., 1228 15th St. N. W., Wasiiington, D. C. (27). E H
Randolph, Prof. L. S., Blacksburgli, Va. (33). D
(48)
MEMBERS.
xlix
Rane, Frank Wm., Exper. Station, Morgantown, W. Va. (42).
Reber, Prof. Louis E., State College, Centre Co., Pa. (35). D
Reche, Miss Eugenie M., 31 Howell St., Rochester, N. Y. (41). E H
Redding, Prof. Allen C, 1000 No. Cory St., Findlay, Oliio (39). C
Redfleld, William C, 107 Macon St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (U). D
Reed, Charles J., 3313 North lOth St., Phihidelphia, Pa. (34). C B
Reed, John 0., 34 E. Kingsley St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (44).
Reed, Taylor, Princeton, N. J. (38). A
Reichel, Rev. George V., Ph.D., Lock Box 85, Brockport, N. Y. (41) F H
Remington, Cyrus K., HE. Seneca St., Buffalo, N. Y. (.35). E
Renninger, John S., M.D., Marshall, Minn. (31). C F
Reyburn, Robert, M.D., 2129 F St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (33). F
Reynolds, George, P. O. Box B, Salt Lake City, Utah (44). H
Rice, Arthur L., Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., (43).
Rice, Edward L., A.B., Allegheny Coll., Meadville, Pa. (43).
Rice, Rev. William, Springfield, Mass. (44).
Rich, Jacob Monroe, 50 W. 38th St., New York, N. Y. (33). B A
Rich, Michael P., 50 W. 38th St., New York, N. Y. (40).
Ricketts, Col. R. Bruce, Wilkes Barre, Pa. (33). E
Rideout, Bates S., Norway, Me. (31). E H
Ries, Ellas E., E. E., 1031 Temple Court, New York, N. Y. (33). B^I D
Ries, Heinrich, Ph.B., Columbia College, New York, N. Y. (41). E
Riggs, Chauncey Wales, care of H. C. Warinner, 14 Madison St., Mem-
phis, Tenn. (41). H
Riggs, Geo. W., Summit, N. J. (26). C
Ripley, William Z., Ph.D., Newton, Mass. (44). HI
Ritter, Homer P., U. S. C. and G. Survey, Washington, D. C. (40).
RiVEKA, Josfi DE (29).
Roberts, Miss Jennie B., Round Hill, Conn. (43).
Robertson, James D., 411 and 412 Roe Building, St. Louis, Mo. (41). E
RoBKKTSON, Thomas D., Rockford, 111. (10). E H
Robinson, Prof. Otis Hall, 273 Alexander St., Rochester, N. Y. (23). B A
Rochester, DeLancey, M.D., 469 Franklin St., Buffalo, N. Y. (35). F
Rockwood, Charles G., Drawer A, Newark, N. J. (36).
Roessler, Franz, 73 Pine St., New York, N. Y. (39).
Rolfe, Charles W., Urbana, 111. (32).
Rolfs, P. H., Florida Agricultural College, Lake City, Fla. (41).
Rolker, Charles M., 30 Broad St., New York, N. Y. (43). D
Roosevelt, Mrs. Marion T., 57 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. (31).
H I
Rosell, Claude A. 0., 1131 9tli St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40).
Ross, Prof. Bennett Battle, A. & M. Coll., Auburn, Ala. (45). C
Ross, Denmau Waldo, Ph.D., Cambridge, Mass. (29).
Roth, Filibert, U. S. Dep't of Agric, Washington, D. C. (39). F
Rothe, Wm. G., 226 Stuyvesant Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Rotzell, W. E., M.D., Narberth, Montgomery Co., Pa. (45). FH
Ruland, M. A., 292 Green Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
.\. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. D (49)
1 MEMBERS.
Rupp, August, A.B., College of City of New York, New York, N. Y. (35).
Russell, A. H., Captain of Orduance, U. S. A., Rock Island Arsenal, Rock
Island, 111. (38). D
Russell, Frank, Assistant in Anthropology, Harv. Univ., Peabody Mu-
seum, Cambridge, Mass. (45). H
Rust, Horatio N., Colton, San Bernardino Co., Cal. (20). H
Ryker, J. N., U. S. Weather Bureau, Lynchburg, Va. (41).
Sackett, Miss Eliza D., Cranford, N. J. (35). FH
Sage, John H., Portland, Conn. (23). F
Sander, Dr. Enno, St. Louis, Mo. (27). C
Saunders, Walter M., Olueyville, R. I. (43).
Sayre, Robert H., South Bethlehem, Pa. (28). D
SCHAFFER, Chas., M.D., 1309 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. (29). F E
SCHAFFER, Mrs. Mary Townsksd Sharpless, 1309 Arch St., Philadel-
phia, Pa. (38). F E
Scharar, Christian H., 2073 N. Main Ave., Scranton, Pa. (33). A D E H
SCHERMKRHORN, F. AUG., 61 Uuivcrsity Place, New York, N. Y. (36).
SciiERMERHORN, Wm. C. , 49 W. 23d St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Schiereu, Hon. Charles A., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). I C
Schimpf, Prof. Henry W., 365 Franklin Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Schmid, Dr. H. Ernest, White Plains, N. Y. (25).
Schneck, Jacob, M.D., Mount Carmel, 111. (41). E F H
Schobinger, John J., 2101 Indiana Ave., Chicago, 111. (34). B
Schoney, Dr. L., 68 East 104th St., New York, N. Y. (29). F
Schryver, Miss Annie A., Teachers College, New York, N. Y. (41).
Schuette, J. H., Green Bay, Wis. (34). FEB
Schultz, Carl H., 430-440 First Ave., New York, N. Y. (29).
Scott, Martin P., M.D., Maryland Agri'c, Coll., College Park, Md. (31).
Scoville, S. S., M.D., Lebanon, Ohio (30). E F
Searing, Anna H., M.D., Escoudido, San Diego Co., Cal. (41). 6
Sebert, William F., 353 Clinton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (41). A E
Selby, Augustine DaAvson, Ohio Agric. Exper. Station, Wooster, Ohio
(44). 6
Serrell, Lemuel W., 140 Nassau St., New York, N. Y. (36). D
Sharp, Dr. Clayton H., Ithaca, N. Y. (45).
Shaw, Cyrus W., Mountainville, Orange Co., N. Y. (43). I
Sheafer, a. W., Pottsville, Pa. (28).
Shepardson, Prof. Geo. D., 1107 S. E. 7th St., Miimeapolis, ]\Iinu. (45).
BD
Shepherd, Elizabeth, 253 W. 128tli St., New York, N. Y. (39).
Sherman, Orray Taft, 379 Harvard St.. Cambridge, Mass. (39).
Shultz, Charles S., Hoboken, N. J. (31). F
Siebel, John E., Director Zymoteclmic Inst., 1424 Montana St., Chicago,
111. (39). CBFE
Sieraon, Rudolph, 191 Calhoun St., Fort Wayne, Ind. (40). A F
Silver, L. B., 172 Summit St., Cleveland, Ohio (37).
(50)
MEMBERS. li
Simonds, Hon. Wm. E., Hartford, Coun. (44).
Sirrine, F. AtAA^ood, Jamaica, Lona; Island, N. Y. (44").
Skift', F. J. v., Director Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, HI. (43).
Skiltou, Georjre S., 372 Decatur St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Slade, Elisha, Somerset, Bristol Co., Mass. (29). F
Slocum, Chas. E., IM.D., Defiance, Ohio (34). F
Slosson, Prof. Edwin E., Univ. of Wj'^oming, Laramie, Wyo. (42).
Small, John Knnkel, Columbia College, New York, N. Y. (44).
Siiiillie, Thomas W., IJ. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. (40). F
Smith, Anna A., Y*''est Camden, N. Y. (45).
Smith, Arthur Whitmoie, Middletown, Conn. (44). B
Smith, Benj. G., 11 Fayerweather St., Cambridge, Mass. (29). I
Smith, Miss Cora A., Lansingbnrg, N. Y. (44). F 6
Smith, De Cost, Skaneateles, N. Y. (38). H
Smith, Ernest Ellsworth, 262 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. (43).
Smith, E. Eeuel, Skaneateles, N. Y. (38).
Smith, Prof. Harold B., AVorcester Polytechnic lust., Worcester, Mass.
(43). B
Smith, Henry L., 149 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (26).
Smith, Prof. Herbert S. S., Princeton Univ., Princeton, N. J. (29). D
Smith, Herbert W., Corn Exchange, Minneapolis, Minn. (45). E
Smith, Miss J. Angelina, State Normal School. Framingham, Mass. (45). E
Smith, James Hervey, Baldwin Univ., Berea, Ohio (40).
Smith, Miss Jane, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (29). H
Smith, Jos. R., Col. U. S. A., 2300 De Laney Place, Philadelphia, Pa. (43).
Smith, Lee Herbert, M.D., 224 Elmwood Ave., Bufialo, N. Y. (45). H
Smith, Mrs. Marshall E., 4608 Wayne St., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
(40). H I
Smith, Prof. Thomas A., Beloit, Wis. (33). B A
Smith, Uselma C, 1515 Green St., Philadelphia, Pa. (33). F
Smyth, Prof. Jas. D., Burlington, Iowa (28). I
Snyder, Prof. Harry, St. .Anthony Park, Minn. (44). C
Snyder, John F., M.D., Virginia, Cass Co., 111. (42).
Soule, Wm., Ph.D., Alliance, Ohio (33). B C E
Southwick, E. B., Arsenal Building, Central Park, New York, N. Y. (36).
Soavielle, Mathieu, M.D., Box 355, Jacksonville, Fla. (36). B E F
Souvielle, Mrs. M., Box 355, Jacksonville, Fla. (24). A B F
Spencer. Arthur Coe, B.S., Substation No. 2, Cleveland, Ohio (41). E
Speyers, Clarence L., Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. (36). C
Spilsbury, E. Gybbon, 13 Burling Slip, New York, N. Y. (33). E D
Spinney, L. B., (42). B
Spofford, Paul N., P. O. Box 1667, New York, N. Y. (36).
Spkaguk, C. H., Maiden, Mass. (29).
Sprague, Frauk J., 182 AVest End Ave., New York, N. Y. (29).
Spurr, Josiah E., A.B.. 8 Gerring St., Gloucester, Mass. (43). E
Squibb, Charles F., A. B., 150 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Squibb, Edward Hamilton, M.D., 148 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y.
(41). F
(51)
lii
MEMBERS.
Stam, Colin F., Chestertown, Md. (33). C F
Stearns, John Brainord, U.S., U So. Willard St., Bnrliniiton, Vt. (44). C
Stebbius, Mi.ss Fannie A., 480 Union St., Springtield, Mass. (44). 6 F
Stebbins, George S., M.D., Springfield, Mass. (44). H
Steiger, George, Chem. Laboratory, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington,
D. C. (40). C E B
Stein, Dr. S. G., IVruscatine, Iowa (43).
Stevens, Frank Lincoln, North High School, Columbus, Ohio (44). 6
Stevens, Geo. T., M.D., 33 West 33d St., New York, N. Y. (28). B F
Stewart, Fred. Carlton, Jamaica, N. Y. (44). G
Stickney, Gardner P., 124 Grand Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. (44). H
Stillman, Prof. John M., Palo Alto. Cal. (41).
Stine, Prof. W. M., Director Elect. Dept., Armour Institute, Chicago,
111. (37). A C
Stockwell, Chester Twitchell, 381 Main St., Springfield, Mass. (44). HI
StoUer, Prof. James H., Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. (3G). E F
Stone, D. D., Lansing, N. Y. (39). F
Stone, Miss Ellen Appleton, 280 Waterman St., Providence, K. I. (42). E F
Stone, Lincoln R., M.D., Newton, Mass. (31).
Stoueman, Miss Bertha, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (45).
Stowell, John, 48 Main St., Charlestown, Mass. (21).
Stradling, Prof. George F., Hatboro, Montgomery Co., Pa. (41).
Streeruwitz, W. H. von, Austin, Texas (40).
Strong, Wendell M., 307 Welch Hall, New Haven, Conn. (44). A B
Stubbs, W. C, Andubon Park, New Orleans, La. (40).
Sullivan, J. A., 308 Main St., Maiden, Mass. (27). A
Sullivan, J. C, M.D., Cairo, 111. (40). A
Summers, Henry E., Champaign, 111. (42). F
Sweet, Henry N., 89 State St., Boston, Mass. (40). H D
Sweetnam, Geo. Booker, 39 St. Vincent St., Toronto, Ontario, Can. (38).
Sylvester, Isaiah W., Passaic, N. J. (44). C
Taft, Elihu B., Burlington, Vt. (36). H
Talbott, Mrs. Laura Osborne, 927 P St., Washington, D. C. (36).
Talmage, Prof. James E., D.S.D.. Ph.D., Curator Deseret Museum, Salt
Lake City, Utah (41). C F
Taylor, C. F., M.D., 1520 Chestnut St., Pliiladelphia, Pa. (45).
Taylor, Edward Randolph, Cleveland, Ohio (39). C
Taylor, F. B., Box 2019, Fort Wayne, Ind. (39).
Taylor, Hudson K., 61 Fowler St., Cleveland, Ohio (42). C
Taylor, Prof. Jas. M., Hamilton, Madison Co., N. Y. (33). A D
Taylor, Robert S., Box 2019, Fort Wayne, Ind. (39).
Taylor, William Alton, 1516 Caroline St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40).
Ternan, James C, P. O. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (43).
Thaw, Mrs. Mary Copley, Pittsburgh, Pa. (41). H
Theilmann, Emil, 1020 E. 10th St., Kansas City, Mo. (41).
Thompson, Alton Howard, 721 Kansas Ave., Topeka, Kan. (33). H
(52)
membp:rs. liii
Thompson, Daniel G., 120 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (29).
Thompson, Mrs. Frank, 283 South 4th St., Philadelphiii, Pa. (3S).
Thompson, Fked'k F., 283 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. (36).
Thompson, J. L., M.D., Indianapolis, Ind. (39). F
Thornburg, Charles L., Prof. Math, and Astron., Lehigh Univ., South
Bethlehem, Pa. (44). A
Tiffany, Asa S., 1221 Rock Island St., Davenport, Iowa (27). E H
Tight, Prof. William George, Granville, Ohio (39). F
Tilden, Dr. J. N., Peekskill, N. Y. (43).
Tindall, Willoughby C, Associate Prof, of MatJi., Univ. of Missouri,
Columbia, Mo. (40).
Todd, Albert M., Nottawa, Mich. (37). C
Towle, Wm. Mason, State College, Center Co., Pa. (44). D
Townsend, Prof. Charles 0., Macon, Ga. (41). F
Townsend, Clinton P., Donaldsonville, La. (40). C
Townsend, Franklin, 4 Elk St., Albany, N. Y. (4).
Treat, Erastus B., Publisher and Bookseller, 5 Cooper Union, cor. 4th Ave.
and 8th St., New York, N. Y. (29). F I
Trowbridge, Luther H., East Grand Circus Park, Detroit, Mich. (29).
Trowbridge, Mrs. M. E. D., East Grand Circus Park, Detroit, Mich. (21).
I 6
Tudor, Joseph H., State College, Pa. (39). A
Turner, J. Spencer, 109 Duane St., New York, N. Y. (43). B
Vail, Prof. Hugh D., Santa Barbara, Cal. (18).
Valentine, Benj. B., Richmond, Va. (33). H
Valentine, Edw. P., Richmond, Va. (33). H
Van Bkukex, Fredkkick T., 21 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Van Brunt, Cornelius, 319 E. 57th St., New York, N. Y. (28).
Van Slyke, James M., Madison, Wis. (42). F
Varney, A. L., Major of Ordnance, U. S. A., Indianapolis Arsenal, Indi-
anapolis, Ind. (44). H
Vaux, Geo., jr., 404 Girard Building, Philadelphia, Pa. (33). E A
Vermyn6, J. J. B., M.D., 2 Orchard St., New Bedford, Mass. (29). F
Villard, Fanny G., Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. (36).
Vinal. W. Irving, 1106 East Capitol St., Washington, D. C. r40). E
Volk, Ernest, Trenton, N. J. (42). H
Voorliees, Chas. H., M.D., P. O. Lock Box 120, New Brunswick, N. J.
r29). F H
Vredenburgh, Edw. H., 122 So. Fitzhugh St., Rochester, N. Y. (29).
Wagner, Frank C, care Wm. AVagner, Ann Arbor, Mich. (34). D
Wales, Salem H., 25 E. 55th St., New York, N. Y. (36).
Walker, Byron Edmund, Toronto, Ontario, Can. (38). E
Walker, George C, Room 519, Rookery Building, Chicago, 111. (17).
Walker, James, Seth Thomas Clock Co., 49 Maiden Lane, New York,
N. Y. (43).
(53)
liv MEMBERS.
Walworth, Rev. Clarence A., -11 Chapel St., Albany, X. Y. (28). E
Wappenhaus, C. F. R.,U. S. Weatlier Bureau, Indianapolis, Ind. (39). B
Ward, Frank A., 16-26 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y. (40).
Ward, J. Langdon, 120 Broadway, New Yorlv, N. Y. (29). I
Wardwell, George J., Rutland, Vt. (20). D E
Ware, Wm. R., Columbia Coll., New York, N. Y. (36).
Waring, John, Ovid, N. Y. (33). D B
Warren, Eugene C, 611 W. Main St., Louisville, Ky. (37).
Warren, Mrs. Susan E., 67 Mt. Vernon St., Boston, Mass. (29).
Warrington, James N., 127 Park Ave., Chicago, 111. (34). DAB
Washburn, Prof. F. L., State Univ., Eugene, Oregon (44). F
Washington, Dr. Heury S., Locust, N. J. (44). E
Watkks, Gko. F., 6 Somerset St., Boston, Mass. (29). B F H E D
Watkins, L. D., Manchester, Mich. (34). F
Watson, Miss C. A., Salem, Mass. (31). D
Watson, Elizabeth S., Weymouth, Mass. (42). E
Watson, Thomas A., Weymouth, Mass. (42). E
Watson, Thomas L., Agric. Exper. Station, Agric. and Median. College,
Blacksburgh, Va. (42).
Watters, William, M.D., 26 So. Common St., Lynn, Mass. (40). E 6
Watts, A. J., M.D., 1123 Bedford Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Waugh, D. W., M.D., 388 Clinton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Weaver, Gerrit E. Hambleton, A.M., 203 De Kalb Square, West Philadel-
phia, Pa. (38). G I
Webster, Mrs. N. B., Vineland, N. J. (43).
Weed, H.E., Agricultural College, Miss. (40). F
Weed, J. N., 71 Water St., Newburgh, N. Y. (37). EI.
Weeden, Hon. Joseph E., Randolph, Cattaraugus Co., N. Y. (31).
Weeks, Fred Boughton, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (44). E
Weeks, Joseph D., Editor Amer. Manufacturer, Pittsburgh, Pa. (35) D
Weems, J. B., Ph.D., Iowa Agric. College, Ames, Iowa (44). C
Weinzirl, John, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (45). 6
Wells, Mrs. C. F., 27 E. 21st St,, New York, N. Y. (31). H F I D B
Wells, Samuel, 31 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass. (24). H
Wells, William H., jr., 274 Ashland Ave., Chicago, 111. (39). E
Wernicke, Prof. Paul, 107 E. Maxwell St , Lexington, Ky. (44). A B
Werum, Jno. H., Toledo, Ohio (40).
Wetzler, Jos., 203 Broadway, New York, N, Y. (36).
Wheeler, Herbert A., 2700 Pine St., St. Louis, Mo. (33). E I
Wheeler, T. B., M.D,, 123 Metcalfe St., Montreal, P. Q., Can. (11).
Wheeler, William, C.E., Concord, Mass. (41).
Whetstone, John L., Summit Ave., Mt, Auburn, Cincinnati, Ohio (30). D
White, LeRoy S., Box 924, Waterbury, Conn. (23).
White, Thaddeus R., 257 W. 45th St., New York, N. Y. (42). A
Whitehead, John M., Att'y at Law, Janesville, Rock Co., Wis. (41). I
Whitfleld, Thomas, Ph.D., 240 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. (41). C
Whiting, Mrs. Francis, 914 W. Lafayette St., Norristown, Pa. (40).
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MEMBERS. IV
Whiting, S. B., 11 Ware St., Cambridge, Mass. (33). D
Whitman, Prof. Charles O., Chicago Univ., Chicago, 111. (43). F
Whitney, E. R., 20 North St., Biiigharatou, N. Y. (41).
AViegand, Karl McKay, Ithaca, N. Y. (45). 6
Wilbour, Mrs. Charlotte B., Little Coniptoii, R. I. (28).
Wilbur, Miss F. Isabel, 1719 15th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (42).
E H
Wilcox, Miss Emily T., Meridefi, Conn. (33). B A
Wilder, Geo. Walker, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (45). B
Wilkinson, J. Henderson, 320 E. Capitol St., Washington, D. C. (35). E
Willard, Prof. Joseph A., State College, Centre Co., Pa. (44). A
Willetts, Joseph C, Skaneateles, N. Y. (29). E F H
Williams, HenrySmith, M.D., 165 West82nd St., New York, N. Y. (34). F
Willltts, George E., 709 S. Grand St., Lansing, Mich. (39). F
Willonghby, Charles C, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (45). H
WiLMARTH, Mrs. Henky D., 51 Eliot St., Jamaica Plain, Mass. (40).
Wilmot, Thos. J., Commercial Cable Co., Waterville, County Kerry, Ire-
land (27). B
Wilson, Prof. AndrcAv G., Lenox Coll., Hopkiuton, Iowa (43). E
Wilson, Fred., 337 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y. (43).
Wilson, G. Reed, Townsend Block, Main cor. Swan St., Buflalo, N. Y.
(45). H
Wingate, Miss Hannah S., 103 W. 132nd St., New York, N. Y. (31). E I
Wolcott, Mrs. Henrietta L. T., Dedham, Mass. (29).
Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, Madison. Wis. (42). C
Wood, Rev. Charles, D.D., West Walnut Lane, GermantoAvn, Pa. (48).
Wood, Mrs. Cynthia A., 171 W. 47th St., New York, N. Y. (43).
Wood, Thomas Bond, LL.D., care U. S. Legation, Lima, Peru (43).
Wood, Walter, 400 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (83). F I
Woodhull, John Francis, Teachers' College, Morningside Heights, New
York, N. Y. (43).
Woodrow, Miss Marion W., Winthrop Normal Coll., Rock Hill, S.C. (45).
E C
Woods, Albert F., U. S. Dept. Agric, Washington, D. C (43).
Woodworth, William McMichael, Ph.D., 149 Brattle St., Cambridge, Mass.
(44)'. F
Wrenshall, John C, Baltimore, Md. (40). H
Wright, Jonathan, :SLT>., 73 Remsen St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43).
Wright, John S., care Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis, Ind. (42). 6
Wright, Rufus, 333-339 Lake St., Chicago, 111. (87). B
Wright, S. G., La Fayette, Ind. (42). G
Wuuderlich, Frederick W., M.D., 165 Remsen St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (45).
Wiirtele, Miss Minnie, Acton Vale, P. Q., Can. (32). H
Youmans, Mrs. Celia G., Mount Vernon, N. Y. (36).
Youmans, Vincent J., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. (43).
Yowell, Everett I., Station "C," Cincinnati, Ohio (41). A
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Ivi MEMBERS.
Zeng, Miss Nellie E. de, Clyde, Wayne Co., N. Y. (41). B H
Ziegler, William, 45-49 Cedar St., New York, N. Y. (43).
[994 Patrons, Corresponding Members and Members.]
Note.— The omission of an address in the foregoing list indicates that letters
mailed to that last printed were returned as uncalled for. Information of the present
address of the members so indicated is requested by the Permanent Secretary.
SURVIVING POUNDERS.
[At the Brooklyn Meeting, 1894, a resolution was unanimously adopted
by which all surviving founders of the Association who have maintained
an interest in science were made Honorary Life Members of the Associa-
tion in recognition of their pioneer work in American Science.]
Boy6, Martin H., Coopersburg, Pa.
DixwELL, Epes S., Cambridge, Mass.
Grken, Tkaill, Easton, Pa.
Hall, James, Albany, N. Y.
HuBB.tRD, Oliver Paysox, New York, N. Y.
West, Charles E., Brooklyn, N. Y.
(56)
FELLOWS. Ivii
HONORARY FELLOWS.'
RoGKRS, Prof. William B., Boston, Mass. (1). 1881. (Born Dec. 7, 1804.
Died May 30, 1882.) B E
CuEVREUL, Michel Eugene, Paris, France (35). 1886. (Born Aug. 31,
1786. Died April 9, 1889.) C
Gknth, Dr. F. a., 3937 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa. (24). 1888. (Born
May 17, 1820. Died Feb. 2, 1892.) C E
Hall, Prof. James, Albany, N. Y. (1). 1890. E F
Gould, Dr. Benjamin Apthorp, Cambridge, Mass. (2). 1895. Born
Sept. 27, 1824. Died Nov. 26, 1896. A B
Leuckakt, Prof. Rudolf, Leipsic, Saxony, Germany. (44). 1895. F
GiBBS, Prof. Wolcott, Newport, R.I. (45). 1896. CB
FELLOWS.*
Abbe, Professor Cleveland, Meteorologist, Weather Bureau, Dept. of
Agric, Washington, D. C. (16). 1874. BA
Abbe, Dr. Robert, 11 W. 50th St., New York, N. Y. (36). 1892.
Abert, S. Thayer, 1108 G St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (30). 1891.
ABDEI
Adriauce, John S., 231 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (39). 1895. C
Alden, Prof. Geo. I., Worcester, Mass. (33). 1885. D
Allen, Dr. T. F., 10 E. 36th St., New York, N. Y. (35). 1887. 6
Alvord, Major Henry E., Lewinsville, Fairfax Co., Va. (29). 1882. I
Alwood, Prof. Wm. B., Agricultural and Mechanical College and Experi-
ment Station, Blacksburg, Va. (39). 1891, F
Andrews, Prof. Launcelot W., Iowa City, Iowa (39). 1891. C
Anthony, Prof. Wm. A., 5 Beekman St., Temple Court, Ncav York, N. Y.
(28). 1880. B
Arthur, J. C, Lafayette, Ind. (21). 1883. G
Ashmead, Wm. H., 1833 M St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40). 1892. F
Atkinson, Edward, 31 Milk St., Boston, Mass. (29). 1881. I D
Atkinson, George F., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (39). 1892. G
Atwater, Prof. W. O., Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn. (29). 1882. C
Atwell, Charles B., 1938 Sherman Ave., Evanston, 111. (36). 1890. F
Auchincloss, Wm. S., Bryn Mawr, Pa. (29). 1886. D A
Austen, Prof. Peter T., 99 Livingston St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (44). 1896.
G
Avery, Elroy M., Ph.D., LL.D., 657 Woodland Hills Ave., Cleveland, Ohio
(37). 1889. B
Ayres, Prof. Brown, Tulane Univ., New Orleans, La. (31). 1885. B
" See Article VI of the Constitution. ' See Article IV of the Constitution.
*** The number in parenthesis indicates the meeting at which the member joined
the Association; the date following is the year when made a Fellow; the black letters
at end of line are those of the sections to which the Fellow belongs.
When the name is given in small capitals, it designates that the Fellow is also a
Life Member.
(57)
Iviii FELLOWS.
Babcock, Prof. S. Moulton, Madisou, Wis. (33). 1885. C
Bailey, E. H. S., Lawrence, Douglas Co., Kan. (25). 1889. C E
Bailey, Prof. Liberty IL, Cornell Univ., Itliaca, N. Y. (31). 1887. G
Baker, Frank, M.D., 1315 Corcoran St., Washington, D. C. (31). 1886.
F H
Baker. Marcus, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C (30).
1882. A
Ballard, Harlan H., 50 South St., Pittsfleld, Mass. (31). 1891. E F
Barker, Prof. G. F., 3909 Locust St., Pliiladelphia, Pa. (13). 1875. B C
Barnard, Edward E., care Yerkes Observatory, Lake Geneva, AVillianis
Bay P. O., Wis. (26). 1883. A
Barnes, Chas. Reid, Prof. Botany University of Wisconsin, G16 Lake St.,
Madison, Wis. (33). 1885. G
Barnes, David Leonard, A. M., Suite 1750, Tlie Mouadnock, Chicago, HI.
(43). 1890. D
Barnum, Miss Charlotte C. Ph.D., 144 Humphrey St., Xew Haven, Conn.
(36). 1896. A
Bartlett, Prof. Edwin J., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. (28).
1883. C
Bartlett, John R., Commander U. S. N., Lonsdale, R. I. (30). 1882. E B
Bartley, Ellas H., M.D., 21 Lafayette Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (33). 1894. C
Barus, Carl, Ph.D., 2808 N St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (33). 1887. B
Baskerville, Charles, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. (41).
1894. C
Bassett, Homer F., Waterbury, Conn. (23). 1874. F
Bates, Henry H., Ph.D., U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C. (33),
1887. B A C D
Battle, Herbert B., Pli.D., Director N. C. Agric. Exper. Station, Raleigh,
N. C. (33). 1889. C
Bauer, Louis A., Ph.D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. (40). 1892. A
Bausch, Edw., P. 0. Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y. (26). 1883. A B C F
Beal, Prof. Wm. James, Agricultural College, Ingham Co., Midi. (17).
1880. G
Beardsley, Prof. Arthur, C.E., Ph.D., Swarthmore College, Swarthmore,
Del. Co., Pa. (33). 1885. D
Beauchamp, Rev. Wra. M., Baldvvinsville, N. Y. (34). 1886. H
Becker, Dr. Geo. F., U. S. Geol. Survey, AVashingtou, D. C (36). 1890. E
Bedell, Frederick, Ph.D., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (41). 1894. B A
Bell, Alex. Melville, 1525 35th St., Washington, D. C. (31). 1885. H
^ Bell, Rol)ert, M.D., Ass't Director Geological Survey, 0ttaw;i. Ontario,
Can. (38). 1889. E F
Betnan, Wooster W., 19 So. 5th St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (34). 1886. A
Benjamin, Marcus, Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 1). C. (27).
1887. C
Benjamiu, Rev. Raphael, M.A., 28 E. 76 St., New York, N. Y. (34). 1887.
E F 6 H
Bessey, Prof. Cliarles E., Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. (-Jl). 1880. 6
(58)
FELLOWS. liX
Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., Triuity College School, Pt. Hope, Out., Can. (18).
1875. F
Beyer, Dr. Heury G., U. S. N., U. S. Naval Acad., Annapolis, Mel. (31).
1884. F
Bickmore, Prof. Albert S., American Museum of Natural History, 8th
Ave. and 77th St., Central Park, New York, N. Y. (17). 1880. H
Bigelow, Prof. Frank H., U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. (36).
1888. A
Billings, John S., Surgeon U. S. A., Surg. General's Office, Washington,
D. C. (32). 1883. F H
BiXBY, W. H., Major, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., L. H. Eng. Office,
Room 20, 4th Floor, P. O. Building, Philadelphia, Pa. (34). 1892. D
Blackham, George E., M.D., Dunkirk, N. Y. (25). 1883. F
Blair, Andrew A., 406 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa. (44). 1896. C
Blake, Clarence J., M.D., 226 Marlborough St., Boston, Mass. (24).
1877. B F
Blake, Francis, Auburndale, Mass. (23). 1874. B A
Boardman, Mrs. William D., care of Baring Brothers & Co., London,
England (28). 1885. E H
Boas, Dr. Franz, Amer. Museum Natural History, Central Park, New
York, N. Y. (36). 1888. H I
Boerner, Chas. G., Vevay, Switzerland Co., Ind. (29). 1886. ABE
BoUey, Henry L., North Dakota Exper. Station, Fargo, North Dakota
(89). 1892. G
Bolton, Du. H. Carringtox, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C. (17).
1875. C
Bond, Geo. M., care of The Pratt & Whitney Co., Hartford, Conn. (33).
1885. D
Booth, Miss Mary A., 32 Byers St., Springfield, Mass. 1894. FIG
Bowditch, Prof. H. P., Jamaica Plain, Mass. (28). 1880. F B H
Bowser, Prof. E. A., Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. (28). 1881.
Boy6, Martin H., M.I)., Coopersburg, Lehigh Co., Pa. (1). 1896. C
Boynton, Prof. C. Smith. 69 No. Prospect St., Burlington, Vt (44).
1896. C
Brackett, Richard N., Associate Prof, of Chemistry, Clemson College,
S. C: (37). C E
Bradford, Royal B., Commander U. S. N., care Navy DepL., Washington,
D. C. (31). 1891. B D
Brauner, Prof. John C, Stanford University, Cal. (34). 1886. E F
Brashear, Jno. A., Allegheny, Pa. (83). 1885. A B D
Brewer, Prof. Wni. H., New Haven, Conn. (20). 1875. E F I
Brinton, D. G., M.D., Media, Pa. (83). 1885. H
Bristol, Wm. H., Stevens Institute, Hobokeu, N.J. (86). 1894. A B D
Britton, N. L., Ph.D., Director-in-chief N. Y. Botanical Garden, 41 E.
49th St., New York, N. Y. (29). 1882. G E
Broadhead. Prof. Garland Carr, University, Columbia, Mo. (27). 1879. E
Brooks, Wra. R., Box 714, Geneva, N. Y. (35). 1886. A B D G
(59)
Ix FKLLOWS.
Brown, Robert, care of Yale College Observatory, New Haven, Conn.
(11). 187i.
Brown, Mrs. Robert, New Haven, Conn. (17). 1874.
Briihl, Gustav, cor. John and Hopkins Sts., Cincinnati, Ohio (28). 1886. H
Brush, Charles F.. Brush Electric Light Co., Cleveland, Ohio (35).
1886. B
Brush, Phof. George J., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (4). 1874. C E
Buckhout, W. A., State College, Centre Co., Pa. (20). 1881. F
Burgess, Dr. Thomas J. W., Med. Sup't, Protestant Hospital for the In-
sane, Montreal, P. Q., Can. (38). 1889. G
Burr, Prof. William H., School of Mines, 41 East 49th St., New York,
N. Y. (81). 1883.
Butler, A. W., Brookville, Franklin Co., Ind. (30). 1885. F H
Caldwell, Prof. Geo. C, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (23). 1875. C
Calvin, Prof. Samuel, State Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (37). 1889.
EF
Campbell, Prof. Douglas H., Menlo Park, Cal. (34). 1888. G
Campbell, Prof. Edw. D., .\nn Arbor, Mich. (44) 1896. C
Canby, William M., 1101 Delaware Avenue, Wilmington, Del. (17).
1878. G
Carhart, Prof. Henry S., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (29).
1881. B
Carleton, M. A., Dep't Agric, Div. of Vegetable Pathology, Washington,
D. C. (42) 1894. G
Carpenter, Louis G., Agric. Coll., Fort Collins, Col. (32). 1889. AB
Carpenter, Capt. W. L., U. S. A., care Adjutant General, Washington, D. C.
(24). 1877. F E
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Carus, Paul, Ph.D., La Salle, 111. (40). 1895. H
Casey, Thomas L., 1419 K St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (38). 1892. F
Catlin, Charles A., 133 Hope St., Providence, R. I. (33). 1895. C
Cattell, Prof. James McKeen, Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (44).
1896. BFHI
Chalmot, G. de, Spray, N. C. (44). 1896. C
Chamberlain, Alexander F., Clark Univ., Worcester, Mass. (38). 1890. H
Chamberliu, T. C, 5041 Madison Ave., Chicago, 111. (21). 1877. EBFH
Chandler, Prof. C. F., School of Mines, Columbia Coll., East 49th St.,
cor. 4th Ave., New York. N. Y. (19). 1875. C
Chandler, Prof. Charles Henry, Ripon, Wis. (28). 1883. A B
Chandler, Seth C, 16 Craigie St., Cambridge, Mass. (29). 1882. A
Chandler, Prof. W. H., South Bethlehem, Pa. (19). 1894. C
Chanute, 0., 413 E. Huron St., Chicago, 111. (17). 1877. D I
Charbonnier, Prof. L. H.. University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. (26). 1894.
ABD
Cheney, Lellen Sterling. 1081 W. Johnson St., Madison, Wis. (42). 1894.
6
(60)
FELLOWS. Ixi
Chester, Prof. Albert H., Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. (29).
1882. C F
Christie, James, Peucoyd, Pa. (33). 1894. D
Christy, Prof. Samuel B., Box 41, Berkeley, Cal. (35). 1894. D
Chute, Horatio N., Ann Arbor, Mich. (34). 1889. B C A
Clark, Alvan G., Cambridgeport, Mass. (28). 1880. A B
Clark, Prof. John E., 445 Orange St., New Haven, Conn. (17). 1875. A
Clark, Wm. Bullock, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. (37).
1891. E
Clarke, Prof. F. W., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. (18).
1874. C
Clarke, Robert, Cincinnati, Ohio. (30). 1895. H
Claypole, Prof. Edw. W., 603 Buchtel Ave., Akron, Ohio (30). 1882. E F
Cloud, John W., 974 Rookery, Chicago, 111. (28). 1886. A B D
Coffin, Prof. Selden J., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. (22). 1874. A I
Cogswell, W. B., Syracn.se, N. Y. (33). 1891. D
COLBUKX, Richard T., Elizabeth, N. J. (31). 1894. IFH
Cole, Prof. Alfred D., Denison Univ., Granville, Ohio (39). 1891. BC
Collin, Prof. Aloiizo, Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa (21). 1891. B C
Colliugwood, Francis, Elizabeth, N. J. (36). 1888. D
Colvin, Verplanck, Supt. N. Y. State Adirondack Survey, Albany, N. Y.
(28). 1880. E
Comstock, Prof. Geo. C, Washburn Observ.,Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis. (34). 1887. A
Comstock, Milton L., 641 Academy St., Galesburg, 111. (21). 1874. A
Comstock, Prof. Theo. B., President Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
(24). 1877. DEB
Conant, Prof. L. L., Polytechnic Inst., Worcester, Mass. (39). 1892. A
Cook, Prof. A. J., Pomona College, Claremont, Cal. (24). 1880. F
Cook, Prof. Orator F., Huntington, N. Y. (40). 1892. G
Cooley, Prof. Le Roy C, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (19). 1880.
B G
Cooley, Prof. Mortimer E., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (33).
1885. D
Cope, Prof. Edward D., 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia, Pa. (17). 1875. FE
Corthell,. Elmer L., 71 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (34). 1886. DIE
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Coville, Frederick v., Dept. of Agric, Washington, D. C. (35). 1890. G
Cox, Hon. Jacob D., Gihnan Ave., Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati, Ohio (30).
1881. F
Cragin, Francis W., Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Col. (29). 1890.
F E H
Crampton, Chas. A., M.D., Office of Internal Revenue, Treasury Depart-
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Crandall, Prof. Charles S., Fort Collins, Col. (40). 1894.
Crawford, Prof. Morris B., Middletown, Conn. (30). 1889. B
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1894. A D •
(61)
jjjjj FELLOWS.
Cross, Prof. Chas. R., Mass. Institute Technology, baton, Mass. (29).
1880. B
Culin, Stewart, Univ. of Pa., Philadelphia, Pa. '" H
CiimminKS, John, Cummingsvilie, Woburn. M:is^. 1^ 1890. F
Cushins^FrankH., Bureau of Ethnoloijy.Wji^'-' r \0). 1893. H
Gushing, Henry Piatt, Adelbert CoUesjre, CI. ■ ■). 1888. E
Dall, William H., Smithsonian Institution U' .sliirf.m l) r (\S).
1874. H F
Dana, Edward Salisbury, New Haven, Conn, (l' B E
Dana, Gen. James J.. U. S. \.. 1412 21st St.. -N u asliington. D. C.
(40). 1890.
Daniel, John, Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville. Tenn - 'J B
Darton, Nelson H., U. S. Geol. Survey. Wn~ ' : . 1893.
Davis, C. H., Commander U. S. N.. Navy n<pi ,'tou, D. C. (40).
189G.
Davis, Prof. Wm. Morris, Cambrldpe, Ma«». (; E B
Dawson, Geo. M., S.S.C, F.G.S., Gcol. Survey. Ottwa, Ontario, Can.
(38). 1895. E
Dawson, Sir William Prin, in.il MrGill roII.„ real. Can. (10).
1875. E
Day, David ¥., Buflalo, N. Y. (35). 1887. 0
Day, Fisk II., M.l).. .^09 Sycamore St., LanMin;:, vm. i.'u;, 1874. £
H F
Dean, George W., P. O. Box 92. Fall Hlver, M«i«8. fl6 1874. A
Dennis, Louis Monroe, Cornell Univ., Ithaca. N 1895. C
Denton, Prof. James E., Slovens Institute. H<f.' ^' J. (36). 1888.
DB A
Derby, Orville A., San Pauh». Brazil, S.
Dexter, Julius, Cincinnati, Ohio (30).
Dinimock, George, 079 State St.. Sprln(jfleUl. M:i" i^74 F
DixwKLL, Erivs S, Cambridgf, Mans. (1^. I^'.•^.. H'
Dolbear, Prof. A. Emerson. Tufts College. Mm«. ( B
Doolittle, Prof. C. L., Univ. of IVnn., Phlln - A
Dorsey, Gi-orge A.. Ph. I)., As.«'t in Anthropi'i'i;;jt , in * iinmiviaii .Mu-
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Douglass. Andrew E., .\raer. Mus. of Nat. Hist.. CentrfiPark, New York,
N. Y. (31). 1885. H
DiiAPKH, Dan'i.. Ph.D., Diri-ctur N. Y. >' • ■ - -: ' '^-.-frvatorj-. Cen-
tral Park, 04th St.. Fifth Avenue, :> - ')• 1«81. B D
F A
Drown, Prof. Thos. M., Lehigh Univ., South B<" a. (29). 1881. C
Du Bois, PnoF. .\l'G. J., New Haven, Conn A B D
Du Bois, Patterson. Ass't Editor S.S.T., 1 . Philadelphia,
Pa. (33). 1887. H C I
Dudley, Charles B., Drawer 334. Altoona. Pa. (23). i-'2. C B D
DUDLKY, Wm. L.. Prof, of Cheraii^try, Vanderbilt Unlv Nashville, Tenn.
(28). 1881. C
(62)
FKKLOWs. Ixiii
Dudley, Prof. Wm. i; . and Stanford jr. Uuiv., Falo Alto, Cal. (29).
1883. G
Dumble, E. T., Aiisi ,^ (^37). 1^91. E
Dunham, Edw. K.. .' -'i.tli St., New York. N. Y. (30). 1890.
DunningtoD, Prof. 1- niversity Station, Charlottesville, Va. (26).
1880. C
Du Pont, Francis *. ington, Del. (;5o). ISDG. ABD
Dwight, Prof. WiH!:i ., Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (30).
1882. E F
Earle, F. S , Proi. "g.\ , Alaliama Polytecluiic Inst., .Vubiirn, Ala.
(39). 189r.. G
Eastman, Charles !;"• iKier, Mus. Conip. Zoology, Canibritlge, Mass.
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Eastman, Prof. .T. i; . Naval Observatory, \Va.shington, D. C. (26).
1879. A
Eaton, Prof. James i; 1 erty, Mo. (29). 1885. C B E
Eccles, Uol)ertG., MH . tl Dean St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (31). 1804. F C
Eddy, Prof. H. T.. Kuirintring and Mechanics. The Univ. of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minn. s.a (24). 1875. ABD
Edison, Thos. A.. Oim.- N. J. (27). 1878. B
Egleston, Prof. TIk- .<5 W. Washington Square, New York, N. Y.
(27). 1879. ODE
Eichelberger. Willian! ^nier, Ph.D., Nautical Almanac Office, U. S. Naval
Observ., Washin- . 1). C. (41). 1896. A
Eimbeck. William, l' ^ and G. Survey, Washington, I). C. (17). 1874.
ABD
Elkin, William L., Y:ii.' oil. Observ., New Haven, Conn. (33). 1885. A
Ely, Theo. N., Chief ..f [otive Power, Penn. K. !{., Broad St. Station,
Philadelphia, P:t :) . 1886.
Emerson, Prof. Bt'iii:ii;n K., Box 203, Amherst, Mass. (19). 1877. E F
Emery, Charles E.. B. nn.t Building, New York, N. Y. (34). 1886. DBA
Emmons, S. F., U. S. Uh. Survey, Washington, D. C. (26). 1879. £
Engelmann. George .T .D., 336 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. (25). 1875.
FH
Ewell, Ervin E.. :?tM i Urteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40).
1896. C
Eyerman, John. "UaKmat," Easton, Pa. (33). 1881>. E C
Fairbanks, Henry, Ph.D.St. Johnsbury, Vt. (14). 1874. B D A
Fairchild. Prof. H. L, biversity of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. (28).
1883. E F
Fanning, John T.. Multing Eng., Kasota Block, Minneapolis, Minn.
(29). 1885. D
Fargis, Rev. Geo. A.. < .rgetown College, Georgetown, D. C. (40). 1892.
Farlow, Dr. W. G., L't cncy St., Cambridge, Mass. (20). 1875. G
Farquhar, Henry, Din t . Agric, Washington, D. C. (33). 1886. AI GB
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Ixii FELLOWS.
Cross, Prof. Chas. R., Mass. Institute Technology, Boston, Mass. (29).
1880. B
Culin, Stewart, Univ. of Pa., Philadelphia, Pa. (33). 1890. H
Cummings, John, Cummingsville, VVoburn, Mass. (18). 1890. F
Cushiuc:, Frank H., Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, D.C. (40). 1893. H
Cushiug, Henry Piatt, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio (33). 1888. E
Dall, William H., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (18).
1874. H F
Dana, Edward Salisbury, New Haven, Conn. (23). 1875. B E
Dana, Gen. James J., U. S. A., 1412 21st St., N. W., Washington, 1). C.
(40). 1896.
Daniel, John, Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Teun. (38). 1894. B
Darton, Nelson H., U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (37). 1893.
Davis, C. H., Commander U. S. N., Navy Dept., Washington, D. C. (40).
1896.
Davis, Prof. Wm. Morris, Cambridge, Mass. (33). 188.5. E B
Dawson, Geo. M., S.S.C., F.G.S., Geol. Survey, Ottawa, Ontario, Can.
(38). 1895. E
Dawson, Sir William, Principal McGill College, Montreal, Can. (10).
1875. E
Day, David F., Buffalo, N. Y. (35). 1887. G
Day, Fisk H., M.D., 309 Sycamore St., Lansing, Mich. (20). 1874. E
H F
Dean, George W., P. O. Box 92, Fall River, Mass. (15). 1874. A
Dennis, Louis Monroe, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (43). 1895. C
Denton, Prof. James E., Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J. (36). 1888.
DBA
Derby, Orville A., San Paulo, Brazil, S. A. (39). 1890.
Dexter, Julius, Cincinnati, Ohio (30).
Dimmock, George, 679 State St., Sprlnglield, Mass. (22). 1874. F
DixwKLL, Epes S., Cambridge, Mass. (1). 1896. HF
Dolbear, Prof. A. Emerson, Tufts College, Mass. (20). 1880. B
Doolittle, Prof. C. L., Univ. of Penn., Philadelphia, Pa. (2.5). 1885. A
Dorsey, George A., Ph. D., Ass't in Anthropology, Field Columbian Mu-
seum, Chicago, 111. (39). 1892. H
Douglass, Andrew E., Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist., Central Park, New York,
N. Y. (31). 1885. H
Draper, Dan'l, Ph.D., Director N. Y. Meteorological Observatory, Cen-
tral Park, 64tb St., Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. (29). 1881. B D
F A
Drown, Prof. Thos. M., Lehigh Univ., South Bethlehem, Pa. (29). 1881. C
Du Bois, Prof. Aug. J., New Haven, Conn. (30). 1882. A B D
Du Bois, Patterson, Ass't Editor S.S.T., 1031 Walnut St., Philadelphia,
Pa. (33). 1887. H C I
Dudley, Charles B., Drawer 334, Altoona, Pa. (23). 1882. C B D
Dudley, Wm. L., Prof, of Chemistry, Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tenn.
(28). 1881. C
(62)
FEi.LOWs. Ixiii
Dudley, Prof. Wm. K., Lekuid Stanford jr. Univ., Palo Alto, Cal. (29).
1883. G
Diimble, E. T., Austin, Texas (37). 1891. E
Dunham, Edw. K., 338 East 2Ctli St., New York, N. Y. (30). 1890.
Duniiiiigton, Prof. F. P., University Station, Charlottesville, Va. (26).
1880. C
Du Pont, Francis G., Wilmington, Del. (33). 1896. A B D
Dwight, Prof. William B., Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (30).
1882. E F
Earle, F. S , Prof, of Biology, Alabama Polytechnic Inst., Auburn, Ala.
(39). 1896. G
Eastman, Charles Kochester, Mus. Conip. Zoology. Cambridge, Mass.
(41). 1896. E
Eastman. Prof. J. R., U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C. (26).
1879. A
Eaton, Prof. James R., Liberty, Mo. (29). 1885. C B E
Eccles, Robert G., M.D., 191 Dean St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (31). 1894. FC
Eddy, Prof. II. T., Engineering and ISIechanics, The UniA". of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minnesota (24). 1875. ABD
Edison, Thos. A., Orange, N. J. (27). 1878. B
Egleston, Prof. Thomas, 35 W. Washington Square, New York, N. Y.
(27). 1879. C D E
Eichelberger, William Snyder, Ph.D., Nautical Almanac Office, U. S. Naval
Observ., Washington, D. C. (41). 1896. A
Eimbeck, William, U. S. C. and G. Survey, Washington, D. C. C17). 1874.
ABD
Elkiu, William L, Yale Coll. Observ., New Haven, Conn. (33). 1885. A
Ely, Theo. N., Chief of Motive Power, Penn. R. R., Broad St. Station,
Philadelphia, Pa. (29). 1886.
Emerson, Prof. Benjamin K., Box 203, Amherst, Mass. (19). 1877. E F
Emery, Charles E., Bennett Building, New York, N. Y. (34). 1886. DBA
Em.mons, S. F., U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (26). 1879. E
Engelmann, George J., M.D., 336 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. (25). 1875.
FH
Ewell, Ervin E., 3644 Thirteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40).
1896. C
Eyerman. John, "Oakhurst," Easton, Pa. (33). 1889. E C
Fairbanks, Henry, Ph.D., St. Johnsbury, Vt. (14). 1874. B D A
Fairchild, Prof. H. L., University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. (28).
1883. EF
Fanning, John T.. Consulting Eng., Kasota Block, Minneapolis, Minn.
(29). 1885. D
Fargis, Rev. Geo. A., Georgetown College, Georgetown, D. C. (40). 1892.
Farlow, Dr. W. G., 24 Quiucy St., Cambridge, Mass. (20). 1875. G
Farquhar, Henry, Dep't of Agric, Washington, D. C. (33). 1886. A I 6 B
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Ixiv FELLOWS,
Feruow, Bernhaid E., Chief of Forestry Division, Dep't of Agriculture^
Wasliington, D. C. (31). 1887. 6 I
Ferry, Ervin S., Univ. of WLscousin, Madison, Wis. (41). 1896.
Firmstone, F., Easton, Pa. (;33). 1887. D
Fiske, Thos. S., A.M., Pli.D., Columbia College, New York, N. Y. (88).
1891. A
Fitch, Edward H., Jefferson, Ashtabula Co., Ohio (11). 1874. I E
Flather, Prof. John J., 160 South St., Lafayette, lud. (44). 189G. D
Fletcher, Miss Alice C, care Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (29).
1883. H
• Fletcher, James, Dominion Entomologist, Experimental Farm, Ottawa^
Ontario, Can. (31). 1883. F
Fletcher, Dr. Robert, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C. (29).
1881. F H
Flint, Albert S., Washburn Observ., Madison, Wis. (30). 1887. A
Flint, James M., Surgeon U. S. N., Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D. C. (28). 1882. F
Ford, Prof. D. R., Elraira, N. Y. (41). 1894. A B
Fox, Oscar C, U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C. (36). 1891. B D A
Franklin, William S., Ames, Iowa (36). 1892.
Frazer, Dr. Pkrsifor, Drexel Building, Room 1042, Philadelphia, Pa. (24).
1879. E C
Frazier, Prof. B. W., The Lehigh University, So. Bethlehem, Pa. (24).
1882. E C
Frear, Wm., State College, Centre Co., Pa. (33). 1886. C
Freer, Prof. Paul C, Ann Arbor, Mich. (39). 1891. C
French, Prof. Thomas, jr., Ridgeway Ave., Avondale, Cincinnati, Ohio'
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Frisby, Prof. Edgar, U. S. N. Observ., Washington, D. C. (28). 1880. A
Frost, Edwin Brant, Hanover, N. H. (38). 1890. A B
Frost, Howard v., Ph.D., Arlington, Mass. (38). 1895. C
Fuller, Andrew S., Ridgewood, Bergen Co., N. J. (24). 1882. F
Fuller, Prof. Homer T., Pres. Drury Coll., Springfield, Mo. (35). 1891.
G E
Fulton, Robert B., Chancellor Univ. of Miss.. Prof, of Physics and As-
tronomy, University, Miss. (21). 1887. BA
Gaffleld, Thomas, 54 Allen St., Boston, Mass. (29). 1889. C B
Gage, Prof. Simon Henry, Ithaca, N. Y. (28). 1881. F
Galbraith, Prof. John, Toronto, Ontario, Can. (38). 1889.
Galloway, B. T., Dep't of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (37). 1890. 6
Gibbs, Prof. J. Willard, New Haven, Conn. (33). 1885. B
Gilbert, G. K., U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (18). 1874. E
Gill, Adam Capen, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (38). 1894. E
Gill, Augustus Herman, Mass. Inst. Technology, Back Bay, Boston, Mass..
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Gill, Prof. Theo., Columbian Univ., Washington, D. C. (17). 1874. F
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FELLOWS. IXV
Gillette, Clarence P.. Fort Collins, Col. (37). 1893.
Gillman, Henry. 183 Fort St.. West, Detroit, Mich. (24). 1875. H F
Gilman, Daniel C President Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Md.
(10). 1875. E H
Glenn, William, 1348 Block St., Baltimore, Md. (33). 1893. C
Goessnian, Prof. C. A., Mass. Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. (18).
1875. C
Goff, E. S., 1113 University Ave., Madison, Wis. (35). 1889.
Gold, Theodore S., West Cornwall, Conn. (4). 1887. B C
Goldschmidt, S. A., Ph.D., 43 Sedgwick St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (24). 1880.
C E B
Goldsmith, Edw.. G58 No. 10th St., Philadelphia, Pa. (29). 1892. C B
Gooch, Frank A., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (25). 1880. C
Goodale, Prof. G. L., Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. (18). 1875. G
Goodfellow, Edward, Ass't U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,
D. C. (24). 1879. A H
Goss, Prof. Wm. F. :m., Lafayette, End. (39). 1896.
Grant, Mrs. Mary J., 36 Division St., Daubury, Conn. (23). 1874. A
Grant, Ulysses S., Ph.D., Geol. Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
(39). 1893. E
Gratacap, L. P., Ph.B., 77th St. and 8th Ave., New York, N. Y. (27). 1884.
C E F
Gray, Prof. Thomas, Terre Haute, Ind. (38). 1889.
Green. Arthur L.. Purdue Univ., Lafayette, lud. ("33). 1888. C
Green, Traill, M.D., Easton, Pa. (1). 1874. C F
Grimes, J. Stanley, Room 18, 115 Monroe St., care Newark Life Ins. Co.,
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Grinnell, George Bird, 40 Park Row, New York, N. Y. (25). 1885. F E
Griswold, Leon Stacy, 238 Boston St., Dorchester, Mass. (38). 1893. E
Hague, Arnold, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (26). 1879.
Haines, Reuben, Haines and Chew St., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
(27). 1889. C B
Hale, Albert C, Ph.D., No. 551 Putnam Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (29). 1886.
G B
Hale, Geo; E., Director of the Observatory, Univ. of Chicago, Cliicago,
Hi. (37). 1891. ABC
Hale, William H., Ph.D., 40 First Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (19). 1874.
I F H G B E A
Haliburton, R. G., Q.C.. 99 State St., Boston, Mass. (43). 1895. H
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Hall, Asaph, jr., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich. (38). 1890. A
Hall, Prof. C. W., Dean Coll. Eng. Met. and Mcchan. Arts, University of
:\Iinnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (28). 1883. D E
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Hall, Prof. Lyman B.. Haverford College, Haverford, Pa. (31). 1884. G
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. E (65)
Ixvi FELLOWS.
Hallock, Albert P., Ph.D., 440 First Ave., New York. N. Y. (.SI). 1896. C
Hallock, Dr. Wm., Columbia Univ., New York, X. Y. (40). 1893. B E
Hallowell, Mi.ss Susan M., Wellesley Coll., Wellesley, Mass. (33). 1890. 6
Halsted, Byron D., New Jersey Aiiricnltural Experiment Station, New
Brunswick, N. J. (29). 1883. G
Halsted, Prof. George Bruce, Austin. Texas (43). 1896.
Hambach, Dr. G., 1319 Lami St., St. Louis, Mo. (26). 1891. F E
Hanamax, C. E., Troy, N. Y. (19). 1883. F
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Harris, Prof. E. P., Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. (44). 1896.
Harris, Gilbert D., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (37). 1893. FE
Harris, Uriah R., Lieutenant U. S. N., U. S. S. Adams, care Navy Pay
Office, San Francisco, Cal. (34). 1886. A
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Hasbrouck, Prof. I. E., 364 Carlton Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (23). 1874. DAI
Haskell, Eugene E., U. S. Engineer Office, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. (39).
1896. ABD
Hastings, C. S., Slieffield Scientific School of Yule College, New Haven,
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Hathaway, Prof. A. S., Rose Polytechnic Inst., Terre Haute, lud. (41).
1893. A
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Hering, Rudolph, Civil and Sanitary Engineer, 277 Pearl St., New York,
N. Y. (33). 1885. DEI
Herty, Chas. Holmes, Ph.D., Univ. of Georgia, Athens, Ga. (42). 1895.
G
Hervey, Rev. A. B., Bath, Me. (22). 1879. F
Hilgard, Prof. E. W., University of California, Berkeley, Cal. (11).
1874. C E B
Hill, David J., Pres. Univ. of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. (41). 1895. H I
Hill, Robert Thomas, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (36). 1889.
E
Hillyer, Homer W., Ph.D., Chem. Laboratory, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis. (42). 1896. C
Himes, Prof. Charles F., Carlisle, Pa. (29). 1882. B C
Hinriclis, Dr. Gustavus, 3132 Lafayette Ave., St. Louis, Mo. (17). 1874.
C B
Hitchcock, Albert Spear, Manhattan, Kan. (39). 1892. 6
Hitchcock, Pkof. Charles H., Hanover, N. H. (11). 1874. E
Hobbs, William Herbert, Ph.D., Madison, Wis. (41). 1893. E
(66)
FELLOWS. IxVli
Hodges, N. D. C, 874 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (29). 1882. B
Hodgkins, Prof. H. L., Columbian Univ., Washington, D. C. (40). 1896.
AB
Hoffmann, Dr. Fred., "Rundschau," P. O. Box 1680, New York, N. Y.
(28). 1881. C F
Holden, Prof. E. S., Mt. Hamilton, Cal. (23). 1875. A
Holland, W. J., D.D., LL.D., Chancellor of the Western Univ. of Pa.,
Pittsburgh, Pa. (37). 1896. F
HoUick, Arthur, Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (31). 1892. GE
Holmes, Prof. Jos. A., Chapel Hill, N. C. (33). 1887. E F
Holmes, Wra. H., Field Columbian Mus., Chicago, 111. (30). 1883. H
Hoi way, E. W. D., Decorah, Iowa (33). 1890. G
Hosea, Lewis M., Johnston Building, Cincinnati, Ohio (30). 1883. B H
Hotchkiss, Major Jed., Staunton, Va. (31). 1883. E H I
Hough, Prof. G. W., Northwestern Univ., Evaustou, 111. (15). 1874. A
Hough, Walter, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. (38). 1890.
Hovey, Edmund O, Amer. Mus. Nat. History, Ne^v York, N. Y. (36).
1895. C E
Hovey, Rev. Horace C, 60 High St., Newburyport, Mass. (29). 1883.
E H
Howard, Prof. Curtis C, 97 Jefferson Ave., Columbus, Ohio (38). 1892. C
Howard, Leland O., Dep't of Agric, Washington, D. C. (37). 1889. F
Howe, Charles S., Prof, of Mathematics, Case School of Applied Science,
Cleveland, Ohio (34). 1891. A
Howe, Prof. Jas. Lewis, Washington and Lee Univ., Lexington, Va. (36).
1888. C
Howell, Edwin E., 612 17th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (25). 1891 E
Hubbard, Gardiner Greene, 1328 Conn. Ave., Washington, D. C. (40).
1893. E
Hubbard, Henry Guernsey, 230 New Jersey Ave., Washington, D. C. (41).
1895. F
HuiJBAHD, Prof. Oliveij Paysox, 65 W. 10th St.. New York, N. Y. (1).
1896.
Hulst, Rev. Geo. D., 15 Himrod St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (29). 1887. F
Humphreys, W. J. (42). 1894. B
Hunt. Alfred E., 116 AVater St., Pittsburgh, Pa. (35). 1891. C D
^>5j. Hunter, Andrew Frederick, Barrie, Ontario, Can. (38). B H I
Hyatt, Prof. Alpheus, Natural History Society, Boston, Mass. (18).
1875. E
Hyde, Prof. E. W., Station D, Cincinnati, Ohio (25). 1881. A
Iddings, Joseph P., The Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111. (31). 1884. E
Jack, John G., Jamaica Plain, Mass. (31). 1890. G
Jackson, Prof. Charles L , Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. (44). 189.".. C
Jack-ion, Robert T.,33 Gloucester St., Boston, Mass. (37). 1890. F
Jacobus, David S., Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J. (36). 1889. DBA
Jacoby, Harold, Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (38). 1891. A
(67)
1887.
H F
1884.
F H
1881.
FH
Ixviii FELLOWS.
Jacoby, Henry S., Associate Prof, of Bridge Eu.nineering and Grapliics^
Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (36). 1892. D
James, Jos. F., M.S., Hingliam, Mass. (30). 1881.'. E G
JastroAv, Dr. Jos., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (35).
Jayne, Horace F., 1826 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (29).
Jeffries, B. Joy, M.D., 15 Chestnut St., Boston, Mass. (29).
Jenkins, Edw. H., DraAver 101, New Haven, Conn. (33). 1885. C
Jenks, Elisha T., Middleborough, Mass. (22). 1874. D
Jesup, Prof. Henry G., Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. (36). 1891. F
Jesup, Morris K., 44 Pine St., New York, N. Y. (29). 1891. I
Jewell, Theo. F., Commander U. S. Navy, Navy Yard, Washington, D. C.
(25). 1882. B
Jillson, Dr. B. C, 6045 Bond St., Pittsburgh, Pa. (14). 1881. E H F
Johnson, John B., Washington Univ., St. Louis, Mo. (33). 1886. D
Johnson, Otis C, 52 Thayer St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (84). 1886. C
Jones, Lewis R., Burlington, Vt. (41). 1894. G
Jones, Prof. Marcus E., Salt Lake City, Utah (40). 1893.
Jordan, Prof. David S., Palo Alto, Menlo Park P. 0., Cal. (31). 1883. F
Jnlien, A. A., New York Acad, of Sciences, New York, N. Y. (24). 1875.
EG
Kedzie, Mrs. Nellie S., Manhattan, Kan. (84). 1890. I F
Kedzie, Prof. Robert C, Agricultural College, Mich. (29). 1881. C
Kellerman, Prof. William A., Ohio Univ., Columbus, Ohio (41). 1893. G
Kellicott, David S., Columbus, Ohio (31). 1883. F
Kemp, James F., School of Mines, Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y.
(36). 1888. E
Kendall, Prof. E. Otis, 3826 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa'. (29). 1882. A
Kent, William, Passaic, N. J. (26). 18'81. D I
Kershner, Prof. Jefferson E., Lancaster City, Pa. (29). 1883. A B
Kinealy, John H., Washington Univ., St. Louis, IMo. (36). 1891. D
King, F. H., Experiment Station, Madison, Wis. (32). 1892. E F
Kinnicutt, Dr. Leonard P., Polytechnic Inst., Worcester, Mass. (28).
1883. C
Klotz, Otto Julius, 437 Albert St., Ottawa, Ontario, Can. (38). 1889.
KnoAvltou, Frank H., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. (33).
1898. G E
Kober, Geo. Martin, M.D., 1819 Q St. N. W., Washington, D. C. (40).
1896. H
Kunz, G. F., care Messrs. Tiffany & Co., Union Square, New York, N. Y.
(29). 1883. EHC
Lacoe, Ralph D., Pittston, Pa. (31). 1898. E F
Ladd, Prof. E. F., Agricultural Coll., Fargo, No. Dakota (36). 1889. C
Laflamme, Prof. J. C. K., Laval Univ., Quebec, Can. (29). 1887. E B
LaFlesche, Francis, Indian Bureau, Interior Dep't, Washington, D. C.
(33). 1885. H
(68)
FELLOWS. Ixix
Lamb, Daniel S., M.I)., 800 10th St., N. ^Y., Washington, T>. C. (40).
189-4. H
Landreth, Olin H., Prof, of Civil Engineering, Union College, Schenec-
tady, N. Y. (28). 1883. D
Langenbeck, Karl, 27 Orchard St., Zanesville, Ohio (39). 1890. C
Laugley, Prof. J. \V., Case School of .\pplied Science, Cleveland, Ohio
(23). 1875. C B
Langley, Prof. S. P., Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D. C. (18). 1874. A B
Lanza, Prof. Gaetano. Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. (29).
1882. DAB
Larkin, Edgar L., Director Knox College Observatory, Galesburg, 111.
(28). 1883. A
Lattimore, Prof. S. A., University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. (15).
1874, C
Laudy, Louis H., Ph.D., School of Mines, Columbia Univ., New York,
N. Y. (28). 1890. C
Lawrence, George N., 45 E. 21st St., New York, N. Y. (7). 1877. F
Lazenby, Prof. Wm. R., Columbus, Ohio (30). 1882. B I
Leach, Miss Mary F., Mt. Holyoke Coll., South Hadley, Mass. (44).
1896. C
LeBrun, Mrs. Michel, 222 West 23d St., New York, N. Y. (H5). 1892. F
LeConte, Prof. Joseph, Univ. of Cal., Berkeley, Cal. (29). 1881. E F
Ledoux, Albert R., Ph.D., 9 Cliff St., New York, N. Y. (26). 1881. C
Leeds, Prof. .AlbertR., Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J. (23), 1874. C F
Lefavour, Prof. Henry, Williams Coll.. WilliamstoAvn, Mass. (42). 1894.
Lehmaun, G. W.. Ph.D., 412 East Lombard St., Baltimore, Md. (30). 1885.
GB
Leuuon, WiUiamH., Brockport, N. Y. (31). 1894. GC
Lesley, Prof. J. Peter, State Geologist of Pennsylvania, 1008 Clinton St.,
Philadelphia, Pa. (2). 1874. E
Leverett, Frank, Denmark, Iowa (37). 1891. E
Libbey, Prof. William, jr., Princeton, N. J. (29). 1887. E F
Lindahl, Josua, Ph.D., Society of Natural History, Cincinnati, Ohio (40).
1892. F E
Liudentha'l, Gustav, C.E., 45 Cedar St., New York, N. Y. (37). 1891. I
Lintner, J. A., N. Y. State Entomologist, Room 27, Capitol, Albany, N. Y.
(22). 1874. F
Livermore, Win. R., Maj. of Eng. U. S. A., P. O. Building, Boston,
Mass. (38). 1895. C
Lloyd, John Uri, Pharmaceutical Chemist, Court and Plum Sts., Cincin-
nati, Ohio (38). 1890. CF
Lloyd, Mrs. Rachel, Box 675, Lincoln, Neb. (31). 1889. C
Locy, Prof. Wm. A., Lake Forest, 111. (34). 1890. F
Loeb, Morris, Ph.D., 37 E. 38th St., New York, N. Y. (36). 1889. C
Lon-.', Prof. John H., 40 Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. (41). 1895. C
Lord. Prof. Nat. AV., State Univ., Columbus, Ohio (29). 1881. C
(69)
IXX FELLOWS.
Loud. Prof. Frank H., 1203 N. Tejon St., Colorado Springs, Col. (29).
AB
Loughridge, Dr. K. II., Ass't Prof. Agric. Chem. and Agric. Geol., Univ.
of California, Berkeley, Cal. (21) 1874. EC
Love, Edward G., 80 E. 55th St., New York, N. Y. (24). 1882. C
Low, Seth, President Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (29). 1890.
Lo-well, Percival, 58 State St., Boston, Mass. (3f>). 1896. A
Lyford, Edwin F., Springfield, Mass. (33). 1896. B C H
Lyle, David Alexander, Captain Ordnance Dept. U. S. A., Ordnance Office,
War Dept., Washington, D. C. (28). 1880. D
Lyon, Dr. Henry, 34 Monument Sq., Charlestown, Mass. (18). 1874.
McAdie, Alexander George, U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C.
(40). 1892. B
McCauley, Major C. A. H., Q. M., U. S. A., 1428 Arch St., Philadelphia,
Pa. (29). 1881.
McClintock, Emory, Morristown, N. J. (43). 1895. A
McCreath, Andrew S., 223 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. (33). 1889. C E
McCurdy, Chas. W., Sc.D., Prof, of Chem., Univ. of Idaho, Moscow,
Idaho (35). 1895. PE
McDonnell, Prof. Henry B., College Park, Md. (40). 1893. C
McGee, Dr. Anita Newcomb, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washing-
ton, D. C. (37). 1892. H
McGee, W J, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (27).
1882. H E
McGill, John T., Pli.D., Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tenn. (36). 1888. 'C
McGregory, Prof. J. F., Colgate Univ., Hamilton, N. Y. (35). 1892. C
McMahon, James, Ithaca, N. Y. (36).' 1891. A
MacMillan, Prof. Conway, Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (42).
1894. G
McMurtrie, William, 106 Wall St., New York, N. Y. (22). 1874. C
McNeill, Malcolm, Lake Forest, 111. (32). 1885. A
McRae, Austin Lee, Consulting Electrical Eng., 306 Oriel Building, St.
Louis, Mo. (39). 1891. B
Mabery, Prof. C. F., Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio
(29). 1881. C
Macbride, Prof. Thomas H.. Iowa City, Iowa (38). 1890. G
Macfarlane, Prof. A., Lehigh Univ., So. Bethlehem, Pa. (34). 1886. B A
Macloskie, Prof. George, College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. (25).
1882. F
Magie, Prof. Wm., F., Coll., of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. (35). 1887.
Mann, B. Pickman, 1918 Sunderland Place, Washington, D. C. (22).
1874 I F
Marcy, Oliver, LL.D., Evanston. 111. (10). 1874. E
Mark, Prof. E. H., Louisville, Ky. (39). 1893. B
Marlatt. Charles L., 1st Ass't Entomologist, Dep't of Agric, Washington,
D. C. (40). 1895. F
(70)
V
%
FELLOWS. IXXl
Marsh, Prof. C. Dwight, Ripoii, Wis. (84). 1893. F E
Maksh, Pkof. 0. C, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. (15). 1874. F H
Martin, Arteraas, U. S. Coast Survey, Washington, D. C. (38). 1890. A
Martin. Prof. Daniel S., 236 West 4th St., New York, N. Y. (23). 1879.
E F
Martin, Miss Lillie J., Girls' High School, San Francisco, Cal. (32). 1886.
F C
Martin, Prof. Wra. J., Davidson College, N. C. (31). 1884. C E
Marvin, C. F., U. S. AVeather Bureau, Washington, D. C. (39). 1892. B
^Marvin, Frank O., Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. (35). 1894. D
Mason, Dr. William P., Prof. Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst., Troy, N. Y.
(31). 1886. C
Matthews, Dr. Washington, 1262 New Hampshire Ave., cor. 21st St.,
N. W., Washington, D. C. (37). 1888. H
Mayer, Prof. A. M., Stevens Inst, of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. (19).
1874.
Meehan, Thomas, Germantown, Pa. (17). 1875 G
Mees, Prof. Carl Leo, Rose Polytechnic Inst., Terre Haute, Ind. (24).
1876. B C
Mell. Prof. P. H., Polytechnic Inst, Auburn, Ala. (39). 1895. EG
Mendenhall, Prof. T. C, President Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Worcester, Mass. (20). 1874. B
Menocal, Anicito G., C. E., U. S. X., Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. (36).
1888. D
Mercer, H. C, Doylestown, Bucks Co., Pa. (41). 1893. H
Merrill, Frederick J. H., Ph.D., Ass't Director New York State Museum,
Albany, N. Y. (35). 1887. E
Merriman, C. C, 1910 Surf St., Lake View, Chicago, 111. (29). 1880. F
Merriman, Prof. Mansfield, So. Bethlehem, Pa. (32). 1885. A D
Merritt, Ernest, Ithaca, N. Y. (33). 1890. B
Metcalf, William, Pittsljurgh, Pa. (33). 1894. D
Michael, Mrs. Helen Abt)Ott, 44 Mount Vernon St., Boston, Mass. (33).
1885. C F
Michelson. Prof. A. A.. Chicago Univ., Chicago, 111. (26). 1879. B
Miles, Prof. Manly, Lansing, Mich. (29). 1890. F I
Miller, Prof. William S., Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis. (42). 1894. F
Mills, James, M.A., Guelph, Ontario, Can. (31). 1895. I C
Mills, Prof. Wesley, McGill College, Montreal, P. Q.,Can. (31).'l886. F H
Minot, Dr. Charles Sedgwick, Harvard aiedical School, Back Bay, Bos-
ton, Mass. (28). 1880. F
Minot, Francis, M.D., Keadville, Mass. (29). 1884.
Mixter, Prof. Wm. G., New Haven, Conn. (30). 1882. C
Mohr, Dr. Charles, Mobile, Ala. (40). 1895. 6
Moler, Geo. S., 106 University Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. (38). 1892.
Moody, Robert O., M.D., Fair Haven Heights, New Haven, Conn. (35).
1892. F
Mooney, James, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. (38). 1890. H
("1)
Ixxii FELLOWS.
Moore, E. Hastings, The Univ. of Chicago, Cliicago, 111. (39). 1891. A
Moore, Prof. J. W., M.D., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. (22). 1874. B
DA
Moore, Veranus A., M.D., Ithaca, N. Y. (40). 1892. F
Moorehead, Warren K., Ohio State Univ., Colmubns, Ohio (38). 1890. H
Morelaud, Prof. S. T., Lexington, Va. (33). 1894. B D
Morley, Prof. Edward W., 23 Cutler St., Cleveland, Ohio (18). 1876.
C B E
Morse, Prof. E. S., Salem, Mass. (18). 1874. F H
Morton, H., Stevens Institute Technology, Hoboken, N. J. (18). 1875.
BG
Moser, Lieut. Comd'r Jefl". F., U. S. N., Com'dg U. S. F. S. Str. Albatross,
Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal. (28). 1889. E
Moses, Prof. Thomas F., Urbana University, Urbana, Ohio (25). 18«3. HF
Munroe, Prof. C. E., Columbian Univ., Washisigtoii, D. C. (22). 1874. C
Murdoch, John, Rocli, Plymouth Co., Mass. (29). 1880. F H
Murtfeldt, Miss Mary E., Kirkwood, Mo. (27). 1881. F
Myers, John A., Agric.Exper. Station, Morgantown, W. Va. (30). 18il9. C
Nagle, Prof. James C, A. and M. Coll., College Station, Texas (-10). 1893-
D B
Nason, Frank L., 5 Union St., New Brunswick, X. J. (36). 1888. E
Nef, J. U., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, 111. (39). 1891. C
Nelson, Prof. A. B., Centre College, Danville, Ky. (30). 1882. A B D
Newcomb, Prof. S., Navy Dep't, Washington, D. C. (13). 1874. A B
Newcombe, Frederick Chas., 51 E. Liberty St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (43).
1896. 6
Newell, F. H., U. S. Geol. Survey, Washiuarton, D. C. (40). 1893.
NeAvell, William Wells, Editor Journal American Folk Lore, Cambridge,
Mass. (41). 1893. H
Nichols, Ernest Fox, Hamilton, N. Y. (41). 1893. B
Nichols, E.L.,Ph.D., Cornell Univ., Itliaca, N. Y. (28). 1881. B C
Nicholson, Prof. H. H., Box 675, Lincoln, Neb. (36). 1888.
Niles, Prof. W. H., Cambridge, Mass. (16). 1874. E
Norton, Pkof. Thomas H., Univ. of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio (35).
1887. C
Novy, Dr. Frederick G.. UniA. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (36).
1889. C
Noyes, Prof. Wm. A., Rose Polytechnic Inst., Terre Haute, Ind. (32).
1885. C
Nuttall, Mrs. Zelia, care Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (35). 1887.
H
Nutting, Prof. Charles C., State Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (40).
1892. F
Ogden, Herbert G., U. S. Coast and G. Survey, Washington, D. C. (38).
1891. E
(72)
FELLOWS. Ixxiii
Orel way, Prof. Joliii M., Tiilane Uuiv., New Orleans, La. (9). 1875. C
Orndorff, Dr. William Rid^ely. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (41). 1893. C
Orr, William, jr. 30 Firglade Ave., Spriugfleld, Mass. (39). 1895. F B
Orton, Prof. Edward, President Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College,
Columbus, Ohio (19). 1875. E
Osborn, Henry F., Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (29). 1883. F
Osborn, Herbert, Ames, Iowa (32). 1884. F
Osmond, Prof. I. Thornton, State College, Centre Co., Pa. (33). 1889.
BAG
Packard, Dr. A. S.. 115 Angcll St., Providence, R. I. (10). 1875. F E
Paine, Cyrus F., 800 Granite Building, Rochester, N. Y. (12). 1874. B A
Palache, Charles, University Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (44). 1890. E
Palfray, Hon. Charles W., Salem, Mass. (21). 1874.
Pammel, Prof. L. H., Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa (39). 1892.
Parke, John G., Gen. {]. S. A , 16 Lafayette Square, Washington. 1^. C.
(29). 1881. D
Parkhukst, Hexry M., 173 Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (23). 1874. A
Parsons, Prof. C. Lathrop, Durham, N. H. (41). 1896.
Patrick, Geo. E., Ames, Iowa (86). 1890. C
Patterson, Harry J., College Park, Prince George's Co., Md. (30). 1890. C
Paul, Prof. Henry M., U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C. (33).
1885. A B
Peabody, Selim H., 4200 Berkeley Ave., Chicago, 111. (17). 1885. DBF
Pedrick, Wm. R., Lawrence, Mass. (22). 1875.
Peet, Rev. Stephen D., Good Hope, lU. (24). 1881. H
Penrose, Dr. R. A. F., 1331 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa. (38). 1890. E
Perkins, Prof. George H., Burlington, Vt. (17). 1882. H F E
Perry, Arthur C, 226 Halsey St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). 1890. A B
Peter, Alfred M., 236 E. :\Iaxwell St., Lexington, Ky. (29). 1890. C
Peters, Edw. T., P. O. Box 265, Washington, D. C. (33). 1889. I
Pettee, Prof. Wm. H., 52 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (24). 1875. E
Phillips. Prof. A. W., New Haven, Conn. (24). 1879.
Phillips, Prof. Francis C, Western Univ., Allegheny, Pa. (36). 1889. C
Phillips, Dr. Wm. A., i<:vanstou. III. (41). 1895. H
Pickering, Prof. E. C, Director of Observatory, Cambridge, Mass. (18).
1875. A B
Pierce. Perry Benj., U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C. (40). 1895.
H
Pillsbury, Prof. John II., Stoneham, Mass. (23). 1885. FH
Piatt, Franklin, Ass't Geologist, 2nd Geol. Survey of Pa., 1017 Chestnut
St., Philadelphia, Pa. (27). 1882. E
Pohlman, Dr. Julius, Buflalo, N. Y. (32). 1884. E F
Porter, Thos. C, LL.D., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. (33). 1887. G
Powell, Major J. W., Washington, D. C. (23). 1875. EH
Power, Frederick B., care Messrs. Burroughs, Wellcome & Co., 42 Snow
Hill, London, E. C, Eng. (31). 1887. C
(73)
Ixxiv FELLOWS.
Prentiss, D. Webster, M.D., 1101 14th St., N. AV., Washington, D. C (29).
1882. F
Prentiss, Robert W., Prof, of Mathematics and Astronomy, Rutijers Col-
lege, New Brunsvvicls', N. J. (40). 1891. A
Prescott, Prof. Albert II., Ann Arbor, Mich. (23). 1875. C
Prosser, Charles S., Prof, of Geology, Union Coll., Schenectadj', N. Y.
(33). 1891. EF
Pulsifer, Wm. H., Newton Centre, Mass. (26). 1879. A H
Pupin, Dr. M. I., Columbia Univ., New York. N. Y. (44^. 189r>. B
Putnam, Prof. F. W., Curator Peabody Museum American ArchiBology and
Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass. ; Curator Dept. Anthropology, Amer.
Museum Nat. History, Central Park, NeAV York, N. Y. (Address as
Permanent Secretary A. A. A. S., Salem, Mass.) (10). 1874. H
Pynchon, Rev. T. R., Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (23). 1875.
Rathbun, Richard, care Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (40).
1892. F
Raymond, Rossiter W., 13 Burling Slip, New York, N. Y. (15). 1875. E I
Raymond, Prof. Wm. G., Rensselaer Pol.yteclinic Inst., Troy.N. Y. (44).
1896. D
Rees, Prof. John K., CoInmbiaUniv., New York, N.Y. (26). 1878. AEB
Reese, Charles L., 1801 Linden Ave., Baltimore, Md. (39). 1892. C
Reese, Jacob, 400 Cliestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (33). 1891. D B
Reid, Harry Fielding, Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. (36). 1893. B
Remsen, Prof. Ira, Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. (22). 1875. C
Rice, Prof. Wm. Nortl), Wesleyan University, Middletovvn, Conn. (18).
1874. E F
Richards, Prof. Charles B., 137 Edwards St., New Haven, Conn. (33).
1885. D
Richards, Edgar, 1621 H St., Wasliington, D. C. (31). 1886. C
Richards, Prof. Robert H., Mass. Inst. Tech., Back Bay, Boston, Mass.
(22). 1875. D
Richards, Mrs. Robert IL, Prof. Mass. Inst, of Tech., Back Bay, Boston,
Mass. (23). 1878. C
Richardson, Clifford, Sup't of Tests, Barber Asphalt Paving Co., Long
Island City, N. Y. (30). 1884. C
Ricketts, Prof. Palmer C, 17 1st St., Troy, N. Y. (33). 1887. D A
Ricketts, Prof. Pierre de Peyster, 104 John St., New York, N. Y. (26).
1880. C D E
Risteeu, Allen D., Hartford, Conn. (38). 1890. A B D
Ritchie, E. S., Newton Highlands, Mass. (10). 1877. B
Robinson, Benjamin Lincoln, Curator Harvard Herbarium, Cambridge,
Mass. (41). 1893. G
Robinson, Prof. Franklin C, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. (29).
1889. C D
Robinson, Prof. S. W., 1353 Highland St., Columbus, Ohio (30). 1883.
DBA
(74)
X
FELLOWS. IxXV
Rockwell, Gen. Alfred P., Manchester, Mass. (10). 1882. E
Kockwell, Chas. H.. Box 293, Tarry town, N. Y. (28). 1883. A D
Kockwood, Prof. Charles G., jr., College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J.
(20). 1874. A E B D
Rogers, Prof. W. A., Colby Univ., Waterville, Me. (15). 1875. A B D
Rominger, Dr. Carl, Ann Arbor, Mich. (21). 1879. E
Rood, Prof. 0. N., Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (14). 1875. B
Rosa, Edward Bennett, Prof, of Physics, "Wesleyan Univ., Mlddletown,
Conn. (39). 1892. A B
Ross, Prof. Edward A., Stanford, Cal. (41). 1894. I
Ross, Waldo O., 1 Chestnut St., Boston, Mass. (29). 1882.
Rotcli, A. Lawrence, Readville, Mass. (39). 1896.
Rowland, Prof. Henry A., Baltimore, Md. (29). 1880. B
Rowlee, W. \V., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (41). 1894. G
Ruukle, Prof. J. D., Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. (2).
1875. A D
Rushy, Henry H., M.D., College of Pharmacy, 211 E. 23d St., New York,
N. Y. (36). 1890. G
Russell, Prof. H. L., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (41).
1894. G
Russell, I. C, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich. (25). 1882. E
Ryan, Harris J., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. (38). 1890. B
Sadtler, Sam'l P., 1042 Drexel Building. Philadelphia, Pa. (22). 1875. C
Saegmuller, G. N., 132 Maryland Ave., S. W., Washington, D. C. (38).
1891. A B
Safford, Dr. James M., Nashville, Tenn. (6). 1875. E C F
Safford, Prof. Truman H., Williamstown, Mass. (41). 1892. A
Salisbury, Prof. R. D., Chicago Univ., Chicago, HI. (37). 1890. B E
Salmon, Daniel E., Dep't of Agric, Washington, D. C. (31). 1885. F
Sampson, Commander W. T., U. S. N., Navy Dept., Washington, D. C.
(25). 1881. B A
Saunders, Prof. Charles E., 32 St. Mary St., Toronto, Ontario, Can. (41).
1895. C
Saunders, William, Director Canadian Experimental Farms, Ottawa,
Ontario. Can. (17). 1874. F
Saville, Marshall H., Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Central Park, New York,
N. Y. (39). 1892. H
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(34). 1886. A
Schanck, Prof. J. Stillwell, Princeton, New Jersey (4). 1882. C B H
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1889. 0
(75)
Ixxvi FELLOWS.
Schweitzer, Prof. Paul, State University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. (24) .
1877. C B
Scovell, M. A., Director Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lex-
ington, Ky. (35). 1887.
ScuDDER, Samuel H., Cambridge, Mass. (13). 1874. F
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Searle, Prof. Geo. M., Catholic Univ., Washington, D. C. (39). 1891. A
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1894. B -r--.- \l^
Shelton, Prof. Edward M., Dep't of Agric, Brisbane, Queensland, Aus- Mjy>»J-'^'
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(76)
FELLOWS. IxXVii
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1881. B D A
(77)
Ixxviii FELLOWS.
Talbot, Hpory P., Prof. Analytical Chemistry, Mass. Inst. Technology,
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Trelease, Dr. Wm., Director Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
(39). 1891. 6
Trenholm, Hon. W. L., Pres. Araer. Surety Co., 160 Broadway, N6w
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G
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(78)
FELLOWS. Ixxix
Van Vleck. Prof. John M., Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn. (23).
1875. A
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G B
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Warren, Dr. Joseph W., Bryu Mawr Coll., Bryn Mawr, Pa. (31). 1886. F
Warren, Prof. S. Edward, Newton, Mass. (17). 1875. A-I
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(79)
IXXX FELLOWS.
Wheeler, Orlando B., Office Mo. River Com., 1515 Lucas Place, St. Louis
Mo. (24). 1882. AD
White, Prof. C. A., Le Droit Park, Washington, D. C. (17). 1875. E F
White, David, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C (40). 1892.
EF
White, Prof. H. C, Univ. of Georjria, Athens, Ga. (29). 1885. C
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E F
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nue, New York, N. Y. (18). 1874. E F H
Whiting, Miss Sarah F., Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. (31). 1883-
BA
Whitman, Prof. Frank P., Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio (38). 1885.
A B
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E D
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E C
Winciiell, Prof. N. H.,Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (19). 1874.
EH
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(37). 1893. A
(80) I
FELLOWS. Ixxxi
Withers, Prof. W. A., Agric. and Mechanical College, Ealeigh, N. C (33).
1891. C
Wittliaus, Dr. R. A., 303 W. 77th St., New York, N. Y. (35). 1890.
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Mass, (29). 1884. D
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1895. E
Woodward, Prof. Calvin M., 17G1 Missouri Ave., St. Louis, Mo. (32).
1884. D A I
Woodward, R. S., Columbia Univ., New York, N. Y. (33). 1885. A B D
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Wrampelmeier, Theo. J., Room 17, Appraiser's Building, San Francisco,
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Wright, Prof. Arthur W., Yale Coll., New Haven. Conn. (14). 1874. A B
Wright, Carroll D., LL.D., Dep't of Labor, Washington, D. C. (41>
1894. I
Wright, Rev. Geo. F., Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio (29). 1882. EH •
Wright, Prof. Thos. W., Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. (36). 1889.
^ Wiirtele, Rev. Louis C, Acton Vale, P. Q., Can. (11). 1875. E
Youmans, Wm. Jay, M.D., Popular Science Monthly, 72 Fifth Ave., New
York, N. Y. (28). 1889. F C
Young, A. V. E., Northwe.stern Univ., Evanston, 111. (33). 1886. C B
Young, C. A., Prof, of Astronomy, Princeton Univ. Princeton, N. J.
(18). 1874. ABD
Zalinski, E. L., U. S. A., care U. S. Legation, Tokio, Japan (36). 1891.
D
Ziwet, Alexander, 44 Madison St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (38). 1890. A
[808 HoNOHART Fellows and Fellows.]
SU.MMART.— Patrons, 2 ; Corresponding Members, 1; Members, 991; Honorary
Fellows, 3 ; Fellows, 805.
December 31, 1896, Total Number of Members of the Association, 1802.
a. a. a. s. vol. xi.v. f (81)
DECEASED MEMBERS.
A list of deceased members of the Association, so far as known, to
tlic time of publisMng the volume of Proceedings of the Springfield meet-
ing, Maj' 189G, is given in that volume. At the Buffalo meeting the Council
directed the Permanent Secretary to omit the printing of tlie full list of
deceased members in the annual volumes and to print onh* the additions
to the list.
The Secretary requests information as to dates and places of birth and
death of members when not given in the list.
Since the publication of the list in the Springfield volume, notices have
been received of the decease of the following members :
John G. Bourke, Washington, D. C. (33). Bora in Philadelphia, Pa., in
1843. Died in Philadelphia, Pa., June 8, 189G.
Thomas T. Bouve, Boston, Mass. (1.) Born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 14,
1815. Died in Hingham, Mass., June 3, 1896.
"Stephen Bush, Waterford, N. Y. (19). Born in Nassau, N. Y., May 30,
1818. Died in Waterford, N. Y., July 15, 1896.
'Oscar Craig, Rochester, N. Y. (41). Died Jan. — , 1894.
Charles O. Curtman, St. Louis, Mo. (39).
J. C. Foye, Chicago. 111. (29). Died July 3, 1896.
G. Brown Goode, Washington, D. C. (22). Born in New Albany, Ind.,
Feb. 13, 1851. Died in AVashington, D. C, Sept. 6, 1896.
Benjamin Apthorp Gould, Cambridge, Mass. (2). Born in Boston, Mass.,
Sept. 27, 1824. Died in Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 26, 1896.
Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Can. (30). Died Dec. 28, 1896.
Robert Hay, Junction City, Kan. (36). Born in Ashton-under-Lyne,
Lancashire, Eng., May 19, 1835. Died in Junction City, Kan., Dec.
14, 1895.
Bela Hubbard, Detroit, Mich. (1). Died in June, 1896.
Charles McK. Leoser, New York, N. Y. (32). Died Feb. 23, 1896.
N. T. Lupton, Auburn, Ala. (17). Died June 10, 1893.
Tyler McWhorter, Aledo, 111. (20). Boru in Avoca, N. Y., Aug. 29, 1815.
Died in Aledo, 111., March 5, 1896.
Hubert A. Newton, Ncav Haven, Conn. (6). Born in Sherburne, N. Y.,
March 19, 1830. Died in New Haven, Conn., Aug. 12, 1896.
George Dean Phippen, Salem, Mass. (18). Born in Salem, Mass., April
13, 1815. Died in Salem, Mass., Dec. 27, 1895.
(Ixxxii) (82)
UECKASED MEMBERS. Ixxxiii
Albert Nelson Prentiss, Ithaca, N. Y. (35). Born in Cazenovia, N. Y.,
May 22, 1836. Died in Itliaca, N. Y., Aug. U, 1896.
Mark Samuel, New York, N. Y. (43).
Justus Mitchell ISilliman, Easton, Pa. (19). Born in New Canaan, Conn.
Jan. 25, 1842. Died in Easton, Pa., April 15, 1896.
Samuel^L. Smedley, Philadelphia, Pa. (33). Died July 21. 1894.
Charles Speck, St. Louis, Mo. (27). Died in St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 25,
1896.
Charles Wachsmuth, Burlington, Iowa (30). Born in Hannover, German}'
Sept. 13, 1829. Died in Burlington, Iowa, Feb. 7, 1S96.
Josiah D. Whitney, Cambridge, Mass. (1). Born in Northampton, Mass.,
Nov. 23, 1819. Died in New London, N. H., Aug. 19, 1896.
John B. Woodward, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). Died March 6, 1896.
(83)
ADDRESS
BY
EDWARD W. MORLEY.
THE RETIRING PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.
A COMPLETED CHAPTER IN THE HISTORY OF THE
ATOMIC THEORY.
The great discovery of the law of gravitatiou was left reason-
ably complete by its author. The explanation of this fact is
obvious. No otlier force of sensible magnitude complicates the
action of gravitation ; its law appeals to simple geometrical rela-
tions; and the facts had been well observed and reduced to order.
Accordingly, by a few numerical comparisons of the hypothesis
with the facts, Newton established the truth of his conjecture so
that it has been generally accepted as a law of nature. The first
suggestion of the theory was quickly followed by its final triumph.
Very different has been the history of the discovery which
most chemists regard as next in importance to that of Newton.
The discovery that matter consists of an aggregation of infini-
tesimal units or individuals was made by Dalton; but the first
suggestion of this kind had been made at least twenty-two cen-
turies before Dalton. Leucippus and Democritus were the
earliest recorded believers in this doctrine; Epicurus adopted it;
Lucretius expounded it in strains of noble eloquence. But all
the early suggestions were quite barren and unfruitful for the
advancement of science, for no one before the present century
was in a position to make any verifiable hypothesis ; and science
grows by means of hypotheses so closely in touch with facts as
to be verifiable. In later times, Leibnitz accepted the notion of
a certain kind of atomic structure of matter; Newton accepted,
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XLV. 1
'J. ADDRESS BY
and reasoned soundly upon, a view which Dalton recognized as
akin to his own. Kant seems to have adopted the contrary
opinion, and to have believed that matter is infinitely divisible.
But Bernouilli made the conjecture, which has since been verified,
that a given volume of a gas consists of a very large number of
ver}^ small discrete particles, which we now call molecules; and
Higgins, an English chemist, a contemporary of Dalton, was the
first to apply the notion of atoms to the explanation of chemical
phenomena, although he did not think clearly in regard to the
weight of atoms, and so formed no useful hypothesis. Accord-
ingl3\ the net result of twenty-two centuries of thought on this
subject was, to form a conception of a possible structure of
matter, without imagining any wa}' of establishing the truth or
error of this conception, or even of gaining any evidence what-
ever in regard to it. But, if any are inclined to visit this failure
with reproach, it is interesting to notice that the first man who
was aware of the quantitative relations which are adapted to
throw light on the matter did not fail to make the most full and
complete use of this knowledge.
Dalton, and not the ancients, ought to be regarded as the
discoverer of the atomic structure of matter, because he invented a
hypothesis, involving such a structure, which was capable of being
so compared with facts as to be proved or contradicted; because
he actually began such a comparison of the hypothesis with the
facts; and because all the evidence from facts, varied as it has
since become, supports the hj^pothesis substantially in the form
which he gave it. He who suggests that a certain benefit is
desirable, or who conjectures that it is possible, shall not fail of
due credit; but he who confers the benefit will receive the credit
due the benefactor.
Since Dalton's discovery, much has been done to confirm and
enlarge our knowledge of the atomic structure of matter. New
evidence has been acquired in favor of it, because the theory has
been ready to extend over whole realms of facts of a kind un-
known to Dalton, to explain them, to facilitate their study; and
also ready to predict facts, unknown till they were sought in con-
sequence of the prediction, but found when the}' were sought.
The history of the atomic theory for ninety years would fall
into several distinct chapters. One of these chapters, not the
least interesting of them, would tell of a very large amount of
EDWAHD W. MORLEY. 3
work, some of it of consummate accuracy, of which the object
was to attain some knowledge of the nature or construction of
atoms. Since the last meeting of our Association in this city,
work has been accomplished which, if I rightl}' judge, has ended
this particular chapter. That the chapter may at some future
time be resumed is, of course, not absolutely impossible; but
for the present it has come to a definite close. My own interest
in the matter suggests, and the coincidence in time now men-
tioned perhaps justifies, m}^ selection of this completed chapter
in the history of the atomic theory as the subject of the address
which our constitution requires of me this evening.
This chapter naturally concerns more intimately the members
of the sections of Ph3'sics and Chemistry. To these I can hardly
hope to say anything not already well known- to them; but mem-
bers of other sections may, perhaps, not be entirely uninterested
in an account of the conclusions reached.
Dalton's theory was founded on three facts. These facts are
often called Dalton's laws; one of them, because he discovered
it, the others because he first recognized their important relations
to chemical theory. One of these is the law of definite propor-
tions: in any chemical compound, the ratio of the components is
constant, is invariable, is definite. This truth had been recog-
nized by others; it was finally established as a result of the dis-
cussion between Berthollet and Proust; a discussion well worth
recalling for the dignified courtesy and simple love for truth
shown by both the disputants. A second of these laws of Dalton
is the law of equivalent proportions: if two elements, which
combine with each other, combine also with a third, then the
ratio in which they combine with each other (or a simple multiple
of it) is also the ratio of the quantities of those which combine
with the same quantity of the third. That this was true, at least
in some cases, was known before Dalton. The third law is the
law of multiple proportions: if two bodies combine in more than
one ratio, those ratios are simple multiples of each other. This
truth was discovered by Dalton.
These three laws are statements of facts. Cai'eful and multi-
plied experiments have convinced us that, if these statements are
not rigorously exact, their deviation from accuracy is less than the
accidental errors of the best experiments used to test them.
Perhaps it is worth while to delay for a moment, in order to
4 ADDRESS BY
state to what degree of precision such experiments have been
brought. The degree of precision with which any supposed law
can be verified depends on the skill of the investigator, on the
instrumental equipment available, and on the conditions of the
problem. Often the conditions of the pi-oblem impose very
stringent limitations on the precision of our experiments. For
instance, the truth known as Ohm's law has been verified, in the
case of metallic conductors, to one part in a million millions; but
in the case of liquid conductors, the conditions are such that the
precision attainable so far has been only a millionth as much.
Huyghens' law, relating to double refraction, has been verified
to one part in half a million, and there seems to be no possibility
of attaining any considerable increase in the precision of the
observations. These are examples of the very highest degree of
precision which has been secured in the verification of supposed
laws of nature.
The precision which can be attained in chemical analysis, even
of the most elaborate kind, is much less than in the cases just
mentioned. The determination of atomic weights is the chemical
process in which the highest degree of precision is demanded. If
we denote the precision of such determinations by the words
"good," "excellent," "admirable," "consummate," then we may
fairly say that in a good series of determinations the average
difference from the mean of all will be less than one thousandth
part of the ratio sought; in an excellent series, less than one
three-thousandth part; in an admirable series, less than one ten-
thousandth part; and in a consummate series, less than one fifty-
thousandth part.
Now the work of Stas was all admirable in precision, and
much of it was consummate, and he made experiments expressly
intended to verify the law of definite proportions. The average
error in this series of experiments was not more than one part in
thirty thousand; and his result was, that, if the composition of the
compounds examined is not rigorously constant, the variations
are too small to be detected. The law of equivalent proportions
was verified with the same degree of precision : the accuracy of
the law of multiple proportions has been thought to be deducible
from the truth of the two other laws.
To some such degree of precision, then, Dalton's laws are the
expression of facts. With these facts for a guide, and with no
EDWAKU W. MOKLEY.
tbeoiT founded on the facts and explaining the facts, all chemical
computations could be made, and chemical formuhe could be
established. And, if a theory should be devised, and accepted,
and finall}^ overthrown, these facts would remain, unchanged,
for our perpetual guidance. Some of Dalton's contemporaries
accepted the facts as a sufficient guide, and refused to burden
them with the weight of the theory. Some were engrossed, for
the time, in following out practical consequences of the facts;
some distrusted conclusions supported by but a single line of
evidence; some, perhaps, distrusted the capacities of the human
mind. But the facts were accepted.
All scientific men, all sensible men, have a great respect for
facts. Perhaps one cannot have too great a respect for facts;
but his respect may be wrongly directed. Facts are often very
interesting in themselves; they often have an important relation
to human welfare; their discovery is often a great intellectual
triumph: and we may regard them as the miser regards his gold,
forgetting that the most precious use of facts is to help us to see
beyond them. Facts are evidence; but we seek a verdict. Facts
are a telescope; we desire enlargement of vision, further insight
into nature. Facts are openings which we laboriously hew in the
walls which shut us in; they cost enough to be valuable, but
their real value is in that which they promise or disclose. Facts
are a foundation for our building; the structure must rigorously
respect the lines of the foundation; but it is a pity to believe
that the basement walls are the chief beauty desired by the archi-
tect or owner. As Tyndall phrased it in a lecture at Manchester,
"Out of experience in science, there always grows something
finer than mere experience. Experience, in fact, only furnishes
the soil for plants of higher growth."
In the present case the soil was fertile, the finer growth has
been rapid and vigorous. Dalton inferred that chemical elements
consist of very small units or individuals; that all the units or
individuals of any given element are equal in weight; and that
combination takes place by the grouping together of different
units or individuals. This is Dalton's atomic theory.
In Dalton's time there was no fact opposed to this novel con-
clusion ; but there was no second set of facts to support it. The
progress of chemistr}' depended on making due use of Dalton's
three laws, and they were quickly and generally accepted; but
6 - ADDRESS BY
whether tlie h3'pothetical chemical units or individuals actually
exist or not, although a most interesting question, did not press
for instant decision. Most chemists regarded with favor the idea
of the actual existence of the chemical units or individuals. Dal-
ton called them atoms, and perhaps the name brought misfor-
tune; for man}' thought that the new theory was, that matter is
made up of units or individuals which cannot be divided by any
possible force. The word "atom," the word "indivisible," like
the word "individual," properly mean that which is not divided
in the phenomena considered. An absolutely indivisible atom,
like an irresistible wave or an immovable rock, can be spoken of
to puzzle children; but for adults, as Clifford said, "If there is
an3'thii]g which cannot be divided, we cannot know it, because
we know nothing about possibilities and impossibilities; only
about what has or has not taken place." I judge that man}',
probably most, chemists and physicists understand the word
"atom " correctly; many others understand it to mean that which
cannot be divided by any possible force, and so misunderstand
it. For instance, the author of the "History of the Inductive
Sciences" failed to understand the word as chemists and physi-
cists understand it, and so supposed that he rejected the atomic
theory. Many chemists would reject the theory that matter con-
sists of very small units which cannot be divided: I suppose that
very nearly all believe that matter is made up of small units which
are not divided in any chemical or physical change yet observed.
This is the atomic theory of Dalton.
A few years after Dalton had formed the atomic theorj', and
had obtained the first experimental evidence on a matter which
had enlisted attention for more than two thousand years, Davy
showed, by brilliant experiments, that certain bodies were com-
pounds, although they had resisted all previous attempts to
decompose them. Since the first use of electricity had so
important results, men were ready to suspect that even supposed
elements might ultimateh' prove to be compounds. It was there-
fore in a congenial soil that Front's hj'pothesis took root. Trust-
ing to experiments of not nuich accuracy, Front suggested, in
the year 1815, that probably the atomic weights of other elements
were divisible, without remainder, hy the atomic weight of hydro-
gen; or, in other words, that they are whole numbers, if the
atomic weight of hydi'ogen be taken as unity.
EDWARD W. MORLEY. 7
The new suggestion was most attractive, for two reasons. On
the one hand, the truth of the new suggestion would lead to a
very great practical advantage. The labor of determining atomic
weights would be immensely simplified and lessened if we could
know beforehand that the numbers to be found were integers.
And, on the other hand, the new suggestion, if approved, would
promise a most interesting and valuable hint as to the nature of
matter and the structure of atoms. If, for instance, the atoms of
carbon and nitrogen and oxygen weigh precisely as much as
twelve and fourteen and sixteen atoms of hydrogen, then it is a
very plausible hypothesis that each of these atoms is really com-
posed of the material of twelve and fourteen and sixteen atoms
of hydrogen, compacted into a new atom. Davy had led many to
suspect that perhaps some atoms might be compound, and the
new suggestion looking in the same direction was received with
favor by many, among whom were great discoverers, and great
experimenters, and great teachers of chemistry. In England,
where Davy and Prout both lived, Thomson had great influence.
It was Thomson who, in the "Journal of Chemistry," of which
he was the editor, first announced Dalton's discover}'. Thomson
wrote the history of chemistry. Thomson's "System of Chem-
istry " was thought worthy of translation into French at a time
when French was the mother tongue of chemistr3\ And Thom-
son accepted Front's h3'pothesis as probably true. But Turner
made more accurate and more numerous determinations of atomic
weights than any other English chemist; and he rejected Front's
hypothesis. Berzelius, the great Swedish chemist, whose deter-
minations of the atomic weights of all the elements then known
were regarded with so much admiration by all chemists, pro-
nounced Front's hypothesis a pure illusion. But Dumas, than
whom none in France stood higher, whose opinion had great
weight 'on account of the excellence of his many determinations
of atomic weights, accepted Frout's hypothesis with a slight
modification, and believed that his experiments had established
its truth. Stas, the distinguished pupil of Dumas, began his
work with a bias in favor of the hypothesis ; but when his first
series of admirable determinations of atomic weights was pub-
lished, he pronounced the hypothesis a pure illusion, entirely
irreconcilable with the numerical results of experiment. But
Mallet, who has made several excellent determinations of atomic
8 ADDRESS BY
weights, and Clarke, who has recomputed and reduced to order all
the published determinations, declared themselves forced to give
Front's hypothesis a most respectful consideration. It is obvious,
then, that ten years ago it was not finally settled whether the
hypothesis was or was not true.
The hypothesis, then, has disappointed our hopes of any prac-
tical advantage in conducting to a knowledge of the exact value
of any atomic weight. But nevertheless the hypothesis has not
been neglected. As was said, if it is true, we may expect from
it new insight into the nature of atoms. Accordingly^ an immense
amount of labor has been expended in attempting to determine
whether the atomic weights of certain elements are or are not
divisible without remainder by the atomic weight of hydrogen.
Now since our last meeting in this city results have been
attained which show that further effort in this direction is not
justified by the hope of any theoretic advantage. The chapter
has come to an end. Front's hypothesis cannot be proved by
experiment.
When we attempt to decide b}^ experiment whether Front's
hypothesis is true, the nature of the problem, and the limitations
of our present knowledge and of our available manipulative skill,
impose three conditions to Avhich we must conform.
In the first place, we can more readily test the correctness of
Front's hypothesis by determinations of the smaller atomic
weights. The reason is obvious. All analytical work is affected
with some accidental error or uncertainty. When Herschel v/rote
his admirable "Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosoph}-,"
he said that it was doubtful whether we could depend on the result
of a chemical analj'sis as having an uncertainty less than one
part in four hundred. Work of much greater accuracy has been
done since this statement was made; but, for the moment, let us
assume that, even now, the uncertainty of a determination of
an atomic weight is a four-hundredth part. This uncertainty
affects a large atomic weight much more unfavorably for our pur-
pose than it affects a small atomic weight. For instance, Stas
found the atomic weight of lead to be 206.91, if we take the
atomic weight of oxygen as 16.00. The assumed uncertainty,
one four-hundredth part of this, is 0.53; so that, on our assump-
tion, the true value is somewhere between 206.38 and 207.44.
These numbers differ more than a unit ; no one has a right, on
KDWARD W. MORLEY. 9
this showing, to assert that the true value is the whole number
207.00, nor that it is not so.
But a small atomic weight may be much less unfavorably
affected by the same proportionate uncertainty. For instance,
recent determinations show that the atomic weight of oxygen is
15.88, when the atomic weight of hydrogen is taken as unity.
The assumed uncertaint}', one four-hundredth part of this, is
0.04; so that, on our assumption, the true value is between the
limits 15.84 and 15.92. These numbers differ by only one twelfth
of a unit ; and both of them differ much from the nearest whole
number, 16.00. It is, therefore, by determinations of small
atomic weights that we may hope to decide the truth of Prout's
hj'pothesis.
But among the smaller atomic weights, some, in the present
state of our knowledge, can be more accurately determined than
others. Accordingly, a second condition imposed on us by the
limitations of our knowledge is, that we must determine, with
what precision we can, those small atomic weights which admit
of the maximum of precision. There are eight atomic weights
upon which, with the experimental data now available, the de-
cision of the matter may be fairly made to depend. These ele-
ments are lithium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sodium, sulphur,
chlorine, and potassium : the atomic weights are, in round num-
bers, 7, 12, 14, 16, 23, 32, 35.50, and 39. If numerous and care-
ful experiments show that these atomic weights are whole
numbers, Prout's hypothesis has a solid basis in fact; if seven
are whole numbers and the other is 35.50, then Dumas's modified
statement of the h3'pothesis has a solid basis in fact, for 35.50
is divisible without a remainder by half the atomic weight of
hydrogen.
One more condition is imposed on us by the limitations of our
knowledge and manipulative skill. Our experiments determine
most atomic weights, not with reference to h3'drogen, but with
reference to oxygen. Experiment, for instance, does not deter-
mine directly that the atomic weight of lithium is seven times
that of hydrogen, but that it is seven sixteenths that of oxygen.
If the atomic weight of oxygen is uncertain, the atomic weights
of the other seven elements with reference to hydrogen are all
uncertain in the same proportion, although with reference to
oxygen they are now determined with very small uncertainty.
10 ADDRESS BY
Accordingly, the third condition imposed on us in attempting to
learn the truth about Front's hypothesis is, that the atomic weight
of ox^'gen must be well determined.
It may be remarked that it would be a great gain, as all chem-
ists will see, if several other atomic weights could be determined
by direct comparison with hydrogen, provided the precision
attainable was of the degree which I have called admirable, or
even excellent. Now, methods have been devised by which the
atomic weights of lithium, sodium, and potassium, as well as of
several other metals, could be referred directly to hydrogen, by
experiments which present no great difficulty, and which are
capable of the required precision. Further, a method has been
devised by which the atomic weight of chlorine can be deter-
mined with direct reference to hydrogen, by experiments capable
of the required degree of precision, but involving considerable
difficulty in manipulation. But until some such methods shall
have been employed by some one, we must be content with the
inferences which can be drawn f]-om data of the kind now
available, which depend on our knowledge of the atomic weight
of oxygen as the corner stone of the system.
Our knowledge of the atomic weight of oxygen, ten years ago,
depended largely on the experiments of Dumas. His results
differed from the whole number 16.00 by one four-hundredth paj:t;
he himself judged that the uncertainty remaining might be one
two-hundredth part. If we accept this estimate of uncertainty,
we may say that he proved that the atomic weight of oxygen is
included between the limits 1.5.88 and 16.04. No one could
assert that the true number is, or that it is not, the whole num-
ber 16.00. A proportionate uncertainty, therefore, existed in
the other seven atomic weights just mentioned. Accordingly,
ten years ago we could not well discuss the question whether
these atomic weights were divisible, without remainder, by the
atomic weight of hydrogen.
The atomic weight of oxygen is, accordingly, doubly important
for our purpose. The atomic weight is a small one, well adapted
to aid in the solution; and, further, many other atomic -weights,
also well adapted to aid in the solution, depend on a prior knowl-
edge of this constant. It is for this twofold reason that the work
done since our last meeting at Buffalo is important and interest-
ing. The members of this association have not failed to take
EDWARD W. MORLEY. 11
upon themselves a fair proportion of the considerable labor
involved.
Since that time not less than ten or eleven independent deter-
minations of the atomic weight of oxygen have been successfully
concluded.
Cooke and Richards were the first to complete and publish their
result; they used a new and ingenious process. Keiser was next;
he employed a method for weighing hydrogen which he had inde-
pendently invented (though it had been previously invented
elsewhere), which is the best yet used. In both these series of
experiments, the hydrogen was combined with oxygen by manipu-
lation something like that of Dumas; but the improvement which
permitted the direct weighing of the hydrogen made the essence
of the process novel. Then Noyes devised a new method of
weighing hydrogen directly, and a new manipulation for com-
bining it with oxygen, and carried out the process in an apparatus
having the advantage of great simplicity. Further, since our
last meeting the Smithsonian Institution has published a work
containing three series of determinations of the value in
question.
In England, Lord Eayleigh used another novel method of
combining oxygen and hydrogen, in which he weighed both
elements in the form of gas. He also made two series of deter-
minations of the ratio of the densities of the gases. Scott deter-
mined the ratio of the volumes of the gases which combine, in
several series of experiments of great accuracy. Dittmar and
Henderson rendered an important service by repeating, with
many modifications, the experiments of Dumas ; with the advan-
tage which the later experimenter commonly has over the earlier,
they were able to secure a much higher degree of precision, and
to eliminate the sources of constant error which Dumas detected
too late. '
In France, Leduc repeated the experiments of Dumas, and also
determined the ratio of the densities of the two gases.
In Denmark, Thomsen has applied a different process, in which
the atomic weight of a given metal is compared with those of
oxygen and of hj'drogen successively.
We have, then, eleven series of determinations of the atomic
weight of oxygen. One of these, for reasons which, so far, are
chiefly matter of conjecture, differs much from the mean of all the
12 ADDRESS BY
others. These other ten are concordant: they differ, on the
average, only one part in twenty-two hundred from their mean,
and the greatest difference from the mean is about one part in a
thousand.
Since these experiments have been made by different processes,
by different men, under varied conditions, and since the greatest
difference from the mean of the whole is only one part in a thou-
sand", it is probable that the mean of all differs from the truth by
much less than one part in a thousand. The errors of our experi-
ments are of two kinds, — accidental and svstematic. If we
shoot a hundred times at a mark, about half of our shots fall a
little to the right, and about half a little to the left. These are
accidental errors: accidental errors are lessened as our manipu-
lation improves, and they but slightly affect our final mean.
Systematic errors affect all our results in the same direction.
Suppose we fire a hundred shots at a target one thousand yards
distant, not examining the target till the shots are all fired. If,
now, the sights of our rifle were set for five hundred j^ards, all
our shots would strike too low. This is a systematic error:
systematic errors diminish as our knowledge increases.
Accidental errors can be rendered harmless by taking the mean
of numerous determinations made by the same method. But
systematic errors must be detected and avoided. That they have
been detected and avoided in any given cage can never be
definitely known; it can, at best, be presumed from the fact that
experiments by different methods give the same result.
As to the atomic weight of oxygen, accidental errors have now
been fairly eliminated, and we can make definite numerical
statements on this point. If each of the ten sets of experiments
were to be repeated with the same skill and knowledge, there is
not one chance in a thousand that the new mean would differ from
the present mean. by as much as one part in sixteen thousand.
Again, if ten new sets of experiments were to be made by new
methods and new experimenters, there is not one chance in a
thousand that the new mean would differ from the present mean
by as much as one part in twenty-five hundred.
As to possible systematic errors, modesty in statement is in-
cumbent on all scientific men. But we have now ten independent
results, in which the difference from the mean is at most only
one part in one thousand. We may then fairly assume that the
EDWARD W. MORLEY. 13
systematic error of the mean is less than one part in one thou-
sand. Again, we have lately been able to take one step in
advance, which throws needed light on precisely this point. It
has been found possible to weigh some hydrogen, to weigh the
requisite oxygen, and to weigh the water which the}^ produce. If,
now, there were some undetected systematic error in weighing
either one of these three substances, occasioned, for instance, by
some impurity remaining undetected in one of them, the sum of
the weights of the hydrogen and oxygen would differ from the
weight of the water produced. If a pound of sugar and a pound
of water produce onl}' one pound and three quarters of syrup,
there was a quarter of a pound of sand in the sugar. Now it
has, I think, been proved that, if the sum of the weights of the
hydrogen and the oxygen is not precisely equal to the weight of
the water produced, the difference is too small to be detected, and
cannot be more than one part in twenty-five thousand. If there
really were a difference of this amount, and, further, if this differ-
ence were due to an error at the precise point where it would be
the most mischievous, it would render the atomic weight of
oxygen uncertain by one part in about twentj'-eight hundred.
Taking into account the presumption from the concordance of
the results of different experimenters and the presumption from
the agreement just mentioned, I think we are justified in assum-
ing that the remaining systematic error is not more than one part
in sixteen hundred, and that it probably is not more than one
part in three thousand.
If this is a reasonable assumption, the net result of the experi-
ments made in Denmark, France, Great Britain, and the United
States is, that the atomic weight of oxygen is between 15.87 and
15.89, and that probably it is between 15.875 and 15.885. By
no stretch can we imagine that the truth lies in the whole number
16.00, nor in the even fraction 15.50. We cannot sanely believe
it to lie in the number 15.75, having modified Front's hj^pothesis
into the new statement that all atomic weights are divisible,
without remainder, by one quarter of the atomic weight of hj'dro-
gen. It will be obvious that, if we are still resolved to accept
some form of the attractive illusion, we must assume that the true
divisor is as small as one eighth of the atomic weight of hydro-
gen, for the value 15| is included within the limits given.
Then there is one small and well determined atomic weight
14 ADDRESS BY
which utterly refuses to support Prout's hj^pothesis, or any mocli-
ticatiou yet stated by believers in the hypothesis. Further,
now that the atomic weight of oxygen is well established, we can
compare, with hydrogen taken as unit}', the seven other small
and well determined atomic weights which have been mentioned.^
We see that every value differs from an integer; for lithium,
nitrogen, and potassium, the difference is about one part in two
hundred thirty; for sodium, sulphur, and chlorine, about one part
in one hundred eighty; for carbon and oxygen, about one part in
one hundred thirty. On the average, these values, which are
the best determined in chemistry, differ from whole numbers by
about one part in one hundred eighty. There is less than one
chance in a thousand that these numbers can possibly be so much
in error. These are the numbers best fitted to test Prout's
hypothesis; and their evidence against it is decisive. ,
It ought to be added, that the evidence against Prout's
hypothesis seemed to many to be decisive, even without the
knowledge of the atomic weight of oxygen which has recently
been acquired. But the evidence can now be stated in a much
more direct and simple manner; and it has gained in force, for
to the seven fit instances at hand before there is added an eighth,
which happens to be the most weighty of the whole.
In order to present the evidence against Prout's hypothesiis
when we lack an accurate knowledge of the atomic weight of
oxygen, we have first to assume. this value. We may, for one
trial, assume that this value is the whole number 16.00, which is
required by Prout's hypothesis, and see whether, on this assump-
tion, the other seven atomic weights in question are very nearly
such as the hypothesis requires." But the average deviation from
the numbers required by the hypothesis is one part in five hun-
dred; and one deviation amounts to more than one part in three
hundred. We may make another trial by assuming for oxygen,
not the whole number 16.00, but that value which shall make
the sum of all the deviations the least possible; and we may also
take one quarter of the atomic weight of hydrogen as our divisor."^
1 The values are as follows: Li = 6.97, C-^11.91, N = 13.94, 0 = 15.88,
Na = 22.87, S = 31.83, CI = 3.5.19, K = 38.84.
'^ The values on tliis assumption are as follows: Li = 7.02, C= 12.00,
N = 1404, 0 = IG.OO (assumed), Na = 23.07, S = 32.04, CI = 3.5.46, K = 39.14.
3 The values are as follows : Li = 7.00, C = 1 1.96, N = 13.99, 0 = 15.94,
Na = 22.96, S = 31 .96, CI = 35.33, K = 39.00.
EDWARD W. MORLKY. 15
But the average deviatious from the numbers required l)y the
theory is, even in this ease, one part in six hundred; and the
atomic weight of that element for which the determinations of
friends of the hypothesis agree with those of its opponents to
one part in thirty-five hundred, is supposed, after all, to be in
error by one part in five hundred. The atomic weight of 0x3'-
gen, computed expressly to give every possible advantage to the
hj'pothesis, differs from the whole number required by the theory
by one part in two hundred fifty.
"We read in our school-books of the bed of Procrnstes, to which
the tyrant fitted his compulsory lodgers ; if they were too short,
he stretched them on the rack, if they were too long, he lopped
off the superfluous length. This fable was really a prophetic
vision; the bed is Front's hypothesis; our friends who admire
it want to stretch the most unyielding quantities, and to lop off
numbers which have been determined with the greatest precision.
Either the experiments are in error by an amount which seems
incredible, or the hypothesis is an illusion. If the supporters of
the hypothesis Avould avoid the conclusion, they must supply
better determinations, or they must detect real and tangible
sources of error in those alread}' made.
The hypothesis was most interesting and attractive: it prom-
ised, if sustained bj' experimental evidence, to give the means of
such insight into the nature of matter and into the intimate
structure of atoms that it was well worth all the attention which
has been given to it. That it should fail of support, that its
promises could not be kept, is a matter of regret; but it is time
to recognize that our hopes are quite cut off. That other elements
are composed of the same substance as hydrogen may or may
not be true; but we have now no hope of proving it by deter-
minations of atomic weight. It would not be difficult, perhaps,
to modify Front's hj'pothesis again and again, so as to bring
it into some accord with the facts. We may imagine, if we will,
that the observed numbers, if determined without error, would all
be divisible by the eighth part of the atomic weight of hydrogen,
or the ninth, or the tenth, or by some smaller fraction. But
such a hypothesis is of no interest and of no utility, because it is
incapable of proof or disproof by experiment. The reason is
obvious. If we suppose that all atomic weights are divisible by
one tenth of the atomic weight of hydrogen, then, in case the
16 ADDRESS BY
theory is erroneous, the average deviation of the actual atomic
weights from those required by the theorj^ is only one fortieth
of the unit. The man who supports a theory which has no physi-
cal basis would assert that all such ascertained deviations were
due to errors of experiment. Others would reply that 3'ou can-
not prove that a man is a good marksman by crowding the targets
so near each other that not even his random shots can miss them
all. But his backers might make so uncritical a claim.
No, Prout's hypothesis, if subdivided far enough, may be true
for all which can be proved with the balance ; but in such new
form it is of no use and of no interest, for it cannot be proved
so as to become a safe basis for further inference. In its present
form, there is no root of truth in it.
So far, I have argued that Prout's hypothesis is not true as
heretofore enunciated; and that, if some further modification of it
is true, we cannot know it. This conclusion has been sustained
by the evidence of the chemist's balance. A conclusion sup-
ported by a single kind of evidence may command the confidence
of one who has been long familiar with the evidence, and who has
become capable of weighing it. But, for others, the concurrence
of evidence of different kinds rightly adds greatly to its cogency.
In this case, there is such concurrent evidence. There is other
proof that the atoms of some well studied elements are ,not
additive structures. Let me briefly describe the nature of this
evidence.
When certain elements are volatilized in a colorless gas-flame,
or in the electric arc, their molecules are made to vibrate, so as
to produce light. By the study of this light we can in time learn
much of the nature of the vibrating system. The observed facts
are gradually reducing to order; and one result is very striking.
In the case of three closely similar elements before mentioned,
lithium, sodium, and potassium, the complexity of vibration is
precisely similar in all, and the numerical relations among the
component vibrations are precisely similar in all. Therefore we
are compelled to assume that the complexity of structure is the
same in all, and that the relations of the component parts, and of
the forces acting between them, are the same in all. To illus-
trate the nature of the argument: the complexity of vibration
and the numerical relations among the component vibrations in
the ease of a large church bell are precisely similar to those in
EDWARD TV. MORLEY. 17
the case of a bell ouly one third as large. Then, even without
the direct evidence of other senses, we must presume that the
two bells are similar structures, having similai- parts, similarly
related. "We cannot believe that the larger bell is made of a
small bell loaded with weights, nor of three small bells bound
closely together. The larger and the smaller are of the same
order. The larger is not made of more parts than the smaller;
it is made of more metal. So with the atoms of these three
elements; the larger are not made up by the addition of parts
which preserve their identity and remain undivided. But all we
know of chemical combination relates to structures which are
made by the addition of parts which preserve their identity and
remain undivided. Then Prout's hypothesis assumes an analogy
which does not exist; and deductions from an imaginary analog}'
will themselves differ from the truth, much as fairy tales differ
from history.
There are still other sources of evidence drawn from the specific
heats of the elements; the evidence is of the same kind, and
leads to the same conclusion, but I simply allude to it.
It seems to me, then, that the exact quantitative similarity of
the spectra of these elements shows that they are not compounds
one of another, subject to the great chemical law of the addition
of undivided parts; and that also the magnitudes of the small
and well determined atomic weights differ from the values hith-
erto suggested by applying the law of the addition of undivided
parts, and differ by five, ten, and fifteen times the greatest
experimental error we can reasonably assume.
So the citadel which defends the secret of the atom cannot be
taken by way of Prout's hypothesis. We have carried on the
assault for eighty j^ears, and we are now satisfied that the way is
blocked; we tried to breach, not a wall, but the solid mountain
itself. We shall doubtless learn the structure of the atom, but
we cannot learn it in the way we hoped. This chapter in our
study of the nature of atoms has been fully ended.
If Prout's hj'pothesis cannot serve us, j'ou will doubtless ask
what other ways are open by which we may learn something of the
structure of atoms. To answer is difficult; to answer adequately
is impossible. Perhaps I may mention four lines in which it has
been hoped by some that the desired advance could be made, and
may indicate what it is reasonable to expect of each.
A. A. A. S., VOL. XLV. 2
18 ADDRESS BY
One of these indications of a possible source of knowledge as
to the structure of atoms was suggested by certain chemical
observations on some of the rare earths. My brief explanation
will not do justice to the conception of the eminent chemist who
investigated the phenomena. As I have said, the atom is some-
thing which, as a matter of fact, remains undivided in all chem-
ical changes. Most atoms seem to resist every force which we
can apply. But it is possible that the amount of resistance
which they can offer may vary greatly: it may be that in the case
of some elements the resistance is such that in some reactions
the atoms remain undivided, and not in others. From the
stud}^ of such cases, if there are such, we might expect much help.
Now, in the case of the common and well studied elements, the
occurrence of such cases has not been suspected ; but some of the
rarer elements, examined by a process which is frightfully labo-
rious, have exhibited phenomena which suggest, as a hj-pothesis
to be further studied, such a subdivision of atoms. But it is
probable that we have mixtures of distinct elements which we
do not yet know how to separate from each other by simple
analytical processes. This chapter, we may fairly presume, will
be valuable; but not because it will tell us anything new about
the structure of atoms.
Certain spectroscopic phenomena have suggested that some
elements may be decomposed by the action of a high temperature.
For instance, it has been thought not impossible that, at the tem-
perature of the electric arc, potassium compounds quite free from
sodium should begin to show the spectrum of sodium, because
at this temperature potassium is decomposed so as to produce
sodium. This hypothesis has been carefully investigated; in
part, by the accomplished phj'sicist who is its author; in part, at
his suggestion and invitation. It is found that, if years are given
to the preparation of potassium compounds free from every trace
of sodium, then it is impossible to obtain from them any phe-
nomena suggesting a decomposition into sodium. Here, again,
the new chapter, as far as it relates to the structure of the atom,
is likely to be but short.
A third suggestion did not rest upon any observed chemical
phenomena, but was a purely intellectual creation. This is the
hypothesis that atoms are vortex rings in a frictionless fluid.
It belongs to the mathematical physicist, rather than to the
EDWARD W. MORLET. 19
chemist, to discuss this interesting suggestion. It may be said
that it has seemed not impossible that the chemist should find a
vortex ring capable of exerting certain chemical forces. But the
fate of the h3"pothesis rested, not with the chemist, but with the
mathematical physicist; and it has been found that the theory
demands that the weight of a body composed of vortex atoms
should increase with rise of temperature. It is scarcely possible
that this can be the fact; if, then, the mathematical and physical
reasoning involved is sound, it is scarcely possible that atoms
consist of vortex rings. The probability is thei-efore but small,
that we are to learn of the nature of atoms by means of this
hypothesis.
Some spectroscopic and other optical phenomena seem to
promise more light as to the structure of molecules and atoms,
though the dawn is not yet. Thanks to the concave grating, we
can determine the frequency of vibration of the light from any
source with great accurac}'. When the light is complex, we can
determine, with great accuracy, the relative frequency of the
component vibrations. In the cases which have been best
studied, the observed frequencies have been reduced to rather
simple numerical relations. From the study of these relations
we ma}'^ expect, in time, to determine the structure of the vibrat-
ing systems. But the vrsxy is long and difficult. Let us illustrate
the nature of the method by means of a familiar example, namely,
by the study of the structure of a sonorous vibrating system by
means of the study of the sonorous vibrations produced by it.
Let ns suppose a person deprived of the sense of hearing,
but master of the whole mathematical theory of sound. Sup-
pose, further, that he has an instrument which will do for sound
what the spectroscope will do for light. With this instrument,
let him observe the frequency' and the relative intensity of the
vibrations produced by certain musical instruments which we
cause to vibrate for hiui, but withhold from his inspection. Let
us, first, sound for him a single note on a piano. The vibra-
tions produced are, as 3'ou know, somewhat complicated. Our
imagined experimenter, with his instrument, observes vibrations
whose frequencies are 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 in one
second; and he also observes that the vibrations of 100 and
500 are of nearly equal intensity, that the vibrations 200, 300,
and 400, have more than twice as great an intensity, and that
20 ADDRESS BY
vibration 600 is very feeble. From these facts, if his attain-
ments are sufficient, and his imagination sufficient!}' fertile, he
can determine -what system produced the sound. He imagines
every possible vibrating system, — drum, cymbals, trumpet,
flute, ox'gan-pipe, harmonium-reed, violin-string, piano, harp, and
more. Next, assuming each imagined system of such size or
tune as to produce one hundred vibrations a second for its
gravest tone, he computes what other vibrations will also be pro-
duced, and what the intensity of each. He finds, for instance,
that a closed organ-pipe will give only the frequencies 100, 300,
500, but will not produce the other observed frequencies 200, 400,
600. Therefore, he concludes, the sound we produced for his
study is not due to a closed organ-pipe. He finds, after many
trials, that the observed frequencies and intensities could be
produced by striking a stretched cord with a soft hammer, at a
definite point near the end of the cord, so quickly that the cord
and hammer remain in contact about the six-hundredth part of a
second, and that the observed phenomena could not be produced
by any other of the imagined vibrating systems. Then he con-
cludes that the observed sound was probably produced by the
stretched cord of a piano. He will have detected the true system,
by first imagining every possible system, by computing the fre-
quencies and corresponding intensities due to each hypothetical
system, and by then comparing computation and. observation.
For a second example, suppose we ring, for our imagined
observer, a bell of a certain form, and that he notes the frequen-
cies 200, 475, 845, and 1295 in one second; in which, also, he
finds that the vibration 845 so predominates as to give its pitch
to the compound tone. Our observer will not be able to refer this
sound to any stretched cord, or to any organ-pipe or other wind
instrument; for all these are limited to frequencies contained in
the series 200, 400, 600, 800. A uniform metallic bar, suspended
and struck like the triangle of an orchestra, will give frequencies
not contained in this list, but they will be 200, 550, 1080, and
2670, instead of 200, 475, 845, and 1295. But if our observer
has adequate powers, he will imagine a hemispherical bowl of
suitable dimensions, and will, in imagination, add mass and
rigidity in suitable places, until, in time, he will have devised a
system whose computed vibrations agree in frequency, and in
distribution of energy, with those of the invisible sounding body.
EDWARD W. MORLET. 21
Then be Avoiild conclude that the observed sound was due to a
bell of the form assumed in the successful computation.
This illustration sketches, imperfectly, I fear, the laborious
method by which we may learn the structure of a vibrating
system from a study of the vibrations produced by it. When we
attempt to use this method in order to learn something about the
structure of molecules and atoms, our powers of imagination and
our mathematical skill are none too much. "We know but little
which can suggest plausible hypotheses. The facts which are to
be explained have been but recently reduced to order. Accord-
ingly, little has been actually accomplished. But there are some
few examples of the use of this method of studying the structure
of molecules and atoms.
In one such example, the structure imagined consisted of a
system of concentric spherical shells, each connected with the
adjacent shells by springs. This complicated structure admits
of relatively simple computation, and was taken because it fairly
well represents a rather simple imagined structure, for which, how-
ever, computation is difficult. But it was found that the results
computed on this hypothesis gave little promise of agreement with
facts.
This was a dynamical hypothesis; it suggested, not only vibra-
tions, but the forces which were to produce them. A second
example suggests certain possible motions, but not the forces
which might produce the hypothetical motions; it is not dynamic,
but kinetic.
As we know, many of the lines in the spectra of the elements
are double. For instance, when a volatile compound of sodium
is brought into a colorless gas-flame, this is colored yellow.
When we examine this yellow flame with a spectroscope of suffi-
cient power, we see that there are two frequencies, differing from
each other by only one part in a thousand. Now it is probable
that these two frequencies are due to the vibrations of one and
the same body. There are many illustrations of the fact that a
given body may perform two ditferent vibrations whose frequen-
cies differ but slightly. For instance, if we suspend a ball by
means of a cord and let it oscillate as a pendulum, it is well known
that a swing of six feet takes a little more time than a swing of
three feet. Suppose, then, that we let our ball swing six feet
north and south, and also three feet east and west at the same
22 ADDRESS BY EDWARD W. MORLET.
time; the two motions may be combined so that the ball moves in
an ellipse, — an ellipse whose longer axis is north and south. If
the longer and the shorter swing had precisely the same fre-
quency, the axis of the ellipse would continue in this direction ;
but since the frequencies differ, the ellipse slowly revolves.
Conversel}', from the revolution of an ellipse, we should infer a
difference of frequency in the two component vibrations. So it
is suggested that the two slightly different frequencies in the
light sent out by ignited sodium are due to an elliptic motion in
the molecule in which the elliptic orbit slowly revolves; this
suggestion has not yet been carried so far as to specify any hypo-
thetical cause for the revolution of the ellipse.
These two examples, both due to eminent English phj'sicists,
may serve to illustrate the method by which, if I am not mis-
taken, w^e are not unlikely to learn much as to the structure of
molecules and atoms. We must not expect rapid progress.
Even comparatively simple hj-potheses may require, for their due
examination, the invention of new mathematical methods. And
useful hypotheses are rare: like the finding of buried treasures,
they are not to be counted on. But, since Front's hypothesis has
rendered us its final service, new hypotheses must be devised,
competent to guide us further on our wa}'. Let us hope that,
before this city again honors our association with its invitation to
meet here, American chemists and phj'sicists may have had some
honorable share in such new advtince.
SECTION A.
MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY.
OFFICERS OF SECTION A.
Vice-President, and Chairman of the Section.
Alexander Macfarlane, South Bethlehem, Pa.
Secretary.
Edwin B. Frost, Hauover, N. H.
Councillor.
E. W. Hyde, Cincinnati, O.
Sectional Committee.
Alex. Macfarlane, South Bethleliem, Pa., Vice-President, 1896.
Edwin B. Frost, Hanover, N. H., Secretary, 1896.
Edgar Frisby, Washington, D. C, Vice-President, 1895.
Asaph Hall, Jr., Ann Arbor, Mich., Secretary, 1895.
L. A. Bauer, Chicago, III.
J. A. Brashear, Allegheny, Pa.
J. R. Eastman, Washington, D. C.
Memher of Nominating Committee.
P. A. Lambert, South Bethlehem, Pa.
Committee to Nominate Officers of Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary ; and G. W. Hough, Evanston, 111. ; H. L.
HoDGKiNS, Washington, D. C. ; L. G. Weld, Iowa City, Iowa.
Press Secretary.
Lawrence La Forge, Alfred, N. Y.
Professor Willtam E. Story, Vice-President elect, was unable
to be present, and there was no Vice-Presidential Address before
the Section.
On recommendation of the Section, the Council nominated Prof.
Alexander Macfarlane of South Bethlehem, Pa., as Vice-Presi-
dent and Chairman of the Section, to fill the vacancy. Prof. Mac-
farlane was elected at the General Session on Tuesday morning.
PAPERS READ.
Tuesday, August 25.
Ay ANALOGUE TO De MoIVRe's THEOREM IN A PLANE POINT SYSTEM. Bj
Prof. E. W. Hyde, University of Cincinnati, Ohio.
Rational scalene triangle. By Artemas Martin, U. S. Coast Survey,
Washington, D. C. (To be published in tlie Mathematical Magazine.)
New element of the variable R Com.e, resulting from observations
IN July and August, 1896. By Henry M. Parkhurst, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Photometric observations of colored stars. By Henry M. Park-
hurst, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Motion of the great red spot and equatorial belt of the planet
Jupiter from 1879 to 1896. By Prof. G. W. Hough, Northwestern
University, Evanston, 111. (To be published in the Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society.)
On the direct application of a rational differential equation to a
series of points whose co-ordinates represent observed physical
properties. By Prof. Robert B. Warder, Howard University, Wash,
ington, D. C. (Probably will be published in the Jouimal of Physical
Chemistry.)
(25)
26 SECTION A.
Wednesday, August 26.
A PROPOSED FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRAL-TRANSCENDENT. By JaMES McMaHON,
Ithaca, N. Y. (To be published in Annals of Mathematics.)
On THE LEVEL OF SuN-spOTS. By Prof. Edwin B. Frost, Hanover, N. H.
(To be published in The Astrophysical Journal.)
Sedenions. By Prof. James B. Shaw, Jacksonville, 111. (Probably will be
published in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society.)
On the DiSTRincTiON and the secular variation of terrestrial mag-
netism. No. IV. : On the component fields of the Earth's magnet-
ism. By Dr. L. A. Bauer, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. (To be
published in Teirestrial Magnetism.)
Determination of the weights of observations. By Prof. J. R. East-
man, U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C.
On the composition of simultaneous and successive vectors. By
Prof. A. Macfarlane, South Bethlehem, Pa.
The Section adjourned Wednesday evening.
SECTION B.
PHYSICS.
OFFICERS OF SECTION B.
Vice-President, and Chairman of the Section.
Carl Leo Mees, Terre Haute, Ind.
Secretary.
Frank P. Whitman, Cleveland, Ohio.
Councillor.
Edward L. Nichols.
Sectional Committee.
C. Leo Mees, Terre Haute, Ind., Vice-President, 1896.
Frank P. Whitman, Cleveland, Oliio, Secretary, 1896.
W. Le Conte Stevens, Troy, N. Y., Vice-President, 1895.
Ernest Merritt, Ithaca, N. Y., Secretary, 1895.
Benj. F. Thomas, Columbus, 0.
A. D. Cole, Granville, 0.
W. A. Rogers, Waterville, Me.
Member of Nominating Committee.
Ernest Merritt, Ithaca, N. Y.
Committee to Nominate Officers of Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary ; and T. C. Mendenhall, Worcester, Mass. ;
H. S. Carhart, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Brown Ayres, New
Orleans, La.
Press Secretary.
W. S. Franklin, Ames, Iowa.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
CARL LEO MEES,
CHAIRMAN OF SECTION B.
The selection of ti subject for presentation in an address such as
I am called upon to deliver to-daj, seems difficult. A large pro-
portion of those who may listen to me to-day are workers in the
same field which interests me and are familiar with the progress in
the science of physics. It is, therefore, unlikelj- that I shall be
able to present to you anything which ma3- be new or startling ;
this I regret, for it seems that it requires something of this character
to stimulate interest and research.
The aim of science in its most general sense is the discovery of
truths. Its progress ma}- be expressed by a curve approaching
truth asymptoticalh', probabl}' never in human experience ap-
proaching to its complete knowledge. So long as investigators find
that they are working upon the steep part of the curve where it ap-
proaches truth rapidly, there is no lack of interest ; this, however,
seems to die out quickly when much labor and great patience
are required to extend experimentally the curve now more slowly
approaching complete knowledge, or straighten out some of its
irregularities. As soon as a startlingl}- new or curious line of in-
vestigation is suggested ever}- one pounces upon it and older
problems are left far from completion. That we in America are
especially inclined to this weakness in physical investigations I
believe to be the case. Though investigations have been carried
out by a number of American physicists, wellnigh to completion,
involving years of painstaking labor, of which we may well be
proud, vet I believe the tendencv exists. It is this thought which
(29)
30 ADDRESS BY
has led me to select for a brief review a line of study patiently
carried on in Europe for a number of years, yet hardly touched
upon b}' physicists in this coantr\-. In tlie last few 3'ears the
studies in electrolysis and solution have been so fruitful that we
can no longer afford to neglect them. It is also remarkable that
these studies in electrolysis and molecular physics have been made
almost exclusively bj' chemists, though of equal, if not greater,
interest to the physicists ; the problem should be attacked by them.
To direct your attention then to some of the important work that
should be undertaken b}' physicists is my object in reviewing, in
the briefest possible manner-, the progress of studies in electrolysis
from their beginning to the present time.
Scarce one hundred years have passed since the first note of
chemical action having been produced bj' electricity is to be found.
About the middle of the eighteenth centurj' Pater Beccari obtained
metals from oxides between which electric sparks had passed.
These results led to no further inquiry at the time, and were passed
b}- almost unnoticed. Priestley', in 1778, criticalh' studied the
effect of the passage of the spark through air, noting the pro-
duction of an acid gas. Cavendish continued these researches,
explaining the action in the sense of the Phlogistic Theory of the
day. Van Marum, extending Cavendish's investigations, decom-
posed ammonia, and througli a careful stud}' of the chemical
changes brought about h\ the electric spark .became converted
from Stahl's Phlogiston Theor}-,. stoutly maintained at the time, to
Lavoisier's Oxygen Theor}'. Van Troest and Dieman, in 1739,
gave the first unmistakable evidence of electrolytic action in de-
composing water by means of the spark. The tendency towards
an Electrical Theor}' of chemical action, full}- developed later,
becomes evident from the study of the literature of the day.
These investigations were almost exclusively carried on bv
chemists ; but little attention was given to the stud}- of electricit}-,
its nature and physical action ; only the chemical results were of
interest. The quantit}- of electricit}- at the command of the ex-
perimentalists at that time was so small that very definite results
in electroh'tic action could not be expected.
So far some progress had been made in the production and
stud}- of chemical effects resulting from electrical action ; the
question of the possibility of the reversal of these effects, the pro-
duction of electricity from the chemical action, had not been
CARL LEO MEES. 31
thought of. Volta was the first one to investigate that question.
Galvani's discover}', given to the world in 1791 in a brochure of
fifty-eight pages, gave a new stimulus to investigation, now taken
in hand hs plnsicists. The perusal of the little work is of great
interest in the historical study of electricity. Galvani, as anato-
mist, looked for the source of electricity to the phenomena of life,
believing it to be stored in the living cell. Volta, the trained ph3-si-
cist, sought for it in the material world and gave us the Contact
Theory of electricit}' as distinguished from the Chemical Theory*.
These two theories have each been as stoutly maintained as con-
troverted by the best experimentalists and thinkers of the ceutur}'.
Volta's great gift to the world was the Voltaic Batter}-, the study
of which, together with the reversability of the action, has thrown
a flood of light upon problems in molecular phj'sics as well as upon
chemical action, though the Contact Theory of electricity of Volta,
accepted with modifications b}- many of the greatest physicists of
this centur}-, has undoubtedly been one of the strongest barriers to
the progress of later and more satisfactor}' theories as to the seat
of the electromotive force in the batter\\
Passing over many important contributions from co-workers of
Volta, laying a foundation for an understanding of the chemical
effects of electricity, the most valuable work having perhaps been
done by Ritter, we come to Nicholson and Carlisle, who on the 2d
of May, 1800, opened the field for the study of electrolysis b}- the
decomposition of water by means of the current from the Voltaic
pile.
Volta seems to have avoided almost purposel}' the recognition of
chemical action associated with the production and action of the
current. It is remarkable, at any rate, that such action should
have impressed itself most strongly upon all other experimentalists
of that da}-, and scarcely be noticed by him.
From this time on we recognize for a considerable period two
lines along which electrical problems have been studied. A long
list of illustrious physicists from Ermann to Ohm studied the laws
and physical effects of current electrical phenomena without ques-
tioning the somewhat unsatisfactory theory of Volta as to its source ;
another list, mostly chemists from Nicholson and Carlisle to Davy
and Faraday, sought to determine the source of the current. To
trace the development of modern theories historically would demand
following both of these lines of research ; time forbidding this, we
32 ADDRESS BY
will consider but a few of the more important discoveries in each
field as required.
Sir Humphry Davj- succeeded in decomposing the fixed alka-
lies in a fused condition ; the separation of the elements from their
compounds was by him demonstrated in many experiments.
Before proceeding, however, it may be well to define a few
terms used in discussing electrolysis and recall a few of its phe-
nomena.
By electrolysis we mean the chemical changes which result from
passing an electric current through a compound, usually in solution
or in a state of fusion. The substance decomposed is called elec-
trolyte. The battery terminals, or source of current, connected
b}' the electrolyte, are called Electrodes, — the one bringing the
current to the electrolyte the Anode, the one carrying it away the
Kathode. As a result of the difference of potential of the elec-
trodes, the materially different constituent parts of the electrolyte
are impelled to move towards the electrodes ; these wandering
particles are called ions ; those gathering about or moving towai'ds
the anode, anions ; those about the kathode, kathions. The chemi-
cal changes are observable only at the electrodes. Taking as a
simple case, ordinary hydrochloric acid, — a compound of hydrogen
and chlorine dissolved in water, — the passage of the current causes
chlorine to appear at the anode and hydrogen at the kathode. The
hydrogen and chlorine, while in the solution finding their way to
the electrodes, are ions; the chlorine-anion, the hydrogen-kathion.
In many cases the action is not so simple. The electrolytic de-
composition may be accompanied by chemical action occurring
subsequent to or simultaneously with the appearance of the ions at
the electrodes ; the substance formed differing from the ions actually
carried to the electrode. Changes of this character considerably
complicate the problem, and make the correct interpretation of ob-
served phenomena difficult. This general law may, however, be
enunciated : An electrolyte under action of the current is split into
two and only two parts, atoms or groups of atoms, no matter how
complex its structure may be. These atoms or atomic groups thus
separated are similar to the ones which exchange places in the
ordinary chemical reactions. This early observed law led to the
theory advocated by Berzelius, that all salts consisted of two
atomic groups, one acid, the other basic, — erroneous, in that the
chemical changes subsequent to the electrolytic action were not
properl}" understood.
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 33
The wondering attention of earlv investigators had been directed
to the curious phenomenon that the substances resulting from elec-
troh'sis appeared only at the electrodes and were not recognizable
in the solution between the electrodes. The various tlieories pro-
pounded to explain this vied witli one another in improbabilit}-.
The difficult}' of explaining this behavior satisfactorily' seems to
have led to the abandonment of the problem until, in 1S05, Charles
J. D. Freiher von Grothuss propounded a theory which gave a
sufficiently reasonable explanation to be adhered to for fifty 3ears,
even quoted to-day in man}' text-books. Grothuss conceived that
each molecule of a chemical compound acted like a conductor con-
sisting of two parts capable of being separated ; these molecules
acted upon inductivel}' b}' the charged electrodes, one group would
become positively charged, the other negativel}', the nature of the
charge being determined by the character of the group, being acted
upon by attractions and repulsions varying inversely as the square
of the distance from the electrodes, the electrified end particles
would be attracted to the electrodes ; the remaining groups by
separation and recombination would at once form a new series of
molecules as before the action, ready for a repetition of the process ;
no freeh' charged groups thus remaining in the mass of the solution
between the electrodes. This theory demands that the electrical
forces between the plates var}- inversely as the square of the dis-
tance ; that when the force reaches a certain definite magnitude
the groups will be separated ; a further consequence is that when
this critical force is attained all or a very great number of groups
will be separated instantl}', for if this attraction be equal to the
force holding the groups together, the whole mass will be in un-
stable equilibrium, and any increase will cause complete separation
of all groups.
Important experimental contributions followed one another
rapidh-, batteries were perfected, man}' physical actions of the
electrical current were studied, the action of the current upon
magnets was discovered, measuring instruments for quantitative
work were invented, Ohm's law was enunciated, etc., so that when
Michael Faraday, Sir Humphr}' Davy's man of all work and his suc-
cessor at the RoA'al Institute, with matchless experimental genius
and wonderful breadth of view, attacked the problem of electro-
chemical action, he had at his command the means for quantitative
work in this field which enabled him to discover and formulate one
A. A. A. S., VOL. XLV. 3
34 SECTION B.
of the most important laws of electrolysis. Faraday's charming
directness and clearness in the exposition of his work and results
contrast refresh ingl}' with the prolix, flowery, and n\ystifying stjie
of his immediate predecessors ; it at once stamped him a master of
the subject treated. Faraday's original notes are well worth study-
ing ; the}' ma}^ be taken as models to-day b}' many who essay to
record experimental results and conclusions. Confusion in terms
and errors in inferences occurring in his work are well excusable ;
from our more extended and accurate knowledge, we are inclined
to be unfairly critical, A review of Faraday's work in electrolysis
alone would be interesting, for in it we ma}' see foreshadowed man}^
important points in the theories of to-da}', though Faradaj' himself
scarcely appreciated them.
The most important laws Farada}' contributed to the behavior of
electrolytes acted upon b}' a current are stated thus : —
The amount of chemical decomposition in electrolysis is propor-
tional to the current and time of its action.
The mass of an ion liberated by a definite quantit}' of electricit}'
is directly proportional to its chemical equivalent weight.
The quantit}' of electricit}' which is required to decompose a cer-
tain amount of a certain electrolyte is equal to the quantity which
would be produced by recombining the separated ions in a battery.
The last law, clearl}' showing the reversibility of the process,
at once makes the problem one capable of theoretical treatment
from the standpoint of conservation of energy, and has brought
most abundant fruit in later years. Faraday, in the main, accepted
Grothuss' hypothesis, differing from him in the conception of the
character and manner of action of the forces. Faraday showed
experimentall}', by measuring the change of potential between the
electrodes, that Grothuss' conception of attracting and repelling
forces, varying inversel}' as the square of the distance, was unten-
able ; he (Faraday) assumed that through the action of the elec-
trodes the chemical affinities of the combined ions were so changed
or weakened that they acquired a greater attraction for the plates
and their neighboring opposite ions ; that decomposition and recom-
bination occurred along the entire line. "With Grothuss, he assumes
that each liberated ion has a definite quantity of electricity belong-
ing to it. This theor}' then demands that the action of the con-
stituent parts of the electrolyte extend to considerable distance,
and that the effect of the electrode is to niodif}' or weaken the
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 35
chemical affinity' between the groups so that decomposition results.
Farada}' leans to the opinion that chemical and electrical forces are
identical, and in considering the reversibilit\' of the process becomes
an advocate of the chemical theor}' of the Voltaic cell.
Faraday, though somewhat confused in his nomenclature, brings
out verj- clearl}' the relations between quantity- of electricity and
quantity of material separated, and electrical potential and chemical
affinity, though at that time the concept of energy and work done,
as a function of both potential and quantit}' of electricit}-, was not
clearl}- established.
To review the work of Farada}' in electro-chemistry alone, and
the influence it had in the development of the more modern theories,
would require more time than is allotted to us ; the most important
contribution on this subject has alone been mentioned.
In 1851 Williamson, from purelj' chemical evidence in the man-
ner of the formation of some ethers, was led to believe that in solu-
tions there is a constant interchange of atoms or groups of atoms
between molecules, equivalent to dissociation and recombination, a
view differing from those previously held, where this condition was
supposed to be brought about b}' the action of the electric current.
Williamson made no application of this conception to electrolysis.
Clausius, in 1857, applying the ideas growing out of the Kinetic
Theory to solutions, points out the weaknesses of previously advo-
cated theories; he shows that Grothuss' hypothesis, as well as its
modifications b}- Daniell and Farada}', are not in accord with experi-
mental results from accurate measurements. He shows that the
hypothesis that the decomposition or tearing apart of the groups of
atoms in the molecule by the electric forces, before transfer of elec-
tricity' takes place, is untenable.
Clausius assumes that the molecules in the liquid stored with
energy move with varying velocities ; that collisions will occur
which may cause the separation of the molecules into atomic groups
for a short time ; that during the period of separation these groups
charged with opposite kinds of electricity peculiar to the groups will,
under the influence of the electrode, be directed towards the elec-
trodes in their path and thus become carriers of electricity ; he
ascribes to the liquid tlie conditions of dissociation due to fortuitous
impacts always occurring, whether the solution be under the influ-
ence of external electrical forces or not ; that the function of the
electric forces is but directive, the effect being the disturbance of
the internal kinetic equilibrium.
36 SECTION B.
The principle of the conservation of energy, developed and
applied in thermodynamic relations, influenced the manner of look-
ing upon and interpreting electro-chemical processes. The most
prominent names associated with the application of this great prin-
ciple are Joule, Helmholtz, Willard Gibbs, Thomson, Boscha, Favre,
and others. Much attention was now given to the problem, What
is the cause of the electromotive force? The distribution of the
energ}' in the electric circuit, including batter}-, olectrol3-tic cell,
and conductors, was investigated in the light of the energy concept,
and attacked from the mathematical or dynamical side. Weak-
nesses in older theories were glaringh' revealed if searched in the
light of this principle. The dependence of the electromotive force
upon the entropy term in the equations was shown, and its conse-
quent variation with temperature.
The contributions of Willard Gibbs in this field are the most
important, though scarcely appreciated ; published in the Trans-
actions of tlie Connecticut Academy, 1876-78, they were not very
accessible and not generally known. This great work anticipated
the many discoveries since made experimentalh' in a manner all
but final in its comprehensiveness and completeness, opened out
and suggested experimental investigations only partially undertaken
and beginning to be carried out to-da}'. Whv it was and is not
more full}' appreciated is probabh' due to its concentration ; in the
compass of some 300 pages and in 700 equations the entire subject
of molecular dynamics is treated. The treatise was too rich to be
grasped in its day ; it is only beginning to be properlj' estimated
twenty j'ears after its first appearance.
About 1853 Hittorf quantitativel}- investigated, with great care,
the change of concentration in solutions of electrolj'tes about the
electrodes when a current passes. This phenomenon had been
noticed and studied to some extent b}- Daniell and others, without,
however, having been made use of in explaining the nature of electro-
Ijtic action. Hittorf's studies and conclusion bring us into the very
midst of the modern views of electrolysis. Taking a simple case, let
two electrodes of copper be placed vertically one above the other in
a solution of copper sulphate, and pass a current through the cell
making the lower plate the anode ; no ver\- noticeable change occurs
other than that copper is dissolved at the anode and deposited at the
kathode ; if after tlie current has passed for a short time it is intei*-
rupted and the electrode short circuited through a galvanometer, a
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 37
current will for a slioi-t time flow in the cell from kathode to anode,
that is, in a direction opposite to the one which has passed through
in electrolyzing. The counter-electromotive force in this case can-
not result from polarization at the electrodes, for no change has
been brought about at their surfaces, such as a gas deposit in the
case of decomposition in acidulated water with platinum elec-
trodes. If the electrolyzing current be continued for some time it
will be seen that the solution about the anode has become more
concentrated and more dilute about the kathode ; the total quantity
of copper salt in the solution having, however, remained the same,
the counter-electromotive force above referred to is due to this
change in concentration.
Hittorf, from 1853 to 1859, examined in a most careful manner
the behavior of many electrolytes, and by a series of analyses of
the solutions determined this change of concentration due to the
passage of the current. His patient labor has onl}- within the last
few years received proper recognition.
All theories which so far had survived the test conceived that
the electricity was conveyed b}' a migration of particles, called
ions b}' Faraday ; whether these particles received their changes by
contact with the electrodes or contained definite inherent quantities
of electricity, the charges being the same for all ions, need not be
considered at this time.
The first step toward the decisive establishment of the fact of the
migration of the ions towards the plate would be an experimental
measurement of the rate of migration ; this was accomplislied by
Hittorf, and led to the enunciation of these laws : —
1. The change in concentration due to current is determined by
the motion which the ions have in the unchanged solution.
2. The unlike ions must have different velocities to produce such
change in concentration.
3. The numbers which express ionic velocities mean the relative
distance through which the ions move between tlie salt molecules, or
express their relative velocities in reference to the solution, the change
in concentration being a function of the relative ionic velocities.
Hittorf's analyses enabled him to give their numerical values.
A great many such have been made b}' him, Nernst, Loeb, and
others ; these results show that in dilute solutions the relative ve-
locities of the ions are independent of the difference in potential
between the electrodes (if the current be steady), and that they are
only slightl}' affected by temperature.
38 SECTION B.
Ilittovf points out that a knowledge of the specific resistance of
electrolytes should give valuable information in reference to the
nature of electrol3'tic action. Horsford, Wiedemann, and Beez
made such measurements ; their methods were, however, imperfect ;
it remained for P. Kohlrausch to devise a method, using an alter-
natins: current, bv means of which accurate results were obtained.
Kohlrausch's work shows an amount of patience and experimental
skill rarely found ; his contributions will remain classical. In con-
nection with Hittorf's work, Kohlrausch recognized that, accord-
ing to Farada3''s law, the conductivity should be represented by
sums of the velocities of the ions, each carrying its electric charge.
Thus, having from experimental data on conduction the sum of
the velocities, and from Hittorf's migration constants based upon
changes in concentration the ratio of the ionic velocities, the
absolute velocities of the ions would be calculable. Inasmuch as
the quantities he was to deal with were groups of atoms or mole-
cules he determined at once to make the molecule his unit of quan-
tity', and not mass alone. This expedient simplified the comparison
of results and has been neglected by ph3'sicists. The comparison
of results obtained bj' making the molecule the unit revealed at a
glance relations between the physical behavior of different sub-
stances which would have been obscure if the mass had been
chosen as unit. The selection of the most convenient proper unit
is of great importance in the interpretation of results and the enun-
ciation of physical laws.
Kohlrausch expressed the concentration in fp'amme molecules
per unit volume of solution, the unit solution containing a number
of grammes of the electrolyte equal to the number expressing the
chemical equivalent on the h3Tlrogen scale, in one litre of water.
The measurements were then made upon solutions, the relative
numbers of molecules in which were known. The ratio between
the conductivit}' and the number of gramme molecules contained
in the solution will then give molecular conductivities.
The results of such measurements show that as dilution in-
creases there is an increase in molecular conductivity, that in very
dilute solutions it ai)proximatcs a limiting value. This increase of
conductivity is considerable for bad conductors, less so for good
conductors. The limiting value in dilute solutions of good con-
ductors can be reached. In bad conductors, even at the extremest
dilution accessible to measurement, the molecular conductivitj' is
still far from the limiting value.
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 39
In general there is an increase of condnctivit}' with increase of
temperature, usually amounting to about two per cent per degree
Centigrade.
The conductivity of equivalent quantities of neutral salts is of
much the same order of magnitude, usually reacliing the limiting
value at a dilution of ijoVo gi'finime equivalent.
From Kohlrausch's numerical values and Hittorfs constants, the
absolute velocit}- of a large numl)er of ions was calculated. It
appears from this, that the velocit}' of the ion in very dilute solu-
tions depends only upon its own nature, and not upon the nature of
the ions with which it may have been associated ; thus tlie velocity
of the chlorine ion was found to be the same when determined from
solutions of KCl, XaCl, HCl, etc.
This important general law was also found, that the conductivities
of neutral salts are additivelj- composed of two values, one depend-
ing only upon the metal or positive ion, the other upon the acid
radical or negative ion. According to this law the conductivit}' of
a neutral salt can be calculated from a knowledge of the velocities
of the ions independently, a test which lias been applied in man^-
cases with very satisfactory results when checked experimentally.
For quite a number of compounds, however, the computed results
were much too high, an abnormality to be discussed later. This
law confirms the idea of independent migration of the ions.
Kohlrausch's numbers expressing velocities were checked by
some exceedingly ingenious experiments b\' Oliver Lodge and
Wetham ; by a cliange in the color of the solution separated into
two layers the migration of the ions could be directly measured.
These results agree surprisingly well with Kohlrausch's, considering
the widel3' different conditions and the difficulty of measurement.
About 1887 electro-chemistry entered into a new stage of prog-
ress ; the central figure among those who were mainly active in
bringing about this development was Swante Arrhenius, who, to-
gether with Ostwald and others, advanced a theory of electrolytic
action, explaining very satisfactorily many well known phenomena.
Arrhenius' theory involves the general idea contained in the theory
of Clausius and Williamson, namel}-, that the solution contains the
electrolyte dissociated into ions before the current is forced through
it. Arrhenius adds that this dissociation is effected by solution or
fusion, and that the ions contain charges of ^wsitive and negative
electricity dependent upon their nature, but of equal quantity in
40 SECTION B.
every ion. While in this state, that is, as ions, they move in an
irreoular manner between the molecules of tlie solvent and the
undissociated molecules of the electroljte, now attaching them-
selves to one another and again separating, upon the whole main-
taining a condition of kinetic equilibrium. As soon as brought
under the influence of the electrodes of different potential, they are
impelled in definite directions, the anions towards the anode, the
kathions towards the kathode.
The first work done b}' the current is the overcoming of the vis-
cous resistances of the medium, not an inconsiderable amount ;
thus a portion of the cnerg}' of the current is frittered into heat.
At the electrodes another kind of work has to be done ; either
the charges have to be removed from the ions, changing them into
the molecular condition, or new ions must be produced from the
material of the electrode and the solvent, for kathions arriving the
formation of anions, or for anions, kathions.
Undissociated molecules of the electrolyte take no part directl}'
in electroh'sis, except in so far as the}- ma}' alter the viscous resist-
ance of the solution.
The fact that molecular conductivit}' increases with dilution
means that, as infinite dilution is approached, complete dissociation
or ionization of the electrolyte is effected.
The ratio between molecular conductivity at greater concentra-
tion and infinite dilution ex[)resses the degree of dissociation or
ionization. The conductivit}- can alwaA's be expressed by the sum
of the velocities of the ions into a coefficient expressive of the
degree of dissociation: C=A(u-\-v). In the limiting case
^ = 1, and the conductivity is measured by the sum of the ionic
A'elocities ; this is in accord with Kohlrausch's law.
One of the important points in this theor}' is that solution efl^ects
dissociation. Cbemicalh' pure substances, such as IICl in the liquid
state, should not be electrolyzed ; such is found to be. the case.
The curious fact that pure HCl and pure water alone are non-con-
ductors, but become electrolytic conductors when mixed, is not
rationall}' explained other than that dissociation results. Wh}' it
takes place, we do not know ; that some change in the associated
energy always takes place, we do know. In general, unless some
chemical change occurs, solution is accompanied b}' refrigeration,
except in the case of gases. It is probable, then, that some of
the heat energy taken from the mixture is concerned in this
dissociation.
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 41
In the case of fused substances heat may be a considerable fac-
tor in dissociation.
The question whence come the electric charges upon the ions is
not solved. Whether the}- are inherent in the molecule and become
free bj- ionization, or whether they result from the work done upon
the molecules in dissociation, is not known. Some progress has
been made towards the solution of the question b}- Ostwald, who
succeeded in measuring the heat energv of ionization in a few cases.
This problem is one that should be carefulh* studied.
An objection to tlie theor}' of the existence of free ions in a solu-
tion has been urged from the chemical side, namely, that the ions
possess different properties from the atoms, or atomic groups. It
seemed remarkable that a potassium ion should be capable of exist-
ing in water without combining with the oxygen, as would be the
case in the ordinar}- atomic or molecular condition. If w-e consider,
however, that the amount of associated energy in the two condi-
tions is different, it is not difficult to imagine different properties.
We know, for instance, that negativeh' charged zinc will not act on
hydrochloric acid ; that several elements exist in well known allo-
tropic conditions, showing quite different properties. We explain
this by different amounts of associated energj', which, in some
cases, is quite measurable.
The difficult}- of applying Ohm's law in the case of Grothuss' and
Faraday's theories disappears in case of the dissociation theory ; it
rather becomes a necessarj- consequence of it.
Considering now a few phenomena not directly involved in elec-
trolysis, evidence in favor of the dissociation theor}- ma}' be found.
Substances form solutions when a homogeneous mixture results,
the constituents of which cannot be separated by mechanical means,
the proportion between the parts being continuously variable
between certain limits, with a corresponding continuous variation
in properties.
According to the state of aggregation of the dissolved substance
before solution, energy changes usually become apparent, either in
temperature changes, contraction of the volume, or the like, when
solution is affected. As a rule, such energy changes occur in the
same sense when solutions of different concentrations are mixed,
until a point is reached, with very dilute solutions, when they no
longer are observable. The substance in the solution is then verv
small in amount as compared with the solvent.
42 SECTION B.
It is a well known fact that when solutions of different concen-
tration are carefnlly superposed, the molecules of the dissolved sub-
stance pass from the more concentrated to the more dilute solution,
until finall}' a uniform degree of concentration is attained, when a
condition of kinetic equilibrium is maintained. This diffusion phe-
nomenon in liquids is similar to that in gases, oul>- it progresses
much slower. In the case of gases the dynamics of the process is
pretty well understood and satisfactoril}- explained bj' the kinetic
theory-, the mixture of the gases resulting from the projectile energ}'
of the molecules. In the case of liquids it has been variously
explained ; in general, however, the molecular attraction between
the solvent and the dissolved substance has been assumed as the
cause. Van't Hoff has recentl\- offered an explanation along the
same kinetic lines so satisfactorily applied in gases. The force
tending to produce diffusion must be measurable as a pressure, if
it exist; if, then, the two solutions are separated by a semi-per-
meable membrane which will allow but one of the two constituents
to pass, this pressure will become measurable upon the membrane.
The production of such semi-permeable septa is a matter of very
great difficulty, but has been accomplished to a very perfect degree
for some substances. The general method of making such measure-
ments is familiar to all physicists. Traube, Pfeffer, De Yries,
Tammen, and Pringsheim, from 1867 to 1885, have succeeded- in
producing semi-permeable membranes of great perfection, and with
improved apparatus have made man}' measurements of very satis-
factory character. These results show that equi-molecular solutions
of non-electrohtes show equal osmotic pressures. The osmotic
pressure is directlj' proportional to concentration (expressed in
gramme equivalents). The osmotic pressure is proportional to the
absolute tempci'ature.
The similarity- of these laws to those of gaseous pressure is at
once apparent. Van't Hoff further, upon the bases of absolute
measurements and the applications of the ordinary* equations for
properties of gases, enunciates the law : That the molecules of
the dissolved substance exert pressures in osmotic action, equal to
the pressure which would be exerted by the same number of mole-
cules in the gaseous stnte upon the sides of a containing vessel of
the volume of the solution, the temperature remaining the same.
Osmotic pressure seems then to be merel}' a molecular kinetic
effect. On this assumption thermodynamic considerations led to
the same result as experiment.
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 43
The first two laws of osmotic pressui'e could be satisfactoril}- ex-
plained under tlie ordinar}- supposition of molecular attraction ; the
last two, however, are difficult to reconcile with any explanation
other than tlie one that the pressure is due to molecular impact.
The osmotic pressure of electrolytes is considerably greater tlian
that of non-electrolytes ; in dilute solutions, however, the}' follow
the same laws of variation. In quite a number of binary com-
pounds it is just twice as great numerically as in the non-electro-
Ij'tes. The behavior is as though the number of molecules
contained in the electrolyte solution per gramme equivalent was
greater than in non-electrolytes. If we imagine that solution has
dissociated tlie molecule into two groups, the anomaly is easily
explained. There is evidence here, independent of electrolytic
behavior, that electrolytes are dissociated in solution.
Blagden, as early as 1788, recognized that salts in solution
lowered the freezing point of water ; his experiments were made
mainh- on sea w^ater. He found that in very dilute solutions the
lowering of the freezing point was ver\' nearh' proportionate to the
amount of substance dissolved. Riedorf, Coppett, and Raoult
carefully studied the subject, and found that the molecular depres-
sion of the freezing point was equal for salts of similar composition.
For non-electrolytes, equimolecular solutions of different salts gave
ver}- nearly the same values, showing that the effect was purely a
molecular one, independent of the nature of the substance.
The problem may be treated from the dynamical point of view
upon this supposition. Knowing the osmotic pressure and imagin-
ing the change in state in the nature of a reversible cjcle. the
necessary energy changes are calculable. The depression of the
freezing point calculated in this way for a number of substances
gave values closely agreeing with experiment. The evidence that
this effect is purel\' a molecular kinetic process is ver}" strong.
Electrolytes cause a depression of the freezing point, experimen-
tally determined, far greater than non-electrol^'tes ; we have here
another evidence of dissociation by solution.
The investigation of the effect of substances in solution upon va-
por pressure and boiling point made by Berthelot. Beekmann, Raoult,
Ciamician, Ostwald, and others, lead to precisel}' similar laws.
We may summarize these laws thus : —
Equi-molecular solutions of different substances made with equal
masses of the same solvent show equal osmotic pressure, equal
44 SECTION B.
relative diminution of vapor pressure, equal elevation of boiling
point, and equal depression of tlie freezing point.
Electrolytes give greater values tlian non-electrolytes. The
effect is as though there was present a greater number of molecules
than indicated b}' the amount of substance dissolved. Binar}' com-
pounds in dilute solutions, give nearly twice the numerical values
found in solutions of non-electrolytes.
From these experimental results tlie theory of dissociation of
electroljtes b}' solution and the electrol^'tic conduction by directing
the migrating ions seems very strong.
Chemical evidence cannot be reviewed here ; the evidence is,
however, fully as strong as that considered, or even stronger.
Reversing the phenomena of electrolytic decomposition, Nernst
applies these concepts to the batterv problem. We will apply the
theory to one or two simple cases onh'.
When two solutions of the same electrolyte are brought in con-
tact, electrical differences manifest themselves. The mere state-
ment, that tlie cause for such difference in potential is contact, is
unsatisfactory. Nernst reasons in this wise : The ions in virtue of
osmotic pressure will diffuse ; migrating with different velocities, as
shown b}' Hittorf, they will diffuse at different rates ; there will
result, therefore, an excess of anions in the one solution and
kathions in the otlier ; the ions possessing characteristic electric
charges, there will be found an excess of positive electricity in the
one solution and an accumulation of negative electricit}' in the
other solution. If an indifferent electrode be immersed in each
solution, connected through a conducting circuit, there must result
a current. We have here a battery giving an electrical current as
a result of osmotic pressure. The necessary conditions for the
production of the current are, that the ions have different velocities
and exert osmotic pressure ; that in solution we have the molecules
dissociated or ionized ; that the energ}' associated, if current flows,
is less at the close of the operation than at the beginning.
Nernst and Ilclmholtz calculated the electromotive force for
such cells from the experimental data of osmotic pressure and
ionic velocities, obtaining results agreeing very well with electrical
measurements.
It would, perhaps, be expected from the above, that the current
would continue until the concentration had become uniform; such,
however, will not be the case in the battery just described, for the
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 45
kathions at the kathode, and the anions at the anode, will now
develop electrostatic attractions which cannot be overcome b\' the
electromotive force of the battery.
Modifying the cell so that, in place of indifferent electrodes, we
use electrodes of the metal, the salt solutions of which surround it,
a battery results which will continue in operation until uniform con-
centration results. In this case the kathions will, at .the kathode,
b}' giving up their electric charges, become metallic, the electrode
becoming positively charged ; at the anode, metallic particles will
go into solution as kathions. This ionization involves energy
changes. The kathions there produced, carrying positive charges
with them, leave the electrode negativeh* charged.
In a battery, such as described, three differences of potential
result ; one at the surfaces of the solutions differing in concen-
tration, and a difference of potential between the surfaces of the
electrodes and the solution, the first having been explained as
originating from osmotic pressure ; Nernst explains the latter as
resulting from a solution pressure. Just as a liquid evaporates
from the surface until the vapor pressure becomes equal to the
vaporization tension, so in solution will a salt dissolve until the
osmotic pressure becomes equal to the solution tension of the salt.
In the same wa\-, Nernst supposes that each metal has a tendenc}'
to convert atoms of the metal into ions in solution as soon as it is
immersed in an electrolyte ; this has been termed electrolytic
solution tension. Osmotic pressure and solution tension thus
become analogous concepts. Three conditions are possible in the
battery cell : —
1. If the solution tension be greater than the osmotic pressure,
the metallic plate acts like a salt mass in a dilute solution. Kath-
ions will be thrown into the solution positivel}' charged, leaving an
equal -negative charge upon the electi'ode ; at the surface of separa-
tion between solution and electrode we shall have positive kathions
upon one side and negativel}' charged metal upon the other ; these
exerting electrical forces, a condition will be reached when they
are equal to the solution tension ; further action will then cease
until the kathions are discharged or made metallic.
2. If tiie osmotic and solution pressures are equal, no difference
in potential will result; as when a mass of salt is introduced into a
saturated solution, of itself no change takes place in equilibrium.
3. When the osmotic pressure is greater than the solution ten-
46 SECTION B.
sion, kathions will be projected upon the plate and made metallic,
the electrode becoming positively charged and the solution nega-
tively ; similar to the action which takes place when a solid salt is
brought into contact with a supersaturated solution where salt par-
ticles will be deposited.
The determination of the relative values of solution pressures is
comparatively simple, the determination of their absolute values verv
difficult. In the case of mercury and a saturated solution of calcium
chloride, the absolute value has been determined with considerable
accuracy from the effect upon tension phenomena in the mercury
surface, fully discussed by Lippman, Helmholtz, and Paschen.
Ostwald and Planke obtained values by two methods based upon
this action agreeing very well. With this value as a basis, others
have been determined. Applying those values experimentally ob-
tained, together with the ones for osmotic pressure, in calculating
the electromotive force of a number of well known cells, an excellent
agreement with experimentally determined values is found.
It will be impossible in this review to appl}- these theories to the
various forms of batteries known, and to man}* phenomena of elec-
trolysis which we have no space even to mention ; the theories
briefly reviewed liave borne rich fruit in the more satisfactory
explanation of electrolytic action. Many problems still remain to
be attacked, while some have been but now appreciated.
The development of the solution and dissociation theories gives
no explanation of the forces and conditions which cause solution or
ionization, though some attempts have been made in this direction.
Thus, J. J. Thomson has shown that, if the attraction between
the ions in the molecule is due to electrical forces, it will be
weakened if the molecules be immersed in a medium of high spe-
cific inductive capacity. Experimental evidence, in so far as it
goes, shows that in liquids of high specific inductive capacity
ionization is most complete. This is one of the problems to be
sj'stematicallj- studied.
With the solution of the older problems new ones present them-
selves. This is the effect of any comprehensive good theory.
Man}- new problems in molecular physics and electrolysis are sug-
gested through Arrhenius', Van't Hoft's, and Nernst's theories.
Their development and solution wnll not be one of chance, however,
to be stumbled upon by daring or blind groping, but by intelligent,
painstaking research. A bird's-eye view of the field is given us
ADDRESS BY CARL LEO MEES. 47
through these theories ; in fiUing in the detail and contours, the
chance explorer must give way to the systematic investigator.
Until within the last three or four years, the systematic and
careful amassing of experimental data for building up or verifying
these tlieories was done by a few European workers, mostly chem-
ists ; since Willard Gibbs' theoretical work bearing upon this sub-
ject, scared}' a single addition of importance has come from
American workers ; in fact, it seems that much of the work done
abroad is scarcely known to American plnsicists. It is to be
regretted that in the histor}' of the development of this branch of
electrical science hardly an American name will appear.
There remains, however, much to be done, and contributions
from this side will, I trust, be made.
Whether electrolytic action ever occurs in solids is a question
which I do not believe has been definitely settled. If such action
ever does take place, the theories just considered will have to be
modified. Some ver}' curious phenomena in glass, sul)jected to the
action of the electric currents, have been noticed ; the claim has
been made that glass has actually been electrolyzed, though the evi-
dence so far is not conclusive. The very interesting changes of
conductivity with variation in temperature, exhaustively studied
b}' Thomas Gra}', indicate molecular changes which may be due to
dissociation. The form of the equation for change in conductivity
with temperature shows a maximum, with reversal, considerabl}'
below the fusing point. A similar peculiarit}' is noticed in allo3's.
The systematic study of this seems important.
Careful stud}' of heat absorption when salts are dissolved should
be made. Much work has been done in this direction. A careful
examination and comparison of results, however, convinces one
that the methods and manner of conducting the investigation must
have been widel}- different, for the results vary in a most astonish-
ing manner ; at any rate, definite conclusions cannot be based upon
them. If ionization requires energy, it is more than likeh' that
some will be taken from the solution in the form of heat. In verj'
dilute solutions dissociation of the electrolyte seems complete,
while in concentrated solutions it is incomplete. A careful determi-
nation of the heat absorption per molecule, when the salt is dissolved
in concentrated or dilute solutions, might give valuable results.
The problem is ver}' complicated, yet it should be attacked.
That gases can conduct electrolytically seems fairly certain.
This field is scarcely entered, and may well be studied.
48 SECTION B.
The peculiar behavior of charged plates under the influence of
violet light seems likely to involve electrolytic action, and bear
upon dissociation questions.
So multitudes of problems suggest themselves, the stud}* of which
ma}- tend to crvstallize the theories of dissociation and solution, so
promising at this time, into more perfect form. It can scarcely be
doubted that the remarkable connection evident when the phe-
nomena of solution, modification of freezing and boiling point,
osmotic pressure, optical rotation, chemical equilibrium and stabil-
ity, metathetical reaction, thermal neutrality, electrical conductivitj',
and electrolysis are considered, taking the molecular equivalent
mass as the unit, indicates a ver}- near relationship of these pro-
cesses. The power of Arrhenius' dissociation theor}-, Van't Hoff's
solution theory, together with the conceptions of Hittorf, Clausius,
Nernst, and Ostwald in explaining the d3-namics of molecular
action, is most promising. Whether more accurate and more
plentiful quantitative studies of these so closelj- related phenomena
will lead to closer concordance or greater divergence of the numeri-
cal values obtained, and thus strengthen or reveal weaknesses in the
theories, must remain to be seen.
These theories, if fastened, will have a marked influence both
upon the chemical and physical conceptions of the structure of
complex molecules. They seem to demand essentiall}' a condition
of kinetic equilibrium between molecules and atoms ; inter-atomic
distances we shall have to consider greater than was our wont ;
atomic and molecular influences must extend to considei'able dis-
tances. Geometrical static arrangement of atoms or groups
of atoms seems incompatible with their behavior. The relation
of atoms in the molecule seems rather to be orbital, permitting of
ready rearrangement and readjustment b}- relativel}- slight disturb-
ing causes, capable of returning to former relations promptlj-, in-
volving various quantities of energy. All our inferences in reference
to molecular magnitudes will have to be interpreted as effective
merely, and not actual in the sense of space occupied.
The one central pillar upon and about which all physical science
is erected to-day, the conservation of energy, stands unchanged,
and, if possible, more clearly- defined and strengthened than ever in
these tests.
I repeat, ma}- American physicists take up these problems and add
their share to the development of these epoch-making theories.
PAPERS READ.
Tuesday, August 25.
Polarization and internal resistance of a galvanic cell. By Prof.
B. E. Moore, Soutli Bethlehem, Pa. (To be published in Physical Review.)
The lead storage cell. By Prof. B. E. Moore, South Bethlehem, Pa.
(To be published in Physical Review.)
A THEORY OF GALVANIC POLARIZATION. By Prof. "W. S. Eranklin and
L. B. Spinney, Ames, Iowa. (To be published in Physical Review.)
On the counter electromotive force of the electric arc. By Prof.
W. S. Franklin, Ames, Iowa.
On the element of diffraction in Eresnel's experiments vtith two
mirrors and with the bi-prism. By Dr. Ernest R. von Nardroff,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Segmental vibrations iN aluminum violins. By Dr. Alfred Springer,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Preliminary note on a proposed new standard of light. By Clay-
ton H. Sharp, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (To be published in
Transactions Ainer. Assoc, of Electrical Engineers, Vol. XIII., No. 4, p. 200.)
A photographic study of the Rontgen rays. By Prof. W. A. Rogers,
Colby University, Waterville, Me.
Note on the duration of the x-ray discharge in Crookes' tubes.
By Dr: Ben.jamin F. Thomas, State University, Columbus, Ohio. (To
be published in Electrical World and in Electrical Engineer.)
"Wednesday, August 26.
Preliminary communication concerning the anomalous dispersion of
QUARTZ for infra-red RAYS OF GREAT WAVE LENGTH. By Prof. ErNEST
F. Nichols, Hamihon, N. Y. (To be published in Physical Review.)
An EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CON-
DENSERS. By Dr. F. E. Millis, Appleton, Wis. (To be published in
Physical Review.)
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 4
50 SECTION B.
XOTES OX CERTAIN' PHYSICAL DIFFICULTIES IX THE COXSTRUCTIOX OF MOD-
ERN" LARGE GUN'S. By Prof. W. LeConte STEVEN'S, ReDsselacr Poly-
technic Institute, Troy, N. Y.
On the photographic trace of the curves described by THE GYRO-
SCOPIC PENDULUM. By Prof. Ernest Merritt, Itliaoa, N. Y. (To be
published in Physical Review.)
Ox THE DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH FREQUENCY ALTERNATING CURRENTS
THROUGHOUT THE CROSS-SECTION OF A WIRE. By Prof. ErNEST Mer-
RiTT, Ithaca, N. Y. (To be published in Physical Review.)
On the COMPACTNESS OF A BEAM OF LIGHT. By ErXEST K. VON NaRDROFF,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Some points in the mechanical conception of the electro-magnetic
FIELD. By Prof. W. S. Franklin, Ames, Iowa. (To be published in
Elements of Physics, Vol. II., by E. L. Nichols and "W. S. Franklin )
Mechanical models of the electric circuit. By Prof. Brown Ayres,
Tulane University, New Orleans, La.
A NEW graphical method for constructing the clock diagram of
the alternating current in a circuit of two parallel branches
containing ohmic and inductive resistances and capacity, under
the action of a constant harmonic electromotive force, in case
THE FREQUENCY IS VARIABLE. By Prof. IIenry T. Eddy, Univcrsitv of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.
Description and exhibition of a convenient form of the "inter-
ferential comparer," and of an interferential caliper attach-
ment FOR USE IN physical LABORATORIES. By Prof. W. A. ROGERS,
Colby University, Waterville, Me.
Description and exhibition of a bench comparator for general use
IN physical laboratories. By Prof. W. A. Rogers, Colby University,
Waterville, Me.
Thursd.\y, August 27.
On the rule for the dynamo and motor. By Prof. Alexander Mac-
farlane, South Bethlehem, Pa.
Description and exhibitiox of a portable appar.vtus for recording
curves of alternating currents and electromotive force. By
H. J. Hotchkiss, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (To be published in
Physical Revieiv.)
Experimental determination of the relative amounts of work done
in changing the lengths of two metal bars under the same
thermal conditions, by ax envelope of heated air, and by pure
RADIATIONS IN A VACUUM. By Prof. W. A. RoGERS, Colby University,
Waterville, Me.
PHYSICS. 51
Ak kxperimental jiethod of finding the valce of a unit of force
IN ANY SYSTEM WHATEVER. By Prof. W. A. EoGERS, Colby University,
Waterville, Me.
A NEW ALTERNATING-CUnnENT CDRVE-TEACER. By Pfof. EdWARD B. PoSA,
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.
Visible electric waves. By Prof. B. E. Moore, South Bethlehem, Pa.
(To he published in Physical Review.)
Electbical waves in long parallel wires. By Prof. A. D. Cole, Deni-
son University, Granville, Ohio. (To be published in Bulletin of the Sci-
entijic Laboratories of Denison University ; also by abstract in Electrical
World.)
The influence of a static charge of electricity on the surface
tension of water. By Dr. Edward L. Nichols and John Anson
Clark, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (To be published in Physical
Review.)
Determination of the specific heats of nitrogen by adiabatic ex-
pansion. By Prof. W. S. Franklin and L. B. Spinney, Ames, Iowa.
The analysis of vowel sounds, by means of the sympathetic vibra-
tions OF A rigid body. By L. B. Spinney, Ames, Iowa. (To be pub-
lished in Physical Review.)
Polar and interpolar effects of the galvanic current on living
ANIMAL tissues. By Dr. C. P. Hart, Wyoming, Ohio. (To be published
in Bulletin de la Societe Fran^aise d'Electrotherapie, Paris.)
Note on the effect of odd harmonics upon the virtual values of
periodically varying quantities. By Dr. Frederick Bedell, Cor-
nell University, Ithaca, N. Y., and Dr. James E. Boyd, Ohio State Univer-
sity, Columbus, Ohio.
The Section adjourned Thursday evening, August 27
SECTION C.
CHEMISTRY.
OFFICERS OF SECTION C.
Vice-President and Chairman of the Section.
William A. Noyes, Terre Haute, lad.
Secretary.
Frank P. Venable, Chapel Hill, N. C.
Councillor.
E. A. DE ScHWEiNiTZ, Washington, D. C.
Sectional Committee.
W. A. Notes, Terre Haute, Ind., Vice-President, 1896.
Frank P. Venable, Chapel Hill, N. C, Secretary, 1896.
William McMcrtrie, Brooklyn, N. Y., Vice-President, 1895.
W. P. Mason, Troy, N. Y., Secretary, 1895.
F. C. Phillips, Allegheny, Pa.
F. W. Clarke, Washington, D. C.
S. A. Lattimore, Rochester, N. Y.
Member of Nominating Committee.
A. L. Springer, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Committee to Nominate Officers of Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary, and Charles Baskerville, Chapel Hill,
N. C, Wm. McMortrie, Brooklyn, N. Y., T. H. Norton, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Press Secretary.
Charles H. Hertt, Athens, Ga.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
WILLIAM A. NOTES,
CHAIUMAN OF SECTION C.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTBY.
"Physical chemistry is the chemistry of the future." These
words, quoted from an address by Professor Du Bois-Reymond,
were used by Ostwald ten years ago in the introduction to the
first number of the Zeitschrift f iir physikalische Chemie. In using
these words Du Bois-Reymond looked forward to a time when it
shall be possible to give a mathematical expression to all forms of
chemical knowledge. The picture in his mind seems to have been
that of a sort of astronomy of the atoms, in which the motions
and forces within the molecules shall be known very much as are
the motions and forces within the planetary system.
So far as any practical realization is concerned, the thought is
still only a poetic fancy, and whatever progress, if any, may have
been made, comes to us from organic rather than from physical
chemistry. Indeed it seems to have become the fashion on the
part of several leaders in physical chemistry to speak slightingly
of the atomic and molecular theories. Their thought appears to
be that it would be better to confine ourselves to the purely em-
pirical and mathematical concept of the atom and molecule and
leave the idea of particles which have an actual independent exist-
ence entirely in abeyance. It would doubtless be possible to give
such definitions of atom and molecule as shall include only the
results of our actual empirical knowledge and mathematical de-
ductions therefrom. Such definitions would stand on a basis which
is incontrovertible, and it is inconceivable that even the overthrow
of the atomic theory, or any knowledge which may be gained in
the future as to the nature of matter, could change them.
(55)
56 SECTION C.
That such definitions possess great value is certain ; and that
it is very important to distinguish sharply between our positive
knowledge and speculations and theories based on that knowledge,
every one will admit ; but, after all, unless we join that school of
philosophy which teaches that there is no real existence outside of
our own minds, there is some reality at the basis of and behind
all the phenomena which we investigate. And it is the province
of science to find out the truth about every real existence of
which we can secure any tangible evidence. Our knowledge of
atoms and molecules as actually existing particles is, doubtless, a
purely speculative deduction from a multitude of diverse phenom-
ena and yet the mental picture connected with the concept has been,
and still continues to be, of very great value in the development
of our science. These mental pictures are vague and in many re-
spects incomplete, it is true, and they doubtless do not corre-
spond closely to the real existences for which they are, at present,
our best expression ; but, to one familiar with the very practical
results which have been obtained in the domain of structural chem-
istry, it is difficult to conceive how such results would have been
possible without their use.
While physical chemistry has made little or no apparent prog-
ress toward the goal marked out by Du Bois-Reymond, its practi-
cal achievements during the last ten or fifteen years have been
very considerable and it is to these practical achievements that I
wish to turn our attention.
"Whenever the subject of physical chemistry is mentioned our
thoughts naturally turn to the subject of solutions. Not that
physical chemistry has to do only or chiefly with solutions, for, as
I understand it, physical chemistry has to do with all of those
physical properties of matter which can only be understood by
taking into consideration at the same time its composition ; but
rather because some of the most valuable results of physico-
chemical researches have been in this field and because diversity of
views has made this the chief recent battle-ground in chemistry.
Up to about eleven years ago our knowledge of solutions was
almost entirely of an empirical character. No great generalization
similar to those which had long been known for gases had been
discovered. In 1885 J. H van't Hoffi proposed his theory of os-
motic pressure. The empirical basis for this theory lay in the ex-
periments of many different workers, some of them made many
ADDRESS BY W. A. NOTES. 57
years before. Studies in osmose date from the early years of this
century and, indeed, some experiments were made more than
a century ago. It was not, however, till 1867 that the discov-
ery of true semi-permeable membranes was made. In that year
M. Traube^ showed that membranes may be prepared which
will readily allow the passage of water but which are totally im-
pervious to certain substances in solution. Ten years later W.
Pfeffer^ conceived the idea of preparing such membranes in the
interior of a solid partition. By exposing a cup of porous porce-
lain to the action of a solution of copper sulphate on one side and
of potassium ferrocyanide on the other, a precipitate is formed
within the mass of the porcelain which is permeable to water but
which is impel vious to the passage of sugar and of many other
substances. With such cells the osmotic pressure was measured
and was found to be surprisingly great. For a one and a half per
cent solution of saltpeter it is more than three atmospheres ; for
sea water it would be about twenty atmospheres. Pfeffer's experi-
ments were made with reference to their bearing on the action of
organic cells and on other physiological questions and it was eight
j-ears later before their extraordinary theoretical importance was
pointed out by van't Hoff.
A careful study of the experimental data given by Pfefler and
others leads to the following conclusions :
First, the osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the con-
centration of the solution.
Second, the osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the ab-
solute temperature. In establishing this law the experiments of
Soret^ are of especial interest. He subjected a solution of copper
sulphate, contained in a vertical tube, to a temperature of 80° near
the top and of 20° at the bottom. Under these circumstances the
concentration increases below and diminishes above. After equi-
librium was established it was found that the per cent of copper
sulphate in the two parts of the solution was inversely as the ab-
solute temperature. The analogy with what would take place in a
gas under the same conditions is clear.
Third, solutions which are isotonic at a given temperature con-
tain in unit volume the same number of molecules of the dissolved
substance. Another statement of the same law, which gives it
also a quantitative expression, is, that the osmotic pressure of a
solution is the same as though the dissolved substance existed as
58 SECTION C.
a gas within the same space. The osmotic pressure of a one per
cent solution of sugar may be calculated by the same formula*
which we should use to calculate the pressure exerted by one
gram of a gaseous body having a molecular weight of 342 and
contained in a volume of 100.6 cubic centimeters.
Every one recognizes, of course, that the laws which have been
given for osmotic pressure are identical with the laws of Boyle,
of Charles and of Avogadro for gases. Van't Hoff pointed out
this analogy very clearly but he did not give any clear explana-
tion of what he considered as the real cause of the phenomena
of osmose. He spoke, from the purely empirical side, of the at-
traction which the solution exerts for pure water. ^ Ostwald in
his Lehrbuch^ is even more careful. He speaks of the cell as
conducting itself as though there is within it a partial vacuum for
water. These expressions are very similar to those of the older
text-books which speak of the expansion of gases as due to the re-
pulsion of their particles for each other, and appear to me equally
misleading and unsatisfactory. In a later paper,^ in reply to a
criticism by Lothar Meyer,^ van't Hoff gives a clearer explanation
in terms of the kinetic theory.
If we have a gas in a confined space and introduce into it a
small amount of some volatile liquid, the vapor of the liquid will
rise and fill the space very nearly as though the gas were not pres-
ent, and when equilibrium is reached the pressm-e will equal the
original pressure of the gas plus the vapor pressure of the liquid.
The explanation is that the pressure exerted on the surface of the
liquid by the gas is not that of continuous matter, but is due to the
bombardment of its surface by pai'tieles of discontinuous matter.
The particles of the liquid find ample opportunity, therefore, to
rise between the particles of the gas.
Let us take a second case, which has, however, as far I am
aware, never been realized. Suppose a vessel having a wall im-
pervious to the molecules of one gas but pervious to those of a
second. If such a vessel, containing the first gas, is placed in an
atmosphere of the second, the molecules of the latter will pass the
^p^ 760XT.
In this formula,
T = Absolute temperature.
34-2 = Molecular weight of cane sugar.
0.045 = One-half the weight of a liter of hydrogen.
0.1006 = Volume in liters of 100 grams of the solution
ADDRESS BY W. A. NOTES. 59
walls and entei- the space occupied by the first, exactly as the mol-
ecules of the volatile liquid rise amoug the molecules of the gas
above and equilibrium will be established only when the pressure
exerted by the second gas is equal within and without. The pres-
sure within the vessel will then exceed that on the outside by ex-
actly the pressure exerted by the gas whose molecules cannot pass
the wall.
The case with osmotic pressure is very similar to that last men-
tioned. Here we have a semi-permeable wall actually realized.
For instance, we may have a wall which will allow water to pass
freely but which is impervious to the molecules of sugar. If
pure water be on one side of such a wall aud a solution of sugar
on the other, equilibrium can exist only when the pressure due to
the water alone is equal on both sides ; for the molecules of sugar,
because of their discontinuous character, can exert no influence to
cause the molecules of water to pass one way or the other, ex-
actly as a gas can exert no permanent effect to prevent the vapor
of a liquid from passing upward into it. In the end, therefore,
the pressure on the side of the solution must exceed that on the
side of the pure solvent by the amount of pressure due to the kin-
etic energy of the molecules of the dissolved substance. If we
further suppose that this energy is the same in the liquid as in the
gaseous state, and the laws of osmotic pressure give us every rea-
son to believe that it is, the explanation is complete.
This explanation gives us a conception of liquids as very
closely related to gases in many of their properties, the main dif-
ference being that, in the liquid, the molecule does not possess
enough kinetic energy to separate it from the mass of ueighbox-
ing molecules, although its motion within the confined space is very
similar to that of the molecule of a gas.
But it is not only, nor, indeed, mainly in his study of the phe-
nomena of osmose that van't Hoff has rendered the greatest serv-
ice. Very few perfect semi-permeable walls are known, and os-
motic pressures are very difficult to measure directly, so that, if
we were dependent on direct measurements, the theory would be
of scarcely more than theoretical interest. Van't Hoff pointed
out, however, that the concentration of a solution by the removal
of the solvent, whether effected by a piston composed of a semi-
permeable wall, by tiie evaporation of the solvent, or by the sep-
aration of crystals of the pure solvent by freezing, is, in each
60 SECTION C.
case a reversible process analogous to the compression of a gas,
and that, as with all other reversible processes, it is subject to
the second law of theruio-dynamics. This made it possible to con-
nect the lowering of the vapor pressure and the depression of
the freezing point of solutions directly with their osmotic pres-
sure. This has given an indirect determination of the osmotic
pressure in thousands of different cases. As a practical result
we have now at our disposal a large number of methods for the
determination of the molecular weights of solid and liquid bodies.
The work of Raoult^ in this field deserves especial mention,
because he developed several methods of determining molecular
weights from an empirical standpoint, before the theoretical de-
velopment of the subject had been given by van't Hoff. Ra-
oult's''' work attracted the attention of Victor Meyer, who made
use of his methods in the study of certain stereomeric bodies
upon which he was at work. And it is in connection with stereo-
isomerism that the new methods of determining molecular weights
have, perhaps, been of the greatest practical value in the develop-
ment of chemical science ; for, without the positive proof that the
bodies studied are metameric and not polymeric, the foundation
for the belief that they are stereomeric would be comparatively
weak.
It is probably through articles published by Victor Meyer^^ and
Auwers'i i\^^]^ cryoscopic methods for the detei-mination of rno-
lecular weights were first brought to the attention of a wide circle
of chemists. Since then a large number of workers have busied
themselves with the subject, partly in the development of suitable
forms of apparatus and methods of manipulation, partly in the
study of the scope and degree of accuracy of the laws and of
exceptions to them. The most important of the methods devel-
oped are those dependent on the lowering of the freezing point of
solutions, 1- on the raising of the boiling point,'^ on the lowering
of the vapor pressure,'^ on the determination of isotonic solu-
tions by vegetable membranes^^ and by blood corpuscles, and on
the lessening of the solubility of ether in water or of phenol in
water by the addition of substances soluble in ether or phenol but
not in water. In the last case the determination is either direct
in the case of phenol, or by the rise of the freezing point of the
wateri6 owing to the withdrawal of ether from it.
As was to be expected, the laws of osmotic pressure are sub-
ADDRESS BY W. A. NOYES. 61
ject to numerous exceptious, or rather modifications, for, strictly
speaking, no true law of nature is ever subject to an exception.
That which, by a figure of speech, we call an exception, is really
a modification due to the simultaneous application of some other
law. The modifications in this case are very similar to the modi-
fications of Avogadro's law which retarded its acceptance for
nearly a half century. Vapor densities are abnormally high on
account of the associative tendency of molecules as in the case of
acetic acid, or when too near the boiling point of the liquid, or low
on account of dissociation, as in the case of ammonium chloride or
of phosphorus pentachloride. In a similar manner the molecular
weights of most acids when determined in solution in benzene are
twice their normal value, while the molecular weights of electro-
lytes dissolved in water, and sometimes when dissolved in other
solvents, are less than we should expect. In addition to the
modifications of the law due to association and dissociation are
other modifications similar to the modification of the laws of
Boyle and Charles for gases which are highly compressed. These
cases have been studied and formulae for the deviation, based on
the formulae of van der Waals for compressed gases, have been
given by Ostwald, Bredig and A. A. Noyes.^^ These foi'mulae
give a satisfactory expression for the deviation in many cases
of concentrated solutions. When we consider that strong solu-
tions often give osmotic pressures of many atmospheres, and that
the molecules of the bodies in solution are often much more com-
plex than the molecules of most gases, it is readily seen that devia-
tions of considerable amount may be expected.
In 1884 Arrhenius^*^ published the results of researches on the
electrical conductivity of solutions, on which he had been engaged
for two years. In the course of his studies he was led to the con-
clusion.that only a part of the molecules of an electrolyte are con-
cerned in conveying the electrical current, and that it is necessary
to distinguish between " active" and " inactive " molecules in this
regard. The conductivity is greater, in proportion to the amount
of the electrolyte present, for dilute than for concentrated solutions,
and lor an infinite dilution the molecules would, presumably, be-
come all " active." Arrhenius pointed out, also, that there is a
close connection between the number of "active" molecules as de-
termined by the electrical conductivity of solutions, and the " avid-
ity " of acids as determined by the thermo-chemical researches of
62 SECTION C.
Thomsen. His first explanation of the cause of the difference be-
tween the " active" and " inactive" molecules, was, however, un-
satisfactory and was not well received.
vShortly after, in his first development of his theory of solutions,
van't Hoff was compelled to admit that many substances in aqueous
solutions cause a depression of the freezing point much greater
than they should in proportion to their molecular weights. He ex-
pressed the deviation by the use of a factor, " i," which is, for
electrolytes, always greater than unity and expresses the number
of times the depression exceeds the theoretical depression as cal-
culated from the molecular weight. This factor was at first con-
sidered to be a constant, but it is now known that it is variable and
that it increases with the dilution. The obvious meaning of this
factor is that the molecules of electrolytes are separated into two
or more parts when dissolved in water, or other liquids which have
a similar effect in causing electrical conductivity. But, just as
chemists were very slow to see that the abnormal densities of am-
monium chloride and of many other substances are due to dissocia-
tion, so van't Hoff did not draw a conclusion which seemed to be
so contradictory to all preconceived notions about the bodies in
question. Arrhenius, however, saw the logical conclusion, and his
studies had prepared him for its acceptance. As a result, he pro-
posed, in 1887, his theory of electrolytic dissociation. i^
This theory, which seemed at first very improbable, has shown
itself capable of coordinating the facts of many diverse fields of
work and has proved more valuable in the incentive which it has
given to research and more prolific of results than any other theory
proposed during the last decade. According to the theory, an
electrolyte when dissolved in water, and sometimes when dissolved
in other solvents, is separated more or less completely into its
ions.
The empirical basis for the theory lies in the correspondence be-
tween electrolytic conductivity and the divergence from the normal
depression of the freezing point and lowering of the vapor pres-
sure ; in the correspondence of both with the " avidity " of acids
which has already been referred to ; in the quantitative connection
between each of these and the chemical effect of acids as shown
in the inversion of cane sugar and saponification of methyl acetate ;
in the satisfactory explanation which it gives for the independent
migration of ions during electrolysis as established by the work of
ADDRESS BY W. A. NOTES. 63
Hittorf, Kohlrauch, and others ; in the fact that an electrolyte
obeys the same law for dissociation with increasing dilution as
a gas under diminishing pressure, first pointed out theoretically
by Ostwald and Planck,-'^ and then experimentally established by
Ostwald, Wildermann,^' Looniis,^^ and others ; and, in general, by
the fact that the properties of a dilute solution of an electrolyte are
dependent on the sum of the properties of the ions present rather
than on the properties of the chemical compound which those ions
may combine to produce. It would take me too far to illustrate this
last statement as shown to be true of the density, color and other
properties of solutions.
The theory has thrown light upon many chemical riddles anc-
has placed the chemist in a position to predict phenomena which,
could formerly be known only as the result of experiment. It sug-
gests at once the distinction between reactions of ions and reactions
of bodies which do not undergo ionic dissociation. The former
take place in solutions at ordinary temperatures and so instanta-
neously that the time factor cannot be measured ; the latter fre-
quently require an elevated temperature and are sometimes very
slow. The distinction is, perhaps, a practical, rather than a strictly
logical one, for theoretical considerations lead us inevitably to the
conclusion that only additive reactions, and in many cases not even
those, can take place without a previous dissociation of some sort.
In this view, the distinction between ionic reactions and others is
that in solutions of electrolytes a considerable portion of the com-
pounds have undergone dissociation ; and as any ion is removed by
precipitation, or otherwise, the remainder of the compound of which
it is a part undergoes rapid dissociation owing to the resulting di-
lution of the solution. In such cases the dissociation appears to
take place almost exclusively at one point in the compound, and
the reactions are clean and practically quantitative. In what may
be called non-ionic reactions, on the other hand, the initial disso-
ciation appears to be trifling and, notably with organic compounds,
may take place at several points ; the reactions between the result-
ing parts must be slow and may give rise to a variety of com-
pounds.
In accoi'dance with the theory, only those elements or groups
which exist as independent ions in a solution enter readily into
combination with other ions. Hence an atom which forms a part
of a complex ion as the iron of ferro- or ferri-cyanides and the
64 SECTION C.
chlorine of cbloro-platinic acid and of potassium chlorate cannot
be detected by the ordinary reagents for these elements. This
principle is of fundamental importance for analytical chemistry and
has, of course, in its empirical form, been long recognized.
In the case of analytical chemistry, especially, the new theories
of physical chemistry seem destined to transform what has been,
hitherto, an almost exclusively empirical science and raise it to a
higher plane. Two illustrations of practical applications of the
theory in this field may be of interest.
The first is with regard to the indicators used in acidimetry. It
has long been known that the same indicator is not equally sat-
isfactory in all cases, but the reason has never been clearly stated
till recently. The principles on which the discussion depends are
these : an acid solution is characterized by the presence of free hy-
drogen ions, a basic solution by the presence of free hydroxyl and
free metallic ions ; in the case of a strong acid or base the number
of hydrogen or hydroxyl ions is large in proportion to the quantity
of the acid or base present, while in the case of a weak acid or base
the number of ions is small ; in other words the difference between
strong; and weak acids and bases is that the dissociation factor of
the former is very much the larger. The indicators in use are rel-
atively weak acids or bases for which the free ions possess a dif-
ferent color from that of the pure acid or base. Thus pLeijol
phthaleiu is colorless, while its ion is red ; litmus is red, while its
ion is blue. In the presence of hydrogen ions the dissociation of each
of these substances is diminished in accordance with the well known
law of dissociation that the presence of one of the products of dis-
sociation decreases the dissociation of the compound. Hence in
acid solutions these bodies are so little dissociated that the color
of the compound and not that of the ion appears. In alkaline so-
lutions, however, the color of the ions is developed since the potas-
sium and sodium salts, even of very weak acids, are largely dis-
sociated in dilute solutions.
There is, however, a very considerable difference in the disso-
ciation factors for the different indicators. The dissociation factor
is much higher for methyl orange and for cochineal than for litmus
and phenol phthaleiu, and while the dissociation factor of hydro-
chloric and similar acids is so high that a very small excess will
cause the change in color, even of methyl orange, the dissociation
factor for many acids, and especially for most organic acids, is so
ADDRESS BY W. A. NOTES.
65
low that a quite appreciable excess is required, and tlie change in
color will be slow and uncertain. Hence methyl orange and coch-
ineal are entirely unsuited for the titration of weak acids, and lit-
mus or phenol phthalei'n must be used. For weak bases, and
notably for ammonia, the conditions are reversed. The salts of
such bases with phenol phthalei'n, or with litmus, undergo hydrolysis
in dilute solutions and a considerable excess of the base will be re-
quired before the ions characteristic of the indicator will appear.
The salts of the same bases with methyl orange or cochineal are
not so readily hydrolyzed and these indicators are more suitable.
A practical complication arises from the presence of carbonic
acid in most of the solutions which we titrate. I will not take the
time here to discuss the details of the theory which points out very
clearly that, for accurate results, carbonic acid must be excluded
from solutions in which litmus or phenol phthalei'n are employed,
while, if concentrated, methyl orange or cochineal may be used
satisfactorily, for strong acids.
The other illustration of the application of the principles of phy-
sical chemistry to an analytical problem is one recently given by
Stefan Bugarsky.^^ A great many methods for the separation of
bromine and chlorine have been developed but nearly or quite all
of them rest on a purely empirical basis. Bugarsky has studied
the subject from an entirely different point of view. Sometime
since Bancroft-'* determined the electromotive forces developed
between oxidizing and oxidizable solutions connected by an indif-
ferent electrolyte, and with a platinum electrode immersed in each.
The results may be considered as giving a quantitative expression
for the relative oxidizing and reducing power of the various sub-
stances studied. Among other things it was found that, no matter
what substance was oxidized, iodic acid with sulphuric acid de-
velops a greater electromotive force than bi'omine with potassium
bromide and less than chlorine with potassium chloride. It appears,
therefore, that iodic and sulphuric acids together should liberate
bromine but not chlorine from a solution containing bromides and
chlorides. The practical application of this theoretical conclusion
appears to have been entirely successful.
It is not alone in chemistry that the theories of osmotic pressure
and of electrolytic dissociation have proved of practical value.
Nernst has developed from these theories a theory for the cause
of the electromotive force in batteries, which, while it may not, as
66 SECTION C.
yet, have received general acceptance, is a more useful expression
for our present knowledge than any previously proposed. The most
important conception at the basis of this theory is that of what may
be called a solution pressure for metals, corresponding in some
sense to the vapor pressure of liquids. When zinc, for instance,
is iu contact with water, or an aqueous solution, this solution pres-
sure is a force impelling the atoms of zinc to pass into solution. In
order that they may do so, however, each atom must pass over
iuto the state of an ion ; that is, it must receive a charge of positive
electricity which is carried with it into the solution. But only a
very few atoms can pass into solution before the negative charge
left in the mass of the zinc in proportion as the positive ions sep-
arate from it will cause such an accumulation of zinc ions in prox-
imity with the zinc as to balance the solution pressure. If, how-
ever, an opportunity is given for the escape of the negative charge
from the zinc and at the same time positive ions are allowed to
escape from the solution at some other point, the zinc will continue
to dissolve and currents of electricity will be set up. Thus, in the
Daniell or gravity cell, zinc ions pass into solution, and a correspond-
ing number of copper ions are deposited. The force which causes
the movement of the ions and with them the transference of elec-
trical energy within the cell is mainly the very high solution pres-
sure of the zinc as compared with that of copper. Other factors,
such as the osmotic pressure of zinc ions already in solution which
tends to counteract the solution ' pressure of the zinc, the osmotic
pressure of copper ions which aids in the separation of the copper,
and the different velocity of translation for various ions which may
cause differences of potential when the fluids of the cell are not
homogeneous, are most of them comparatively small in their effect.
No means has been found for the direct determination of the
solution pressure of metals, but it may be calculated from the dif-
ference in potential between a metal and a solution of one of its
salts. Methods for the determination of the latter have been de-
vised by Ostwald,25 and improved by Paschen.-^ By the use of
these and other constants which the researches of physical chemis-
try have placed in his hands, the physicist can now calculate the
electromotive force which can be obtained by^ various combinations
of metals and solutions. On this side the theory has rendered es-
sentially the same service for the galvanic cell which the atomic
theory rendered for chemical compounds when it furnished the
ADDRKSS BY W. A. NOYKS. 67
means for calculating their percentage composition. As in the
early days of the atomic theory, many of the constants in question
are imperfectly known, but since the theory has shown clearly their
interdependence, new means for their determination and for the
control of their accuracy are constantly being discovered.
Every one who is familiar with the extremely wasteful character
of all processes now at our disposal for the transformation of
chemical into mechanical energy must have had the thought that
there is surely some means of saving a part of the enormous loss.
At present the attention of the scientific world is turned toward
the transformation of the chemical energy of coal into electrical
energy as the probable solution of this problem. It seems to be
almost certain that physical chemistry has already made clear the
principles by means of which such a transformation may be accom-
plished. Indeed, Dr. W. Borchers,^^ by the use of a solution of
cuprous chloride with producer gas, or carbon monoxide on one
side and air on the other, has already obtained an electrical current
which corresponds to a transformation of thirty per cent of the
chemical energy into electrical. This is an efficiency three times
that of the best steam engines. There is no probability that this
method can ever be practically useful, but that a practical method
will soon be discovered is, at least, possible..
I have thus far spoken of the achievements of physical chemistry
mainly in the direction of the development of the theories of os-
motic pressure and of electrolytic dissociation. It is in this field
that the most valuable practical results have been secured because
it is here that a new, far-reaching, and exti'emely useful theory has
been developed. But work in physical chemistry has been extreme-
ly active in many other directions as well.
The most brilliant chemical discovery of the last decade was a
result of the careful study of a single physical property of nitrogen.
And, owing to the peculiar character of argon and helium, their
further study has been almost exclusively on the phy^sical side.
Ramsay and Shields-^ by their work on the surface energy of
homogeneous liquids have developed a method for the determina-
tion of the molecular weights of this class of bodies.
Traube's exhaustive study of the specific gravity of solutions,
promises, if all that he claims be true, and much of it seems to be,
to bring order out of an almost interminable chaos of empirical
data. Among other things his work has given a new and very
rapid method for the determination of molecular weights.
68 SECTION C.
I will not take the time to refer in detail to the -svork of Briihl
and others on the refraction and dispersion of light as dependent
on the composition and structure of bodies ; to the work of Thom-
sen, of Stohman and of Berthelot upon thermo-chemistry ; to tlie
work of Guye, Waldeu and others on specific and molecular rota
tion and of Perkiu on electro-magnetic rotation of polarized light ;
and to the work of Rowland on spectrum analysis.
In all of these fields and in many others a vast accumulation of
empirical data has been secured. This wealth of experimental ma-
terial has been accompanied and supplemented by theoretical dis-
cussions and many interesting relations have been discovered.
Physical chemistry has proved one of the most enticing and profit-
able fields for work in recent years and claims many enthusiastic in-
vestigators in our own country as well as abroad. In the development
of the subject perhaps no one has contributed more than Ostwald
by his Lehrbuch aud by his ably edited Zeitschrift fiir physika-
lische Chemie. We ma}^ congratulate ourselves that our workers
in America are now to have a journal of their own, and we may
confidently hope that the new Journal of Physical Chemistry will
contribute much toward " the chemistry of the future."
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Arch, neerland, 20, 1885: also Zeit. fiir phys. Chem. 1, 481 (1887).
2. Archiv fiir Anatomie u. Physiol'ogie, 1867, 87.
3. Osmotische Untersuclaungen, Leipzig 1877.
4. Arm. de Chim. et de Phys. (5) 22, 203.
5. Zeit. f. phys. Chem. 1, 481.
6. Lehrbnch d. AUgemeinen Chem. I, 661.
7. Zeit. f. phys. Chem. 5, 174.
8. Ibid. 5,2^.
9. Compt. Rend. 87, 167 (1878) ; 104, 1430 (1887.)
10. Bcr. d. Chem. Ges. 21, 536 (1888).
11. Ibid. 21, 701 (1888).
12. Raoult. Compt. Rend. 87, 107 (1878); 94, 1587 (1882); 95, 188
(1882).
Beckmaim. Zeit. f. phys. Chem. 2, 638, 715.
Eykmann. Ibid. 2, 602, 9G4 ; 4, 497.
13. Beckmann. Ibid. 4, 532; 6, 437; 18, 473.
H. B. Hite. Am. Ch. J. 17, 507 (1895).
"W. R. Orndorffand F. K. Cameron. Ibid. 17, 517 (1805).
14. Raoult. Compt. Rend. 87, 1G7 (1878); 104, 1430 (1887).
J. Walker. Zeit. f. phys. Chem. 2, 602.
Beckmann. Ibid. 4, 532.
ADDRESS BY "W. A. NOTES 69
15. H. de Vries. Ibid. 2, 415.
16. W. Nernst. Ibid. 6, 16, 27, 573.
17. Zeit. f. phys. Ch. 2, 280 (1888) ; 4, 444 (1889) ; 5, 53 (1890).
18. Ostwald's Lehrb. d. Allg. Chem. II, 647.
19. Zeit. f. phys. Ch. 1, 631 (1887).
20. Zeit. f. phys. Chem, 2, 36 and 270 (1888) ; 3, 170 (1889).
21. Ibid. 15, 356 (1894); 19, 243 (1896).
22. Ibid. 15, 365.
23. Zeit. f. anorg. Chem. 10, 387.
24. Zeit. f, phys. Chem 10, 387 (1892).
25. Zeit. f. phys. Chem. 1, 583 (1887).
26. Wied. Ann. 1, 42 (1890).
27. Ber. d. Deut. elektroch. Ges. 1894.
28. J. Chem. Soc. 63, 1089. (1893) and Zeit. f. phys. Ch. 12, 433.
29. Ber. d. Chem. Ges. 1892-1896.
Zeit. f . anorg. Ch. 3,1; 8, 12, 77, 323, 338.
Liebig's Anualen, 290, 43.
PAPERS READ.
Beginning Tuesday, August 25.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.
Determination op osmotic pressure from vapor pressure measure-
ments. By Prof. A. A. Notes and G. C. Abbott, Mass. Inst, of Tech.,
Boston, Mass. (To be published in Zeitschrift fur phijs. Chemie.)
Distillation with vapor. By Prof. W. D. Bancroft, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y. (To be published in Journal of Physical Chemistry.)
A physico-chemical study of water solutions of some of the alums.
By H. C. Jones, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
The hydrolysis of the sulphonic ethers. By Prof. J. H. Kastle, State
College of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
On the nature of isomorphous mixtures. By C. E. Linebarger,
Chicago.
A discussion of Lichty's experiments on the speed of esterifioation.
By Prof. Robert B. Warder, Howard University, Washington, D. C. (To
be published in Journal of Physical Chemistry.)
The hydrolysis of ferric chloride. By H. M. Goodwin, Mass. Inst, of
Tech., Boston, Mass.
The viscosity of mercury vapor. By Prof. A. A. Noyes and H. M. Good-
win, Mass. Inst, of Tech., Boston, Mass.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Some points in nomenclature with regard to analysis of mineral
WATER. By Prof. F. W. Clarke, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C.
The alkali trihalides. By Dr. C. H. Herty and H. V. Black, University
of Georgia, Athens, Ga. (To be published in Amer. Chemical Journal.)
72 SECTION C.
The metamorphosis of fossil bone into a mineral. By E. Goldsmith,
Philadelphia, Pa.
A bibliography of the metals of the platinum grocp. By Prof. Jas.
Lewis Howe, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. (To be
published in Smith. Miscel. Col.)
Examination of water and deposits from a lake in Yucatan. By
Prof. Jas. Lewis Howe and Prof. H. D. Campbell, Washington and Lee
University, Lexington, Va. (To be published in Amer. Jour. Science.)
A revision of the atomic weight of magnesium. By Prof. T. W. Rich-
ards and H. G. Parker, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. (To be
published in Zeit. anorg. Chemie.)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Htdrazones of quinones. By Prof. Wm. McPherson, Ohio State Univer-
sit}', Columbus, Ohio.
Synthesis of diethyl-hexamethylene ether and other ethers from
trimethylene glycol. By Prof. A. A. Noyes, Mass. Inst, of Tech.,
Boston.
Formation of diacetylenyl (butadiine) from copper acetylene. By
Prof. A. A. Noyes and C. W. Tucker, Mass. Inst, of Tecli., Boston.
Camphoric acid. By W. A. Noyes, Rose Polytechnic Inst., Terre Haute,
Ind.
Introduction of alkyl radicles into phosphine by jieans of ethers.
By Dr. P. Fireman, Columbian University, Washington, D. C.
Dipyridine methylene iodide and the non-formation of correspond-
ing MONOPYRiDiNE PRODUCTS. By S. H. Baer and Prof. A. B. Prescott,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Alkyl ammonium iodides in reaction with bismuth salts. By S. H.
Baer and Prof. A. B. Prescott, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.
On the behavior of trichlordinitrobenzol with various reagents.
By Prof. C. Loring Jackson and W. R. Lamar, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
On the action of nitric acid on potassic cobalticyanide. By Prof.
C. Loring Jackson and A. M. Comey, Harvard University, Cambridge,
Mass.
On the action of sodic ethylate on dinitranissic acid. By Prof. C.
Loring Jackson and M. H. Ittner, Harvard University, Cambridge,
Mass.
CHEMISTRY.
73
DIDACTIC CHEMISTRY.
Points in teaching technical chemistry. By Prof. T. H. Norton, Univer-
sity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Ox SOME NEW FORMS OF GAS GENERATORS. By Pfof T. H. NoRTON, Univer-
sity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. (To be printed in Jour. Amer. Ckem.
Soc.)
The AIM OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. By Prof. G. C. Caldwell. Cornell
University, Itliaca, N. Y.
The teaching of qualitative analysis. By Prof. A. L. Green, Purdue
University, La Fayette, Ind.
The use of the periodic law in teaching general chemistry. By
Prof. F. P. Venable, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.
Chemistry at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. By Prof. W. P.
Mason, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y.
Laboratory instruction in organic chemistry. By Prof. A. A. Noyes,
Mass. Inst, of Tecli., Boston.
The teaching of physical chemistry. By Prof. A. A. Noyes, Mass. Inst,
of Tech., Boston.
Instruction in sanitary chemistry at the Mass. Institute of Tech-
nology. By Ellen H. Richards, Mass. Inst, of Tech., Boston.
Some points in the use of depths of color as a measure of chemical
contents. By Ellen H. Richards, Mass. Inst, of Tech., Boston.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
Notes on Reinsch's test for arsenic axd antimony. By Prof. J. L.
Howe and P. S. Mertins, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va.
(To be publislied in Jour. Ainer. Chem. Soc.)
A NEW FORM OF LABORATORY CONDENSER. By ErWIN E. EwELL, Dept. of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
A method OF MANIPULATION FOR THE COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATION OP
AMMONIACAL nitrous and NITRIC NITROGEN IN BACTERIAL CULTURE.
By Edwin E. Ewell, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
A MODIFIED FORM OF THE EBULLIOSCOPE. By Prof. H. W. WiLEY, Dept. of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
74 SECTION C.
TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY.
Recent developments in the purification and filtration of water.
By Prof. A. R. Leeds, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N.J.
On the composition and properties of natural gas from Western
Pennsylvania. By Prof. Francis C. Phillips, Western University,
Allegheny, Pa.
A method for the determination of sulphur in white cast iron. By
Prof. Francis C. Phillips, Western University, Allegheny, Pa.
The meaning of the term "oxygen consumed" in the report of a
water analysis. By Ellen H. Richards, Mass. Inst, of Tech., Boston.
On recent improvements in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. By
Dr. C. L. Reese, The Citadel, Charleston, S. C.
Use of coal tar colors in foods. By Prof. H. A. Weber, Ohio State Uni-
versity, Columbus, Ohio. (To be printed in Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.)
The alkaloids of Anhelonium Lewinii (mescal buttons). By Erwin
E. Ewell, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (To be printed
in Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.)
SANITARY CHEMISTRY.
J^otes on well water. By Dr. W. P. Mason, Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst.,
Troy, N. Y.
Value and use of formaldehyde as a disinfectant. By Dr. E. A. de
ScHWEiNiTz, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Observations on the sanitary nature of the Mississippi river water
at different seasons. By Prof. E. G. Smith, Beloit College, Beloit,
Wis.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
The work of the agricultural chemists of America. By L. L. Van
Slyke, Geneva, N. Y.
Conditions affecting the normal viscosity of milk. By Prof. S. M.
Babcock and Prof. H. L. Russell, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis. (To be printed in \^th Report of the Wise. Exper. Station.)
On the restoration of the viscosity of Pasteurized hilk and cream.
By Prof. S. M. Babcock and Prof. H. L. Russell, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis. (To be printed in I3th Report of the Wise. Exper. Station.)
CHEMISTRY. 75
BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.
The necessity of animal experimentation in the study of bio-
chemistry. By Dr. E. A. de Schweinitz, Dept. of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Andromedotoxin, the poisonous constituent of the Ericaceae and its
relation to some food products. By V. K. Chestnut, U. S, Dept. of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
The Section adjourned Thursday evening, August 27.
Fourteenth Annual Report of the Committee on Indexing
Chemical Literature.
The Committee on luclexing Chemical Literature presents to the Chemi-
cal Section its fourteenth annual report. During the j'ear ending August,
1896, there has been exhibited much activity in chemical bibliography and
indexing; several valuable works have been completed and many import-
ant undertakings have been begun.
WORKS PUBLISHED.
A Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities. Inorganic. By Arthur Messinger
Comey. New York and London, 1896. pp. xx — 515. 8vo.
Professor Comey is to be complimented on the completion of the first
part of his extensive undertaking, and chemists are to be congratulated
on the publication in such good form of so important an aid to research.
It is to be hoped tliat this volume will be so well received as to encourage
the author to follow promptly with the organic section.
Index to the Literature of the Detection and Estimation of Fusel Oil in
Spirits, by W. D. Bigelow. J. Amer. Chem. Soc, Vol. xviii, No. 4,
p. 397.
This was announced in our report for 1895.
Bibliography of Embalming, In a Thesis entitled : " Embalming and Em-
balming Fluids," by Charles W. McCurdy (of the University of
Idaho). Post-Graduate and Wooster Quarterly, April, 1896.
A very full bibliography of this unique subject, which has its chemical
aspects as well as its grave ones. It comprises about 500 entries, in
several modern languages, arranged alphabetically by authors.
Beferences to Capillarity, by John Uri Lloyd. In his "Study in Phar-
macy." Privately printed. Chicago, 1895-96. 8vo.
Atomic Weights form the subject of a brief bibliography (24 titles)
accompanying an article on the same topic by Alexander Scott.
Science Progress, Vol. i, p. 542 (Aug., 1894).
The Composition of Water, a short bibliography, by T. C. "Wari'ington.
Chem. Neios, Vol. 73, p. 137 etseq. (March, 1896).
(77)
78 SECTION C.
A Short List of Books on Chemistry. Selected and annotated by H. Car-
rington Bolton. Scientific American Supplement, Oct. 19, 1895.
Bibliography as a Feature of the Chemical Curriculum. By H. Carrington
Bolton. Science, Oct. 4, 1895.
Beview of American Chemical Besearch, edited by Arthur A. Noyes. In
the Technology Quarterly, issued by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston, Mass.
The first paper appeared in the number for April, 1895 (Vol. viii, p. 90) ;
the reviews consist of abstracts of papers in periodicals, grouped under
the following heads : General and Physical Chemistry, Inorganic,
Organic, Technical, Sanitary, Agricultural, Vegetable, Metallurgical,
Assaying, Geological, Mineralogical, Apparatus. Each abstract is signed
by the abstractor.
This Review promises to be an important contribution to contemporary
chemical science of America, and deserves to be well supported.
Enumeration of Titles of Chemical Papers. This bibliography has been
published monthly since May, 189+, in Science Progress, Loudon. It
embraces titles (without comments) in several European languages.
Bibliography of Agricultural Chemistry (American).
The several publications of the scientific bureaus of the United States
Government contain many valuable contributions to chemistry in its
applications to agriculture and the arts, widely scattered in their pages,
and it has been diflicult to Iveep informed with, reference to them.
Thanks, however, to the excellent bibliographical work of the Office of
Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C, the chemical treatises published in the Bulletins of the State Insti-
tutions are made accessible ; this is accomplished in the three publications
here named :
Experiment Station Becord, Vol. iii, No. 12 (July, 1892). Bulletin No.
9 (1894), and Bulletin No. 23 (1895). Organization-Lists of the
Agricultural Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Oflice of Experiment Stations.
These contain : " Lists of Station Publications," giving dates, bulletin-
numbers, and titles of each bulletin, under each State, alphabetically
arranged. For the agricultural chemist these bibliographical helps are
too important to be overlooked.
The Committee also chronicles the publication of the following valuable
aids to chemical research :
Synopsis of Current Electrical Literature during ISOo.Bj Max Osterberg.
New York (D. van Nostrand Co.), 1896. pp. xiii-143. 8vo.
CHEMISTRY. 79
This is a classified index, with an index to authors, compiled from
fiitj'-uiue foreign and American periodicals ; it is intended to be published
annually.
General-Eegister zn Ladenburg's HandicOrterbuch der Chemie. Breslau,
1895. pp. IfiO. 8vo.
Bibliographie des travaux scientifiques . . . publics par les societ^s
savantes de la France, dressee sous les auspices du miuistere de I'in-
struction publique ; par J. Deniker. Paris, 1895. 4to.
Reports of Progress.
The Index to the Mineral Waters of the World, by Dr. Alfred Tucker-
man, noticed in previous reports, has been completed and accepted for
publication by the Smithsonian Institution.
The manuscript of a new edition of the "Catalogue of Scientific and
Technical Periodicals, 1665-1882," by Dr. H. Carrington Bolton, has been
completed and is now going through the press. The new edition will
be issued by the Smithsonian Institution as a volume of the Miscellaneous
Collections. The bibliography includes chemical journals, and is brought
down to the year 1895.
Dr. Bolton reports progress on a Supplement to his " Select Bibliogra-
phy of Chemistry, 1492-1892," the printing of which is however post-
poned.
Professor James Lewis Howe reports the completion of the manu-
script of an Index to the Literature of Platinum and its Compounds;
this will be presented to the Chemical Section at the same session with
this report.
Professor F. P. Venable has completed an Index to the Literature of
the Periodic LaAV. It will accompany his " Development of the Periodic
Law," soon to be published by the Chemical Publisliing Co., Easton, Pa.
Works in Preparation.
Dr. Alexis A. Julien has no less than three bibliographical works well
advanced: (I) A Bibliography of Sand (including chemical analysis,
etc.).
(2) A Bibliography of Pedesis, or the Brownian movement.
(3) A Bibliography of the Condensation of Gases on the surface of
Solids.
Dr. Arthur C. Langmuir is engaged on an Index to the Literature of
Zirconium.
Mr. George Wagner, of the University of Kansas, has undertaken an
Index to the Literature of Oxygen, on a large scale. In this Avork he
will have the counsel of Professor Albert B. Prescott.
Dr. C. H. Joiiet has the manuscript of an Index to the Literature of
Thorium well advanced towards completion.
80 SECTION C.
Professor Kuclolph A. Witthaus has compiled a Bibliography of Foren-
sic Toxicolog}', which will appear in Vol. IV of Witthaus and Becker's
Medical Jiirispiudeiice, New York, 1896.
The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry announces a Col-
lective-Index for the -whole series, 1881-1895. This is to be ready in 1896
and "will form a volume of about 500 pages quarto.
Attention is called to a plan for facilitating bibliographical researches,
adopted by the American Pharmaceutical Association. The Eesearch
Committee of this Association employs a Reference IJeader whose duty it
is to supply original literature to investigators working in the Committee
and with it. A list of the chief serials and a few encyclopedic works is
placed in the hands of those who apply for the services of the Reader.
Transcripts, abstracts and translations are supplied. The service is
chiefly for literature bej'ond the smaller libraries, and is under the direc-
tion of the Chairman of the Committee.
Perhaps a similar scheme might be organized within the American
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Ill conclusion, the Committee on Indexing Chemical Literature desires
to state to those not acquainted with the announcements made in the
preceding annual reports, that it labors to foster individual undertakings
in chemical bibliography, to prevent futile duplication of work, to re-
cord in these reports completed bibliographies and new enterprises, as
well as to chronicle progress in bibliography in lines bordering on chem-
istry. Suggestions as to topics, methods, channels of publication, etc.,
will be cordially furnished by the Committee. Address correspondence
to the Chairman, at Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C.
Committee, -
H. Carrington Bolton, Chairman,
F. W. Clarke,
A. R. Leeds,
A. B. Phescott,
Alfred TucivErman,
H. W. Wiley.
RESOLUTIONS OF THE SECTION,
Professor W. P. Mason moved that a committee of five, witti
advisory power, be appointed b}' the Vice-President to consider
the possibilit}' of combining the meeting of the Section with that
of the American Chemical Society', so that both should come
within the same five or six da3-s.
This was amended by Professor Clarke so that the Vice-
President for the Section should be a member and chairman of
the committee.
The amendment and motion were carried. The Vice-President
appointed the committee as follows : Vice-President W, A. Notes,
Wm. p. Mason, A. B, Prescott, T. H. Norton, Wm. McMurtrie.
A report was made b}^ this committee on August 27, said com-
mittee favoring the assignment of the first two days of the session
of the Section to the Society, with the condition that opportu-
nitj^ be given for the organization of the Section and for the Vice-
President's address.
The report was adopted.
Dr. Hart reported progress in his work upon Glucinum, for
which he has received a grant from the Research Fund of the
Association, Dr, Springer moved a vote of thanks to Dr. Hart
from the Section, and the indorsement of the work. This was
carried.
The nomination b}- the Council of Professor Emeritus Wolcott
GiBBS of Harvard University for Honorarj^ Fellowship in the
Association was approved by the Section.
a. a. a. s. vol. xlv.
(81)
SECTION D.
Mechanical Science and Engineering.
OFFICERS OF SECTION D.
Vice-President and Chairman of the Section.
Fkank O. Marvix, Lawrence, Kan.
Secretary.
John Galbraith, Toronto, Canada.
Councillor.
Thomas Gray, Terra Haute, Ind.
Sectional Committee.
Frank 0. Marvin, Lawrence, Kansas, Vice-President, 1896.
John Galbraith, Toronto, Canada, Secretary, 1896.
William Kent, Passaic, N. J., Vice-President, 1895.
Henry S. Jacobt, Ithaca, N. Y., Secretary, 1895.
H. T. Eddy, Minneapolis, Minn.
D. S. Jacobus, Hoboken, N. J.
O. H. Landreth, Schenectady, N. Y.
Memher of Nominating Committee.
Mansfield Merriman, South Bethlehem, Pa.
Committee to Nominate Officers of the Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary ; and Storm Bull, Madison, Wis. ; W. M.
TowLE, State College, Pa. ; H. S. Jaooby, Ithaca, N. Y.
Press Secretary.
J. Galbraith, Toronto, Canada.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
FRANK O. MARYIN,
CHAIRMAN OF SECTION D.
THE ARTISTIC ELEMENT IN ENGINEERING.
A FRIEND of the writer, a successful business man and much in-
terested in things artistic, when informed of the choice of subject
for this paper, gave expression to a feeling of surprise, doubting if
there was any relation between engineering and aesthetics.
One of tlie leading engineers of America once asked a profes-
sional brother what he did for recreation, and, on being told of a
modest interest in pictures and music, likewise expressed surprise,
saying, " You are the first engineer that I have ever known to be
a musician." There was also an implication, though unintentional,
of a diminished respect, — perhaps on both sides.
These two incidents may be taken to typify in a general way
the attitude that is held by the business world on the one side, and
the engineering fraternity on the other, toward the relationship
which it is here proposed to discuss.
That the artistic element is not recognized as it might or ought
to be in the present American day is natural. The rapid develop-
ment and growth of our land, the intensive study of science and
the concentration of the effort put forth to adapt it to every-day
affairs, have exalted one phase of the economic idea, the quick at-
tainment of profitable results, and clouded the truer, broader mean-
ing that looks toward the best things and the highest life of the
people. Into the midst of this active, restless, business life en-
tered the engineer, doing more and more of its work and becoming
more and more a recognized part of it and an undisputed element
(80)
86 SECTION D.
in its growth. He has acquired the characteristics of the life
about him, — zeal, energy, alertness, readiness in meeting quickly
changing conditions, and absorption in the work in hand. He plans
rapidly, and executes to-day with an eye for to-morrow's profits.
As another has said, " The world measures the efficiency of the
engineer in dollars and cents," just in fact as it measures that of
any other man, and engineers, as other men, largely accept the
standard.
Time was when he was only the tool of some business man who
had mone}'^ to expend in a certain way, and who employed him,
under direction, because of some individual ability. But times
are changing. In place of the isolated worker there is growing up
a profession with professional standards and an espnt de corps,
whose members are to be retained, not hired. Cultured, and with
the openness and clearness of mind that only come from deep
study, broad training, and large experience, these are to be people
of influence whose advice and services are sought, leaders whose
judgments are respected, and men who can mingle with the best
anywhere on a common ground of attainment and character.
They are to be intrusted with the expenditure of public funds in
increasing extent, and with an augmenting confidence. The very
nature of an engineer's qualifications, his technical knowledge, the
cultivation of his judicial and critical facult}^, his training in fidelity
to the trusts reposed in him by private clients, — all these fit him
for places of large responsibility concerned with public works, and
the people, tired of political management, are beginning to find
this out.
These are no new thoughts, though none the less true, for others
have recently written in confident strain of the coming engineer of
the twentieth century. Yet it should be emphasized that the
desired change is not after all so far ahead of us. To some ex-
tent at least the coming engineer has already arrived and is mak-
ing himself felt. The leaven is at work.
With an engineering practice based solely on immediate results
by way of expected profits in dollars and cents the aesthetic ele-
ment has little to do, though even here its absence may mean
financial loss. But from the standpoint of this paper, engineering
is to be considered in the broader light of Tregold's well known
definition, " The art of directing the great sources of power in
nature for the use and convenience of man," while the engineer is
ADDRESS BY FRANK O. MARVIN. 87
he who designs and executes engineering works. It is not neces-
sary here to dwell upon the breadth and comprehensiveness of
these simple fundamental statements, but let us not forget that
they are broad and comprehensive. With an engineering practice
based on a generous interpretation of the above, the artistic has
much to do.
The engineer is primarily a designer. He works with the mate-
rials of Nature as his medium and her powers as his tools where-
with to express his thought and his purpose to serve and benefit
man. Just as in the making of a picture the brushes, paint, and
canvas are not the chief things, so here it is not the wood, steel,
and brass, or the powers of gravit}^, steam, air, and electricity, that
are most important, but rather the character and quality of the
design and the degree of realization in its execution. The design
may be bad or good, according as it ignores or harmonizes with
principles underlying all such acts of creation. The result may be
a happy one only when the means employed are rightly chosen
and properly adapted to the end sought. In this process of cre-
ating something of value, something that helps man to a fuller,
richer, and better life, the artistic cannot be left out. In its ab-
sence the design falls far short of its possible perfection, and man
is deprived of what is due him, though not perhaps distinctly con-
scious of the loss. In a certain sense, then, every engineer is an
artist, and in some directions at least, as in architecture and other
forms of construction and in the making of public parks, the result
of his cultured brain may attain to the dignity of a work of " fine
art." Perhaps, in its true essence, there may be as much fine art
in the design of a machine to produce bolts as there is in the mak-
ing of a picture for the Salon ; certainly the well planned tool,
with fine proportions and parts perfectly related, is above the poor
canvas.
To every true man there is a joy in creation that is not satisfied
with anything less than the best of which he is capable. As
Emerson has said, " I look on that man as happy, who, when there
is question of success, looks into his work for a reply, not into
the market, not into opinion, not into patronage. . . . What is
vulgar, and the essence of all vulgarity, but the avarice of reward?
'Tis the difference of artisan and artist, of talent and genius,
of sinner and saint." But beyond this, which is the purely per-
sonal side of the matter, lies service, the designing for the use and
88 SECTION D.
convenience of man. From the A'antage ground of his position as
a man of educated intelligence and trained ability, the engineer
owes the world his best effort. It needs and asks for technical
skill and scientific knowledge whereby to-day's work may be done.
But also, without knowing exactly what it wants, it feels the need
of those added qualities it cannot define, and seeks for guidance
and help to something better for to-morrow. In the long run, it
will honor the man that meets the demand, and will measure his
efficienc}' on more grounds than that of dollars and cents.
To the superficial or hasty thinker there may appear a conflict
here between the utilitarian and the artistic, but there can be no
real antagonism. The result of any act of designing is to be
judged as a whole and in the light of all the purposes to be ful-
filled. The phj'sical conditions imposed by the materials used and
the forces of nature emplo^'ed are to be met. These conditions
must be expressed in the design frankly and candidl}', and in such
a way as to indicate clearly its purpose, and to gratify the observer
through its proportions, symmetry, harmony, and decoration. The
end desired must be attained in the most direct and simple way, so
that the expenditure of money may be a minimum. These are the
three elements of design. The scientific, the a?sthetic, and the
financial. A disregard of the requirements of the first may mean
structural or organic weakness on the one hand, or, on the other,
an excess of material that unduly adds to the cost and at the ssime
time may produce heaviness or ugly proportions in the completed
work. Non-compliance with the demands of the second makes
the design fail in fulfilling its complete mission, and this applies
with the same force to those cases where a poorly dii-ected attempt
has been made to be artistic in expression, as to those in which no
attention whatever has been paid to the matter. Artistic treat-
ment often costs money, yet the mere expenditure of cash will not
secure it. On the other hand, the proper display of good taste
may often come without the spending of a dollar more than is
made necessary by the other conditions surrounding the problem.
A wealth of ornamentation may be brazen and vulgar, while
beauty and grace may be found jn the simple lines of a machine
or bridge, or in the curving of the curb by the roadside. The dis-
regard of the financial side may mean either a weak, meagre, and
unsatisfactory result, or an unwise lavishness in expenditure ; in
both cases causing in the long run a loss and waste of money.
ADDRESS BY FRANK O. MARVIN. 89
The current engineering practice gives great attention to the
first and last of these elements, and but little comparatively to the
second. There is no branch of it but would be benefited by add-
ing to scientific and business ability a knowledge of the principles
of artistic design, and an impulse to give expression to it. The
effect on the life of our communities and the nation by such a
change is not easily estimated. The writer does not expect, how-
ever, to see an immediate revolution. This is not a change that
comes naturally in that way, but rather by way of development
and growth, generally slow, although they may at times be accel-
erated. In this development our people as a whole must increase
in artistic sensitiveness. We are not an aesthetic nation, but we
have latent possibilities in that direction ; we are young, confident,
and impressionable, and have the courage to be original in design,
which counts for much. We have evolved the American locomo-
tive, the American truss bridge, the American automatic machine,
the American much debated tall building, and many other things
specially adapted to American needs. We shall grasp the artistic
possibilities of construction quickly when we come to know what
they are, and shall apply them confidently, not always at first with
the most happy results. We shall learn some things from the old
world and shall assimilate much that is good in its practice, but in
the end engineering here will be both artistic and American.
There are evidences here and there that this process of change
is going on. American machine design, when compared with that
of other countries, shows some marked characteristics. A writer
in the Engineering Magazine says of these: "The best ones
are directness of design, by which is meant the shortest cut to
reach a given end, the designer having in mind the thing to be
done quite as much as the machine which is to do it ; lightness
and a close proportioning of parts ; in machine work a near ap-
proximation to pattern ; rapidity of construction and rapidity of
action in the finished machine ; the substitution of special steels
and new alloys, hollow construction, etc., for older materials and
construction, and a generally neat appeai'ance of work, with burrs,
lips, and roughness of casting removed. The American designer
is not an artist, like the Frenchman, but is more attentive to ap-
pearances than the Briton. He is gradually curing himself of the
tendency to tawdry ornament, needless accessories of fancy cast-
ings, stencilled paints, japanning out of place, and bright work for
90 SECTION D.
mere effect." These are good qualities, and in the line of im-
provement. Some recent installations of power plants illustrate a
movement that will have considerable influence on engine design.
In man}' of our larger cities there are engine-rooms fitted up in
elegance, with marble floors and wainscot, decorated walls and
ceilings, brilliantly lighted and with all the appliances of the plant,
engines, dynamos, switchboards, and even the smaller accessories
in keeping with the surroundings. These plants are used as draw-
ing cards or advertisements. There are other plants, not so used,
where there is displaj-ed less elegance, but fully as much artistic
sense in adapting the room and its treatment to its purposes. In
many of these places only the enclosed type of engine can be em-
ploj^ed. In all of them the standard of maintenance must have its
influence on the matter of design, which will in turn react on the
former. An engine might pound itself to death in a dark base-
ment, but would have its slightest vagary looked after in one of
these better planned housings. This result cannot be entirely
accounted for by the larger room, the better light, the rules and
regulations. There is a refining, educating influence in these
artistically planned constructions that makes better men and more
efficient workmen of the attendants. Whatever they may cost,
there is a credit side to the balance sheet.
Our railways are contributing toward this change. They
have found the decoration of passenger trains a profitable thing,
and, so stimulated, have carried it to excess. Handsome ter-
minal stations, adorned in good taste, are supplanting the dingy,
forbidding, and inconvenient places so long in use, while the shed
tj'pe of depot is being crowded out by beautiful, quaint build-
ings, set in the midst of lawns and flower beds. More signifi-
cant still is the tendency to adopt a high standard of maintenance,
under which the roadbed is kept trim and neat, flanked b}' sodded
slopes, and bordered by clean and well kept buildings, and which
also requires the rolling stock, the shops, and the yards to be
maintained in a high state of efficiency. This is not necessarily
in itself artistic, but it furnishes at least a necessary foundation.
That the railway management understands to some degree the
commercial value of the artistic element in its business is further
evidenced by the nature of its advertising, that seizes on any
advantage of scenery or artificial effect that is at hand.
Not much can be said in praise of the artistic qualities of our
ADDRESS BY FRANK O. MARVIN. 91
bridges, for these attributes are conspicuous through their
absence. The American bridge satisfies the conditions of sta-
bility and least cost, but of beauty of line or balanced propor-
tion that makes it fit into and harmonize with the landscape, or
even that makes it considered by itself attractive, it has little.
And this is to be the more regretted, because an intelligent appli-
cation of right principles would improve the effect, without
adding much, if any, to the cost, or making" the structure less safe
and durable. It is true that the truss with parallel chords, espe-
cially of the through type, does not lend itself readily to artistic
treatment, yet even here something can be done. It is not so
much a matter of adding ornament as the proper treatment of the
organic lines, the length of spans, the relation of length of panel
to height of truss, the location of the piers, and the form of their
outlines. Ornamentation is not to be used so much for its own
sake, but rather where it is needed to accentuate these organic
markings. There are some truss bridges of such size that they
give pleasure to the observer through their massiveness, though
lacking in other desirable qualities. The cantilever, like the
Pratt and its relatives, is difficult of treatment, while arch forms,
either braced or of the suspension type, are naturally pleasing
and best adapted for artistic expression. Of these types we have
a few satisfactory examples, like the Eads and the Grand Avenue
Bridges at St. Louis, and the Brooklj-n and Washington Bridges
at New York. In our public parks are to be found many small
bridges of good design, while in our cities there are some cred-
itable ones of larger dimensions. There is some tendency toward
the use of curved chords in bridges designed for urban use, and
a further evidence of interest in the curved line through the
introduction of the Melan arch. In some respects it is unfortu-
nate that the economical element has driven out the stone arch,
which possesses so many of the features of a beautiful structure
for most situations, and it may be that this new form will become
a substitute for the old, with added characteristics of its own.
However much we may admire the inventive genius and mechan-
ical ingenuity of those who have worked out the types of rolling
or lift bridges that cross the Chicago River, the less said about
the beauty of the designs the better. Perhaps the environment
imposes ugliness on the designer. But that problem is hardly
solved yet, and will not be until some man gets hold of it that
92 SECTION D.
combines aesthetic with scientific qualities, and has insight keen
enougli to see the possibilities of the situation and adroitness
enough to manage, not only the physical, but also the human
elements, — a rare combination.
In the entire field of engineering there is no portion of it that
includes a greater variety of intricate and difficult problems for
solution than that connected with municipalities. Here the
engineer has to do with matters touching the home life, the
dwelling, its heating, ventilation, and lighting, its drainage and
water supply, etc. There is the business life that demands
attention for the stores, office blocks, banks and exchanges,
manufactories and shops, warehouses and elevators, with all their
requirements of heating, cooling, lighting, ventilation, drainage,
power, and internal communication through elevators, pneumatic
systems, and alarms. Then there is the larger life of the city as
a whole, that needs public buildings, churches, schools, hospitals,
libraries, museums, hotels, theatres, railway stations, and mar-
kets, each with its own peculiar demands; streets and systems
for rapid transit, both intramural and suburban; the distribu-
tion of water, heat, cold, light, and power; pneumatic systems for
carrying packages ; electrical conduits ; sewerage and garbage
systems, with the plants for their treatment or disposal; wharves
and railway yards; parks, boulevards, playgrounds, and plazas;
and the opening of new territory to accommodate the city's growth.
The engineer here comes in close contact with the people that
daily and hourly use the results of his work. He already influ-
ences their health and bank accounts for the better, gives them
greater ease and convenience at work or pla}^ and saves their
time. This is what is asked of him, and he meets the demand
well. But what an uplift would come to city life, how much
richer it would be, if he could put an artistic quality into his
designing, and the people would learn to appreciate it! It is not
to be infen-ed that there is an entire absence of this, but rather
that artistic effects have been largely confined to individual cases,
and not made manifest in the general life of the city.
For instance, there are numerous examples of suburban
dwellings, beautiful internally and externally, and with har-
monious settings; there are occasional business blocks whose
treatment is satisfactory, but very few public buildings that have
au adequate artistic meaning and are so situated as to express
ADDRESS BY FRANK O. MARVIN. 93
this advantageously if the}^ did possess it. Witliout detracting
in the least from the acknowledged merits of the design of Trinity
Church, Boston, it must be admitted that its roomy location on
one side of an open plaza adds greatly to its effectiveness.
Think of its being placed in the middle of a block on Washington
Street, Or set in the midst of brown stone fronts on Fifth Avenue!
All public buildings need both room and appropriate setting.
They are the larger and more important pictures in the gallery
of city structures; yet under the prevailing system of rectangular
blocks, bounded by long, straight, and narrow streets, the hang-
ing committee has nothing but the walls of corridors on which
to place them. The worst of the matter is that the exhibition is
a permanent one. Along these alleyways must also be hung the
narrow, vertically elongated panels that seem to be so popular
to-day, in favor because they pay. The observer needs a twenty-
story ladder in order to stud}^ their details, or even to know if they
have any, and can find no point from which they may be seen as
entireties. At their sides hang strings of pictures whose hori-
zontal itj' exaggerates their skyward tendency. It is not the
modern tall building in itself that is here objected to, but its
location on sites that will not admit of a display of its best
qualities. "With wide, clear spaces about them and effective
grouping they may be made agreeable, as is illustrated by the
happy combination at the southeast corner of Central Park.
One of the good results of the tall building craze is the bring-
ing closer together of two branches of designers; from the archi-
tect the engineer will learn more of art, and he will teach the
former better construction. While retaining their separate
functions, the collaboration will result in a higher mutual respect
and appreciation, and a better grade of work on the part of
each.
It is undisputed that the rectangular plans of American cities
are neither adapted to meet aesthetic conditions nor the demands
of tratflc. The long streets, without variation in width and
direction, and without the breaks afforded by little parks, are
tiresome to the eye. They are not placed with any regard for the
topography or the natural features of the landscape, or to give
prominence to some important structure, nor do they furnish
direct lines of travel. But the plan is weighted down to the
ground by millions of money. So it is not a question of what it
94 SECTION D.
ought to be, but one of mitigating the present evils and avoiding
any repetition of these in the future.
Radical treatment must be resorted to by -wtiy of diagonal
avenues from congested centres, and the widening out of the
intersections of important streets into parks and plazas. There
must likewise be an heroic struggle with the water fronts and
internal watercourses, places full of picturesque possibilities,
though usually given over to filth and ugliness. These changes
are made imperative not only by aesthetic requirements, but also
by the demands of health and business.
In the planning of additions to large cities, the designer is
hampered b}' the supposed necessity of tying to the older plan,
by the desire of owners and speculators to realize to the largest
extent on the sale of lots, or by his uncertainty as to what the
future growth and character of the population may be. An
examination of the block plan of many of our cities would show
a heterogeneous arrangement of streets, especially in outlying
districts, without regard to mutual relations, matters of grade
and drainage, or artistic position. This irregularity may be
more inconvenient and less pleasing than a right-angled plan.
Our towns and smaller cities reproduce in miniature the condi-
tions of the larger centres. Here again it is a question' of
improvement, instead of original design, onl}^ the problems
involved are not so intricate and their solution not so costly. So
it is hardly possible for a designer to plan an ideal city, or to
have the full swing and liberty of the men who laid out the city
of AVasliington and established its system of grades and drain-
age. But in spite of difficulties there exist some suburban
districts, laid out, built up, and adorned on the principles of
good taste. Thanks to the systems of rapid transit that are
increasing the number of these attractive places!
In the design and maintenance of water supply plants, Ameri-
can practice shows some respect for the artistic element. This
is not confined to any particular system or any part of any
one plant, but is quite general. The engine-houses are not ugly,
and their interiors are often attractive. Gate-houses, aqueducts,
and dams are deeoratively treated, and form pleasing features
in the landscape. The slopes of reservoirs are kept trim, and
the grounds generally turned into lawns with flower beds, and
perhaps a fountain. No doubt the sanitary conditions imposed
ADDRESS BY FRANK O. MARVIN, 95
have had much to do with this, but the result is none the less in
good taste. TVe cannot avoid, howevei*, a stray shot at the ugly
standpipe, with conical cap, sometimes seen in our smaller
towns. This is unnecessary. "When enclosed it has been made
an interesting object, and even the bare pipe can be ornamented
in such a way as to relieve its nakedness.
There is much encouragement in the growing appreciation and
enjoyment of public parks aud boulevards. Cities and towns all
over the laud are tr3'ing to beautify what they already have, and
are adding new territory to their park resources. Admirable
skill has been shown in utilizing the natural features of the local
landscape, the rocks, tree masses, meadows, ravines, ponds, and
streams, the wide expanse of ocean or glimpses of bright water.
The curving roads and paths, with undulating gradients, have a
beauty of their own, and lead one from point to point of the
ever changing scene, and yet bind it all into one harmonious
whole. While the landscape engineer deserves credit, not so
much praise can be given park commissioners for the artificial
adornments which they have added to his work. Notwithstand-
ing the fact that these are sometimes labelled as artistic, they
do not always fit in appropriately.
The writer firmly believes that there is a latent aesthetic quality
in American life that is now struggling to find both means for its
gratification and methods of expression. Before there can be
knowledge of its meaning and power there must be many attempts
and many failures. The whole process is one of education, and
that largely in the school of experience. This applies to the
industrial and constructive arts, as well as to the fine arts. The
engineer will share in the general movement, but this is not
enough. As a designer of so much that the world needs for daily
use, he must do more than keep up, he must keep in advance.
He must not only have a capacity to enjoy, but also the power to
originate and apply. To this end he must give preliminary study
and thought to the principles of aesthetic design, so gaining an
intellectual knowledge of them. American engineering schools
are doing little or nothing to help the young engineer to this.
So far as the writer know^s, there is but one American text-
book. Professor Johnson's book on bridges, that includes any
discussion of the matter. A course of study in engineering
aesthetics near the close of college life would be a great help and
96 SECTION D.
stimulus to a young graduate, at least opening his eyes to the fact
that there was such a thing. After knowledge comes the applica-
tion of principles as tests to an engineer's own work and to that
of other men. And, finally, with theoretical and practical
knowledge well in hand, and a love of what is beautiful, comes
the impulse to work artistically. "With such engineers and an
appreciative clientele American engineering would be artistic.
To this end let us work.
PAPERS READ.
Beginning Tuesday, August 25.
STEAM ENGINEERING.
The most economical points of cut-off for steam. By Prof. Henry
T. Eddy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. (Published in The
Electrical World, Sept. 26, 1896.)
The performance of small steam pumps. By Prof. M. E. Cooley, Uni-
versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
The friction of the water in the pipes of a hot water heating
SYSTESi. By Prof. J. H. Kinealy, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
On a continuous indicator for engine tests. By Prof. Thomas Gray,
Rose Polytechnic Inst., Terre Haute, Ind.
New water prony brake for testing steam turbines without reduc-
tion GEARING. By Prof. J. E. Denton, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J.
(Published in Power.)
Apparatus for tracing a curve representing the force required to
overcome the inertia of the reciprocating parts of a steam
ENGINE. By Prof. D. S. Jacobus, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J.
(Published in Power.)
An APPARATUS FOR ACCURATELY MEASURING PRESSURES OF 2,000 POUNDS
PER SQUARE INCH AND OVER. By Prof. D. S. Jacobus, Stevens Institute,
Hoboken, N. J. (Published in Power.)
Apparatus for exhibiting the distribution of moisture in a steam
MAIN. By Prof. D. S. Jacobus, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J. (Pub-
lished in Power.)
Values of heat of combustion of various gases per cubic foot for
use in calculating the heating power from the analysis of a
GAS. By Prof. D. S. Jacobus, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J. (Pub-
lished in Power.)
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 7 (97)
98 SECTION D.
MECHANICS AND MATERIALS.
On the molecular stability of metals. By Prof. Wm. A. Rogers,
Colby University, Waterville, Me.
A new testing machine for beams and FR.4MED STRUCTURES (CAPACITY
50 TONS). By Prof. Malverd A. Howe, Rose Polytechnic Inst., Terre
Haute, Ind.
On the yield point of steel. By Prof. Thomas Gray, Rose Polytechnic
Inst., Terre Haute, Ind.
On the conversion of an ordinary planer into an apparatus for
precise graduations. By Prof. Wm. A. Rogers, Colby University,
Waterville, Me.
HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING.
The hydrografhic survey. By Prof. F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological
Survey, Washington, D. C.
Some kotes, physical and commercial, upon the delta of the Missis-
sippi RIVER. By Elmer L. Corthell, C. E., New York City.
(This paper was printed for private distribution by the author. Copies can
be had on application to Elmer L. Corthell, C. E., 71 Broadway, New York
City.)
MISCELLANEOUS.
An arrangement using storage batteries for the automatic REGULA-
TION OF ENGINE LOADS IN POWER PLANTS OF VARIABLE OUTPUT. By
Prof. W. S. Franklin, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. (Published in
The Electrical World.)
The cycle of the plunger-jig. By Prof. R. H. Richards, Mass. Inst, of
Technology, Boston. (To be published in Transactions of the American
Inst, of Mining Engineers.)
Soaring flight. By 0. Chanute, Chicago, III.
The Section adjourned Thursday noon, August 27.
SECTION E.
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
OFFICERS OF SECTION E.
Vice-President and Chairman of the Section.
Benjamix K. Emerson, Amherst, Mass.
Secretary.
William North Rice, Middletown, Conn.
CounciUor.
Arthur Hollick, New York, N. Y.
Sectional Committee.
Benjamin K. Emerson, Amherst, Mass., Vice-President, 189G.
William North Rice, Middletown, Conn., Secretary, 1890.
Jed. Hotchkiss, Staunton, Va., Vice-President, 1895.
J. Perrin Smith, Palo Alto, Cal., Secretary, 1895.
Charles H. Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H.
Edw. W. Clatpole, Akron, Ohio.
M. Edward Wadsworth, Houghton, Mich.
Member of Nominating Committee.
H. L. Fairchild, Rochester, N. Y.
Committee to Nominate Officers of the Section.
The Vice-President and Secretar3' ; and John J. Stevenson, New York, N. Y.
Joseph Le Conte, Berkeley, Cal. ; Edward Orton,
Columbus, Ohio.
Press Secretary.
F. B. Taylor, Fort Wayne, Ind.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
B. K. EMERSON,
CHAIRMAN OF SECTION E.
GEOLOGICAL MYTHS.
Maxy 3'ears ago I visited the British flagship "Bellerophon "
in the harbor of Bermuda, and was told that when the ship was
first named the sailors wrestled with the sonorous but unmeaning
name, and quickly transformed it into "Billy-ruffian," and it
became at once intelligible, and belligerent, and satisfying.
There arose, however, a contest in the forecastle as to whether
"Billy-ruffian" or "Bully-ruffian " was the correct thing, — cer-
tain rude fellows of the baser sort wishing to have the word
pugnacious in both its proximal and distal extremities.
This illustrates the principle of attraction in language whereby
words without meaning to the users tend to be modified into forms
which at least appear intelligible.
It is said that when asparagus was introduced into England
the peasants immediately called it "sparrow-grass," and went on
to explain that the reason it was called sparrow-grass was because
the sparrows ate the red berries.
This illustrates the second step of the process. The word is
first attracted into a form which has a meaning, and in its turn
this meaning requires a justification, and this the meaning itself
quickly suggests.
The peasant was not disturbed by, or did not observe, the fact
that the sparrows do not eat the red berries. This would have
been to have risen to the "verification of hypothesis," — an inde-
fensible encroachment on the terrain of the British philosopher.
(101)
102 SECTION E.
I propose to trace the history of several myths which have their
origin in remarkable geological phenomena, for I hardly need to
say that I do not use the word myth in the modern fashion of
newspaper ICuglish, as a false report, a canard, in short, a news-
paper story; but as meaning a history, treasured and hallowed
in the literary and religious archives of an ancient folk, of some
startling or impressive event, that, in the stimulating environ-
ment of poetry and personification, has completed a long evolu-
tion, which disguises entirely its original, —
" Has suffered a sea-change
Into something new and strange,"
so that, in fact, its study is paleontological.
I propose to speak of the Chimaera, or the poetry of petroleum,
of the Niobe, or the tragic side of calcareous tufa, of Lot's wife,
or the indirect effect of cliff erosion, and of Noah's flood, or
the possibilities of the cyclone and the earthquake wave working
in harmony.
THE CHIMERA,
The myth of the Chimsera is told, in its earliest form, in a
quaint old translation of Hesiod, who, according to the Marbles
of Paros, lived about nine centuries before the Christian Era. ,
" From the same parents sprang Chimera dire,
From whose black nostrils issued flames of fire ;
Strong and of size immense ; a monster she
Rapid in flight, astonishing to see ;
A lion's head on her large shoulders grew,
Tlie goats and dragons terrible to view;
A lion she before in mane and throat,
Behind a dragon, in the midst a goat ;
Her Pegasus the swift subdued in flight
Backed by Bellerophon, a gallant knight,
From Orthus and Chimaera, foul embrace.
Is Sphinx derived, a monster to the race."
The same story is told a little later by Horner^ with more
grace of diction.
" And Glaucus in his turn begot
Bellerophon, on whom the gods bestowed
The gifts of beauty and of manly grace.
1 Iliad, VI. 180; Earl Derby's Translation, VI., 184-216.
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMEUSON. 103
But Prcetus sought his death ; and mightier far,
From all the coasts of Argos drove him forth.
To Lycia, guarded by the gods, he went ;
But when he came to Lycia and the stream
Of Xauthus, there with hospitable rites
The king of wide-spread Lycia welcomed him.
Nine days he feasted him, nine oxen slew ;
But with tlie tenth return of rosy morn
He questioned him and for tlie tokens asked
He from his son-in-law, from Proetus bore
The token's fatal import understood,
He bade him first the dread Chimsera slay,
A monster sent from heav'n — not human born.
With head of lion and a serpent's tail,
And body of a goat, and from her mouth
There issued flames of fiercely-burning fire.
Yet her, confiding in the gods, he slew.
Next with the valiant Solymi, he fought
Tlie fiercest fight he ever undertook,
Thirdly the women-warriors he overthrew,
The Amazons."
It will be seen here that Bellerophou, like Hercules or 8t.
George, is a professional wandering slayer of dragons. His
name from ftdXXw, the far-throwing rays of the sun, shows him
to be a type of the wide-spread sun-myth, whose rising rays
strike down the forms of darkness.
But the myth of Chimera is independent of him, and is always
localized ; there is always the tail of a dragon, the body of a
goat, and the head of a lion, or the three heads of lion, goat,
and serpent, and it vomits fire, and ravages in the mountains of
woody Lycia.
The classical prose-writers describe the phenomenon with
curious accuracy. Seneca says : —
" In Lycia regio notissima est.
Ephestion incola; vocant.
Perforatum pluribus locis solum,
Quod sine ullo nascentium damno ignis innoxius circuit.
Laeta itaque regio est et herbida nil flammis adurentibus."
(In Lycia is a remarkable region, which the inhabitants call
Ephestion.^ The ground is perforated in many places; a fire
plays harmlessly without any injury to growing things. It is a-
1 That is, Vulcan.
104 SECTION E.
pleasant region, therefore, and woody, nothing being injured by
the flames.)
Strabo says, simply: "The neighborhood of these mountains
is the scene of the fable of the Chimsera, and at no great distance
is Chimfera, a sort of ravine, which extends upward from the
shore." And Pliny, with his accustomed mingling of truth and
fiction, says: " — et ipsa (Chimrera) saepe flagrautibus jugis "
(and Chimiera itself with its flaming peaks). And again: "Fla-
grat in Phaselide Mons Chimsei-a et quidem immortali diebus ac
noctibus flammA." (Mount Chimsera burns in Phaselis with a cer-
tain immortal flame shining by day and by night.) Also: "In the
same country of Syria the mountains of Hephaestius, when touched
with a flaming torch, burn so violently that even the stones in the
river and the sand burn while actually in the water. This fire
is also increased by rain. If a person make furrows in the
ground with a stick which has been kindled at this fire, it is said
that a stream of flame will follow it."
Servius, the ancient commentator of Virgil, explains the myth
as follows: "The flames issue from the summit of the mountain,
and there are lions in the region under the peak, the middle
parts of the hill abound with goats, and the lower with serpents."
While the modern commentators say: '"The origin of this fire-
breathing monster must be sought probably in the volcano of the
name of Chimaera in Phaselis in Lycia," ^ and' the myth did not
escape the great, but largely wasted, erudition of Knight, who
says: "In the gallery in Florence is a colossal image of the
Phallus, mounted on the back parts of a lion, and hung round
with various animals. By this is represented the co-operation
of the creating and destroying powers, which are both blended
and united in one figure, because both are derived from one cause.
The animals hung round show also that both act to the same
purpose, that of replenishing the earth, and peopling it with
still rising generations of sensitive beings. The Chima^ra of
Homer, of which the commentators have given so many whimsical
interpretations, was a symbol of the same kind, which the poet,
probably having seen in Asia, and not knowing its meaning
(which was only revealed to the initiated), supposed to be a
monster that had once infested the country. He described it as
1 Smith's Diet, of Clas. Antiq., sub Chirasera.
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMKRSON. 105
composed of the forms of the goat, the lion, and the serpent, and
breathing fire from its mouth (Ih VI. 182). These are the
symbols of the creator, the destroyer and the preserver, united,
and animated by the fire, the divine essence of all three.
" On a gem published in the Memoirs of the Academy of Cor-
toua this union of the destroying and preserving attributes is
represented by the united forms of the lion and the serpent crowned
with rays, the emblems of the cause from which both proceed.
This composition forms the Chnoubis of the Egyptians."^
And thus the matter rested until, in the end of the last century,
Admiral Beaufort,- while anchored off Lycia on hydrographic
work, saw each night a strong flame on the peak of a mountain
a few miles back from the coast, and was told by the inhabitants
that it had always burned there.
He visited the place, and found flames of natural gas issuing
from a crevice on a mountain of serpentine and limestone.
In 1842, Spratt and Forbes^ report, as follows, on the localitj^:
Near Ardrachan, not far from the ruins of Olympus, a number of
serpentine hills rise among the limestones, and some of them
bear up masses of that rock. At the junction of one of these
masses of scaglia with the serpentine is the Yanar (or Yanar-
dagh), famous as the Chimaera of the ancients, rediscovered in
modern times by Captain Beaufort. It is nothing more than a
stream of inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen
in several places among the Apennines. The serpentine imme-
diately around the flame is burned and ashy, but this is only for
a foot or two, — the immediate neighborhood of the Yanar pre-
senting the same aspect it wore in the days of Seneca, who writes,
"Lseta itaque regio est et herbida, nil flammis adurentibus."
Such is the Chimaera, "flammisque armata Chimaera," * deprived
of all its terrors. It is still, however, visited as a lion by both
Greeks and Turks, who make use of its classic flames to cook
kabobs for their dinner.
In 1854 it was visited by the Prussian painter. Berg, who has
reproduced the scene in a fine painting now in Berlin.^ The flame
1 Richard Payne Knight. Discourse on the Worship of Priapus, p. 73.
2 Beaufort's Karamania, 35, 52, 85.
3 Travels in Lycia, If. 181, 1817.
4 Virgil, iEneid, VI. 288.
5 Zeitschrift, All. Erdkunde, III. 307.
106 SECTION E.
which, he says, gives the odor of iodine, is three or four feet
high. Several extinct openings were found in a pool of sul-
phurous water.
The Austrian geologist, Tietze,-^ found the flame two feet
across, and a smaller one adjacent. The ruins of an ancient
temple of Vulcan, near by and of a late Byzantine church, show
how strongly it has impressed the inhabitants in all ages."
The natural phenomenon of a spring which is found by historic
documents to have been burning for nearly three thousand years
is sufficiently striking, although the slow escape of such gas from
tertiary limestones is not uncommon. The mention of sul-
phurous waters in the neighborhood may justify us in going back
to the same antiquity and drawing from the remark of Theo-
phrastus (ITept twv XiOmv) on the oxidation of pyrite in contact
with bitumen, an explanation of the constant ignition of the gas.
Theophrastus says: "That, also, which is called Epinus (or
Spelus) is found in mines. This stone cut in pieces and thrown
together in a heap exposed to the sun, burns, and that the
more if it be moistened or sprinkled with water."
We may of course assume the more prosaic spontaneous com-
bustion of the volatile hydrocarbons to explain the constant
rekindling of the sacred fires.
It remains to consider how the myth and its name arose. The
mountain is still called Yanar-dagh, the burning mountain, and
in a learned work on coins of Sicyon, which reproduce the
Chimaera, M. Streber derives the name from the Phoenician
word Chamirah, which means the burning mountain.
But the Greek woi'd ^a/'tatpa nieans a goat, and has almost the
same sound, and we can see clearly how, as the Greek settlements
spread over Lycia, from the north, the meaningless Phoenician
names were retained like the Indian names in America, and how
the story slowly went back to the fatherland — et crescit eundo —
of a strange mountain called Chamira, from which portentous
flames escaped, and then of a monster ChimiTera, of goat-like
form, vomiting flames and ravaging in the mountains of woody
Lycia. And so the story was finally fitted for the manipulation
of the poets, who little thought they were making the stout Bel-
lerophon run a quixotic tilt against a burning gas well.
1 Beitrage zur Geologie Lykien. Jahrbuch d. K. K. Geol. Reichsaiistalt, XXXV.
353.
2 C. Ritter, Erdkunde, Theil 19, 751.
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 107
THE NIOBE.
Like the Chimrera, the Niobe is an episode in Greek Mythol-
ogy, easily separated from the rest without disturbing the Greek
Pantheon. I do not need to describe the great group of the
Niobe, the mother weeping over her children, who fall before the
shafts of Apollo, which adorns the gallery of the Uffizi at
Florence, and forms one of the masterpieces of Greek sculpture,
the glory of Scopas or Praxiteles. I do not need to recall the
story as told by Homer, how Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus,
proud of her twelve children, despised Latona, who had but two ;
how, therefore, Phoebus and Artemis slew all the twelve with their
arrows : —
" They lay unburied on the plain for nine days, when Zeus
changed them to stone, and on the tenth day the heavenly gods
buried them. And now, upon arid Sipylus, upon the rocks of the
desert mountain, where, they say, are the couches of the divine
nymphs, who dance upon the banks of Achelous, Niobe, though
turned to stone, still broods over the sorrow the gods have sent
upon her."
And Ovid says : —
" She weeps still, and borne by the hurricane of a mighty wind,
She is swept to her home, there fastened to the cliff of the mount,
She weeps, and the marble sheds tears yet even now."
As one climbs from the Gulf of Smyrna, between Mount
Tmolus and Sipylus, up the rich valley of the Nif, or Nymphio,
there appears, high up in the vertical wall of limestone, the colos-
sal bust of a woman standing on a high pedestal and in a deep
alcove. It is cut out of the living rock, like the Swiss lion at
Lucerne. ,
A recess twenty-five feet high and sixteen feet wide has been
cut in the rock for the lower part, and a smaller- alcove of much
greater depth surrounds the bust itself. All the face of the rock
around is smoothed, and a broad ledge is cut around the pedestal
to receive the offerings of the ancient Phoenician worshippers of
this almost prehistoric statue of the great Mother Cybele, or of
Meter Sipylene; gods of the Phoenicians.
From the valley below it makes the impression of a full-length
statue with flowing robes, but near at hand the robes are seen to
108 SECTION E.
be the very tears of Niobe, formed where the drip of the waters
from the limestone roof of the alcove has first struck her cheeks,
and running down across her breast has made rippling surfaces
of bluish tufa, which has all the effect of tears.
The statue had been greatly corroded, and the stalagmite tears
had formed already in the daj^s of Pausanias, who says: " When
standing close to it the rocks and precipice do not show to the
beholder the form of a woman, weeping or otherwise, but if yon
stand farther back, you think you see a woman weeping and sad."
And even in the times of Homer the memory of the earlier and
vanished woi'shippers was at best a dim tradition, and the facile
imagination of the Greeks had built up the whole beautiful leg-
end, every element of the surrounding scenery adding its portion
of suggestion, and it is marvellous how all parts of the story still
linger in the valley.
As the grand missionary, artist, and geologist, van Lennep,
from whom I have obtained most of this account,-' who in all his
travels in Asia Minor collected carefully^, and labelled carefully,
and sent valuable material to his Alma Mater, Amherst, was
climbing to the statue, his guide, a cake-seller by the roadside,
said: " There is a tradition that this statue was once a woman,
whose children were killed, and she wept so that God changed
her to stone. They say that her tears make a pond down there,
and still keep it full."
All the people of the region, ignorant and learned, agree in this,
while all travellers have called this the statue of Cybele.
Their name for the valley, Nif, is a corruption of Nymphio, as
Homer saj'S, "the couches of the divine nymphs." Sipylus, the
name of the mountain to this da3\ was also the name of the
oldest son of Niobe.
Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus. Tantalus, from
raXavrei'oj, to balance, is a rock poised in the air, an allusion to
the ledges overhanging the statue, and threatening to fall and
crush it.
That she is the mother of many children may be a reminiscence
from Cybele, the All-mother, and the mention of the couches of
the divine nymphs seems to suggest some ancient nature worship
of the valley. The children slain by the arrows of Pha^bus are
the masses of rock dislodged from the cliffs around her by the
1 Asia jMinor, II. 300. London, John Murray, 1870.
ADDRESS BY B, K. EMERSON. 109
action of sun and rain, and forming the great talus at the foot of
the bluff.
"They lie unburied on the plain," Homer tells us, "till on the
tenth day the heavenly gods bury them," as the fallen rock
quickly disintegrates under the influence of the weather in this
warm climate. The Greek word, Niobe, connects itself with the
pouring of water and the falling of snow (v6^oj, nVroj, andvL^xu), so
a Greek impersonation of the drip from the marble clifl: upon the
ancient rock sculpture might easily have acquired the name
of Niobe, the weeping one.
"It seems, thus," says van Lennep, "that this sculpture was
executed in a very remote antiquity, to represent Cybele, the
mother of the gods, or some form of nature-worship, that the
water drip from the rock above gave it, from the first, the same
striking watermark which it still bears, maintained by the same
cause, and that this appearance suggested to the lively imagina-
tion of the Greek the whole myth of Niobe, — her tears, her
sorrows, her strange transformation, her perpetual weeping; so
this most ancient statue is not an image sculptured to represent
this story of Niobe, but is itself the very original from which the
story sprung." It is thus an impressive testimonial of the
vast importance of the loose bond by which the second molecule
of COj is held combined in calcic bicarbonate.
lot's wife.
Looking down on that most marvellous of all lakes, — the Dead
Sea, the Lacus Asphaltites of the Romans, — the sea of Lot of
the Arabs, still stands the great column of salt into which Lot's
wife was changed.
"She .was changed into a pillar of salt," says Josephus, "for I
have seen it, and it remains to this day."
And Irenseus explains how it came to last so long with all its
members entire, because "when one was dissolved it was renewed
by miracle." It was, in fact, the geological miracle of erosion.
The column looks down from the plain of Sodom, and on the
great southern bay of the sea, ten miles square, and but one
or two feet deep, where sulphur, deposited by many hot springs,
is abundant in the clay, and where bitumen oozes from every
crevice of the rock, and every earthquake dislodges great sheets
110 SECTION E.
of it from the bottom of the lake, where the Arabs still dig pits
for the " stoue of Moses " to gather in, and sell it in Jerusalem,
and where, iu that most ancient fragment of the Pentateuch, four
kings fought against five, and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah
slipped in the slime-pits and fell. One who has read of the
burning of an oil well or oil creek, or in Apscheron will have a
clear idea of the catastrophe which overtook the cities of the plain
where the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone
and fire out of heaven.
Following the latest extremely interesting researches of Blank-
enkoru,^ we may picture the upper cretaceous plateau of Judea, —
an old land, cleft at the end of the Tertiary by many faults, be-
tween which a great block sank to form the bottom of this deep
sea. It curried down in the fossiliferous and gypsum-bearing
beds the source of the bitumen and the sulphur. We may picture
the waters standing much higher than now during the pluvial
period, which matched the northern glacial period, rising nearly
to the level of the Red Sea, but never joining it. In the suc-
ceeding arid interglacial period, the time of the steppe fauna in
Europe, the sea shrank to within a hundred meters of its present
level, and deposited the great bed of rock-salt which underlies the
low plateaus around its southern end. The advent of the second
glacial period was here the advent of a second pluvial period,
which swelled the waters and carried the bitumen-cemented con-
glomerates over the salt-beds to complete the low plateau. After
a second arid period with some lava flows, and a third pluvial
period with the formation of a lower and broader terrace, the
waters shrank to the present saturated bitterns in the present
arid period. In the earlier portion of this last or post-glacial
stadium, a final sinking of a fraction of the bottom of the trough,
near the south end of the lake, dissected the low salt plateau,
sinking its central parts beneath the salt waters, while fragments
remain buttressed against the great walls of the trench forming
the plains of Djebel Usdum and the peninsula El Lisan, with the
swampy Sebcha between. Imagine a central portion of one of
the low plains which extend south from the " Finger Lakes " to
sink, submerging Ithaca or Havana in a shallow extension of
the lake waters. It exposed the wonderful eastern wall of
1 Dr. Max Blankenkorn, Entstehung und Geschichte des Todten Meers. Zeit.
Deutsch. Palestina-Vereins, vol. xix. p. 1, 1896.
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. Ill
Djebel Usdum: seven miles long, with 30 — 45 m. of clear blue
salt at the base, capped by 125 — 140 m. of gypsum-bearing marls
impregnated with sulphur, and conglomerates at times cemented
by bitumen. It was this or some similar and later sinking of
the ground, at the time when geology and history join, which,
with its earthquakes, overthrew the cities of the plain and caused
the outpour of petroleum from the many fault fissures and the
escape of great volumes of sulphurous and gaseous emanations,
which, ignited either spontaneously, by lightning, or by chance,
furnished the brimstone and fire from heaven, and the smoke of
the land going up as the smoke of a furnace which Abraham saw
from the plains of Judea.
But with Lot's wife the case is different. The bed of salt out
of which she was carved, and has been many times carved, was
exposed by the very catastrophe which destroyed the cities ; and
Lot fled to Zoar in a direction opposite to that in which the salt
bed lies. As Oscar Fraas found his Arabs calling the salt pyra-
mid "Lot's column," so, in early times, when the tradition of the
burning cities was gradually growing into the myth of Sodom,
and of Lot, some old name of the salt column, grown meaning-
less, ma}' have had such sound as to suggest the term, "Lot's
wife," — Bint Sheck Lut, or the woman's own name in the current
language, as Chamirah, the burning mountain, suggested Chimaera,
the goat, and the answer to the question why was the salt column
called Lot's wife was quickly given and woven into the legend.
In that dry climate successive erosions have reproduced it along
the seven-mile ridge of salt, still called Kashum Usdum or
Sodom.
THE FLOOD.
Only through an exegesis of the German words Alluvium and
Diluvium would the young geologist be reminded of the time
when the Flood was a burning question in geology, an igneo-
aqueous question, so to speak, — when commentaries explained the
fossil shells in the Appenines as due to Noah's Flood, and Vol-
taire tried to break the force of this important proof of the truth
of the Bible by declaring these shells to be the scallop-shells
thrown away by expiring pilgrims of the Crusades; — when An-
dreas Scheuzer apostrophized his fossil salamander ("Homo
diluvii testis et theoscopos " ) : —
112 SECTION E.
" Betriibtes Beingeriist von einera alten Sunder
Erweiche Stein und Herz der neuen Biisheitskinder."
This ancient sinner's scattered and dislionored bones
Sliould toucli tiie stony liearts of modern wicked ones.
It was thus a great surprise when oue of the most powerful and
philosophical works of the century on Geology, "Das Antlitz
der Erde " of Suess, had as its opening chapter an explanation of
the Flood as due to a coincidence of a cyclone and an earthquake
at the mouth of the Euphrates. The Biblical account is plainly
exotic, told by a people ignorant of sea-faring, — a fresh- water
account of a salt-water episode. The description of the vessel as
a box or ark, the going in and shutting the doors, and the open-
ing of the windows remind one of a house-boat, and indicate the
adaptation of the story to the comprehension of an inland people.
Its minor discrepancies and blending of the Jahvistie and Eloh-
istic elements show the story has come by devious courses from
a distant source.
The account of the Chaldean priest, Berosus, 250 b. c, located
the occurrence at the mouth of the Euphrates, where the native
boatman still pitches his boat within and without with pitch, as
the ark was pitched.
Berosus, priest of Bel, quoted by Alexander Polyhistor, says
that the Flood occurred under the reign of Xisuthros, son of
Otiartes. Kronos announces to Xisuthros, in n dream, that on
the fifteenth of the mouth Daisios all mankind shall be destroyed
by a flood. He commands him to bury the writings containing
the records of the history of his country at Sippara, city of the
dead, then to build a vessel, to stock it with provisions, then
to embark with his family and his friends, also to take quadru-
peds and birds with him.
Xisuthros obeys the command. The Flood occurs, and covers
the land, it decreases, he lets out birds to gain knowledge of the
state of things, and finally leaves the ship, and prepares, with his
family, an offering to the gods. Xisuthros is then, for his piety,
translated to live among the gods, with his wife, his daughter, and
the steersman. Of the ship of Xisuthros, which finally stranded
in Armenia, there still remains a portion in the Cordyaian Moun-
tains in Armenia, and the people scrape off the bitumen with
which it is covered, and use it as an amulet against sickness.
And as the others had returned to Babylon and had found the
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON, 113
writings at Sippara, they built towns and erected temples, and so
Bab3ion was again peopled.
Twentj^ 3'ears ago George Smith excavated and translated the
inscribed tiles of the library of Asurbauipal, King of Assyria,
670 B. c, who, at the time of the founding of Greece, was gath-
ering copies of the sacred writings of the ancient cities of Asia.
The historical books of this library carry the annals of the
Babylonians back 3800 b. c, but contain no certain account of
an}' flood. How remote mnst then have been the great catastrophe
which had filtered down in tradition and become embalmed in
sacred myth and stately poem before the dawn of history ! I pre-
sent here, after the latest translations of Haupt and Jensen,^ the
last but one of the cantos of the Gilgamos Epic, corresponding to
the eleventh sign of the zodiac, Aquarius (or month of the curse
of rain), containing the story of the Flood.
Gilgamos ( = Nimrod), the hero of Urruh, leaves his native
town sick and troubled by the death of his friend Eabani, and
visits his ancestor Samasnapisthim ( = Xisuthros) called Hasis-
adra ( = the devout wise man). Hasisadra spoke to him, to Gil-
gamos, "I will make known unto thee, O Gilgamos, the hidden
story, and the oracle of the gods I will reveal to thee. The city of
Shuripak, — the city which, as thou knowest, lies on the bank of
the river Euphrates, — this city was already of high antiquity
when the gods within set their hearts to bring on a flood storm (or
deluge). Even the great gods who were there, — their Father
Anu, their councillor, the warlike Bel, their throne-bearer, Adar,
their prince, Ennugi. But the Lord of unfathomable wisdom,
ihe god Ea (the god of the sea), sat alone with them in council,
and announced their intention unto the field, saying. Field ! Field !
town! town! field! hear! town; give attention, O man of
Shurippak, son of Ubara-Tutu (The splendor of the Sunset,
Lenarmont, Sayce). Destroy thy house, build a ship, save all
living beings which thou canst find. Withdraw from what is
doomed to destruction. Save thy life, and bid the seed of life of
every kind mount into the ship.
"The vessel which thou shalt build, 600 half cubits in length,
shall be her shape, and 120 half cubits the dimensions for both
1 Haupt : in Das Ansichtder Erde. The first part from a later translation; Johns
Hopkins Circulars (VIH. No. 69, p. 17), P. Jensen in Dr. Carl Schmidt, Das Natur-
ereignis der Siindflut.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 8
114 SECTION E.
her width aucl depth. Into the sea launch her. "When I under-
stood this, I spake unto the god Ea, — My lord, thy command
which thou hast thus commanded, I will regard it. I will perform
it, but what shall I answer the city, the people, the elders? (The
young men and the elders would ridicule me.)
"The god Ea opened his mouth and spake unto me, his ser-
vant: ' And thou shalt thus say unto them, "I know the god Bel
(the god of Shuripak) is hostile to me, so I cannot remain in (the
city) ; on Bel's ground I will not rest my head. I will sail into
the deep sea; with the god Ea my lord I will dwell." But upon
you there will pour down a mass of water. Men, fowl, and beast
will perish, the flsh only will escape. . . . And when the sun will
bring on the appointed time Kukki will say, "In the evening the
heavens will pour down upon you destruction."
" ' Then, however, close not thy door until the time comes that
I send thee tidings. Then enter through the door of the ship,
and bring into its interior thy food, thy wealth, thy family, thy
slaves, thy maidservants and thy kindred. The cattle of the
field, the wild beast of the plains . . . will I send you, that
thy gates may preserve them all.'
" Hasisadra opened his mouth and spake. He said to Ea his
lord: 'No one has ever built a ship in this wise on the land.
However, I will see to it, and build the ship upon the land, as
thou hast commanded.' (The description of the building of the
vessel very partial.) I built the ship in six stories. I saw the
fissures, and added that which was lacking. Three sars of bitu-
men I poured upon the outside, three sars of bitumen I poured
upon the inside. (Thirteen lines of description illegible.) The
vessel was finished. All that I had I bi'ought together, all that
I had in silver I brought together. All that I had of gold I
brought together. All that I had in living seed I brought
together. And I brought all this up into the ship, all my man-
servants and my maidservants, the cattle of the field, the wild
beast of the plain, and all my kindred, I bade embark.
"As now the sun had brought on the appointed time, a voice
spake: ' In the evening the heavens will rain destruction. Enter
into the interior of the ship and shut the door. The appointed
time is come.' The voice said, ' In the evening the heavens will
rain destruction.' With dread I looked forward to the going
down of the sun. On the day appointed for embarking I feared
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 115
(greatly). Yet I entered into the interior of the ship and shut to
ni}' door behind me to close the ship. To Buzurbil, the steers-
man, I gave over the great structure with its load. Then arose
JMuseri-ina-namari from the foundations of the heavens, — a
black cloud, in whose middle Ramman (the weather-god) let his
thunder roar, while Neba and Sarru rush at each other in
warfare.
'• The Throne-bearers stalk over mountain and land,
The mighty god of pestilence let loose the whirlwinds (?)
Adar lets the canals overflow unceasingl}'.
The Anunnaki raise their torches,
The}' make the earth glow with their radiant gleams.
Ramraan's inundating wave rises up to heaven,
All hght sinks in darkness.
In a da}- they lay waste the earth like a plague, the winds raging
blow.
Mountain high they bring the waters to fight against mankind.
The brother sees the brother no more,
Men care no more for one another.
In heaven the gods fear the deluge and seek refuge.
They mount up to the heavens of the god Ann.
Like a dog in its lair the gods crouch at the windows of heaven.
Istar (the mother of mankind) cries like a woman in childbirth,
The sweet-voiced queen of the gods cries with loud voice :
* The dwelling place of mankind is reduced to slime.
That has come which I announced before the gods as an ap-
proaching evil.
I have announced the evil before the gods, —
The war of destruction against my children have I announced.
That which I brought fortli, where is it. It fills the sea like fish-
spawn.'
Then the Gods wept with her over the doings of the Anunnaki.
They pressed their lips together."
" Six days and six nights the wind and the deluge and the storm
prevailed. At the opening of the seventh day, however, the storm
lessened, the hurricane, which had waged a warfare like a mighty
army, was appeased, and storm and deluge ceased. I sailed the
sea mourning that the dwelling-places of mankind were changed
to slime. Like logs the bodies floated around. I had opened a
116 SECTION E.
Window, and as the light of day fell upon my face I shuddered
and sat down weeping. My tears flowed over my face. Wher-
ever I looked was a fearful sea. In all directions there was no
land. Helpless the ship drifted into the region of Nizir. There
a mountain in the land of Nizir held the ship stranded, and did
not allow it to advance farther toward the heights. On the first
and second day the mountain of Nizir held the ship. Also on
the third and the fourth day the mountain of Nizir held the ship.
Even so on the fifth and the sixth day the mountain of Nizir
held the ship. At the approach of the seventh day I loosened a
dove and caused it to go forth. The dove went, it turned, and it
found not a place where to rest, and it returned. I loosened and
I caused to go forth a swallow. It went, it turned, and it found
not a place where to rest, and it returned. I loosened and I
caused to go forth a raven. The raven flew off, and as it saw
that the water had fallen it turned back. It waded in the
water, but it returned not.
"Then I caused all to go forth to the four winds, and made a
sacrifice. I erected an altar on the peak of the mountain. I dis-
posed of the measured vases, seven by seven ; beneath them I
spread seeds, — cedar and juniper. The gods smelled the odor.
The gods smelled the good odor. The gods gathered like flies
above the master of tlie sacrifice. From afar then the goddess
Istar at her approach raised the great bows that Anu has made
as their glory. She said, ' By the ornaments of my neck never
will I forget. These days will I remember and never will I
forget them forever. May the gods come to my altar. Bel shall
never come to my altar because he has not controlled himself, and
because he made the deluge, and my people he has given over to
destruction.'
"Bel also, at his approach, saw the vessel from afar. Bel
stood still; he was full of anger against the gods and the godlike
ones.
"What soul has then escaped?
" Never shall man survive the destruction.
" Adar opened his mouth and he spake. He said to the warrior
Bel : —
" ' Who, also, if it be not Ea, can have planned this? And Ea
knew and has informed him.' Ea opened his mouth and spake.
He said to the warrior Bel : ' Thou herald of the gods, warrior,
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 117
why hast thou not controlled thyself; why hast thou made the
deluge? Visit upon the sinner his sin, upon the blasphemer his
blasphemy. Be persuaded not to destroy him. Be merciful that
he be not destroyed. Instead that thou shouldst make a deluge,
let the lions come, and let them cut off men. Instead that thou
shouldst make a deluge, let the hyenas come, and let them devour
men. Instead that thou shouldst make a deluge, let the famine
come and destroy the land. Instead that thou shouldst make the
deluge, let the god of pestilence come and destroy the laud. I
have not disclosed the decision of the great gods. Ilasisadra
has interpreted a dream, and has understood the decision of the
gods. ' Then Bel came to a better mind. He mounted to the in-
terior of the vessel, he took my hand and made me to rise ; my-
self made he to rise. He made my wife to stand up, and put
her hand in mine ; he turned around to us and blessed us.
" ' Hitherto Hasisadra was mortal, and behold, now, Hasisadra
and his wife are lifted up to the gods. He shall dwell far away
at the mouths of the rivers.'
" They took me, and in a secluded place at the mouths of the
rivers they made me abide."
Surippak, the home of the wise man, on the banks of the
Euphrates, of high antiquity before the deluge, is the same as
Sippara, where Xisuthros ( = Hasisadra), according to Berosus,
buried the holy writings before the flood. Its rains have been
found in the Hill of Abu-Habba, about half-way between Babylon
(now Hilleh) aud Bagdad.^
It was " at the mouths of the rivers ; " that is, in time of the
poem the Euphrates aud the Tigris emptied separately into the
Persian Gulf. Now the Schat el Arab, formed by the union of the
two streams, empties into the gulf, perhaps 400 kilometers below
the site of the ancient city, across a delta so low and flat that the
tide runs up 300 kilometers, and at Old Nineveh the elevation is
only 300 m. Delitseh- has collected the evidence that the two
streams once flowed separately into the gulf. Pliny says that
almost nowhere does the formation of land by a stream advance
so rapidly as here. He mentions a town, Alexandria-Antiochia,
which, in the third century b. c. was about 1600 m. from the sea,
1 Carl Schmidt, loc. cit., p. 20.
2 Wo lag das Paradies ?
118 SECTION E.
and had its own harbor, and 300 years later was 33 km. inland.
Other historical documents make it probable that the streams were
separate 150 years b. c. Rawlinson says the delta advanced 3 '2
km. in 60 years. All the attendant circumstances accord with
this location of the story. Here, among a maritime people, as
connoisseurs, they ridicule the building of a ship on the land.
Ea is the goddess of the sea. And it is marvellous that this
trait of the original is presei'ved in the Koran, where the story is
told at length. " And he made the ark, and as often as the elders
of his people came by him they ridiculed him, and he said, ' If
you rail at us, be sure that we shall also rail at you as you rail
atus."'i
From the time of Moses and the tower of Babel, pitch or bitu-
men had been much used in the Euphrates valle}", where the terti-
ary marls produced it abundantl3^ In Genesis xi. 3, it says
of the tower of Babel, "slime had they for mortar," and a
primitive folk still pitches its boats inside and out on the waters
of the Euphrates.
Thus the starting-point of the ark is well ascertained, and its
landing-place can also be quite clearly located. It was in the
land of Nizir, says the record. The Mesopotamian lowland is a
narrow, northward extension of the Persian Gulf between the
Arabian plateau on the west, and the Zagros Mountains, the
scarp of the Persian highlands, on the east. An inscription of
Asurnacir-pal, from the same library^, reads: " Left Kalzu (by
Arbela), and entered the region of the town of Babite, and ap-
proached the land Nizir." This is the account of a military expe-
dition, and it followed up the great war road, by which, 500 years
later, Darius Codomanus fled from the armies of Alexander. The
region of Nizir was east of the Tigris, at the foot of the Zagros
chain, 300 feet above the sea, and the craft of Hasisadra must
have been swept 160 miles northeast, and stranded in the foothills
on the valley border.
Early accounts placed this landing on Mount Judi, in southern
Armenia, where a temple in its honor was built in 776 a. d.
Berosus places it in the Cordj^aian Mountains of Armenia,
Genesis in Mt. Ararat (Araxes). It is remarkable how the tradi-
tion had clung to this grand volcano. The people still tell of the
wood and pitch being carried from the ark as amulets, and dare
1 Koran, XI. 40, 41.
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 119
not attempt to asceud the sacred mountain, and disbelieve the
accounts of those few foreigners who have reached the summit.
Indeed, a Constantinople newspaper account of a scientific com-
mission sent out b}' the Turkish government in 1887, to study
the avalanches in the mountain, tells of the finding of the ark,
encased in the ice of a glacier on the mountain.
We may contrast the Chaldaean and Biblical accounts in several
matters. The sending out of the birds and the bow in the
heavens join with many other points to prove the identity of the
stories.
In many ways the Biblical account is modified to suit the com-
prehension of au inland folk. While the Gilgamos epic describes
a violent hurricane and inundation, which expended its force in
six days, the Biblical account describes a long-continued rain
of forty days, or, in the Elohistic document, of one hundred and
fifty days. "And the waters were dried up from off the earth,
and the face of the ground was dry." In the epic the forests were
destroyed, and the face of the earth reduced to slime.
Waters rising from great rains would have swept the ship
down the valley, while the epic makes it go from the gulf north-
east to the region of Nizir. And, indeed, what seems the better
translation of the Noachian account agrees with this. Gen. vi.
17, " I do bring a flood of waters" is better translated "I do
bring a flood from the sea," and Gen. vii. 6, "Noah was six
hundred years old as the flood of waters" (or better, "from the
sea") "arose." ^ As Amos says, writing "two years after the
earthquake,"^ "Seek him that maketh the day dark with night,
that calleth forth waters of the sea, and poureth them out upon
t heface of the earth. ^
We may now try to strip the account of its abundant personifi-
cation, and see how far it is susceptible of a possible or probable
translation into scientific language.
There are, first, the warnings. Hasisatra, the wise man, and,
we ma}' assume, wise in the ways of the sea, stands on the shore of
the ancient harbor-town, Surippak, and receives the warnings of
Ea, goddess of the sea. These were the unusual swellings of
the sea from small premonitory earthquake shocks beneath the
waters. There is next added a voice, or noise, — a more unusual
1 J. D. Michaelis (Bunseu) ; majim = water, mijam = from the sea.
2 Amos, i. 1. 8 Amos, v. 8.
120 SECTION E.
warning, — not personified. This may have been the rumbling
which may precede any severe earthquake. It is a region where
earthquakes are antecedently probable. From the circle of fire
that surrounds the Pacific, a zone of seismic activity connects
the East and West Indies by way of the Mediterranean, and
passes this region. The volcanic area of northern Mesopotamia
and Syria is in seismic activity much of the time. Many towns
have been several times destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of
people have been killed. And the recently-sunken areas of
" Lemuria " to the south indicate a region of profound faulting
apt for the production of earthquakes.
In the ^gean, the sinking of the great land blocks, by whi(!h
the sea was formed, is so recent that it is embalmed in the Greek
m3'thology, — Poseidon, god of the sea, ever warring victorious
against the gods of the land. And, though rarely noted on the
lower Euphrates, earthquakes and seaquakes, as the Germans
say, are not rare across the northern parts of the Indian Ocean,
the wise man accepts this warning of impending danger, and
builds a great craft for the safety of his home, and with the
increase of the threatenings embarks his family, regardless of
the ridicule of the townsfolk.
" Then arose from the foundations of the heavens a black
cloud, in whose middle Ram man (the god of storms) lets his
thunders roar, while Neba and Sarru rush at each other in battle.
The throne-bearers stalk over mountain and plain." These
latter are the great slow-moving sand columns (whirlwinds) which
pi'ecede and hang on the borders of the coming storm. They
still occur around Bagdad, change day into night, and extend
over the whole valley of the Euphrates. "The mighty god of
pestilence lets loose his hurricanes." So far it is tlie description
of the oncoming of a mighty storm. Then follow elements
which may be interpreted as earthquake phenomena. The Biblical
account says the foundations of the great deep were broken up,
and at the end they were stopped. This may be explained as
the uprush of the ground waters, so marked at Charleston and
New Madrid, on the Indus plain, at Lake Baikal, where a lake
ten by fifteen miles was formed, and in the delta of the river
Selenga, when the fastenings of the wells were blown into the
air like the corks of bottles. " The Annuniki raise their torches,
they make the laud glow with their radiant gleams." The
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 121
Aiinuniki are the gods of the underground, the gnomes or
kobolds of German saga, and their raising their torches is the
inflaming of the natural gases so common in these bituminous
tertiary beds, in the fissures opened by the earthquake, — a fre-
quent occurrence also in similar regions on the Caspian.
In the earlier translation by Haupt, the suggestions of earth-
quake intervention were even more striking than in the later
translations. " Adar lets the canals overflow unceasingly. The
Annuniki bring floods from the depths. They make the earth
tremble by their might." Although hurricane inundations have
overwhelmed great areas of land, the earthquake wave is in many
ways a mere probable agency here for the production of a flood,
exceptional as this must have been to have impressed itself so
deeply on this ancient folk. We recall the Lisbon earthquake
wave; how the United States warship Monougahela was car-
ried ashore in 1863, at Santa Cruz, and landed on the tops of the
houses; or how the great seismic wave of 1868 carried the
Wateree in the harbor of Arica, Peru, seven or eight miles
inland, landing her in a tropical forest, where she ended her days
as an hotel, while her consort, the Fredonia, rolled over and
over, and sank with all on board ; or the last terrible earthquake
waves in Japan and China.
The account then advances strongly to its climax and catas-
trophe. " Ramman's flood-wave mounts up to heaven." All light
sinks in darkness. Terror overcomes gods and men. "Like dogs
in their lair the gods crouch at the windows of heaven." This is
the description of the incoming of the great cyclonic waves, per-
haps reinforced by earthquake waves, for when the seismic tension
has just come to equal the resistance, the great additional strain
caused b}' the relief of pressure of the low barometer of the cyclone
has not -infrequentl}- set loose the impending earthquake. Of 64
hurricanes in the Antilles 7 were accompanied by earthquakes. In
the Bay of Bengal, the c3'clones average one a 3'ear and destroj' a
million people in a centurj' ; and once at Calcutta, in 17.37, when the
waters rose 40 feet, 14 ships were carried over the trees and
300,000 people were killed ; and on the Kistna in 1800 the c.yclone
and the earthquake occurred together. Indeed, several of these
C3'clones have been traced across into the Persian Gulf, and one in
1769 was accompanied by an earthquake on the lower Euphrates —
the very site of the ancient myth. On the broad plains of the Punjaub
122 SECTION E.
are man}' indications of similar inundations. I travelled, said Ibn
Batuta (1333), through Sind to the town Sahari, on the coast of
the Indian Sea, where the Indus joins it. A few miles from here
are the ruins of another town, in which stones in the form of men
and animals in almost innumerable amount occur. The people
were so sinful that God changed them to stone and their animals
and their grain. It is interesting to observe the different effect these
disturbing events have upon people of different grades of culture.
The Negritos of the Andaman Islands have a demon of the land
who causes the earthquakes, a demon of the sea who causes the
floods.
The King of Dahorae}' in 1862 had received the missionaries in
the land. The spirit of his fathers shakes the earth because old
observances were not followed. The King executes three captive
chiefs as an envoy to inform his fathers that the ancient rites
shall be re-established.
After the great earthquake of Kioto and Osaka in Japan, in
1596, the warrior Hidiyoshi goes to the temple of Daibutzu (the
Buddha), where the enormous bronze statue had been overthrown,
and upbraids the fallen idol, and shoots it with arrows.
In 62 A. D. Oppolonius of Tyana, at Phaestus, in Crete, was
preaching to a company of worshippers of the local deity, when
an earthquake arose. " Peace," he said, " the sea has brought
forth a new land." An island was found between Thera and
Crete, — Sautorin, beloved of all geologists in modern times.
The crowd loses all judgment in wonder and admiration.
A true flood panic occurred in the time of Charlemagne. Stoff-
ler, a celebrated astronomer, and professor of mathematics at
Tubingen, found, as the result of abstruse calculation, that the
earth would be destroyed by a flood in 1524. The news spread
rapidly, and filled Europe with alarm. In Toulouse an ark was
built by advice of the professor of canonical law, to rescue at
least a part of the people. Indeed, in our own daj^s, Prof.
Rudolph Falb and similar prophets announce a new flood in the
year a. d. 7132.^ And Falb has by his unverified earthquake
predictions caused panics in Athens and Valparaiso.
It is the western migration of this ancient story that is note-
worthy, and its association with the punishment of sin by the
religious genius of the Hebrews which has made it world-wide.
1 Schmidt, loc. cit., p. 61.
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 123
Such myths of observation, dependent on local floods or the
suggestion of fossils, are most widely spread, and they find place
in cosmogonic myths, — explanations of the origin of land
and sea ; national myths, — explanations of the origin of peoples ;
and myths of destruction of land or people, with or without the
idea of punishment for sin.
They are wanthig among the Africans and in Australia and
Oceanica according to Lenormant ; more accurately among the
Papuans of Oceanica, for the Feejee Islanders kept great canoes on
the hill-tops for refuge when the flood should return.
In China, the great Cyclopedia (2357 b. c.) says: "The waters
of the flood are destructive in their inundation. In their wide ex-
tent they surround the mountains ; overtop the hills ; threaten the
heaven with their waters ; so that the common folk is dissatisfied
and complains. Where is the able man who will undertake to con-
trol the evil. Kwan tries nine 3-ears, Yu, eight years. He com-
pletes great works, cuts away woods, controls the streams, dykes
them and opens out their mouths. He feeds the people."
This refers to the " Curse of China" the Yang-ze-Kiang which
flows sometimes into the Gulf of Pechili north of the promontor}'
of Shantung, sometimes to the south into the Yellow Sea.
'o'
Our own Indians gave Catlin 160 flood myths. The dog of the
Cherokees is well known. On Cundinamarca in Mexico there were
four destructions : — of famine, personified b}' giants ; of fire, by
birds ; of wind, b^' monke3S ; of water, by fishes.
The Quiches of Guatemala say: As the gods had created
animals who did not speak or worship the gods, and had made men
from cla\' who could not turn their heads, — who could speak
indeed but not understand anytliing, — they destroyed their imper-
fect work b}- a flood.
A second race of mankind was created, the male of wood, the
woman of resin, but it was not thankful to the gods. The gods
rained burning pitch on the earth, and sent an earthquake,
destroying all but a few, who became monkeys. A third attempt
succeeded so well that the gods themselves were terrified at the
perfection of their work, and took from them some of their good
qualities, and the normal man resulted."
The Arawaks of British Guiana and Yenezuela were for their
sins twice destroyed, — once by flood, and once by fire, and only
the good and wise were saved.
1 Schmidt, " Siindflut," 57.
124 SECxroN E.
The flood is a perennial blessing in Eg-j'pt, and when the
Greeks told the priests of the deluge of Deucalionj they said,
"Egypt has been spared this,"
There is an inscription on the walls of the tomb of Seti-on, in
Thebes, 1350 B.C. The Sun-god, Ea, is wroth with mankind, and
the council of the gods decrees its doom. Hatbor, queen of the
gods, does the work, till all the land is flooded with blood. She
sees the fields flooded with blood, she drinks thereof, her soul
is glad, she does not know mankind. Only those who, at the
right time, fix their thoughts above are spared, and of these the
Majesty of Ra says: " These are the good."
In Persia there are no flood myths preserved before the time of
Zoroaster.
In India, where the flood is a constant scourge, the four Yugas
(ages), and the four Manvartaras, the alternate destructions and
renewals of the human race, are Vedic mj'ths, and no trace of
the flood story appears in the Vedas. The Satapatha-Bramahua,
written just before the time of Christ, is especially interesting,
from the blending of the Chaldaean account with the Indian
mythology. In this oldest account the flood came from the sea,
the warning and the rescue of Manu, the Indian Noah, from
Vishnu, in form of a fish. Here all the suggestion may be
indigenous. There is no punishment.
In the Mahabharata, the ship lands on the highest peak of the
Himalaya. In the last part of the storj^, in the Bhagarata
Purana, the motive of the flood is that the wickedness of man
was great in the earth. Vishnu, in form of a fish, warns Manu
Satjavrata, the well-doer (Ea was a fish-god in the Chalda^an
story, and Oannu, in Berosus, was a fish-god), that in seven
days the three worlds will sink in an ocean of death, but in the
midst of the waves a ship will be provided for Manu. He is to
bring all useful plants and a pair of all irrational animals into the
ship. The sea rose over its banks, and overwhelmed the earth.
Violent wind and cloudburst from measureless clouds contrib-
uted to the flood. Vishnu, in form of a gold-gleaming fish, guided
the ship. Before the flood the holy Vedas were stolen, after-
wards the}'^ were restored by Vishnu.
In Greece, also, as the sinking of the land has persisted to
greater extent into the most modern times, so the flood-myths
have there greater variety and definiteness than elsewhere, and
ADDRESS BY B. K. EMERSON. 125
later the Chaldteau account was grafted on to the earlier with
greater fulness. The story is not known to Hesiod in the " Works
and Days" (8th century B.C.), though he enumerates several
destructions of the sinful race of man, and the "Iliad" mentions
destructive cloud-bursts as the usual punishment of heaven on the
unjust judge.
Thus, in the Boeotian myth of Ogyges, it is significant that
Ogyges was sou of Poseidon, god of the sea, and I have heard the
name itself derived from an Aryan root, meaning a flood.
Ogj^ges is rescued in a boat.
The story of Deucalion's flood is first given in the Hesiodic
catalogues, 800 to 600 b. c. Pyrrha and Deucalion were alone
rescued in a ship. As told in an archaic form by Pindar ^ (500
B. €.), " Pyrrha and Deucalion, coming down together from
Parnassus, founded their mansion first, and, without marriage
union, produced the strong race of the same stock, and hence they
were called Laioi, from a word meaning stones, as they threw
stones over their heads to form the first men.
ApoUodorus (100 b. c.) shows the first influence of the Semitic
myth. He extends the flood over almost all Greece, and says
Deucalion offered sacrifice on leaving the ship. Later, the ark,
the takiug-in of animals and sending-out of birds, appear in the
Greek myth, and Lucian, or pseudo-Lucian, in " De Dea Syria "
(160 A. D.), in a chapter on Hydrophoria, narrates an Armenian
flood-myth, which had its home in the upper Euphrates, at Hier-
opolis, the modern Mambedj, and blends the Hellenic and
Semitic story. " The most say that Deucalion Sysythes built the
sanctuary, that Deucalion, under whom the great deluge occurred.
Of Deucalion I heard also in Hellas the story which the Hel-
lenes tell of him, which runs as follows: The first men had grown
very wicked upon the earth, and, in punishment, suffered a great
evil. The earth sent up from its bosom mighty masses of water.
Heavy rains followed, the rivers swelled, and the sea overflowed
the land, until all was covered with water, and all were destroyed;
only Deucalion, of all mankind, remained alive. He had built a
box or ark, and his family, as also pairs of all kinds of animals,
entered into it. All sailed in the ark as long as the waters con-
tinued. So the Hellenes write of Deucalion. To this the inhabi-
tants of the holy town add a very strange story; that in their
1 Olympics, IX. 4 (500 b. c.)-
126 SECTION E.
land a great fissure opened in the earth, and this received all the
water. Deucalion built altars after this happened, and by the
opening built a temple to Here. I saw the opening. It is under
the temple, and is very small. As a sign and remembrance of
this story, they do as follows: Twice a year water is brought to
the temple from the sea. Not alone do the priests bring this, — out
of all Syria, and Arabia, India, and from beyond the Euphrates
many go down to the sea, and all bring water. They pour it out
in the temple, and it flows into the fissure, and the small opening
receives a great quantity of water. And this ceremony, they
say, Deucalion appointed in the temple in remembrance of the
catastrophe and his rescue. A statue of Here is in the temple,
and another god, which, although it is Zeus, they call by another
name. Between the two stands a golden column. The Assyrians
call it the sign, — give it no special name, and cannot explain its
origin or its form. Some refer it to Dionysus, others to Deuca-
lion, others to Semiramis. There is on its top a golden dove.
Therefore it is said to represent Semiramis. Twice a year it is
taken to the sea to bring water, as described above." There were
similar Hydrophoria at Athens.
PAPERS READ.
Tdesdat, August 25.
Notes on the artesian well sunk at Key West, Florida, in 1895. By
Edmund Otis Hovet, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, N. Y.
The hydraulic gradient of the jiain artesian basin of the North-
west. By Prof. J. E. Todd, Vermilion, So. Dakota.
The true tuff-beds of the Trias, and the mud enclosures, the
UNDERROLLING, AND THE BASIC PITCHSTONE OF THE TrIASSIC TRAPS.
By Prof. B. K. Emerson, Amlierst, Mass.
Volcanic ash from the north shore of Lake Superior. By Prof. N.
H. WiNCUELL, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, and Dr. U. S.
Grant, Geol. Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
The Tyringham (Mass.) "Mortise Rock," and pseudo3iorphs of quartz
AFTER ALBiTE. By Pfof. B. K. Emerson, Amlierst, Mass.
The succession of the fossil faunas in the Hamilton group at
Eighteen Mile Creek, N. Y. By Amadeus W. Grabau, Mass. Inst, of
Technology, Boston.
Development of the physiography of California. (Lantern pictures.)
By Dr. James Pkrrin Smith, Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo
Alto, Cal.
Synopsis of California stratigraphy. By Dr. James Perrin Smith,
Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal.
Ancient and modern sharks, and the evolution of the class. By
Prof. E. W. Claypole, Akron, Ohio.
Interglacial change of course, with gorge erosion, of the St. Croix
River, in Minnesota and Wisconsin. By Warren Upham, Minn.
Hist. Society, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Wednesday, August 26.
Observations on the dorsal shields in the Dinichthyids. By Dr.
Charles R. Eastman, Mus. Comp. Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
The discovery of a new fish fauna, from the Devonian rocks of
Western New York. By F. K. Mixer, Buffalo, N. Y.
128 SECTION E.
Origin of the high terrace deposits of the Monongahela River. By
Prof. I. C. White, University of W. Virginia, Morgantown.
At the afternoon session the Section gave its attention to special
exercises in commemoration of the sixtieth anniversary of Professor
Hall's connection vs'ith the Geological Survey of the State of New
York. Addresses were made by Vice-President Emerson in behalf
of the Section, and by Pi'esident Joseph Le Conte of the Geologi-
cal Societj- of America in behalf of that society. Professor Hall
responded to these addresses. Several papers relating to the work
of Professor Hall and the New York Sui'vey were read. A letter
of congratulation from George M. Davtson, Director of the Geologi-
cal Surve}' of Canada, was read, and a brief address was made by
J. F. Whiteaves of the Canadian Survey'. An address was made by
T. Guilford Smith of the Board of Regents of the University of
the State of New York ; and further remarks were made b}' J. J.
Stevenson, W. H. Hale, W. H. Niles, H. C. Hovev, and H. L.
Fairchild. a communication from Sir J. W. Dawson concerning
Dr. Hall was received too late to be read at the meeting. (For a
full report of this meeting, see Science^ Nov. 13, 1896.)
The operations of the Geological Survey of the State of New York.
By Prof. James Hall, State Geologist, Albany, N. Y.
James Hall, founder of American stratigraphic geology. By Dr. W.
J. McGee, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C.'
Professor Hall, and the Survey of the Fourth District. By John M.
Clarke, Asst. State Geologist and Paleontologist, Albany, N. Y.
The Cuyahoga preglacial gorge in Cleveland, Ohio. By Warren
Upham, Minn. Hist. Society, Minneapolis.
A REVISION OF the MORAINES OF MINNESOTA. By Prof. J. E. ToDD, Ver-
milion, S. Dakota.
Thursday, August 27.
Notes on certain fossil plants from the Carboniferous of Iowa. By
Prof. Thomas H. Macbride, Iowa City, Iowa.
The making of Mammoth Cave. By Rev. Horace C. Hovev, Newbury-
port, Mass.
The Colossal Cavern. By Rev. Horace C. Hovey, Newburyport, Mass.
Sheetflood erosion. By Dr. W. J. McGee, Bureau of Ethnology, Washing-
ton, D. C.
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 129
Friday, Adgcst 28.
Oeigin of conglomerates. By Prof. T. C. Hopkins, Geological Survey,
Indianapolis, Ind., State College, Centre Co., Pa.
Origin of topographic features in North Carolina. By Collier
Cobb, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill N. C.
The Cretaceous clay marl exposure at Cliffwood, N. J. By Prof.
Arthur Hollick, Columbia College, New York, N. Y.
Post-Cretaceous grade-plains in Southern New England. By F. P.
Gulliver, Norwich, Conn.
The Eocene stages of Georgia. By Gilbert D. Harris, Ithaca, N. Y.
The origin and age of the gypsum deposits of Kansas. By Prof. G. P.
Grimsley, Washburn College, Topeka, Kan.
Geomorphic notes on Norway. By Dr. J. W. Spencer, Washington, D. C.
The slopes of the drowned Antillean valleys. By Dr. J. W. Spencer,
Washington, D. C.
The " Augen-Gneiss," Pegmatite veins, and Diorite dikes at Bedford,
Westchester Co., N. Y. By Lea McI. Luquer and Dr. Heinrich
Ries, Columbia College, New York, N. Y.
Pre-Cambrian base-levelling in the Northwestern States. By Prof. C.
W. Hall, Minneapolis, Minn.
«
A Subsection of Pleistocene Geolog}' was organized at the after-
noon session, by the appointment of G. F. Wright as Chairman
and H. S. Williams as Secretary. The following papers were read
in this Subsection.
Glacial flood deposits in the Chenango Valley. By Prof. Albert P.
Brigham, Hamilton, N. Y.
The Niagara Falls gorge. By George W. Holley, Ithaca, N. Y.
The Algonquin River. By G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geological Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
The Whirlpool Saint Davids channel. By G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geo-
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.
Profile of the bed of the Niagara in its gorge. By G. K. Gilbert,
U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Origin and age of the Laurentian Lakes and of Niagara Falls. By
Warren Upham, Minn. Hist. Society, Minneapolis.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 9
130 SECTION E.
Correlation of Warren beaches with moraines and outlets in
Southeastern Michigan. By F. B. Taylor, Fort Wayne, Ind.
Notes on the glacial succession in Eastern Michigan. By F. B.
Taylor, Fort Wayne, Ind.
Notes on Kansan Drift in Pennsylvania. By Prof. E. H. Williams,
Bethlehem, Pa.
Preliminary^ notes on the Columbian deposits of the Susquehanna.
By Dr. H. B. Bashore, West Fairview, Pa.
The Section adjourned Friday ajiernoon, August 28.
RESOLUTIONS OF SECTION E.
»
The following resolution, offei-ed by J. J. Stevenson, was adopted :
Resolved that the Council be and hereby is requested to appoint
Prof. E. D. Cope, Prof. James Hall, Prof. B. K. Emekson, Prof.
W. N. Rice, and Prof. C. D. Walcott, as delegates to the Inter-
national Geological Congress to be held in St. Petersburg in 1897 ;
and to authorize them to fill by a majority vote any vacancy which
may occur.
[The above named gentlemen were appointed by the Council as
delegates to the Congress, with power to fill vacancies in the num-
ber. — Pennanent Secretary.']
The following resolution, offered by H. L. Fairchild, was adopted :
Resolved that Section E requests the Council of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science to permit and author-
ize the officers of Section E to make such arrangements with the
Geological Societ}" of America for the meeting of 1897, that the
Geological Society may occupy a portion of the time usually assigned
to the Section.
[The above request was granted b}' the Council. — Permanent
Secretary.']
(131)
SECTION F.
ZOOLOGY.
OFFICERS OF SECTION F.
Vice President and Chairman of the Section.
Theodore Gill, Washington, D. C.
Secretary.
D. S. Kellicott, Columbus, Ohio.
Councillor.
C. L. Marlatt, Washington, D. C.
Sectional Committee.
Theodore Gill, Washington, D. C, Vice-President, 1896.
D. S. Kellicott, Columbus, Ohio, Secretary, 1896.
L. O. Howard, Washington, D. C, Vice-President, 1895.
C. W. Hargitt, Syracuse, N. Y., Secretary, 1895.
Chas. C. Nctting, Iowa City, la.
F. M. Webster, Wooster, O.
S. H. Gage, Ithaca, N. Y.
Member of Nominating Committee.
C. W. Hargitt, Syi-acuse, N. Y.
Committee to Nominate OflBcers of the Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary ; and J. A. Lintner, Albany, N. Y. ; A. D.
Hopkins, Morgantown, W. Va. ; Jas. G. Needham, Galesburg, III.
Press Secretary.
D. S. Kellicott, Columbus, Ohio.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
THEODORE GILL,
CHAIRMAN OF SECTION F.
SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.
INTRODUCTION.
I HAD originally selected for the address which it is my duty
and privilege to give to-day a very different subject ^ from that
which I am now to discuss; but the renewed and lively interest
which is being manifested at present in the ever troublous subject
of nomenclature has led me to take it as my theme. I have been
especially influenced, too, by the consideration that a committee
was appointed at the last Zoological Congress, held at Leyden,
to consider the subject, and suggestions have been asked for. Of
the multitudinous questions that offer for review time will only
permit us to examine a few.
Nomenclature, in the modern sense of the word, did not trouble
naturalists till near the middle of the last century. The animals
and plants of the ancient world were mostly treated of under
the names which the Greeks or Romans had used, or were sup-
posed to have used. The forms that became first known after the
discovery of America were introduced into the literature under
names more or less like those which they bore among the abo-
riginal inhabitants of the countries from which those forms had
been obtained. Only a few names were coined from the Latin or
Greek, and used for forms not mentioned by classical authors.
Examples of such are Ammodytes, and Anarrhichas, invented by
Gesner. But none of those names were employed as true generic
1 Animals as Chronometers for Geology.
(135)
136 SECTION F.
designations. Genera, in fact, in the strictest sense of the word,
were not used, by zoologists at least,^ till the time of Linnteus.
There were certainly very close approximations to the idea man-
ifest in some of the older authors, such, for example, as Belon
and Lang ; but their analogous groups were not strictly defined
and limited, as the genera of Linnaeus and his followers were.
The S3"stem has been one of slow growth, and has developed
in accordance with our knowledge of Nature, and in response to
the need for expressing the various degrees of complication of
the organisms. The species known to the naturalists of earlj'
times were few in number, — at least, comparatively, — and the
old students had no idea of the excessive diversity of form and
structure familiar to us.
A census of animals and plants was taken by Ray, shortly
before Linnaeus commenced his career, and enumerated less than
4,000 animals, exclusive of insects; and of those it was esti-
mated that there were about "20,000 in the whole world." He
evidently believed that the entire number living would not be
found greatly to exceed this. But let Ray speak for himself.
According to the author's classification, animals were divided
into four orders, — "beasts, birds, fishes, and insects." The
number of beasts, including also serpents, that had been accu-
rately described, he estimated at not above 150, adding that,
according to his belief, " not many that are of any considerable
bigness, in the known regions of the world, have escaped the
cognizance of the curious." [At the present day, more than
7,000 species of " beasts," reptiles, and amphibians have been
described.] The number of birds " may be near 500; and the
number oi fishes, secluding shell-fish, as many; but, if the shell-
fish be taken in, more than six times the number." As to the
species remaining undiscovered, he supposed " the whole sum
of beasts and birds to exceed by a third part, and fishes by
one half, those known." The number of insects — that is, of
animals not included in the above classes — he estimated at 2,000
in Britain alone, and 20,000 in the whole world. The number of
plants described in Bauhin's " Pinax" was G,000; and our author
supposed that " there are in the world more than triple that num-
ber; there being in the vast continent of America as great a
1 The genera of plants in Tournefort's work are perfectly regular, as well as defined
and illustrated, but the nomenclature is certainly not binomial.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 137
varietj' of species as with us, and yet but few common to Europe,
or perhaps Afriek and Asia. And if, on the other side the
equator, there be much land still remaining undiscovered, as
probably there may, we must suppose the number of plants to be
far greater. What," he continues, "can we infer from all this?
If the number of creatures be so exceeding great, how great, nay,
immense, must needs be the power and wisdom of Him who
formed them all ! "
About 375,000 species of animals are now known, and of
insects we still know the smaller portion.^
As knowledge of species of animals and plants increased,
the necessity of system in registering them became appar-
ent. Linuffius and Artedi especially appreciated this necessity,
and early applied themselves to the correction of existing
evils and the reformation of the classification and nomenclature
of all the kingdoms of Nature. The Latin language had been long
the means of intercourse among the learned, and was naturally
selected as the basis of nomenclature. Instead of Latin words
used as equivalents or translations of vernacular, b}' Linnaus
and Artedi they were taken especially and primarily for scien-
tific use. The various kinds of animals became the more exact
genera of naturalists. A new language, or rather vocabulary of
proper names, was developed with the Latin as the basis. As
no adequate idea was at first had of the magnitude of the subject,
rigorous codes of laws were formulated on the assumption that
philological questions were involved rather than the means for
the expression of facts. But soon the bonds that had been framed
for the restriction of the new vocabularj^ were broken. The idea
dawned upon men that they had to do with natural objects rather
than philological niceties, and that which was most conducive to
facile -expressions or exhibitions of facts was more to the
purpose than Priscianic refinements. Linnaeus himself eventually
refused to be bound by the laws which he had originally framed.
The early companion of Linnaeus, — Artedi, — who had co-
operated with him, and also framed a similar code for Ichthy-
ology especially, was prematurely lost to science. The fact that
Artedi devised the first code of laws affecting zoology has been
1 The late Dr. C. V. Riley even went so far as to say "that there are 10,000,000
species of insects in the world would be, in [his] judgment, a moderate estimate."
The largest previous estimate, by Sharp and Walsingham, 2,000,000, was termed by
Riley "extremely low."
138 SECTION F.
generally overlooked, and a few of his " canous " may be noticed
here. The extent to which each one of the two — Liunoeus and
Artedi — influenced the other cannot now be learned, nor will it
be necessary to consider here who of the two was the abler natu-
ralist. It must suffice that there was almost perfect agreement
between Artedi and Linnaeus in the spirit of the laws they respect-
ively framed.
COMMENCEMENT OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE.
The question that has been most agitated of late is, what time
shall we recognize as the starting-point for the binomial nomen-
clature. Even now not all will be bound by any such limit for
generic nomenclature; but those who will are divided into two
main camps, — those who start from the tenth edition of the
Linua?au " Systema Naturae," published in 1758, in which the
binomial nomenclature Avas first universally applied, and those
who advocate the twelfth edition of the " S^^stema," published in
1766, — the last which aj^peared during the life of Liunseus.
But it may be premised here that even the fact that Linnaeus
was the first to devise the system of binomial nomenclature is not
conceded by all. It has been claimed that about two centuries
before Linnaeus published his " Philosophia Botanica" Belon
had uniformly and consistently applied the binomial nomencla-
ture to plants as well as animals, fishes, and birds.-' It has been
also urged that C. N. Lang (Langius),"^ in 1722, used the binomial
nomenclature for shells. I have not been able to confirm either
statement, and therefore have to side with the great majority who
accord to Linnaeus the credit of that achievement.
Almost all the naturalists of the United States accept 1758 as
the starting-time for nomenclature, and now most of the natural-
ists of Europe take the same view. But the English generally
accept 1766 for the commencement of their orismology. It was
" after much deliberation " that the Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science determined on the
1 Cri6 (Louis), Pierre Belon et la nomenclature binaire. Rev. Sc, xxx. 737-740,
9 Dec, 1882.
- My efforts to see a copy of Lang's " Methodus nova Testacea marina in suas
Classes, Genera, et Species distribuendi " (Lucern., 1722) have not been successful.
Maton and Rackett say that " he is the first whose generic characters are founded on
commodious distinctions," but expressly state that " there are no trivial names."
(See Trans. Linn. Soc, vii. 156, 157.) He may have properly appreciated genera.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 139
edition of 1766. It was only because that edition was " the last
and most complete edition of Liune's works, and containing
many species that the tenth did not," that" it was so selected, —
surely an insufficient reason. A principle was subordinated to
an individual.
Logically, the actual period for the commencement of the
binomial nomenclature should be when the rules for that nomen-
clature were distinctly formulated; and that was 1751, when the
" Philosophia Botanica"was first published. Practically, how-
ever, it makes little difference for most classes,^ whether we take
that date or 1758, when the next succeeding edition of the " Sys-
tema" was published. But it does make much difference whether
we take the tenth or twelfth edition. There is really no good
reason for keeping Linnreus on that lofty pedestal on which he
was enthroned by his disciples of a past century. His work does
not justify such an elevation. In every department of zoology
contemporaries excelled him in knowledge and in judgment.
May we not hope that, ultimately, this truth will be recognized,
and the tenth edition universally accepted for the first work of
the new era?
TRIVIAL NAMES.
The binomial system has come into prominence through a sort
of developmental process. Although now generally regarded as
the chief benefaction conferred by Linnaeus - on biology, it was
evidently considered by him to be of quite secondary importance.
The first extensive use of it occurs in the "" Pan Suecicus," pub-
lished in 1749, where the author mentions that to facilitate the
recording of his observations he had used an " epithet" in place
of the differential character.^ It was thus a mere economical de-
vice for the time being.
1 Arachnology would be most affected, for Clerck's work was published in 1757.
2 Linn;ieus himself did not claim this as an improvement in his account of the ad-
vancement he had effected in science.
3 "Possumus nunc ultra duo milliaexperimenta certissimaexhibere, quas stepe decies,
immo siBpe bis decies sunt iterata. Si autem sumamus Floram Suecicam IIolmicB,
1745, & ad quamlibet herbam, lit chartae parcatur, nomen adponimus genericum, nu-
merum Florae Suecicte & epitheton quoddam loco differentiae, negotium in compendium
facile mittitur." Pan Suecicus, pp. 228, 229.
This thesis is attributed to Nicolaus L. Hesselgren in some bibliographies, and natu-
rally so, as it bears his name in the title; but Linnaeus probably did not claim more than
his own in claiming the authorship, altliough Hesselgren apparently wrote part of it
himself. It is sometimes difficult exacth' to fix the authorship in the case of some of
the old theses.
140 SECTION F.
In the "Philosophia Botauica " he also treats it as a matter of
trivial importance. He distinguishes between the specific name
and the trivial.
His specijic name corresponds to what we would call a diagnosis
(Nomeu speciflcum est itaque Differentia essentialis) ; his trivial
name is what would now be called the specific.^ It is merely sug-
gested that trivial names may be used as in his "Pan Suecicus,"
and should consist of a single word taken from any source.^
This system was fully carried out in the succeeding editions of
the "Systema Naturae." Both names were then given, — the
novien sjjecificum after the number of the species, under each
genus, and the nomen triviale before the number in the margin,
Linnaeus placed little store on the trivial names, and accredited
such to old botanists; but he took special credit for specific
names (or diagnoses), claiming that none worthy of the title
had been given before him.^
DRACOXIAX LAWS.
For generic nomenclature a Draconian code was provided by
Linnffius and Artedi. It is now a maxim of good legislation that
excessive severity of law is apt to defeat the object sought for,
and the tendency of civilization is to temper justice with mercy.
So has the tendency of scientific advancement been towards a
mitigation of the Linnaean code. Nevertheless, its severity is
more or less reflected in later codes, — even the latest, — and
therefore a review of some of those old canons will not be entirely
1 "217. Nomeu specificuni legitimum plantam ab omnibus congeneribus (159) dis-
tinguat; Triviale autem nomen legibus etiamnum caret." Phil. Bot., p. 202.
2 "Nomina Trivialia forte admitti possunt modo, quo in Pane suecico usus sum ;
constarent hsec
Vocabula unica ;
Vocabula libere undequaque desumta.
Ratione hac priEcipue evicti, quod differentia sajpe longa evadit, ut non ubique com-
mode usurpetur, et dein mutatione obnoxia, novis detectis speciebus, est, e. gr,
P^Tola [5 sp.]
Sed nomina Trivialia in hoc opere seponimus, de difFerentiis unice solliciti." Ph. Bot.,
pp. 202, 20.3.
3 "Trivialia erant antecessorum et maxima Trivialia erant antiquissimorum Botani-
conim nomina.
Character Naturalis speciei est Bescriptio ; Character vera Essentialis speciei est
Differentia.
Primus incepi Nomina specifica Essentialis condere, ante me nulla differentia digna
exstitit." Ph. Bot., p. 203.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 141
a resurrectiou of the dead, and may contain a warning for the
future.
In exchisiveness for generic names Linnaeus and Artedi went
far ahead of any of the moderns. They provided that no names
were available for genera in zoology or botany which were used
in any other class of animals or plants, or even which were used
for minerals, tools, weapons, or other instruments, or even
places.^
Under this rule such names as Acus, Belone, Citharics, Hij^po-
glossus, LiiKjuIa^ Novacula^ Orbis, Orca, Jiemora, Solea, and
Umbra — all now, or some time, in common use — were specified.
The rule was soon relaxed, and any name not previously used
in zoology, or, at most, biology, was considered admissible.
Another rule sends to Coventry all names composed of two names
of different animals, because it might be uncertain to which genus
an animal really belongs.^ The ancient name "Rhino-Batus "
is even mentioned as one of the delicts.
This rule is also without any justification, and the reason
given for it baseless. Compound words of the kind exiled are
in entire harmony with the genius of the classic languages. As
an illustration of their use among the Greeks, we need refer to one
group only, — that is, compounds with hippos, as Hlpioalectryon^
Hipioanthropos^ Hippardion^ Hippelaphos, Hlppocam'pos^ Hippo-
tigris^ and Hippotragelaphos. {HippoTxantharos^ Hijjjyomurmex^
Ilippopmreos^ and Hipposelmon are other classic Greek words, but
do not belong to the same category as the others, inasmuch as
they were used in a sense analogous to horse-chestnut, horse-
mackerel, and horse-radish with us, the word " horse " in this con-
nection conveying the idea of strength, coarseness, or bigness.)
In another rule, all words are proscribed as. generic names
which are not of Latin or Greek origin ; ^ and among the pro-
scribed are such names as Albula, Blicca,, Carasshs, and many
others, which were later used by Linnaeus himself as specific
names, and which are now used as generic denominations.
1 "Nomina piscium generica, quae quadrupedibus pilosis, avibus, amphibiis, insectis,
plantis, mineralibus, instrumentis opificum etc. communia sunt, omnino deleantur.
Linn. Fund. 280." Art. Ph. tch., § 193.
2 " Nomina generica, ex uno nomine generico fracto, et altero integro composita,
exulent. Linn. Fund. 224." Art. Ph. Ich., § 196.
8 " Nomina generica, qufe non sunt originis Latinae vel Graecae, proscribantur. Linn.
Fund. 229." Art. Ph. Ich., § 198.
142 SECTION F.
Words with diminutive terminations were barely tolerated, if
admitted at all/ and the reason alleged for such treatment was
that the cardinal name might belong to another class. Among
the examples named were Anguilla^ Asellus, Leuciscus, Lhif/ula^
Oniscus, and Oj^hidion, now familiar in connection with some
of our best-known genera. One of these — Ophidion — was sub-
sequently used by Linnaeus himself as a generic name.
All are now tolerated without demur even, and probably by
most naturalists never supposed to have been tainted with offence
of any kind. For all such words we have also classical examples;
and four have already been named, — the Oniscus and Ophidion
of the Greeks, adopted by the Romans, and the Anguilla and
Asellua of the Latins.
Generic names, derived from Latin adjectives, were also de-
clared to be unworthy of adoption. Aculeatus, Centriiie, and
Coracinus were cited as examples of words that should be re-
jected under this rule. Later writers have repeated the denuncia-
tions uttered by Linnaeus and Artedi, and refused to adopt such
words. But hear what Plutarch says of names of men derived
from adjectives.
In his life of Coriolanus, Plutarch, in recounting the events
subsequent to the capture of Corioli, and the refusal of Marcius
to accept more than his share of the booty, comes to the proposi-
tion of Cominius.^
" Let us, then, give him what it is not in his power to decline, let us pass a
vote that he be called Coriolanus, if his gallant behaviour at Corioli has not
already bestowed that name upon him." Hence came his third name of Cori-
olanus, by which it appears that Caius was the proper name ; that the second
name, Marcius, was that of the family ; and that the third Roman appellative
was a peculiar note of distinction, given afterwards on account of some par-
ticular act of fortune, or signature, or virtue of him that bore it. Tlius among
the Greeks additional names were given to some on account of their achieve-
ments, as Soter, the preserver, and Callinicus, the victorious; to others, for some-
thing remarkable in their persons, as Physcon, the gore-bellied, and Gripus, the
eagle-nosed; or for their good qualities, as Euergetes, the benefactor, and Phila-
delphus, the kind brother ; or their good fortune, as Eudamon, the prosperous, a
name given to the second prince of the family of the Batti. Several princes
also have had satirical names bestowed upon them : Antjgonus (for instance)
1 "Nomina generica diminutiva vix toleranda sunt. Linn. Fund. 227." Art. Ph.
Ich., § 202.
2 "Nomina generica imprimis Latina pure adjectiva, sed substantive usurpata, criti-
corum more improbanda sunt. Linn. Fund. 235." Art. Ph. Ich., § 204.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 143
was called Doson, the man that tvill give to-vwrrow ; and Ptoleray was styled
Lamyras, the buffoon. But appellations of this last sort were used with greater
latitude among the Romans. One of the Metelli was distinguished by the
name of Diadematus, because he went a long time with a bandage, which
covered an ulcer he had in his forehead ; and another they called Celer,
because with surprising celerity he entertained thera with a funeral show of
gladiators a few days after his father's death. In our times, too, some of the
Romans receive their names from the circumstances of their birth; as that of
Proculus, if born when their fathers are in a distant country ; and that of Post-
humus, if born after their father's death ; and when twins come into the world,
and one of them dies at the birth, tlie survivor is called Vopiscus. Names are
also appropriated on account of bodily imperfections ; for amongst them we
find not only Sylla, the red, and Niger, the black, but even Cceciis, the blind, and
Claudius, the lame; such persons, by this custom, being wisely taught not to
consider blindness or any other bodily misfortune as a reproach or disgrace,
but to answer to appellations of that kind as their proper names."
What was good enough for the ancient Romans to bestow on
the most admired of their heroes is good enough for the nomen-
clature of our genera of animals. We have also examples of
names of adjective form used substantively for animals among
classic writers. Such, for example, are the Aculeatus (pipe-fish),
and Oculata (lamprey or nine-eyes), mentioned by Pliny.
Linnaeus himself, later, coined many names having an adjective
form ; and three of his genera of plants of one small family, so
designated, occur in this region, — Saponaria, Arenaria^ and
Stellaria. Yet even at the present day we have evidences of
the lingering of the old idea embodied in the canon in question.
We have also had drawn up for us certain rules for the conver-
sion of Greek words into Latin, which are tinctured with more
than Roman severity. Thus, we are told that Greek names
ending in -os should always be turned into -?<s / that the final -on
is inadmissible in the new Latin, and should invariably be ren-
dered by -uni.^
In accordance with such rules, Rhinoceros has been turned into
Rhlnocenis^ and Bhinocerotklce into Rhinoceridce. But Bhinoceros
was admitted into classical Latinity, and with it the correspond-
ing oblique cases, Bhinocerotis, etc. ; in fact, the word was cur-
rent in the language of description, satire, and proverb, — as when
used by Juvenal for a vessel made of the horn, or by Lucilius
for a long-nosed man, or by jNIartial in the proverbial expres-
sion, " Nasum rhinocerotis habere"; i. e. to turn the nose up,
as we should say. These authorities are good enough for me.
144 SECTION F.
The termination -on was also familiar to the Romans of classic
times, and numerous words with that ending may be found in the
books of Pliny. But our modern purists will have none of them ;
the Greek -on in the new Latin must always become -urn. For
example, Ophidion was the name given to a small conger-like eel,
according to Pliny, and was (without reason) supposed to have
been applied to the genus now called OpMdmmx; and this last
form was given by Linnaeus, who eventually ^ refused to follow
Pliny in such barbaric use of Latin. But Pliny is good enough
for me — at least as a Latinist.
Another rule prohibits the use of such words as ^'Egir, Gondul,
Moho, Jlihi, Pk'Ik, and the like, and provides that thej' should
have other terminations in accordance with classical usage. But
why should those words be changed and surcharged with new
endings? As they are, they are all uniform with classical words.
^ffir has its justification in Vir, Gondul in consul, Moho in ho77io
(of which it is an accidental anagram), and 3Iitu and Pudii are
no more cacophonous or irregular than cornv. I therefore see no
reason why we should not accept the words criticised and cor-
rected by some naturalists in their original form, even if we con-
sider the question involved as grammatical rather than one of
scientific convenience.
I have thus defended some of the names of our old nomencla-
tors, and really think that the rules laid down for name-making
were too severe. But those rules were on the whole judicious,
and should not be deviated from by future nomenclators without
good and substantial reason; even if too severe, thej' " lean to
virtue's side." On the other hand, let old names be respected in
the interests of stability, even if slightly misformed.
MISAPPLIED NAMES.
While Linnaeus was so exacting in his rules of nomenclature in
the cases cited, in others he was extremely lax. It is due to him
(directly or indirectly) that our lists of genera of vertebrate
animals especially are encumbered with so many ancient names
that Ave know were applied to very different animals by the
Greeks and Romans. It is Linnaeus that was directly responsi-
ble for the misuse of such generic names of mammals as Lemur,
1 At first (in the tenth edition) Linnaeus allowed Oph idion.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 145
3Ian{s, Dasi/2)ns ; such bird-names as Trochilus, Coracias, Phae-
to7i, Diomedea, Melearjris, and (partly with Artedi) such fish-
names as Chimci'va^ Centrisciis, Pegasus, CaUionyimis, Trlgla,
Amia, Teuthls, Esox, Elops, Monui/rus, and Exocoetus. These
all were applied, by the ancients, to forms most of which are
now well ascertained, and the animals to which they have been
transferred have nothing in common with the original possessors
of the names.
The misuse of these ancient names is in contravention of the
rule adopted by the International Zoological Congress held in
Moscow (1892), that '"every foreign word emploj^ed as a generic
or specific name should retain the meaning it has in the language
from which it is taken." and of like rules of other associations.
The false application by Linnaaus and his followers (and he had
many) was due parti}' to the belief that the ancient names were
unidentifiable, but now there are few whose original pertinence is
not known. It may be thought by some, however, that we are
unduly criticising the doings of the past from the vantage-
ground of the present. But such is not the case, for at the com-
mencement of his career Linufeus was taken to task for the fault
indicated. Some of those criticisms were so apt that they may
be advantageously repeated here.
Dilleuius, of Oxford, wrote to Linnaeus in August, 1737, in
these terms : —
" We all know the nomenclature of Botany to be an Augean stable, which
C. Hoffmann, and even Gesner, were not able to cleanse. The task requires
much reading, and extensive as well as various erudition ; nor is it to be given
up to hasty or careless hands. You rush upon it, and overturn everything.
I do not object to Greek words, especially in compound names ; but I think
the names of the antients ought not rashly and promiscuously to be trans-
ferred to our new genera, or those of the new world. The day may possibly
come when the plants of Theophrastus and Dioscorides may be ascertained ;
and, till this happens, we had better leave their names as we find them.
That desirable end might even now be attained if any one would visit the
countries of these old botanists, and make a sufficient stay there ; for the
inhabitants of those regions are very retentive of names and customs, and
know plants at this moment by their antient appellations, very little altered,
as any person who reads Bellonius may perceive. I remember your being
told, by the late Mr. G. Gherard, that the modern Greeks give the name
of Amanita (anavira) to the eatable Field Mushroom ; and yet, in Critica
Bofanica, p. 50, you suppose that word to be French. Who will ever believe
the Thya of Theophrastus to be our Arbor Vike? Why do you give the
name of Cactus to the Tuna ? Do you believe the Tuna, or Melocactus
A. A. A. S. VOL. XL v. 10
146 SECTION F.
(pardon the word), and the Arbor Vita, were known to Theophrastus 1 An
attentive reader of the description Theophrastus gives of his Sida, will prob-
ably agree witii me that it belongs to our Xymjihaa, and indeed to the white-
flowered kind. You, without any reason, give that name to the Malvindu ; and
so in various other instances concerning antient names ; in which I do not,
like Burmann, blame you for introducing new names, but for the bad applica-
tion of old ones. If there were, in these cases, any resemblance between your
plants and those of the antients, you might be excused, but there is not.
Why do you, p. 68, derive the word Medica from the virtues of the plant, when
Pliny, book xviii. chap. 16, declares it to have been brought from Media ?
Why do you call the Molucca, Molucella ? It does not, nor ouglit it, to owe that
name, as is commonly thought, to the Molucca islands ; for, as Lobel informs
us, the name and the plant are of Asiatic origin. Why then do you adopt a
barbarous name, and make it more barbarous t Biscutella is not, as you de-
clare, p. 118, a new name, having already been used by Lobel. I am. surprised
that you do not give the etymology of the new names which you or others
have introduced. I wish you wouhl help me to the derivation of some that I
cannot trace ; as Ipomcea for instance. Why are you so much offended with
some words, which you denominate barbarous, though many of them are more
harmonious than others of Greek or Latin origin ? "
A year later (August 28, 1738) he again wrote: —
" It would surely have been worth your while to visit Greece, or Asia, that
you might become acquainted with, and point out to us, the plants of the
antients, whose appellations you have so materially, and worse than any other
person, misapplied. You ought to be very cautious in changing names and ap-
propriating them to particular genera."
How entirely the previsions of the wise old botanist have been
realized, I need not explain. We now know what almost all of the
names misapplied by Linnaeus and his school were meant for of
old; and when some more good naturalists collect names and
specimens together in various parts of Greece, probably very few
of the ancient names will remain unidentifiable.
The only reply that Linnjeus could make to the censures of
Dillenius appears in the following minutes: —
" With regard to unoccupied names in antient writers, which I have adopted
for other well-defined genera, I learned this of you. You, moreover, long ago,
pointed out to me that your own Draba, Nova PI. Genera 122, is different from
the plant so called by Dioscorides."
The retort of one sinner that his antagonist is another is no
real answer.
The comments of the British Committee of 1865, on this subject,
are very judicious and pertinent.
The use of mythological names for animals and plants is far
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 147
less culpable. The use of such is no worse than that of any
meaningless name. Sometimes, even, there may be conveyed
an association of ideas which appeals to the imagination in a
not disagreeable manner. For example, Linnaeus gave the name
A)H/ro)iie(Ia, after the J^thiopian maid whose mother's over-great
boasts of the daughter's beauty made her the victim of Poseidon's
wrath. Linnaeus justified his procedure by a remarkable play of
fancv.
" Tliis most choice and beautiful virgin gracefully erects lier long and
shining neck (the peduncle), her face with its rosy lips (the corolla) far ex-
celling the best pigment. She kneels on the ground with her feet bound (the
lower part of the stem incumbent), surrounded with water, and fixed to a
rock (a projecting clod), exposed to frightful dragons (frogs and newts). She
bends her sorrowful face (the flower) towards the earth, stretches up her inno-
cent arms (the branches) toward heaven, worthy of a better place and happier
fate, until the welcome Perseus (summer), after conquering the monster, draws
her out of the water and renders her a fruitful mother, when she raises her
head (the fruit) erect."
The relation of the old myth to the plant may be far fetched,
and no other would ever be likely to notice the analogy with-
out suggestion ; but at least the conceit is harmless, if not
agreeable.
The analogy that gave rise to this fanciful description, con-
tained in the "Flora Lapponica," suggested itself to Liunteus on
his Lapland journey.
" The Chamsedapbne of Buxbaum was at this time in its highest beauty,
decorating the marshy grounds in a most agreeable manner. The flowers are
quite blood-red before they expand, but when full grown the corolla is of flesh-
colour. Scarcely any painter's art can so happily imitate the beauty of a fine
female complexion ; still less could any artificial colour upon the face itself bear
comparison with this lovely blossom. As I contemplated it, I could not help
thinking gf Andromeda as described by the poets ; and the more I meditated
upon their descriptions, the more applicable they seemed to the little plant be-
fore me ; so that, if tliese writers had had it in view, they could scarcely have
contrived a more apposite fable. Andromeda is represented by them as a vir-
gin of most exquisite and unrivalled charms ; but these charms remain in per-
fection only so long as she retains her virgin purity, which is also applicable to
the plant, now preparing to celebrate its nuptials. This plant is always fixed
on some little turfy hillock in the midst of the swamps, as Andromeda herself
was chained to a rock in the sea, which bathed her feet, as the fresh water
does the roots of the plant. Dragons and venomous serpents surrounded her,
as toads and other reptiles frequent the abode of her vegetable prototype,
and, when they pair in the spring, throw mud and water over its leaves and
148 SECTION F.
brandies. As the distressed virgin cast down her blushing face througli exces-
sive affliction, so does tlie rosy-colored flower hang its head, growing paler and
paler till it withers away. Hence, as this plant forms a new genus, I have
chosen for it the name of Andromeda"
DOUBLE NAIVIES.
It was long the custom, when a specific name was taken for a
genus, to substitute a new specific for the one so diverted. There
was some reason for this, for sometimes the specific name covered
several forms, or at least was equally applicable to several; of
late, however, the acceptance of both the generic and specific
names, that is, the duplication of a name, has been quite general,
and various precedents have been adduced in favor of the pro-
cedure. " In the solemn anthem musicians have been known to
favor such repetitions, the orator uses them, in poetry they occur
without offence, and even our English aristocracy sometimes bears
them as an added grace." -^ It is also a frequent custom in many
barbarous and half-civilized races, as well as the young of our
o^vn, to double the name for a given subject; and this analogy
may be regarded by some of you as a perfect one. But in the last
cases some regard is had for euphony, and it is a short word that
is repeated, as in the case of the Kiwi-Kiwi and Koa-Roa of the
Maoris of New Zealand, the Pega-Pega of the indigenes of Cuba,
the Willie-Willie (water spout) of the Australians, and our own
familiar Pa-pa and Ma-ma. Many scientific names repeated are
long, — some very long, — but even for such I would now yield
the point. Stability of nomenclature is a greater desideratum than
euphon}' or elegance. But here let me add that there is a history
behind the Scomber Scomber^ which has been frequently cited as an
example of the duplication of a name by Linnaeus. It was Scomber
Scombrus that was used at first by the earl}' nomenclator, and that
occurs in the tenth edition of the "Systema Naturse " (p. 297),
as well as in the " Fauna Suecica " (•2d ed., p. 119). Linnoeus
thus combined the old Latin and Greek names of the mackerel,
which were formally different, although of course traceable to one
and the same root. The name is therefore not repulsive, but in-
teresting as a historical reminiscence of past usage by two great
peoples. It was only in the twelfth edition of the " Systema "
1 Stebbing in Nat. Science, viii. 255.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 149
(p. 492) that Liunaeus exactly duplicated the name as Scomber
Scomber, and thus vitiated the last edition in this as he did in
other cases. But it is at least possible that the exact duplication
of names in the twelfth edition is the offspring of typographical
inaccuracy or clerical inadvertence. At any rate, those who recog-
nize the tenth edition of the " Systema " as the initium of
nomenclature will adopt the more elegant form.
VARIANTS AND SIMILARITY OF NAMES.
The case of Scomber and Scombrus naturally suggests considera-
tion of another rule adopted by various societies. By the German
Zoological Society it is provided that *' names of the same origin,
and only differing from each other in the way they are written,
are to be considered identical." ^ Words considered identical are
Fischerict, and Fisheria^as well as Astracanthus and Asteracanthus ;
and among words sufficiently different are Polyoclon, Fohjodonta,
and Polyodontes.
When rules are once relaxed in this indefinite manner, the way
is at once open to differences of opinion as to what are to be
considered identical or too much alike. Fischeria and Fisheria
appear to me to be sufficiently distinct, and would be so consid-
ered by some who would think that Polyodon, Folyodonta, and
Polyodontes are too nearly alike. While the last three are con-
ceded to be sufficiently distinct by the German Zoological
Society, analogous forms, as Heterodon and Heterodontus, are
claimed by some zoologists to be too similar, and consequently
the latter prior and distinctive name of the " Port Jackson shark "
is sacrificed in favor of the later and inapt Cestracion, — a name
originally coined and appropriate for the hammer-headed sharks,
but misapplied to the Australian shark.
1 agree with those who think that even a difference of a single
1 " Etymologisch gleich abgeleitete und nur in der Schreibweise von einander ab-
weichende Xamen gelten als gleich.
Beispiele : silvestris = sylrestris ; cceruhus = cceruleus ; linncei = linne i ; Fischeria =
Fisheria ; Astracanthus = Astei'acanthus.
a. Dagegen konnen neben einander verwendet warden Picus und Pica ; Polyodon,
Polyodonta, und Polyodontes ; Jluvialis, jluviat'tlis, Jluviaticus, Jluviorum ; moluccensis
und moluccanus.
b. Bei Xeubildung von Namen nioge man solche vermeiden, welche leicht niit schon
vorhandenen verwechselt werden konnen." Regain . . . von der Deutsch. Zool.
Ges., § 4.
150 SECTION F.
letter iu most cases is sufficient to entitle two or more generic
names so differino- to stand. The chemist has found such a differ-
ence not only ample, but most convenient to designate the
valency of different compounds, as ferr/cyanogen, and ferrocyano-
gen. I am prepared now to go back on myself in this respect.
In 1831 Prince Max of Nieuwied named a bird Scaphorhijn-
chus, and in 1835 Heckel gave the name Scaphirhynchus to a
fish genus. In 1863 I used a new name (Scajjhirh i/7ichoj)s) for
the aclpenseroid genus, and that name was adopted by other
naturalists. Jordan later considered the literal differences be-
tween the avine and piscine generic names to be sufficient for
both. I yield the point, and abandon my name, Scajjhirhyncliops.
But those who hold to the rule in question will retain it.
Another set of cases exhibiting diversity of opinion may be
exemplified.
In 1832 Reinhardt gave the name Triglops to one cottoid
genus, and in 1851 Girard named another TrigJopsis, Girard
apparently not knowing of Reinhardt's genus. In 1860 the later
name was replaced by Ptyonotus. All American naturalists have
repudiated the last name.
In 1854 Girard named a genus of Atherinids Athei'hiopsis, and
in 1876 Steindachner, knowing well the name of Girard, deliber-
ately called a related genus Atherinops. No one, as yet, lias
questioned the availability of the later name, but one who refuses
to adopt Triglapsh because of the earlier Triglop)S must substitute
another name for Athermops.
Who shall decide in such cases, and what shall be the standard ?
MAKING OF NAMES.
It was long ago recognized, even by Linnaeus, that the rigor of
the rules originally formulated by him would have to be relaxed.
Naturalists early began to complain that the Greek and Latin
languages were almost or quite exhausted as sources for new
names, and many resorted to other languages, framed anagrams
of existent ones, or even played for a jingle of letters.
Forty years ago one of the most liberal of the American con-
tributors to such names ^ defiantly avowed that "most of the
genera [proposed by him] have been designated by words taken
1 Girard in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., viii. 209, 1856.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 151
from the North American Indians, as being more euphonic
than an}' one [he] might have framed from the Greek. The
classic literature has already furnished so many names that there
are but few instances in which a name might yet be coined, and
express what it is intended to represent. [He] offered this remark
as a mere statement, not as an apology." He gave such names
as Minovnis, Acomus, DioJida, Alffoma, Algansea, Agosia, Noco-
mis, Meda, Cliola, Codoma, Moniana^ Tiaroga^ Tigoma, Che-
onda^ and Siboina.
These names have caused some trouble, and have been sup-
posed to be original offspring of the ichthyologist; but those
familiar with Longfellow's Hiawatha will recognize in Nocomis
the name of the daughter of the Moon ^ and mother of "Wenonah
(Nokomis), corrected by classical standard ! and in Meda the title
of a " medicine man " (not " a classical feminine name"). Other
names are geographical or individual.
In the excellent report to the International Zoological Congress,
by Dr. Raphael Blanchard (1889), it was remarked that it would
be generally conceded that naturalists have almost completely
exhausted the Greek and Latin words, simple and compound,
possible to attribute to animals.^
But the classic languages are even yet, although about one hun-
dred thousand names ^ grace or cumber the nomenclators, far from
being completely exploited. To some of lis, indeed, the diffi-
culty in determining upon a new name is that of selection of
several that are conjured up by the imagination rather than the
coining of a single one.
Besides the methods of name-making generally resorted to,
there are others that have been little employed. Among the few
who have resorted to other than the regular conventional ways is
the illustrious actual President of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science. His long list of generic names
proposed in the various departments of zoology embraces many
of unusual origin, and almost always well formed, elegant, and
1 " From the full moon fell Nokomis,
Fell the beautiful Nokomis."
The Song of Hiawatha, III., lines 4, 5.
2 "On conviendra que les naturalistes ont dii ('■puiser a peu pr^s compl^tement la
liste des mots grecs ou latins, simples ou compos(58, qu'il ^tait possible d'attribuer aux
animaux." Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xiv. 223.
3 The number one hundred thousand includes duplicates and variants.
152 SECTION F.
euphonious. I can only adduce a few of the wa3's of naming
illustrated by classical examples.
In ancient Greek there are numerous words ending in -ms, and
man}' substantives with that termination are names of animals
given in allusion to some special characteristic.
Acanthias is the designation of a shark, especially distin-
guished by the development of a spine at the front of each dorsal
fin; the name is derived from aKavOa, spine, and the terminal
element.
Acontias is the name of "a quick-darting serpent," and the
main component is aKwr, a dart or javelin.
Anthias is the name of a fish found in the Mediterranean and
distinguished by the brilliancy of its color; evidently it was
based on IvOo'i^ a flower. The color of the fish may remind one
of a showy flower.
Xiphias is the ancient as well as zoological designation of the
sword-fish; it was plainly coined from ^t^oc, a sword.
These four names give some idea of the range of utility of the
particle in question; they involve the ideas of defensive arma-
ture, off'eusive armature, ornamentation, and action.
A number of names have been framed by modern zoologists in
conformity with such models. Such are Stoviias (named b}' the
Greek scholar and naturalist, Schneider) and Ceratias, — types
of the families StomiidcB (generally written 'Stomiatidce) and
Ceratiidce. Tamias is another name, well known in connection
with the chipmunk.
But there is room for many more of like structure. For ex-
amples, peculiarities of various parts might be hinted at by such
words as Car'ias or Cephalias or Cottdlas or Cottias (for animals
having some distinctive character in the head), Chirias (hand
or hand-like organ), Gnathias (jaw), Podias (feet), Thoracias
(thorax), and many others of analogous import.
Another termination which might be used advantageously
instead of the too often used -aides is the patronymic suffix -ides.
This would be specially useful where genetic relationship is de-
sired to be indicated. We have many such models in classical
literature, as Alcides, the son of Alcoeus, Atrides, the son of
Atreus, Pel ides, the son of Peleus, ^acides, the grandson of
^acus, and the like.
Another source for help in name-making is in the several
ADDRESS BY THEODORK GILL. 153
intensive Greek particles occurring as prefixes of various names.
The chief of these prefixes are ayi-^ ari-^ da-, eri-, eu-, and za-.
Eu- has been so very often drafted into use that relief and variety
maj' be found by resorting to the others.
Ari- ("A/n-) occurs often in classical words, as apihaKpvs, very
tearful, upi8t]X.<)^., very plain, and apnrpe7rq<s, very show}'.
Da (A5-) is illustrated by such names as ddo-Kios (daskios,
shaded) and Sa^on'o? (daphoinos, deep red), — convert them, if
you will, into Dascius and Daplioenus. Numerous names may
be made on the model, although in classical Greek there are few.
Eri- ('Ept-) is used in the same waj' as Ari-, and is familiar in
ancient Greek as a particle of such words as ipiavyij<s (very
brilliant) and ipLavxrj^ (with a high arched neck). The common
large seal of northern Europe {Erifjnathus harhatus) has received
its generic name, based on the same model, on account of the
depth of the jaws. Very few naturalists, however, have availed
themselves of this particle for name-making, most of the words
in the zoological nomenclators commencing with Eri- having
other origins.
Za- (Za-) is met with in such words as ^drjs (strong blowing),
^a.Oepr]s (very hot), CaKa\Xr/s (very beautiful), (a.TrX.ovTO'; (very rich),
^aTTOTT/? (a hard drinker). The particle has been utilized in the
composition of the generic name {Zalophus) of the common sea-
lion, distinguished by its high sagittal crest (^a- and X6cf>o<;, crest),
familiar to menagerie visitors, and the residents and travellers in
San Francisco. Professor Cope has also made use of it for
several of his names.
^Ye have been told by ancient writers that Cicero was a name
derived from cicer, a vetch. According to Plin3% the name (like
Fahius and Lentulus) was obtained on account of ancestral skill
in cultivation of the plant; but, according to Plutarch, the origi-
nal of the name was so called because he had a vetch-like wen
on his nose.-' Which one (if either) was the fact is of no material
consequence. The etymological propriety of both is sanctioned
by the suppositions of classical writers. There can then be no
valid objection to other names formed on the model.
There is one rule which has been put in such a form (and with-
out proper exceptions) that a number of names, improper accord-
1 Those familiar with the " Spectator " may recall Addison's allusion to this (No. 59).
See also Middleton's Life of Cicero.
154 SECTION F,
ing to classical standards, have been introduced. The rule is
that the aspirate of Greek should be rendered by h. While this
is true for the commencement of a name, it is not for the body,
where it generally is suppressed, being sonant only after j-^, t,
or k. The Greeks, accordingly, wrote Phil'ippos (<I>tAt7r7ros) and
Ephippus ("£(^177770?). In accordance with such models Mesohippus
and Orohippus should have been called Mesippus and Orlpjms,
Protohippus should have been Prothlppms. Epih'xppus might by
some be considered to be preoccupied by Ephippus, a genus of
fishes. But, in my opinion, all the names should be retained as
they are (if there is no other objection), on the assumption that
more confusion would result from sacrifice of priority than of
classical excellence.
From names as names, I proceed to the consideration of fitting
them to groups.
TTPONYMS.
The question what is necessary to insure reception of a generic
name is one of those concerning which there is difference of
opinion. By some a definition is considered to be requisite, while
by others the specification of a type is only required. But the
demand in such case is simply that the definition shall be made.
It may be inaccurate or not to the point; it may be given up at
once, and never adopted by the author himself ■ afterwards, or by
any one else. Nevertheless, the condition is fulfilled by the
attempt to give the definition. In short, the attempt is required
in order that the competency (or its want) of the uamer may be
known, and if incompetency is shown thereby — no matter!
The attempt has been made. The indication by a type is not
sufficient.
Any one who has had occasion to investigate the history of
some large group must have been often perplexed in determining
on what special subdivision of a disintegrated genus the original
name should be settled. The old genus ma}' have been a very
comprehensive one, covering many genera, and even families of
modern zoolog}^ and of course the investigator has to ignore
the original diagnosis. He must often acknowledge how much
better it would have been if the genus had been originally' indi-
cated by a type rather than a diagnosis. Many naturalists, there-
fore, now recognize a typonym to be eligible as a generic name.
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 155
Among such are those guided by the code formulated by the
American Ornithologists' Union, to which reference may be
made, and in which will be found some judicious remarks on the
subject under " Canon XLII." Certainly it is more rational to
accept a tvponym than to require a definition for show rather
than use. Nevertheless, I fully recognize the obligation of the
genus-maker to indicate by diagnosis, as well as type, his con-
ception of generic characters.
FIRST SPECIES OF A GENUS NOT ITS TYPE.
On account of the difficulty of determining the applicability of
a generic name when a large genus is to be subdivided, it has been
the practice of some zoologists to take the first species of a genus
as its type. This, it has been claimed, is in pursuance of the law
of priority. It is, however, an extreme, if not illegitimate, exten-
sion of the law, and has generally been discarded in recent years.
But in the past, it had eminent advocates, such as George Robert
Gray in Ornithology, and Pieter Van Bleeker in Ichthyology.
A few still adhere to the practice, and within a few months two
excellent zoologists have defended their application of names by
statements that the first species of the old genera justified their
procedure. The contention of one involves the names which shall
be given to the crayfishes and lobsters.
It is evident that the fathers of zoological nomenclature never
contemplated such a treatment of their names, and the application
of the rule to their genera would result in some curious and unex-
pected conditions. Let us see how some genera of Linnseus
would fare. The first species of Plioca was the fur seal, the first
species of Mustela the sea-otter, the first of Mus the guinea-pig,
and the first of Cervus was the giraffe. These are suflBcient to
show what incongruities would flow from the adoption of the rule.
CHOICE OF NAMES SIMULTANEOUSLY PUBLISHED.
There is another issue of nomenclature involving many genera.
In the same work different names have been given to representa-
tives or stages of what are now considered the same genus. For
example, Lacepede, in the third volume of his " Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons," published two names, Cephalacanthus and Dacty-
lopterus^ the former given to the young and the latter to the adult
stage of the flying gurnard. Cephalacanthus appeared on page
156
SECTION F.
323, aud Dactylopterus on page 325. Dactylopterus is the name
that has been generally adopted for the genus, but some excellent
naturalists now insist on the resurrection and I'etention of Cephala-
canthus, for the reason that the latter was the first given name.
In connection with an analogous case, it was urged that " the law of
primogeniture applies to twins." There is a fallacy involved in
such a comparison, which becomes obvious enough on considera-
tion. In the case of twins, the birth of one precedes that of the
other by a very appreciable interval of time. But in the case of
names appearing in the same volume (issued as a whole) the pub-
lication is necessarily simultaneous. It is therefore, it appears to
me, perfectly logical to take the most appropriate name, or to fol-
low the zoologist who first selected one of the names. In the case
of Ihicfijlopterua^ there would be the further advantage that the
current nomenclature would not be disturbed.
It is interesting to note that those who have acted on the prin-
ciple just condemned do not feel called upon to accept the first
species of a geuus as its type.
MAJOR GROUPS AND THEIR NOMENCLATURE.
Another subject to which I would invite your attention is the
amouut of subdivision of the animal kingdom which is expedient,
and the nomenclature of such subdivisions.
Linnaeus only admitted four categories, — class, order, genus,
and species. These suflSced for most naturalists during the
entire past centur}'. Only one naturalist — Gottlieb Conrad
Christian Storr — went into much greater detail ; he admitted as
many as eleven categories, which may be roughly compared with
modern gi'oups as follows : —
Agmen
Rubrisanguia
Subkingdoni
Acies
[= Vertebrata]
K Warm-blooded \
\ Cold-blooded \
Superclass
Class
Mammalia
i Pedata )
Class
Phalanx
\ Pinuepedia >
Subclass
'
( Pinnata )
Cohors
Ordo
( Unguiculata )
\ Ungulata )
Superorder
Order
Missus
Suborder
Seotio
Family
Ctetus
Subfamily
Genus
Genus
Species
Species
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 157
These groups are really not exactly comparable with any of
I'ecent systeniatists, inasmuch as Storr proceeded from a physio-
logical instead of a morphological base in his classification. The
only work in which this classification was exhibited was in his
"Prodromus Methodi Mammalium," published in 1780.
With this exception, the naturalists of the last century 2^r«c^«-
cally recognized only four categories, — species, genera, orders,
and classes. Families v,-ere introduced into the system by
Latreille. The word "'family," it is true, was not unknown
previously, but it had been used only as a synonym for order.
In botany such usage even prevails, to some extent, at the present
day, and persists as a heritage of the past. The French botanists
used "famille" as the equivalent of "ordo." Our English and
American botanists followed and used "order" as the more scien-
tific designation, and "family" as a popular one; Gray, for ex-
ample, calling the family represented by the buttercups the "Order
Ranunculaceae," or " Crowfoot Family." But in zoology the two
names became early differentiated, and while order was continued
in use with the approximate limits assigned to it by Linufeus,
family was interposed as a new category, intermediate between the
order and genus. At first this category generally was given a de-
scriptive designation ; but soon the tendency to employ, as a part
of the designation, the stem of the principal generic name, became
marked, and the use of the patronymic suffix -ida'. in connection
with a geneiT^ name was adopted, and, as time has advanced, has
become more and more general. But the assent to this method
is not universal. There are still some excellent zoologists who
refuse to be bound by the rule, and who adopt the oldest family
name, whether it be denominative or patronymic, and whatever
may be the termination.
The fi,ve categories thus recognized were \Qvy generally ad-
mitted, and for a long time were the only ones recognized by
many naturalists. But gradually suborders, subfamilies, and
subgenera were taken up. Further, the word "tribe" was often
used, but with different applications. Still other divisions were
occasionally introduced, but the most elaborate of all the schemes
for gradation of the groups of the animal kingdom were those
proposed by Bleeker and Haeckel.^ They are reproduced in the
1 Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, ii. 400.
158
SECTION F.
following parallel columns, in which their applications to fishes
and mammals are likewise shown.
Vertebrata
Pliylum
Pachycardia
Subphylum
AUantoidia
Cladus
Subcladus
Mammalia
Classis
Classis
Pisces
Monodelphia
Subclassis
Subclassis
Monopnoi
Divisio
Dirhinichthyes
Deciduata
Legio
Legio
Eleuthernr/nathi
Discoplacentalia
Sublegio
Sublegio
Ctenobranchii
Series
Isopleuri
Subseries
Ka non ikoderm i
Phalanx
Alethinichthyes
Subphalanx
Neopoiesichthyes
Caterva
Katapieseoce/)hali
Rodentia
Ordo
Ordo
Percce
Subordo
Subordo
Percichthyini [sic !]
Myomorpha
Sectio
Subsectio
Sectio
Paristemipteri
Tribus
Percichihyini [sic !]
Murina
Familia
Familia
Percoidei
Subfamilia
Subfamilia
Percajormes
Arvicolida
Tribus
Cohors
Hypudai
Subtribus
Stirps
Arvicola
Genus
Subgenus
Genus
Perca
Paludicola
Cohors
Subcoliors
Arvicola amphibius
Species
Subspecies
Species
Perca Jluviatilis
Arvicola {amphibius
) Varietas
terrestris
Arvicola (ampliibiut
! Subvarietas
terrestris) argen-
•
toratensis
Here we have a total of 31 categories intermediate between the
kingdom and the individual of an animal form. The tools have
become too numerous, and some were rarely used by the authors
themselves. Thus the cohors and stirps were not called into
requisition by Bleeker for the Percoidei (though they were for the
subdivision of the Cyprinoidei), and in the recent classification
of the Radiolariaus, Professor Haeckel did not find it necessary
to draw upon the tribus or subtribus for the arrangement of
any famil3^ None others have adopted in detail either of the
elaborate schemes proposed by their distinguished authors, and
even those authors themselves have not, in their later works, gone
into the details they provided for in their schemes. The only
divisional name that has been used to any great extent is tribe.
That has been frequentl}' employed, but in different ways, — some-
times for the division of an order, sometimes within a suborder,
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 159
sometimes for a section of a family, again for a part of a sub-
family, and even for a fragment of a genus. ^ In two of these
widely differing ways it has been used in the systems of Bleeker
and Haeckel. It is evident, however, that more groups than the
old conventional ones, which alone Agassiz admitted, would be
useful at the present. A happy mean seems to me to be realized
in the following list: —
Branch Superfamily
Subbranch Family
Superclass Subfamily
Class Supergenus
Subclass Genus
Superorder Subgenus
Order Species
Suborder ^Subspecies.
There are only two (or three for trinomial ists) of these which
are "sonant," all the others being "mute" (to use the expression
of Linnaeus) ; but a question of termination affects several of
them.
All the supergeneric groups, like families, were originally
chiefly designated by descriptive names, but the trend in all the
years has been towards names which are based on the stems of
existing genera.
FAMILY.
In 1796 (" an 5 de la R."), Latreille, in his " Pre'cis des Carac-
teres generiques des Insectes," for the first time employed the
term "family" as a subdivision of an order, but only gave the
families numbers ("Famille premiere," "Fam. 2," etc.).- He
remarked that it might be desirable to have the families named,
but deferred doing so till he could review the subject with greater
care.^
In 1798 (" an 6 "), Cuvier, in his " Tableau Elementaire de
I'Histoire naturelle des Animaux," in the introduction, when
treating of graded characters {^'' caraderes gradues")^ named
1 The words Phalanx, Cohors, and Series (if not others) have been used recently in
another manner by Dr. F. A. Smitt in the '' History of Scandinavian Fishes." The
sequence in that work is Classis, Ordo, Subordo, Phalanx, Cohors, Series, Familia,
Subfamilia, Genus, Subgenus, Species.
2 "Les rapports anatomiques, ceux de V Habitus, des metamorphoses, ont ^te mes
guides dans la formation des families. EUes sont precedees d'un chiffre arabe." p. ix.
3 " On eut desire que j'eusse donn^ des noms aux families; mais prevoyant que je
serois contraint d'y faire plusieurs changemens, j'eusse ainsi expos^ la nomenclature a
une vicissitude tres contraire h, I'avancement de la science." p. ix.
160 SECTION F.
only the genus, order, class, and the kingdom. lu the body of
the work, sometimes he used the word "family" instead of order
(as for the Birds), but for two orders of the Insects he formally
adopted a division into families which were regularly named.
The first (unnamed) order ("ordre"), with jaws and without
wings (" Des iusectes pourvus de m^choires, et sans ailes"),
was divided into several families (""plusieurs families naturelles "),
— " les Crustaces," " les Millepieds," " les Aracneides," and " les
Phtyreides." The order Nevropteres was disintegrated into three
families (" trois families naturelles"), — "les Libelles," "les
Perles," and " les Agnathes." The representatives of the other
(six) orders were distributed directly into genera.
This, so far as I have been able to discover, was the first time
in which an order of the animal kingdom was regularly divided
into named families, designated as such.
In 1806, Latreille, in his "Genera Crustaeeorum et Insectorum,"
gave names to families, but on no uniform plan, providing de-
scriptive names for some, as " Oxxjrhincl" for the Mai<jidean
crabs, — names based on typical genera, with a patronymic ter-
mination, as Palltiurinl and Astacifii, and, in other cases, names
also based on a typical genus but with a quasi plural form, as
PaguriL (In the same work, it may be well to add, Latreille
also admitted more categories than usual, using ten for the ani-
mal kingdom. — Sectio, Classis, Legio, Centutia, Cohors, Ordo,
Familia, Tribus, Genus, and Species.)
In 1806, A. M. Constant Dumeril, who had previously contrib-
uted tables of classification to Cuvier's "Leqons d'Anatomie
Comparee," and published his own " Siemens d'Histoire Xatu-
relle," brought out his " Zoologie Analytique." In this volume,
he gave anal3'tical tables for the entire animal kingdom, and
admitted families for all the classes. The families were generally
subordinated to orders; but when the structural diversity within
a class did not appear sufficient to require more than one "mute "
category, the order was sacrificed in favor of the family. His
families were generally very comprehensive, often very unnatural,
and mostly endowed with descriptive names. (He admitted no
more than five named categories in the animal kingdom, — class,
order, family, genus, and species.)
As we have seen, Cuvier, Latreille, Rafinesque, and others,
to some extent, used names ending in -ides and -Ini ; but the first
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 161
to fully recognize the advisability of using patronymic family
names universally was William Kirby, who has not often
received the credit for so doing, and is probably unknown to
most in such connection. Nevertheless, in a note to his memoir
on " Strepsiptera, anew Order of Insects proposed," he explicitly
introduced this important feature in systematic terminology.
He complained that Latreille's names "have not that harmony
and uniformity of termination which is necessary to make them
easil}^ retained by the memory." Continuing, he added, "If we
adopted a patronymic appellation for these sections, for instance,
Coleoptera Scai-abceidce, Coleoptera Stcqyhylinidce, Coleoptera
Sj)?i(erid{adcE, Orthoptera Gryllidce, etc., it would be liable to
no objection of this kind."
The suggestion thus made was heeded. The English natural-
ists (especially William Elford Leach and John Edward Gray)
soon applied the method inculcated, and from them it has spread
to the naturalists of every land; but the original impulse has been
forgotten. For this reason I have recalled the memory of Kirby 's
work.
But it was long before the expediency of this procedure was
universally recognized, and even yet there are dissentients. One
objection was that the termination -idee was not consistent with
Latin words. Professor Agassiz was never reconciled to such
names, and gave names of Greek origin the termination -oidce,
and those of Latin the ending -ince. In his system, too, there
was no distinction between families and subfamilies, both having
terminations in consonance with the origin of the stems, and not
the taxonomic value of the groups.
The endings -idee and -oidce have been often supposed to be
identical, and even in highly esteemed dictionaries (as " The
Imperial Dictionary of the English Language") the terminal ele-
ment of family names ending in -idee is derived from " cTSos,
resemblance." As already indicated, however, words so termi-
nated should be considered as patronymics. But those ending
in -oidce, 'oielei, and -oidea may be assumed to be direct com-
ponents with etSos.
In answer to the objection (by Burmeister for example) that
patronymic names are foreign to the genius of the Latin language,
or at least of Latin prose, the fact that such a poet as Vergil has
a large number shows that there is no pervading antagonism.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 11
162 SECTION F.
SUBFAMILY.
Next to the family, the term " subfamily " -was the earliest, and
has been the one most generally accepted of the groups now
adopted. But the name itself was not used till long after '•' family "
had come into general vogue. The chief subdivision of the fam-
ily had been named tribe, '■Hrihu" by Latreille, in 1806, and he
continued to use that term. C. S. Rafinesque, in 1815, used the
word subfamily, " sous-famille" for groups of the same relative
rank as the "tribu" of Latreille, but gave generally descriptive
names, with modified nominative plural endings (e.. g. Monodac-
ti/lia'), although sometimes he named the group after the principal
genus (e. ff. Percidia). The subfamily is now general!}' recog-
nized, and its ending rendered by -ince, or more seldom -ini or
-ina. This is rather a termination for Latin adjectives involving
the idea of relation or pertinence.
But, as has been already urged, the language of nomenclature
should not be bound by rules of strict philology. One of the
most useful devices of scientific terminology is the establishment
of terminations which indicate the nature or value of a group or
relation to the group to which some entity belongs.
The chemist has his terminations in -ates^ -ides, and -gens,
and does not deem it incumbent to defend his usage or to aban-
don his system, because some one might object to the want of
classical models. Nay, classical scholars themselves have
recognized the legitimacy and usefulness of such a method.
The ending -klcje, has been shown to have classical sanction
for both Greek and Latin, -lam has only classical sanction for
Latin words, and there is one oidea or -oidece — for which no
models are to be found in either language. But the convenience
of all those endings as indicative at once of the taxonomic value
of each group far outweighs any objection to them from the
philological side. "We are now confronted with the groups having
the -oidea ending.
SUPERFAMILT.
Experience has shown that for the exhibition of difference in
value of various groups and characters, more than the generally
accepted groups — families and subfamilies — are desirable.
Groups above the family, in the generality of their characters,
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 163
had been frequently adopted. A quarter century ago, I searched
for an available name and notation for such a group, and found
that the groups which I wished to recognize were most like those
that Dana had recognized in the Crustaceans, under the name of
subtribe, and given the ending -oidea. But the term "tribe "
had first been given and most generally used for a subdivision
of the famil}^, and consequently was ineligible for a group includ-
ing the family. Other names had been given to such groups, but
there were objections against them. In a communication to the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Volume
XX.) I used a new name — superfamily — and the termination
-oidea. The great advantage of the name was that it relieved the
memorj', and suggested at once what was meant by relation to a
familiar standard — family. The term has been quite generally
adopted, but there has been diversity of usage in the form of the
names, -oidece being frequently suffixed to the stem, and some-
times a descriptive name has been given. The only reason for
the ending -oidea is that it was first used in such connection;
-oidece has the advantage (or disadvantage?) that it is in conso-
nance with -idee and -inca. No provision has been made by the
German Zoological Societj^ for this category, their attention hav-
ing been confined to family and subfamily nomenclature.^
OTHER GROUPS.
Time does not permit of the consideration of the other groups,
— order, suborder, superorder, class, subclass, superclass, branch,
etc. Nevertheless, a caveat is in order that there appears to be
no reason why the principle of priority now so generally recog-
nized for the subordinate groups should not prevail for the
higher. Why should the name Amphibia disappear and
Batrachia and Reptilia usurp its place? Amphibia is a far better
name for the Batrachia, and in every way defensible for it. The
name had especial relation to it originally, and it was first re-
stricted to it as a class. Why should the names Sauria and
Serpeutes give place to Lacertilia and Ophidia? The first are
1 " Die Namen von Familien und Unterfamilien werden fortan von dem giiltigen
Namen einer zu diesen Gruppen gehorigen Gattung gebildet, und zwar die der Familien
durch Anhiingen derEndung idee (Plural von ides [gr. eiSTjg] niasc.gen.), die der Unter-
familien durch Anhangen der Endung ince (fem. gen.) an den Stamm des betreflfenden
Gattungsnamens." Regeln . . . von der Deutsch. Zool. Ges., § 28.
164 SECTION F.
names familiar to all, aud correctly formed ; the last are, at least,
strangely framed. V^'hy should not Meantia be adopted as an
ordinal name, by those who regard the Sirenids as representa-
tives of a distinct order, as did Linnaeus ? Why should not the
ordinal names Bruta, Ferte, Glires, and Cete prevail over Eden-
tata, Carnivora, Rodeutia, and Cetacea? If the rules formulated
by the various societies are applied to those groups, the earlier
names must be revived.
COMPLAINTS OF INSTABILITY OF NOMENCLATURE.
Frequent are the laments over the instability of our systematic
nomenclature ; bitter the complaints against those who change
names. But surely such complaints are unjust when urged against
those who range themselves under laws. We are forcibly reminded
by such complaints of the ancient apologue of the wolf and the
lamb. The stream of nomenclature has indeed been much muddied,
but it is due to the acts of those who refused to be bound by laws
or reason. The only way to purify the stream is to clear out all
the disturbing elements. In doing so, mud that has settled for
a time may be disturbed, but this is at worst anticipating what
would have inevitably happened sooner or later. "We are suffer-
ing from the ignorance or misdeeds of the past. In opposing the
necessary rectifications and the enforcement of the laws, extremes
may meet; conservatives and anarchists agree. But the majoi'ity
may be depended upon in time to subscribe to the laws, and the
perturbed condition will then cease to be.
It is unfortunate that our nomenclature should have been so
wedded to systematic zoology, and devised to express the differ-
ent phases of our knowledge or understanding of morphological
facts. Even under the binomial system, the disturbing element
might have been made much less than it is. The genera of Lin-
naeus recognized for the animal kingdom were generally very
comprehensive ; sometimes, as in the case of Petromyzon, Aste-
rias, and Echinus, answering to a modern class ; sometimes, like
Testudo, Rajia, Cancer, Seorjno, Aranea, Scolopendra, and Julus.,
to a modern order, or even more comprehensive group, and rarely,
among Vertebrates, to a group of less than family value. The
usage of Linnaeus for the animal kingdom was very different
from that for the vegetable kingdom. If the successors of Lin-
naeus had been content to take genera of like high rank (equiva-
ADDRESS BY THEODORE GILL. 165
lent to families, for example), and give other names to the
subdivisions (or subgenera) of such genera, which, to use the
language of Linnaeus, should be mute, less change "would have
subsequently resulted. But (Linnaeus himself leading) his suc-
cessors successively divided a genus, gradually accepting a lower
and lower standard of value, till now a genus is little more than
a multiform or very distinct isolated species. Yet the change has
been very gradual. It began by taking a comprehensive group,
recognizing that the differences between its representatives were
greater than those existing between certain genera already estab-
lished, and therefore the old genus was split up ; or it was per-
ceived that the characters used to define a genus were of less
systematic importance than others found within the limits of the old
genus, and, to bring into prominence such a truth, the genus was
disintegrated. The process often repeated, and from successively
contracted bases, has led to the present condition.
The existing system of restricted genera, however, is too firmly
fixed to revert back to a method that might have been, and which
indeed Cuvier attempted to introduce by his revised Linnoean
genera and their subgenera. The best thing to do now is to ac-
cept the current system, purified as much as possible by judicious
and inexorably applied laws. Doubtless in the distant future a
less cumbrous and changeable system of notation will be devised,
but in the mean time we had best put up with the present, incon-
venient though it be.
PAPERS PEAD.
TuESDAT, August 25.
Ok the entomological results of the exploration of the British
"West India Islands by the British Association for the Advance-
ment OF Science. By L. O. Howard, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C.
Warning colors, protective coloration, and protective mimicry. By
F. M. Webster, Wooster, Ohio.
On life zones in West Virginia. By A. D. Hopkins, Exper. Station,
Morgantown, W. Va.
On the variation of certain species op North American Odonata. By
D. S. Kellicott, Columbus, Ohio.
A case of excessive parasitism. By L. 0. Howard, Dept. of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.
Notes on the occurrence of dragonflies in Ohio in 1896. By D. S.
Kellicott, Columbus, Ohio.
SCTLLARUS AND AnEMONIA A CASE OF SEMI-COMMENSALISM. By EdWARD
L. Rice, Middletown, Conn.
Wednesday, August 26.
Notes upon Cordylophora. By Prof. C. W. Hargitt, Syracuse, N. Y.
Modification of the brain during growth. By Susanna Phelps Gage,
Ithaca, N. Y. (Published in American Naturalist, vol. xxx. p. 836.)
Note on the membranous roof of the prosencephal and diencephal of
Ganoids. By B. F. Kingsbury, Ithaca, N. Y.
Structure and morphology of the oblongata of fishes. By B. F.
Kingsbury, Ithaca, N. Y.
Differentiation of work in zoology — in secondary schools. By
William Orr, Jr., Springfield, Mass.
Field work and its utility. By Jas. G. Needham, Galesburg, Ills.
Appendages of an insect larva. By Agnes M. Claypole, Wellesley,
Mass.
168 SECTION F.
Thursday, August 27.
The peritoneal epithelium in Amphibia. By Isabella M. Green, Ithaca,
N. Y.
The heart of the lungless salamanders of Cayuga Lake. By Grant
S. Hopkins, Ithaca, N. Y. (Published in American N^aturalist, vol. xxx.
p. 829.)
Observations on the chameleon, Anolis principalis. By Rev. George
V. Reichel, Brockport, N. Y.
Energy in animal nutrition. Relative efficiency of animals as
machines. By Prof. Manly Miles, Lansing, Mich. (Published in Ameri-
can Naturalist, vol. xxx. p. 784.)
Some abnormal chick embryos. By Prof. C. W. Hargitt, Syracuse,
N. Y.
On a peculiar fusion of the gill-filaments in certain Lamelli-
bbanchs. B}^ Edward L. Rice, Middletown, Gt.
Experibients upon heteromorphosis and regeneration. By Prof. C. W.
Hargitt, Syracuse, N. Y.
The penial structures of the Saurias. By Prof. Edward D. Cope,
Philadelphia, Pa. (Published by abstract in Science, N. S., iv. 561.)
The relationships of the North American fauna. By Prof. Theodore
Gill, Columbian University, Washington, D. C.
Note. — The paper on The bone-fissure at Port Kennedy, by Edward
D. Cope, was given as a public lecture, Thursday evening.
The paper by Fred K. Mixer, on A new fish fauna of the waterlime,
was withdrawn to be read in Section E.
Section adjourned Thursday Evening.
SECTION G.
BOTANY.
OFFICERS OF SECTION G.
Vice-President and Chairman of the Section.
N. L. Brixton, New York, N. Y.
Secretary.
George F. Atkinson, Ithaca, N. Y.
Councillor.
L. M. Underwood, New York, N. Y.
Sectional Committee.
N. L. Brixton, New York, N. Y., Vice-President, 1896.
George F. Atkinson, Ithaca, N. Y., Secretary, 1896.
J. C. Arthur, Lafayette, Ind., Vice-President, 1895.
M. B. Waite, Washington, D. C, Secretary, 1895.
W. A. Kellerman, Columbus, Ohio.
S. M. Tract, Starkville, Miss.
D. F. Day, Buffalo, N. Y. .
Member of Nominating Committee.
F. C. Newcombb, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Committee to Nominate Officers of Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary ; and T. C. McBride, Iowa City, Iowa ;
L. R Jones, Burlington, Vermont; C. L. Pollard, Washington, D. C.
Press Secretary.
D. T. MacDocgal, Minneapolis, Minn.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
NATHANIEL LORD BRITTON,
CHAIRMAN OF SECTION G.
BOTANICAL GARDENS.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMKNT.
The cultivation of plants within small areas for their healing
qualities by the monks of the Middle Ages appears to have been the
beginning of the modern botanical garden, although these mediaeval
gardens doubtless took their origin from others of greater antiquit5\
Botanical gardens were thus primarih' formed for purel}' utilitarian
purposes, although the aesthetic study of planting and of flowers
must doubtless have appealed to their owners and visitors. Their
function as aids in scientific teaching and research, the one which
at present furnishes the dominating reason for their existence, did
not develop much, if at all, before the sixteenth centuiy, and prior
to the middle of the seventeenth century a considerable number
existed in Europe in which this function was recognized to a
greater or less degree, of which those at Bologna, Montpellier,
Lej'den, Paris, and Upsala were perhaps the most noteworthy.
The ornamental and decorative taste for planting bad meanwhile
been slowly gaining ground, as well as the desire to cultivate rare
or unusual species, and during the eighteenth century attained a
high degree of development. Many persons of wealth and influence
fostered this taste and became, through the employment of men
skilled in botan}' and horticulture, generous patrons of science.
The world was searched for new and rare plants, which were
brought home to Europe for cultivation, and many sumptuous vol-
umes, describing and delineating them, were published, mainly
through the same patronage. The older gardens were essentially
(171)
172 SECTION G.
private institutions, but as the rights of the people became more
and more recognized, many existing establishments and an increas-
ing number of newl}^ founded ones became, to a greater or less ex-
tent, open to the public, either through an admittance fee or without
charge. The four main elements of the modern botanical garden
have thus been brought into it successively : —
1. The utilitarian or economic.
2. The aesthetic.
3. The scientific or biologic.
4. The philanthropic.
These four elements have been given different degrees of prom-
inence, depending mainly upon local conditions, some gardens being
essentiall}' aesthetic, some mainl}' scientific, while in our public
parks we find the philanthropic function as the underlying feature,
usualh' accompanied by more or less of the aesthetic and scientific.
Tlie Economic Element. — In the broadest extension of this de-
partment of a botanical garden there might be included, to advan-
tage, facilities for the display and investigation of all plants directly
or indirectly useful to man, and their products. This conception
would include forestr}', pharmacognosy, agriculture, pomology,
pathology, and organic chemistry, and, in case the management
regards bacteria as plants, bacteriology.
The displa}' of the plants may be effected by growing such of
them as will exist without protection in the locality' in a plot, more
or less individualized, commonly known as the Economic Garden,
while those too tender for cultivation in the open are grown in the
greenhouses, either in a separate house or section, or scattered
through the several houses or sections, in the temperatures best
adapted to their growth. The display of plant products, best
accompanied b}' mounted specimens of the species 3-ielding them,
b}' photographs and by plates, is accomplished by the Economic
Museum, where these are arranged in glass or glass-fronted cases,
suitably classified and labelled. It is believed that the most useful
results are obtained b}' arranging this museum by the products
themselves, and thus not in biologic sequence, but b}- bringing to-
gether all drugs, all fibres, all woods, all resins ; where the same
product is used in more than one industr}' the exhibit may be dupli-
cated, more or less modified, without disadvantage.
The investigation of economic plants and their products is accom-
plished through the Scientific Department, and few valuable results
ADDRESS BY NATHANIEL LORD BRIXTON. 173
can be reached unless the scientific equipment is well developed.
The two departments must work conjointl}-, both on account of the
necessity- of knowing just what species is under investigation, its
structure, distribution, and literature, and in order that the most
approved and exact methods ma}- be used in the research. Anj-
idea that the scientific element can be dispensed with in connection
with economic studies is palpabl}- untenable.
Teaching and research in agriculture, pomology, and plant
pathology are so well organized in America, through our National
Department of Agriculture and our numerous agricultural colleges
and schools, that there is no great necessity for providing elaborate
equipments for those branches in botanical gardens. But in case
the endowment of a garden were sufficiently large to enable them
to be successfulh- prosecuted, in addition to more necessary work,
there can be no doubt that important additions to knowledge would
be obtained. On the other hand, no such liberal allowances have
been made with us for forestry or pharmacognos}', and research
and instruction in these sciences must prove of the greatest benefit
to the countr}'.
The Esthetic Element. — The buildings, roads, paths, and plant-
ing of a botanical garden should be constructed and arranged with
reference to tasteful and decorative landscape effect. The possi-
bilities of treatment will depend largely upon the topographical
character of the area selected and the natural vegetation of the
tract. The buildings required are a fire-proof structure or struc-
tures for museum, herbarium, libraries, laboratories, and offices ; a
glass house with compartments kept at several different tempera-
tures for exhibition, propagation, and experimentation, or several
separate glass houses ; and to these will usually be added dwelling-
houses for some of the officers, a stable, and other minor buildings.
The character, number, and sizes of the buildings generally depend
on financial considerations. In placing the structures intended for
the visiting public, considerations of convenient access, satisfactory'
water supply, and the distribution of crowds must be borne in mind,
in connection with the landscape design. The planting should
follow, as nearly as possible, a natural treatment, except immedi-
ately around the larger buildings and at the entrances, where con-
siderable formality is desirable for architectural reasons. It is
especially desirable that as much natural treatment as possible
should be given to the areas devoted to systematic planting, — her-
174 SECTION G.
baceous grounds, fruticetum, arboretum. The rectilinear arrange-
ment of plant beds found in most of the older gardens has become
abhorrent to landscape lovers, and the sequence of families desired
can usually be quite as well obtained by means of curved-margined
groups.
The cultivation of decorative plants, and especially the fostering
of a taste for them, and the bringing of unusual or new species to
attention and effecting their general introduction, are important
functions of a botanical gaixlen. For the accurate determination of
these plants, information concerning their habits and structure, and
suggestions regarding the conditions of their growth, the sesthetie
side must relj' on the scientific.
The Scientific or Biologic Element. — The important relations of
the scientific department to the economic and aesthetic have already
been alluded to. The Ubrar}', herbarium, museums, and laboratories
are the sources whence exact information regarding the name,
structure, habits, life processes, and products of plants are derived,
and they are the more useful as they are the more complete and
thoroughly equipped. It is practically impossible for any one
library to have all the literature of botany and related sciences,
any one herbarium to possess an authentic and complete representa-
tion of all species of plants, or any one museum to be thoroughl}'
illustrative ; absolute perfection along these lines cannot be ob-
tained, but the more closely it is approximated' the better the
results. The research work of the scientific department should be
organized along all lines of botanical inquiry, including taxonomy,
morphology, anatomy, physiology, and paleontology, and the labora-
tories should afford ample opportunities and equipment for their
successful prosecution.
The arrangement of the areas devoted to systematic planting, and
the proper labelling of the species grown, are important duties of
the scientific department. The sequence of classes, orders, and
families is usually made to follow some " botanical system." It is
highly desirable that this should be a system which indicates the
natural relations of the families, as understood at the time the gar-
den is laid out, and be elastic enough to admit of subsequent
modification as more exact information relative to those relation-
ships is obtained. The weight of present opinion is overwhelmingly
in favor of an arrangement from the more simple to the more com-
plex, and this will apply not only to the systematic plantations, but
to the systematic museum and the herbarium.
ADDRESS BY NATHANIEL LORD BRIXTON. 175
The scientific possibilities of a botanical garden are the greater
if an organic or co-operative relationship exists between it and a
universit}', thus affording ready facilities for information on other
sciences.
The Philanthropic Element. — A botanical garden operates as a
valuable philanthropic agency, both directly and indirectly. Its
direct influence lies through its affording an orderly arranged insti-
tution for the instruction, information, and recreation of the people,
and it is more efficient for these purposes than a park, as it is more
completely developed and liberall}- maintained. Its indirect, but
equally important, philanthropic operation is through the discovery
and dissemination of facts concerning plants and their products,
obtained through the studies of the scientific staff and by others
using the scientific equipment.
NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF BOTANICAL GARDENS.
There are somewhat over 200 institutions denominated botanical
gardens, but on\y a few of them meet the requirements of the fore-
going sketch. Some are essentially pleasure parks, with the plaiTts
more or less labelled ; most of them pay some attention to tax-
onomy and morpholog}', man}' to economic botau}', while a small
number are admirabl}' equipped in all branches of the science.
I have drawn freely on Professor Penhallow's first annual re-
port of the Montreal Botanical Garden, published in 1886, for
the following approximate statement of the number in difl'erent
countries : —
Algeria, 1. Egypt, 1.
Australia, 5. France, 22.
Austro-Hungary, 13. Germany, 36.
Belgium, 5. Great Britain and Ireland, 12.
Brazil, 2. Greece, 1.
Canada, 1. Guatemala, 1.
Canary Islands, 1. Guiana, 1.
Cape of Good Hope, 3. Holland, 4.
Ceylon, 1. India, 7.
Chili, 1. Italy, 23.
China, 1. Japan, 1.
Cochin China, 1. Java, 1.
Denmark, 2. Malta, 1.
Ecuador, 1. Mauritius, 1.
176 SECTION G.
Natal, 1. Servia, 1.
New Zealand, 1. Siberia, 1.
Norway, 1. Spain, 2.
Peru, 1. Straits Settlements, 1.
Philippine Islands, 1. Sweden, 6.
Portugal, 3. Switzerland, 4.
Reunion, 1. Tasmania, 1.
Rouraania, 2. United States, 10.
Russia, 16. West Indies, 6.
NOTES ON SOME FOREIGN GARDENS.
1. Buitenzorg, Java. This is the largest botanical garden,
occupying some 1,100 acu'es, at altitudes from sea level to about
6,000 feet. It was founded by the Dutch government in 1817, and
has been well supported. Affording as it does highly favorable
conditions for the growth of tropical and subtropical plants under
natural conditions, it has yielded most important results, especially
in taxonom}' and plant phj'siology, many of which have been pub-
lished in the ten large volumes of its " Annales."
2. The Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew are situated on the south
bank of the Thames, about six miles west of Hyde Park Corner.
The}- are reached by several railway routes, the time from Charing
Cross being about fort}' minutes, b}- steamer, and by omnibus lines.
The present area of the gardens is about 260 acres, an addition
having been made during the past year. These world-famed gar-
dens originated in the exotic garden of Lord Capel, in 1759. In
1840 the}' were adopted as a national establishment and opened as
a public pai'k. Tbe botanic garden proper occupies about seventy
acres, and the remainder is given to arboretum and pleasure grounds.
There are two main greenhouses : 1. The palm house, 362 feet long,
tbe central dome rising 66 feet ; 2. The temperate house, of which
the central portion is 212 feet long, 137 feet broad, and about 60
feet high, flanked by wings which give a total length of about 580
feet, the whole covering between one and one and one half acres of
ground. There are also fourteen other houses, grouped in two
ranges and more or less connected, given to special collections.
There are three botanical museums: 1. Devoted to economic pro-
ducts ; 2. to miscellaneous products ; 3. to timbers. There is also
a large museum hall given to the exhibition of floral paintings by
the late Marienne North. There is a small laboratory equipped for
ADDRESS BY NATHANIEL LORD BRIXTON. 177
research in physiological botany. The herbarinm and librarj' occup}'
the old palace of the King of Hanover, near the main entrance to
the garden, and they are the largest and most complete in the
world. The herbaceous ground is planted in long parallel beds, and
contains several thousand species. The arboretum is thoroughly
illustrative of all trees that will grow in the open at Kew, and the
shrubs are, for the most part, cultivated in areas by themselves.
There are numerous special features, such as the rock garden, the
bamboo garden, and the American garden.
The research work of Kew is principally economic and taxonomic.
Around it centre the twent^'-four botanical gardens and botanical
stations of the British colonies, which are manned chiefly bj- men
who have studied or worked at Kew. The principal publications
at present emanating from Kew are : —
1. The Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information.
2. Hooker's Icones Plantarum.
3. The Continuation of Hooker's Flora of India.
4. The Continuation of the Flora of Tropical Africa.
5. Annual Reports.
6. The Index Kewensis.
The monographs and separate writings of its staff of scientific
men are too numerous to review at this point.
3. The Ro3'al Botanical Garden of Berlin is situated in the south-
western part of the citv, but a project for moving it out into the
countr}- is now being seriously considered. The palm house reaches
a height of about ninety feet, being the highest one vet constructed,
and too high for satisfactory operation. The botanical museum is
very extensive, and has series of economic, s\-stematic, and archaeo-
logical collections. The herbarium is one of the largest in the
world. The systematic beds are arranged on a strictly modern se-
quence, and portions of the garden are devoted to plant geography
and plant biolog}-. The arboretum is not extensive. Among special
features ma}' be mentioned the alpine garden and the collections of
Cacti. The garden is an institute of the Universit}', where the prin-
cipal laboratories are situated. There is also an institute of plant
ph3-siolog3', with a small separate garden. The official publications
of the Berlin Garden are the " Notizblatt" and annual reports. A
series of volumes of '^ Jahrbiicher " was issued some years ago.
The publications of the garden staff are A'oluminous, and cover all
lines of botanical inquir}-.
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 12
178 SECTION G.
4. The long established " Jardin des Plantes," the gardens of
the Museum of Natural History at Paris, are situated in the heart
of the cit^-, fronting on the Seine. The conservatories are grouped
near the main museum building, at one end of the grounds, are
xevy large, and contain a great variet}- of plants. The botanical
librar3-, laboratories, and the enormous herbarium are in a separate
older building. The sj'stematic beds are arranged in rows ; owing
to the limited size of the area devoted to them they are much
crowded, but contain a splendid assortment of species. But little
space is given to trees ; there are, however, some famous specimens.
Many valuable contributions to the literature of botau}' along all
its lines have emanated from this grand institution for over one
hundred years, published for the most part in the " Anuales " and
" Archives " of the Museum of Natural History', and in the Bulletin
of the Botanical Societ}' of France.
5. The Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna was estab-
lished about 1754, and is located in the heart of the cit}'. There
are here verj' important and extensive museums, herbaria, and
libraries, and one large fine greenhouse. The S3'stematic plantations
occup3" the larger portion of the tract, and special ai-eas are devoted
to the cultivation of medicinal and other economic plants, to an
arboretum of native trees, and to groups illustrating plant geog-
raph}'. The garden and associated laboratories provide equipment
for the prosecution of all lines of botanical reseaj*ch.
6. The Botanical Garden of Geneva was founded in 1817, and is
situated in the heart of the city, near the University. There are
two small greenhouses, a verv large and important herbarium and
librar}', and a small museum. The laboratories of the University
are extensive and well equipped, affording capital facilities for
work along; all lines of botanical investigation. The De Candolle
herbarium and library, and the Boissier herbarium and library,
which are near bj-, afford, in connection with the collections of the
garden, unsurpassed facilities for taxonoraic stud}'.
7. The Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh covers about sixty
acres, of which about one half was added to the older portion some
twelve years ago ; there are possibilities of still further enlargement.
The main si'eenhouses have a frontage of about two hundred feet,
the palm house rising some seventy feet, and there are six small
special houses. The botanical museum, lecture room, and labora-
tories are in one building, the large herbarium and library in
ADDRESS BY NATHANIEL LORD BRIXTON. 179
another. The sj'stematic plantations of herbaceous species are ex-
tensive, the rock garden being an especially strong feature. The
development of arboretum and fruticetum in the newer portion of
the tract has made good progress. The institution is in intimate
relationship with the Universit}-. nearly all the instruction in botanj-
being given at the garden. The research work has been extensive,
along taxonomic, morphologic, and physiologic lines.
8. The Eoyal Botanic Garden of Dublin, situated at Glasnevin,
just without the cit}-, was founded through the influence of the Right
Honorable and Honorable Dublin Society', in 1790, was for many
years supported bj- this Society with the aid of government grants,
and was transferred to the Science and Art Department in 1877.
It includes about fortj- acres of undulating land, bounded to the
north b}- the small river Tolka. There are eight greenhouses, most
of them rather old, but containing a valuable collection. There is
a small botanical museum and herbarium. The systematic her-
baceous plantations are irregularly shaped beds, arranged in a
somewhat radial manner. The arboretum and fruticetum occup}'
about one half of the area.
9. The Brussels Botanical Garden lies in the heart of the city
and embraces not more than ten acres of land, of which about one
half is given to arboretum. The greenhouses are large but old.
There is a verj' extensive herbarium and libraiy. The sj'stematic
beds are arranged as quadrants of a circle, separated by concentric
and radial patJis. Special areas are devoted to ornamental and
economic plants. Owing to the restricted size of the area available
a ver}- dense grouping of plants is necessitated. The research
work accomplished here has been mainl}' taxonomic. The Botanical
Society of Belgium has its headquarters at the garden.
10. The Imperial Botanical Garden at St. Petersburg is in close
affiliation with the Academy of Sciences and the Universit}'. There
is here a famous herbarium, a large botanical library and museum,
and commodious and well stocked greenhouses. The garden pub-
lishes "Acta," and man}- reseai-ches prosecuted there are printed
in the Bulletin and Memoirs of the Imperial Academy.
11. The Royal Botanic Garden of Trinidad, situated at Port of
Spain, was established in 1818, and now occupies about sixt3'-three
acres, with some outlying plantations. There is a vast collection
of tropical plants in cultivation, an extensive botanical libraiy and
herbarium, and a small laboratory. The garden publishes " Annual
180 SECTION G.
Eeports " and " Bulletin," dealing especially with topics of economic
application.
12. The Botanical Department of Jamaica, West Indies, operates
extensive gardens at Kingston, smaller ones at Castleton, and the
scA-eral large Cinchona plantations. The scientific collections and
library are valuable. The department publishes " Annual Reports "
and "Bulletin," especially devoted to economic botany.
13. McGill Universit}', at Montreal, Quebec, carries on a small
botanical garden in connection with its laboratories. The Montreal
Botanic Garden, begun in 1885 on about seventy-five acres of
ground in Mount Ro3'al Park, was soon abandoned, owing to
political complications.
14. Among other foreign gardens of which mention must be
made, and of which a description would be interesting if our time
allowed, are those at Munich, Wiirzburg, Tubingen, Stockholm,
Copenhagen, Upsala, Zurich, Ceylon, Calcutta, and Oxford.
BOTANICAL GARDENS IN THE UNITED STATES.
The first botanical garden established in America was begun by
John Bartram in Philadelphia, in 1728. In it he placed a consider-
able number of plants obtained in the course of his extensive travels.
The plot still remains, including the family homestead, somewhat
modified, and it is a pleasure to know that it will be preserved as
public ground.
Andr^ Michaux, in the latter part of the last centur}', planted
gardens at Charleston, S. C, and New Durham, N. J., but they
were essentially nurseries from which he sent seeds and plants to
Europe.
In the year 1801 Dr. David Hosack, then Professor of Botany and
Materia Medica in Columbia College, purchased twent}' acres of
ground in New York City, and called it the Elgin Botanic Garden ;
in this tract he accumulated, with great labor, during the next ten
years, a very large and valuable collection of plants. The institu-
tion was transferred to the State of New York, through an Act of
the Legislature, m 1810, and was then known as the Botanic Gar-
den of the State of New York. It was subsequently granted to
Columbia College. Funds for its maintenance were not provided,
however, and it was ultimatel}' abandoned. Two catalogues of its
plants were issued by Dr. Hosack, one in 1806, and another in 1811.
ADDRESS BY NATHANIEL LORD BRIXTON. 181
The condition of botanical gardens in America at tliat time is indi-
cated b}' the following note in Dr. Hosack's catalogue of 180G : —
" I learn, with pleasure, that a Botanic Garden is proposed to be
established near Boston, and connected with the Universit}' of
Cambridge. The Legislature of Massachusetts, with a munificence
which does them honor, have granted, for this purpose, a tract of
land, the value of which is estimated at thirtj' thousand dollars ;
and several individuals have evinced their liberality and love of
science b}- voluntary subscriptions, to the amount of fifteen thousand
dollars, towards the establishment and support of that institution.
Another is also begun at Charleston, S. C, and a third is contem-
plated in New Jersey, in connection with the College of Princeton."
In the 3'ear 1824 there was published at Lexington, Ky., the
' ' First Catalogues and Circulars of the Botanical Garden of Tran-
sylvania Universit}' at Lexington, Ky., for the 3-ear 1824," by
W. H. Richardson, M. D., President of the Board of Managers,
and C. S. Eafinesque, Ph. D., Secretar}'. This rare pamphlet,
which is not recorded in Dr. Call's very complete life and writings
of Rafinesque, is of twent3'-four pages, and is printed alternately' in
English and French. It is essentiallj' an appeal for plants and
material for the garden, and a list of species that it could furnish to
kindred institutions. This garden was evidently short-lived, inas-
much as in Rafinesque's ''Neogenyton " of the following year,
1825, he remarks, "I mean, therefore, to indicate and propose in
this small essa}', many of the numerous new genera of plants de-
tected or ascertained, some of which were indicated last year, 1824,
in the Catalogue of the botanical garden which I have tried in vain
to establish in Lexington."
The principal gardens at present operated and in course of de-
velopment in the United States are as follows : —
1. The, Botanic Garden of Harvard University, at Cambridge,
Mass., founded in 1805. There are about seven acres of land
under cultivation, a small greenhouse, and a famous herbarium and
library, from which have flowed during the past forty years volu-
minous and invaluable contributions to taxonomy and morpholog}',
especially of North American plants. There is also a small morpho-
logic laborator}'. The main laboratories and museums connected
with the institution are situated in other of the Harvard buildings,
a short distance awa}'. The system of garden, libraries, museum,
laboratories, and herbaria operated b}' Harvard College is one of
182 SECTION G.
the most complete in existence. It is hard to sa}", indeed, in what
respect it is not ideal, except in the rather wide distance separating
the several elements, and the small amount of land available for
planting.
2. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard Universit}', at Jamaica
Plain, Mass., was founded through a bequest of $100,000, made
about 1870, by Mr. James Arnold, of Providence, R. I., to three
trustees, to be used for the improvement of agriculture or horticul-
ture. The trustees wisely determined to devote it to forestry and
dendrolog}', and effected co-operative agreements with Harvard
College and the cit}' of Boston, which have now given us the
gi'eatest tree museum in existence, freeh' open to the visiting
public. The planted area is about one hundred and sixty acres,
and will be materially increased in size. A small museum, librarj',
and herbarium building has been erected near the main entrance.
The great " Silva of North America" and the journal "Garden
and Forest" are noteworth}' publications from this noble insti-
tution.
3. The Botanic Gardens of the United States Department of
Agriculture, at Washington, have an extensive range of greenhouses
and a large tract of land under cultivation. The herbarium of the
department, now deposited with the United States National Museum,
is ver}' large, and is at present increasing moi'e rapidlj' than any
other in America. There is a somewhat effective working libraiy,
w^hich greatly needs material enlargement, and several poorly located
and equipped laboratories, in which a vast amount of important
investigation is being accomplished, under very unfavorable con-
ditions, which urgently demand improvement. Publications in-
clude : Bulletin of the Botanical Division, Bulletin of the Division
of Forestry, Bulletin of the Division of Plant Pathology and Physi-
ology, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium,
Year-Book of the United States Department of Agriculture, and
circulars of the several divisions.
4. The Missouri Botanical Garden, at St. Louis, Mo., was estab-
lished in 1889, through the provisions of the will of Mr. Henry
Shaw, who for over thirty years previously had been bringing
together material for it on the land about his residence, which was
known as Shaw's Garden. There were in all some six hundred and
sevent}' acres devised to the institution under the will of the gener-
ous and philanthropic founder, and from the income yielded by
ADDRESS BY NATHANIEL LORD BRIXTON. 183
much of this land, not nearly all the area being required for garden
purposes, the institution derives its large maintenance fund, which
will certainly be greatly increased as the land becomes more valu-
able, and will supplj- an income sufficient to operate the institution
in the most effective manner. There are several greenhouses, a
very large and ^■aluable herbarium and libraiy, while the laboratories
of the Shaw School of Botany, at Washington Universitj-, are in
close relationship to the garden. Much important research, princi-
palh' taxonomic, has been prosecuted. Publications consist of
seven volumes of Annual Reports, and nine " Contributions from
the Shaw School of Botany."
5. The Botanical Garden of the Michigan Agricultural College
was begun in 1877. There are now about three acres under high
cultivation, exclusive of the arboretum and decorative grounds,
which together cover several acres. There are several small green-
houses, an herbarium of about sixt}- thousand specimens, a good
botanical librarj', and extensive, well equipped laboratories.
6. The University of California, at Berkele}', has a botanical
garden of several acres, established some years ago, in which a
large number of plants are grown. It furnishes a valuable adjunct
to the work of the botanical department, which has well appointed
laboratories, a working library-, and a large herbarium.
7. The Universitj' of Pennsylvania has recently established a
garden of about three acres in the immediate vicinit}- of its build-
ing, in Philadelphia, and has many species under cultivation. The
extensive and well appointed laboratories of its School of Biologj',
good library facilities, and a small herbarium afford capital oppor-
tunit}' for research, especially in physiology' and morphology.
8. Smith College, at Northampton, Mass., has also recently
established a botanical garden, on the campus.
9. The Buffalo Botanical Garden, in South Park, Buffalo, N. Y.,
was commenced in 1893, and has since made rapid and encour-
aging progress. A small range of greenhouses has been built, and
others are planned. A beginning has been made in accumulating
a libraiy and herbarium, and much permanent planting has been
accomplished.
10. The New York Botanical Garden. The establishment of the
New York Botanical Garden was authorized b}' the Legislature in
1891, and the enabling act was amended in 1894. The enterprise
was inaugurated and the legislation procured b3' a committee of the
184 SECTION G.
Torrej- Botanical Club, appointed in 1889. The Act of Incor-
poration provided that, when the corporation created should have
raised or secured b}' subscription a sum not less than $250,000, the
Commissioners of Public Parks were authorized to set apart and
appropriate a portion of one of the public parks, not exceeding two
hundred and fifty acres, and the Board of Estimate and Appor-
tionment was authorized to issue bonds, aggregating the sum of
$500,000, for the construction and equipment, within the grounds,
of the necessary' buildings. The subscription of $250,000 required
by the Act of Incorporation was completed in June, 1895, and
the Commissioners of Public Parks, in the following month, for-
mally appropriated two hundred and fifty acres of the northern
part of Bronx Park for the purposes of the Garden. Since that
time the preparation of plans for the development of the tract has
been steadily' progressing, including designs for the museum build-
ing and a large horticultural house. This planning is still in pro-
gress, in charge of a commission of architects, engineers, gardeners,
and botanists, who will complete their work within a short time,
and be read}' to submit a complete scheme to the Board of Managers
during the coming autumn. Meanwhile, much preliminary work
has been accomplished in clearing tlie ground, in grading, in the
planting of borders, in the establishment of an extensive nui'ser}',
and in the accumulation of herbarium, museum, and library material.
Through a co-operative agreement entered into' with Columbia
Uciversit}', the herbarium and botanical librar}' of the University
will be deposited with the Garden, and most of the research and
graduate work of the University in botany will be carried on in the
Museum Building.
The endowment fund has been materially increased, and about
four hundred and thirty persons have become annual members of
the Garden, contributing ten dollars a year each to its support.
The publication of a Bulletin has been commenced by the issue, in
April, of the first number of Volume I.
PAPERS READ.
Beginning Tuesday, August 25.
Directive forces operative in leaf rosettes. By R. N. Dat, Univer-
sity of Minnesota, Minneapolis. (To be publislied in Minnesota Botmiical
Studies.)
On the bacterial flora of Cheddar cheese. By Prof. H. L. Russell
University of Wisconsin, Madison. (To be published in 13th Report Wis-
consin Agrl. Expt. Station.)
The stigma and pollen of Aris^ma. By Prof. W. W. Rowlee, Cornell
University, Itiiaca, N. Y. (Published in Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club.)
Studies in nuclear phenomena, and the development of the asco-
spores in certain Pyrenomtcetes. By Mary A. Nichols, Hunting-
ton, Indiana. (Published in Botanical Gazette.)
On the stem anatomy of certain Onagrace^. By Francis Ramaley,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
On Crat^gus coccinea and its segregates. By Dr. N. L. Britton,
Director Botanical Garden, New York City.
Structures of the embryo-sac. By Prof. J. M. Coulter, University of
Chicago. (To be published in Botanical Gazette.)
Notes on the genus Amelanchier. By N. L. Britton, Director Botanical
Garden, New York City.
Some CYPERACEiE new to North America, with remarks on other
species. By N. L. Britton, Director Botanical Garden, New York City.
On the Cardamines of the C. hirsuta group. By N. L. Britton,
Director Botanical Garden, New York City.
On the formation and distribution of abnormal resin ducts in Coni-
fers. By Dr. Alex. P. Anderson, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
(To be published in Foist. Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, Miinchen.)
On an apparently undescribed Cassia from Mississippi. By C. L. Pol-
lard, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. (To be published in
Bulletin of the Torre ij Botanical Club.)
Notes on the family PEzizACEiE of Schroter. By Elias J. Durand,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
186 SECTION G.
A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF THE SQUASH BUG (AnASA TRISTIS). By B. M.
DuGGAR, Cornell Univ. Agrl. Expt. Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Grasses of Iowa. By Prof. L. H. Pammel, Iowa Agricultural College, Ames,
Iowa.
A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE RELATION BETWEEN GROWTH
AND TURGOR. By Dr. Edwin B. Copeland, Monroe, Wisconsin.
The relation between the genera Polygonella and Thtsanella, as
shown by a hitherto unobserved character. By John K. Small,
Columbia University, New York City.
An apparently undescribed species of Prunus from Connecticut.
By John K. Small, Columbia University, New York City.
The flora of the summits of King's Mountain and Crowder's Moun-
tain, North Carolina. By John K. Small, Columbia University, New
York City.
Rheotropism and the relation of response to stimulus. By Prof.
F. C. Newcombe, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Some adaptation of shore plants to respiration. By Hermann von
ScHRENK, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
A comparison of the flora of Erie County, Ohio, with that of Erie
County, New York. By E. L. Moseley, Ohio State Academy of Sci-
ence, Sandusky, Ohio,
Sporophyll-transformation in dimorphic ferns. ,By Prof. Georce F.
Atkinson, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
The significance of the compound ovary. By Prof. C. E. Bessey, Uni-
versity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.
The influence of rainfall upon leaves. By Prof. D. T. McDougal,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
The curvature of tendrils. By Prof. D. T. McDougal, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis. (To be published in Annals of Botany, Sept.,
189G.)
Relation op the growth of leaves to the carbon dioxide of the
AIR. By Prof. D. T. McDougal, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
(To be published in Journal of the Linn. Society, London.)
A. comparative study of the development of some anthracnoses in
ARTIFICIAL cultures. By Bertha Stoneman, Lakewood, N. Y.
The habits of the rarer ferns of Alabama. By Prof. L. M. Under-
wood, Columbia University, New York City. (To be published in
Botanical Gazette.)
Notes on the allies of the sessile Trillium. By Prof. L. M. Under-
wood, Columbia University, New York City.
BOTANY. 187
DlSTRIBDTIOX OF THE SPECIES OF GyMNOSPORAXGIUM IN THE SOUTH. By
Prof. L. M. Underwood, Columbia University, New York City, and Prof.
F. S. Earle, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. (To be pub-
lished in Botanical Gazette.)
Notes ox the pine-inhabiting species of Periderjicm. By Prof. L. M.
Underwood, Columbia University, New York City, and Prof. F. S. Earle,
Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. (Published in Bulletin of
Torrey Botanical Club.)
The terminology of reproduction and of reproductive organs. By
Prof. C. E. Barnes, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
What is the bark 1 By Prof. C. R. Barnes, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis.
The development of the vascular elements in the primary root of
INDIAN CORN. By Prof. W. W. Rowlee, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
(To be published in Bulletin of Torrey Botanical Club.)
Some remarks on chalazogamy. By Prof. J. M. Coulter, University of
Chicago. (To be published in Botanical Gazette.)
Ceres-Pulver : Jensen's new fungicide for the treatment of smuts.
By Prof. W. A. Kellerman, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Parthenogenesis in Thalictrum fendleri. By David F. Day*, Buf-
falo, N. Y.
What should constitute a type-specimen. By S. M. Tracy, Director
Mississippi Agrl. Expt. Station, Agricultural College, Miss.
Remarks on the northern species of Vitis. By Prof. L. H. Bailey",
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
The point of divergence of Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. By
Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
The developjient of the cystocarp of Griffithsia bornetiana. By
Aema a. Sjiith, West Camden, New York.
Morphology of the Canna flower. By Prof. L. H. Bailey, Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, N. Y.
Distribution of plants on fresh-water islands. (Illustrated by lantern
pictures.) By Prof. Conway MacMillan, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis.
Section adjourned Thursday evening, August 27.
SECTION H.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
OFFICERS OF SECTION H.
Vice-President and Chairman of the Section.
Alice C. Fletcher, Washington, D. C.
Secretary.
George H. Perkixs, Burlington, Vt.
Councillor.
H. C. Mercer, Doylestown, Pa.
Sectional Committee.
Alice C. Fletcher, Washington, D. C, Vice-President, 189G.
George H. Perkins, Burlington, Vt., Secretary, 1896.
F. C. Gushing, Washington, D. G., Vice-President, 1895.
W. W. TooKER, Sag Harbor, N. Y., Secretary, 1895.
W. J. McGee, Washington, D. G.
D. G. Brinton, Media, Pa.
W. M. Beauohamp, Baldwinsville, N. Y.
Member of Nominating Committee.
J. McK. Cattell, Xew York.
Committee to Nominate Officers of the Section.
The Vice-President and Secretary ; and H. C. Hovey, Newburyport, Mass.
Franz Boas, New York ; Harlan I. Smith, Saginaw, Mich.
Press Secretary.
A. F. HuxTER, Barrie, Ontario.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
ALICE C. FLETCHER,
CHAIRMAN OF SECTION H.
THE EMBLEMATIC USE OF THE TREE IJSf THE DAKOTAN
GEO UP.
The tribes of the Dakotan or Siouan linguistic stock aggregate
in number about 45,000 Indians. Grouped according to a close
relationship of language, we find in the United States :
32,000 in the Dakota ; 4,000 in the Omaha, Ponka, Quapa,
Kanza and Osage ; 800 in the Iowa, Otoe and Missouri ; 2,200 in
the Winnebago ; and 3,000 in the Hidatsa, Mandan and Crow
tribes. The remaining 3,000 are widely scattered, with the greater
part living in the Provinces of Canada.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, a number of tribes
belonging to this stock dwelt on a strip of the Atlantic coast,
now within the limits of North and South Carolina, extending as far
west as the Alleghanies, and north to the Maryland line, and con-
trolling the headwaters of the streams flowing westward. They
were in constant warfare with their Algonquian and Iroquoian
neighbors, and were exterminated as tribes within the historic pe-
riod. The majority of the Siouan Indians were already beyond
the Mississippi, Avhere they were met by early explorers, and where
they now dwell. We find the purport of their traditions to be that
they were slowly driven from their eastern home by implacable
enemies, and that once beyond the Mississippi, they spread to the
northern tributaries of the Missouri, westward to the Rocky Moun-
tains, and south to the Gulf of Mexico, where recent investigations
have brought to light a remnant of the Biloxi.
Contact with Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskhogean, Caddoan, and
(191)
192 SECTION H.
Kioan stocks, during the period of progress over this vast tract of
country, has left its traces in the Siouan rites and customs ; but
the uncertainty that still clouds the past history of this people,
makes it difficult to determine when certain rites were adopted, or
to gauge with accuracy the modifying influences of other stocks
upon native usages and beliefs. From the scant records left by
early travelers, with the fragmentary nature of the information stiU
obtainable from the few scattered survivors of the eastern and
southern tribes, a full reconstruction of their social and religious
customs is impossible ; but enough can be discerned to indicate that
the eastern, southern and western tribes were all under the influence
of cults which seem to have been fundamentally the same.
In this paper is offered a slight contribution to the early history
of social and religious development, inasmuch as in tracing the
emblematic use of the tree in the Siouan linguistic group, we follow
a people from a comparatively primitive condition, living in iso-
lated bauds, independently of each other, to their organization
within the tribal structure, compacted by the force of common re-
ligious beliefs.
That ideas are the ruling force and " the constructive center"
of human society, is readily conceded as applicable to our own race.
It is equally true of the Indian ; but, in according this power to ideas,
the modifying influence of environment is not to be overlooked.
One cannot conceive of man apart from environment, his contact
with it is the very condition of being. As Herbert Spencer has
phrased it, life is " the continuous adjustment of inner relations to
outer relations."
This "adjustment" of man to his environment is the work
solely of ideas, and the process, as evinced in this group of Indians,
goes to show that those ideas which have formed " the constructive
center " of the tribe are religious ideas.
Indian religions seem to have been subject to the same laws that
have governed the development and growth of religious on the east-
ern continent. There, we know the several systems to have been
begun with the simple utterances of a seer, which, as they were
passed from mouth to mouth, became more and more clouded with
interpretations, gradually expanded in detail, and finally formulated
into ceremonials with attendant explanatory and dramatic rites.
As time rolled into centuries, these ceremonies, with their accessory
priests, came to be regarded as of supernatural origin, endowed
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 193
■with superhuman power, and authorized to exercise control over the
affairs of the tribe or nation ; but the one living germ within the
ponderous incrustation of doctrine and ceremony, that had accumu-
lated throughout the ages, was still the surviving, vitalizing thought
of the seer.
Turning to America, to the group of Indians of our especial
study, we find traces of a similar history ; for, penetrating beneath
the varied forms of their religious rites, we come upon a few fun-
damental conceptions or thoughts, the most dominant of which
perhaps is the idea of the all-permeating presence of what we call
life, and that this life is the same in kind, animating all natural
forms and objects alike with man himself. Coordinate with this
idea, which has received the name of animism, is that of the con-
tinuity of life, that whatever has once been endowed with it, must
continue to be a recipient of it ; in other words, whatever has
once lived must continue to live.
There is no reason to think that at any time in the past, it was
possible for the idea of animism, or for any other idea, to have fal-
len into the mind of every savage simultaneously, as a cloud-burst
drenches the plain. Ideas have ever made their way as they do
now, slowly, and by being .communicated and talked over. The
idea of animism is a very remarkable one. It has been so built
into the mind of the race, that it is difficult to imagine a time when
it was not ; and yet there was such a time, a time when man stood
dumbly wondering at the birds and beasts, assailed like himself by
hunger, and finding food from the same supply; at the alternation
of day and night ; and at the destructive and vivifying effects of the
storm. But these wondering observations were like so many dis-
connected fragments until some thoughtful mind caught the clue
that led to the bold and clarifying thought, that all things were
animated by a common life, and that man was not alone upon the
earth with strange and alien creatures, but was surrounded by forms
replete with life like his own, and therefore of his kindred.
This mysterious power or permeating life was called in the lan-
guage of the Omaha and Ponka tribes, Wa-kan-da. This word is
now used to designate the Deity. The original meaning, while
conveying the idea of the mysterious, something hidden or un-
seen, also implied the power to bring to pass. Wa-ka?i-da-gi, an
adverbial form of the word, is applied to the first putting forth of
a new faculty, as when a child first walks or talks, but the word
194 SECTION H.
■wa-ka^i-da-gi would not be used to express the resumption of fac-
ulties lost by sickness or accident.
Fourteen years ago, while sitting with me in his tent, a thought-
ful old Dakota Indian, who had never come under missionary in-
fluence, spoke of his native religion, in which he was a firm believer.
He explained the teaching of his fathers, and tried to make me
understand that the mysterious power which animates all things,
is always moving and filling the earth and sky. He said, " Every
thing as it moves, now and then, here and there, makes stops.
The bird, as it flies, stops at one place to rest in its flight, and at
another to build its nest. A man when he goes forth stops when
he wills, so the mysterious power has stopped. The sun, the moon,
the four directions, the trees, the animals, all mark where it has
stopped. The Indian thinks of all these places, . . . and sends his
prayers to reach the mysterious power where it has stopped."
This Indian had evidently been taught that the power pervading
all things was one in kind, and possessed of a quality similar to
the will power of man. lie said, "A man when he goes forth,
stops when he wills ; so the mj'sterious power has stopped."
The Indian conceives of Wa-kau-da as endowed with like, though
greater powers than those possessed by man. The prayer chanted
by every Omaha when he goes out to fast, seeking a vision : —
" Wa-kan-da dhe-dhu wa-pa-dhin a-tan-he,"
Wa kan-da here needy I stand, ,
is an appeal to something that is believed to be capable of under-
standing the needs of a man, and implies a conception of Wa-
kaH-da that is anthropomorphic. But the Indian does not appar-
ently think of Wa-kan-da as apart from, or outside of nature, but
rather as permeating it, and thus it is that to him all things be-
come anthropomorphized.
In a Ponka ritual the following address is made to the tree, as
represented in the framework of the lodge in which the ceremony
takes place :
" Oh : Thou Pole of the Tent, Ethka ;
' ' Along the banks of the streams, Ethka ;
"With head drooping over, there Thou sittest, Ethka;
"Thy topmost branches, Ethka;
" Dipping again and again, in very truth, the water, Ethka;
'• Thou Pole of the Tent, Ethka ; (The Tree now speaks.)
" One of these little ones, Ethka ; (That is, the suppliant,)
ADDRESS EY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 195
*' I shall set upon one (of my branches) , Ethka ;
'• The impurities, Ethka
'• All I shall wash away, Ethka."
The tree is supposed to take the man on its branches, as in one's
arms, and dip him in the stream, "where " all within the body " is
" cleansed."
Long life is desired, and the Eock is invoked :
*^ Oh! Aged One! Etlika;
" Thou sittest as though longing for something, Ethka;
*' Thou sittest like one Avith wrinkled loins, P^lthka ;
" Thou sittest like one with furrowed brow, Ethka ;
" Thou sittest like one with flabby arms, Ethka." (The Rock now
speaks.)
" The little ones (the people) shall be as I am, whosoever shall
pray to me properly" {i. e. ceremonially).
Many other illustrations could be given to show the Siouan In-
dian's anthropomorphic conception of nature.
With the acceptance of the idea that all things were quickened
with the same life, came the belief that a mysterious relationship
existed between man and his surroundings, and it naturally followed
that, in his struggle for food and safety, he should seek to supple-
ment his own strength by appealing to his kindred throughout nature ;
should "send his prayers to reach the mysterious power ay here it
has stopped " Said a venerable Indian to me one day, " The tree
is like a human being, for it has life and grows, so we pray to it
and put our offerings on it, that the mysterious power may help
us."
Coordinated with these ideas concerning nature, was that of the
continuity of life, which could not but lead to a belief in dual worlds
with interchanging relations : thus, we find that these Indians were
firmly convinced that the dead camp in the unseen world, as they
did while upon earth, each gens having the same relative place in
the tribal circle, and each person at death going to his own gens.
Among the Ponkas the Ta-ha-u-ton-a-zlii division of the Ni-ka-
pa-shna gens, whose totem is the deer, put deer-skin moccasins
upon their dead, that they maybe recognized by their kindred, and
not lose their way in the other world. Among the Otoes, when an
Indian dies, his face is painted in a manner peculiar to his gens, by
one having the hereditary right to perform this act, who says to
the dead : "In life you were with those you have now left behind.
196 SECTION H.
Go forward ! Do not look back ? You have met death. Those you
have left will come to you."
The ancient chiefs, who " first took upon themselves the author-
ity to govern the people," are still active, and through the rituals
chanted at the installation of tribal officials, as through a medium,
they continue to exercise their functions and to confer authority on
their successors. The rituals call upon the animals which had su-
pernaturally appeared to the first rulers, "The Crow, with frayed
neck feathers ; The Wolf, with tail blown to one side ;" and they
appeal to both chiefs and animals to remember their promise, and
to continue to guide the people into safety and plenty through their
successors now being ordained.
The Legend of the Sacred Pole of the Omahas, handed down
from generations, gives a rapid history of the people from the time
when " they opened their eyes and beheld the day," to the com-
pleted organization of the tribe, and the institution of the I'ites of
the Sacred Pole. From it we learn, that changes in the daily life
and material progress of the people did not come about through
miraculous intervention, but through the mind of their wise men ;
and that every step in the path of progress was the result of
" thought." " And the people thought," is the constant prelude to
every betterment or invention. By " thought " they learned how to
make fire, to build lodges, to weave, and finally to institute relig-
ious rites and ceremonies.
To quote from this Legend : '.' The people felt themselves weak
and poor. Then the old men gathered together and said ; Let us
make our children ciy to Wa-ka?i-da. ... So all the parents took
their children, covered their faces with soft clay, and sent them
forth to lonely places . . . The old men said You shall go forth to
cry to "Wa-ka))-da. . . . When on the hills, you shall not ask for
any particular thing, . . . whatever is good, that may Waka?(-da
give. . . . Four days and nights upon the hills, the youth shall
pray, crying, and when he stops, shall wipe his tears with the palms
of his hands, lift his wet hands to heaven, then lay them on the
earth. . . . This was the people's first appeal to Wa-ka^-da. Since
that time, twice in the year, ... in the spring . . . and when
the grass is yellow, . . . this prayer is said."
A study of this practice, as still found among the tribes, shows
that the youth, who uttered his prayer during days and nights of
fasting, was not only asking help from Wa-kaw-da, but was seek-
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 197
ing a manifestation, in a vision, of that mysterious power. The
form of this manifestation which should come to him, he believed
to be that to which he must appeal when iu need of help. The sym-
bol of this form, which the youth ever after carried with him, did
not in itself possess the ability to help, but served as a credential,
by which the youth reminded the manifestation, be it of bird or
beast, of the promise believed to have been received from it in the
vision.
The dream and the vision were not the same, the dream of sleep
came unsought in a natural way, while the manner in which the
vision was siriven for, indicates an attempt to set aside and over-
ride natural conditions. The natural dream has exercised an in-
fluence in many ways, but it has not had the constructive force of
the vision.
The cry to Wa-kan-da was the outcome of " thought " during the
long barren period of primitive life. Whither this "thought"
had tended we have seen in its culmination in the ideas that all
things were animated by the same continuous life, and were re-
lated to each other. These generalizing ideas were not strictly in
accord with the evidence of man's senses. The Indian could not
help seeing the unmistakable difference between him.self and all other
objects. Nor could he help knowing that it Avas impossible for him
to hold communication, as between man and man, with the animals,
the Thunder, etc. The ancit-nt thinkers and leaders met this diffi-
culty by the rite of the vision, with its peculiar preparation. The
youth was directed to strip off all decoration, to wear the scanti-
est of clothing, to deny his social instincts, and to go alone upon
the hills, or into the depths of the forests; he was to weep as he
chanted his prayer, and await the failing of his bodily strength, and
the coming of the vision. 'In this vision he saw familiar things
under such new conditions, that communication with them was pos-
sible ; and his belief in the reality of his vision could not but
reconcile the animistic idea with the normal evidence of the senses.
The psychological conditions favorable to a belief in the visions,
and the ethical influence of the rite of fasting, in its results upon
the individual and upon society, cannot be considered here, but the
constructive power exercised by the religious societies, which had
their rise in the vision, claims a moment's attention, as pertinent to
our subject.
From the Legend already quoted, as well as from customs still
198 SECTION H.
existing in these tribes, we learn that men who had had similar vis-
ions became affiliated into groups or societies, and acknowledged a
sort of kinship, on the basis of like visions. For instance, those
who had seen the Bear, or the Elk, formed the Bear or the Elk so-
ciety, and those to whom had appeared the Water Creatures, or
the Thunder Beings, were gathered into similarly defined groups.
Within these societies grew up an orderly arrangement or classi-
fication of the membership, the institution of initiatory rites, a pre-
scribed ritual, and the appointment of officers.
An important stage in the secular organization of the people was
reached when the acceptance of Leaders — " men who took upon
themselves the authority to govern and to preserve order " — came to
pass. It would seem, from the evidence of traditions and rituals,
that the establishment of these Leaders, which implied the segrega-
tion of the people into groups of followei's, was of slow growth, and
attended with rivalries and warfare. During this formative period,
the early Leaders appear to have used the popular belief in the
supernatural to strengthen their authority, so that they came to
be regarded as specially endowed, and the efficacy of their vision
was thought to extend over all their followers. In this way the
symbol of the Leader's vision grew to be recognized as sacred to
his kindred, and was finally adopted as the sign or totem of a com-
mon kinship or clan. This being accomplished, the taboo was
instituted as a simple and effectual reminder of the totem of the
Leader, and of the mutual obligations and relations of the members
of the clan, which were further emphasized by the adoption of a set
of names for each clan, all of which referred to its totem. Amous:
the Omahas and Ponkas these names are called ni-ki-a, that is,
spoken by a chief. In the ni-ki-a name, and the ceremonies at-
tending its bestowal, there is a twofold recognition, that of a natural
ancestor, and that of the supernatural manifestation of this ances-
tor's vision. We have already seen a similar acknowledgment of
a dual source of authority, where, in the rituals, the chiefs, and the
animals of their visions, are both invoked.
In the clan organization, the totem came to be representative
preeminently of kinship ; and its sign, as we have noted, was placed
upon the dead, that they might be recognized by their kindred in
the other world, and led directly to their clan. The function of
the totem was social, rather than individual ; the Indian depended
for his personal supernatural help upon his own special vision, and
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 199
his clan totem iu no way interfered with bis entrance into any re-
ligious society.
The resemblance which exists between the rites and rituals of
the religious societies, and those which hedge about the office of
Chief, and Soldier, and Herald, marks the influence the" societies
have exercised upon the development of the tribal structure.
The control of the Thunder people runs like a thread through
all the tribes of the Siouan group. The character of their vision
was such as easily to win popular recognition as preeminently au-
thoritative, and they seem to have been singularly dominant from the
earliest time.'
The Thunder gentes had charge of, or took an important part in, all
ceremonies which pertained to the preservation of tribal autonomy.
To them belonged the rituals and the ceremonies which inducted the
child into its rights within the gens and the tribe ; the adoption of
captives and strangers ; and the ceremonial preparation of the tribal
pipes, without which there could be no tribal ceremony or enforce-
ment of order. They had charge also of the rites for the preser-
vation of crops from the devastation of insects and marauders.
These were some of the exclusive functions of the Thunder gentes ;
but the rites of the worship of Thunder itself, and the ceremonies
pertaining to war, of which Thunder was the god, so to speak, were
in charge of other than the Thunder gentes.
In the Omaha tribe the Sacred Tent of War was set apart for
the rites and ceremonies connected with Thunder. It was pitched
in front of the segment of the tribal circle occupied by the We-jin-
shte gens, its Keeper, It stood apart as a special lodge, and was
regarded with awe by the people. In it were kept the Sacred Shell
(a large Unio alatus) ; the Wa-in (a bird-shaped bundle made of
raw hide, containing the skins of certain birds believed to be as-
sociated with Thunder) ; the Pipes used in the ceremonies of war;
and a Pole of cedar.
In the myths, the cedar tree is spoken of as the particular abode
of the Thunder Birds. The Thunder Beings had their village amid
a forest of cedars, and the club of these mythical beings was of
1 The members of the Thunder society claim that, at death, they join the Thunder
Beings, altliough they do not therel>y lose their kinship rights iu their clan iu the other
world, ijut an Indian born into a Thunder gens, could not at his death join the Thun-
der Beings, unless they had appeared to him in his vision. The people believed that
the voices of noted Thunder men who were dead could be heard in the mutterings of
the approaching storm.
200 SKcnoN H.
the same tree. Cedar leaves were put upon the War Pipe after it
was filled, so that when it was lighted, it was the aromatic smoke
of the cedar that was offered to the Four Directions, the Zeuith,
and the Nadir. The cedar Pole, representative of Thunder, was
called Wa-ghdhe ghe, which means the power to confer honors
This name refers to the custom which prescribed that all war par-
ties should start from this Sacred Tent and on their return report
to it ; and that all honors, namely, the right to wear certain rega-
lia indicative of a man's prowess in battle, should be ceremonially
conferred in this Teut.^
The vital point, in the ceremony of conferring lioaors, was
when the warrior, standing before the Wa-i?i, and reciting his
deeds of batt'e, at a sign from the Keeper, dropped a small
stick upon the bundle. If the stick rested thereon, it was be-
lieved to be held by the Birds, who thus attested to the truth of
the warrior's claims. If it rolled off upon the ground, it was the
Birds who discarded it, because the man had spoken falsely.
These Birds, representatives of Thunder, were the judges of a
man's truthfulness, and rewarded him by honors, or punished him
by disaster, even to the tearing out of his tongue by a lightning
stroke.
Naturally in course of time, those warrior chiefs who by favor
of Thunder had been successful in war, whose truthfulness had
been attested by the Thunder Birds, and who had received their
regalia, began to assume for themselves some of the authority,
conceded by all to Thunder itself. A song belonging to a Dakota
chief says, "When 1 speak, it is Thunder." Gradually the exer-
cise of the punishing power was extended to social offences ; as,
for instance, a man whose persistent evil conduct threatened the
internal peace of the gens or tribe, might suft'er loss of property
or even of life, his fate being determined by the warrior chiefs
assembled at the Sacred Tent around the cedar Pole, the repre-
sentative of the Thunder ; the function of the chiefs thus becom-
ing augmented by affiliation with the supernatural.
When the first Thunder was heard in the spring, the ceremonial
of the worship of Thunder took place at the Sacred Tent. The
» All these re.salia, which are p-acled in rank, refer to Thunder. In several of the
tribes these are feathers of certain birds, worn in a particular manner; the peculiar
painting of a man's face, body, or weapons; and. as among the Osages, the tattooing
of the body and arms with lines so drawn that, when the highest rank is attained, the
tattooed figure will represent the Thunder bird in outline.
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 201
"Wa-in was opened and the bird skins exposed ; the Pipes were
smoked, the ritual sung, and the cedar Pole anointed. No one
participated in these rites, except the members of those gentes
whose totems were believed to be related to Thunder. Some of
these totems were of creatures predatory in their habits, and
therefore allied to the destructive lightning ; others, like the eagle
and the hawk, could soar to the very clouds, while the flying
swallows heralded the approaching storm. This fancied kinship
of their totems was the basis of recognition of a sort of relation-
ship between the gentes themselves, which became the ground
upon which these people united in the performance of ceremonies
directed toward a common object of worship.
Although important steps had been gained in social develop-
ment, none of the rites and ceremonies of the Sacred Tent of "War
tended to bind all the gentes together, but the Omaha ceremony of
the He-di-wa-chi seems to have been adapted to meet this require-
ment. It is impossible to state as a fact that the He-di-wa-chi '
grew out of the experience of the people during the centuries
when they were being slowly driven by wars, farther and farther
from their eastern home ; but, according to traditions preserved
in the different tribes, it was during this period that group after
group parted compau}-, and the enfeebled bands became a tempt-
ing prey to active enemies. Nor was the danger always from
without ; disintegration sometimes resulted from the rivalry of
ambitious Leaders, and, to quote from the tradition, "the wise
men thought how they might devise some plan, by which all might
live and move together and there be no danger of quarrels."
Many points in its ceremonial indicate that at the time of the
institution of the Ile-di-wa-chi, the people had entered upon agri-
cultural pursuits, and were not wholly dominated by those ideas
which had been ihe controlling power when hunting and war were
the principal avocations. The He-di-wa-chi took place in the sum-
mer solstice, or, according to Indian designation, at "the time
when all the creatures were awake and out," The choice of the
tree from which the Pole, the central object in this ceremony, was
to be cut, is significant. It was either the cottonwood or the
willow, both remarkably tenacious of life, sending forth shoots
even when cut down and hacked into posts. In the Indian's
words describing the time when this ceremony was to take place,
we catch a glimpse of a shadowy idea of peace, for when dan-
202 SECTION H.
ser stalked abroad the animals which were "awake" would not
be "out" but iu hiding; and in the choice of the tree with its
abounding life, we note the beginning of an apprehension of
the idea of the conservation of life. This helps us to open
out and understand the terse and poetic expression of the In-
dian tradition concerning this ceremony, that "it grew up with
the corn." The ideas embodied in this festival found their birth
and growth in the cultivation of the maize, which held the people
to their fields, preventing their constant wandering after the wild
animals, and so inaugurating village life, and developing an ap-
preciation of tribal unity.
The first act in the preparation of this ceremony was the cut-
ting, by the Leader having it in charge, of seven cottonwood or
willow sticks which were stripped of leaves with the exception of
a small spray at the end thus making a miniature pole. These
were sent to the chiefs of the seven original gentes who in their
turn sent out the men of their gontes to cut similar sticks which
were to be painted red and carried in the great tribal dance about
the Pole.
While this was being done, the Leader selected runners to rep-
resent warriors, who were to go out as a scouting party would go
in search of an enemy, and when thej^ found the tree which was to
be cut for the Pole, they were to charge upon it and strike it as
they would strike a foe. In this ceremony of selection where war
is so simulated, the recognition of the power and authority of
Thunder is manifest, for no man could become a wairior except
through his consecration to Thunder, the god of war. Moreover, it
was believed that no man could fall in battle through human agency
alone ; he fell because Thunder had designated him to fall. So the
tree, which had been struck as a foe, fell because Thunder had
selected it. The tree thus chosen was now approached by the
Leader who said, " I have come for you that you may see the
people, who are beautiful to behold." Then with elaborate cere-
monies, in which the Four Directions were recognized, the tree was
cut down; the bark and branches, all but a tuft at the top, were
removed and buried at the foot of the stump, and the Pole, with
much ceremon}', was carried to the camp, where it was painted by
the Leader in alternate bands of red and black, symbolic of Life
and of Thunder. "When this was done the Leader said, "It is
finished, raise him up that your Grandfather (/. e.. Thunder) may
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 203
see him."* The Pole then, being placed in position iu a hole pre-
pared for it, stood before the people as approved by the ancient
Thunder Beings. Then the Herald went forth to call the people to
make ready to welcome the Pole with dancing and gifts.
Now the camp is astir with preparation ; every one dons his gala
dress and hastens to take his place with his gens in the tribal
order, forming an immense circle around the Pole. The singers,
seated at the foot of the Pole, strike up the first of the ritual
songs ; at its close the war cry is given by all the people, who then
advance a short distance and halt. Four times the sons: is sunsr,
four times the cry is given, four times the people advance and halt,
and at the last pause they are near the Pole. At this point the
men of the In-ke-tha-ba gens, led by two pipe bearers, face about
to the west, their right side to the Pole, and the women face to the
east, with their left to the Pole. Each of the other geutes falls
into like order behind the In-ke-tha ba men and women, and when
the second ritual song is begun, the entire double circle begins to
dance around the Pole. During the dance four halts are made, and
at these halts if any dancer has passed beyond the line of his gens,
he must return to it. The songs become more and more rapid in
measure, and the dance fuller of mirth and gaiety. At the close
of the ceremony the men, women and children throw their sticks
at the foot of the Pole, to which they are tied and left for the sun
and wind to dispose of.
The manner in which the Pole was approached by the whole
people in the order of the tribal circle, with war cry and charge,
was a recognition of the victories gained through the war-god
Thunder. The entire ceremony was a dramatic teaching to old
and young of the necessity of union not only for defence, but for
the preservation oi internal peace and order, in the security of
which, industry might thrive and prosperity be within the reach of
all.
The He-di-wachi, all the details of Avhich cannot here be de-
scribed, is a festival of joy ; the words of the opening song are,
"Come and rejoice !" The whole scene vibrates with color and
motion ; there is no hint of sacrifice, the Thunder selected tree is
a symbol of Life, held in the fruitful grasp of the earth, and
touched by the beneficent rays of the sun.
' These words, in the original, are of the nature of an invocation and consecration.
204 SECTION H.
The so-called Sun-Dance of the Dakotas and Ponkas seems to
have sprung from the same parent stem that bore the He-di-wa-
chi ; but it shows marks of the influence of tribal environment
during the past few centuries, as well as traces of contact with
other stocks. For a considerable period prior to our first knowl-
edge of the Dakotas, these tribes had dwelt in the most northern
range of the Siouan linguistic stock, and had almost lost their
knowledge of the cultivation of corn. Omaha traditions say, that
their own tribe turned back from the region where the Dakotas
were when first discovered by us, because corn would not grow
well there, and they sought sites for their villages farther south
where they could raise the maize in large and unfailing crops.
The SuD-Dauce and the He-di-wa-chi have fundamental features
in common. They take place at the same time of the year; both
Poles are cut from the cottonwood or the willow tree ; the cere-
monies attending the cutting and planting and decorating the
Poles are practically the same, differing only in the elaboration of
detail. Both are consecrated by and to Thunder, and about both,
the tribe must gather in the order of the gentes. The special
rites of the Sun-Dance are performed within a communal taber-
nacle erected about the Pole. It is made of one or more poles
gathered from the tent of each family in the tribe, and covered
with green branches. It represents the living branches of the
tree, as well as the great congregation of the people, whose tents
enclose it in a circle often more than a mile in circumference.
The elaborate character of this ceremony precludes the mention
of any of its parts, except those which pertain to the subject of
this paper.
The symbol placed upon the buffalo skull, and drawn upon the
U-ma-ni — a space of ground from which the sod had been re-
moved, and the earth made fine — is a circle with four projecting
points equidistant from each other. This symbol, to quote from
Dakota Indians who had been instructed in this ceremony, "repre-
sents the tribe and the Four Directions. It means that, wher-
ever the tribe may travel, it will be kept whole. Its circle of
tents will not be broken, the members of the tribe shall live long
and increase. The symbol also stands for the earth, and the un-
seen winds that come from the Four Directions, and cross over
the earth and bring health and strength." The people were told,
that, "as long as they observed the ceremony, they would increase
ADDRESS BT ALICE C. FLETCHER. 205
and grow strong, but if they should neglect the rite, they would
decrease in numbers, lose their strength, and be overpowered by
their enemies."
The dramatic character of the adjuncts of self sacrifice and
torture has diverted the attention of observers f i om the true pur-
pose of the Sun- Dance, which has been clouded in the minds of
the people themselves, but has not been lost sight of by the In-
dian priests, who still insist that the ceremony is necessary to the
preservation of the people as a tribe.
The torture practised at the Pole seems to be a transference to
this ceremony of the ancient rite known as Hanm-de-pi, where the
man suspends himself, while seeking a vision through fasting ; or
when, fixing his mind upon a particular desire, he expects through
torture to render its accomplisliment certain. Even in the Hanm-
de-pi, there are indications of foreign influence which tended not
only to keep alive, but to intensify the more primitive forms con-
nected with Thunder worship, — forms wliich had almost died out
in the more southern tribes, surviving only in certain modified
rites observed in mourning for the dead, and the leading of a war
party.
In the absence of agricultural avocations and their attendant
corn ceremonies, the belief that the Pole was selected and conse-
crated by Thunder came to be more and more pronounced, as is
indicated by the fact that the Thunder men only could take charge
of the Sun-Dance, whereas, in the He-di-wa-clii it was the red
corn people who were the Keepers of the ritual and Leaders of
the ceremony. It is easy to see how, through the influence of
Thunder, originally represented in the consecration of the Pole
and augmented by the dominance of the Thunder men, the tor-
ture rites came to be grafted upon a ceremony, which, owing to
environment, had lost something of its early significance.
When witnessing the Sun-Dance, its composite character was
impressed upon me, and the lack of unity between the parts was
evident. Further study has shown how different rites have been
united, and what are some of the influences which have brought
about this grouping.
The Dah-pi-ke or Nah-pi-ke of the Hidatsas resembles the Sun-
Dance. It takes place at the same season of the year. The
Cottonwood Pole is selected and cut with similar ceremonies ;
about it the communal tabernacle of willow boughs is erected,
20G SECTION H.
and all the people must gather to the rites. Like the Sun-Dance,
it bears evidence of the same influences, which have overlaid a
tribal ceremony "that grew up with the corn," with those other
rites wherein self-torture was practised.
As in the He-di-wa-chi, the tree or Pole of the Sun-Dance, and
of the Dah-pi-ke, is left at the close of the ceremony to the de-
struction of the elements, or powers, to which, in the mind of the
people, it belonged.
In the Sacred Pole of the Omaha tribe, we have another off-
shoot from the same parent stem. In its rites, however, the fun-
damental ideas embodied in the ceremonies already considered,
have been still further developed and specialized. The selection
of the Pole, its cutting, decoration, etc., the season when its cere-
monies took place, and the compulsory attendance of the people,
were all practically the same as in the He-di-wa-chi, the Sun-
Dance, and the Dah-pi-ke.
In a paper read before this Section last year, the Sacred Pole
was described. Your attention at this time will be called only to
its peculiar function in reference to the tribal autonomy.
A tradition in the tribe says : ''At one time the seven original
bands wandered about independent of each other ; each band had a
pipe and a leader. The Hun-ga gens thought, that if this continued
there would be feuds between the bauds. . . So the Sacred Pole
was made, around which the different bands might gather. The
seven chiefs were called together, and they all united and have
been so ever since." The Legend corroborates the tradition, for
it says ; "The ceremonies of the Sacred Pole were devised to hold
the people together."
The institution of the Sacred Pole marked a political change in
the tribe, from the government by hereditary chieftains to an oli-
garchy of seven chiefs who attained their position by personal
ability to perform certain deeds, called Wa-dhin-e-dhe. The name
of the old cedar Pole of the Sacred Tent of War, VVa-ghdhe-ghe,
which as we have seen meant "the power to bestow honors," was
given to the new Sacred Pole, which became the fount of honors
won in pence, for the "Wa-dhin-e dhe were not deeds of war;
for their achievement, industry and accumulation of propert}^ as
well as valor were required. So also, whereas the honors, bestowed
in the Sacred Tent of War, were worn by the warrior himself,
or tattooed upon his own body, the ghdhe-ghe, or mark of honor
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 207
authorized by the power represented in the Sacred Pole, was
placed upon the daughter of the successful aspirant, the woman
being the industrial factor in the tribe. The mark of honor con-
sisted of two symbols : upon tlie forehead of the girl was tattooed
a small round spot representing the sun, and upon her chest and
back, a circle with four equidistant points ; the same symbol that
was made upon the earth and the buffalo skull in the Sun- Dance,
and bearing the same idea, of strength in unity.
The seven chiefs who formed the oligarchy must act as one
man, for without unanimity in their councils nothing could be
done. In theii' decisions all the seven men must be alike repre-
sented, and the resultant unity was believed to be derived from
"Wa-ka?i-da, present in and acting through the mysterious Sacred
Pole. To quote from the Legend: "The chiefs are slow to
speak, ... no word is without meaning, and every word is uttered
in soberness, . . . believing the words come from Wa-ka?i-da, so
the words of a chief are few. They (the seven chiefs) have all one
heart and one mouth . . . After a question is decided, the Herald
proclaims it about the camp circle, . . . none of the people dare
dispute it, for they say. It is the word of our Chiefs."
The two avocations upon which the life of the people depended
were agriculture and hunting, and these were controlled by the
ceremonies of the Sacred Pole. From the Pole was decided the
time for planting the corn, and about it the ritual of the maize
was sung. The great tribal hunt was under its immediate direc-
tion, the rules and regulations of which were an important part of
its function. On this annual hunt, the people left their village
and their fields in the care of a small guard and followed the
herds, under the strict control of the Chiefs and of a body of
men called Soldiers. During the entire time, two months or more,
the rights and inclinations of the individual were held rigidly sub-
ordinate to the good of the tribe. The Sacred Pole was carried
in advance of the people, as they moved from camp to camp.
From its presence the runners went forth in search of the buffalo,
and to it they reported upon their return. At the close of the
hunt, the ceremony of thanksgiving and anointing tlie Pole took
place, when the entire tribe gathered about this central object,
erecting a communal tent for some of the particular ceremonies
and offering gifts. Finally, the men enacted before it the events
of their career, thus presenting a sort of dramatic current history
of the tribe.
208 SECTION H.
At the inauguration of the Pole and its ceremonies, to quote
from the Legend : "The Leader said, this (the Pole) belongs to
all the people, but it shall be in the keeping of one family." For
over two centuries this Sacred Pole was preserved, and its tent
was pitched a short distance in front of the segment of the tribal
circle occupied by a subdivision of the IIu?i-ga gens, its Keepers.
It was regarded with fear and reverence, as the supernatural pro-
tector of the people, as the power that insured to them an
abundant supply of food, and commanded the coordination of
the gentes and the unification of the authority of the Chiefs.
In all these rapidly considered ceremonies, marking periods in
social development of this group of tribes — development more or
less modified by shifting environments — we note the constructive
force of the religious ideas of the people : ideas which, repre-
sented by the word Wa-kan-da and its kindred terms, imply the
existence of an ever active, mysterious power, permeating all na-
ture including mankind, with the same life, thus making all
things related and anthropomorphic. We have seen how these
generalizing ideas become concrete, through the medium of the
vision, and capable of exercising a practical, formative influence.
We have traced this practical, formative influence in the unifying
power of the totem, which welds together an extended though
partial kinship within the clan or gens. We have seen it also
operative in the religious societies, where an indestructible bond
holds the members together upon, a basis other than that of blood
relationship. The same influence has been found at work in the
association of certain clans for a common worship, the tie of
their association being a supposed relationship of their separate
totems to Thunder, the object of their worship. We note also
that the authority of Thunder was still further extended so as to
embrace the entire tribe, inasmuch as every man was brought
under its control through the rites and ceremonies connected with
war. Furthermore, we discern that out of the ancient ceremonies
connected with Thunder, wherein primarily the cedar tree was the
mythical abode of the mystical Thunder Beings, and later, the
cedar Pole stood as emblematic of their power and authority,
were evolved the ceremonies that made use of the old symbols,
but clothed them with ideas born of newer conditions.
In the He-di wa-chi has been found preserved the outline of one
of the simplest and probably oldest ceremonies instituted to draw
the people together and unite them into an organized body. And
ADDRESS BY ALICE C. FLETCHER. 209
it is apparent that the Sun-Dance, the Dah-pi-ke, and the Omaha
Sacred Pole, from the same root, kept the same fundamental aim
in view, performing their ceremonies about the same central ob-
ject, the tree or Pole, selected and consecrated by the all-powerful
Thunder, recognized as the judge and rewarder of all the people.
We have seen the Chiefs summoned to the He-di-wa-chi by a tree
stick, sent from the Keeper of the ceremony, each Chief in turn
sending forth the men of his gens to gather each man sticks for
himself and family, and all the people assembled and dancing
about the Pole by gentes, each one carrying his stick, which at the
end of the ceremony was given back to the Pole. A simple object
lesson : to teach that the tribe was, like the tree, animated by the
supernatural mysterious power ; and that the Chiefs were its strong
limbs, upon which the smaller branches grew.
In the Sacred Pole ceremonies, the constructive idea was still
further developed, until not only unity of gentes was required, but
unity of authority among the Chiefs was enforced. This unity,
whether as demanded in the enunciations of the chiefs, or, as neces-
sary to the formation of the tribe, to the instituting of the relig-
ious societies, or to the development of the clan, depended upon
the conception of Wa-kan-da, as manifested iu concrete form
through the medium of the Vision. The ancient thinkers among
the Siouan people, in the long centuries of an unknown past, came
gradually to realize the helpfulness and power that lay in social
unity. Out of this realization these ceremonies were slowly
evolved, whei-ein the Pole, bearing the topmost branches of the
living tree, stood in the midst of the assembled people, as an em-
blem of the presence and authority of Thunder, the universally
accepted manifestation of Wa-kawda, and also, in its life and
growth, as typical of tribal unity and sti'ength.
PAPERS READ.
Tuesday, August 25.
Topic of the day — Archeology.
Result of eecent cave exploration in the Eastern United States. By
Henry C. Mercer, Doylestown, Pa.
Symbolic rocks of Byfield and Newbury, Mass. By Rev. Horace C.
Hovey, Newburyport, Mass.
A ceremonial flint implement and its use among the ancient tribes of
Tennessee. By Gen. Gates P. Thruston, Nashville, Tenn.
An analysis of the decoration upon pottery from the Mississippi
Valley. By C. C. Willoughby, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.
Some Indian rock and body painting in Southern California. By
David P. Barrows, Claremont, Cal.
Human relics from the Drift of Ohio. By Prof. E. W. Claypole,
Akron, Ohio.
Fresh geological evidence of glacial man at Trenton, New Jersey.
By Prof. G. Frederick Wright, Oberlin, Ohio. (Published in the .Ameri-
can Naturalist.)
Recent Explorations in Honduras by the Peabody Museum. By Prof.
F. W. Putnam, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. (Published in Me-
moirs of the Peabody Museum.)
Brief description of the prehistoric ruins of Tzac Pokoma, Guate-
mala. By Hon. John Rice Chandler, Guatemala, C. A.
The ruins of the temple of Tepoztlan. By Marshall H. Saville,
Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist., New York City. (Published in Bulletin of Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History.)
The preservation of local archeological evidence. By Harlan I.
Smith, Amer. Museum of Nat. Hist., New York City.
Wednesday, August 26.
Topic of the day — Ethnology.
Clan system of the Pueblos. By F. W. Hodge.
The psychic source op myths. By Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
212 SECTION H.
Onondago games. By Rev. W. M. Beauchamp, Baldwinsville, N. Y.
KooTENAY Indian names of implements and instruments. By Dr. A. F.
Chamberlain, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
Meaning of the name Manhattan. By Wm. Wallace Tooker, Sag
Harbor, N. Y.
Kootenay Indian place names. By Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, Clark Univer-
sity, Worcester, Mass.
Indian wampum records. By Dr. Horatio Hale, Clinton, Ontario.
Seri stone art. By Dr. W. J. McGbe, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington,
D. C.
The beginning of zooculture. By Dr. W. J. McGee, Bureau of Ethnol-
ogy, Washington, D. C.
Certain shamanistic ceremonies among the Ojibvfays. By Harlan I.
Smith, Amer. Museum of Nat. Hist., New York City.
Recent discoveries and discussions as to pygmy races. By R. G. Hali-
burton, care of Cunard Co., Boston, Mass.
Mescal plant and rite. By James Mooney, Bureau of Ethnology, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Finland vapor baths. By H. W. Smith.
Resolution upon the appointment of a committee to report on " The
ethnography of the White Race in the United States." By Dr.
Daniel G. Brinton, University of Pennsylvania.
Thursday, August 27.
Topics of the day — Somatology and Psychology.
Anthropometry of the Shoshone Indians. By Dr. Franz Boas, Amer.
Museum of Nat. Hist., New York City.
Physical and mental measurements of students of Columbia Univer-
sity. By Dr. J. McKeen Cattell, Columbia University, New York City.
The theological development of one child. By Fannie D. Bergen,
Cambridge, Mass.
Notes on certain beliefs concerning will power among the Siouan
tribes. By Alice C. Fletcher, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.
(This paper was printed for private distribution by the author.)
The Papago time concept. By Dr. W. J. McGee, Bureau of Ethnology,
Washington, D. C.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 213
Friday, August 28.
Topic of the day — General Anthropology.
Character and food. By Rev. George V. Reichel, Brockport, N. Y.
Aboriginal occupation of New York. By Rev. W. M. Beauchamf, Bald-
winsvllle, N. Y.
The limitations of the anthropologic method. By Dr. Franz Boas,
Amer. Museum of Nat Hist., New York City.
Note. — The arrangement of titles in this Section is the same as given in the
Preliminary Programme of the Section. Several papers were read out of the
regular order, the authors not being present when the papers were first called.
The Section adjourned Friday evening, August 28,
RESOLUTIONS OF SECTION H.
At the first regular session of the Section the following resolu-
tion was offered by W. J. McGee on behalf of the Sectional
Committee : —
" Whereas, This Section, the Association, the nation, and the
scientific world have sustained an immeasurable loss in the death
of JoRN G. BouRKE, scicntist and soldier, and
" Whereas, The loss is peculiarly painful in the Section of Anthro-
polog3', to which he brought honor, long as a working member and
later as Secretar}^ ; therefore,
" Resolved, that this Section here assembled join in an expression
of grief for the death, and of reverence for the memor}', of our asso-
ciate and friend."
A memorial of Capt. Bourke by his friend and collaborator, Dr.
Washington Matthews, was read by Dr. Brinton ; and remarks
of esteem and appreciation for the work and character of Capt.
Bourke were made by Prof. Putnam, Prof Perkins, and Miss
Fletcher.
The resolution was adopted b}' a rising vote.
On Wednesday, August 26, b}^ recommendation of the Sectional
Committee, a Committee was appointed "For the purpose of ad-
vancing an acquaintance with the objects of Section H among
both members and non-members." The members of this Committee
are : J. McKeen Cattell, D. G. Brinton, and Franz Boas.
The following resolution was presented by D. G. Brinton : —
" Whereas, the influence which the environment of the New
World has exerted upon the physical and mental development of
the White Race is a question of the utmost scientific and practical
importance, and
(215)
216 SECTION H.
" Whereaii^ There appears to be no governmental or scientific
bureau which is giving the subject attention at the present time,
therefore,
" Resolved^ That the American Association for the Advancement
of Science appoint a Committee to organize an Ethnographical In-
A'estigation of the White Race in the United States, vs-ith special
reference to tlie influence exerted ujDon it in its new surroundings,
said Committee to report annuall}-."
This resolution was adopted b}' the Section, and passed b}' the
Council, and the following Committee was appointed : D. G.
Brinton, J. McKeen Cattell, W. W. Newell, W. J. McGee,
and Franz Boas.
On Thursda}', the following resolution was presented b}- Mr.
McGee for the Sectional Committee : —
" Whereas^ Horatio Hale, long an active member and at one
time a Vice-President of this Association, has made contributions to
Ethnology and Philology entitling him to a place in the front ranks
of American Anthropologists, and
" Whereas, It seems fitting that Mr. Hale's long and arduous
labors in behalf of science should be recognized by the American
Association for the Advancement of Science ; therefore,
" JResolved, That Section H recommend to the Council that Mr.
Hale be made a Life Fellow of this Association."
This was adopted b}- the Section, and passed by the Council, and
Mr. Hale was made a Life Fellow.
SECTION I.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SCIENCE.
OFFICERS OF SECTION I.
Vice-President and Chairman of the Section.
William R. Lazenby, Columbus, Ohio.
Secretary.
EiCHARD T. CoLBURN, Elizabeth, N. J.
Councillor.
William H. Hale, Brooklyn, N. T.
Sectional Committee.
William R. Lazenby, Columbus, Ohio, Vice-President.
R. T. Colburn, Elizabeth, N. J., Secretary.
B. E. Feenow, Washington, D. C, Vice-President, 1895.
William R. Lazenby, Columbus, Ohio, Secretary, 1895.
Charles E. West, Brooklyn, N. Y.
William H. Hale, Brooklyn, N. Y.
James A. Skilton, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Member of Nominating Committee.
James A. Skilton, New York, 'N.Y.
Committee to Nominate Officers of the Section.
Vice-President and Secretary ; and S. F. Kneeland, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Charles
P. Hart, Wyoming, Ohio ; Esther Herman, New York, N. Y.
Press Secretary.
R. T. Colburn, Elizabeth, N. J.
ADDRESS
BY
VICE-PRESIDENT
WILLIAM R. LAZENBY,
CHAIKMAN OF SECTION L
HORTICULTURE AND HEALTH.
I SHOULD be lacking in ordinary sensibility did I not appreciate
the compliment of being elected Vice-President of Section I of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
To be called to this office in an association that has for years
stood for the scientific thought and scientific progress of this
continent, — an association whose list of officers and members has
contained the names of some of the most distinguished men and
women of our time, — an association whose proceedings are an
index of the marvellous advances made by scientific research
during the latter half of the nineteenth century, — is truly an
honor that any man or woman might covet.
Since accepting the honor, there are two words that have
appealed to me with equal force and signal persistency.
These words are responsibility and opportunity. The former I
have tried to discharge in an earnest effort to secure papers, and
arrange an equally interesting and profitable program for this
sectional meeting, and the latter I try to meet in the address
which follows.
This year the title of Section I is changed, and its scope en-
larged. It is no longer the Section of Economic Science and
Statistics, but the Section of Social and Economic Science.
This change was precipitated by a series of resolutions pre-
sented before the Brooklyn meeting of 1894. The purport of
the resolutions was, that inasmuch as the stated object no less
(219)
220 SECTION I.
than the true function of the American Association is to promote
the advancement of all science, including the science of society,
it -was in duty bound to aid and assist all desirable reforms, to the
end that the progress of modern society, by the application of
scientific principles and methods, might be advanced, and its
perpetuity insured.
At the same meeting an amendment to the Constitution was
proposed, which changed the name, as already stated, and so
enlarged the field as to include all those branches of knowledge
which deal with the political, commercial, economic, and social
life of mankind. This amendment was adopted at the Spring-
field meeting of last year, and we now meet for the first time
as a section of social and economic science. Permit me to add,
that, in my judgment, the all-inclusive term "social science"
would have been sufficient, for the word " economic" only defines
a branch of the larger science already named.
We live in an era of reforms. At first, man was a reformer by
primal necessity. He transformed or reformed nature to meet his
bodily wants. His life was a mere struggle for existence.
In time he turned his eyes inward, and studied himself. He
first diml}'^ saw that there were higher ends and nobler purposes
than mere sensual enjoyment. He slowly learned that his pas-
sions and appetites were created to serve and sustain, not to
master and destroy.
Then turning his eyes outward, and scanning his relation to
others, he found, not justice, much less love and good will, but
necessity on the one hand, and advantage on the other, controlled
the dealings of man with man. He met no recognition of the
brotherhood of the human race. But progress is a law of our
being, and we have now reached a point where ethical laws are
being applied to practical life.
To this end are the various special reforms of this day and
generation mainly directed. There are reforms in church and
state polity, reforms in municipal government, educational
reforms, prison reforms, dress reforms, reforms in eating and
drinking, and numerous other special reform movements, which
challenge our attention.
What the true, genuine reform spirit of our age is seeking to
establish is the equality of human rights; an equality that disre-
gards all disparities of race, sex, or color, of strength, kuowl-
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM R. LAZENBY. 221
edge, or creed; an equality that is plainly and tersely expressed
in the Declaration of Independence: —
" We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created equal ;
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."
As a people we may be selfish, short-sighted, and sinful, yet
there is a strong undercurrent of moral obligation to live for the
highest good of humanity, to co-operate with that " power
which makes for righteousness."
Through all the folly and evils of our time there comes to
every discerning ear a voice which speaks to us in no uncertain
tone. Its message is this : teach the child and you will not be
obliged to hang the man; find the vagrant orphan a home, and
teach him a useful trade, and you will not have to punish him as
a thief, or watch him as a criminal ; furnish work to all who need
it, and there will be few to support as tramps, paupers, and
parasites ; remove temptation from the path of the weak, and you
will not be obliged to punish them for having stumbled and
fallen ; it is better to counsel than to condemn, — better to lift
up than to crush down, — better to be shielded by love and grat-
itude than to be protected by soldiers and police. Thus testifies
the moral genius of our age. Let us try to understand and
heed it.
The great, all-embracing reform of our age and country, one
that naturally follows the banishment of human chattelhood from
our soil, — one that is palpably demanded by every instinct of
justice and humanity, — is that which will lift the industrial classes
from the plane of servility to one of self-respect, self-guidance,
and independence. Its object is to lift the laborer, not out of
labor, but out of ignorance, inefficiency, and want. This great
end cannot be attained at once, but the development of a truer
and more profound social and economic science should help to
pave the way.
The socialist has his dream of an ideal world. He believes it
possible to have a social and industrial order, wherein all freely
serve, and all are served in return ; where no drones or sensualists
can abide; where education is as free and common as air and
sunshine, where nothing but service secures approbation, and
nothing but merit wins esteem ; where mental development and
222 SECTION I.
moral culture is the aim, as well as possible attainment of all.
Is such an order possible? What says social science?
It may be well to repeat here the question discussed by Vice-
President Fernow at the last meeting of this Section.
Have we a social and economic science? Have we enough
obsei*vations, facts, laws, principles, subservient to social and
economic conditions, — so well arranged and classified as to
warrant the use of the term science? I believe we have. Let me
not be misunderstood. I am not a teacher of such science. I
rank low in the class of learners. What I know of science as
applicable to society and economics is slight indeed. Yet I know
there is such a science, and I believe that each succeeding year
enlarges, improves, and perfects it.
If some of the recent applications of this science appear shallow
and seem almost to partake of the nature of quackery, this should
not bar the way to our advance to the acquisition and develop-
ment of a true social and economic science, which shall be
neither shallow nor empirical.
In this spirit, and with no little hesitation, I present a few
thoughts on "Horticulture and Health."
Ours is an eminently practical age. The energy of our people
is mainly expended in the production, manufacture, and distribu-
tion of articles that nourish the body, gratify the senses, or' in
some way contribute to the comfort and convenience of mankind.
Mind is steadily dominating inatter, and this extension of the
sovereignty of man over the material forces of the earth we call
civilization.
The art of horticulture consists primarily in transforming
by means of cultivation, crude and worthless materials into sub-
stances valuable as food products, or useful in ministering to
our love of the beautiful. This raw material is furnished by the
soil, and such substances as may be added thereto, together with
certain elements of the air.
Etymologically speaking, horticulture means the cultivation of
a garden. The real scope of this definition depends upon the
meaning of the word garden. According to philology, this word
comes directly from the Anglo-Saxon gyrdon., to enclose. It
is the root of the verb to gird, meaning to encircle.
Gardening and horticulture, like farming and agriculture, are
synonymous terms. We should remember, however, that the full
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM R. LAZENBT. 223
scope of the meauiug of a word is not determined by its deriva-
tion. This must be sought in its general use and common appli-
cation. By this standard horticulture readily separates itself into
four great divisions, each of which may be many times sub-
divided.
These principal divisions are: —
I. Pomology, or fruit culture.
II. Olericulture, or vegetable gardening.
III. Floriculture.
IV. Landscape-horticulture.
The first two of the above divisions belong to the realm of
industrial or domestic art. The third, floriculture, is both an
industrial and a fine art. While the last, landscape-horticul-
ture, lies wholly within the province of fine art.
Horticulture is more than a mere trade. It is more than a
productive industry. Its successful practice is based upon great
laws which have been deduced from the natural and physical
sciences.
Many of these laws may be arrested, modified, or set in motion
at will.
The horticulturist, as he learns that the control of these laws is
largely in his own hands, becomes an enthusiastic student and
investigator, and can scarcely fail to develop a love for rural
life, — a love that is deep and abiding. Horticulture may justly
rank as a science, as well as an art. Not to speak of the science
of the propagation of plants, or the science of tillage, the great
fundamental principles of evolution are exemplified in horticul-
ture as nowhere else. Over 6,000 species of plants are cultivated
by the horticulturist, and these have produced almost an infinite
number of distinct forms. ^
In these forms, with their wonderful and intricate variations,
we can study the laws of genesis, and the master mind of
Bailey and others are rapidly reducing the wealth of facts found
in greenhouse, garden, aud orchard to the semblance of an
orderly, systematic, and progressive science. The influence of
natural and artificial selection, the effect of soil, climate, and
moisture upon development, the transmission of acquired char-
acters, the formation of new species, are revealed in horticulture
as in an open book. Here facts take the place of conjecture, and
demonstration is substituted for theory.
224 SECTION I.
In discussing the relation that horticulture bears to health, not
physical health alone, but intellectual and spiritual health, have
been considered. In like manner, the products of horticulture,
as well as horticulture as a vocation or recreation, are taken into
account. First, let us consider the effects of the use of our
common garden and orchard products, as a part of an every-day
diet.
There is a great deal of talk about health and diet that is
equally foolish and hurtful; — foolish because it subserves no
good end, and hurtful because it tends to fortify the pernicious
idea that our bodies are in such wretched condition as to need
constant tinkering, and that some sort of self -medication is a
positive duty.
Like malaria, this affection is everywhere. How shall it be
treated ? In the place of this wide-spread delusion there should
be an inbuilt conviction that there are certain articles known as
foods, in the choice of which and in the quantity used each one
has daily opportunity to exercise the virtues of common sense
and moderation. But foods are not medicines.
A medicine is something which is taken into the body to pro-
duce a certain specific and unusual effect, the object being to
counteract some injurious tendency or abnormal state. If taken
when not needed, its effect is likely to be directly injurious. In
order to maintain strength and vigor, and repair waste, the
normally healthy body craves what is tvholesome, not what is
medicinal. When a thing has real medicinal value, it is almost
certain to be unwholesome as a general article of diet. There
is an old tradition, — even now quite generally believed, although
gradually fading away, — that anything that affords us simple
physical pleasure is dangerous, if not absolutely sinful.
So when one eats freely of fruits, he does not feel justified in
simply saying he does so because he finds them agreeable, he
likes and craves them, but is constrained to look wise and sol-
emnly observe that " fruits are very healthy." Some even go so
far as the German prince, and have for each bodily ailment a
different variety of fruit. The prince said, " Whenever I meet
with any misfortune or aflfliction, and am disposed to give way
to my grief, I order a young goose nicely roasted, and eat as
much thereof as I can: I always find that I rise from the table
far less unhappy." Let us banish the idea of making a drug-
ADDRESS BY "WILLIAM R. LAZKNBY. 225
Store of our fruit-gardens and orchards, and cease looking upon
the family fruit-basket as a sort of homceopathic pill-box!
" Blessed are they that hunger and thirst," can be said as truly
of our bodily wants as of our spiritual necessities: not blessed
because they shall be medicated, but because " they shall be
filled," — filled with what tastes good, with what gives genuine
and lasting pleasure.
In satisfying our hunger for fruit, — fruit that is well matured,
juicy, and fine flavored, — we get perhaps the highest form of
palate gratification with the least possible digestive effort.
Our ordinary fruits contain the following substances in greater
or less proportions : —
1. A large percentage of water.
2. Sugar^ in the form of grape and fruit sugar.
3. Free oryanic acids, varying slightly according to the kind
of fruit. For example, the predominating acid is malic in the
apple, tartaric in the grape, citric in the lemon.
4. Protein or albuminoids, substances containing nitrogen,
■which resemble the white of eggs, and are its equivalent in food
value.
5. Pertose, the sul)stance which gives firmness to fruit, and
which upon boiling yields various fruit jellies.
6. Cellulose or verjetahle fibre, the material that forms the cell
walls, and which is found in all parts of plants.
7. A very small percentage of ash or mineral salts.
The substances named above are, with the exception of cellu-
lose, essential constituents of a perfect diet. The percentages
of the different nutrients are so small, however, that most of our
fruit has little actual food value. For example, the nutrients
contained in the strawberry, according to analyses made at the
Ohio State University, are as follows : —
Carbohydrates 8.0 per cent.
Protein 3 " "
Fat 0 " "
It has been estimated that the minimum daily ration of nutri-
ents for a man of average weight, performing an ordinary day's
work, is : —
Carbohydrates 500 grams, or 17.6 ounces.
Protein 118 " "4.2 "
Fat 36 " "2.0 "
A. A. A. S., VOL. XLV. 15
226 SECTION I.
A simple calculation will show that a person would have to
consume about 200 ounces, or 13 pounds, of strawberries daily
in order to obtain the proper amount of carbohydrates from this
source.
In order to secure the necessary amount of protein from the
same source, a daily consumption of 1400 ounces, or 88 pounds,
of strawberries would be required.
This would be a task that even the most ardent admirer of this
fruit could scarcely be prevailed upon to attempt. Take another
illustration from the vegetable, rather than the fruit garden.
The nutrients contained in the tomato are as follows: —
Carbohydrates 2.5 per cent.
Protein 8 "
Fat 4 "
Applying the same calculation as before will show that one
would have to eat 500 ounces, or 31.2 pounds, of tomatoes each
day for the requisite fat; he would have to eat 525 ounces, or
32.8 pounds, for the necessary protein, and for the carbohydrates
it would require 704.4 ounces, or about 44 pounds. In other
words, if one should eat 44 pounds of tomatoes every day, he
would consume slightly more fat and protein than were absolutely
necessary for a day's supply, and just about the right amount of
carbohydrates.
Tills demonstrates that, however valuable strawberries and
tomatoes may be as a part of an every-day diet, they cannot be
considered as foods. Their actual nutrient value is exceedingly
low. In order to support life and maintain strength, straw-
berries and tomatoes must be eaten in connection with other
substances which have more concentrated nutrients. Wherein
does their dietetic value consist? Let us briefly consider. The
qualities which render fruit and many of the more delicate garden
vegetables wholesome, and cause us to have a natural appetite
for and hence to enjoy them, are their acid juiciness and flavor.
The juice is mainly water, but it comes to us in a grateful and
refreshing form. The flavor is due in part to the organic acids
already mentioned, but mainly to certain volatile oils or aromatic
ethers. It is to these latter that those delicate characteristic
flavors of various varieties of fruit are chiefl}' due.
Chemistr}^ and ph3'siology have taught us that, when these
" fruity acids," oils, and ethers are taken into the body, they
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM R. LAZENBY. 227
undergo oxidation, which process tends to lower the temperature
of the blood, or at least to modify our temperature sensations,
and thus correct, or allay, any slight feverishness that may exist.
They also tend to keep the organs of secretion, the liver, kid-
neys, etc., in a healthy condition. We are justified, therefore, in
saying that fruits are " cooling, aperient, and grateful." In
our climate, subject as we are to rapid changes and extremes
of temperature, passing abruptly, as we often do, from an arctic
winter to a tropical summer, the physical system is naturally
more or less debilitated.
In this condition we are predisposed to malarial troubles, par-
ticularly if we live where the drainage is poor. Fruits and acid
vegetables are found to be good correctives for this debilitated
condition of the system. The free acids of fruits, especially
citric and malic acids, are highly antiseptic bodies. They tend
to prevent disease germs from finding a lodgment and develop-
ing in the body.
The full beneficial effects of these acids are only to be found in
mature fruits. Green, unripe fruits, although they have an
abundant supply of acids, are usually injurious, on account of
their indigestibility. This arises, mainly, from the coarse and
hard condition of the cellulose. When fruits are perfectly devel-
oped and properly matured the cellulose is soft and fine. We
know that unripe fruit is not wholesome. It digests slowly,
often ferments in the stomach, and is the cause of painful dis-
orders. It is unwise to take into our stomachs that which will
ferment and decompose; it is certainly no less unwise to eat
over-ripe or wilted fruit, in which these destructive changes have
already begun. The question is often asked whether such or
such a fruit is health]/, even when the question has no special
reference to the condition of the fruit itself. All fruits that are
eaten ought to be healthy. That is, they should be well matured,
sound, and free from disease. As a rule, such "healthy fruits"
are for most of us n-ho/esome, although they are neither food nor
medicine.
The best results possible from the dietetic use of fruits and
vegetables come from eating those that are fresh, healthy, and
properly matured, and which have been produced by our own
skill and industry.
I am dwelling too long upon the relations of the products of
horticulture to health.
228 SECTION I.
Let us consider how horticulture as a vocation stands related to
the ph3'sical, intellectual, and moral well-being of mankind.
In order to maintain physical strength and vigor, at least four
things are needful. These are pure air, nutritious food, unbroken
sleep, and muscular exercise.
That vocation which comes the nearest to supplying these requi-
sites of good health can scarcely be other than a desirable
one. Judged by this standard, horticulture stands at the very
head of the list. Its quiet, its segregation from strife and jealous
rivalry, its unequalled opportunities for nature study, make it
at once attractive and healthful. Blessed is he who works in
greenhouse, garden, or orchard. As a rule, his day's exertion
ends with the evening twilight, and he rises each morning with
his physical energies renewed for fresh activity. To him is
given that full measure of health only vouchsafed to those who
spend most of their waking hours in the free, pure air, and
renovating sunshine of the open country.
Health is not only wealth, but happiness, and the superior
advantages of horticulture as a healthful vocation cannot be too
strongly urged.
Floriculture and small fruit culture are pre-eminently adapted
to women. There are few indusrtries where fairer returns for
capital and labor expended are more certain: few that can be So
well begun with small means, and still remain capable of indefi-
nite extension. Fine fruits and flowers are in universal demand.
They are the necessities of the rich and the appreciated luxuries
of the poor.
Our densely populated commercial centres, our thronged and
fashionable summer resorts, are rarely if ever adequately sup-
plied with them. As a rule, they take all they can get, and then
look around for more. You might double the largest annual
yield of good berries, or fine roses or carnations, with profit to
the producers. The home market for products of this sort is
signally elastic, the demand ever keeping well abreast of the
supply.
The same is true of winter forced vegetables. In the light of
a personal experience of over twenty years, I can confidently
affirm that the vocation of horticulture, when wisely and ener-
getically followed, is a profitable one. I believe there are few
pursuits which afford as bright prospects, or as full an assur-
ance of reward for intelligent persistent effort, as does this.
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM R. LAZENBV. 229
Listen to a few facts. The vegetable forcing-houses belonging
to the horticultural department of the Ohio State University
have an aggregate glass area of a little less than 4,000 square
feet. There are two plain structures which could be built at the
present time for about $900 each. The total bencli space in
these two houses is a trifle more than one twentieth of an acre.
During the past five years the annual sales from these forcing-
houses have averaged about if 600.
The following are among the more important crops commer-
cially grown the past 3'ear, and the receipts of each: —
Lettuce .$406 10
Radishes 52.25
Beets 45.00
Cucumbers 48.50
Hyacintlis 59.25
Total 611.10
When we consider that these forcing-houses are used but little
more than one half of the year the result attained is encouraging.
It should be stated that in addition to the above crops there were
grown in less quantities, and chiefly for experimental purposes,
parsley, peppers, egg-plant, cauliflower, string-beans, onions,
and a few other vegetables, including mushrooms, as well as a
somewhat smaller list of flowering plants.
The cultivation of the small fruits is likewise peculiarly suit-
able for women. It is a business for both old and young.
Examples are not wanting to show signal successes attained in
strawberry', currant, and gooseberry culture, by women as well
as men, when begun in the decline of life.
Small fruit culture is an industry that especially commends
itself to poor women who are struggling to support their chil-
dren in frugal independence. Almost any one can obtain control
of a cottage with a half-acre, more or less, of warm, southward-
sloping land, which can be planted with early vegetables and
small fruits, in such a way as to be a source of continuous profit.
If a small forcing-house can be added, and to this can be
accorded that constant supervision without which no industry is
likely to prosper, it will be an added source of revenue. In this
way many a widow could find a healthful, congenial occupation,
which did not require her to spend her days away from home, or
230 SECTION I.
subject her to the caprices of a selfish or thoughtless employer.
I believe there is no other occupation in which, for the capital
invested, success is so nearly certain as in horticulture. Of
every one hundred men who embark in trade, carefully collected
statistics report that at least ninety fail. Why? Mainly because
competition is so sharp and traffic so enormously overdone. If
one hundred men endeavor to support themselves and families by
merchandise in a town which affords adequate business for only
ten, it is absolutely certain that a large majority must fail, no
matter how able their management or how economical their liv-
ing. On the other hand, the number of horticulturists in
almost any community might be doubled without necessarily
dooming one to failure, or even abridging his income. If one
half of the day laborers in the country were to embark in horti-
culture to-morrow, I do not believe it would render the industry
one whit less profitable, while it could scarcely fail to add to the
health, wealth, and comfort of all.
I shall have little to say regarding the relation of horticulture
to intellectual health. Any true knowledge of the art or
practice must be based upon science.
The horticulturist stands face to face with problems which
require for their solution the amplest knowledge of nature's law^,
the fullest command of science, and the best efforts of the human
intellect. In this art study and mental acquisition, together
with a habit of observation and reflection, are equally essential
and serviceable. However it may be with others, the horticul-
turist imperatively needs a knowledge of the character and con-
stitution of the soil he tills, and the plants he cultivates, and the
laws which govern their relations to each other.
Geology, chemistry, and botany ai-e the sciences which unlock
for him the secrets of nature, and a knowledge of these is among
the most vitally urgent of his needs.
Horticulture is an intellectual pui'suit, and in its practice the
strongest minds may find scope for profitable employment. The
one who chooses this profession must keep his mind open and his
mental faculties alert by constant observation and study. Hor-
ticulture is esteemed by all, because every useful vocation is
respected in proportion to the measure of intellect it requires and
rewards, and never can rise above this level.
The relation of horticulture to moral and spiritual health de-
ADDRESS BY AVILLIAM R. LAZENBY. 231
serves a more extended consideration. The horticulturist deals
directly with nature, and finds little or no temptation to juggle or
stoop to trickery. " Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he
also reap," is immediately and palpably true in his case. Nature
never has been and never can be cheated.
The horticulturist, acting as a horticulturist, soon comes to
realize that his success depends upon absolute verity, and he is
not likely to be lured from the straight path of integrity and
righteousness. When he goes into the markets and becomes a
trader he is subjected to the same temptations as others, and may
be enticed into some of the many devious ways of rascality. The
whole tendency of his vocation, however, conduces most directly
to a reverence for honest}^ and truth. It is likewise conducive to
a genuine independence and thorough manliness of character.
The horticulturist is not obliged to swallow any creed, support
any pai'ty, or defer to any prejudice, in order to successfully
follow his calling.
He may be a democrat, republican, populist, or prohibitionist;
a gold-bug or a silverite; a free-trader or a protectionist; Chris-
tian or infidel; yet his fruit and flowers will sell for exactl}' what
they are worth. Social intolerance of adverse opinions is never
directed toward him.
But it is horticulture as a fine art that has the most abiding
influence. Who can measure the effect of the landscape-horticul-
ture of our parks and public grounds, or estimate the value of
the external adornment of the home?
Horticulture is nature's best interpreter, and through this art
the blinded ej^es may be opened, the dormant aesthetic powers
awakened, and the heart inade ready for a just appreciation of the
beautiful. It is well to bring art into our homes, to adorn and
decorate them with painting and sculpture; but we must not
forget that the sense of beauty must be cultivated before the
treasures of art can be made our own. If I were called upon to
point out one of the most serious weaknesses in our modern
system of education, I should answer, " Its failure to accustom
the eyes of childhood and youth to the beautiful in nature."
The beo;inning of .all true education should be a love of nature,
and nature-study ought to be the dominant note in every educa-
tional system.
What a wealth of beauty there is in tree and shrub and
232 SECTION I.
flower, — a beauty of which we never tire, and which " is its own
excuse for being ! " When the art of horticulture arranges trees
and shrubs, flowers and lawn, so as to present an expressive
picture to the eye, the beauty is multiplied, and this development
of the beautiful is the end and aim of all landscape-horticulture.
The claims of horticulture in answering our spiritual needs are
no less than they are in answering our phj^sical necessities.
In the first and most essential of human arts we are beginning
to recognize one of the last and most useful of human sciences.
Hoiv and where and ivhen can this art and science best do its
appointed work?
It is a part of my social creed that there need be, and should
be, no paupers who are not infantile, imbecile, or disabled.
Yet the world is full of men and women doing nothing, mainly
because they don't know how to do anything. To correct this,
youth should be a season of instruction in some trade or useful
art, as well as in letters and various sciences. There should be
a blending of labor with study, of training with teaching, so as
to preserve health of body and vigorous activity of mind.
The pupil or student should be enabled to nearly or quite make
his way through high school, academy, and college, and go forth
qualified to face adversity and maintain a healthful independence.
One step toward the accomplishment of this desired end would be
the introduction into our country schools of manual training in
horticulture. The land required could be easily secured, and the
necessary equipment in the way of tools, seeds, etc. would not
be expensive.
The work undertaken in these training schools should embrace
the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, shrubs, and trees.
In connection with the above the various operations of propagat-
ing plants by seeds, cuttings, budding, grafting, etc., should be
thoroughly taught. The collection and planting of weeds, the
breeding of the more common injurious insects, and the use of
remedies, the study of bees and useful birds, a practical ac-
quaintance with our native trees and shrubs, and other similar
subjects, might form a part of the instruction and training.
The introduction of such a course would mean an impiovement
of our schoolhouse grounds, and the adornment of these would
have an elevating effect upon the whole community.
If we have beautiful school buildings, with beautiful sur-
ADDRESS BY WILLIAM R. LAZKNBY. 233
roundings, the inference is almost irresistible that we shall have
teachers and pupils of greater refinement. To develop all the
faculties of body and mind is the aim of modern education
Manual training in horticulture can signally aid in securing this
end.
I sincerely' hope that the obvious advantages of forming horti-
cultural colonies will be widely and rapidly impi'oved. It would
correct the unhealthy congestion of our towns and cities. In no
other way can so many be provided with homes, regular employ-
ment, and good living. By a horticultural colony I mean the
association of from one hundred to five hundred families, in the
purchase of a suitably located tract of land, embracing about one
acre for each individual. The location, which should be reason-
ably near some large commercial centre, and the purchase of this
land should be intrusted to the most capable and honest members
of the association. It should be carefully surveyed and divided
into a few small lots, centrally located, for the necessary mechan-
ics and merchants, but mainlj' into areas of from one to ten acres
for horticulture. Ample reservations of the best sites should
be made for a schoolhouse, town hall, and public park. The
streets should be embowered with shade trees, and every owner
of a lot or garden should be encouraged to beautify and adorn it.
I believe such a co-operative effort would secure a modest but
comfortable home for any family that could contribute from $300
to $500. If the contribution ranged from $500 to $1,000, a
proportionally better home could be secured. Some of the
advantages of such colonization over the isolated system of
taking up a homestead may be summarized as follows: —
First. — One tenth of the land required under the old system
would be found abundant.
SeconcJ. — It could be far better selected with reference to mar-
kets, and more suitable allotments for fruits, garden vegetables,
floriculture, nursery, etc. could be made.
Third. — Few draught animals and little expensive machinery
would be required.
And, finally, man's social and gregarious instincts would be
satisfied.
While ignorance and miseducation ruin thousands, I believe
that poverty resulting from involuntary idleness sends more men
and women to perdition than any other cause.
234 SECTION I.
Horticulture may never become a universal panacea for desti-
tution and crime, yet I have a joyful trust that thousands will be
awakened by it to a larger and nobler conception of the true
mission of labor, and by its practice, along the path of simple,
honest, pei'sistent work, life may be made easier, and men and
women healthier and happier.
PAPERS READ.
Beginning Tuesday, August 25.
The monetary standard. By Dr. W. H. Hale, Brooklyn, N. Y. (Pub-
lislied in Bachelor of Arts.)
Competition of the sexes and its results. By Lawrence Irwell,
Buffalo, N. Y.
Fashion, a study. By Prof. S. Edward Warren, Newton, Mass.
Citizenship, its privileges and duties. By Dr. Stillman F. Kneeland,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
An inheritance for the waifs. By Dr. C. F. Taylor, Philadelphia, Pa.
The proposed sociological institution. By James A. Skilton, New
York, N. Y. (Published in Journal of Sociologi/.)
What is true money ? By Edward Atkinson, Boston, Mass.
The value of the social settlement. By Aaron B. Keeler, Buffalo.
N. Y.
Human reciprocity. — The vanishing neighborship. By Mary J. Eastman,
Washinj^ton, D. C.
Relics of ancient (legal) barbarism. By Dr. Stillman F. Kneeland,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
The crime against labor. By Edward Atkinson, Boston, Mass.
Suicide legislation. By Wm. Lane O'Neill, LL. D., New York, N. Y.
Better distribution of weather forecasts. By J. H. Miller, Cairo, 111.
The Section adjourned Wednesday, August 26.
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY.
General Session, Monday Morning, August 24.
The first General Session of tlie Forty -fiftli Meeting of tlie American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science was called to order at 10 a. m., Monday,
August 24, 1896, in the Chapel of the High School Building, BuflFalo, N. Y.,
by tlie retiring President, Edward W. Morlet, who introduced President-elect
Edward D. Cope in the following words: —
It is a little difficult to believe that, only two centuries ago, a man could
master all of tlie exact and precise knowledge which had then been attained by
tiie human race. But it is only two hundred years since Leibnitz lived; and
it was said of Leibnitz that he drove all the sciences abreast. Science has now
become much too varied and extensive for any similar mastery ; we must be
specialists, each familiar with some chosen fraction of science; and, for most
of us, the fraction is a small one.
Some evils may come from this. I do not think they have become very sen-
sible within our Association. Many of us can, at least, feel an intelligent and
cordial sympathy with the aims of those sections which are the most remote
from our own. Within a somewhat narrower range, we can also comprehend
the problems and results of others ; and within the smaller circle which touches
our own, we can even understand methods, as well as results and objects.
But when a chemist has to introduce, as his successor in office, a student of
paleontology, he can speak with no critical fulness of knowledge. His words
must be few and general.
It is no small matter that our President-elect is well known to us as an
accomplished editor and a skilful writer. But his principal work has been more
important than this. He has adorned and enriched the sciences of Comparative
Anatomy, of Osteology, and of Paleontology with many and important addi-
tions. I may allude to tiie new light which he has thrown on the origin of the
vertebrate structure. It is the high and well established reputation which such
labors have conferred on him which has commanded our suffrages for the office
which he now accepts.
Professor Edward D. Cope, it gives me great pleasure to yield to you the
chair of the President of this Association.
President Cope then took the chair, and called upon Bishop Charles H.
Fowler, D. 1)., of tiie Methodist Episcopal Church, to pronounce the invocation.
(237)
238 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
After the invocation President Cope introduced His Honor, Mayor Edgar B.
Jewett, Chairman of the Local Committee, who welcomed the Associa-
tion to Buffalo in these words: —
Mr. Chairman' and Members of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, —
In the name of the people of Buffalo I extend to you a sincere and hearty
welcome.
We are mindful of the distinguished honor you have done us by choosing
Buffalo for the fourth time as the place for holding the Convention, and hope
that you will have no cause to regret your choice.
It is a pleasure to us to entertain in our humble way men who have dedicated
their lives, as you have done, to the cause of science.
I hope this session will be full of profit to you all ; that you will be enriched
in knowledge by reason of having attended it.
I trust that the cause of your noble professions will not so completely absorb
you as to make you indifferent to the many and varied charms of the city of
Buffalo at this season of the year.
If you will look about during your stay with us, you will find that Buffalo is
a large and busy city. Her citizens are quiet, thrifty, industrious, law-abiding,
and liberty-loving. They are conservative in business affairs, but open-hearted
and most hospitably inclined toward tlie strangers who are within our gates.
It is a city of individual homes, and not of tenements. It is a city of comfort,
and not of show, of sincerity, and not of sham ; of neatness, cleanliness, sobriety,
and health. Our doors are open wide to you, and we hope that you will see as
much as possible of our city during your stay.
Should you desire to know the cause of tiie stability, contentment, and con-
servatism of our people, I would refer you to the resident districts with their
miles and miles of individual homes, more of them than any other city in the
country can boast.
Again I extend to you, most cordially, the freedom of the citj', hoping you
will be pleased with our humble efforts to entertain you, that you will carry
away pleasant memories of your visit to Buffalo, and a desire to come again at
some future time. •
President Cope then introduced Dr. Roswell Park, President of the Buf-
falo Society of Natural Sciences, who gave the following address of welcome : —
The members of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences have done me the
great honor to make me their spokesman upon this occasion in extending to you
their most cordial welcome to our fair city. How fair, how pleasant it is, you
may better realize when I remind you that, with more than one third of a million
of inhabitants, we liad during the recent hot season only two deaths from heat
prostration, wliile New York City had during the same time about seven hundred.
But though we had the lowest mean temperature of any city in the country dur-
ing the heated term, we nevertheless hope to show you that our welcome is not
gauged by the thermometer, nor our hospitality regulated by isothermal lines.
As citizens we are proud of our city, and it is not our smallest boast, by any
means, that you meet here now for the fourth time. We would ask those who
have been here before to compare our present with our past, and see with what
REPORT OF THK GENERAL SECRETARY. 239
rapid strides we are becoming one of the largest and most prosperous cities of
the continent.
It would surprise you if I told you all our commercial prosperity. Let it not
provoke a smile when I say that more tonnage enters and leaves our harbor than
any otlier harbor in the world, save Liverpool. Li fact, it is nearly as large as
that of the whole Atlantic coast.
With such commercial prosperity, you might naturally expect to find here
great institutions of learning. Such, indeed, we have, but perhaps tliey are less
conspicuous in a city where business interests dominate as they do with us.
Among our prominent educational influences we include, and modestly men-
tion, first, our own Society. This was chartered in 1863, three years before
your first meeting in this city. Our first President was Judge Clinton, whose
name stands high on the honor roll of New York State. You see while your
Association was resting during the period of civil strife, from 1860 to 1866, and
holding no meetings, our Society was born.
Not the least of our pleasant recollections in seeing you now is the remem-
brance that after the period of your inactivity was over, your first meeting was
held in Buffalo, and that 79 men met here in 1866 and practically reorganized
your Association. We have not forgotten that at that meeting Prof. Barxard
presided, that in 1876 Prof. Rogers was in the chair, and that in 1886 Prof .
Morse was President. Nor are we likely soon to forget Prof. Cope, who now
adorns the position. I know well that of the early Presidents Prof. Ja.mes
Hall alone survives, — he of whom our State is also and justly proud. By a
coincidence of no import whatever, and probably of interest only to myself, it
happens that my father of the same name was, in 1848, one of the founders
of your Association, his name appearing as such in the first volume of your
Proceedings. You can imagine then that it gives his son a peculiar pleasure to
extend to j'ou this welcome.
Our own avowed object is tlie promotion and study of tiie natural sciences
througii the formation of a museum and library, the procurement of lecturers,
etc. Working, as we must, with practically no endowment nor revenue, we are
not ashamed of the size of the collection both of books and specimens, with
which our somewhat ample rooms are well filled, — to which rooms we cordially
invite you at all times, and particularly after tiie formal exercises of this even-
ing, when they will be open for an informal reception to your officers and mem-
bers by the citizens of Buffalo.
The specimens in our cases number some 27,000 ; our working library con-
sists of 3,500 volumes. In our museum, the collections of which we are partic-
ularly proud are those of American Bison, nothing equal to it being in existence ;
our collection of local fossils ; of eggs ; Judge Clinton's large lierbarium ; tiie
Wadsworth collection of minerals, valued at §30,000, which is unrivalled in
some respects; and the Riggs collection of Mound Builders' pottery.
We really have been a large influence in our community. Last year our
rooms were visited by some 30,000 people. Tiie school children of the city and
their teachers have always been particularly welcome. Our meetings are held
regularly during the active seasons, and lectures have been given under our
auspices by many eminent men ; and so it happens that, though few scientific
societies in the country have had more uphill work, we are yet proud of what
we have accomplished with our means.
240 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
Buffalo is a great convention city. Its all around activity has brought here
this summer all sorts and conditions of organizations. Even the politicians in-
fest it. To this fact it is due that city aid has been denied us in doing all that
we wished to do for your pleasure and entertainment. We Iiave had to depend
solely upon our good friends, who have not disappointed us, and we are able to
beguile a number of your leisure hours. It is our particular hope that j'ou
ma}' visit Niagara Falls with us at the conclusion of the meeting, in order that
you may see what man has done in harnessing nature, and enjoy the river trip,
which is not surpassed by any excursion of its kind in the world, either for
study of nature's scenic effects or the marvels of man's ingenuity. The power
works and the carborundum manufactory will there be open for your inspection,
with perhaps other recent enterprises. But before you go there we want you
to visit certain of our home institutions. Our water works are well worth a
trip that you may see how the problem of supplying a large city with an abun-
dance of pure water is beautifully and simply solved. The Buffalo Library
building, in which is to be found our own home, contains a large public library,
maintained without city aid and watched over by a talented librarian, Mr.
Larned, whom we always delight to honor. On the upper floor of the same
building the Historical Society has its quarters, where you may find many in-
teresting relics of flie days when different races and nations contested bitterly
for possession of what is now our frontier. Indeed, were this the place and
time to go into local history much might be told you, only a portion of which
has been related in story or sung in verse.
A little farther up town j'ou will find the Grosvenor Library, a large reference
library, housed in its new quarters, which are admirable of their kind. To the
medical contingent of 3'our Association, which lias always afforded tempting
company for medical men, the University of Buffalo, which has just celebrated
its semi-centennial, offers a fine museum, a large library, and a peculiarly at-
tractive building for its medical school, which you are also invited to inspect.
When last you met here, by the way,- our University was solely a medical
school. Now it has five professional schools and 700 students, another evi-
dence of our scientific growth. The Niagara University also maintains here
a medical department, the two universities for the present completing and
rounding out our list of technical educational institutions.
Aside from tiiese matters, there are connected with our home society a num-
ber of smaller affiliated clubs, each devoted to some particular form of nature
study. It will be their pleasure to render such attention to those of your mem-
bers who are similarly interested as time and weather may permit in the way
of excursions to some of the many points of interest in the neighborhood.
I am further authorized by special vote of its directors to extend to the regis-
tered members of the Association the hospitality of the Buffalo Club during
the week of this meeting. Cards of invitation are in the hands of the Secretary,
and will be issued to every one who registers.
It has been stated, and most justly, that associated action is the mainspring of
progress and advancement, both in science and in commercial enterprise. No
more conspicuous illustration of the truth of this assertion can be met with than
this society can furnish. Recognized at home as the leading organization of the
continent, and abroad as the peer of any foreign society, you have done in the
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 241
past, as you will continue to do in the future, most noble and conspicuous
good. I can only conclude these heartfelt and inadequate remarks by wishing
you as successful a meeting this year as you have had iu tlie past, and in assur-
ing you that Buffalo's citizens take pride in welcoming you here, and in ex-
tending you every hospitalitj'. We particularly hope, too, that in 1906 we may
have the great pleasure of greeting you here again.
In reply to the addresses of welcome, Priesident Cope said : —
Mr. Matoe, Ladies axd Gentlemen of the Local Committee, and
Citizens of Buffalo, —
I utter the sentiments of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in expressing our pleasure at being once again in your beautiful city.
We feel at home here, as we know tliat we are among friends who imderstand
our motives and our objects. But, inasmuch as we represent the entire nation,
I will give a brief outline of the objects of the Association and the aims which
it has in view. Our principal occupation is that of original scientific research,
although many of us are of necessity teachers of scientific knowledge. The
primary object of the Association is, however, not teaching only, but the ad-
vancement of science by the increase of knowledge. We seek to penetrate the
unknown and to build up a system bj' which we may understand with certainty
tlie mutual relations of the various parts of the universe, including ourselves.
Although many facts are known and some laws have been discovered, more
facts remain unknown and we have not yet ascertained many of the highest
principles of nature. Original research furnishes the material for teaching and
the matter which is contained in books. Much money is devoted in this country
to the building of libraries and of schools, but not much is given for the pur-
pose of supplying the knowledge which is to be taught in the schools and from
which books are made.
The motives of tlie original investigator vary with his 3'ears, but the taste for
research is generally developed early in life. In some it is a love of the beauti-
ful, whether it be the beauty of a perfect mechanism or the beauty of form that
attracts him. In some, it is the desii-e to know, and in others it is a high inter-
est in the problem of human origin and destiny. In many it is the same feeling
which prompts the adventurous explorer to enter a new region, not knowing
wliat he will find, but believing tliat whatever is, is right.
The services rendered by science are twofold. They have a value either
material in their character or utilitarian, or they have a mental value, inas-
much as knowledge serves to clear the mind of fears and doubts and so to
promote human happiness. The true man of science is not influenced by utilita-
rian considerations, but he pursues the truth wherever it may lead, knowing bj'
experience that its benefits are many and sometimes unexpected. Another
benefit which the cultivation of science promotes is the formation of correct
habits of thought. The rational faculty of mind is of very ancient origin, and
developed early in the history of man. But its use in the early stages of human
development has been largely n jn-ion, that is, in advance of knowledge, rather
than as a digester of knowledge after its acquisition. In other words, the scien-
tific method consists not in the use of abstract reason, but in a reasonable use
of the results of observation and experiment. This is the lesson which the
A. A. A. S. VOL. XLV. 16
242 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
liistory of science teaches mankind, that, if we wish to know the actual state of
affairs, our course is first to observe the facts, and then to draw our inference
from them, and not to describe tlie universe from our inner consciousness as we
think it ought to be. All the results attiiined by science have been due to ad-
herence to this method. However, it is not forbidden to entertain lijpotheses
before discover}-, if such hypotlieses are not valued for more than they are
worth. Another service which we imagine tliat science renders to the com-
munity is the example which it offers of the reward of labor. The scientific
man loves to work, not only for the sake of acquisition, but also because of the
pleasure there is in work as an activity of tlie human organism. By it we
learn that by work only can great results be accomplisiied, and the law of con-
servation and correlation of energy teaches that something cannot be made out
of nothing.
In our educational function we hope by example to show that the mental
life is as worth living and affords as much pleasure as the physical life. This
is a lesson on which it is necessary to continually insist, and since mankind is
constantly prone to imagine that mental activity and tiiought are uninteresting
or painful, in spite of tlie fact that they afford pleasure of a iiigli class and one
conservative of tlie entire organism.
Second. We wish to emphasize the desirability of free tiiought on all sub-
jects whatsoever, with the necessary condition that thought sliall be careful and
judicial. Tiiought so applied to our practical affairs must be in the highest
degree beneficial in every direction, both personal and national. We expressly
repudiate two common types of thought. One of these attempts to prove by
reasoning, if not by reason, a contention in which a person has especial interest.
It is to be feared that this habit of mind is too common, and it implies a lack of
honesty of purpose which is entirel^^ foreign to the scientific spirit. The other
type of thinking to which we object is the acceptance of allegations concerning
matters of fact and theory, upon insufficient evidence, or iipon authority only.
Both of tiiese methods lead to inaccurate results, and from both the scientific
method protects us. I do not hesitate to say that the future of science will be
greater than its past, and thai it affords a career to those who are adapted for
it, which promises a high degree of happiness and benefit. I believe that in
this country, with our facilities in various directions, tiie pursuit of science will
become a more conspicuous part of our national life than it is now, and I am
sure that nothing is more desirable for our national life than that this should
be the case. In the cultivation of science we see the cultivation of honesty, of
industry, and of trutii, all qualities which are essential to the prosperity of a
people.
Fellow citizens of Buffalo, we thank you for the very material aid which you
are rendering us in the attempt to develop this enterprise.
The Permanent Secretary read the list of members deceased since the
last meeting. This list is printed in full in another part of the volume, and in-
cludes the names of deceased members which have not previously been entered
on the printed lists.
During the past year the Association has lost three of its founders and one of
its past Presidents.
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 243
The following announcements were made by the General Secretary . —
1. A vacancy exists in the Vice-Presidency for Section A, by reason of the
absence of Prof. Wm. E. Stoky, owing to tlie sickness of iiis wife. Nomination
to this position will be made by the Council at the General Session on Tues-
day. As Vice-President Story's address is not prepared, the announcement for
the afternoon should be cancelled.
2. Prof. A. C. Gill, Secretary of Section E, lias resigned on account of his
journey to Greenland.
3. The death of Capt.JoiiN G. Bourke, U. S. A., the Secretary of Section H,
already announced by the Permanent Secretary, creates a vacancy in that
office.
4. Sections E and H are directed by the Council to fill the vacancies in the
Secretarysliip of each.
5. The CocNCiL directs that the following communications be read: —
Editorial Rooms of The Iron Age, New York-, April 16, 1896.
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Salem, Mass.
Gentlemen, — At the request of Professor A. v. Kerpelt, I take pleasure iu forwarding to you
the enclosed invitation to attend the Mining and Geological Congress at Budapest.
Yours truly,
C. KmCHHOF,
Edi/or The Ikon Age.
(6. Bulyovszky-utcza) Budapest, February 20, 1896.
To THE Members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science : —
The Metropolitan City and residence of the King of Hungary is preparing to solemnize this
their millennium by a series of great festivities.
A thousand years have passed since our country has sprung into existence and has assured its
liberty in the very heart of Europe.
After many hard struggles which often threatened our total annihilation, we have firmly held
our ground, and are now going to extend, in an intellectual and ethical point of view, the construc-
tion of our public life.
We mountaineers and geologists will do our share in the demonstration Ijy convoking our
colleagues from abroad to debate with them on subjects of mutual scientific interest.
We have therefore decided to hold, on the 25th and 26th of September, 1896, a Mining and Geo-
logical Congress in connection with the Millennial National Exhibition, and we hope to welcome
all those of our friends and colleagues who may choose to take part therein.
We presume that our National Exhibition alone will afford some interest to those not fully
acquainted with the situation of our country, but we shall feel happy if our invitation will also re-
sult in inducing the participation in discussions.
It is proposed that on the days destined for the meetings of this Congress the rich Exhibition
of Industry and Agriculture, as well as its most interesting historical features, shall be visited
under professional guidance.
According to the number of foreign and home members, discussions will be opened in special
sections, for which reason we have decided to constitute the following sections: («) Geology,
(6) Coal-Mining, (c) Metal-Mining, (d\ Preparation of Metal Ores in a wet way, (e) Proceedings
of extracting metal, (./ ) Iron-ore Mining and Metallurgy, ((/) Hock-salt Mining, (/O Mintage,
and (i) Mining Legislation.
Lectures a.s well as the discussions to be held can be made not only in Hungarian, but also in
German, French, and English.
Notices of lectures to be given at latest until the 1st of April «. c, and rough copies of the same
to be sent to the undersigned Committee, the latest until the Ist of July a. c, in order to give time
to have them translated into other languages and to have them put into print.
244 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
After the closing of the Congress, excursions of two to three days' duration will be made into
some of our most important coiil mines, iron works, and interesting gold districts.
In the name of tlie Executive Committee, I have the honour of inviting you to partalie in our
Congress, and hope you will be largely represented by members who, by lectures and arguments on
questions of national economical importance, will enliven our discussions and add to the success
of this Congress.
Finally, I beg to observe that notice of participation can be registered at ray office (Budapest VII.
Bulyovszky-utcza 6) until the 1st of July a. c. , and that our Committee will also undertake to pro-
vide suitable lodgings for the members if required to do so.
We are, with great respect,
Truly yours,
A. V. Kerpelt,
President, Executive Committee.
The Buffalo Library, Buffalo, N. T.,Matj 18, 1896.
Peof. F. W. Potxam,
Secret.uit American Association for the Advancement of Science, Salem, Mass.: —
Di-AR Sir, —
Agreeably to a resolution adopted by the Board of Managers of the Buffalo Library. I beg to
extend to your Association the privileges of the Library during the convention to be held in this
city in August next.
Yours very truly,
Joseph L. Hunricker,
Corresponding Secretary.
6. Bliss Bros., photographers, request the members of 'the Association to as-
semble on tlie steps at tlie northwest corner of tlie High School on Tuesday,
August 25, at 12 : 15 p. m.
7. The Council recommends that daily sessions be held from 10 to 12 a.m.,
and from 2 to 5 p. m., on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday.
The recommendation was unanimously adopted.
8. Tlie Council has arranged for the following lectures' to be given compli-
mentary to the citizens of Buffalo in the Chapel of the High School : —
Wednesday, 8 p. m. Dr. J. W. Spencer on " Niagara as a Time Piece."
Thursday evening, 8 p.m. Mr. Mercer and Ur. Cope, on the " Results of
Cave Explorations in the United States, and their bearing on the antiquity of
Man."
9. Tiie Council has authorized Sections F and G to hold a joint session on
Wednesdiiy afternoon at 2 o'clock.
10. The Council has elected seventy-one new Members ; also tliree Associate
Members for the present meeting, viz. Victor Gutzu, of Bucliarest, Rou-
mania ; Seiryu Mine, of Tokyo, Japan ; and Miss M.vry Foster, of London.
11. The Council has authorized special excursions offered to Sections E, F,
and (i.
A resolution offered by W. PI. Hale, relative to the semi-centennial celebra-
tion of the founding of tlie Association, was referred to the Council.
After announcements by the Local Secretary, regarding railroad certificates,
excursions, and receptions, the session adjourned.
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 245
Evening Session, Monday, August 24.
Tlic Association convened in tlie Cliapel of tlie High Sclio"! at 8 p. m.
President Cope in tlie tliair. Tlie President introduced Prof. Edw. W.
MoKLEY. tlie Petirinif President, wlio delivered an address njion " A completed
chapter in the history of the atomic theor}-." [The address is printed in full
elsewliere in this volume.]
After the address tlie Association adjourned to the rooms of the Buffalo
Society of Natural Sciences, where an informal reception was held, affording
members an opportunity to inspect the collections and rooms of the Society.
General Session, Tuesday Morning, August 25.
The Association was called to order at 10 a. m. by President Cope in the
Chapel of the High School.
The General Secretary announced : —
1. The nomination by the Council of Alexander Macfarlane, of Austin,
Te.xas, as a Vice-President of the Association and Chairman of Section A. The
Secretary was directed to cast the ballot of the Association for the nominee,
and he was declared duly elected.
2. The election by the Council of nineteen new Members.
The Treasurer read an abstract of his report, which is printed in full else-
where in this volume.
After announcements of temporary interest by the General and Local
Secretaries, the Session adjourned.
A reception from 8 to 11 p.m. was tendered the Association by the Buffalo
Society of Natural Sciences in the rooms of the Twentieth Century Club.
General Session, Wednesday Morning, August 26.
The Association met at 10 a. m. in the usual place, President Cope in the
chair.
The General Secretary made tlie following announcements : —
1. The Council has elected seventeen new Members.
2. The Council directs the reading of the following conmiunication, and
commends the matter to the individual generosity of members, since the funds
of the Association do not warrant any grant: —
Pasteur Monument Committee of the United States,
Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C.
It has been decided to erect in one of the squares of Paris a monument to the memory of M.
Pasteur. Statue.* or busts will also, no doubt, be located at his birtbpliire and in other cities. The
Paris committt-e has, however, wi.-ely determined that the statue obtained through international
effort shall be located at Paris, where it will be seen by the greatest number of his countrymen and
also by the greatest number of his admirers from other lands. The Paris committee has for hon-
orary members the President of the Kepublic and his Cabinet, together with about one hundred
and sixty of the most prominent ofBcials, scientists, and other distinguished citizens of France.
The active members of the committee are : — .1. Bertrand, President, member of the French Acad-
emy, Perpetual .Secretary of the Academy of Sciences. J. Simon, I'ice- President , member of the
French Academy, Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Moral and Political Science. Grancher,
Secretary, member of the Academy of Medicine, Professor in the Faculty of Medicine. Bruardel,
member of the Academy and of the Academy of Medicine, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine. A.
246 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
Christophle, Honorary Governor of the Credit Foncier, Deputy from I'Oruie. Count Delaborde,
Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts. Duclaux, member of the Academy of Science
and of the Academy of Medicine. Magnin, Governor of the Banlc of France, Vice-President of the
Senate. Baron A. de Uoth.*cbild, banker. Roux, Assi.^tant Director of the Pasteur Institute.
Wallon, Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of. Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres.
The Pai'is committee has kindly extended the opportunity to the people of the United States to
assist in this tribute of appreciation and love, and has authorized the organization of the Pasteur
Monument Committee of the United States.
The members of this committee gladly accept the privilege of organizing the subscription, and
of receiving and transmitting the funds which are raised.
We believe it is unnecessary to urge any one to subscribe. The contributions of Pasteur to
science and to the cause of humanity were so extraordinary, and are so well known and so thor-
oughly appreciated in America, that our people only need the opportunity in order to demonstrate
their deep interest.
All can unite in honoring Pasteur. He was .such an enthusiastic investigator, so simple, so mod-
est, so lovable, and yet so earnest, so great, so successful, — his ideals were so high and his efforts to
ameliorate the condition of humanity were so untiring, that we anticipate an enthusiastic response
from the whole civilized world. The United States will vie with the foremost of nations in this
tribute. Chemists, zoologists, physicians, and all others interested in science, will wish to be repre-
sented. No one is expected to subscribe an amount so large that it will detract in the least from
the pleasure of giving. A large number of small subscriptions freely contributed and showing the
popular appreciation of this eminent Frenchman is what we most de.«ire.
It is our purpose to do our work as largely as po.ssible through .societies or other organizations.
We prefer to have each organization appoint one of its members as an associate member of this
committee, with authorization to collect and forward the subscriptions. The amounts thus far
subscribed by individuals vary from fifty (50) cents to ten (10) dollars. It is hoped that no one who
is interested will hesitate to place his name upon the list because he cannot give the maximum
amount.
Please let this receive your early attention, and in that way assist our committee, which must
conduct correspondence with the societies of the entire country.
D. E. Salmon, Chairman.
E. A. DE ScHWEiNiTZ, Secntcri/.
Tlie following communication received by the Council was referred to Sec-
tion F for report : —
The Joint Commission of the Scienfijic Societies of Washington, D. C.
Office of the Sccrctanj, May 5, 1896.
F. W. Pdtnam,
Permanent Secretary American Association for thk Advancement op Science : —
Dear Sir: —
There is now pending before Congress legislation looking to the restriction, if not practictil pro-
hibition, of vivisection in the District of Columbia. This pernicious legislation, ostensibly aimed
at abuses which do not exist here, would, as you know, do iucalculable injury to original biologi-
cal and medical research, and should it become law will undoubtedly be made the basis of similar
demands upon State legislatures. The accompanying resolutions are sent you by order of the
Executive Committee of the Joint Commission in the hope that your Society will take similar steps
to prevent affirmative action by Congress.
A copy of all resolutions adopted should be sent to the President of the Senate, the Speaker of
the Hou.se, and to Dr. E. A. de Schweinitz, Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C.
Respectfully,
J. Stanley- Brown,
Secretary.
3. The following resolution, reported by Section F, has been approved by
the Council and is recommended to the Association for adoption: —
The American Association for the Advancement of Science, at its annual
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 247
meeting lield at Bnffali), August 24tli to 28th, 1896, desires to present to the
Congress of the United States, its protest against legislation on the suhject of
vivisection. The membership of tliis Association is composed of experts and
authorities, and persons interested in different branches of Science, in all num-
bering nearly two thousand. These members cotne from all parts of the country,
and represent many diverse interests.
Whereas: This Association was organized for the purpose of advancing
science, of diffusing scientific information, and exciting wide-spread interest on
the part of the public in scientific progress ; therefore be it
Resolced : That this Association deprecates any legislation on the part of the
Government which would tend in the slightest degree to discourage the advance-
ment of science, more especially biological, chemical, and medical science, at
this time, when greater results are promised than ever before in the history of
the world. And
Whereas: The health and welfare of men and animals are vitallj' affected by
the results of animal experiments, and such experiments have effected a saving
of many millions of dollars in animal property, and are the basis of our knowl-
edge of hygiene and preventive medicine, and in part of surgery ; therefore
be it
Resolved: That while deprecating cruelty and needless vivisection experi-
ments in the public schools, this Associatioti believes that those who are trained
in biological research are the ones wlio are best able to decide as to the wisdom
and utility of animal experimentation, and deems that the legislation contem-
plated by Senate Bill 1552 would be unwise, and would tend to retard the
increase of knowledge of the means of mitigation of the sufferings of men and
animals.
The resolutions were unanimously adopted.
The following communication relating to the creation of the office of Director
in Chief of the scientific divisions of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture was referred to a committee for report : —
TJie Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of Washington, D. C.
Office of the Secretary, March 7.
Prof. F. W. Putnam,
Perm. Sec't A. A. A. S.
Dear Sir, —
Acting In accordance with in.'tructiona from the Executive Committee of the Joint Commission
of the Scientific Societies of Washington, I have the honor to transmit herewith a copy of a series
of resolutions. adopteJ by the Commission, in the hope tliat your Society may find it agreeable to
take such steps as it may deem proper to promote the passage of so worthy a measure.
Very respectfully,
J. Stanley Brown,
Secretary.
4. The following report and resolution, submitted by the committee, has been
approved by the Council and recommended to the Association for adoption : —
Your Committee has carefully considered the communication from the Joint
Commission referred to, and has consulted sundry other papers sent on from
Washington by persons interested in the raovment in question. That there has
been in Washington a movement towards the creation of such an office is prob-
ably familiar to all the members of the Council. The Committee is informed
248 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
tliat a circular letter from the Secretary of Agriculture has been sent to many
of the members of the Council, and an editorial in " Science " has probably
familiarized otiiers with the matter. The Department of Agriculture has fur-
tiier been in correspondence with many scientific organizations in the country
which could be regularly reached, and all have expressed themselves as favor-
ing the plan.
In brief, the plan is tlie outgrowth of the unsatisfactory condition of affairs
which has existed in the Department of Agriculture for some 3'ears, — in
fact, since the great development of its scientific work which has taken place
within the last decade. The officer having immediate supervision of the scien-
tific divisions is the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. This oflBce is filled by
Presidential appointment for a term of four years, and it has been found by
experience that it takes the person appointed to fill this office about one year
to familiarize himself with the details of the work, and that no sooner does he
become thoroughly acquainted with the conditions than his term of office
expires and a new man is appointed. Further, there is no certainty that the
appointee to fill the office of Assistant Secretary of Agriculture will, in every
case, be a man of broad scientific opinions, and able to satisfactorily supervise
the work of the scientific divisions.
The great necessity for the existence of an officer of broad attainments, whose
term of ofl[ice would not be limited, and who could act in an advisory and con-
trolling manner, becomes at once apparent. There are at present in the De-
partment two large bureaus, namely, the Weather Bureau, and the Bureau
of Animal Industry, and eight divisions, engaged in purely scientific work. Of
the two thousand men employed in tiie Agricultural Department, nine hundred
and ninety-three are engaged chiefly in scientific and technical work. And of
the $2,400,000 appropriated annually, $1,700,000 is appropriated for work of this
class.
In view of the evident desirability of legislation in the direction indicated, an
amendment to the appropriation bill was introduced in the United States Senate,
May 13th, 1896, and was referred to the Committee on Agriculture and For-
estry. It received a favorable report from the Committee, but no action was
taken by the Senate on account of the approaching close of the session.
It is hoped that favorable action may be reached during the next session of
Congress, and to this end it is proposed to submit to Congress the opinions of
prominent individuals and scientific organizations. The proposition has been
warmly approved by the following persons and organizations: —
President Oilman and the scientific faculty of Johns Hopkins University.
President Dwight and the scientific faculty of Yale.
Seventeen members of the scientific faculty of the University of Michigan.
President Eliot and Professor Shaler of Harvard.
Presidents Scliurman, of Cornell; Low, of Columbia; Warren, of Boston;
Walker, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; Hall, of Clark ; Can-
field, of Ohio; MacLean, of Nebraska; Chaplin, of Washington (St. Louis);
and many other heads of colleges, directors of agricultural experiment stations,
members of scientific faculties, various academies of science and scientific socie-
ties, the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of Washington, Mr. Theo-
dore Roosevelt, and other gentlemen identified with the cause of Civil Service
Keform.
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 249
III view, tlierefore, of tlie obvigus good to the cause of science which will
result from this proposed legislation, and in view of the practically unanimous
indorsement which it has received from prominent educators and men of science
throughout' the countr}-, and in further view of the fact, which is none the less
true, although it has not been publicly mentioned, that this movement is in the
direction of the co-ordination of scientific work under the general government,
it seems to your Committee that the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science can imhesitatingiy approve.
Your Committee, therefore, recommends that the Council recommend to the
Association the adoption of the following resolution:
Resolved: That the American Association for the Advancement of Science
heartil}' approves the proposition to create the office of Director in Chief of
scientific bureaus and investigations in the Department of Agriculture, to be
filled by a broadly educated and experienced scientific man ; provided that such
appointment shall be made only on the nomination of the National Academy of
Sciences, the legally constituted adviser of the government in matters relating
to Science.
The report and resolution were unanimously adopted.
After announcements by the Local Secretary the session adjourned.
Evening Session, Wednesday, August 26.
The Association met at 8 p. m. in the Chapel of the High School, with Presi-
dent Cope in the chair.
A public lecture, complimentary to the citizens of Buffalo, was delivered by
Mr. J. W. Spencer, on " Niagara as a time-piece," illustrated by lantern
slides.
General Session, Thursday Morning, August 27.
The Association met at 10 a. ji. in the usual place, the President in the
chair.
The General Secretary made the following announcements : —
1. Mr. J. Bishop Tingle, of Aberdeen, Scotland, has been elected by the
Council an Associate Member.
2. Two new Members have been elected by the Council.
-3. The Council has received the following letter : —
Iroquois Hotel, Buffalo, N. Y., August 26/A, 1896.
Prof. F. W. Putnam : —
Dear Sir, —
President Cope's appeal this morning for assistance to honor the late scientist PASTF.nR met
with no response, owing to our depleted treasury. It occurs to nie to give cause for regret, as it
might be construed as want of sympathy.
Enclosed please find check for the above appeal.
The letter contained a check for §100. (Applause.) It is hardly necessary
to name the donor, for those who have been often at the meetings of the Asso-
250 EXECUTIVK PROCEEDINGS.
ciation will have recognized already the generous hand of Mrs. Esther Herr-
MAX. (Great applause.)
In this connection, the Council has authorized the Treasurer to receive and
transmit contributions to the Pasteur Monument Fund in the name of the
Association.
4. The Committee to wliich was referred a communication on the metric sys-
tem has submitted the following resolution, which has been approved by the
ConxciL, and is recommended to the Association for adoption.
Resolved : That A. A. A. S. is now, as it always has been, earnestly in favor
of reform in weights and measures, and it urges upon the Congress of the
United States the desirability of further legislation looking to the early adop-
tion of the metric system.
The resolution was unanimously adopted.
5. The Council has adopted the following recommendation of Section C : —
First. That the officers of Section C and of the American Chemical Society
be authorized to prepare together the programme for the next meeting ; tliat the
first two da\'s of the meeting be officially the meeting of the American Chemi-
cal Society, allowing, however, opportunity for the organization of the Section
and the Vice-President's address.
Second. That the courtes}' of readin? papers in Section C be extended to
the members of the American Chemical Societ}-, and that the same courtesy be
extended to members of Section C by tlie American Chemical Society.
6. The following communication from Mr. Stiles was referred to Section F : —
U. S. Department of Agriculture ^ Bureau of Animal Industry,
Washington, D. C, August 20, 1896.
Prof F. W. Putnam,
Sec"t Americax Association foe the Advancement of Science, Bcff.vlo, X. T.
Dear Sir : —
At a meeting of the Third International Zoologicral Congress, held at Leyden in September, 1895,
an international commission of five members was appointed to study all of the codes of zoological
nomenclature proposed in various countries, to compare these codes with the present inter-
national code, and to report at the next International Congress in England, 1898, any recommen-
dations and amendments to the International Code which the commission should think advisable ;
also to make an official translation of the code from the French into English and German.
The members of this commission are Dr. Sclater, England ; Dr. Raphael Blanch.a.rd, France :
Prof. VicroR Carus, Germany ; Prof. Jentink, Holland ; Dr. Stiles, United States.
Upon returning from the Congress to this country I immediately suggested to certain -American
zoologists the advisability of the appointment of an American advisory board, to which I might
submit for approval or disapproval all the propositions I intend to support in the meetings of the
International Commission, and as the plan met with favor I have addressed certain scientific
societies requesting of each the appointment of a representative upon this advisory board. In re-
sponse to these requests the following gentlemen have thus far been appointed :
By the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Dall.
By the Society of .\merican Naturalists, Prof Cope.
By the .\merican Ornithologists' Union, Dr. Allen.
By the National Academy of Science, Prof. Gill.
By the Royal Society of Canada, Prof Ramsay Wright.
In accordance with the general plan as set forth in this letter and in the enclosed clipping [from
Science, 1895, pp 6C5-6], 1 respectfully request that the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science appoint one of its zoological members as a representative upon this advisory
board. In making this request, I agree that my vote upon any given proposition in the Interna-
REPORT OF TIIK GENERAL SECRKTART. 251
tional Commission sliall be governed by this julvisory board, should the occasion arise that my
personal opinion upon that proposition differs from the opinion of the advisory board.
Hoping that the Association will be willing to appoint the repi-esentative desired, I remain,
Very respectfully, yours,
Ch. Wardeil Stiles,
Zoologist Ilnrcau of Animal Inilustrii rind U. S. Government
lieleijate to flic Third International Zoological Congress.
Section F recommended the appointment of Dr. A. S. Packard, of Providence,
R. I., as a member of tiie American Advisory Board proposed by Dr. Stiles,
and liie Couxcil lias made tlie appointment.
After announcements by tlie Local Secretary, the session adjourned.
Evening Session, Thursday, August 27.
At 8 o'clock the Association met in the same place, President Cope in the
chair. Owing to the absence of Mr. Mercer, tlie public lecture, compli-
mentary to the citizens of Buffalo, was delivered by Prof. E. D. Cope, on
" The results of cave explorations in the United States, and their bearing on the
antiquity of man."
General Session, Fridat Morning, August 28.
The Association met at 10:30 a. 3I., President Cope in the chair.
The General Secretary made the following announcements : —
1. The following communication to the Council from Section II was re-
ferred to the Section, witii a request that the Section nominate the committee
tlierein referred to.
Whereas : the influence which the environment of the New World has exerted
upon the physical and mental development of the White Race, is a question of
the utmost scientific and practical importance ; and
Whereas: there appears to be no governmental or scientific bureau which is
giving the study of this subject attention at the present time ; flierefcre
Resolved: That the American Association for the Advancement of Science
appoint a committee to organize an Ethnographic Investigation of the White
Race in the United States, with special reference to the influence exerted
upon it in its new surroundings, said committee to report annually to tiie
Association.
Section H recommends the appointment of the following gentlemen to serve
as a committee on Ethnographical Investigation of the White Race in America,
in accordance with the action of the Council : D. G. Buinton, J. McK. Cat-
tell, W. W. Newell, W J McGee, and Franz Boas.
These gentlemen have accordingly been appointed by the Council.
2. The Council has adojued the following resolution, received from
Section E : —
Resolved: That Section E requests the Council of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science to permit and autiiorize the officers of Section
E to make such arrangements with the Geological Society of America for the
252 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
meeting of 1897 tliat tlie Geological Society may occupy a portion of the time
usually assigned to the Section.
3. The Council, upon request of Section E, has appointed the following
gentlemen as delegates to the International Geological Congress, to be held in
St. Petersburg in 1897, and has authorized them to fill b\' a majority vote
any vacancy which may occur : E. D. Cope, James Hall, B. K. E.merson, W. N.
Rice, and C. D. Walcott.
4. The following report, from the Committee on Standards of Measurement,
has been adopted by the Council, and the grant therein named made.
In view of the absence of any properl}- constructed and authenticated stand-
ards of electrical measurement prepared under the provisions of the law of 1894,
this Committee recommends that it be authorized to construct such standards,
and that, to pay, in part, the necessary expenses incident to this work, the sum
of fifty dollars be placed at the disposal of the Committee, from current funds in
the possession of the Treasurer; it being understood that any standards thus
constructed or material acquired shall remain the property of the A. A. A. S.
until otherwise disposed of by theCouxciL.
5. The Committee on Grants has recommended, and the Council has made,
the following grants : —
To Woods Hole Biological Laboratory, $100.
To Prof. Francis C. Phillips, for Investigation of Properties of
Natural Gas, -^oO.
To Dr. L. A. Bauer, for Investigations in Terrestrial Magnetism in
connection with the Magnetic Survey of Maryland, §50.
6. The following report of a Committee appointed by the Council has been
adopted :
Whereas: It is explicitly stated in Article 11 of the Constitution of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science that the " Vice-Presi-
dents shall be chairmen for their respective sections " : and.
Whereas : It has grown to be the custom in the daily programmes to ignore
the constitutional title "Chairman" in referring to tlie presiding oificers of
the sections, thus bringing about a certain misconception in the minds of
those not familiar with the Constitution : therefore, be it
Resolved : That the Council instruct the Permanent Secretary, in pre-
paring programmes and other matter relating to the Association, to use the
term Vice-President in expressing the relation of the presiding officer of
any section to the Association, and the title Chairman in expressing his
relation to his section. Where both relations are to be expressed, the term
Vice-President should precede the name, and Chairman should follow. Where,
moreover, it seems necessary to refer to those officers, as in the list of special
committees of the Association (page 5 of the Constitution, etc.), they shall
be termed Vice-Presidents for the sections, and not Vice-Presidents of the
sections.
7. The Council has received the following report from the Library Com-
mittee.which it directs to be read for the information of members : —
June 20, 1896.
The Committee on tlie Library of the .Association respectfully reports that, in accordance with
the agreement entered into with the authorities of the University of Cincinnati, the Library was
REPOUT OF THE GENERAL SECnETAKY. 253
packed and forwarded to Cinciunati early in the spring of the current year. As the new Science
building of the University will not be completed until September, it has been necessary to post-
pone until then the arrangement, classification, and cataloguing of the collection. Proper provision
has been made for all of these matters, so that in a few months the Library will be in the proper
condition for consultation, cither on the spot or by those at a. distance.
Respectfully submitted,
Alfred Sprikger,
"Wm. L. Dudley,
T. H. Norton,
a. w. botler,
Thomas Frknch, Jr.
8. In response to a request from the National Educational Association, the
following Committee lias been appointed by tlie Cooncil to cooperate with a
committee of that body in tiie consideration of tlie coordination and simplifica-
tion of science requirements for entrance to college : li- S. Take, II. S. Cab-
hart, A. S. Packard, C. F. Mabery, and C. E. Bessky.
9. The Council has elected one new Member, making a total for the present
meeting of 110.
10. In accordance with the following proposal from Section H, the Codxcil
has elected Horatio Hale, of Clinton, Ont., a Life Fellow of the Association.
Section H presents the following resolution adopted at the afternoon session : —
Whereas: Horatio Hale, long an active member and at one time Vice-Presi-
dent of this Association, has made contributions to ethnology and philology
entitling him to a place in the first rank of American anthropologists ; and
Whereas: it seems fitting that Mr. Hale's long and arduous labors in behalf
of science should be recognized by the A. A. A. S. ; therefore,
Resolved : That Section H recommend to the Council that Horatio Hale be
made a Life Fellow of the Association.
11. The Council has elected the following Members to be Fellows of the
Association : —
Austen, Prof. Peter T., 99 Livingston St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (44). C
Bacon, Chas. A., Beloit, Wis. (30). A
Barnes, David Leonard, A. M., Suite 1750, Monadnock Building, Chicago, 111.
(43). D
Barnum, Miss Charlotte C, 144 Humphrey St., New Haven, Conn. (36). A
Bigelow, Willard Dell. Chem. Div., Dept. of Agric, Washington, 1). C. (44). C
Blair, Andrew A., 406 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa. (44). C
Bleile, Albert M., M. D., 342 S. Fourth St., Columbus, Ohio (37). F
Boye, Martin H., M. D., Coopersburg, Lehigh Co., Pa. (1). C
Boynton, Prof. C. Smith, 69 North Prospect St., Burlington, Vt. (44). C
Bromwell, Wm., Port Deposit, Md. (40). C
Bull, Prof. Storm, Madison, Wis. (44). D
Campbell, Prof .Edw. I)., Ann Arl)or, Mich. (44). C
Cattell, Prof James McKeen, Columbia College, New York, N. Y. (44).
BFHI
Chalmot, G. de, Spray, N. C. (44). C
Chase, Frederick L., Yale Univ. Observ., New Haven, Conn. (43). A
Cochran, C. B., Food Inspector to State Board of Agric, 514 South High St.,
West Chester, Chester Co., Pa. (43). C
2o4 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
Collins, William H., Haverford College, Haverford, Pa. (41). A
Dains, Frank Burnett, Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn. (41). C
Dana, James Jackson, Lt. Col. and Brevet Brig. Gen. U. S. Army, " Cosmos
Club," 1520 n St., N. W., Washington D. C. (40).
Daniells, Prof. William W., Prof. Cliem , Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis. (42). C
Davis, C. H., Commander U. S. Navy, Chief Intelligence Officer, Navy Depart-
ment, Washington, D. C. (40).
DiXAVELL, Epes S., Cambridge, Mass. (1). HF (Founder.)
DuPont, Francis G., Wilmington, Del. (33). A B D
Earle, F. S., Prof. Biol., Ala. Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. (39). G
Eastman, Charles Rochester, Mus. Comp. Zoology, Cambridge, ^Mass. (41). E
Eichelberger, William Snyder, Ph. D., Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn.
(41). A
Ewell, Ervin E., Dept. of Agric, Chem. Div., Washington, D. C. (40). C
Ferry, Ervin S., Instructor in Physics, Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis. (41).
Flather, Prof. John J., 160 South St., La Fayette, Ind. (44). D
Frankforter, Prof. Geo. B., Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (43). C
Gill, Augustus Herman, Mass. Inst. Technology, Back Bay, Boston, Mass.
(44). C
Goss, Prof. Wm. F. M., La Fayette, Ind. (39). D
Greene, Prof. Edward Lee, Prof. Botany, Catholic Univ., Washington, D. C.
(42). G
Gudeman, Edward, Ph.D., care Amer. Glucose Co., Buffalo, N. Y. (40). C
Hall, Arthur G., 63| S. Division St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (41). A B
Hallock, Albert P., Ph.D., 440 First Ave., New York, N. Y. (31). C
Halsted, Prof. George Bruce, Austin, Texas (43).
Harrington, Prof. Mark W., Pres. University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
(40). B
Harris, Prof. E. P., Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. (44).
Haskell, Eugene E., U. S. Engineer Office, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. (39). A B D
Hayes, Charles WiUard, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (41). E
Hedrick, Henry B., A.B., Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, D. C. (40).
Hillyer, Homer W., Ph. D., Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis. (42). C
Hodgkins, Prof. H. L., Columbian University, Wasliington, D. C. (40). AB
Holland, Rev. W. J., D. D., Ph. D., Pittsburg, Pa. (37). F
HuBBAKD, Prof. Oliver Payson, 65 W. 19th St., New York, N. Y. (1). (Founder.)
Humphrey, James Ellis, Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md. (44). G
Hunter, Andrew Frederick, Barrie, Out., Can. (38). BHI
Kober, Geo. Martin, M. D., 1819 Q St., N. W., Washington, D. C. (40). H
Lambert, Preston A., 422 Walnut St., South Bethlehem, Pa. (41). A
Langenbeck, Karl, 27 Orchard St., Zanesville, Ohio (39). C
Leach, Miss Mary F., Mt. Holyoke College, Holyoke, Mass. (44J. C
Lewis, John E., Ansonia, Conn. (40). ABB
Lord, Prof. H. C, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio (44). A
Lowell, Percival, 53 State St., Boston, Mass. (36). A
Lyford, Edwin F., Springfield, Mass. (33). B CH
McClintock, Emory, Morristown, N. J. (43) .
Markley, Joseph L., Ph. D., 50 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, Mich. (40).
REPORT OK THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 255
Moulton, Prof. Chas. W., Pouglikeepsie, N. Y. (44). C
Nardroff, Ernest R. von, 360" Tompkins Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. (44). B
Newcombe, Frederick Ciias., 51 E. Liberty St., Ann Arbor, Midi. (4:3). G
Noyes, Miss Mary C, Ph. D., Lake Erie Seminary, Painesville, Ohio (43).
Olds, Prof. George D., Amherst, Mass. {'iS). A
Palaclie, Charles, Instr. in Min. and Petrog., Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
(44). E
Parsons, Prof. C. Lathrop, Durham, N. H. (41).
Patterson, Geo. VV., Jr., Ann Arbor, Mich. (44).
Patton, Horace B, Golden, Col. (37). E
Peale, Albert C, M. D., U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. (36). E
Perry, Arthur C, 22G Ilalsey St., Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). A B
Pupin, Dr. M. I., Columbia College, New York, N. Y. (44). B
Raymond, Prof. Wm. G., Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst., Troy, N. Y. (44). D
Rotch, A. Lawrence, Readville, Mass. (39).
Seymour, Paul Henry, care Walter W. Seymour, 7030 Stewart Ave., Chicago,
111. (44). C
Shaw, Professor James Byrnie, 1030 Grove St., Jacksonville, 111. (43). A
Smith, Harlan I., Amer. Museum Nat. Hist., Central Park, New York, N. Y.
(41). H
Speyers, Clarence L., Rutgers College, New Brmiswick, N. J. (36). C
Squibb, Edward R., M. D., 152 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y. (43). C
Talbot, Henry P., Mass. Inst. Tech., Back Bay, Boston, Mass. (44K C
Thurston, R. C. Ballard, Louisville, Ky. (o6). E
Trenholm, Hon. W. L., Pres. Amer. Surety Co., 160 Broadway, New York,
N. Y. (35).
Ward, Samuel B., M. D., Albany, N. Y. (29). F C A
Whitfield, J. Edward, 406 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa. (44). C
Woodman, Dr. Durand, 80 Beaver St., New York, N. Y. (41).
12. The Council nominates as Honorary Fellow Wolcott Gibbs, Professor
Emeritus, Harvard University, of Newport, R. I.
The Secretary was unanimously directed to cast the ballot of the Associa-
tion for Professor Gibus, and he was declared elected an Honorary Fellow.
13. The Council has appointed as Auditors for 1897 Emory J. McClin-
TOCK and B. A. Gould.
14. The Nominating Committee recommends that the following be elected
officers of the Association for the next meeting : —
President.
WoLCOTT GiHiis, of Newport, R. I.
Vice-Presidents and Chairmen of Sections.
A. Mathematics and Astronomy. — W. W. Beman, of Ann Arbor, Mich.
B. Physics. — Carl Barus, of Providence, R. I.
C. Chemistry. — W. P. Mason, of Troy, N. Y.
D. Mechanical Science and Engineering. — John Galbraith, of Toronto,
Canada.
E. Geology and Geography. — I. C. White, of Morgantown, W. Va.
256 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
F. Zoology. — G. Brown Goode, of Washington, D. C.
G. Botany. — George F. Atkinson, of Ithaca, N. Y.
H. Anthropology. — "W J McGee, of Washington, D. C.
I. Social and Economic Science. ^ Richard T. Colburn, of Elizabeth, N. J.
Permanent Secretary.
F. W. Putnam, of Cambridge, Mass. [Holds over.]
General Secretary.
Asaph Hall, Jr., of Ann Arbor, Mich.
Secretary of the Council.
D. S. Kellicott, of Columbus, Oliio.
Secretaries of the Sections.
A. Mathematics and Astronomy. — James McMahon, of Ithaca, N. Y.
B. Physics. — Frederick Bedell, of Ithaca, N. Y.
C. Chemistry. — P. C. Freer, of Aim Arbor, Mich.
D. Mechanical Science and Engineering. — John J. Flather, of La Fay-
- ette, Ind.
E. Geology and Geography. — C. H. Smyth, Jr., of Clinton, N. Y.
F. Zoology. — C. C. Ndtting, of Iowa City, Iowa.
G. Botany. — F. C. Newcombe, of Ann Arbor, Mich.
H. Anthropology. — Harlan I. Smith, of New York, N. Y.
I. Social and Economic Science. — Archibald Blue, of Toronto, Can.
Treasurer.
R. S. Woodward, of New York, N. Y.
15. The following amendments to the Constitution have been approved and
recommended by the Council, to be voted upon at tlie next meeting: —
To Article 9 add : " but all general ofBcers shall serve until their successors
are elected."
To Article 20 add : " The Council shall have power to adjourn a meeting when
it shall deem the reasons for so doing sufficient; and when such adjournment
shall take place before the regular election of officers, those in office shall con-
tinue to serve until such election occurs."
That Article 22 be amended by changing the name of Section I from Social
and Economic Science to Sociology.
16. The following additional amendments were proposed bj- Professor
Woodward : —
In Article 9, first and second lines, for "in General Session," read "by the
Council."
In Article 17, line 5, strike out "nomination of," " and election," and "in
General Session."
In Article 19, line 3, for " nominate " read " elect " ; line 5, for " recommend "
read " fix."
In Article 20, line .3, for " Association " read " Council."
REPORT OF THE GENERAL SECRETARY. 257
Alter Articles 34 and 35 to form one Article, reading as follows : " The
annual assessment for members and Fellows sliall be five dollars. On the
election of any member as a Fellow, an additional fee of two dollars shall be
paid.
In Article 37, strike out the word "admission."
The amendments proposed by Prof. Woodward were referred to the
Council.
17. Invitations for the meeting of 1897 have been received from Seattle, San
Francisco, Indianapolis, Detroit, Denver, Minneapolis, Nashville, Columbus,
and Toronto.
The Nominating Committee, having carefully considered all the conditions,
recommends for adoption by the Association the following resolution : —
Resolved: That the meeting for 1897 be only a formal meeting; that it be
held in the city of Toronto on August 17 of that year, and that the Association
join in welcoming the B. A. A. S. to the continent of America.
After prolonged debate the following substitute was adopted : —
Resolved : That the meeting of the Association for 1897 be held as usual, but
that the time and place be left to the discretion of tlie Council.
The Permanent Secretary was directed to return proper acknowledgments
for the several invitations received.
After announcements by the Local SECRETARit and Mr. Gilbert, the session
adjourned.
Evening Session, Friday, August 28.
The final session of the Forty-fifth Meeting convened at 8.20 p. m. in the
usual place, President Cope in the chair.
The General Secretary having left the city, the Acting General Secretary,
Asaph Hall, Jr., made the following announcements : —
1. The Council has voted, upon recommendation of the Committee upon the
Policy of the Association, —
1. That the Permanent Secretary be instructed that in future the Proceed-
ings of the Association shall be restricted to that part of the volume which
would remain after ehminating (1) all papers read in sections and abstracts
thereof, and (2) the list of deceased members except on their first announce-
ment; but shall include such reports of committees as may be specially directed
by the Council ; also that, as far as possible, to each title shall be added where
the paper is published in full.
II. Thrat the Permanent Secretary be empowered to make such arrange-
ments for the programme of the next meeting as may be found expedient.
III. That the Sectional Committees should consider it as part of their
duties to secure co-operation of scientific institutions and societies in their
respective sections.
2. The Council has approved the following banks as depositories for the
funds of the Association : Cambridge Savings Bank, Cambridge, Mass.; Insti-
tution for Savings of Merchants' Clerks, Metropolitan Savings Bank, Emigrant
Industrial Savings Bank, and the Fifth Avenue Bank, all of New York, N. Y.
3. The Council has fixed the bond of the Treasurer at $100, with security
to be approved by the President and Permanent Secretary.
A. A. A. 8. VOL. XLV. 17
258 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
4. The Council has selected Detroit as the place of the next meeting, begin
ning on the second Monday in August. The Association is to adjourn to
Toronto for the purpose of joining in the welcome to the British Association
for tlie Advancement of Science on August 18th.
The Permanent Secretary then gave the statistics of the meeting, and
some reminiscences of the preceding meetings in Buffalo.
Mr. W. J. McGee offered the following resolution of thanks to the various
bodies concerned in the entertainment of the Association: —
Whereas : This forty -fiftli meeting of tiie A. A. A. S., and the fourth held in
the beautiful city of tlie thunder-speaking river, has been of pleasant savor and
will long be of sweet memory ; and
Whereas: The pleasure and success of this memorable meeting are due to
good offices of various persons and institutions of Buffalo; therefore
Resolved : Tliat the Association hereby express grateful appreciation to these
large-hearted and broad-minded men and women, and to the institutions they
have made, as follows :
To His Honor Edgar B. Jewett, Mayor of Buffalo, and through liim to the
municipality and citizens, for a welcome to the hospitable gates of the city.
To the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, its officers and members, and es-
pecially to its President, Dr. Roswell Park, for initiating the movement for the
meeting here, and for constant aid and numberless courtesies.
To the Hon. Henry P. Emerson, Superintendent of Education, for the use of
the commodious high school building as a place of meeting.
To the Hon. T. Guilford Sniitli, President of the Buffalo Library Association
for various courtesies, including the use of rooms in the Library building.
To the Local Committee, including the special committees, and particularly to
Mr. Dorr, the local secretary, for their tireless efforts to make our stop pleasant
and profitable.
To tlie Ladies' Reception Committee for many courtesies, and the special
privilege of a visit to the attractive Twentieth Century Club.
To the Buffalo Club for hospitality and good cheer; and
To all and several of the good people of Buffalo, for their kindness is sweet
unto our hearts. May they accept our thanks as we treasure their courtesies.
The resolutions were seconded warmly in brief addresses by Prof. Franklin
C. Robinson, Prof. B. K. Emerson, and Rev. Horace C. Hovey, and were
passed unanimously.
The Association then adjourned.
Charles R. Barnes,
General Secretary.
REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY. 259
REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY.
For the fourth time the citizens of Buffalo welcomed the Association to their
rapidly growing city. 333 members and associates were in attendance from
tlie following places : Buffalo, 13, and other parts of New York, 92; Ohio, 31 ;
Massachusetts, 29; District of Columbia, 23; Pennsylvania, 22; Indiana, 13;
Iowa, 12 ; Michigan, 11 ; Connecticut, 8; Canada, 8 ; Minnesota, 8; Wisconsin,
7 ; Illinois, 6 ; West Virginia, 4 ; Missouri, 4 ; Georgia, 3 ; Nebraska, 3 ; Louisi-
ana, 8; New Hampshire, 3; Virginia, 3; Alabama, 3; South Carolina, 2; Ken-
tucky, 2; Maine, 2; Utali, 2; Maryland, 2; North Carolina, 2; California, 2
Kansas, 1 ; Missouri, 1 ; South Dakota, 1 ; Mississippi, 1 ; Tennessee, 1 ; Rou-
maniJl, 1 ; Japan, 1.
During the meeting there were given the Presidential Address, and the ad-
dresses of eight Vice-Presidents. Public lectures complimentary to the citizens
of Buffalo were given on two evenings of tlie week. 270 papers were pre-
sented before the sections as follows : A, 12 ; B, 32 ; C, 53 ; D, 18 ; E, 42 ; F,
23 ; G, 44 ; H, 33 ; I, 13.
Several important changes in the Constitution were proposed (see Report ot
General Secretary, pages 266, 257) to wiiich the attention of members is espe-
cially called. While many of these proposed changes are radical in their
character, there is no doubt that some of them are progressive, and if adopted
will lead to a change in the policy of the Association which may bring it more
in touch with the scientific spirit of the times. It is important, however, that
every member should carefully consider these propositions, which will be voted
on at the meeting of 1897. Attention is also especially called to the vote of
the Council (see Report of General Secretary, page 257) by which the present
volume of Proceedings contains the titles only of the papers read before
the Sections. Further changes in the character of future volumes have been
suggested.
In compliance with the request of Sections C and E, it was agreed by the
Council that the general plan for the meeting of 1897 should be as follows.
Each Section of the Association is authorized to unite with such affiliated soci-
eties as deemed desirable, with the understanding tliat such united meetings
shall not interfere with the General Session nor with the delivery of the presi-
dential Address on the first day of the meeting, nor with the organization of the
Sections and the Addresses of the Vice-Presidents. With these provisions, two
days of the week may be given to the Affiliated Societies, and the remainder of
the week to the Meetings of the Sections. The members of the Association
may take part in the meetings of the affiliated societies, and the members of the
260 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
societies are invited to take part in the meetings of tlie Sections. The object of
tliis arrangenu'nt is to bring about a closer union and co-operation between the
affiliated societies and the Association, and to concentrate the work of all within
one week.
During tJie recent Christmas holidays Section H held an informal meeting in
Kew York, and a proposition will be made at tlie next meeting in relation to
authorizing any section to hold a winter meeting at such time and place as its
officers may designate ; such meetings to be managed entirely by the officers of
the sections, and the Association as a body not to be in any way involved by
any act of a section. It is thought that such meetings in the winter will have
a tendency to concentrate the work of scientists in the several departments
and to do away with the organization of special societies which have already
become so numerous as to divert the labors of scientists into various channels,
whereas unity, it is thought, would better accomplish their aims.
The plan of issuing a general programme for each section some time before
each meeting of the Association, which was inaugurated for the Buffalo Meet-
ing, has so many advantages that it was decided to continue the plan. The
Council therefore authorized the Permanent Secretary to make such arrange-
ments for the programmes as may be found expedient. The vote requesting and
authorizing the Sectional Committees to prepare preliminary programmes for
the coming meeting continues in force, and the Permanent Secretary earnestly
requests the several committees to begin this work at once. The full prelimi-
nary programme for the week, including the programme of such affiliated
societies as will unite with the respective sections, should be issued by the
middle of June. Delay on the part of the sectional committees in preparing
the copy for the preliminary programmes for the Buffalo Meeting prevented
the plan from acting with full force at that meeting ; but now that the first step
has been taken, it will be comparatively easy for the committees to accomplish
the work this year.
All signs point to a successful meeting in Detroit, with a large gathering of
members who will afterward be cordially received in Toronto, wliere they will
join in welcoming the members of the British Association to America.
A most cordial invitation was again received by the Association from San
Francisco to hold its next meeting in that city. Careful consideration was
given to this matter by the Council and the Nominating Committee, but owing
to the fact that the British Association is to meet in Toronto in 1897, it was
considered imdesirable for the American Association to hold a meeting so far
away as the Pacific Coast. It is believed that an interchange of courtesies
between the two associations is highly desirable, and would be expected on the
part of each. For this reason the Council was empowered to designate the
time and place of the meeting of 1897. At the closing session, the Council an-
nounced that it had voted to accept the invitation from Detroit, and that the
forty-sixth meeting of the Association would be held in that city, beginning
with the Council meeting on Saturday, August 7, and the opening General
Session on Monday morning, August 9. It was also decided that at the close of
the week the Association should adjourn to Toronto for the purpose of joining
in the welcome to the British Association on August 18.
Invitations to hold the meetings of '97 and '98 were also received from
REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY. 261
Indianapolis, Nashville, Columbus, St. Paul and Minneapolis, Denver, and
Seattle. Owing to the reasons above stated, the tlianks of the Association were
voted to the several institutions and public bodies joining in these invitations,
and tlie hope was expressed that they might be renewed in future years.
Of the 110 members elected since the Springfield Meeting and during the
Buffalo Meeting, 2 have declined membership, 71 have perfected their member-
ship, as have 5 who were elected at the Springfield Meeting, and 1 who was
elected at tlie Brooklyn Meeting; 18 have paid their arrears and the.se have
been restored to the roll ; 1 more founder of the Association has been added to
the list of fellows as a life fellow ; 1 honorary fellow has been elected ; making
97 names added to the roll since the Springfield volume was published.
From the Springfield list 24 names (including 3 founders of the Association,
1 honorary fellow, and 1 life fellow) have been transferred to the list of deceased
members ; 37 members and fellows have resigned ; and 147 have been omitted
for arrearages; making a deduction of 208 from the list.
57 members have been transferred to the roll of fellows (two of these are
founders of the Association who were made life fellows).
The following is a comparative statement of the roll as printed in the Brook-
lyn and Springfield volumes, and in the present volume : —
Brooklyn. Springfield. Buffalo.
Living patrons 2 2 2
Corresponding members . . 2 1 1
Members 1042 1115 991
Living honorary fellows . . 1 3 3
Fellows 755 792 805
1802 1913 1802
Honorary life members (founders)
included in above 8 8 6
The distribution of publications since the last report is as follows : —
Memoir No. 1 : exchange, 1 copy.
Proceedings : Vols. 1-43 : delivered to members, 271 ; sold, 13 ; exchanges, 93 ;
duplicate copy to member, 1 ; presented, 3 ; = 381.
Bought, 2 ; received as donation, 2 ; = 4.
Vol. 44: delivered to members, 1376; to subscribers, 4; sold, 2G; exchanges,
247 ; presented, 4 ; = 1657.
Subscription has been received for 1 copy of Vol. 45.
The following statements by the Treasurer and Permanent Secretary show
the condition of the invested funds, and the receipts and expenditures. It will
be noticed that the cash account of tiie Permanent Secretary, in accordance
with the new arrangement of closing the year on December 31, covers the
period from August 1 to the end of the year 1895, including the Springfield
Meeting. Thus the Report for the year 1896, including the Buffalo Meeting,
will be presented at the Detroit Meeting and will be printed in the next
volume.
The year 1898 will bring the fiftieth anniversary of the Association. At a
meeting of the Association of Geologists and Naturahsts held in Boston in 1847
262 EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
it was voted to extend the scope of the Association and to reorganize under the
name of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the first
meeting of the new association' to be lield in Philadelpliia in 1848. This meet-
ing was duly lield, and Professor William B. Rogers presided as President of
the Association of Geologists and Naturalists until the Constitution of the new
association was adopted, when he resigned the chair to Professor W. C. Redfield,
the President-elect of the new association. Thus Boston and Philadelphia each
have a special claim to the Jubilee Meeting of the Association. It is certainly
befitting that special arrangements should be made for this occasion ; and we
have a right to expect that a large number of scientists from abroad would join
in celebrating the semi-centennial anniversary of an Association which has
beyond all question done its full part in giving " a stronger and more general
impulse and more systematic direction to scientific research " in America.
F. W. Putnam,
Permanent Secretary.
December 31, 1896.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
In compliance with article 15 of the Constitution, I have the lionor to submit
the following report showing receipts, disbursements, and disposition of funds
of the Association for the year ending June 30, 1896.
Receipts have come into the keeping of the Treasurer from three different
sources, namely: first, from life membership commutations; secondly, from
subscriptions to the General Fund of the Association ; and, thirdly, from inter-
est on funds of the Association deposited in savings banks. The amount
received from life membership commutations was SS300.00 ; the amount received
from subscriptions to the General Fund was -^302.00 ; and the amount received
as interest was §199.39; making a total of receipts for the year of $801.39.
Disbursements, in accordance witli the directions of the Council of the Associ-
ation, were made as follows : grants for research for the year 1894-95, $400.00 ;
grants for research for the year 1895-96, $200.00 ; and grant to the journal
Science, $750.00; making a total of disbursements for the year of •'51,350.00.
The excess of expenditures over receipts was, therefore, $548.61.
The details of receipts, disbursements, and disposition of funds are shown in
tlie statement which follows.
TREASURER'S REPORT. 263
The Treasurer in Account with
The American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Dr.
1896.
June 30. To balance from last account $5,932.12
To amount received from life membership commutations 300.00
To amount received from subscriptions to General Fund 302.00
To interest on funds deposited in savings banks as follows :
From Cambridge Savings Bank, Cambridge, Mass. $10.42
From Emigrant Industrial Bank, New York . . . 43.53
From Institution for Savings of Merchants' Clerks,
New York 80.80
From Metropolitan Savings Bank, New York . . 64.64
199.39
Total $6,733.51
Cr.
Sept. 16, 1895. By cash paid Professor F. W. Putnam for research
grants of the year 1894-95 $400.00
Sept. 26, 1895. By cash paid Professor H. C. Bumpus as grant to
Wood's Holl Biological Laboratory 100.00
Nov. 12, 1895. By cash paid J. McK. Cattell, Editor of the journal
Science 750.00
Dec. 6, 1895. By cash paid Professor Wm. A. Rogers as grant for
research 100.00
June 30, 1896. By cash on deposit in banks as follows :'
In Cambridge Savings Bank, Cambridge,
Mass $306.34
In Emigrant Industrial Savings Bank,
New York 1,318.53
In Institution for the Savings of Mer-
chants' Clerks, New York 2,080.80
In Metropolitan Savings Bank, New York 1,664.64
In The Fifth Avenue Bank, New York 13.20
-5,383.51
Total $6,733.51
R. S. Woodward, Treasurer.
New York, N. Y., June 30, 1896.
I have examined the foregoing account, and certify that it is correctly cast
and properly vouched.
Emory McClintock, Auditor.
New York, August 20, 1896.
264
EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS.
F. W. PUTNAM,
In Account with the American
From August \st
$27 24
Dr.
To Balance from last account
Admission fees, Springfield Meeting and previous . $555 00
Associate Members, Springfield Meeting 96 00
Tellowship fees 88 00
678 Assessments, Springfield Meeting 2,034 00
400 « Brooklyn Meeting 1,200 00
60 " Meetings previous to Brooklyn . . 180 00
13 " for Buffalo Meeting 39 00
Publications sold and binding .
Miscellaneous receipts
Life Membership commutation
4,192 00
,75 37
4 22
50 00
Cambridge, 1896, May 9.
$4,348 83
I have examined this account, and
CASH ACCOUNT.
265
-PERMANENT SECRETARY,
Association fob the Advancement of Science.
to December 3lst, 1895.
Cr.
By Publication : —
On account of printing 2500 copies of Proceedings,
Vol. 44, composition, presswork, and paper . . $1,321
Illustrations 39
Extra copies, addresses and reports from the Vol. . 62
Illustrations for Vol. 43 10
Back volumes of Proceedings bound 55
" " purchased .... 43
By Expenses of Springfield Meeting : —
General expenses
Printing 500 copies Constitution, List of Members, etc
Section C
D
" Y
I
By General Office Expenses : —
Rent of office, 6 months to Dec. 31, 1895 ....
Printing circulars, cards, etc
' Type writing
Petty expenses
Express
Postage and Post Office box
Telegrams
By Salaries : —
Permanent Secretary to Dec. 31, 1895
Assistant " " "
Janitor
By addition to Research Fund, Life Member's Commu-
tation, transferred to Treasurer
By balance to new account
31
31
55
99
39
75
223 54
72 60
69 25
4 60
85
19 80
54 00
54 75
10 00
2 93
57 91
151 51
2 83
520 83
300 00
41 67
§1,533 30
390 64
333 93
862 50
50 00
1,178 46
$4,348 83
certify that it is correctly cast, and properly vouched for.
B. A. Gould, Auditor.
INDEX.
PAGE
Act of Incorporation ' xx
Address of Retiring President 1
" Vice-President, Section B 29
" " « " C 55
" " « " D 85
" " " " E 101
" « " " F 135
" « " " G 171
« •« " H 191
" " " " I 219
Affiliated Societies 259
Agricultural Department, Director in Chief, scientific division . . . 247
Amendments to the Constitution, proposed 2G6, 257, 259
Auditors appointed 255
Banks of deposit 257
Barnes, C. R., General Secretary, report 237
Bauer, L. A., Grant from Research Fund 252
Bourke, J. G., memorial exercises in honor of 215
British Association, Toronto Meeting 258, 260
Britton, X. L., Address 171
Chairman of Section, application of term 252
Chemical Literature, Indexing 77
Committee on indexing Chemical Literature, Fourteenth Annual Report 77
" Library, Report 252
" " Metric System, Report 250
" " Standard Measurements, Report 252
•' to co-operate with National Educational Association . . . 253
Committees of the Association vii
Constitution xxi
" proposed amendments 256, 257, 259
Cope, E. D., lecture by 251
" Reply to addresses of welcome 241
" takes the chair 237
Corresponding Members of the Association xxxi
Council Buffalo Meeting vi
Deceased Members Ixxxii, 242
Detroit Meeting 257,258,260
" " advance programme 260
" " officers 255
(267)
268 INDEX.
PAGE
Educational Association, International, Committee to co-operate with . 258
Emerson, B. K., Aildress 101
" " remarks 258
Etlmograpliic investigation of the White Race in the United States . 215,251
Executive Proceedings 237
Fellows elected 253
Fellows of the Association Ivii
Fiftieth anniversary of foundation of Association 262
Fletcher, Alice C, Address 191
Founders of the Association Ivi
Fowler, Bishop C. H., Invocation 237
Geological Congress, International, at St. Petersburg 131,252
" Survey of New York, 60th Anniversary 128
Gibbs, Wolcott, elected Hon. Life Fellow 81, 255
Gill, Theodore, Address . 135
Grants from Research Fund 252
Hale, Horatio, Life Fellow 216
Resolutions in honor of 216, 253
Hall, James, exercises in honor of 128
Hart, E., Report on Glucinum 81
Herrman, Esther, Contribution to Pasteur Monument 249
Honorary Fellows of the Association Ivii
Hovey, H. C, Remarks 258
Indexing Chemical Literature 77
Invitations for next Meeting 257, 261
Jewett, Edgar B., Mayor, Address of welcome 238
Jubilee Meeting 262
Lazenby, W. R., Address 219
Lecture by E. D. Cope 251
'• J. W. Spencer 249
Library Committee, report 252
" of Association 252
Local Committees, Buffalo Meeting viii
Macfarlane, Alexander, elected Vice-President 25, 245
Marvin, F. O., Address 85
Mayor of Buffalo, Address of welcome 238
McGee, W. J., Resolutions of Thanks 258
Mees, Carl Leo, Address 29
Meeting of 1897 257, 260
Meetings of Association of Geologists and Naturalists x
" of the Association xi
Members, comparative statement 261
deceased 242
" of the Association xxxi
Metric System, report of committee 250
Mining and Geological Congress at Budapest 243
Morley, E. W., Address 1, 245
" " Introduces President-elect 237
INDEX. 2G9
PAGE
Nominating Committee, Report 255, 257
Noyes, W. A., Address 55
Officers for Detroit Meeting 255
Officers of Buffalo Meeting v
" Meetings of Association xiii
Section A 24
B 28
C 54
D 84
E 100
F 134
•' " G 170
H 190
I 218
Papers ordered to be printed by title 257, 259
Park, Roswell, Address of welcome 238
Pasteur Monument Committee 245
" " contribution of Esther Herrman 249
Patrons of the Association xxxi
Permanent Secretary, Cash account 259
Instructions to 257
" " Programme for next meeting 257
" " Report 259
" " Statistics of the Association 259
" " Statistics of the meeting 258
Phillips, Francis C, Grant from Research Fund 252
President Morley, Address 1,245
Proceedings of Association, papers published by title 257, 259
Programme for Detroit Meeting 260
Publications, distribution 259
Putnam, F. W., Report 259
Report of General Secretary 287
" Committee on Metric System 250
" " on Standards of Measurements 252
" Permanent Secretary 259
Treasurer 262
Resolution of Section H, Ethnographic Investigation, etc 251
Resolutions 81,131,215,246,247,250,251,258
of Thanks 258
" passed by Section C 81
E 131
" " " " 11 215
Retiring President, Address 1
Robinson, F. C, remarks 258
Secretary, Section E, vacancy 243
H, " 243
Sectional Committees to secure co-operation 257
Section A, Officers 24
270 INDEX.
PAGE
Section A, Titles of papers 25
B, Officers 28
" " Titles of papers 49
C, Officers 54
" Resolutions 81
" " Titles of papers 71
" D, Officers 84
" " Titles of papers 97
E, Officers 100
" " Resolutions 131
" Titles of papers 127
r, Officers 134
" " Titles of papers 167
G, Officers 170
" Titles of papers 185
H, Officers 190
" " Resolutions 215
" Titles of papers 211
I Officers 218
" Titles of papers 285
Spencer, J. W., Lecture by 249
Story, W. E 25
Thanks voted 258, 261
Titles of papers read, Section A 25
" " " " B 49
Cb tt t( it r^ tj-i
" " " " D 97
" " " « E ' 127
« " " " F ■ 167
« " " " G . ■ 185
« " " " H 211
" " " «' I 2.35
Treasurer, Bond of 257
Report 262
Vice-President, application of the term 252
" Britton, Address 171
" " Emerson, " 101
" " Fletcher, " 191
« " Gill, " 135
« " Lazenby, " 219
" Marvin, " 85
" " Mees, " 29
" " Noyes, " 55
" " Section A, vacancy 243
Woods Hole Laboratory, Grant from Research Fund 252
Woodward, R. S., report 262
Zoological Congress, Third International 250
O^J*-
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1896
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