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THE -SUMMA THEOLOGICA"
F. INNOCENTIUS APAP, O.P., S.T.M.,
Censor. Theol.
imprimattir.
EDUS. CANONICUS SURMONT,
ViCARius Generalis.
Westmonasterii.
APPROBATIO ORDINIS.
F. RAPHAEL MOSS. O.P., S.T.L.,
F. LEO MOORE, O.P., S.T.L.
im^jrimatur.
F. BEDA JARRETT, O.P., S.T.L., A.M.,
Prior Provincialis Anglic.
In Testo'Penfacostes, 1920.
THE
"SUMMA THEOLOGICA"
OF
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
PART L
ea I.~XXVI.
LITERALLY TRANSLATED BY
FATHERS OF THE ENGLISH DOMINICAN
PROVINCE
SECOND AND REVISED EDITION
LONDON
BURNS OATES & WASHBOURNE LTD.
28 ORCHARD STREET, W. i 8-10 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.G. 4
BENZIGER BROTHERS: NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO
1920 All riiilits reserved
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/3X
MARIiE IMMACULATiE
SEDI SAPIENTIiE
ENCYCLICAL LETTER
OF
OUR HOLY FATHER
BY DIVINE PROVIDENCE
POPE LEO XIII.
ON
THE RESTORATION OF CHRISTIAN
PHILOSOPHY,
ACCORDING TO THE MIND OF
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, THE ANGELIC DOCTOR
To His Venerable Brethren, all the Patriarchs, Primates,
Archbishops, and Bishops of the Catholic World, in
favour and communion with the Apostolic See,
POPE LEO XIII.
Venerable Brethren,
Health and Apostolic Benediction.
The Only-begotten Son of the Eternal Father appeared
on earth to bring salvation and the light of the wisdom of
God to the human race. As He was ascending to Heaven
He bestowed on the world a blessing, truly great and
wondrous, when, commanding His Apostles to ' go and
teach all nations,'* He left a Church, founded by Himself,
as the universal and supreme mistress of all people. Man,
''whom the truth had set free, was to be kept safe by the truth.
Indeed, the fruits of heavenly doctrine, by which salvation
was gained for man, could not have endured for long unless
Christ our Lord had set up a perpetual teaching authority
{magisterium) for the instruction of souls in the faith. This
Church, then, not only built on the promises of its Divine
Author, but following in His love, has kept His commands.
She has always looked to one end, and desired it with great
desire ; that is, to teach the true religion and wage ceaseless
war with error. For this there have been the watchful
labours of Bishops, each in his own place ; and for this
Councils have made laws and decrees. More than all, for
this there has been the daily anxiety of the Roman Pontiffs.
They are the successors of Blessed Peter, the Prince of the
Apostles, in his Primacy, and therefore it is their right and
* Matt, xxviii. 19.
ix
X THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
their duty to teach the brethren, and confirm them in the
faith.
Now, the Apostle warns us that the faithful of Christ are
often deceived in mind ' by philosophy and vain deceit,'*
and that thus the sincerity of faith is corrupted in men.
For this reason the Supreme Pastors of the Church have
always held that it is part of their office to advance, with
all their power, knowledge truly so called ; but at the same
time to watch with the greatest care that all human learning
shall be imparted according to the rule of the Catholic
faith. Especially is this true of 'philosophy,' on which
the right treatment of other sciences depends in great
measure. We Ourselves spoke to you shortly of this, among
other things, Venerable Brothers, when first We addressed
you all by an Encyclical Letter. Now, by the importance
of this matter, and by the state of the times. We are forced
again to write to you, that you may so organize the course
of philosophical studies as to insure their perfect correspon-
dence with the gift of Faith, and also their agreement with
the dignity of human knowledge.
If anyone look carefully at the bitterness of our times,
and if, further, he consider earnestly the cause of those
things that are done in public and in private, he will dis-
cover with certainty the fruitful root of the evils which are
now overwhelming us, and of the evils which we greatly
fear. The cause he will find to consist in this — evil teaching
about things, human and divine, has come forth from the
schools of philosophers ; it has crept into all the orders of
the State ; and it has been received with the common ap-
plause of very many. Now, it has been implanted in man
by Nature to follow reason as the guide of his actions, and
therefore, if the understanding go wrong in anything, the
will easily follows. Hence it comes about that wicked
opinions in the understanding, flow into human actions
and make them bad. On the other hand, if the mind of
man be healthy, and strongly grounded in solid and true
principles, it will assuredly be the source of great blessings,
* Col. ii. 8.
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xi
both as regards the good of individuals and as regards the
common weal.
We do not, indeed, attribute to human philosophy such
force and authority as to judge it sufficient for the utter
shutting out and uprooting of all errors. When the Chris-
tian religion was first established by the wondrous light of
Faith shed abroad, ' not in the persuasive words of human
wisdom,* but in showing of the Spirit and power,' the whole
world was restored to its primeval dignity. So also now,
chiefly from the almighty power and help of God, we may
hope that the darkness of error will be taken away from the
minds of men, and that they will repent. But we must not
despise or undervalue those natural helps which are given
to man by the kindness and wisdom of God, Who strongly
and sweetly orders all things ; and it stands to reason that
a right use of philosophy is the greatest of these helps. For
God did not give the light of reason in vain to the soul of
man, nor does the superadded light of Faith quench, or even
lessen, the strength of the understanding. Its effect is far
from this. It perfects the understanding, gives it new
strength, and makes it fit for greater works. The very
nature of the providence of God Himself, therefore, makes
it needful for us to seek a safeguard in human knowledge
when we strive to bring back the people to Faith and salva-
tion. The records of antiquity bear witness that this
method, both probable and wise, was used habitually by
the most illustrious Fathers of the Church. They, in truth,
were wont to give to reason offices neither few nor small ;
and these the great Augustine has summed up very shortly :
' Attributing to this science . . . that by which the life-
giving Faith ... is begotten, nourished, guarded, and
strengthened.'
In the first place, then, if philosophy be rightly and wisely
used, it is able in a certain measure to pave and to guard
the road to the true Faith ; and is able, also, to prepare the
minds of its followers in a fitting way for the receiving of
revelation. Hence it has not untruly been called by the
♦ I Cor. ii. 4.
xii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
ancients * an education leading to the Christian Faith,' ' a
prelude and help of Christianity,' ' a schoolmaster for the
Gospel.'
In truth, the loving-kindness of God, with regard to the
things concerning Himself, has not only made known by the
light of Faith many truths beyond the reach of the human
understanding, but has also revealed some which are not
altogether beyond the power of reason to find out. Such
truths, when the authority of God is thus added, become
known to all both at once and without any mixture of
error. This being so, certain truths, either divinely revealed
to us for our belief, or bound up closely with the doctrine
of the Faith, were known to wise men among the Gentiles,
who were guided only by the light of natural reason. By
fitting arguments they vindicated and demonstrated these
truths. St. Paul says : ' The invisible things of Him, from
the creation of the world, are clearly seen, being understood
by the things that are made ; His eternal power also and
divinity.' Again : ' The Gentiles, who have not the law,'
nevertheless * show the work of the law written in their
hearts.'
It is opportune, therefore, in a high degree to use, for the
good and the advantage of revealed truth, these other truths
that were known even to wise heathens ; for thus human
wisdom, and the very testimony of the adversaries, give
their witness to the Catholic Faith. Further, it is plain that
this way of treating the question is not a thing newly
devised, but an ancient way very much used by the holy
Fathers of the Church. Moreover, these venerable wit-
nesses and guardians of holy traditions see a kind of form
of this, and almost a type of it, in one action of the Hebrews ;
who, as they were going out of Egypt, were commanded to
take with them vessels of silver and of gold, with precious
garments of the Egyptians. This was done that, by a use
suddenly changed, the riches which had ministered to super-
stition and to rites of ignominy might be dedicated to the
service of the true God. Gregory of Neocaesaraea praises
Origen for this very reason, that, skilfully gathering together
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xiii
much of the teaching of the Gentiles for the defence of
Christian wisdom, and for the destruction of superstition,
he used these things as weapons taken from the enemy, and
with wondrous power hurled them back. Both Gregory
Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyssa approve and praise this
manner of teaching in Basil the Great. So also Jerome
greatly commends the same thing in Quadratus, a disciple
of the Apostles ; in Aristides, in Justin, in Irenseus, and in
very many others. Augustine also says : * Do we not see
how Cyprian, that doctor of great sweetness and that
mart5n: of great blessedness, was laden with gold and silver
and raiment when he went forth from Egypt ? Was it not
so with Lactantius, with Victorinus, Optatus, and Hilary ?
Not to speak of the living, was it not so with coimtless
Greeks ?* If, then, natural reason produced so rich a
crop of learning as this before it was fertilized by the
power and working of Christ, much more abundant will
be its harvests now, when the grace of the Saviour renews
and increases the inborn powers of the mind of man. Is
there, indeed, anyone who does not see that a plain and
easy road is opened to the Faith by philosophy such as
this ?
The usefulness, however, which springs from such a way
of studying philosophy is not confined within these limits ;
for in truth severe reproof is given, in the words of the
wisdom of God, to the foolishness of those men who, ' by
these good things that are seen, could not understand Him
that is ; neither, by attending to the works, have acknow-
ledged (Him) who was the workman.'
In the first place, then, this great and glorious fruit is
gathered from human reason — namely, that it demonstrates
the existence of God : ' By the greatness of the beauty and
of the creature the Creator of them may be seen, so as to
be known thereby.'
In the next place, reason shows that God, in a way
belonging only to Himself, excels by the sum of all per-
fections— that is, by an infinite wisdom, from which nothing
can be hidden ; and also by a supreme justice which no
xiv THE "SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
affection of evil can touch. Hence reason proves that God
is not only true, but the very Truth itself, which cannot
deceive or be deceived. Further, it is a clear consequence
from this that the human reason obtains for the word of
God full belief and authority.
In like manner reason declares that the evangelical doc-
trine has shone as the light from its very beginning, by
signs and miracles which are infallible proofs of infallible
truth ; and that therefore they who receive the Faith by the
Gospel do not act rashly, as if they had ' followed cunningly
devised fables,' but, by an obedience that is altogether
reasonable, submit their understanding and their judgment
to the authority of God.
Further, not less than these things in value is it that
reason clearly shows us the truth about the Church instituted
by Christ. That Church, as the Vatican Synod decreed — ■
' because of the wonderful way in which it spreads ; be-
cause of its great holiness and inexhaustible fruitfulness
in all places ; because of its Catholic unity and invincible
stability — is in itself a great and perpetual motive of
credibility, and an unanswerable argument for its own
Divine legation.'
The foundations, then, having been laid in the most solid
way, there is needed, further, a use of philosophy, both per-
petual and manifold, in order that Sacred Theology may
assume and put on the nature, habit, and character of true
science. For in this noblest kind of learning it is above
everything necessary that the parts of heavenly doctrine,
being many and different, should be gathered together, as
it were, into one body. Thus they are united by a union
of harmony among themselves, all the parts being fittingly
arranged, and derived from their own proper principles.
Lastly, all of these parts, and each of them, must be
strengthened by unanswerable arguments suited to each
case.
Nor must we pass by in silence, or reckon of little account,
that fuller knowledge of our belief, and, as far as may be,
that clearer understanding of the mysteries of the faith
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xv
which Augustine and other Fathers praised, and laboured
to attain, and which the Vatican Synod itself decreed to be
very fruitful. Such krK»wledge and understanding are cer-
tainly acquired more fully and more easily by those who,
to integrity of life and study of the faith, join a mind that
has been disciplined by philosophical culture. Specially is
this so since the same Vatican Synod teaches that we
ought to seek for understanding of holy dogmas of that
kind ' both from the analogy of the things which naturally
are known, and also from the way in which the mysteries
themselves are related to one another, and also to the Icist
end of man.'
Lastly, it pertains to philosophical discipline to guard
with religious care all truths that come to us by Divine
tradition, and to resist those who dare to attack them.
Now, as regards this point, the praise of philosophy is great,
in that it is reckoned a bulwark of the faith, and as a strong
defence of religion. * The doctrine of our Saviour,' as
Clement of Alexandria bears witness, * is indeed perfect in
itself, and has need of nothing, forasmuch as it is the power
and the wisdom of God. But Greek philosophy, though it
does not by its approach make the truth more powerful,
has yet been called a fit hedge and ditch for the vineyard,
because it weakens the arguments of sophists against the
truth, and wards off the crafty tricks of those by whom the
truth is attacked.'
In fact, as the enemies of the Catholic name borrow their
warlike preparations from philosophic method, when they
begin their attacks on religion, so the defenders of the science
of God borrow many weapons from the stores of philosophy,
by which to defend the dogmas of revelation. Again, we
must count it no small victory for the Christian Faith, that
human reason powerfully and promptly wards off those very
weapons of the enemy which have been got together by the
skill of the same human reason for purposes of harm.
St. Jerome, writing to Magnus, shows how the Apostle of
the Gentiles himself adopted this kind of argument. ' Paul,
the leader of the Christian army and the unanswered speaker.
kvi THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '-
pleading a cause for Christ, turns skilfully even a chance
inscription into an argument for the faith. From the true
David he had learnt indeed how to pluck the weapon from
the hands of his enemies, and how to cut off the head of
Goliath in his greatest pride with his own sword.'
Nay, more ; the Church herself not only advises Christian
teachers, but commands them to draw this safeguard from
philosophy. For the fifth Lateran Council decreed that
* every assertion contrary to a truth of enlightened faith is
altogether false, because the truth cannot possibly contra-
dict the truth ': and then it commands doctors of philo-
sophy to apply themselves studiously to the refutation of
fallacious arguments ; for St. Augustine says : ' If any
reason be given against the authority of the Holy Scrip-
tures, then, however subtle it may be, it deceives by its
likeness to the truth ; for true it cannot possibly be.'
But if philosophy has to be found equal to the work of
bringing forth such precious fruits as We have mentioned,
it must, above everything, take care never to wander from
the path trodden by the venerable antiquity of the Fathers,
and approved in the Vatican Synod by the solemn suffrage
of authority. It is plainly seen that we must accept many
truths in the supernatural order which far surpass the power
of any intellect. The human reason, therefore, conscious
of its own weakness, must not dare to handle things greater
than itself ; nor to deny these truths. Again, it must not
measure them by its own strength, or interpret them at its
own will. Rather let it receive them in the fulness and
humility of Faith ; reckoning this its greatest honour, that
by the goodness of God it is allowed as a handmaid and
servant to be busied about heavenly doctrines, and in a
certain measure to reach them.
In those heads of doctrine, however, which the human
understanding naturally can take in, it is clearly just that
philosophy should use its own method, its own principles,
and its own arguments ; yet not so as to seem to draw itself
away with audacity from the authority of God. So, also,
when it is plain that things known to us by revelation are
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xvij
most certainly true, and that the arguments brought against
the Faith are not in accord with right reason, the CathoHc
philosopher should bear in mind that he will violate the
rights both of Faith and reason, if he embrace any conclusion
which he understands to be contrary to revealed doctrine.
We know indeed that there are to be found men who,
exalting too highly the powers of human nature, contend
that the understanding of man falls from its native dignity
when it becomes subject to Divine authority, and that being
thus bound, as it were, in a yoke of slavery, it is greatly
retarded and hindered from reaching the heights of truth
and excellence. Such teaching as that is full of error and
falsehood. The end of it is that men, in the height of folly
and sinful thanklessness, reject all higher truths. They
deliberately cast away the Divine blessings of faith, from
which the streams of all good flow, even to civil society.
Now, the mind of man is shut up and held in certain bounds,
and narrow enough those boundaries are. The consequence
is that it falls into many mistakes and is ignorant of many
things. On the other hand, the Christian Faith, resting as
it does on the authority of God, is the certain teacher of
truth. He who follows this guidance is neither entangled
in the nets of error nor tossed about on the waves of doubt.
Hence the best philosophers are they who join philosophical
study with the obedience of the Christian Faith. Then the
brightness of Christian truths falls on the mind, and by that
brightness the understanding itself is helped. This takes
nothing from the dignity of the reason ; nay, rather, it adds
to the reason a great deal of grandeur and subtlety and
strength.
Worthily and most fruitfully do we use the keenness of
the understanding when we set ourselves to refute opinions
against the Faith, and to prove those things which agree
with it. For in disproving errors we ascertain their causes,
and then show the falsity of the arguments by which they
are bolstered up ; while in proving truths we use the force
of the reasons by which they are demonstrated with cer-
tainty, and by which all prudent men are persuaded. If,
xviii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
then, anyone deny that the riches of the mmd are increased
and its powers extended by studies and arguments such as
these, he must of necessity contend absurdly that the dis-
crimination of truth and falsehood does not in any way
help towards intellectual advancement. Rightly, therefore,
does the Vatican Synod mention in the following words the
great benefits which are received by Faith from reason :
' Faith frees the reason from error, and guards it, and
instructs it with a manifold knowledge.' If, then, man
were wise, he would not blame Faith as being hostile to
reason and natural truths. Rather he would give hearty
thanks to God and rejoice greatly that, among so many
causes of ignorance and in the midst of such floods of error,
the most holy Faith shines brightly on him ; for, like a
friendly star, that Faith points out to him the harbour of
truth, so that he can have no fear of going out of his
course.
If, then. Venerable Brothers, you look back at the history
of philosophy, you will see that all the words which We have
spoken are approved by the facts. Certainly, among the
ancient philosophers, living without the Faith, they who
were reckoned the wisest erred most harmfully in many
things. Though they taught the truth about some things,
yet you know how often they taught that which was false
and absurd. You know how many uncertain things and
doubtful things they handed down about the true nature
of the Godhead, the first beginning of creation, the govern-
ment of the world, God's knowledge of the future, the cause
and principle of evil, the last end of man, everlasting beati-
tude, virtues and vices, as also about other subjects, of
which a true and certain knowledge is above everything
necessary for man.
On the other hand, the first Fathers and Doctors of the
Church understood clearly from the counsel of the will of
God that the restorer of human knowledge is Christ, who
is the * power of God and the wisdom of God,' and * in
whom are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and know-
ledge.' They undertook to examine thoroughly the books
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIII. xix
of these wise men of old, and to compare their opinions with
the teaching of Revelation. With prudent choice they
accepted all the true words and wise thoughts with which
they met ; but the rest they either set right or cast utterly
away. As God, in His careful foresight for the defence of
His Church against the rage of tyrants, raised up the
martyrs, very strong and lavish of their mighty souls ; so
against philosophers, falsely so called, and against heretics.
He raised up men great in wisdom to defend even by the
help of human reason the treasure of revealed truth. From
the very beginning of the Church, indeed. Catholic doctrine
has found enemies most hostile to it, who have derided the
dogmas and teachings of Christians. They have laid down
such doctrines as these : That there are many gods ; that
the matter of which the world is made has neither beginning
nor cause ; that the course of events is governed by a certain
blind force and inevitable necessity ; and that it is not ruled
by the counsel of the providence of God. Wise men, whom
we call Apologists, have in due course attacked these
teachers of insane doctrine, and, with Faith for their guide,
have drawn arguments from human wisdom itself. They
have in this way proved that one God, highest in every kind
of perfection, is to be worshipped ; that all things have been
made out of nothing by His almighty power ; that they are
all sustained by His wisdom ; and that each one is directed
and moved towards its own end.
Among these, St. Justin MsLTtyv claims for himself the
first place. Having frequented the most celebrated schools
of learning among the Greeks that he might try what they
were, he learned, as he himself acknowledges, that he could
drink in the truth with full mouth only from revealed doc-
trines. These he embraced with all the eagerness of his
soul ; stripped off the calumnies that hung round them ;
defended them vigorously and fully before the Roman
Emperors ; and reconciled with them many sayings of the
Greek philosophers. In that time the same work was also
done exceedingly well by Quadratus, Aristides, Hermias,
and Atlienagoras. In the same cause glory not less than
XX THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
theirs was gained by the Bishop of Lyons, Irenseus, the
invincible martyr. He refuted with power the wicked
teaching of the Easterns, scattered as it was by the help
of the Gnostics throughout the bounds of the Roman
Empire. St. Jerome says of him : * He explained . . .
the beginnings of heresies one by one, and pointed out from
what fountains of the philosophers they flowed.'
Again, there is no one who does not know the disputa-
tions of Clement of Alexandria, which the same St. Jerome
thus mentions with honour : ' Is there anything that is
not learned in them ? Is there anything not drawn from
the depth of philosophy ?' He himself also wrote books
of an incredible variety, which are of the greatest use in
building up a history of philosophy, in rightly exercising
the art of dialectics, and in establishing the harmony that
exists between reason and faith. Origen followed him,
renowned among the teachers of the Alexandrine school,
and deeply learned in the doctrine of the Greeks and the
Easterns. He wrote a very great number of books, and
spent much labour upon them. Wondrously, just at the
right time, they explained the Holy Scriptures, and threw
light on our sacred dogmas. It is true that these books,
at least in their present state, are not altogether free from
errors ; yet they embrace great force of teaching, by which
natural truths are increased in number and in strength.
Tertullian, too, fights against the heretics by the authority
of Scripture. Then changing his weapons, he fights against
the philosophers with arguments of philosophy. With so
much acuteness and learning does he refute them, that he
answers them openly and confidently : ' Neither about
science nor about learning are we, as you think, on an
equal footing.' Amobius also in his books against the
Gentiles, and Lactantius in his Institutions especially, strive
earnestly with like eloquence and strength to persuade men
to accept the dogmas and commands of Catholic wisdom.
They do not overthrow philosophy, according to the way
of the Academy ; but partly by their own weapons, and
partly by weapons taken from the agreement of philosophers
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxi
among themselves, they convince them. The great
Athanasius and Chrysostom, first of preachers, have left
writings about the soul of man, about the Attributes of
God, and other questions of the greatest moment. These
in the judgment of all are so excellent that it seems as if
scarcely anything could be added to their subtlety and
exhaustiveness. Not to be too prolix in mentioning them
one by one, we add to the number of these most illustrious
men of whom we have spoken the great Basil and the two
Gregories. From Athens, then the home of the highest
culture, they went forth equipped with the panoply of
philosophy. Having acquired all their riches of learning
by most ardent study, they used them to refute the heretic,
and to build up the faithful.
But it is Augustine who seems to have borne away the
palm from all. With a towering intellect, and a mind full
to overflowing of sacred and profane learning, he fought
resolutely against all the errors of his age, with the greatest
faith and equal knowledge. What teaching of philosophy
did he pass over ? Nay, what was there into which he did
not search thoroughly ? Did he not do this when he was
explaining to believers the deepest mysteries of the Faith,
and defending them against the furious attacks of the
adversaries ? or when, after destroying the fictions of
Academics and Manichseans, he made safe the foundations
of human knowledge and their certainty, searching out also
to the furthest point the reason and origin and causes of
those evils by which man is oppressed ? With what copious-
ness and with what subtlety did he write about the angels, and
the soul, and the human mind ; about the will and free-will ;
about religion and the blessed life ; about time and eternity ;
about the nature of all changeable bodies ! Afterwards,
among the Easterns, John of Damascus followed in the
footsteps of Basil and Gregory Nazianzen ; while in the
West, Boethius and Anselm, setting forth the doctrines of
Augustine, greatly enriched the domain of philosophy.
Then the Doctors of the Middle Ages, whom we call
Scholastics, set themselves to do a work of very great
xxii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
magnitude. There are rich and fruitful crops of doctrine
scattered everywhere in the mighty volumes of the Holy
Fathers. The aim of the Scholastics was to gather these
together diligently, and to store them up, as it were, in
one place, for the use and convenience of those that come
after.
What the origin of the Scholastic discipline was, what
were also its characteristics and its value, it will be well.
Venerable Brothers, to set forth more fully here in the
words of a man of the greatest wisdom — our predecessor
Sixtus V. : 'By the Divine gift of Him, Who alone gives the
spirit of knowledge and wisdom and understanding, and
Who, through the ages, according to her needs, enriches His
Church with new gifts, and surrounds her with new safe-
guards, our ancestors, being men exceedingly wise, developed
the study of Scholastic Theology. There were especially
two glorious Doctors, teachers of this famous science — that
is, the angelic St. Thomas, and the seraphic St. Bonaventure.
With surpassing abilities, with ceaseless study, with labor-
ious toil and long watchings, they worked it out and adorned
it. They arranged it in the very best way, unfolded it
brilliantly in many methods, and then handed it on to their
successors.'
The knowledge and the exercise of this science of salvation
have certainly always brought the very greatest help to the
Church ; whether it be for the right understanding and
interpretation of Scripture, or for reading and expounding
the Fathers with greater safety and profit, or for laying
bare and answering different errors and heresies. This
doctrine flows from the brimming fountain of the Sacred
Scriptures, of the Supreme Pontiffs, and of Holy Fathers
and Councils. Now, indeed, in these last days, it is in the
highest degree necessary to refute heresies and confirm the
dogmas of the Catholic faith. For now have come those
dangerous times of which the Apostle speaks. Now men,
blasphemous, proud, deceivers, go from bad to worse, wan-
dering from the truth themselves and leading others into
erj-or. These words might seem to embrace only the
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxiii
Scholastic Theology ; but it is plain that they are also to be
taken in reference to philosophy and its praise.
Scholastic Theology has splendid gifts, which make it
very formidable to enemies of the truth ; as the same Pontiff
tells us. ' It has,' he ,says, * an apt coherence of facts and
causes, connected with one another ; an order and arrange-
ment, like soldiers drawn up in battle array ; definitions
and distinctions very lucid ; unanswerableness of argument
and acute disputations. By these the light is divided from
the darkness, and truth from falsehood. The lies of heretics,
wrapped up in many wiles and fallacies, being stripped of
their coverings, are bared and laid open.* But these great
and wondrous gifts can only be found in a right use of that
philosophy which the masters of Scholasticism, of set purpose
and with wise counsel, were everywhere accustomed to use
even in their theological disputations.'
Moreover, it is the proper and singular gift of Scholastic
theologians to bind together human knowledge and Divine
knowledge in the very closest bonds. For this reason, truly
the theology in which they excelled could never have gained
so much honour and praise from the judgment of men as it
did, if they had used a system of philosophy which was
maimed, or imperfect, or shallow.
Now far above all other Scholastic Doctors towers Thomas
Aquinas, their master and prince. Cajetan says truly of
him : * So great was his veneration for the ancient and
sacred Doctors that he may be said to have gained a perfect
understanding of them all.' Thomas gathered together
their doctrines like the scattered limbs of a body, and
moulded them into a whole. He arranged them in so
wonderful an order, and increased them with such great
additions, that rightly and deservedly he is reckoned a
singular safeguard and glory of the Catholic Churchr. His
intellect was docile and subtle ; his memory was ready and
tenacious ; his life was most holy ; and he loved the truth
alone. Greatly enriched as he was with the science of God
and the science of man, he is likened to the sun ; for he
warmed the whole earth with the fire of his holiness, and
xxiv THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
filled the whole earth with the splendour of his teaching.
There is no part of philosophy which he did not handle with
acuteness and solidity. He wrote about the laws of reason-
ing ; about God and incorporeal substances ; about man and
other things of sense ; and about human acts and their
principles. What is more, he wrote on these subjects in
such a way that in him not one of the following perfections
is wanting : a full selection of subjects ; a beautiful arrange-
ment of their divisions ; the best method of treating them ;
certainty of principles ; strength of argument ; perspicuity
and propriety in language ; and the power of explaining
deep mysteries.
Beside these questions and the like, the Angelic Doctor,
in his speculations, drew certain philosophical conclusions
as to the reasons and principles of created things. These
conclusions have the very widest reach, and contain, as it
were, in their bosom the seeds of truths wellnigh infinite
in number. These have to be unfolded with most abundant
fruits in their own time by the teachers who come after
him. As he used his method of philosophizing, not only
in teaching the truth, but also in refuting error, he has gained
this prerogative for himself. With his own hand he van-
quished all errors of ancient times ; and still he supplies an
armoury of weapons which brings us certain victory in the
conflict with falsehoods ever springing up in the course of
years.
Moreover, carefully distinguishing reason from Faith, as
is right, and yet joining them together in a harmony of
friendship, he so guarded the rights of each, and so watched
over the dignity of each, that, as far as man is concerned,
reason can now hardly rise higher than she rose, borne up
in the flight of Thomas ; and Faith can hardly gain more
helps and greater helps from reason than those which
Thomas gave her.
For these causes, especially in former days, men of the
greatest learning and worthy of the highest praise both in
theology and philosophy, having sought out with incredible
diligence the immortal writings of Thomas, surrendered
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxv
themselves to his angelic wisdom, not so much to be taught
by his words, as to be altogether nourished by them. It is
plain also that nearly all founders and lawgivers of religious
Orders have bidden their children study the doctrines of
Thomas, and very religiously adhere to them, giving a
caution that it will be allowed to none to deviate ever so
little from the footsteps of so great a man. To pass by the
Dominican family which, as it were, by a right of its own,
glories in this greatest of teachers, the statutes of each Order
testify that Benedictines, Carmelites, Augustinians, the
Society of Jesus, and many other holy Orders, are bound
by this law.
Now our mind flies with great delight to those very
celebrated universities and schools which formerly flourished
in Europe : such as Paris, Salamanca, Alcala, Douai,
Toulouse, Louvain, Padua, Bologna, Naples, Coimbra, and
very many others. No one is ignorant that the reputation
of these imiversities grew by age ; that their opinions were
asked when weighty issues were at stake ; and that those
opinions had great influence everywhere. But it is also
well known that, in those illustrious abodes of human
learning, Thomas reigned as a ruler in his own kingdom.
The minds of all, both teachers and hearers, with wondrous
consent found rest in the guidance and authority of one
Angelic Doctor.
But further — and this is of greater importance — the
Roman Pontiffs, our predecessors, bore witness to the
wisdom of Thomas x\quinas with praises singularly strong,
and with most abundant testimonies. Clement VI.,
Nicholas V., Benedict XIIL, and others, testify that the
whole Church was enlightened by his admirable teaching.
Pius V. acknowledges that heresies are confounded and
exposed and scattered by his doctrine, and that by it the
whole world is daily freed from pestilent errors. Others,
with Clement XI I. , say that most fruitful blessings have
flowed from his writings on the whole Church. They affirm
also that the same honour has to be given to him as to the
greatest Doctors of the Church, such as Gregory and Am-
xxvi THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
brose, and Augustine and Jerome. Others did not hesitate
to set forth St. Thomas as a standard and teacher to uni-
versities and great schools of learning, saying that they
might safely follow him. On this point the words of Blessed
Urban V. to the University of Toulouse seem to be most
worthy of mention : * It is our will, and by the authority
of these letters we enjoin on you, that you follow the doctrine
of Blessed Thomas as true and Catholic, and strive to unfold
it with your whole strength.* This example of Urban was
followed by Innocent XII. in the University of Louvain,
and by Benedict XIV. in the Dionysian College of Granada.
To these judgments of the Pontiffs about Thomas there is
added, as a crown, the testimony of Innocent VI.: 'His
doctrine above all other doctrine, with the one exception
of the Holy Scriptures, has such a propriety of words, such
a method of explanation, such a truth of opinions, that no
one who holds it will ever be found to have strayed from the
path of truth ; whereas anyone who has attacked it has
always been suspected as to the truth.
Moreover, (Ecumenical Councils, made glorious by the
flower of wisdom gathered from the whole world, always
strove with great care to give singular honour to Thomas
Aquinas. In the Councils of Lyons, of Vienne, of Florence,
of the Vatican, you may say that Thomas was present at
the deliberations and decrees of the Fathers, and almost
that he presided at them, contending against the errors of
Greeks and heretics and rationalists, with a power from
which there was no escape, and with a most auspicious
result.
But we now come to the greatest glory of Thomas — a
glory which is altogether his own, and shared with no other
Catholic Doctor. In the midst of the Council of Trent, the
assembled Fathers so willing it, the Summu of Thomas
Aquinas lay open on the altar, with the Holy Scriptures and
the decrees of the Supreme Pontiffs, that from it might be
sought counsel and reasons and answers.
Lastly, another crown seems to have been kept for this
peerless man — that is, the way in which he extorts homage,
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxvii
praise, and admiration even from the enemies of the Catholic
name. It is well known that there have not been wanting
heresiarchs who openly said that, if the doctrine of Thomas
Aquinas could only be got rid of, they could * easily give
battle to other Catholic Doctors, and overcome them, and
so scatter the Church.' A vain hope indeed, but no vain
testimony !
For these reasons, Venerable Brothers, so often as We
look at the goodness, the force, and the exceedingly great
usefulness of that philosophical doctrine in which our fathers
took such delight, We judge that it has been rashly done
when this doctrine has not always, and everywhere, been
held in its own rightful honour. Especially do We judge
this to be the case, since it is plain that long use and the
judgment of the greatest men, and, what is more than all,
the consent of the Church, have favoured the Scholastic
method. Here and there a certain new kind of philosophy
has taken the place of the old doctrine ; and because of this,
men have not gathered those desirable and wholesome fruits
which the Church and civil society itself could have wished.
The aggressive innovators of the sixteenth century have
not hesitated to philosophize without any regard whatever
to the Faith, asking, and conceding in return, the right to
invent anything that they can think of, and anything that
they please. From this it quickly followed, of course, that
systems of philosophy were multiplied beyond all reason,
and that there sprang up conflicting opinions and diverse
opinions even about some of the chief things which are
within human knowledge. From a multitude of opinions
men very often pass to uncertainty and doubt ; while there
is no one who does not see how easily their minds glide from
doubt into error.
But, since man is drawn by imitation, we have seen these
novelties lay hold of the minds of some Catholic philosophers,
who, undervaluing the inheritance of ancient wisdom, have
chosen rather to invent new things than to extend and
perfect the old by new truths, and that certainly with unwise
counsel, and not without loss to science ; for such a manifold
xxviii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
kind of doctrine has only a shifting foundation, resting as
it does on the authority and will of individual teachers.
For this reason it does not make philosophy firm and strong
and solid, like the old philosophy, but, on the contrary,
makes it weak and shallow.
When We say this, however. We do not condemn those
learned and able men who bring their industry and their
knowledge, and the riches of new discoveries, to the aid of
philosophy ; for We clearly see that such a course tends to
the increase of learning. But with great care we must
guard against spending the whole of our attention, or even
the chief part of it, on such studies as these, and on such
instruction.
Let the same judgment be formed about Sacred Theology.
This may well be aided arid illustrated by many helps of
erudition ; but it is altogether necessary that it should be
treated in the weighty manner of the Scholastics, in order
that it may continue to be the ' unassailable bulwark of the
faith,' by the forces of reason and revelation thus united
in it.
Students of philosophy, therefore, not a few, giving their
minds lately to the task of setting philosophy on a surer
footing, have done their utmost, and are doing their utmost,
to restore to its place the glorious teaching of Thomas
Aquinas, and to win for it again its former renown.
That many of your order. Venerable Brothers, are with
like will following promptly and cheerfully in the same
path, We know to the great gladness of Our heart. While
We praise these much. We exhort them to go on in the way
that they have begun. To the rest of you, one by one,
We give this word of counsel : there is nothing which We
have longer wished for and desired than that you should
give largely and abundantly to youths engaged in study
the pure streams of wisdom which flow from the Angelic
Doctor as from a perennial and copious spring.
Our reasons for wishing this so earnestly as We do are
many.
First, in our times, the Christian Faith is commonly
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxix
opposed by the wiles and craft of a certain deceitful kind
of wisdom. All young men, therefore, and especially those
who are growing up as the hope of the Church, ought to be
fed with healthful and strong food of doctrine. Thus,
being mighty in strength, and possessing an armoury in
which all needful weapons may be found, they will learn by
experience to treat the cause of religion with power and
wisdom, according to the admonition of the Apostle, ' being
ready always to satisfy everyone that asketh you a reason
of that hope which is in you ': and being * able to exhort in
sound doctrine and to convince the gainsayers.'
Next, there are many who, with minds alienated from the
Faith, hate all Catholic teaching, and say that reason alone
is their teacher and guide. To heal these men of their un-
belief, and to bring them to grace and the Catholic Faith,
We think that nothing, after the supernatural help of God,
can be more useful in these days than the solid doctrine of
the Fathers and the Scholastics. They teach firm founda-
tions of Faith, its Divine origin, its certain truth, the argu-
ments by which it is commended to men, the benefits that
it has conferred on the himian race, and its perfect harmony
with reason. They teach all such truths with a weight of
evidence and a force that may well persuade even minds
unwilling and hostile in the highest degree.
Again, we all see the great dangers which threaten family
life, and even civil society itself, because of the pestilence
of perverse opinions. Truly all civil society would be
much more tranquil and much safer if healthier teaching
were given in universities and schools ; a doctrine more in
unison with the perpetual teaching office {magisterium) of
the Church, such as is contained in the volumes of Thomas
Aquinas. He disputes about the true nature of liberty,
which, in these days, is passing into lawlessness ; about the
Divine origin of all authority ; about laws and their binding
force ; about the paternal and just government of sovereign
princes, with our obedience to higher powers, and the
common love that should be among all. The words of
Thomas about these things, and others of a like nature, have
XXX THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
the greatest strength, indeed a resistless strength, to over-
throw the principles of this new jurisprudence, which is
manifestly dangerous to the peaceful order of society and
to public safety.
Lastly, from the restoration of philosophical teaching as
it has been set forth by Us, all human sciences ought to gather
hope of improvement, and the promise of a very great
safeguard. For from philosophy, as from a guiding wisdom,
the beneficent arts have hitherto derived a healthy method
and a right measure. They have, moreover, drunk a vital
spirit from it as from a common fountain of life. It is
proved by fact and constant experience that the liberal arts
have been most flourishing when the honour of philosophy
has stood inviolate, and when its judgment has been held
for wisdom : but that they have lain neglected and almost
obliterated when declining philosophy has been enveloped
in errors and absurdities.
Hence, also, the physical sciences, which now are held
in so much repute, and everywhere draw to themselves a
singular admiration, because of the many wonderful dis-
coveries made in them, would not only take no harm from
a restoration of the philosophy of the ancients, but would
derive great protection from it. For the fruitful exercise
and increase of these sciences it is not enough that we con-
sider facts and contemplate Nature. When the facts are
well known we must rise higher, and give our thoughts with
great care to understanding the nature of corporeal things,
as well as to the investigation of the laws which they obey,
and of the principles from which spring their order, their
unity in variety, and their common likeness in diversity.
It is marvellous what power and light and help are given
to these investigations by Scholastic philosophy, if it be
wisely used.
On this point it is well to call one thing to your minds.
It is only by the highest injustice that any jealousy of the
progress and increase of natural sciences is laid, as a fault, at
the door of that philosophy. When the Scholastics, following
the teaching of the Holy Fathers, everywhere taught through-
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxxi
out their anthropology that the human understanding can
only rise to the knowledge of immaterial things by things
of sense, nothing could be more useful for the philosopher
than to investigate carefully the secrets of Nature, and to
be conversant, long and laboriously, with the study of
physical science. Indeed, they themselves prove this by
their works. Thomas, and Blessed Albert the Great,
and other princes of the Scholastics, did not so give them-
selves up to the study of philosophy, as to have little care
for the knowledge of natural things. Nay, on this matter
there are not a few of their words and discoveries which
modern teachers approve and acknowledge to be in harmony
with truth. Besides, in this very age, many distinguished
teachers of physical sciences openly bear witness that there
is no contradiction, truly so called, between the certain and
proved conclusions of recent physics, and the philosophical
principles of the Schools.
We, therefore, while We declare that everything wisely
said should be received with willing and glad mind, as well
as everything profitably discovered or thought out, exhort
all of you. Venerable Brothers, with the greatest earnestness
to restore the golden wisdom of St. Thomas, and to spread
it as far as you can, for the safety and glory of the Catholic
Faith, for the good of society, and for the increase of all the
sciences. We say the wisdom of St. Thomas ; for it is not
by any means in our mind to set before this age, as a stan-
dard, those things which may have been inquired into by
Scholastic Doctors with too great subtlety ; or anything
taught by them with too little consideration, not agreeing
with the investigations of a later age ; or, lastly, anything
that is not probable.
Let, then, teachers carefully chosen by you do their best
to instil the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas into the minds of
their hearers ; and let them clearly point out its soliditv
and excellence above all other teaching. Let this doctrine
be the light of all places of learning which you may have
already opened, or may hereafter open. Let it be used for
the refutation of errors that are gaining groimd.
I. c
xxxii THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
But lest the false should be drunk instead of the true ; oi
lest that which is unwholesome should be drunk instead of
that which is pure ; take care that the wisdom of Thomas
be drawn from his own fountain, or at any rate from those
streams which, in the certain and unanimous opinion of
learned men, yet flow whole and untainted, inasmuch as they
are led from the fountain itself. Take care, moreover, that
the minds of the young be kept from streams which are said
to have flowed from thence, but in reality have been fed
by unhealthy waters from other springs.
Well do we know that all our work will be vain, unless,
Venerable Brothers, He bless our common efforts, Who in
the Divine Scriptures is called the ' God of all know-
ledge.' By those same Scriptures we are warned, that
* every best gift and every perfect gift is from above, coming
down from the Father of lights.' Again, *If any of you
want wisdom, let him ask of God, who giveth to all men
abundantly and upbraideth not ; and it shall be given him.'
In this matter, then, let us follow the example of the
Angelic Doctor, who never began to read or to write without
seeking for God's help by prayer ; and who in simplicity
acknowledged that all his learning had come to him, not
so much from his own study and toil, as immediately from
God. With humble and united prayer, therefore, let us
all together beseech God fervently to pour out the spirit
of knowledge and understanding on the sons of the Church,
and to open their minds to the understanding of wisdom.
Also, that we may receive more abundant fruits of the
goodness of God, use that patronage which is most powerful
with Him ; that is, the patronage of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, who is called the Seat of Wisdom. Secure also, as
intercessors, Blessed Joseph, the pure Spouse of the Virgin ;
and Peter and Paul, the chiefs of the Apostles, who renewed
the whole world with truth, when it was corrupted by the
uncleanness and the contagion of errors, and who filled it
with the light of the wisdom which is from Heaven.
Lastly, in hope, trusting to the help of God and relying
on your pastoral zeal, to all of you. Venerable Brothers, to
all the clergy, and all the people committed to the care of
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIIL xxxiii
each, we give, with great love in the Lord, our Apostolical
blessing, the earnest of heavenly gifts, and the witness of our
special goodwill.
Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, this 4th day of August, 1879,
in the second year of our Pontificate. l^q pp. xill.
THE NEW CODEX OF CANON LAW.
Issued by Authority of Pope Benedict XV., 1917.
Canon 589: Religious who have already studied their
humanities should devote themselves for two years at least
to philosophy and for four years to theology, following the
teaching of S. Thomas (cf. Canon 1366, § 2) in accordance
with the instructions of the Holy See.
Canon 1366, § 2 : The study of philosophy and theology
and the teaching of these sciences to their students must be
accurately carried out by Professors [in seminaries, etc.]
according to the arguments, doctrine, and principles of
S. Thomas which they are inviolately to hold.
THE LEONINE EDITION.
In the year 1879 Pope Leo XIIL addressed a letter, dated
October 15, to Cardinal de Luca, Prefect of the Congregation
of Studies, to found the Academy of St. Thomas. In this
letter the Pope mentions his intention of bringing out a
new edition of all the Saint's works. He speaks of it as
an edition, * quse cuncta omnino Sancti Doctoris scripta
complectatur optimis quoad fieri potest formis litterarum
expressa accurataque emendata ; iis etiam adhibitis codi-
cum manuscriptorum subsidiis, quae setate hac nostra in
lucem et usum prolata sunt. Conjunctim vero edendas
curabimus clarissiraorum ejus interpretum, ut Thomae de
Vio Cardinali Cajetani et Ferrariensis, lucubrationes per quas,
tanquam per uberes riviculos, tanti viri doctrina decurrit.'
The Motu Propria for the new edition appeared January 18,
1880. In this it was ordered that the new edition should
be reserved to the Propaganda Press. The edition was
xxxiv THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
confided to Cardinal de Luca, Cardinal Simeoni, and Cardinal
Zigliara. With the works of St. Thomas they were directed
to edit Cajetan on the * Summa Theologica,* and Ferrariensis
on the ' Contra Gentiles.'
Cardinal Zigliara, in the Preface to the first Volume, says
that, in obedience to the command of His Holiness, * Magister
Generalis Ordinis Praedicatorum cui demandata est a
Leone XIII., cura hujus editionis operum Sti. Thomae,
quosdam religiosos in scientiis simul et arte paleographica
eruditos designavit, qui bibliothecas perlustrant, codices
optimae notae inquirunt, scripta S. Thomae inedita diligenter
investigant, atque omnia scripta notata aliis religiosis
Romae degentibus et novam hanc editionem curantibus
transmittant.'
The groundwork of the new edition is that of St. Pius V.
(1570). Little is known of the history of this edition.
Several learned Dominicans were employed in it, and
among them Remigius Nanni, Cardinal Justiniani, and
Thomas Marriques, S.P.A. Magister. It is the best of all
the editions of the ' Opera Omnia ' published up to the time
of Leo XIII. As the Pope says in his letter to Cardinal de
Luca : ' Coetera enim, cum veteres timi recentiores, partim
quod non omnia S. Thomae scripta exhibent, partim quod
optimorum, ejus interpretum atque explanatorum careant
commentariis, partim quod minus diligenter adornatae sint,
non omnia tulisse punctum videntur.'
This Piana, or Roman, Edition, however, seems to have
been made with the help of earlier editions rather than of the
manuscripts.
The first Volume of the Leonine Edition comprises the
* Dissertation of De Rubeis on the Life and Writings of St.
Thomas,' also the ' Commentaries of the Saint on Aristotle's
Works,' * Peri Hermenias,' and ' Posteriora Analytica.'
As St. Thomas's Commentaries on the former terminate at
the end of the Second Book, Cajetan's Commentary on the
remainder has been given.
The Greek text of Aristotle (Didot's edition) has been
inserted in place of the second Latin version given by the
Piana, synopses of each lesson and copious notes being added.
THE LEONINE EDITION xxxv
The second Volume gives the Commentaries on the eight
books of Aristotle's ' Physics/ and the third Volume contains
those on the treatises, ' De Coelo et Mundo/ * De Generatione
et Corruptione,* and the ' Meteorologia.*
It is worthy of note that up to the time when the new
edition was undertaken, the Commentary on both of the
books, ' De Generatione et Corruptione,' was looked upon as
genuine work of St. Thomas ; but by means of the manu-
scripts, as well as from internal evidence and discovery of
their origin and source, it has been proved in the Preface to
the third Volume, that only the first seventeen lessons of
the Commentary on the First Book are by St. Thomas, the
remainder on the First Book, and all on the Second, being
drawn from Albertus Magnus.
Discoveries were also made concerning the Commentary
on the books of the * Meteorologia,' as may be seen in the
Preface. That on the Third and Fourth were known to be
spurious. That on the Third Book is taken from Peter of
Alvernia ; that in the Leonine Edition, the Commentary on
the last lesson of the Second Book, is also shown to be
taken from Albertus Magnus.
On the publication of the third Volume, the Pope
addressed a Letter to Cardinals Simeoni and Zigliara
(Cardinal de Luca had died), dated October ii, 1886, ex-
pressing his wish that the ' Summa Theologica ' and * Summa
Contra Gentes ' should be the next edited and published.
Of the former, up to this time (1906) nine volumes have
been published, containing almost all that St. Thomas wrote
before his death. With these appears the Commentary of
Cajetan. The text of St. Thomas has been compared with
manuscripts and early editions ; quotations have been
verified. Each manuscript used in the edition has been
read through, and when it differs from the Plana, a note is
made of the variant. In composing the second Volume no
less than 20,000 variants were marked.
The printing of the work was done at the Propaganda
Press. The work was confided wholly to the Dominican
Order by Pope Leo XIII. before his death.
XXXVl
THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
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XXXVlll
THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA
CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF ST. THOMAS
AQUINAS, O.P.
I2I2
I2l6
1224-
25(?)
1227
1228
1229
—
Nov.
1230
Aug.
I23I
June I
1234
...-
1236
Sep. 5
1237
1239
Mar. 20
Autumn
I24I
Sep.
—
Frederic II., Emperor
HONORIUS III.
St. Thomas, born at Rocca Sicca, near
Aquino
Gregory IX.
St. Louis, King. St. Francis of Assisi dies.
Sinnebald, kinsman of St. Thomas, Abbot
of Monte Cassino
Gregory IX. invades Naples. The Aquinos
and Abbot of Monte Cassino resist papal
troops
Papal troops, under John of Brienne, ravage
Naples. Council of Toulouse
Frederic II. takes Monte Cassino \
Gregory IX. and Frederic II. make ' Peace of
San Germano ' (through B. Gualo, O.P.
St. Thomas offered at Monte Cassino
Sunday. Lightning kills sister of St. Thomas.
' CoUectio of the Laws of Sicily,' by
Peter de Vineis
St. Raymund of Pennafort, O.P., by com-
mand of Gregory IX., publishes the
' Decretales '
Gregory IX. driven from Rome
Abbot Sinnebald dies
Frederic II. fights Lombard League. Is de-
feated at Cortenuova. St. Raymund
Pennafort, O.P,, Master-General
Palm Sunday. Gregory IX, excommuni-
cates Frederic II, Monte Cassino taken by
Frederic II, St. Thomas stays with his
family at Loreti. Miracle of Roses
St. Thomas goes to University of Naples
Frederic II. attacks Rome
Gregory IX. dies.
Celestine IV.
Fifteen days.
Cardinals fly to Anagni. B, John, the
Teutonic Master-General. Frederic II.
writes to the General Chapter
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CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE
XXXIX
1244
1244
1245
1248
1250
1252
1254
April
(end)
May-
Jan.
Autumn
Summer
1255
1256
1256
Feb.
Summer
Feb.
April
Oct.
Nov. 21
Dec. 2
Dec. 7
Dec. 21
Mar. 9
Spring
Sep.
Innocent IV.
habit
of a Friar
St. Thomas takes the
Preacher at Naples
On his way to Paris, St. Thomas is taken
prisoner at Aquapendente, where Frederic
II. with his Court and Army imprisoned
in his own home at Rocca Sicca
Innocent leaves Rome
Council of Lyons
General Chapter at Cologne
St. Thomas set free. Goes to Paris. Studies
under B. Albert the Great, O.P.
General Chapter orders five Studia Generalia
(Paris, Montpellier, Oxford, Cologne,
Bologna)
St. Thomas goes with B. Albert the Great,
O.P., to Cologne. Conrad of Hochstaden
lays first stone of Cathedral
Frederic II. dies. Innocent IV. at war with
Conrad IV. and Manfred. Brothers of St.
Thomas side with Pope. Conrad IV.
takes Rocca Sicca. Aquino destroyed.
Raynal, brother of St. Thomas, starved in
prison. Mother already dead. St. Peter
Martyr, O.P., martyred
University Masters of Paris denounce regulars
St. Thomas at Paris
B. Humbert, O.P., Master-General
Masters at Paris write against regulars
Masters strike
Innocent IV. at Naples. Manfred revolts
* Etsi Animarum ' against regulars
Manfred defeats Pope at Monte Foggio
Innocent IV. dies
/:
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Alexander IV.
Alexander IV. annuls ' Etsi Animarum '
Wm. of St. Amour, ' De Periculis Novissimis, '
' Evangelium internum '
University of Paris orders teaching of
Aristotle
Chancellor Emeric licenses St. Thomas.
St. Thomas is made Master of Theology
Alexander IV. at Anagni. B. Humbert,
O.P., Master-General, also there.
Alexander IV. sends for St. Bonaventure,
O.F.M. B. Albert the Great, O.P., teaches
a year at Anagni
St. Thomas teaches as Master in the Schools
of the Friar Preachers at Paris /
en
<
xl
THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
1256
1259
1261
Oct. 5
June
1262
1263
1264
1265
Sep, 24
May
Jan. 13
Mar. 19
July 2
Oct. 2
Feb.
1267
1268
1269
Junes
Autumn
May 18
Nov.
Nov.
Jan.
May
Alexander IV. condemns ' De Periculis
Novissimis ' and ' Evangelium ^Eternum.'
B. Albert the Great, O.P., writes ' De Uni-
tate Intellectus contra Avensen ' at
request of Alexander IV.
Palm. St. Thomas preaching in Paris is in-
terrupted.
St. Thomas at General Chapter at Valen-
cienne. St. Thomas, B. Albert, Peter of
Tarentarsi, Bonhomme, and Florent, draw
up rules for study. St. Thomas leaves
Paris for Anagni. St. Thomas teaches at
Anagni, where Papal Court resides
William of St. Amour condemned
Alexander IV. dies
Urbain IV.
{Patriarch of Jerusalem.)
Urbain IV. sends for St. Thomas to write for
Reunion with Greeks. St. Thomas
preaches in St. Peter's. Attached to
Papal Court. St. Thomas teaches at
Anagni
Writes Epitaph of St. Peter, Martyr, O.P., at
Milan
Urbain IV. renews decree of Gregory IX.
forbidding Aristotle. General Chapter at
London. B. Humbert, O.P., resigns
Cardinal Hugh of St. Cher, O.P., dies with
Pope at Orvieto
Urbain IV. gives privileges to Arino,
brother of St. Thomas
Urbain IV. dies at Perugia
Viterbo
Clement IV.
{Legate in England.)
Clement IV. gives Naples to Charles of
Anjou, brother of St. Louis
Bologna (Whit Sunday). St. Thomas
present at Translation of St. Dominic at
Bologna. Seger of Brabant appears
Clement IV. calls St. Thomas to Viterbo
Moerbeke, O.P., publishes translation of
' Elementatis Theologica ' of Produ
Clement IV. dies. Buried in Dominican
Church, Viterbo
St. Thomas sent to teach at Paris
St. Thomas arrives in Paris.
General Chapter at Paris. With Kilwardy
as judge of ' Cases of Conscience.' St.
Louis asks St. Thomas to teach Theology
at St- Tacques
7)
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CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE
xli
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
July 20
Aug. 10
Dec. 28
1271 April
Sep. I
After
Easter
Aug. 2
Oct. 15
Dec. 6
Jan.
Mar. 7
Third Sunday after SS. Peter and Paul. St."
Thomas preaches before University against
Avenvists
St. Louis dies
Stephen Tempier, Bishop of Paris, condemns
thirteen propositions
Bishop of Paris forbids Masters and Bache-
lors of Arts to discuss theology
^1
Gregory X.
St. Thomas leaves Paris. Octave of Pente-^
cost. St. Thomas at General Chapter of
Florence
St. Thomas at death of brother-in-law,
Roger dell Aquila, Count of Traetto
St. Thomas at Naples begins to teach.
Charles V. pays pension for St. Thomas
Vision
Leaves Naples for General Council of Lyons
St. Thomas dies in the Cistercian Abbey of
Fossanova
(N.B. — We have to offer our thanks to Pere Mandonnet, O.P.,
who has kindly placed at our disposal an original article on the life
and works of St. Thomas. Almost all the material of both chrono-
logies has been taken from the results of his research.)
CONTENTS
QUESTION
I. THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF SACRED DOCTRINE
II. THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
III. THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD
IV. THE PERFECTION OF GOD -
V. OF GOODNESS IN GENERAL -
VI. THE GOODNESS OF GOD
VII. THE INFINITY OF GOD
VIII. THE EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS
IX. THE IMMUTABILITY OF GOD -
X. THE ETERNITY OF GOD
XI. THE UNITY OF GOD -
XII. HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US •
XIII. THE NAMES OF GOD -
XIV. OF GOD'S KNOWLEDGE
XV. OF IDEAS - - - .
XVI. OF TRUTH - - . •
XVII. CONCERNING FALSITY
XVIII. THE LIFE OF GOD - - .
XIX. THE WILL OF GOD -
XX. god's LOVE - - - .
XXI. THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD -
XXII. THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD -
//XXIII. OF PREDESTINATION - • -
XXIV. THE BOOK OF LIFE - - -
XXV. THE POWER OF GOD -
XXVI. OF THE DIVINE BEATITUDE- •
PACK
I
19
28
45
52
65
72
81
91
97
III
I2o
180
217
224
240
249
259
286
297
306
318
339
345
361
xliii
PROLOGUE
Because the doctor of catholic truth ought not only to
teach the proficient, but also to instruct beginners (according
to the Apostle: As unto little ones in Christ, I gave you milk
to drink, not meat — i Cor. iii. i, 2), we purpose in this book
to treat of whatever belongs to the Christian religion, in
such a way as may tend to the instruction of beginners.
We have considered that students in this doctrine have not
seldom been hampered by what they have found written
by other authors, partly on account of the multiplication
of useless questions, articles, and arguments, partly also
because those things that are needful for them to know
are not taught according to the order of the subject-matter,
but according as the plan of the book might require, or
the occasion of the argument offer, partly, too, because
frequent repetition brought weariness and confusion to the
minds of the readers.
Endeavouring to avoid these and other Hke faults, we
shall try, by God's help, to set forth whatever is included
in this sacred doctrine as briefly and clearly as the matter
itself may allow.
xlv
THE "SUMMA THEOLOGIGA "
FIRST PART.
QUESTION I.
THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF SACRED DOCTRINE.
{In Ten Articles.)
To place our purpose within proper limits, we first endeavour
to investigate the nature and extent of this sacred doctrine.
Concerning this there are ten points of inquiry : —
(i) Whether it is necessary ? (2) Whether it is a
science ? (3) Whether it is one or many ? (4) Whether
it is speculative or practical ? (5) How it is compared with
other sciences ? (6) Whether it is the same as wisdom ?
(7) Whether God is its subj ect-matter ? (8) Whether it
is a matter of argument ? (9) Whether it rightly employs
metaphors and similes ? (10) Whether the Sacred Scripture
of this doctrine may be expounded in, different senses ?j
First Article.
whether, besides philosophy, any further doctrine is
required ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : — ■
Objection i. It seems that, besides philosophical science,
we have no need of any further knowledge. For man should
not seek to know what is above reason: Seek not the things
that are too high for thee (Ecclus. iii. 22). But whatever is
not above reason is fully treated ofjin philosophical science*
I. t
Q. I. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 2
Therefore any other knowledge besides philosophical science
is superfluous.
Obj. 2. Further, knowledge can be concerned only with
being, for nothing can be known, save what is true; and all
that is, is true. But everything that is, is treated of in
philosophical science — even God Himself; so that there is
a part of philosophy called theology, or the divine science,
as Aristotle has proved (Metaph. vi.). Therefore, besides
philosophical science, there is no need of any further know-
ledge. ^^,
On the contrary, It is written (2 Tim. iii. 16) : All Scripture
inspired oj God, is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct, to
instruct injustice. Now Scripture, inspired of God, is no part
of philosophical science, which has been built up by human
reason. Therefore it is useful that besides philosophical
science there should be other knowledge — i.e., inspired of
God.
/ answer that. It was necessary for man's salvation that
there should be a knowledge revealed by God, besides
philosophical science built up by human reason. Firstly,
indeed, 'because man is directed to God, as to an end that
surpasses the grasp of his reason; The eye hath not seen,
0 God, besides Thee, whfit things Thou hast prepared for them
that wait for Thee (Isa.'lxiv. 4). But the end must first be
known by men who are to direct their thoughts and actions
to the end. Hence it was necessary for the salvation of
man that certain truths which exceed human reason should
be made known to him by divine revelation. Even as
regards those truths about God which human reason could
have discovered, it was necessary that man should be taught
by a divine revelation; because the truth about God such as
reason could discover, would only be known by a few, and
that after a long time, and with the admixture of many errors.
Whereas man's whole salvation, which is in God, depends
upon the knowledge of this truth. Therefore, in order that
the salvation of men might be brought about more fitly
and more surely, it was necessary that they should be taught
divine truths by divine revelation. It was therefore neces-
3 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q. i. Art. 2
sary that, Ibesides philosophical science built up by reason,
there shouH be a sacred science learnt through revelation.(
Reply Obj. i. Although those things which are beyond
man's knowledge may not be sought for by man through
his reason, nevertheless, once they are revealed by God,
they must be accepted by faith. Hence the sacred text ^
continues. For many things are shown to thee above the under-
standing of man (Ecclus. iii. 25). And in this the sacred"
science consists. ^^^^
Reply Obj. 2. Sciences are differentiated according to the
rarious means through which knowledge is obtained. For
the astronomer and the physicist both may prove the same
conclusion — that the earth, for instance, is round: the
astronomer by means of mathematics {i.e., abstracting
from matter), but the physicist by means of matter itself.
Hence there is no reason why those things which may be
learnt from philosophical science, so far as they can be
known by natural reason, may not also be taught us by
another science so far as they fall within revelation. Hence
theology included in sacred doctrine differs in kind from
that theology which is part of philosophy.
Second Article,
whether sacred doctrine is a science ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that sacred doctrine is not a science
For every science proceeds from self-evident principles.
But sacred doctrine proceeds from articles of faith which
are not self-evident, since their truth is not admitted by
all: For all men have not faith (2 Thess. iii. 2). Therefore
sacred doctrine is not a science.
Obj. 2. Further, no science deals with individual facts.
But this sacred science treats of individual facts, such as
the deeds of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and such like.
Therefore sacred doctrine is not a science.
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. xiv. i), ^ this
science alone belongs that whereby saving faith is begotten,
Q. I. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 4
nourished, protected, and strengthened. But this can be said
of no science except sacred doctrine. Therefore sacred
doctrine is a science.
/ answer that, Sacred doctrine is a science. We must
bear in mind that there are two kinds of sciences. There are
some which proceed from a principle known by the natural
light of the intelligence, such as arithmetic and geometry and
the like. There are some which proceed from principles known
by the light of a higher science : thus the science of perspec-
tive proceeds from principles established by geometry, and
^usic from principles established by arithmetic. So it is
that sacred doctrine is a science, because it proceeds from
I principles established by the light of a higher science,
|namely, the science of God and the blessed. Hence, just
as the musician accepts on authority the principles taught
him by the mathematician, so sacred science is established
on principles revealed by God.
Reply Obj. i. The principles of any science are either in
themselves self-evident, or reducible to the conclusions of a
higher science; and such, as we have said, are the principles
of sacred doctrine.
Reply Obj. 2. Individual facts are treated of in sacred
doctrine, not because it is concerned with them principally :
but they are introduced rather both as examples to be
followed in our lives (as in moral sciences), and in order to
establish the authority of those men through whom the
divine revelation, on which this sacred scripture or doctrine
is based, has come down to us.
Third Article,
whether sacred doctrine is one science ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that sacred doctrine is not one
science; for according to the Philosopher (Poster, i.) that
science is one which treats only of one class of subjects. But the
creator and the creature, both of whom arfe tredtfed of in
sacred doctrine, cannot be grouped together under one
5 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q. i. Art. 3
class of subjects. Therefore sacred doctrine is not one
science.
Ohj. 2. Further, in sacred doctrine we treat of angels,
corporeal creatures, and human morality. But these belong
to separate philosophical sciences. Therefore sacred doc-
trine cannot be one science.
On the contrary, Holy Scripture speaks of it as one science :
Wisdom gave him the knowledge [scientiam] of holy things
(Wisd. X. 10).
I answer that, sacred doctrine is one science. The unity of
a faculty or habit is to be gauged by its object, not indeed,
in its material aspect, but as regards the precise formality
under which it is an object. For example, man, ass, stone,
agree in the one precise formality of being coloured; and
colour is the formal object of sight. Therefore, because
Sacred Scripture considers things precisely under the
formality of being divinely revealed, whatever has been
divinely revealed possesses the one precise formality of the
object of this science; and therefore is included under sacred
doctrine as under one science. -==="
Reply Ohj. i. Sacred doctrine does not treat of God and
creatures equally, but of God primarily; and of creatures
only so far as they are referable to God as their beginning or
end. Hence the unity of this science is not impaired.
Reply Ohj. 2. Nothing prevents inferior faculties or habits
from being differentiated by something which falls under a
higher faculty or habit as well; because the higher faculty
or habit regards the object in its more universal formality,
as the object of the common sense is whatever affects the
senses, including, therefore, whatever is visible or audible.
Hence the common sense, although one faculty, extends
to all the objects of the five senses. Similarly, objects
which are the subject-matter of different philosophical
sciences can yet be treated of by this one single sacred
science under one aspect precisely so far as they can be
included in revelation. So that in this way sacred doctrine
bears, as it were, the stamp of the divine science, which
is one and simple, yet extends to everything.
Q. I. Art. 4 THE '* SUMMA THEOLOGlCA ** 6
Fourth Article,
whether sacred doctrine is a practical science ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that sacred doctrine is a practical
science; for a practical science is that which ends in action
according to the Philosopher (Metaph. ii.). But sacred
doctrine is ordained to action; \Be ye doers of the word, and
not hearers only (Jas. i. 22). Therefore sacred doctrine is a
practical science.- - ^
Obj. 2. Further, sacred doctrine is divided into the Old
and the New Law. But law implies a moral science, which
is a practical science. Therefore sacred doctrine is a prac-
tical science.
On the contrary, Every practical science is concerned with
human operations; as moral science is concerned with
human acts, and architecture with buildings. But sacred
doctrine is chiefly concerned with God, whose handiwork
is especially man. Therefore it is not a practical but a
speculative science.
/ answer that, Sacred doctrine, being one, extends to
things which belong to different philosophical sciences,
because it 'considers in each the same formal aspect, namely
so far as they can be known through divine revelation.
Hence, although among the philosophical sciences one is
speculative and another practical, nevertheless sacred
doctrine includes both; as God, by one and the same
science, knows both Himself and His works. Still, it is
speculative rather than practical, because it is more con-
cerned with divine things than with human acts; though it
does treat even of these latter, inasmuch as man is ordained
by them to the perfect knowledge of God, in which consists
eternal bliss. This is a sufficient answer to the Objections.
7 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q. i. Art. 5
Fifth Article.
whether sacred doctrine is nobler than other
sciences ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that sacred doctrine is not nobler
than other sciences; for the nobility of a science depends
on the certitude it establishes. But other sciences, the
principles of which cannot be doubted, seem to be more
certain than sacred doctrine; for its principles — namely,
articles of faith — can be doubted. Therefore other sciences
seem to be nobler.
Ohj. 2. Further, it is the sign of a lower science to depend
upon a higher; as music depends upon arithmetic. But
sacred doctrine does in a sense depend upon the philo-
sophical sciences; for Jerome observes, in his Epistle to
Magnus, that the ancient doctors so enriched their books with
the ideas and phrases of the philosophers, that thou knowest
not what more to admire in them, their profane erudition or
their scriptural learning. Therefore sacred doctrine is
inferior to other sciences.
On the contrary. Other sciences are called the handmaidens of
this one : Wisdom sent her maids to invite to the tower (Prov. ix.3).
I answer that, Since this science is partly speculative and
partly practical, it transcends all others speculative and_J
practical. Now one speculative science is said to be nobler
than another, either by reason of its greater certitude, or
by reason of the higher worth of its subject-matter. In
both these respects this science surpasses other speculative
sciences; in point of greater certitude, because other sciences
derive their certitude from the natural light of human
reason, which can err; whereas this derives its certitude
from the light of the divine knowledge, which cannot be
misled: in point of the higher worth of its subject-matter,
because this science treats chiefly of those things which by
their sublimity transcend human reason; while other sciences
consider only those things which are within reason's grasp.
Of the practical sciences, that one is nobler which is ordained
Q. I. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " S
to a further purpose, as political science is nobler than mili-
tary science; for the good of the army is directed to the good
of the State. But the purpose of this science, in so far as it is
practical, is eternal bliss ; to which as to an ultimate end the
purposes of every practical science are directed. Hence it is
clear that from every standpoint it is nobler than other sciences.
Reply Ohj. i. It may well happen that what is in itself
the more certain may seem to us the less certain on account
of the weakness of our intelligence, "which is dazzled by the
clearest objects of nature; as the owl is dazzled by the light
of the sun " (Metaph. ii., led. i.). Hence the fact that some
happen to doubt about articles of faith is not due to the
uncertain nature of the truths, but to the weakness of human
intelligence; yet the slenderest knowledge that may be
obtained of the highest things is more desirable than the
most certain knowledge obtained of lesser things, as is said
in de Animalibus xi.
Reply Ohj. 2. This science can in a sense depend upon the
philosophical sciences, not as though it stood in need of them,
but only in order to make its teaching clearer. For it accepts
its principles not from other sciences; but immediately
from God, by revelation. Therefore it does not depend
upon other sciences as upon the higher, but makes use of
them as of the lesser, and as handmaidens: even so the
master sciences make use of the sciences that supply their
materials, as political of military science. That it thus uses
them is not due to its own defect or insufficiency, but to the
defect of our intelligence, which is more easily led by what
is known through natural reason (from which proceed the
other sciences), to that which is above reason, such as aire
the teachings of this science.
Sixth Article,
whether this doctrine is the same as wisdom ?
}Ve proceed thus to the Sixth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that this doctrine is not the same
as wisdom. For no doctrine which borrows its principles
9 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q. i.Art.6
is worthy of the name of wisdom; seeing that the wise man
directs, and is not directed [Metaph. i.). But this doctrine,
borrows its principles. Therefore this science is not wisdom.
Ohj. 2. Further, it is a part of wisdom to prove the principles
of other sciences. Hence it is called the chief of sciences, as is
clear in Ethic vi. But this doctrine does not prove the princi-
ples of other sciences. Therefore it is not the same as wisdom.
Ohj. 3. Further, this doctrine is acquired by study,
whereas wisdom is acquired by God's inspiration; so that
it is numbered among the gifts of the Holy Spirit (Isa. xi. 2).
Therefore this doctrine is not the same as wisdom.
On the contrary, It is written (Deut. iv. 6) : This is your
wisdom and understanding in the sight of nations. .— ^
/ answer that, This doctrine is wisdom above all human
wisdom; not merely in any one order, but absolutely. For
since it is the part of a wise man to arrange and to judge,
and since lesser matters should be judged in the light of
some higher principle, he is said to be wise in any one order ,
who considers the highest principle in that order: thus
in the order of building he who plans the form of the house
is called wise and architect, in opposition to the inferior
labourers who trim the wood and make ready the stones:
As a wise architect I have laid the foundation (i Cor. iii. 10).
Again, in the order of all human Hfe, the prudent man is
called wise, inasmuch as he directs his acts to a fitting
end: Wisdom is prudence to a man (Pro v. x. 23). There-
fore he who considers absolutely the highest cause of the
whole universe, namely God, is most of all called wise.
Hence wisdom is said to be the knowledge of divine things,
as Augustine says [De Trin. xii. 14). But sacred doctrine
essentially treats of God viewed as the highest cause — ■
not only so far as He can be known through creatures just
as philosophers knew Him — That which is known of God is
manifest in them (Rom. i. 19) — but also so far as He is known
to Himself alone and revealed to others. Hence sacred
doctrine is especially called wisdom.
Reply Ohj, i. Sacred doctrine derives its principles
not from any human knowledge, but from the divine
Q. I. Art 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 10
knowledge, through which, as through the highest wisdom,
all our knowledge is set in order.
Reply Ohj. 2. The principles of other sciences either are
evident and cannot be proved, or are proved by natural
reason through some other science. But the knowledge
proper to this science comes through revelation, and not
through natural reason. Therefore it has no concern to
prove the principles of other sciences, but only to judge of
them. Whatsoever is found in other sciences contrary to
any truth of this science, must be condemned as false:
Destroying counsels and every height that exalteth itself against
the knowledge of God (2 Cor. x. 4, 5).
Reply Ohj. 3. Since judgment appertains to wisdom, the
twofold manner of judging produces a twofold wisdom. A
man may judge in one way by inclination, as whoever has
the habit of a virtue judges rightly of what concerns that
virtue by his very inclination towards it. Hence it is the
virtuous man, as we read, who is the measure and rule
of human acts. In another way, by knowledge, just as
a man learned in moral science might be able to judge
rightly about virtuous acts, though he had not the virtue.
The first manner of judging divine things belongs to that
wisdom which is set down among the gifts of the Holy
Ghost: The spiritual man judgeth all things (i Cor. ii. 15).
And Dionysius says (Div. Norn, ii.): Hierotheus is taught
not by mere learning, hut hy experience of divine things. The
second manner of judging belongs to this doctrine, which is
acquired by study, though its principles are obtained by
revelation.
Seventh Article,
whether god is the object of this science ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Ohjection i. It seems that God is not the object of this
science. For in every science the nature of its object is
presupposed. But this science cannot presuppose the
essence of God, for Damascene says [De Fid. Orth. I iv.):
11 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q.i.Art.7
It is impossible to define the essence of God. Therefore God
is not the object of this science.
Ohj. 2. Further, whatever conclusions are reached in any
science must be comprehended under the object of the
science. But in Holy Writ we reach conclusions not only
concerning God, but concerning many other things, such as
creatures and human morality. Therefore God is not the
object of this science.
On the contrary. The object of the science is that of which
it principally treats. But in this science the treatment is
mainly about God; for it is called theology, as treating of
God. Therefore God is the object of this science.
/ answer that, God is the object of this science. The
relation between a science and its object is the same as that
between a habit or faculty and its object. Now properly
speaking the object of a faculty or habit is the thing under
the aspect of which all things are referred to that faculty or
habit, as man and stone are referred to the faculty of sight
in that they are coloured. Hence coloured things are the
proper objects of sight. But in sacred science all things are
treated of under the aspect of God; either because they
are God Himself; or because they refer to God as their begin-
ning and end. Hence it follows that God is in very truth
the object of this science. This is clear also from the
principles of this science, namely, the articles of faith, for
faith is about God. The object of the principles and of
the whole science must be the same, since the whole science
is contained virtually in its principles. Some, however,
looking to what is treated of in this science, and not to the
aspect under which it is treated, have asserted the object
of this science to be something other than God — that is,
either things and signs; or the works of salvation; or the
whole Christ, as the head and members. Of all these things,
in truth, we treat in this science, but so far as they have
reference to God.
Reply Ohj. i. Although we cannot know in what consists
the essence of God, nevertheless in this science we make
use of His effects, either of nature or of grace, in place of a
Q. I. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 12
definition, in regard to whatever is treated of in this science
concerning God; even as in some philosophical sciences we
demonstrate something about a cause from its effect, by
taking the effect in place of a definition of the cause.
Reply Ohj. 2. Whatever other conclusions are reached in
this sacred science are comprehended under God, not as
parts or species or accidents, but as in some way related
to Him.
Eighth Article,
whether sacred doctrine is a matter of argument ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article : —
Objection i. It seems this doctrine is not a matter of
argument. For Ambrose says [De Fide, i) : Put arguments
aside where faith is sought. But in this doctrine faith espe-
cially is sought: But these things are written that you may
believe (John xx. 31). Therefore sacred doctrine is not a
matter of argument.
Obj. 2. Further, if it is a matter of argument, the argu-
ment is either from authority or from reason. If it is from
authority, it seems unbefitting its dignity, for the proof
from authority is the weakest form of proof. But if from
reason, this is unbefitting its end, because, according to
Gregory (Homil. 26), faith has no merit in those things of
which human reason brings its own experience. Therefore
sacred doctrine is not a matter of argument.
On the contrary, The Scripture says that a bishop should
embrace that faithful word which is according to doctrine,
that he may be able to exhort in sound doctrine and to convince
the gainsay ers (Tit. i. 9).
/ answer that. As other sciences do not argue in proof
of their principles, but argue from their principles to demon-
strate other truths in these sciences: so this doctrine does
not argue in proof of its principles, which are the articles of
faith, but from them it goes on to prove something else;
as the Apostle from the resurrection of Christ argues in
proof of the general resurrection (i Cor. xv.). However, it
13 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q. i. Art. 8
is to be borne in mind, in regard to the philosophical sciences,
that the inferior sciences neither prove their principles nor
dispute with those who deny them, but leave this to a higher
science; whereas the highest of them, viz., metaphysics, can
dispute with one who denies its principles, if only the oppo-
nent will make some concession; but if he concede nothing,
it can have no dispute with him, though it can answer his
objections. Hence Sacred Scripture, since it has no science
above itself, can dispute with one who denies its principles
only if the opponent admits some at least of the truths
obtained through divine revelation; thus we can argue with
heretics from texts in Holy Writ, and against those who
deny one article of faith we can argue from another. If
our opponent believes nothing of divine revelation, there
is no longer any means of proving the articles of faith by
reasoning, but only of answering his objections — if he has
any — against faith. Since faith rests upon infallible truth,,
and since the contrary of a truth can never be demonstrated,]
it is clear that the arguments brought against faith cannotfp
be demonstrations, but are difficulties that can be answered/
Reply Ohj. i. Although arguments from human reason
cannot avail to prove what must be received on faith,
nevertheless this doctrine argues from articles of faith to
other truths.
Reply Ohj. 2. This doctrine is especially based upon
arguments from authority, inasmuch as its principles are
obtained by revelation: thus we ought to believe on the
authority of those to whom the revelation has been made.
Nor does this take away from the dignity of this doctrine,
for although the argument from authority based on human
reason is the weakest, yet the argument from authority
based on divine revelation is the strongest. But sacred
doctrine makes use even of human reason, not, indeed,
to prove faith (for thereby the merit of faith would come
to an end), but to make clear other things that are put
forward in this doctrine. Since therefore grace does not
destroy nature, but perfects it, natural reason should minister
to faith as the natural bent of the will ministers to charity;
g. I. Art. 9 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 14
Hence the Apostle says: Bringing into captivity every under-
standing unto the obedience of Christ (2 Cor. x. 5). Hence
sacred doctrine makes use also of the authority of philoso-
phers in those questions in which they were able to know the
truth by natural reason, as Paul quotes a saying of Aratus :
As some also of your own poets said; For we are also His
offspring (Acts xvii. 28). Nevertheless, sacred doctrine
makes use of these authorities as extrinsic and probable
arguments ; but properly uses the authority of the canonical
Scriptures as an incontrovertible proof, and the authority
of the doctors of the Church as one that may properly be
used, yet merely as probable. For our faith rests upon the
revelation made to the apostles and prophets, who wrote
the canonical books, and not on the revelations (if any such
there are) made to other doctors. Hence Augustine says
(Epist. ad Hieron. xix. i.) : Only those books of Scripture
which are called canonical have I learnt to hold in such honour
as to believe their authors have not erred in any way in writing
them. But other authors I so read as not to deem anything
in their works to be true, merely on account of their having so
thought and written, whatever may have been their holiness
and learning.
Ninth Article,
whether holy scripture should use metaphors ?
We proceed thus to the Ninth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that Holy Scripture should not use
metaphors. For that which is proper to the lowest science
seems not to befit this science, which holds the highest place
of all. But to proceed by the aid of various similitudes and
figures is proper to poetry, the least of all the sciences.
Therefore it is not fitting that this science should make use
of such similitudes.
Obj. 2. Further, this doctrine seems to be intended to
make truth clear. Hence a reward is held out to those who
manifest it: They that explain me shall have life everlasting
(Ecclus. xxiv. 31). But by such similitudes truth is ob-
15 NATURE OF SACRED DOCTRINE Q. i. Art. o
scured. Therefore to put forward divine truths by liken-
ing them to corporeal things does not befit this science.
Obj. 3. Further, the higher creatures are, the nearer they
approach to the divine likeness. If therefore any creature
be taken to represent God, this representation ought chiefly
to be taken from the higher creatures, and not from the
lower; yet this is often found in the Scriptures.
On the contrary, It is written (Osee xii. 10) : / have ^nuUiplied
visions, and I have used similitudes by the ministry of the
prophets. But to put forward anything by means of simili-
tudes is to use metaphors. Therefore this sacred science
may use metaphors.
/ answer that. It is befitting Holy Writ to put forward
divine and spiritual truths by means of comparisons with
material things. For God provides for everything accord-
ing to the capacity of its nature. Now it is natural to man
to attain to intellectual truths through sensible objects,
because all our knowledge originates from sense. Hence in
Holy Writ spiritual truths are fittingly taught under the
likeness of material things. This is what Dionysius says
(CcBlest. Hierarch. i.): We cannot be enlightened by the divine
rays except they be hidden within the covering of many sacred
veils. It is also befitting Holy Writ, which is proposed to
all without distinction of persons — To the wise and to the
unwise I am a debtor (Rom. i. I4)~that spiritual truths
be expounded by means of figures taken from corporeal
things, in order that thereby even the simple who are unable
by themselves to grasp intellectual things may be able to
understand it.
Reply Obj. i. Poetry makes use of metaphors to produce
a representation, for it is natural to man to be pleased with
representations. But sacred doctrine makes use of metaphors
as both necessary and useful.
Reply Obj. 2. The ray of divine revelation is not ex-
tinguished by the sensible imagery wherewith it is veiled, as
Dionysius says (Ccelest. Hierarch. i.) ; and its truth so far
remains that it does not allow the minds of those to whom
the revelation has been made, to rest in the metaphors.
IX
Q. I Art. io THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " i6
but raises them to the knowledge of truths; and through
those to whom the revelation has been made others also
may receive instruction in these matters. Hence those
things that are taught metaphorically in one part of Scrip-
ture, in other parts are taught more openly. The very
hiding of truth in figures is useful for the exercise of thought-
ful minds, and as a defence against the ridicule of the
impious, according to the words Give not that which is holy to
dogs (Matth. vii. 6).
Reply Obj. 3. As Dionysius says, (loc. cit.) it is more
fitting that divine truths should be expounded under the
figure of less noble than of nobler bodies, and this for three
reasons. Firstly, because thereby men's minds are the better
preserved from error. For then it is clear that these things
are not literal descriptions of divine truths, which might
have been open to doubt had they been expressed under the
figure of nobler bodies, especially for those who could
think of nothing nobler than bodies. Secondly, because
this is more befitting the knowledge of God that we
have in this life. For what He is not is clearer to us
than what He is. Therefore similitudes drawn from things
farthest away from God form within us a truer estimate
that God is above whatsoever we may say or think of Him.
Thirdly, because thereby divine truths are the better
hidden from the unworthy.
Tenth Article,
whether in holy scripture a word may have several
SENSES ?
We proceed thus to the Tenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that in Holy Writ a word cannot
have several senses, historical or literal, allegorical, tropo-
logical or moral, and anagogical. For many different
senses in one text produce confusion and deception and
destroy all force of argument. Hence no argument, but
only fallacies, can be deduced from a multipUcity of pro-
positions. But Holy Writ ought to be able to state the
17 ^rATURE OF SACREf) DOCTRINE Q. i. Art. id-
truth without any fallacy. Therefore in it there cannot
be several senses to a word.
Obj. 2. Further, Augustine says (De util. cred. iii.) that the
Old Testament has a fourfold division as to history, etiology,
analogy, and allegory. Now these four seem altogether
different from the four divisions mentioned in the first
objection. Therefore it does not seem fitting to explain the
same word of Holy Writ according to the four different
senses mentioned above.
Obj. 3. Further, besides these senses, there is the para-
bolical, which is not one of these four.
On the contrary, Gregory says {Moral, xx., i) : Holy Writ
by the manner of its speech transcends every science, because
in one and the same sentence, while it describes a fact, it reveals
a fnystery.
I answer that, The author of Holy Writ is God, in whose
power it is to signify His meaning, not by words only (as
man also can do), but also by things themselves. So,
whereas in every other science things are signified by words,
this science has the property, that the things signified by
the words have themselves also a signification. Therefore
that first signification whereby words signify things belongs
to the first sense, the historical or literal. That significa-
tion whereby things signified by words have themselves
also a signification is called the spiritual sense, which is
based on the literal, and presupposes it. Now this
spiritual sense has a threefold division. For as the Apostle
says (Heb. x. i) the Old Law is a figure of the New Law,
and Dionysius says {Ccel. Hier i.) the New Law itself is a
figure of future glory. Again, in the New Law, whatever
our Head has done is a type of what we ought to do. There-
fore, so far as the things of the Old Law signify the things
of the New Law, there is the allegorical sense ; so far as the
things done in Christ, or so far as the things which signify
Christ, are types of what we ought to do, there is the moral
sense. But so far as they signify what relates to eternal glory,
there is the analogical sense. Since the literal sense is that
which the author intends, and since the author of Holy
I. 2
Q. I. AtiT. ID THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " i8
Writ is God, Who by one act comprehends all things by
His intellect, it is not unfitting, as Augustine says (Confess.
xii.), if, even according to the literal sense, one word in
Holy Writ should have several senses.
Reply Obj. i. The multiplicity of these senses does not
produce equivocation or any other kind of multiplicity,
seeing that these senses are not multiplied because one word
signifies several things; but because the things signified
by the words can be themselves types of other things.
Thus in Holy Writ no confusion results, for all the senses
are founded on one— the literal — from which alone can
any argument be drawn, and not from those intended in
allegory, as Augustine says (Epist. xlviii.) Nevertheless,
nothing of Holy Scripture perishes on account of this, since
nothing necessary to faith is contained under the spiritual
sense which is not elsewhere put forward by the Scripture
in its literal sense.
Reply Ohj. 2. These three — history, etiology, analogy — ■
are grouped under the literal sense. For it is called history,
as Augustine expounds (loc. cit.), whenever anything is
simply related ; it is called etiology when its cause is assigned,
as when Our Lord gave the reason why Moses allowed the
putting away of wives — namely, on account of the hard-
ness of men's hearts; it is called analogy whenever the
truth of one text of Scripture is shown not to contradict
the truth of another. Of these four, allegory alone stands
for the three spiritual senses. Thus Hugh of S. Victor
(Sacram. iv. 4 Prolog.) includes the anagogical under the
allegorical sense, laying down three senses only — the his-
torical, the allegorical, and the tropological.
Reply Ohj. 3. The parabolical sense is contained in the
literal, for by words things are signified properly and figura-
tively. Nor is the figure itself, but that which is figured,
the literal sense. When Scripture speaks of God's arm,
the literal sense is not that God has such a member, but
only what is signified by this member, namely, operative
power. Hence it is plain that nothing false can ever under-
lie the literal sense of Holy Writ.
QUESTION 11.
THE EXISTENCE OF GOD.
{In Three Articles.)
Because the chief aim of sacred doctrine is to teach the
knowledge of God, not only as He is in Himself, but also
as He is the beginning of things and their last end, and
especially of rational creatures, as is clear from what has
been already said, therefore, in our endeavour to expound
this science, we shall treat: (i) Of God: (2) Of the rational
creature's advance towards God: (3) Of Christ, Who as
man, is our way to God.
In treating of God there will be a threefold division:—
For we shall consider (i) whatever concerns the Divine
Essence. (2) Whatever concerns the distinctions of Persons.
(3) Whatever concerns the procession of creatures from Him.
Concerning the Divine Essence, we must consider: —
(i) Whether God exists ? (2) The manner of His exist-
ence, or, rather, what is not the manner of His existence.
(3) Whatever concerns His operations — namely, His know-
ledge, will, power.
Concerning the first, there are three points of inquiry: —
(i) Whether the proposition ' God exists ' is self-evident ?
(2) Whether it is demonstrable ? (3) Whether God exists ?
First Article,
whether the existence of god is self-evident ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the existence of God is sell- \
evident. Now those things are said to be self-evident to us-
the knowledge of which is naturally implanted in us, as-
19
Q. 2. Art. i THE " SUMMA 'i HEOLOGICA " 20
we can see in regard to first principles. But as Damascene
says (De Fid. Orth. i. i, 3), the knowledge of God is naturally
implanted in all. Therefore the existence of God is self-
evident.
Ohj. 2. Further, those things are said to be self-evident
which are known as soon as the terms are known, which the
Philosopher (i Poster, iii.) says is true of the first principles
of demonstration. Thus, when the nature of a whole and
of a part is known, it is at once recognized that every whole
(is greater than its part. But as soon as the signification of
the word * God ' is understood, it is at once seen that God
exists. For by this word is signified that thing than wiiich
nothing greater can be conceived. But that which exists
actually and mentally is greater than that which exists
nly mentally. Therefore, since as soon as the word
* God * is understood it exists mentally, it also follows
t^d.t it exists actually. Therefore the proposition ' God
exists ' is self-evident.
Ohj. 3. Further, the existence of truth is self-evident.
For whoever denies the existence of truth grants that
truth does not exist : and, if truth does not exist, then the
proposition ' Truth does not exist ' is true : and if there is
anything true, there must be truth. But God is truth
itself: / am the way, the truth, and the life (John xiv. 6).
Therefore ' God exists' is self-evident.
On the contrary, No one can mentally admit the opposite
of what is self-evident; as the Philosopher (Metaph. iv.,
lect. vi.) states concerning the first principles of demon-
stration. But the opposite of the proposition ' God is'
can be mentally admitted: The fool said in his heart,
There is no God (Ps. Iii. i). Therefore, that God exists is
not self-evident.
/ answer that, A thing can be self-evident in either of
two ways; on the one hand, self-evident in itself, though
not to us; on the other, self-evident in itself, and to us.
A proposition is self-evident because the predicate is in-
cluded in the essence of the subject, as ' Man is an animal,'
for animal is contained in the essence of man. If, therefore.
21 THE EXISTENCE OF GOD Q. 2. Art. i
the essence of the predicate and subject be known to all,
the proposition will be self-evident to all; as is clear with
regard to the first principles of demonstration, the terms of
which are common things that no one is ignorant of, such
as being and non-being, whole and part, and suchlike.
^ If, however, there are some to whom the essence of the
predicate and subject is unknown, the proposition will be
self-evident in itself, but not to those who do not know the
meaning of the predicate and subject of the proposition.
Therefore, it happens, as Boethins says (Hebdom., the title of
which is : ' Whether all that is, is good '), * that there are some
mental concepts self-evident only to the learned, as that
incorporeal substances are not in space.' Therefore I say ;
that this proposition, ' God exists,' of itself is self-evident;^ I
for the predicate is the same as the subject; because God-i^ V
is His own existence as will be hereafter shown (Q. III., A. 4). ] /\
Now because we do hot know the essence of God, the pro-
position is not self-evident to us; but needs to be demon-
strated by things that are more known to us, though less
known in their nature — namely, by effects.
Reply Ob], i. To know that God exists in a general
and confused way is implanted in us bj' nature, inasmuch
as God is man's beatitude. For man naturally desires
happiness, and what is naturally desired by man must
be naturally known to him. This, however, is not to know
absolutely that God exists; just as to know that some-
one is approaching is not the same as to know that Peter
is approaching, even though it is Peter who is approaching ;
for many there are who imagine that man's perfect good
which is happiness, consists in riches, and others in pleasures,
and others in something else.
Reply Obj. 2. Perhaps not everyone who hears this word
* God ' understands it to signify something than which
nothing greater can be thought, seeing that some have
believed God to be a body. Yet, granted that everyone
understands that by this word ' God ' is signified something
than which nothing greater can be thought, nevertheless,
it does not therefore follow that he understands that what
Q. 2. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 22
the word signifies exists actually, but only that it exists
mentally. Nor can it be argued that it actually exists,
unless it be admitted that there actually exists something
thati which nothing greater can be thought ; and this precisely
is not admitted by those who hold that God does not exist.
Reply Ohj. 3. The existence of truth in general is self-
evident, but the existence of a Primal Truth is not self-
evident to us.
Second Article,
whether it can be demonstrated that god exists ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the existence of God cannot
be demonstrated. For it is an article of faith that God
exists. But what is of faith cannot be demonstrated,
because a demonstration produces scientific knowledge;
whereas faith is of the unseen (Heb. xi. i). Therefore it
cannot be demonstrated that God exists.
Ohj. 2. Further, the essence is the middle term of demon-
stration. But we cannot know in what God's essence
consists, but solely in what it does not consist ; as Dama-
scene says (De Fid. Orth. i. 4.). Therefore we cannot de-
monstrate that God exists.
Ohj. 3. Further, if the existence of God were demon-
strated, this could only be from His effects. But His
effects are not proportionate to Him, since He is infinite
and His effects are finite ; and between the finite and infinite
there is no proportion. Therefore, since a cause cannot be
demonstrated by an effect not proportionate to it, it seems
that the existence of God cannot be demonstrated.
On the contrary, The Apostle says: The invisible things
oj Him are clearly seen, heing understood by the things that
are made (Rom. i. 20). But this would not be unless the
existence of God could be demonstrated through the things
that are made ; for the first thing we must know of anything
is, whether it exists.
/ answer that. Demonstration can be made in two ways:
One is through the cause, and is called a priori, and this
23 THE EXISTENCE OF GOD Q. 2. Art. 2
is to argue from what is prior absolutely. The other is
through the effect, and is called a demonstration a pos-
teriori; this is to argue from what is prior relatively only
to us. When an effect is better known to us than its cause,
IfonTthe efiect we proceed to the knowledge of the cause.
And from every effect the existence of its proper cause
can be demonstrated, so long as its effects are better
known to us; because since every e^ect depends upon —
its cause, if^the effect exists, the cau§^ must pre-exist.
Hence the existence of God, in so far as it is not self-evident
to us, can be demonstrated from those of His effects which
are known to us. ""
Reply Obj. i. The existence of God and other like truths
about God, which can be known by natural reason, are
not articles of faith, but are preambles to the articles; for
f^ith presupposes natural knowledge, even as grace pre-
supposes nature, and perfection supposes something that ^^1
can be perfected. Nevertheless, there is nothing to prevent '''\'
a man, who cannot grasp a proof, accepting, as a matter
of faith, something which in itself is capable of being j-^
scientifically known and demonstrated. -^
Reply Obj. 2. When the existence of a cause is demon-
strated from an effect, this^effect jtakes„,.the place of the
definition of ,lhe- cause- in proof of the cause's existence.
This is especially the case in regard to God, because, in
order to prove the existence of anything, it is necessary
to accept as a middle term the meaning of the word, and
not its essence, for the question of its essence follows oh
the question of its exist enceTrNow the names given to God
are derived from His effects^; consequently, in demon-
strating the existence of God from His effects, we may take
for the middle term the meaning of the word * God .'
Reply Obj. 3. From effects not proportionate to the
cause jio perfect, .knowledge of that cause can be obtained.
Yet from every effect the existence of the cause can be
clearly demonstrated, and ^~we~ can demonstrate the
existence of God from His effects ; though from them we
cannot perfectly know God as He is in His essence.
Q. 2. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 24
Third Article.
'' whether god exists ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection 1. It seems that God does not exist; because
if one of two contraries be infinite, the other would ,,be
altogether destroyed. But the word ' God ' means that
He is infinite goodness. If, therefore, God existed, there
would be no evil discoverable; but there is evil in the world. ^
Therefore God does not exist.
Obj. 2. Further, it is superfluous to suppose that what
can be accounted for by a few principles has been pro-
duced by many. But it seems that everything we see
in the world can be accounted for by other principles,
supposing God did not exist. For all natural things can
be reduced to one principle, which is nature; and all
voluntary things can be reduced to one principle, which
is human reason, or will. Therefore there is no need to '|
suppose God's existence. i
On the contrary, It is said in the person of God: / am Who *
am (Exod. iii. 14).
/ answer that, The existence of God can be proved in five
ways.
•, The first and more manifest way is the argument from
motion. It is certain, and evident to our senses, that in the
world some things are in motion. Now whatever is in
motion is put in motion by another, for nothing can be in
motion except it is in potentiality to that towards which it is
in motion; whereas a thing moves inasmuch as it is in
act. For motion is nothing else than the reduction of
something from potentiality to actuality. But nothing
I; can be reduced from potentiality to actuality, except
Lby something in a state of actuality. Thus that which
is actually hot, as fire, makes wood, which is potentially
hot, to be actually hot, and thereby moves and changes
it. Now it is not possible that the same thing should
bel at once in actuality and potentiality in the same
25 THE EXISTENCE OF GOD Q. 2. Art. 3
respect, but only in different respects. For what is
actually hot cannot simultaneously be potentially hot;
but it is simultaneously potentially cold. It is therefore^
impossible that in the same respect and in the same I
way a thing should be both mover and moved, i.e., that \
it should move itself. Therefore, whatever is in motiori
must be put in motion by another. If that by which
it is put in motion be itself put in motion, then this
also must needs be put in motion by another, and that
by another again. But this cannot go on to infinity,
because then there would be no first mover, and, conse-
quently, no other mover; seeing that subsequent movers
move only inasmuch as they are put in motion by the first
•mover; as the staff moves only because it is put in motion
by the hand. Therefore it is necessary to arrive at a first
mover, put in motion by no other; and this everyone under-
b^stands to be God. ^'
^g^ Jhe second way is from the nature of the efiicient cause. (2)
he world of sense we find there is an order of efficient
causes. There is no case known (neither is it, indeed,
ipossible) in which a^thing is found to be the efficient cause
of itself; for so it would be prior to itself, which is impossible.^
Now in efficient causes it is not possible to go on to infinity,
because in all efficient causes following in order, the first is
the cause of the intermediate cause, and the intermediate
is the cause of the ultimate cause, whether the intermediate
cause be sjjj^eral, or one only. Now to take away the cause
js to^take, a^ayjhe.^£e.ct. TheFefore,Tf there be no first
cause among efficient causes, there will be no ultimate, nor
any intermediate cause. But if in efiicient causes it is
possible to go on to infinity, there will be no first efficient
cause, neither will there be an ultimate effect, nor any inter-
mediate efficient causes; all of which is plainly false. There-
fore it is necessary to admit a first efficient cause, to which
everyone gives the name of God.
The third way is taken from possibility and necessity, ^
and runs thus. We find in nature things that are possible to
be and not to be, since they are found to be generated, and
Q. 2. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 26
to corrupt, and consequently, they are possible to be and
not to be. But it is impossible for these always to exist,
for that which is possible not to be, at some time is not.
Therefore, if everything isjossible not to be, then at
one time there could have been nothing in existence.
Now if this were true, even now there would be nothing
in existence, because that which does not exist only
^begins to exist by something already existing. Therefore,
_if at one time nothing was in existence, it would have
been impossible for anything to have begun to exist; and
thus even now nothing would be in existence — which is
\ absurd. Therefore, not all beings are merely possible, but
there must exist something the existence of which is neces-
sary. But every necessary thing either has its necessity
caused by another, or not. Now it is impossible to go on
to infinity in necessary things which have their necessity
caused by another, as has been already proved in regard
±0 efficient causes. Therefore we cannot but postulate
tlie existence of some being having of itself its own neces-
sity, and not receiving it from another, but rather ^causing
in others their necessity. This all men speak of as God.
The fourth way is taken from the gradation to be found
in things. Among beings there are some more and some
less good, true, noble, and the like. But ' more ' and
' less ' are predicated of different things, according as they
resemble in their different ways something which is the
maximum, as a thing is said to be hotter according as it
more nearly resembles that which is hottest ; so that there is
something which is truest, something best, something
noblest, and, consequently, something which is uttermost
being ; for those things that are greatest in truth are great-
est in being, as it is written in Metaph. ii. Now the
j maximum in any genus is the cause of all in that genus; as
fire, which is the maximum of heat, is the cause of all hot
[] things. ^Therefore there must also be something which is
'to all beings the cause of their being, goodness, and every
lother perfection ; and this we call God.
The fifth way is taken from the governance of the world.
27 THE EXISTENCE OF GOD Q. 2. Art. 3
We see that things which lack intelligence, such as natural
bodies, act for an end, and this is evident from their acting
always, or nearly always, in the same way, so as to obtain
the best result. Hence it is plain that not fortuitously,
but designedly, do they achieve their end. Now whatever
lacks intelligence cannot move towards an end, unless it
be directed by some being endowed with knowledge and
intelligence; as the arrow is shot to its mark by the archer^
Therefore some intelligent being exists by whom all natural!
things are directed to their end ; and this being we call GodM-
Reply Ohj. i. As Augustine says [Enchir. xi.) : Since God is
the highest good. He would not allow any evil to exist in His
works, unless His omnipotence and goodness were such as to
bring good even out of evil. This is part of the infinite good-
ness of God, that He should allow evil to exist, and out of it
produce good.
Reply Ohj. 2. Since nature works for a determinate end
under the direction of a higher agent, whatever is done
by nature must needs be traced back to God, as to its first
cause. So also whatever is done voluntarily must also be
traced back to some higher cause other than human reason
or will, since these can change and fail ; for all things that are
changeable and capable of defect must be traced back to an
immovable and self-necessary first principle, as was shown
in the body of the Article.
QUESTION III.
OF THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD.
{In Eight Articles.)
When the existence of a thing has been ascertained there
remains the further question of the manner of its existence,
in order that we may know its essence. Now, because
we cannot know what God is, but rather what He is not,
we have no means for considering how God is, but rather
how He is not.
Therefore, we must consider (i) How He is not : (2) How
He is known by us : (3) How He is named.
Now it can be shown how God is not, by denying of Him
whatever is opposed to the idea of Him — viz., composition,
motion, and the like. Therefore (i) we must discuss His
simpHcity, whereby we deny composition in Him: and
because whatever is simple in material things is imperfect
and a part of something else, we shall discuss (2) His
perfection : (3) His infinity : (4) His immutability : (5) His
unit 37.
Concerning His simplicity, there are eight points of
inquiry: (i) Whether God is a body ? (2) Whether He is
composed of matter and form ? (3) Whether in Him
there is composition of quiddity, essence or nature,
and subject ? (4) Whether He is composed of essence
and existence ? (5) Whether He is composed of genus
and difference ? (6) Whether He is composed of sub-
ject and accident ? (7) Whether He is in any way
composite, or wholly simple ? (8) Whether He enters
into composition with other things ?
28
29 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3. Art. 1
First Article,
whether god is a body ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is a body. For a body
is that which has the three dimensions. But Holy Scripture
attributes the three dimensions to God, for it is written:
He is higher than Heaven, and what wilt thou do ? He
is deeper than Hell, and how wilt thou know ? The measure
of Him is longer than the earth and broader than the sea (Job
xi. 8, 9) . Therefore God is a body.
Obj. 2. Further, everything that has figure is a body,
since figure is a quahty of quantity. But God seems to
have figure, for it is written: Let us make 7nan to our
image and likeness (Gen. i. 26). Now a figure is called an
image, according to the text: Who being the brightness of
His glory and the figure i.e., the image of His substance
(Heb. i. 3). Therefore God is a body.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever has corporeal parts is a body.
Now Scripture attributes corporeal parts to God. Hast thou
an arm like God ? (Job xl. 4) ; and The eyes of the Lord are upon
the just (Ps. xxxiii. 16) ; and The right hand of the Lord hath
wrought strength (Ps. cxvii. 16). Therefore God is a body.
Obj. 4. Further, posture belongs only to bodies. But
something which supposes posture is said of God in the
Scriptures: / saw the Lord sitting (Isa. vi. i), and He standeth
up to judge (Isa. iii. 13). Therefore God is a body.
Obj. 5. Further, only bodies or things corporeal can be
a local term wherefrom or whereto. But in the Scriptures
God is spoken of as a local term whereto, according to
the words, Come ye to Him and be enlightened (Ps. xxxiii. 6),
and as a term wherefrom: All they that depart from Thee shall
be written in the earth (Jer. xvii. 13). Therefore God is a
body.
On the contrary, It is written in the Gospel of St. John
(iv. 24) : God is a spirit.
I answer that, It is absolutely^true that God is not a body;
Q. 3. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 30
and this can be shown in three ways. First, because no
body is in motion unless it be put in motion, as is evident
from induction. Now it has been akeady proved (Q. ii.,,.
A. 3), that God is the First Mover, and is Himself unmoved.l •
Therefore it is clear that God is not a body. Secondly,
because the first being must of necessity be in act, and in no
way in potentiality. For although in any single tiling that
passes from potentiality to actuality, the potentiality is prior
in time to the actuality; nevertheless, absolutely speaking,
actuality is prior to potentiality; for whatever is in poten-
tiahty can be reduced into actuality only by some being
in actuality. Now it has been already proved that God
is the First Being. It is therefore impossible that in God
there should be any potentiality. But every body is in
potentiaUty, because the continuous, as such is divisible
to infinity; it is therefore impossible that God should
be a body. Thirdly, because God is the most noble
of beings. Now it is impossible for a body to be the
most noble of beings; for a body must be either animate
or inanimate; and an animate body is manifestly nobler
than any inanimate body. But an animate body is not
animate precisely as body; otherwise all bodies would
be animate. Therefore its animation depends upon some
other thing, as our body depends for its animation on the
soul. Hence that by which a body becomes animated must
be nobler than the body. Therefore it is impossible that
God should be a body.
Reply Obj. i. As we have said above (Q. i., A. 9,), Holy
Writ puts before us spiritual and divine things under the
comparison of corporeal things. Hence, when it attributes
to God the three dimensions under the comparison of cor-
poreal quantity, it implies His virtual quantity; thus, by
depth, it signifies His power of knowing hidden things ; by
height, the transcendence of His excelling power; by length,
the duration of His existence; by breadth. His act of
love for all. Or, as says Dionysius {Div. Nom. ix.), by the
depth of God is meant the incomprehensibihty of His essence,
by length, the procession of His all-pervading power, by
31 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3. Art. 2
breadth, His overspreading all things, inasmuch as all things
lie under His protection.
Reply Obj. 2. Man is said to be after the image of God,
not as regards his body, but as regards that whereby he
excels other animals. Hence, when it is said, Let us make
man to our image and likeness, it is added. And let him have
dominion over the fishes of the sea (Gen. i. 26). Now man
excels all animals by his reason and intelligence; hence
it is according to his intelHgence and reason, which are
incorporeal, that man is said to be according to the image
of God.
Reply Obj. 3. Corporeal parts are attributed to God in
Scripture on account of His actions, and this is owing to
a certain parallel. For instance the act of the eye is to see;
hence the eye attributed to God signifies His power of seeing
intellectually, not sensibly ; and so on with the other parts.
Reply Obj. 4. Whatever pertains to posture, also, is
only attributed to God by some sort of parallel. He is
spoken of as sitting, on account of His unchangeableness
and dominion; and as standing, on account of His power
of overcoming whatever withstands Him.
Reply Obj. 5. We draw near to God by no corporeal
steps, since He is everywhere, but by the affections of our
soul, and by the actions of that same soul do we withdraw
from Him ; thus, to draw near or to withdraw signifies merely
spiritual actions based on the metaphor of local motion.
Second Article,
whether god is composed of matter and form ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is composed of matter
and form. For whatever has a soul is composed of matter
and form; since the soul is the form of the body. But Scrip-
ture attributes a soul to God; for it is mentioned in Hebrews
(x. 38), where God says: But My just man liveth by faith;
but if he withdraw himself, he shall ?wt please My soul. There-
fore God is composed of matter and form.
Q. 3. Art. 2 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 32
Ohj, 2. Further, anger, joy, and the Hke are passions
of the composite. But these are attributed to God in
Scripture: The Lord was exceeding angry with His people
(Ps. cv. 40) . Therefore God is composed of matter and form.
Obj. 3. Further, matter is the principle of individuali-
zation. But God seems to be individual, for He cannot
be predicated of many. Therefore He is composed of matter
and form.
On the contrary, Whatever is composed of matter and
form is a body ; for dimensive quantity is the first property
of matter. But God is not a body as proved in the preceding
Article; therefore He is not composed of matter and form.
/ answer that, It is impossible that matter should exist
A in God. First, because matter is in potentiality. But
•^' we have shown (Q. ii., A. 3) that God is pure act, with-
out any potentiality. Hence it is impossible that God
should be composed of matter and form. Secondly, because
everything composed of matter and form owes its perfection
and goodness to its form; therefore its goadness is partici-
pated, inasmuch as matter participates the form. Now the
first good and the best — viz. God — is not a participated good,
because the essential good is prior to the participated good.
Hence it is impossible that God should be composed of
matter and form. Thirdly, because every agent acts by
its form; hence the manner in which it has its form is the
manner in which it is an agent. Therefore whatever is
primarily and essentially an agent must be primarily and
^-essentially form. Now God is the first agent, since He is
1 the first efficient cause. He is therefore of His essence
\ a form; and not composed of matter and form.
Reply Ohj. i. A soul is attributed to God because His
acts resemble the acts of a soul; for, that we will anything,
is due to our soul. Hence what is pleasing to His will is
said to be pleasing to His soul.
Reply Ohj 2. Anger and the like are attributed to God
on account of a simihtude of effect. Thus, because to
punish is properly the act of an angry man, God's punish-
ment is metaphorically spoken of as His anger.
33 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3. Art. 3
Reply Ohj. 3. Forms which can be received in matter are
individualized by matter, which cannot be in another as
in a subject since it is the first underlying subject; although
form of itself, unless something else prevents it, can be
received by many. But that form which cannot be received
in matter, but is self-subsisting, is individualized precisely
because it cannot be received in a subject; and such a form
is God. Hence it does not follow that matter exists in God
Third Article,
whether god is the same as his essence or nature ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not the same as His
essence or nature. For nothing can be in itself. But the
substance or nature of God — i.e., the Godhead — is said to
be in God. Therefore it seems that God is not the same as
His essence or nature.
Ohj. 2. Further, the effect is assimilated to its cause; for
every agent produces its like. But in created things the
suppositum is not identical with its nature ; for a man is not
the same as his humanity. Therefore God is not the same
as His Godhead.
On the contrary, It is said of God that He is life itself,
and not only that He is a living thing : / am the way, the
truth, and the life (John xiv. 6) . Now the relation between
Godhead and God is the same as the relation between life
and a living thing. Therefore God is His very Godhead.
/ answer that, God is the same as His essence or nature.
To understand this, it must be noted that in things com-
posed of matter and form, the nature or essence must
differ from the suppositum, because the essence or nature
connotes only what is included in the definition of the
species; as, humanity connotes all that is included in the
definition of man, for it is by this that man is man, and it
is this that humanity signifies, that, namely, whereby man
is man. Now individual matter, with all the individualizing
accidents, is not included in the definition of the species.
»• 3
0. 3. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA ^' 34
For this particular flesh, these bones, this blackness or
whiteness, etc., are not included in the definition of a man.
Therefore this flesh, these bones, and the accidental qualities
distinguishing this particular matter, are not included in
humanity; and yet they are included in the thing which
is a man. Hence the thing which is a man has something
more in it than has humanity. Consequently humanity
and a man are not wholly identical ; but humanity is taken
to mean the formal part of a man, because the principles
whereby a thing is defined are regarded as the formal
constituent in regard to the individualizing matter. On
the other hand, in things not composed of matter and form,
in which individualization is not due to individual matter
— that is to say, to this matter — the very forms being
individualized of themselves, — it is necessary the forms
themselves should be subsisting supposita. Therefore sup-
positum and nature in them are identified. Since God
then is not composed of matter and form. He must be His
own Godhead, His own Life, and whatever else is thus
predicated of Him.
Reply Ohj. i. We can speak of simple things only as
though they were like the composite things from which
we derive our knowledge. Therefore, in speaking of God,
we use concrete nouns to signify His subsistence, because
with us only those things subsist which are composite; and
we use abstract nouns to signify His simplicity. In saying
therefore that Godhead, or life, or the like are in God, we
indicate the composite way in which our intellect under-
stands, but not that there is any composition in God.
Reply Ohj. 2. The effects of God do not imitate Him
perfectly, but only as far as they are able ; and the imitation
is here defective, precisely because what is simple and one,
can only be represented by divers things; consequently
composition is accidental to them, and therefore in them
suppositum is not the same as nature.
35 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3. Art. 4
Fourth Article.
whether essence and existence are the same
IN GOD ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that essence and existence are not
the same in God. For if it be so, then the divine being
has nothing added to it. Now being to which no addition
is made is universal being which is predicated of all things.
Therefore it foUows that God is being in general which can
be predicated of everything. But this is false: For men
gave the incommunicable name to stones and wood (Wisd.
xiv. 21). Therefore God's existence is not His essence.
Obj. 2. Further, we can know whether God exists as said
above (Q. II., A. 2) ; but we cannot know what He is. There-
fore God's existence is not the same as His essence — that is,
as His quiddity or nature.
On the contrary, Hilary says (Trin. vii.) : In God existence
is not an accidental quality, but subsisting truth. Therefore
what subsists in God is His existence.
/ answer that, 6od is not only His own essence, as shown ■
in the preceding article, but also His own existence. This
may be shown in several ways. First, whatever a thing has
besides its essence must be caused either by the constituent
principles of that essence (like a property that necessarily
accompanies the species — as the faculty of laughing is
proper to a man — and is caused by the constituent principles
of the species), or by some exterior agent, — as heat is caused
in water by fire. Therefore, if the existence of a thing differs
from its essence, this existence must be caused either by
some exterior agent or by its essential principles. Now
it is impossible for a thing's existence to be caused by its
essential constituent principles, for nothing can be the
sufficient cause of its own existence, if its existence is
caused. Therefore that thing, whose existence differs
from its essence, must have its existence caused by
another. But this cannot be true of God; because we call
Q. 3. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 36
God the first efficient cause. Therefore it is impossible
that in God His existence should differ from His essence.
Secondly, existence is that which makes every form or
nature actual; for goodness and humanity are spoken of as
actual, only because they are spoken of as existing. There-
fore, existence must be compared to essence, if the latter
is a distinct reality, as actuality to potentiality. There-
fore, since in God there is no potentiality, as shown above
(A. i), it follows that in Him essence does not differ from
existence. Therefore His essence is His existence. Thirdly,
because, just as that which has fire, but is not itself fire, is
on fire by participation ; so that which has existence but is
not existence, is a being by participation. But God is His
own essence, as shown above (A. 3) ; if, therefore. He is not
His own existence He will be not essential, but participated
being. He will not therefore be the first being — which is
absurd. Therefore God is His own existence, and not
merely His own essence.
Reply Obj, i. A thing that has nothing added to it can
be of two kinds. Either its essence precludes any addition ;
thus, for example, it is of the essence of an irrational animal
to be without reason. Or we may understand a thing to
have nothing added to it, inasmuch as its essence does not
require that anything should be added to it ; thus the genus
animal is without reason, because it is not of the essence
of animal in general to have reason ; but neither is it to lack
reason. And so the divine being has nothing added to it
in the first sense ; whereas universal being has nothing added
to it in the second sense.
Reply Obj. 2. To be can mean either of two things. It
may mean the act of essence, or it may mean the com-
position of a proposition effected by the mind in joining
a predicate to a subject. Taking to be in the first sense,
we cannot understand God's existence nor His essence;
but only in the second sense. We know that this proposi-
tion which we form about God when we say God is, is
true; and this we know from His effects (Q. II., A. 2).
37 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3 Apt 5
Fifth Article,
whether god is contained in a genus ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection 1. It seems that God is contained in a genus.
For a substance is a being that subsists of itself. But this
is especially true of God. Therefore God is in the genus of
substance.
Obj. 2. Further, nothing can be measured save by some-
thing of its own genus; as length is measured by length
and numbers by number. But God is the measure of all
substances, as the Commentator shows (Metaph. x.). There-
fore God is in the genus of substance.
On the contrary, In the mind, genus is prior to what it
contains. But nothing is prior to God either really or
mentally. Therefore God is not in any genus.
/ answer that, A thing can be in a genus in two ways;
either absolutely and properly, as a species contained under
a genus; or as being reducible to it, as principles and pri-
vations. For example, a ptint ami unity are reduced to
the genus of quantity, as its principles; while blindness
and all other privations are reduced to the genus of habit.
But in neither way is God in a genus. That He cannot
be a species of any genus may be shown in three ways.
First, because a species is constituted of genus and difference.
Now that from which the difference constituting the species
is derived, is always related to that from which the genus is
derived, as actuality is related to potentiality. For animal
is derived from sensitive nature, by concretion as it were,
for that is animal, which has a sensitive nature. Rational
being, on the other hand, is derived from intellectual nature,
because that is rational, which has an intellectual nature,
and intelligence is compared to sense, as actuality is to
potentiality. The same argument holds good in other
things. Hence since in God actuality is not added to
potentiality, it is impossible that He should be in any genus
as a species. Secondly, since the existence of God is His
Q. 3. Art. 5 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 38
essence, if God were in any genus, He would be in the genus
* being,' because, since genus is predicated as an essential
it refers to the essence of a thing. But the Philosopher has
shown {Metaph. iii.) that being cannot be a genus, for every
genus has differences distinct from its generic essence.
Now no difference can exist distinct from being; for non-
being cannot be a difference. It follows then that God is
not in a genus. Thirdly, because all in one genus agree in
the quiddity or essence of the genus which is predicated
of them as an essential, but they differ in their existence.
For the existence of man and of horse is not the same; as
also of this man and that man : thus in every member of a
genus, existence and quiddity — i.e., essence — must differ.
But in God they do not differ, as shown in the preceding
article. Therefore it is plain that God is not in a genus
as if He were a species. From this it is also plain that He
has no genus nor difference, nor can there be any definition
of Him; nor, save through His effects, a demonstration of
Him: for a definition is from genus and difference; and
the mean of a demonstration is a definition. That God
is not in a genus, as reducible to it as its principle, is
clear from this, that a principle reducible to any genus
does not extend beyond that genus; as, a point is the prin-
ciple of continuous quantity alone; and unity, of discon-
tinuous quantity. But God is the principle of all being.
Therefore He is not contained in any genus as its principle.
Reply Obj. i. The word substance signifies not only what
exists of itself — for existence cannot of itself be a genus,
as shown in the body of the article; but, it also signifies an
essence that has the property of existing in this way — -namely,
of existing of itself; this existence, however, is not its essence.
Thus it is clear that God is not in the genus of substance.
Reply Obj. 2. This objection turns upon proportionate
measure; which must be homogeneous with what is
measured. Now, God is not a measure proportionate to
anything. Still, He is called the measure of all things, in
the sense that everything has being only according as it
resembles Him.
39 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD ^. 3. Art. 6
Sixth Article.
whether in god there are any accidents?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article : — ■
Objection i. It seems that there are accidents in God.
For substance cannot be an accident, as Aristotle says
{Physic, i.). Therefore that which is an accident in one,
cannot, in another, be a substance. Thus it is proved that
heat cannot be the substantial form of fire, because it is
an accident in other things. But wisdom, virtue, and the
like, which are accidents in us, are attributes of God. There-
fore in God there are accidents.
Obj. 2. Further, in every genus there is a first principle.
But there are many genera of accidents. If, therefore, the
primal members of these genera are not in God, there will be
many primal beings other than God — which is absurd.
On the contrary, Every accident is in a subject. But God
cannot be a subject, for no simple form can be a subject, as
Boethius says [De Trinit). Therefore in God there cannot
be any accident.
/ answer that, From all we have said, it is clear there can
be no accident in God. First, because a subject is compared
to its accidents as potentiality to actuality; for a subject is
in some sense made actual by its accidents. But there can
be no potentiality in God, as was shown Q. XL, A. 3.
Secondly, because God is His own existence; and as Boe-
thius says (De Hebdom.), although every essence may have
something superadded to it, this cannot apply to abso-
lute being: thus a heated substance can have something
extraneous to heat added to it, as whiteness, nevertheless
absolute heat can have nothing else than heat. Thirdly,
because what is essential is prior to what is accidental.
Whence as God is absolute primal being, there can be in
Him nothing accidental. Neither can He have any essential
accidents (as the capability of laughing is an essential
accident of man), because such accidents are caused by the
constituent principles of the subject. Now there can be
Q. 3. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 40
nothing caused in God, since He is the first cause. Hence
it follows that there is no accident in God.
Reply Obj. i. Virtue and wisdom are not predicated of
God and of us univocally. Hence it does not follow that
there are accidents in God as there are in us.
Reply Obj. 2. Since substance is prior to its accidents,
the principles of accidents are reducible to the principles
of the substance as to that which is prior; although God
is not first as if contained in the genus of substance; yet
He is first in respect to all being, outside of every genus.
Seventh Article,
whether god is altogether simple ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not altogether simple.
For whatever is from God must imitate Him. Thus from
the first being are all beings; and from the first good is all
good. But in the things which God has made, nothing
is altogether simple. Therefore neither is God altogether
simple.
Obj. 2. Further, whatever is best must be attributed to
God. But with us that which is composite is better than
that which is simple; thus, chemical compounds are better
than simple elements, and animals than the parts that com-
pose them. Therefore it cannot be said that God is alto-
gether simple.
On the contrary, Augustine says {De Trin. iv. 6, 7) : God
is truly and absolutely simple.
I answer that, The absolute simplicity of God may be
shown in many ways. First, from the previous articles of
this question. For there is neither composition of quanti-
tative parts in God, since He is not a body ; nor composition
of form and matter; nor does His nature differ from His
suppositum ; nor His essence from His existence; neither is
there in Him composition of genus and difference, nor of
subject and accident. Therefore, it is clear that God is
41 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3. Art. 7
nowise composite, but is altogether simple. Secondly,
because every composite is posterior to its component parts,
and is dependent on them; but God is the first being, as
shown above (Q. II., A. 3) . Thirdly, because every composite
has a cause, for things in themselves different cannot unite
unless something causes them to unite. But God is uncaused,
as shown above {loc. cit), since He is the first efficient cause.
Fourthly, because in every composite there must be poten-
tiality and actuality ; but this does not apply to God ; for
either one of the parts actuates another, or at least all the
parts are potential to the whole. Fifthly, because nothing
composite can be predicated of any single one of its parts.
And this is evident in a whole made up of dissimilar parts ;
for no part of a man is a man, nor any of the parts of the
foot, a foot. But in wholes made up of similar parts, although
something which is predicated of the whole may be predicated
of a part (as a part of the air is air, and a part of water,
water), nevertheless certain things are predicable of the whole
which cannot be predicated of any of the parts; for instance,
if the whole volume of water is two cubits, no part of it can
be two cubits. Thus in every composite there is something
which is not it itself. But, even if this could be said of
whatever has a form, viz., that it has something which is
not it itself, as in a white object there is something which
does not belong to the essence of white; nevertheless in the
form itself, there is nothing besides itself. And so, since
God is absolute form, or rather absolute being, He can be in
no way composite. Hilary implies this argument, when he
says {De Trin. vii.) : God, Who is strength, is not made up of
things that are weak; nor is He Who is light, composed of things
that are dim.
Reply Obj. i. Whatever is from God imitates Him, as
caused things imitate the first cause. But it is of the
essence of a thing caused to be in some sort composite;
because at least its existence differs from its essence, as will
be shown hereafter, (Q. IV. A. 3) .
Reply Obj. 2. With us composite things are better than
simple things, because the perfections of created goodness
Q. 3. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 42
cannot be found in one simple thing, but in many things.
But the perfection of divine goodness is found in one simple
thing (QQ. IV., A. i, and VI., A. 2).
Ebghth Article,
whether god enters into the composition of other
THINGS ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God enters into the composition
of other things, for Dionysius says [Ccel. Hier. iv.) : The
being of all things is that which is above being — the Godhead.
But the being of all things enters into the composition of
everything. Therefore God enters into the composition
of other things.
Obj. 2. Further, God is a form; for Augustine says
{De Verb. Dom.'^) that, the word of God, which is God, is
an uncreated form. But a form is part of a compound.
Therefore God is part of some compound.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever things exist, in no way differ-
ing from each other, are the same. But God and primary
matter exist, and in no way differ from each other. There-
fore they are absolutely the same. But primary matter
enters into the composition of things. Therefore also does
God. Proof of the minor — whatever things differ, they
differ by some differences, and therefore must be composite.
But God and primary matter are altogether simple. There-
fore they nowise differ from each other.
On the contrary, Dionysius says {Div. Nom. ii.) : There
can be no touching Him, i.e., God, nor any other union with
Him by mingling part with part.
Further, the first cause rules all things without com-
mingling with them, as the Philosopher says {De Causis).
I answer that, On this point there have been three errors.
Some have affirmed that God is the world-soul, as is clear
from Augustine (De Civit. Dei vii. 6). This is practically
the same as the opinion of those who assert that God is the soul
of the highest heaven. Again, others have said that God is
* Serm. xxxviii.
43 THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD Q. 3. Art. 8
the formal principle of all things; and this was the theory
of the Almaricians. The third error is that of David of
Dinant, who most absurdly taught that God was primary
matter. Now all these contain manifest untruth ; since it is
not possible for God to enter into the composition of any-
thing, either as a formal or a material principle. First,
because God is the first efficient cause. Now the efficient
cause is not identical numerically with the form of the
thing caused, but only specffically: for man begets man.
But primary matter can be neither numerically nor specifi-
cally identical with an efficient cause; for the former is
merely potential, while the latter is actual. Secondly,
because, since God is the first efficient cause, to act belongs
to Him primarily and essentially. But that which enters
into composition with anything does not act primarily and
essentially, but rather the composite so acts; for the hand
does not act, but the man by his hand; and, fire warms by
its heat. Hence God cannot be part of a compound.
Thirdly, because no part of a compound can be absolutely
primal among beings — not even matter, nor form, though
they are the primal parts of every compound. For matter
is merely potential; and potentiality is absolutely posterior
to actuality, as is clear from the foregoing (Q. III., A. i) :
while a form which is part of a compound is a participated
form; and as that which participates is posterior to that
which is essential, so likewise is that which is participated;
as fire in ignited objects is posterior to fire that is essen-
tially such. Now it has been proved that God is absolutely
primal being (Q. II., A. 3).
Reply Obj. i. The Godhead is called the being of all
things, as their efficient and exemplar cause, but not as
being their essence.
Reply Obj. 2. The Word is an exemplar form; but not a
form that is part of a compound.
Reply Obj. 3. Simple things do not differ by added
differences, — for this is the property of compounds. Thus
man and horse differ by their differences, rational and
irrational; which differences, however, do not differ from
Q. 3. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 44
each other by other differences. Hence, to be quite ac-
curate, it is better to say that they are, not different, but
diverse. Hence, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. x.),
things which are diverse are absolutely distinct, hut things
which are different diff^er by something,. Therefore, strictly
speaking, primary matter and God do not differ, bi^t are
by their very being diverse. Hence it does not follow they
are the same.
gUESTION IV.
THE PERFECTION OF GOD.
{In Three Articles.)
Having considered the divine simplicity, we treat next of
God's perfection. Now because everything in so far as it is
perfect is called good, we shall speak first of the divine per-
fection ; secondly of the divine goodness.
Concerning the first there are three points of inquiry : —
(i) Whether God is perfect ? (2) Whether God is perfect
universally, as having in Himself the perfections of all
things ? (3) Whether creatures can be said to be like God ?
First Article,
whether god is perfect ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that perfection does not belong to
God. For we say a thing is perfect if it is completely made.
But it does not befit God to be made. Therefore He is
not perfect.
Ohj. 2. Further, God is the first beginning of things. But
the beginnings of things seem to be imperfect, as seed is the
beginning of animal and vegetable life. Therefore God is
imperfect.
Ohj. 3. Further, as shown above (Q. HI., A. 4), God's
essence is existence. But existence seems most imperfect,
since it is most universal and receptive of all modification.
Therefore God is imperfect.
On the contrary, It is written : Be you perfect as also your
heavenly Father is perfect (Matt. v. 48).
/ answer that, As the Philosopher relates (Metaph. xii.),
A5
Q. 4. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 46
some ancient philosophers, namely, the Pythagoreans, and
Leucippus, did not predicate best and most perfect of the
first principle. The reason was that the ancient philo-
sophers considered only a material principle; and a material
principle is most imperfect. For since matter as such is
merely potential, the first material principle must be simply
potential, and thus most imperfect. Now God is the first
principle, not material, but in the order of efficient cause,
which must be most perfect. For just as matter, as such,
is merely potential, an agent, as such, is in the state of
actuality. Hence, the first active principle must needs be
most actual, and therefore most perfect; for a thing is
perfect in proportion to its state of actuality, because we
call that perfect jwhich lacks nothing of the mode of its
perfection. '"
Reply Obj. 1. As Gregory says (Moral, v, 26, 29): Though
our lips can only stammer, we yet chant the high things of God.
For that which is not made is improperly called perfect.
Nevertheless because created things are then called
perfect, when from potentiality they are brought into
actuality, this word perfect signifies whatever is not want-
ing in actuality, whether this be by way of perfection,
or not.
Reply Obj. 2. The material principle which with us is
found to be imperfect, cannot be absolutely primal; but
must be preceded by something perfect. For seed, though
it be the principle of animal life reproduced through seed, has
previous to it, the animal or plant from which it came.
Because, previous to that which is potential, must be that
which is actual; since a potential being can only be reduced
into act by some being already actual.
Reply Obj. 3. Existence is the most perfect of all things,
for it is compared to all things as that by which they are
made actual; for nothing has actuality except so far as it
exists. Hence existence is that which actuates all things,
even their forms. Therefore it is not compared to other
things as the receiver is to the received ; but rather as the
received to the receiver. When therefore I speak of the
47 THE PERFECTION OF GOD Q. 4. Art. 2
existence of man, or horse, or anything else, existence is
considered a formal principle, and as something received;
and not as that which exists.
Second Article,
whether the perfections of all things are in god ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the perfections of all things are
not in God. For God is simple, as shown above (Q. III., A. 7) ;
whereas the perfections of things are many and diverse.
Therefore the perfections of all things are not in God.
Obj. 2. Further, opposites cannot coexist. Now the per-
fections of things are opposed to each other, for each
thing is perfected by its specific difference. But the dif-
ferences by whidoi genera are divided, and species constituted,
are opposed to each other. Therefore, because opposites
cannot coexist in the same subject, it seems that the per-
fections of all things are not in God.
Obj. 3. Further, a living thing is more perfect than what
merely exists; and an intelUgent thing than what merely
lives. Therefore, life is more perfect than existence; and
knowledge than life. But the essence of God is existence
itself. Therefore He has not the perfections of life, and
knowledge, and other similar perfections.
On the contrary, Dionysius says {Div. Nom. v.) that God
in His one existence prepossesses all things,
I answer that, All created perfections are in God. Hence
He is spoken of as universally perfect, because He lacks
not (says the Commentator, Metaph. v.) any excellence
which may be found in any genus. This may be seen from
two considerations. First, because whatever perfection
exists in an effect must be found in the effective cause;
either in the same formality, if it is a univocal agent — as
when man reproduces man; or in a more eminent degree,
if it is an equivocal agent — thus in the sun is the likeness
of whatever is generated by the sun's power. Now it is
plain that the effect pre-exists virtually in the efficient
Q. 4. Art. 2 THE '* SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 48
cause: and although to pre-exist in the potentiality of a
material cause is to pre-exist in a more imperfect way,
since matter as such is imperfect, and an agent as such is
perfect; still to pre-exist virtually in the efficient cause
is to pre-exist not in a more imperfect, but in a more perfect
way. Since therefore God is the first effective cause of
things, the perfections of all things must pre-exist in God
in a more eminent way. Dionysius implies the same line
of argument by saying of God {Div. Norn, v.) : It is not that
He is this and not that, hut that He is all, as the cause of all.
/Secondly; from what has been already proved, God is
[' existence itself, of itself subsistent (Q. III., A. 4). Conse-
quently, He must contain within Himself the whole per-
1 fection of being. For it is clear that if some hot thing has
not the whole perfection of heat, this is because heat is not
participated in its full perfection ; but if this heat were self-
subsisting, nothing of the virtue of heat would be wanting
to it. Since therefore God is subsisting being itself,
nothing of the perfection of being can be wanting to Him.
Now all created perfections are included in the perfection
of being ; for things are perfect, precisely so far as they have
being after some fashion. It follows therefore that the
perfection of no one thing is wanting to God. This line of
argument, too, is implied by Dionysius [loo. cit), when he
says that, God exists not in any single mode, but embraces
all being within Himself, absolutely, without limitation, uni-
formly; and afterwards he adds that, He is the very existence
to subsisting things.
Reply Obj. i. Even as the sun (as Dionysius remarks,
loc. cit.), while remaining one and shining uniformly, contains
within itself first and uniformly the substances of sensible
things, and many and diverse quahties; a fortiori should
all things in a kind of natural unity pre-exist in the cause of
all things ; and thus things diverse and in themselves opposed
to each other, pre-exist in God as one, without injury to
His simphcity.
This suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection.
Reply Obj, 3. The same Dionysius says (loc. cit.) that,
49 THE PERFECTION OF GOD Q. 4. Art. 3
although existence is more perfect than Hfe, and life than
wisdom, if they are considered as distinguished in idea;
nevertheless, a living thing is more perfect than what
merely exists, because living things also exist, and intelli-
gent things both exist and live. Although therefore exist-
ence does not include life and wisdom, because that which
participates in existence need not participate in every mode
of existence; nevertheless God's existence includes in itself
life and wisdom, because nothing of the perfection of being
can be wanting to Him who is subsisting being itself.
Third Article,
whether any creature can be like god ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that no creature can be like God.
For it is written (Ps. Ixxxv. 8) : There is none among the gods
like unto Thee, 0 Lord. But of all creatures the most ex-
cellent are those which are called by participation gods.
Therefore still less can other creatures be said to be like
to God.
Obj. 2. Further, likeness implies comparison. But there
can be no comparison between things in a different genus.
Therefore neither can there be any likeness. Thus we
do not say that sweetness is like whiteness. But no creature
is in the same gg»9ts as God: since God is in no genus, as
shown above (Q. III., A. 5) . Therefore no creature is like God.
Obj. 3. Further, we speak of those things as like which
agree in form. But nothing can agree with God in form;
for, save in God alone, essence and existence differ. There-
fore no creature can be like to God.
Obj. 4. Further, among like things there is mutual like-
ness; for like is like to like. If therefore any creature is
like God, God will be like some creature, which is against
what is said by Isaias : To whom have you likened God .^ (xl. 18) .
On the contrary. It is written: Let us make man to our
image and likeness (Gen. i. 26), and: When He shall appear
we shall be like to Him {1 John in. 2),
I- 4
Q. 4. Art. 3 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 50
I answer that, Since likeness is based upon agreement
or communication in form, it varies according to the many
modes of communication in form. Some things are said
to be like, which communicate in the same form according
to the same formality, and according to the same mode;
and these are said to be not merely like, but equal in their
likeness; as two things equally white are said to be alike in
whiteness; and this is the most perfect likeness. In another
way, we speak of things as alike which communicate in
form according to the same formality, though not accord-
ing to the same measure, but according to more or less,
as something less white is said to be like another thing more
white; and this is imperfect likeness. In a third way some
things are said to be alike which communicate in the same
form, but not according to the same formality; as we see
in non-univocal agents. For since every agent reproduces
itself so far as it is an agent, and everything acts according
to the manner of its form, the effect must in some way
resemble the form of the agent. If therefore the agent
is contained in the same species as its effect, there will be
a likeness in form between that which makes and that which
is made, according to the same formality of the species;
as man reproduces man. If however the agent and its
effect are not contained in the same species, there will be a
likeness, but not according to the formality of the same
species; as things generated by the sun's heat may be in
some sort spoken of as like the sun, not as though they
received the form of the sun in its specific likeness, but
in its generic likeness. Therefore if there is an agent not
contained in any genus, its effects will still more distantly
reproduce the form of the agent, not, that is, so as to par-
ticipate in the likeness of the agent's form according to the
same specific or generic formaUty, but only according to
some sort of analogy; as existence is common to all. In
thfs way all created things, so far as they are beings, are
like God as the first and universal principle of all being.
Reply Obj. i. As Dionysius says (Div. Nom. ix.), when
Holy Writ declares that nothing is like God, it does not mean
51 THE PERFECTION OF GOD Q. 4. Art. 3
to deny all likeness to Him. For, the same things can he
like and unlike to God : like, according as they imitate Him,
as far as He, Who is not perfectly imitable, can he imitated;
unlike according as they fall short of their cause, not merely
in intensity and remission, as that which is less white falls
short of that which is more white ; but because they are not
in agreement, specifically or generically.
Reply Ohj. 2. God is not related to creatures as though
belonging to a different genus, but as transcending every
genus, and as the principle of all genera.
Reply Ohj, 3. Likeness of creatures to God is not affirmed
on account of agreement in form according to the formality
of the same genus or species, but solely according to analogy,
inasmuch as God is essential being, whereas other things are
beings by participation.
Reply Ohj. 4. Although it may be admitted that creatures
are in some sort like God, it must nowise be admitted
that God is like creatures; because, as Dionysius says
{Div. Nom. ix.) ; A mutual likeness may he found hetween
things of the same order, hut not hetween a cause and that
which is caused. For, we say that a statue is like a man,
but not conversely; so also a creature can be spoken of as
in some sort like God ; but not that God is like a creature.
QUESTION V.
OF GOODNESS IN GENERAL.
[In Six Articles.)
We next consider goodness : —
First, goodness in general. Secondly, the goodness of
God.
Under the first head there are six points of inquiry : —
(i) Whether goodness and being are the same really ?
(2) Granted that they differ only in idea, which is prior in
thought ? (3) Granted that being is prior, whether every
being is good ? (4) To what cause should goodness be
reduced ? (5) Whether goodness consists in mode, species,
and order ? (6) Whether goodness is divided into the
virtuous, the useful, and the pleasant ?
First Article,
whether goodness differs really from being ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that goodness differs really from
being. For Boethius says {De Hehdom) : / perceive that
in nature the fact that things are good is one thing: that
they are is another. Therefore goodness and being really
differ.
Ohj, 2. Further, nothing can be its own form. But that
is called good which has the form of being, according to the
commentary on De Causis. Therefore goodness differs
really from being.
Obj. 3. Further, goodness can be more or less. But
being cannot be more or less. Therefore goodness differs
really from being.
52
53 GOODNESS IN GENERAL Q. 5. Art. i
On the contrary, Augustine says {De Doctr. Christ, i. 42)
that, inasmuch as we exist we are good,
I answer that, Goodness and being are really the same,
and differ only in idea; which is clear from the following
argument. The essence of goodness consists in this, that
it is in some way desirable. Hence the Philosopher says
{Ethic, i.) : Goodness is what all desire. Now it is clear that
a thing is desirable only in so far as it is perfect; for all
desire their own perfection. But everything is perfect so
far as it is actual. Therefore it is clear that a thing is perfect
so far as it exists; for it is existence that makes all things
actual, as is clear from the foregoing (Q. III., A. 4; Q. IV.,
A. i). Hence it is clear that goodness and being are the
same really. But goodness presents the aspect of desir-
ableness, which being does not present.
Reply Obj. i. Although goodness and being are the
same really, nevertheless since they differ in thought, they
are not predicated of a thing absolutely in the same way.
Since being properly signifies that something actually is,
and actuality properly correlates to potentiality; a thing
is, in consequence, said simply to have being, accordingly
as it is primarily distinguished from that which is only in
potentiality; and this is precisely each thing's substantial
being. Hence by its substantial being, everything is said
to have being simply; but by any further actuaUty it is
said to have being relatively. Thus to be white implies
relative being, for to be white does not take a thing out of
simply potential being; because only a thing that actually
has being can receive this mode of being. But goodness
signifies perfection which is desirable; and consequently
of ultimate perfection. Hence that which has ultimate
perfection is said to be simply good; but that which has
not the ultimate perfection it ought to have (although, in
so far as it is at all actual, it has some perfection), is not said
to be perfect simply nor good simply, but only relatively.
In this way, therefore, viewed in its primal {i.e., substantial)
being a thing is said to be simply, and to be good relatively
{i.e., in so far as it has being), but viewed in its complete
Q. 5. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 54
actuality, a thing is said to be relatively, and to be good
simply. Hence the sajdng of Boethius {loc. cit), I perceive
that in nature the fact that things are good is one thing, that
they are is another, is to be referred to a thing's goodness
simply, and having being simply. Because, regarded in
its primal actuality, a thing simply exists; and regarded
in its complete actuality, it is good simply — in such sort
that even in its primal actuality, it is in some sort good,
and even in its complete actuality, it in some sort has being.
Reply Ohj. 2. Goodness is a form so far as absolute
goodness signifies complete actuality.
Reply Ohj. 3. Again, goodness is spoken of as more or
less according to a thing's superadded actuality, for example,
as to knowledge or virtue.
Second Article,
whether goodness is prior in idea to being ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that goodness is prior in idea to
being. For names are arranged according to the arrange-
ment of the things signified by the names. But Dionysius
[Div, Nom. iii.) assigned the first place, amongst other
names of God, to His goodness rather than to His being.
Therefore in idea goodness is prior to being.
Ohj. 2. Further, that which is the more extensive is prior
in idea. But goodness is more extensive than being,
because, as Dionysius notes (loc. cit. v.), goodness extends
to things hoth existing and non-existing; whereas existence
extends to existing things alone. Therefore goodness is in
idea prior to being.
Ohj. 3. Further, what is the more universal is prior in
idea. But goodness seems to be more universal than being,
since goodness has the aspect of desirable ; whereas to some
non-existence is desirable; for it is said of Judas: It were
better for him, if that man had not been born (Matt. xxvi. 24).
Therefore in idea goodness is prior to being.
Ohj. 4. Further, not only is existence desirable, but life,
55 GOODNESS IN GENERAL Q. 5. Art. 2
knowledge, and many other things besides. Thus it seems
that existence is a particular appetible, and goodness a
universal appetible. Therefore, absolutely, goodness is
prior in idea to being.
On the contrary, It is said by Aristotle {De Causis) that
the first of created things is being.
I answer that, In idea being is prior to goodness. For
the meaning signified by the name of a thing is that which
the mind conceives of the thing and intends by the word
that stands for it. Therefore, that is prior in idea, which is
first conceived by the intellect. Now the first thing con-
ceived by the intellect is being ; because everything is know-
able only inasmuch as it is in actuality. Hence, being is the
proper object of the intellect, and is primarily intelligible;
as sound is that which is primarily audible. Therefore
in idea being is prior to goodness.
Reply Obj. i. Dionysius discusses the Divine Names
(Div. Nom. I, iii.) as implying some causal relation in God;
for we name God, as he says, from creatures, as a cause
from its effects. But goodness, since it has the aspect of
desirable, impHes the idea of a final cause, the causality of
which is first among causes, since an agent does not act
except for some end; and by an agent matter is moved
to its form. Hence the end is called the cause of causes.
Thus goodness, as a cause, is prior to being, as is the end to
the form. Therefore among the names signifying the divine
causality, goodness precedes being. Again, according to
the Platonists, who, through not distinguishing primary
matter from privation, said that matter was non-being,
goodness is more extensively participated than being;
for primary matter participates in goodness as tending
to it, for all seek their like; but it does not participate in
being, since it is presumed to be non-being. Therefore
Dionysius says that goodness extends to non-existence (loc.
cit. Obj. 2).
Reply Obj. 2. The same solution is applied to this objec-
tion. Or it may be said that goodness extends to existing
and non-existing things, not so far as it can be predicated
Q. 5. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 56
of them, but so far as it can cause them — if, indeed, by-
non-existence we understand not simply those things which
do not exist, but those which are potential, and not actual.
For goodness has the aspect of the end, in which not
only actual things find their completion, but also towards
which tend even those things which are not actual, but
merely potential. Now being implies the habitude of a
formal cause only, either inherent or exemplar; and its
causality does not extend save to those things which are
actual.
Reply Ohj. 3. Non-being is desirable, not of itself, but
only relatively — i.e., inasmuch as the removal of an evil,
which can only be removed by non-being, is desirable.
Now the removal of an evil cannot be desirable, except
so far as this evil deprives a thing of some being. Therefore
being is desirable of itself; and non-being only relatively,
inasmuch as one seeks some mode of being of which one
cannot bear to be deprived; thus even non-being can be
spoken of as relatively good.
Reply Ohj. 4. Life, wisdom, and the like, are desirable
only so far as they are actual. Hence in each one of them
some sort of being is desired. And thus nothing can be
desired except being; and consequently nothing is good
except being.
Third Article,
whether every being is good ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that not every being is good. For
goodness is something superadded to being, as is clear from
A. I. But whatever is added to being limits it; as sub-
stance, quantity, quality, etc. Therefore goodness limits
being. Therefore not every being is good.
Ohj. 2. Further, no evil is good: Woe to you that call evil
good, and good evil (Isa. v. 20). But some things are called
evil. Therefore not every being is good.
Ohj. 3. Further, goodness implies desirability. Now
primary matter does not imply desirability, but rather
^y GOODNESS IN GENERAL Q. 5. Art. 3
that which desires. Therefore primary matter does not
contain the formality of goodness. Therefore not every
being is good.
Oh]. 4. Further, the Philosopher notes {Metaph. iii.) that
in mathematics goodness does not exist. But mathematics
are entities; otherwise there would be no science of mathe-
matics. Therefore not every being is good.
On the contrary, Every being that is not God, is God's
creature. Now every creature of God is good (i Tim. iv. 4) :
and God is the greatest good. Therefore every being is good.
I answer that, Every being, as being, is good. For all
being, as being, has actuality and is in some way perfect;
since every act implies some sort of perfection; and per-
fection implies desirability and goodness, as is clear from
A. I. Hence it follows that every being as such is good.
Reply Obj. i. Substance, quantity, quality, and every-
thing included in them, limit being by appljdng it to some
essence or nature. Now in this sense, goodness does not
add anything to being beyond the aspect of desirability and
perfection, which is also proper to being, whatever kind of
nature it may be. Hence goodness does not limit being.
Reply Obj. 2. No being can be spoken of as evil, formally |..
as being, but only so far as it lacks being. Thus a man is "
said to be evil, because he lacks some virtue; and an eye is ;
said to be evil, because it lacks the power to see well.
Reply Obj. 3. As primary matter has only potential being,
so is it only potentially good. Although, according to the
Platonists, primary matter may be said to be a non-being
on account of the privation attaching to it, nevertheless,
it does participate to a certain extent in goodness, viz., by
its relation to, or aptitude for, goodness. Consequently,
to be desirable is not its property, but to desire.
Reply Obj. 4. Mathematical entities do not subsist as
realities; because they would be in some sort good if they
subsisted; but they have only logical existence, inasmuch
as they are abstracted from motion and matter; thus they
cannot have the aspect of an end, which itself has the
aspect of moving another. Nor is it repugnant that there
Q. 5. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 58
should be in some logical entity neither goodness nor form
of goodness; since the idea of being is prior to the idea
of goodness, as was said in the preceding article.
Fourth Article.
whether goodness has the aspect of a
final cause ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that goodness has not the aspect
of a final cause, but rather of the other causes. For, as
Dionysius says (Div. Noni. iv.), Goodness is praised as beauty.
But beauty has the aspect of a formal cause. Therefore
goodness has the aspect of a formal cause.
Obj. 2. Further, goodness is self-diffusive; for Dionysius
says (loc. cit.) that goodness is that whereby all things
subsist, and are. But to be self-giving implies the aspect
of an efficient cause. Therefore goodness has the aspect
of an efficient cause.
Obj. 3. Further, Augustine says {De Doctr. Christ, i. 31)
that we exist, because God is good. But we owe our existence
to God as the efficient cause. Therefore goodness implies
the aspect of an efficient cause.
On the contrary, The Philosopher says (Physic, ii.) that
that is to be considered as the end and the good of other things,
for the sake of which something is. Therefore goodness has
the aspect of a final cause.
/ answer that, Since goodness is that which all things
desire, and since this has the aspect of an end, it is clear
that goodness implies the aspect of an end. Nevertheless,
the idea of goodness presupposes the idea of an efficient
cause, and also of a formal cause. For we see that what is
first in causing, is last in the thing caused. Fire, e.g., heats
first of all before it reproduces the form of fire; though the
heat in the fire follows from its substantial form. Now in
causing, goodness and the end come first, both of which
move the agent to act; secondly, the action of the agent
moving to the form ; thirdly, comes the form. Hence
59 GOODNESS IN GENERAL Q. 5. Art. 5
in that which is caused the converse ought to take place,
so that there should be first, the form whereby it is a
being ; secondly, we consider in it its effective power, whereby
it is perfect in being, for a thing is perfect when it can repro-
duce its like, as the Philosopher says (Meteor, iv.) ; thirdly,
there follows the formality of goodness which is the basic
principle of its perfection.
Reply Ohj. i. Beauty and goodness in a thing are identical
fundamentally; for they are based upon the same thing,
namely, the form; and consequently goodness is praised
as beauty. But they differ logically, for goodness properly
relates to the appetite (goodness being what all things
desire); and therefore it has the aspect of an end (the
appetite being a kind of movement towards a thing). On
the other hand, beauty relates to the cognitive faculty; for
beautiful things are those which please when seen. Hence
beauty consists in due proportion ; for the senses delight in
things duly proportioned, as in what is after their own
kind — because even sense is a sort of reason, just as is every
cognitive faculty. Now, since knowledge is by assimilation,
and similarity relates to form, beauty properly belongs to
the nature of a formal cause.
Reply Ohj. 2. Goodness is described as self-diffusive in
the sense that an end is said to move.
Reply Ohj. 3. He who has a will is said to be good, so far
as he has a good will; because it is by our will that we
employ whatever powers we may have. Hence a man is
said to be good, not by his good understanding ; but by his
good will. Now the will relates to the end as to its proper
object. Thus the saying, we exist because God is good has
reference to the final cause.
Fifth Article.
whether the essence of goodness consists in mode,
species, and order ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the essence of goodness does
not consist in mode, species, and order. For goodness
Q. 5. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 60
and being differ logically. But mode, species, and order
seem to belong to the nature of being, for it is written:
Thou hast ordered all things in measure, and numher, and weight
(Wis. xi. 21). And to these three can be reduced species,
mode, and order, as Augustine says {Gen. ad lit. iv. 3) :
Measure fixes the mode of everything, number gives it its species,
and weight gives it rest and stability. Therefore the essence
of goodness does not consist in mode, species, and order.
Obj. 2. Further, mode, species, and order are themselves
good. Therefore if the essence of goodness consists in
mode, species, and order, then every mode must have its
own mode, species, and order. The same would be the
case with species and order in endless succession.
Obj. 3. Further, evil is the privation of mode, species, and
order. But evil is not the total absence of goodness. There-
fore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode,
species, and order.
Obj. 4. Further, that wherein consists the essence of
goodness cannot be spoken of as evil. Yet we can speak of
an evil mode, species, and order. Therefore the essence
of goodness does not consist in mode, species, and order.
Obj. 5. Further, mode, species, and order are caused by
weight, number, and measure, as appears from the quotation
from Augustine. But not every good thing has weight,
number, and measure; for Ambrose says {Hexam. i. 9): It
is of the nature of light not to have been created in number,
weight, and measure. Therefore the essence of goodness
does not consist in mode, species, and order.
On the contrary, Augustine says {De Nat. Boni iii.) : These
three — mode, species, order — as common good things, are in
everything God has made; thus, where these three abound the
things are very good; where they are less, the things are less
good; where they do not exist at all, there can be nothing good.
But this would not be unless the essence of goodness con-
sisted in them. Therefore the essence of goodness consists
in mode, species, and order.
/ answer that, Everything is said to be good so far as it
is perfect; for in that way only is it desirable (as shown
6i GOODNESS IN GENERAL Q. 5. Art. 5
above, AA. i, 3). Now a thing is said to be perfect if it
lacks nothing according to the mode of its perfection.
But since everything is what it is by its form (and since
the form presupposes certain things, and from the form
certain things necessarily follow), in order for a thing to
be perfect and good it must have a form, together with
all that precedes and follows upon that form. Now the
form presupposes determination or commensuration of
its principles, whether material or efficient, and this is
signified by the mode: hence it is said that the measure
marks the mode. But the form itself is signified by the
species; for everything is placed in its species by its form.
Hence the number is said to give the species, for definitions
signifying species are like numbers, according to the Philo-
sopher [Metaph. x.) ; for as a unit added to, or taken from,
a number, changes its species, so a difference added to, or
taken from, a definition, changes its species. Further,
upon the form follows an inclination to the end, or to an
action, or something of the sort ; for everything, in so far as
it is in act, acts and tends towards that which is in accor-
dance with its form; and this belongs to weight and order.
Hence the essence of goodness, so far as it consists in perfec-
tion, consists also in mode, species, and order.
Reply Obj. i. These three only follow upon being, so far as
it is perfect, and according to this perfection is it good.
Reply Obj. 2. Mode, species, and order, are said to be
good, and to be beings, not as though they themselves were
subsistences, but because it is through them that other
things are both beings and good. Hence they have no
need of other things whereby they are good: for they are
spoken of as good, not as though formally constituted so
by something else, but as formally constituting others
good : thus whiteness is not said to be a being as though it
were by anything else; but because, by it, something else
has accidental being, as an object that is white.
Reply Obj. 3. Every being is due to some form. Hence,
according to every being of a thing is its mode, species,
order. Thus, a man has a mode, species, and order, as a
Q. 5. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 62
man; and another mode, species, and order, as he is white,
virtuous, learned, and so on; according to everything
predicated of him. But evil deprives a thing of some sort of
being, as bHndness deprives us of that being which is sight ;
yet it does not destroy every mode, species, and order, but
only such as follow upon the being of sight.
Reply Obj. 4. Augustine says (De Nat. Boni xxiii.).
Every mode, as mode, is good (and the same can be said of
species and order). But an evil mode, species, and order are
so called as being less than they ought to be, or as not belonging
to that to which they ought to belong. Therefore they are called
evil, because they are out of place and incongruous.
Reply Obj. 5. The nature of light is spoken of as being
without number, weight, and measure, not absolutely, but
in comparison with corporeal things, because the power of
light extends to all corporeal things; inasmuch as it is an
active quality of the first body that causes change, i.e., the
heavens.
Sixth Article.
whether goodness is rightly divided into the
virtuous,"^ the useful, and the pleasant ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that goodness is not rightly divided
into the virtuous, the useful, and the pleasant. For good-
ness is divided by the ten predicaments, as the Philosopher
says (Ethic, i.). But the virtuous, the useful, and the
pleasant can be found under one predicament. Therefore
goodness is not rightly divided by them.
Obj. 2. Further, every division is made by opposites. But
these three do not seem to be opposites; for the virtuous is
pleasing, and no wickedness is useful ; whereas this ought to
be the case if the division were made by opposites, for then
the virtuous and the useful would be opposed; and Tully
speaks of this {De Offic. ii.). Therefore this division is
incorrect.
■^ Bonum honestum is the virtuous good considered as fitting
Cf. ii-ii., Q. CXLL, A. 3: Q. CXLV.
63 GOODNESS IN GENERAL Q. 5. Art. 6
Obj. 3. Further, where one thing is on account of another,
there is only one thing. But the useful is not goodness,
except so far as it is pleasing and virtuous. Therefore the
useful ought not to be divided against the pleasant and the
virtuous.
On the contrary, Ambrose makes use of this division of
goodness {De Offic. i. 9).
/ answer that, This division properly concerns human good-
ness. But if we consider the nature of goodness from a
higher and more universal point of view, we shall find that
this division properly concerns goodness as such. For
everything is good so far as it is desirable, and is a term of
the movement of the appetite ; the term of whose movement
can be seen from a consideration of the movement of a
natural body. Now the movement of a natural body is
terminated by the end absolutely; and relatively by the
means through which it comes to the end, where the move-
ment ceases; so a thing is called a term of the movement,
so far as it terminates any part of that movement. Now
the ultimate term of movement can be taken in two ways,
either as the thing itself towards which it tends, e.g., 3. place
or form; or a state of rest in that thing. Thus, in the
movement of the appetite, the thing desired that terminates
the movement of the appetite relatively, as a means by
which something tends towards another, is called the
useful; but that sought after as the last thing absolutely
terminating the movement of the appetite, as a thing
towards which for its own sake the appetite tends, is called
the virtuous; for the virtuous is that which is desired for
its own sake; but that which terminates the movement of
the appetite in the form of rest in the thing desired, is
called the pleasant.
Reply Obj. 1. Goodness, so far as it is identical with being,
is divided by the ten predicaments. But this division
belongs to it according to its proper formality.
Reply Obj. 2. This division is not by opposite things;
but by opposite aspects. Now those things are called
pleasing which have no other formality under which they
Q. 5. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 64
are desirable except the pleasant, being sometimes hurtful
and contrary to virtue. Whereas the useful apphes to
such as have nothing desirable in themselves, but are
desired only as helpful to something further, as the taking
of bitter medicine ; while the virtuous is predicated of such
as are desirable in themselves.
Reply Obj. 3. Goodness is not divided into these three as
something univocal to be predicated equally of them all;
but as something analogical to be predicated of them
according to priority and posteriority. Hence it is pre-
dicated chiefly of the virtuous; then of the pleasant; and
lastly of the useful.
QUESTION VI.
THE GOODNESS OF GOD.
{In Four Articles.)
We next consider the goodness of God; under which head
there are four points of inquiry: (i) Whether goodness
belongs to God ? (2) Whether God is the supreme good ?
(3) Whether He alone is essentially good ? (4) Whether
all things are good by the divine goodness ?
First Article,
whether god is good ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that to be good does not belong to
God. For goodness consists in mode, species, and order.
But these do not seem to belong to God; since God is im-
mense; and is not ordered to anything else. Therefore to
be good does not belong to God.
Ohj. 2. Further, the good is what all things desire. But
all things do not desire God, because all things do not know
Him; and nothing is desired unless it is known. Therefore
to be good does not belong to God.
On the contrary, It is written (Lam. iii. 25) : The Lord is
good to them that hope in Him, to the soul that seeketh Him,
I answer that, To be good belongs pre-eminently to God.
For a thing is good according to its desirableness. Now
everything seeks after its own perfection ; and the perfection
and form of an effect consist in a certain likeness to the
agent, since every agent makes its like ; and hence the agent
itself is desirable and has the nature of good. For the very
thing which is desirable in it is the participation of its like-
I- 65 5
Q. 6. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 66
ness. Therefore, since God is the first effective cause of all
things, it is manifest that the aspect of good and of desirable-
ness belong to Him; and hence Dionysius {Dii>. Norn, iv.)
attributes good to God as to the first efficient cause,
saying that, God is called good as by Whom all things
subsist.
Reply Obj. i. To have mode, species, and order, belongs to
the essence of caused good; but good is in God as in its
cause, and hence it belongs to Him to impose mode, species,
and order on others; wherefore these three things are in
God as in their cause.
Reply Obj. 2. All things, by desiring their own perfection,
desire God Himself, inasmuch as the perfections of all things
are so many similitudes of the divine being ; as appears from
what is said above (Q. IV., A. 3). And so of those things
which desire God, some know Him as He is Himself, and this
is proper to the rational creature : others know some partici-
pation of His goodness, and this belongs also to sensible
knowledge: others, have a natural desire without know-
ledge, as being directed to their ends by a higher intelligence.
Second Article,
whether god is the supreme good ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not the supreme good.
For the supreme good adds something to good; otherwise
it would belong to every good. But everything which is an
addition to anything else is a compound thing : therefore the
supreme good is compound. But God is supremely simple ;
as was shown above (Q. III., A. 7). Therefore God is not the
supreme good.
Obj. 2. Further, Good is what all desire, as the Philosopher
says (Ethic, i. i) . Now what all desire is nothing but God,
Who is the end of all things : therefore there is no other good
but God. This appears also from what is said (Luke xviii.
19) : None is good but God alone. But we use the word
supreme in comparison with others, as, e.g., supreme heat
67 THE GOODNESS OF GOD Q 6. Art. 2
is used in comparison with all other heats. Therefore God
cannot be called the supreme good.
Obj. 3. Further, supreme implies comparison. But things
not in the same genus are not comparable; as, sweetness
is not properly called greater or less than a line. There-
fore, since God is not in the same genus as other good things,
as appears above (QQ. IIL, A. 5; IV., A. 3) it seems that
God cannot be called the supreme good in relation to others.
On the contrary, Augustine says [De Trin. ii.) that, the
Trinity of the divine persons is the supreme good, discerned
by purified minds.
I answer that, God is the supreme good simply, and not
only as existing in any genus or order of things. For good is
attributed to God, as was said in the preceding article, inas-
much as all desired perfections flow from Him as from the
first cause. They do not, however, flow from Him as from a
univocal agent, as shown above (Q. IV. A., 2) ; but as from an
agent which does not agree with its effects either in species
or genus. Now the likeness of an effect in the univocal
cause is found uniformly; but in the equivocal cause it is
found more excellently, as, heat is in the sun more excellently
than it is in fire. Therefore as good is in God as in the first,
but not the univocal, cause of all things, it must be in Him
in a most excellent way; and therefore He is called the
supreme good.
Reply Obj. i. The supreme good does not add to good
any absolute thing, but only a relation. Now a relation of
God to creatures, is not a reality in God, but in the creature;
for it is in God in our idea only : as, what is knowable is so
called with relation to knowledge, not that it depends on
knowledge, but because knowledge depends on it. Thus
it is not necessary that there should be composition in the
supreme good, but only that other things are deficient in
comparison with it.
Reply Obj. 2. When we say that good is what all desire,
it is not to be understood that every kind of good thing
is desired by all ; but that whatever is desired has the
nature of good. And when it is said, None is good but God
Q. 6. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 68
alone, this is to be understood of essential goodness, as will
be explained in the next article.
Reply Obj. 3. Things not of the same genus are in no way
comparable to each other if indeed they are in different
genera. Now we say that God is not in the same genus with
other good things; not that He is in any other genus, but
that He is outside genus, and is the principle of every genus;
and thus He is compared to others by excess, and it is this
kind of comparison the supreme good implies.
Third Article,
whether to be essentially good belongs to god
ALONE ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that to be essentially good does not
belong to God alone. For as one is convertible with being,
so is good; as we said above (Q. V., A. i). But every being
is one essentially, as appears from the Philosopher (Metaph.
iv.) ; therefore every being is good essentially.
Obj, 2. Further, if good is what all things desire, since
being itself is desired by all, then the being of each thing is
its good. But everything is a being essentially: therefore
.every being is good essentially.
Obj. 3. Further, everything is good by its own goodness.
Therefore if there is anything which is not good essentially
it is necessary to say that its goodness is not its own essence.
Therefore its goodness, since it is a being, must be good;
and if it is good by some other goodness, the same question
applies to that goodness also; therefore we must either
proceed to infinity, or come to some goodness which is not
good by any other goodness. Therefore the first supposition
holds good. Therefore everything is good essentially.
^^ On the contrary, Boethius says (De Hebdom), that all
i things but God are good by participation. Therefore they
\ are not good essentially.
^ I answer that, God alone is good essentially. For every-
thing is called good according to its perfection. Now per-
69 THE GOODNESS OF GOD Q. 6. Art. 3
f ection of a thing is threefold : first, according to the consti-
tution of its own being ; secondly, in respect of any accidents
being added as necessary for its perfect operation; thirdly,
perfection consists in the attaining to something else as the
end. Thus, for instance, the first perfection of fire consists
in its existence, which it has through its own substantial
form; its secondary perfection consists in heat, lightness
and dryness, and the like; its third perfection is to rest
in its own place. This triple perfection belongs to no
creature by its own essence; it belongs to God only, in
Whom alone essence is existence; in Whom there are no
accidents; since whatever belongs to others accidentally
belongs to Him essentially; as, to be powerful, wise, and
the like, as appears from what is stated above (Q. HL, A. 6) ;
and He is not directed to anything else as to an end, but
is Himself the last end of all things. Hence it is manifest
that God alone has every kind of perfection by His own
essence ; therefore He Himself alone is good essentially.
Reply Ohj. i. One does not include the idea of perfection,
but only of indivision, which belongs to everything according
to its own essence. Now the essences of simple things are
undivided both actually and potentially, but the essences
of compound things are undivided only actually; and
therefore everything must be one essentially, but not good
essentially, as was shown above.
Reply Ohj. 2. Although everything is good in that it has
being, yet the essence of a creature is not very being*
and therefore it does not follow that a creature is good
essentially.
Reply Ohj. 3. The goodness of a creature is not its very
essence, but something superadded ; it is either its existence,
or some added perfection, or the order to its end. Still,
the goodness itself thus added is good, just as it is being.
But for this reason is it called being because by it something
has being, not because it itself has being through something
else: hence for this reason is it called good because by it
something is good, and not because it itself has some other
goodness whereby it is good.
Q. 6. Art. 4 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 70
Fourth Article,
whether all things are good by the divine goodness ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that all things are good by the
divine goodness. For Augustine says {De Trin. viii.), This
and that are good ; take away this and that, and see good itself
if thou canst ; and so thou shalt see God, good not by any other
good, but the good of every good. But everything is good by
its own good: therefore everything is good by that very
good which is God.
Obj. 2. Further, as Boethius says (De Hebdom.), all things
are called good, accordingly as they are directed to God,
and this is by reason of the divine goodness: therefore all
things are good by the divine goodness.
On the contrary, All things are good, inasmuch as they
have being. But they are not called beings through the
divine being, but through their own being: therefore all
things are not good by the divine goodness, but by their
own goodness.
/ answer that. As regards relative things, we may admit
extrinsic denomination; as, a thing is denominated placed
from place, and measured from measure. But as regards
absolute things opinions differ. Plato held the existence
of separate ideas (Q. LXXXIV., A. 4) of all things, and that
individuals were denominated by them as participating in the
separate ideas; for instance, that Socrates is called man
according to the separate idea of man. Now just as he laid
down separate ideas of man and horse which he called absolute
man and absolute horse; so likewise he laid down separate
ideas of being and of one, and these he called absolute being
and absolute oneness ; and by participation of these everything
was called being or one ; and what was thus absolute being
and absolute one, he said was the supreme good. And
because good is convertible with being, as one is also; he
called God the absolute good, from whom all things are
called good by way of participation.
71 THE GOODNESS OF GOD Q. 6. Art. 4
Although this opinion appears to be unreasonable in
affirming separate ideas of natural things as subsisting of
themselves — -as Aristotle argues in many ways — still, it is
absolutely true that there is first something which is essen-
tially being and essentially good, which we call God, as
appears from what is shown above (Q. II., A. 3), and
Aristotle agrees with this. Hence from the first being,
essentially such, and good, everything can be called good
and a being, inasmuch as it participates in it by way of a
certain assimilation which is far removed and defective;
as appears from the above (Q. IV., A. 3).
Everything is therefore called good from the divine good-
ness, as from the first exemplary effective and final principle
of all goodness. Nevertheless, everything is called good by
reason of the similitude of the divine goodness belonging
to it, which is formally its own goodness, whereby it is
denominated good. And so of aU things there is one good-
ness, and yet many goodnesses.
This is a sufficient Reply to the Objections.
QUESTION VII.
THE INFINITY OF GOD.
{In Four Articles.)
After considering the divine perfection we must consider
the divine infinity, and God's existence in things: for God is
everywhere, and in all things, inasmuch as He is boundless
and infinite.
Concerning the first, there are four points of inquiry:
(i) Whether God is infinite ? (2) Whether anything besides
Him is infinite in essence ? (3) Whether anything can be
infinite in magnitude ? (4) Whether an infinite multitude
can exist ?
First Article,
whether god is infinite ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not infinite. .For every-
thing infinite is imperfect, as the Philosopher says; because
it has parts and matter, as is said in Physic, iii. But God
is most perfect : therefore He is not infinite.
Ohj. 2. Further, according to the Philosopher {Physic, i.),
finite and infinite belong to quantity. But there is no
quantity in God, for He is not a body, as was shown above
(Q. III., A. i). Therefore it does not belong to Him to
be infinite.
Ohj. 3. Further, what is here in such a way as not to be
elsewhere, is finite according to place. Therefore that
which is a thing in such a way as not to be another thing,
is finite according to substance. But God is this, and not
another; for He is not a stone or wood. Therefore God is
not infinite in substance.
72
73 THE INFINITY OF GOD Q. 7. Art. 1
On the contrary y Damascene says {De Fide Orth.=i. 4) that,
God is infinite and eternal y and boundless.
I answer that, All the ancient philosophers attribute in-
finitude to the first principle, as is said (Physic, iii.), and with
reason ; for they considered that things flow forth infinitely
from the first principle. But because some erred concern-
ing the nature of the first principle, as a consequence they
erred also concerning its infinity ; forasmuch as they asserted
that matter was the first principle; consequently they
attributed to the first principle a material infinity, to the
effect that some infinite body was the first principle of
things.
We must consider therefore that a thing is called infinite
because it is not finite. Now matter is in a way made finite
by form, and the form by matter. Matter indeed is made
finite by form, inasmuch as matter, before it receives its
form, is in potentiality to many forms; but on receiving
a form, it is terminated by that one. Again, form is made
finite by matter, inasmuch as form, considered in itself,
is common to many; but when received in matter, the form
is determined to this one particular thing. Now matter
is perfected by the form by which it is made finite ; therefore
infinite as attributed to matter, has the nature of something
imperfect ; for it is as it were formless matter. On the other
hand form is not made perfect by matter, but rather is
contracted by matter; and hence the infinite, regarded on
the part of the form not determined by matter, has the
nature of something perfect. Now being is the most formal
of all things, as appears from what is shown above (Q. IV.,
A. I, Obj. 3). Since therefore the divine being is not a being
received in anything, but He is His own subsistent being as
was shown above (Q. III., A. 4), it is clear that God Himself
is infinite and perfect.
From this appears the Reply to the First Objection.
Reply Obj. 2. Quantity is terminated by its form, which
can be seen in the fact that a figure which consists in quantity
terminated, is a kind of quantitative form. Hence the
infinite of quantity is the infinite of matter; such a kind of
Q. 7. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 74
infinite cannot be attributed to God; as was said above,
in this article.
Reply Ohj. 3. The fact that the being of God is self-sub-
sisting, not received in any other, and is thus called infinite,
shows Him to be distinguished from all other beings, and
all others to be apart from Him. Even so, were there such
a thing as a self-subsisting whiteness, the very fact that it
did not exist in an5^hing else, would make it distinct from
every other whiteness existing in a subject.
Second Article,
whether anything but god can be essentially infinite?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that something else besides God can
be essentially infinite. For the power of anything is propor-
tioned to its essence. Now if the essence of God is infinite,
His power must also be infinite. Therefore He can produce
an infinite effect, since the extent of a power is known by
its effect.
Ohj, 2. Further, whatever has infinite power, has an
infinite essence. Now the created intellect has an infinite
power; for it apprehends the universal, which can extend
itself to an infinitude of singular things. Therefore every
created intellectual substance is infinite.
Ohj. 3. Further, primary matter is something other than
God, as was shown above (Q. III., A. 8). But primary
matter is infinite. Therefore something besides God can be
infinite.
On the contrary, The infinite cannot have a beginning, as
said in Physic, iii. But everything outside God is from
God as from its first principle. Therefore besides God
nothing can be infinite.
/ answer that, Things other than God can be relatively in-
finite, but not absolutely infinite. For with regard to infinite
as applied to matter, it is manifest that everything actually
existing possesses a form ; and thus its matter is determined
by form. But because matter, considered as existing under
n THE INFINITY OF GOD Q. 7. Art 2
some substantial form, remains in potentiality to many
accidental forms, what is absolutely finite can be relatively
infinite; as, for example, wood is finite according to its own
form, but still it is relatively infinite, inasmuch as it is in
potentiality to an infinite number of shapes. But if we
speak of the infinite in reference to form, it is manifest
that those things, the forms of which are in matter, are
absolutely finite, and in no way infinite. If however any
created forms are not received into matter, but are self-
subsisting, as some think is the case with the angels, these
will be relatively infinite, inasmuch as such kinds of forms
are not terminated, nor contracted by any matter. But
because a created form thus subsisting has being, and yet
is not its own being, it follows that its being is received
and contracted to a determinate nature. Hence it cannot
be absolutely infinite.
Reply Obj. i. It is against the nature of a made thing
for its essence to be its existence; because subsisting being
is not a created being; hence it is against the nature of a
made thing to be absolutely infinite. Therefore, as God,
although He has infinite power, cannot make a thing to
be not made (for this would imply that two contradictories
are true at the same time), so likewise He cannot make
anything to be absolutely infinite.
Reply Obj. 2. The fact that the power of the intellect
extends itself in a way to infinite things, is because the
intellect is a form not in matter, but either wholly sepajjfed
from matter, as is the angelic substance, or at le3.Wrkn
intellectual power, which is not the act of any organ, in
the intellectual soul joined to a body.
Reply Obj. 3. Primary matter does not exist by itself in
nature, since it is not actually being, but potentially only;
hence it is something concreated rather than created.
Nevertheless, primary matter even as a potentiality is not
absolutely infinite, but relatively, because its potentiality
extends onlv to natural forms.
g. 7. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 76
Third Article,
whether an actually infinite magnitude can exist ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that there can be something actually
infinite in magnitude. For in mathematics there is no error,
since there is no lie in things abstract, as the Philosopher says
{Physic, ii.). But mathematics use the infinite in magnitude ;
thus, the geometrician in his demonstrations says. Let this
line be infinite. Therefore it is not impossible for a thing
to be infinite in magnitude.
Obj. 2. Further, what is not against the nature of any-
thing, can agree with it. Now to be infinite is not against
the nature of magnitude; but rather both the finite and the
infinite seem to be properties of quantity. Therefore it is
not impossible for some magnitude to be infinite.
Obj. 3. Further, magnitude is infinitely divisible, for the
continuous is defined that which is infinitely divisible, as is
clear from Physic, iii. But contraries are concerned about
one and the same thing. Since therefore addition is opposed
to division, and increase is opposed to diminution, it appears
that magnitude can be increased to infinity. Therefore
it is possible for magnitude to be infinite.
Obj. 4. Further, movement and time have quantity and
continuity derived from the magnitude over which move-
ment passes, as is said in Physic, iv. But it is not against
the nature of time and movement to be infinite, since every
determinate indivisible in time and circular movement is
both a beginning and an end. Therefore neither is it against
the nature of magnitude to be infinite.
On the contrary. Every body has a surface. But every
body which has a surface is finite ; because surface is the term
of a finite body. Tlierefore all bodies are finite. The same
applies both to surface and to a line. Therefore nothing is
infinite in magnitude.
I answer that, It is one thing to be infinite in essence, and
another to be infinite in magnitude. For granted that a
^^ THE INFINITY OF GOD Q. 7. Art. 3
body exists infinite in magnitude, as fire or air, yet this
could not be infinite in essence, because its essence would be
terminated in a species by its form, and confined to individu-
ality by matter. And so assuming from these premisses
that no creature is infinite in essence, it still remains to
inquire whether any creature can be infinite in magnitude.
We must therefore observe that a body, which is a tom-
plete magnitude, can be considered in two ways; mathe-
matically, in respect to its quantity only; and naturally,
as regards its matter and form.
Now it is manifest that a natural body cannot be actually
infinite. For every natural body has some determined
substantial form. Since therefore the accidents follow upon
the substantial form, it is necessary that determinate
accidents should follow upon a determinate form; and
among these accidents is quantity. So every natural body
has a greater or smaller determinate quantity. Hence it is
impossible for a natural body to be infinite. The same
appears from movement; because every natural body has
some natural movement ; whereas an infinite body could not
have any natural movement ; neither direct, because nothing
moves naturally by a direct movement unless it is out of its
place; and this could not happen to an infinite body, for it
would occupy every place, and thus every place would be
indifferently its own place. Neither could it move circularly ;
forasmuch as circular motion requires that one part of the
body is necessarily transferred to a place occupied by
another part, and this could not happen as regards an infinite
circular body : for if two lines be drawn from the centre, the
farther they extend from the centre, the farther they are
from each other; therefore, if a body were infinite, the
lines would be infinitely distant from each other; and
thus one could never occupy the place belonging to any
other.
The same applies to a mathematical body. For if we
imagine a mathematical body actually existing, we must
imagine it under some form, because nothing is actual except
by its form; hence, since the form of quantity as such is
Q. 7. Art. 4 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 78
figure, such a body must have some figure, and so would be
finite; for figure is confined by a term or boundary.
Reply Obj. 1. A geometrician does not need to assume
a line actually infinite, but takes some actually finite line,
from which he subtracts whatever he finds necessary ; which
line he calls infinite.
Reply Obj. 2. Although the infinite is not against the
nature of magnitude in general, still it is against the nature
of any species of it ; thus, for instance, it is against the nature
of a bicubical or tricubical magnitude, whether circular or
triangular, and so on. Now what is not possible in any
species cannot exist in the genus ; hence there cannot be any
infinite magnitude, since no species of magnitude is infinite.
Reply Obj. 3. The infinite in quantity, as was shown
above, belongs to matter. Now by division of the whole we
approach to matter, forasmuch as parts have the aspect of
matter; but by addition we approach to the whole which
has the aspect of a form. Therefore the infinite is not in
the addition of magnitude, but only in division.
Reply Obj. 4. Movement and time are whole, not actually
but successively; hence they have potentiality mixed with
actuality. But magnitude is an actual whole; therefore the
infinite in quantity refers to matter, and does not agree with
the totality of magnitude; yet it agrees with the totality of
time or movement: for it is proper to matter to be in
potentiality.
Fourth Article,
whether an infinite multitude can exist ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : — •
Objection i. It seems that an actually infinite multitude is
possible. For it is not impossible for a potentiality to be
made actual. But number can be multiplied to infinity.
Therefore it is possible for an infinite multitude actually to
exist.
Obj. 2. Further, it is possible for any individual of any
species to be made actual. But the species of figures are
79 THE INFINITY OF GOD Q. 7. Art. 4
infinite. Therefore an infinite number of actual figures is
possible.
Obj. 3. Further, things not opposed to each other do not
obstruct each other. But supposing a multitude of things
to exist, there can still be many others not opposed to them.
Therefore it is not impossible for others also to coexist with
them, and so on to infinitude; therefore an actual infinite
number of things is possible.
On the contrary, It is written. Thou hast ordered all things
in measure, and number, and weight (Wis. xi. 21).
/ answer that, A twofold opinion exists on this subject.
Some, as Avicenna and Algazel, said that it was impossible
for an actually infinite multitude to exist absolutely; but
that an accidentally infinite multitude was not impossible.
A multitude is said to be infinite absolutely, when an infinite
multitude is necessary that something may exist. Now this
is impossible; because it would entail something dependent
on an infinity for its existence; and hence its generation
could never come to be, because it is impossible to pass
through an infinite medium.
A multitude is said to be accidentally infinite when its
existence as such is not necessary, but accidental. This can
be shown, for example, in the work of a carpenter requiring
a certain absolute multitude; namely, art in the soul,
the movement of the hand, and a hammer; and supposing
that such things were infinitely multiplied, the carpentering
work would never be finished, forasmuch as it would depend
on an infinite number of causes. But the multitude of
hammers, inasmuch as one may be broken and another used,
is an accidental multitude; for it happens by accident that
many hammers are used, and it matters little whether one
or two, or many are used, or an infinite number, if the work
is carried on for an infinite time. In this way they said that
there can be an accidentally infinite multitude.
This, however, is impossible; since every kind of multi-
tude must belong to a species of multitude. Now the species
of multitude are to be reckoned by the species of numbers.
But no species of number is infinite; for every number is
Q. 7. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 80
multitude measured by one. Hence it is impossible for
there to be an actually infinite multitude, either absolute or
accidental. Likewise multitude in nature is created; and
ever3d:hing created is comprehended under some clear in-
tention of the Creator; for no agent acts aimlessly. Hence
everything created must be comprehended in a certain
number. Therefore it is impossible for an actually infinite
multitude to exist, even accidentally. But a potentially
infinite multitude is possible; because the increase of multi-
tude follows upon the division of magnitude; since the
more a thing is divided, the greater number of things result.
Hence, as the infinite is to be found potentially in the
division of the continuous, because we thus approach
matter, as was shown in the preceding article, by the same
rule, the infinite can be also found potentially in the addition
of multitude.
Reply Obj. 1. Every potentiality is made actual according
to its mode of being; for instance, a day is reduced to act
successively, and not all at once. Likewise the infinite in
multitude is reduced to act successively, and not all at once ;
because every multitude can be succeeded by another multi-
tude to infinity.
Reply Obj. 2. Species of figures are infinite by infinitude
of number. Now there are various species of figures, such
as trilateral, quadrilateral and so on; and as an infinitely
numerable multitude is not all at once reduced to act, so
neither is the multitude of figures.
Reply Obj. 3. Although the supposition of some things
does not preclude the supposition of others, still the suppo-
sition of an infinite number is opposed to any single species of
multitude. Hence it is not possible for an actually infinite
multitude to exist.
QUESTION VIII.
THE EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS.
{In Four Articles.)
Since it evidently belongs to the infinite to be present
everywhere, and in all things, we now consider whether this
belongs to God; and concerning this there arise four points
of inquiry: (i) Whether God is in all things ? (2) Whether
God is everywhere ? (3) Whether God is everywhere by
essence, power, and presence ? (4) Whether to be every-
where belongs to God alone ?
First Article,
whether god is in all things ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not in all things. For
what is above all things is not in all things. But God is
above all, according to the Psalm (cxii. 4), The Lord is high
above all nations, etc. Therefore God is not in aU things.
Obj. 2. Further, what is in anything is thereby contained.
Now God is not contained by things, but rather does He
contain them. Therefore God is not in things; but things
are rather in Him. Hence Augustine says {Octog. Tri. QucBst.
qti. 20), that in Him things are, rather than He is in any
place.
Obj. 3. Further, the more powerful an agent is, the
more extended is its action. But God is the most powerful
of all agents. Therefore His action can extend to things
which are far removed from Him; nor is it necessary that
He should be in all things.
i> 81 6
Q. 8. Art. i THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 82
Obj. 4. Further, the demons are beings. But God is not
in the demons; for there is no fellowship between light
and darkness (2 Cor. vi. 14). Therefore God is not in all
things.
On the contrary, A thing is wherever it operates. But
God operates in all things, according to Isa. xxvi. 12, Lord . . .
Thou hast wrought all our works in [Vulg.,/or] us. Therefore
God is in all things.
/ answer that, God is in all things; not, indeed, as part of
their essence, nor as an accident ; but as an agent is present
to that upon which it works. For an agent must be joined
to that wherein it acts immediately, and touch it by its
power; hence it is proved in Physic, vii. that the thing
moved and the mover must be joined together. Now since
God is very being by His own Qssence, created being must
be His proper effect ; as to ignite is the proper effect of fire.
Now God causes this effect in things not only when they first
begin to be, but as long as they are preserved in being; as
light is caused in the air by the sun as long as the air remains
illuminated. Therefore as long as a thing has being, God
must be present to it, according to its mode of being. But
being is innermost in each thing and most fundamentally
inherent in all things since it is formal in respect of every-
thing found in a thing, as was shown above (Q. VH., A. i).
Hence it must be that God is in all things, and innermostly.
Reply Obj. i. God is above all things by the excellence
of His nature; nevertheless. He is in all things as the cause
of the being of all things ; as was shown above in this article.
Reply Obj. 2. Although corporeal things are said to be
in another as in that which contains them, nevertheless
spiritual things contain those things in which they are; as
the soul contains the body. Hence also God is in things as
containing them: nevertheless by a certain similitude to
corporeal things, it is said that all things are in God; inas-
much as they are contained by Him.
Reply Obj. 3. No action of an agent, however powerful
it may be, acts at a distance, except through a medium.
But it belongs to the great power of God that He acts
83 EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS Q. 8. Art. 2
immediately in all things. Hence nothing is distant from
Him, as if it could be without God in itself. But things are
said to be distant from God by the unlikeness to Him in
nature or grace; as also He is above all by the excellence
of His own nature.
Reply Ohj. 4. In the demons there is their nature which
is from God, and also the deformity of sin which is not
from Him; therefore, it is not to be absolutely conceded
that God is in the demons, except with the addition, inas-
much as they are beings. But in things not deformed in their
nature, we must say absolutely that God is.
Second Article,
whether god is everywhere ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article ; —
Objection i. It seems that God is not everywhere. For
to be everywhere means to be in every place. But to be in
every place does not belong to God, to Whom it does not
belong to be in place at all ; for incorporeal things, as Boethius
says {De Hebdom.), are not in a place. Therefore God is not
everywhere.
Obj. 2. Further, the relation of time to succession is the
same as the relation of place to permanence. But one in-
divisible part of action or movement cannot exist in different
times ; therefore neither can one indivisible part in the genus
of permanent things be in every place. Now the divine
being is not successive, but permanent. Therefore God is
not in many places; and thus He is not everywhere.
Obj. 3. Further, what is wholly in any one place is not
in part elsewhere. But if God is in any one place He is all
there; for He has no parts. No part of Him then is else-
where; and therefore God is not everywhere.
On the contrary, It is written, / fill heaven and earth (Jer.
xxiii. 24).
/ answer that. Since place is a thing, to be in place can
be understood in a twofold sense; either by way of other
things — i.e., as one thing is said to be in another no
Q. 8. Art. 2. THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 84
matter how ; and thus the accidents of a place are in place ;
or by a way proper to place ; and thus things placed are in
place. Now in both these senses in some way God is in
every place; and this is to be everywhere. First, as He
is in all things as giving them being, power, and opera-
tion; so He is in every place as giving it existence and
locative power. Again, things placed are in place, inas-
much as they fill place; and God fills every place; not,
indeed, like a body, for a body is said to fill place inasmuch
as it excludes the co-presence of another body; whereas by
God being in a place, others are not thereby excluded from
it ; indeed, by the very fact that He gives being to the things
that fill every place. He Himself fills every place.
Reply Ohj. i. Incorporeal things are in place not by
contact of dimensive quantity, as bodies are, but by contact
of power.
Reply Ohj. 2. The indivisible is twofold. One is the
term of the continuous ; as a point in permanent things, and
as a moment in succession; and this kind of the indivisible
in permanent things, forasmuch as it has a determinate
site, cannot be in many parts of place, or in many places;
likewise the indivisible of action or movement, forasmuch
as it has a determinate order in movement or action,
cannot be in many parts of time. Another kind of the
indivisible is outside of the whole genus of the continuous;
and in this way incorporeal substances, like God, angel, and
soul, are called indivisible. Such a kind of indivisible does
not belong to the continuous, as a part of it, but as touching
it by its power; hence, according as its power can extend
itself to one or to many, to a small thing, or to a great one,
in this way it is in one or in many places, and in a small or
large place.
Reply Ohj. 3. A whole is so called with reference to its
parts. Now part is twofold: viz., a part of the essence, as
the form and the matter are called parts of the composite,
while genus and difference are called parts of species. There
is also part of quantity, into which any quantity is divided.
What therefore is whole in any place by totality of quantity.
85 EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS Q. 8. Art. 3
cannot be outside of that place, because the quantity of
anything placed is commensurate to the quantity of the
place ; and hence there is no totality of quantity without
totality of place. But totality of essence is not commen-
surate to the totality of place. Hence it is not necessary
for that which is whole by totality of essence in a thing, not
to be at all outside of it. This appears also in accidental
forms, which have accidental quantity ; as an example, white-
ness is whole in each part of the surface if we speak of its
totality of essence; because according to the perfect idea
of its species it is found to exist in every part of the surface.
But if its totality be considered according to quantity which
it has accidentally, then it is not whole in every part of the
surface. On the other hand incorporeal substances have no
totality either of themselves or accidentally, except in refer-
ence to the perfect idea of their essence. Hence, as the soul
is whole in every part of the body, so is God whole in all
things and in each one.
Third Article.
whether god is everywhere by essence, presence,
and power ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the mode of God's existence in
all things is not properly described by way of essence,
presence, and power. For what is by essence in anything,
is in it essentially. But God is not essentially in things;
for He does not belong to the essence of anything. There-
fore it ought not to be said that God is in things by essence,
presence, and power.
Ohj. 2, Further, to be present to anything means not to be
absent from it. Now this is the meaning of God being in
things by his essence, that He is not absent from anything.
Therefore the presence of God in all things by essence and
presence means the same thing. Therefore it is superfluous
to say that God is present in things by His essence, presence,
and power.
Ohj. 3. Further, as God by His power is the principle of
Q. 8. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 86
all things, so He is the same likewise by His knowledge and
will. But it is not said that He is in things by knowledge
and will. Therefore neither is He present by His power.
Ohj. 4. Further, as grace is a perfection added to the
substance of a thing, so many other perfections are likewise
added. Therefore if God is said to be in certain persons in
a special way by grace, it seems that according to every
perfection there ought to be a special mode of God's existence
in things.
On the contrary, A gloss on the Canticle of Canticles, v.,
says that, God by a common mode is in all things by His
presence, power, aitd substance; still He is said to be present
more familiarly in some by grace.*
I answer that, God is said to be in a thing in two ways ; in
one way after the manner of an efficient cause; and thus He
is in all things created by Him; in another way He is in
things as the object of operation is in the operator; and this
is proper to the operations of the soul, according as the thing
known is in the one who knows ; and the thing desired in the
one desiring. In this second way God is especially in the
rational creature, which knows and loves Him actually or
habitually. And because the rational creature possesses
this prerogative by grace, as will be shown later (Q. XII.),
He is said to be thus in tlie saints by grace.
But how He is in other things created by Him, may be
considered from human affairs. A king, for example, is
said to be in the whole kingdom by his power, although he
is not everywhere present. Again a thing is said to be by its
presence in other things which are subject to its inspection;
as things in a house are said to be present to anyone, who
nevertheless may not be in substance in every part of the
house. Lastly a thing is said to be by way of substance
or essence in that place in which its substance may be. Now
there were some (the Manichees) who said that spiritual
and incorporeal things were subject to the divine power;
but that visible and corporeal things were subject to the
* The quotation is from S. Gregory {Horn. viii. in Ezech.)
Sj EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS Q. 8. Art. 3
power of a contrary principle. Therefore against these it
is necessary to say that God is in all things by His power.
But others, though they believed that all things were
subject to the divine power, still did not allow that divine
providence extended to these inferior bodies, and in the
person of these it is said, He walketh about the poles of the
heavens; and He doth not consider our things * (Job xxii. 14).
Against these it is necessary to say that God is in all things
by His presence.
Further, others said that, although all things are subject
to God's providence, still all things are not immediately
created by God; but that He immediately created the first
creatures, and these created the others. Against these it is
necessary to say that He is in all things by His essence.
Therefore, God is in all things by His power, inasmuch as
all things are subject to His power; He is by His presence
in all things, as all things are bare and open to His eyes; He
is in all things by His essence, inasmuch as He is present
to all as the cause of their being.
Reply Obj. i. God is said to be in all things by essence,
not indeed by the essence of the things themselves, as if
He were of their essence; but by His own essence; because
His substance is present to all things as the cause of their
being.
Reply Obj. 2. A thing can be said to be present to another,
when in its sight, though the thing may be distant in
substance, as was shown in this article; and therefore two
modes of presence are necessary; viz., by essence, and by
presence.
Reply Obj. 3. Knowledge and will require that the thing
known should be in the one who knows, and the thing
willed in the one who wills. Hence by knowledge and will
things are more truly in God than God in things. But
power is the principle of acting on another; hence by power
the agent is related and applied to an external thing;
thus by power an agent may be said to be present to
another.
* Vulg., He doth not consider . , . and He walketh, etc.
Q. 8. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 88
Reply Ohj. 4. No other perfection, except grace, added to
substance, renders God present in anything as the object
known and loved; therefore only grace constitutes a special
mode of God's existence in things. There is, however,
another special mode of God's existence in man by union,
which will be treated of in its own place (Part III.).
Fourth Article,
whether to be everywhere belongs to god
ALONE ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that to be everywhere does not
belong to God alone. For the universal, according to the
Philosopher {Poster, i.), is everywhere, and always; primary
matter also, since it is in all bodies, is everywhere. But
neither of these is God, as appears from what is said above
(Q. III.). Therefore to be everywhere does not belong to
God alone.
Ohj. 2. Further, number is in things numbered. But the
whole universe is constituted in number, as appears from
the Book of Wisdom (xi. 21). Therefore there is some
number which is in the whole universe, and is thus every-
where.
Ohj. 3. Further, the universe is a kind of a whole perfect
body [Ccel. et Mund. i.). But the whole universe is every-
where, because there is no place outside of it. Therefore to
be everywhere does not belong to God alone.
Ohj. 4. Further, if any body were infinite, no place would
exist outside of it, and so it would be everywhere. Therefore
to be everywhere does not appear to belong to God alone.
Ohj. 5. Further, the soul, as Augustine says {De Trin. vi. 6),
is whole in the whole hody, and whole in every one of its parts.
Therefore if there was only one animal in the world, its
soul would be everywhere; and thus to be everywhere does
not belong to God alone.
Ohj. 6. Further, as Augustine says [Ep. cxxxvii). The soul
feels where it sees, and lives where it feels, and is where it lives.
89 EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS Q. 8. Art. 4
But the soul sees as it were everywhere : for in a succession of
glances it comprehends the entire space of the heavens in its
sight. Therefore the soul is everywhere.
On the contrary, Ambrose says {De Spir. Sand. i. 7):
Who dares to call the Holy Ghost a creature, Who in all things,
and everywhere, and always is, which assuredly belongs to the
divinity alone ?
I answer that, To be everywhere primarily and absolutely,
is proper to God. Now to be everywhere primarily is
said of that which in its whole self is everywhere; for if a
thing were everywhere according to its parts in different
places, it would not be primarily everywhere, forasmuch
as what belongs to anything according to part does not
belong to it primarily ; thus if a man has white teeth, white-
ness belongs primarily not to the man but to his teeth.
But a thing is everywhere absolutely when it does not
belong to it to be everywhere accidentally, that is, merely
on some supposition; as a grain of millet would be every-
where, supposing that no other body existed. It belongs
therefore to a thing to be everywhere absolutely when, on
any supposition, it must be everywhere; and this properly
belongs to God alone. For whatever number of places be
supposed, even if an infinite number be supposed besides
what already exist, it would be necessary that God should
be in all of them; for nothing can exist except by Him.
Therefore to be everywhere primarily and absolutely,
belongs to God, and is proper to Him: because whatever
number of places be supposed to exist, God must be in all
of them, not as to a part of Him, but as to His very self.
Reply Obj. i. The universal, and also primary matter are
indeed everywhere; but not according to the same mode
of existence.
Reply Obj. 2. Number, since it is an accident, does not, of
itself, exist in place, but accidentally; neither is the whole
but only part of it in each of the things numbered; hence
it does not follow that it is primarily and absolutely every-
where.
Reply Obj. 3. The whole body of the universe is every-
Q. 8. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 90
where, but not primarily; forasmuch as it is not wholly in
each place, but according to its parts; nor again is it every-
where absolutely, because, supposing that other places
existed besides itself, it would not be in them.
Reply Ohj. 4. If an infinite body existed, it would be
everywhere; but according to its parts.
Reply Ohj. 5. Were there one animal only, its soul would
be everywhere primarily indeed, but accidentally.
Reply Ohj. 6. When it is said that the soul seea anywhere,
this can be taken in two senses. In one sense the adverb
anywhere determines the act of seeing on the part of the
object; and in this sense it is true that while it sees the
heavens, it sees in the heavens; and in the same way it feels
in the heavens ; but it does not follow that it lives or exists in
the heavens, because to live and to exist do not import an
act passing to an exterior object. In another sense it can be
understood according as the adverb determines the act of
the seer, as proceeding from the seer; and thus it is true that
where the soul feels and sees, there it is, and there it lives
according to this mode of speaking; and thus it does not
follow that it is everywhere.
QUESTION IX.
THE IMMUTABILITY OF GOD.
{In Two Articles.)
We next consider God's immutability, and His eternity
following on His immutability.
On the immutability of God there are two points of
inquiry : (i) Whether God is altogether immutable ? (2)
Whether to be immutable belongs to God alone ?
First Article,
whether god is altogether immutable ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not altogether immut-
able. For whatever moves itself is in some way mutable.
But, as Augustine says {Gen. ad lit. viii. 20), The Creator
Spirit moves Himself neither by time, nor by place. Therefore
God is in some way mutable.
Obj. 2. Further, it is said of Wisdom, that it is more
mobile than all things active — Vulg. mobilior. (Wisd. vii. 24).
But God is wisdom itself; therefore God is movable.
Obj. 3. Further, to approach and to recede signify move-
ment. But these are said of God in Scripture, Draw nigh to
God, and He will draw nigh to you (James iv. 8). Therefore
God is mutable.
On the contrary, It is written, / am the Lord, and I change
not (Mai. iii. 6).
/ answer that, From what precedes, it is shown that God
is altogether immutable. First, because it was shown
above that there is some first being, whom we call God;
and that this first being must be pure act, without the
91 '
Q.q.Art. I THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 92
admixture of any potentiality, for the reason that, absolutely,
potentiality is posterior to act. Now everything which
is in any way changed, is in some way in potentiality.
Hence it is evident that it is impossible for God to be in
any way changeable. Secondly, because everything which
is moved, remains as it was in part, and passes away in part ;
as what is moved from whiteness to blackness, remains the
same as to suibstance; thus in everything which is moved,
there is some kind of composition to be found. But it has
been shown above (Q. III. A. 7.) that in God there is no com-
position, for He is altogether simple. Hence it is manifest
that God cannot be moved. Thirdly, because everything
which is moved acquires something by its movement, and
attains to what it had not attained previously. But since
God is infinite, comprehending in Himself all the plenitude
of perfection of all being, He cannot acquire anything new,
nor extend Himself to anything whereto He was not extended
previously. Hence movement in no way belongs to Him. So,
some of the ancients, constrained, as it were, by the truth,
decided that the first principle was immovable.
Reply Obj. i. Augustine there speaks in a similar way
to Plato, who said that the first mover moves Himself;
calling every operation a movement, even as the acts of
understanding, and willing, and loving, are called move-
ments. Therefore because God understands and loves Him-
self, in that respect they said that God moves Himself, not,
however, as movement and change belong to a thing existing
in potentiality, as we now speak of change and movement.
Reply Obj. 2. Wisdom is called mobile by way of simili-
tude, according as it diffuses its likeness even to the outer-
most of things ; for nothing can exist which does not proceed
from the divine wisdom by way of some kind of imitation,
as from the first effective and formal principle; as also works
of art proceed from the wisdom of the artist. And so in the
same way, inasmuch as the similitude of the divine wisdom
proceeds in degrees from the highest things, which partici-
pate more fully of its likeness, to the lowest things which
participate of it in a lesser degree, there is said be a kind of
93 THE IMMUTABILITY OF GOD Q. 9, art. 2
procession and movement of the divine wisdom to things ; as
when we say that the sun proceeds to the earth, inasmuch
as the ray of Hght touches the earth. In this way Dio-
nysius (C<s/. Hier. i.) expounds the matter, that every pro-
cession of the divine manifestation comes to us from the
movement of the Father of light.
Reply Obj. 3. These things are said of God in Scripture
metaphorically. For as the sun is said to enter a house,
or to go out, according as its rays reach the house, so God
is said to approach to us, or to recede from us, when we
receive the influx of His goodness, or decline from Him.
Second Article,
whether to be immutable belongs to god alone ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that to be immutable does not belong
to God alone. For the Philosopher says [Metaph ii.), that
matter is in everything which is moved. But, according to
some, certain created substances, as angels and souls,
have not matter. Therefore to be immutable does not
belong to God alone.
Obj. 2. Further, everything in motion moves to some end.
What therefore has already attained its ultimate end, is not
in motion. But some creatures have already attained to
their ultimate end; as all the blessed in heaven. Therefore
some creatures are immovable.
Obj. 3. Further, everything which is mutable, is variable.
But forms are invariable; for it is said (Sex Princip. i.) that
form is essence consisting of the simple and invariable. There-
fore it does not belong to God alone to be immutable.
On the contrary, Augustine says [De Nat. Boni. i.), God
alone is immutable; and whatever things He has made, being
from nothing, are mutable.
I answer that, God alone is altogether immutable; whereas,
every creature is in some way mutable. Be it known there-
fore that a mutable thing can be called so in two ways : by a
power in itself; and by a power possessed by another. For
Q. 9. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 94
all creatures before they existed, were possible, not by any
created power, since no creature is eternal, but by the
divine power alone, inasmuch as God could produce them
into existence. Thus, as the production of a thing into
existence depends on the will of God, so likewise it depends
on His will that things should be preserved; for He does
not preserve them otherwise than by ever giving them
existence; hence if He took away His action from them, all
things would be reduced to nothing, as appears from Augus-
tine {Gen. ad lit. iv. 12). Therefore as it was in the Creator's
power to produce them before they existed in themselves;
so likewise it is in the Creator's power when they exist in
themselves to bring them to nothing. In this way therefore,
by the power of another — namely, of God — they are mutable,
inasmuch as they are producible from nothing by Him, and
are by Him reducible from existence to non-existence.
If, however, a thing is called mutable by a power in itself,
thus also in some manner every creature is mutable. For
every creature has a twofold power, active and passive; and
I call that power passive which enables anything to attain its
perfection either in being, or in attaining to its end. Now if
the mutability of a thing be considered according to its
power for being, in that way all creatures are not mutable,
but those only in which what is potential in them is con-
sistent with non-being. Hence, in the inferior bodies
there is mutability both as regards substantial being, inas-
much as their matter can exist with privation of their
substantial form, and also as regards their accidental being,
supposing the subject to coexist with privation of accident;
as, for example, this subject man can exist with not-whiteness,
and can therefore be changed from white to not-white.
But supposing the accident to be such as to follow on the
essential principles of the subject, then the privation of
such an accident cannot coexist with the subject. Hence
the subject cannot be changed as regards that kind of
accident; as, for example, snow cannot be made black.
Now in the celestial bodies matter is not consistent with
privation of form, because the form perfects the whole
95 THE IMMUTABILITY OF GOD Q. 9. Art. 2
potentiality of the matter; therefore these bodies are not
mutable as to substantial being, but only as to locality,
because the subject is consistent with privation of this or
that place. On the other hand incorporeal substances, being
subsistent forms which, although with respect to their own
existence are as potentiality to act, are not consistent with
the privation of this act; forasmuch as existence is conse-
quent upon form, and nothing corrupts except it lose its
form. Hence in the form itself there is no power to non-
existence; and so these kinds of substances are immutable
and invariable as regards their existence. Wherefore
Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv.), that intellectual created sub-
stances are pure from generation and from every variation, as
also are incorporeal and immaterial substances Still, there
remains in them a twofold mutability : one as regards their
potentiality to their end; and in that way there is in them a
mutability according to choice from good to evil, as Dama-
scene says (De Fide, ii. 3, 4); the other as regards place,
inasmuch as by their finite power they attain to certain fresh
places — which cannot be said of God, who by His infinity
fills all places, as was shown above (Q. VIII. A. 2.).
Thus in every creature there is a potentiahty to change
either as regards substantial being as in the case of things
corruptible; or as regards locality only, as in the case of
the celestial bodies; or as regards the order to their end,
and the application of their powers to divers objects, as is
the case with the angels; and universally all creatures
generally are mutable by the power of the Creator, in Whose
power is their existence and non-existence. Hence since
God is in none of these ways mutable, it belongs to Him
alone to be altogether immutable.
Reply Obj. i. This objection proceeds from mutability
as regards substantial or accidental being; for philosophers
treated of such movement.
Reply Obj, 2. The good angels, besides their natural
endowment of immutability of being, have also immuta-
bility of election by divine power; nevertheless there
remains in them mutability as regards place.
Q. 9. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 96
Reply Obj. 3. Forms are called invariable, forasmuch as
they cannot be subjects of variation ; but they are subject
to variation because by them their subject is variable.
Hence it is clear that they vary in so far as they are; for
they are not called beings as though they were the subject
of being, but because through them something has being.
QUESTION X.
THE ETERNITY OF GOD.
{In Six Articles.)
We must now consider the eternity of God, concerning
which arise six points of inquiry : (i) What is eternity ? (2)
Whether God is eternal ? (3) Whether to be eternal belongs
to God alone ? (4) Whether eternity differs from time ?
(5) The difference of aeviternity and of time. (6) Whether
there is only one aeviternity, as there is one time, and one
eternity ?
First Article.
whether this is a good definition of eternity, ' the
simultaneously-whole and perfect possession of
interminable life '?
We proceed thus to the First Article: —
Objection i. It seems that the definition of eternity given
by Boethius {De Consol. v.) is not a good one: ' Eternity is
the simultaneously-whole and perfect possession of inter-
minable life.' For the word interminable is a negative one.
But negation only belongs to what is defective, and this
does not belong to eternity. Therefore in the definition of
eternity the word interminable ought not to be found.
Obj, 2. Further, eternity signifies a certain kind of
duration. But duration regards existence rather than life.
Therefore the word life ought not to come into the defini-
tion of eternity; but rather the word existence.
Obj. 3. Further, a whole is what has parts. But this is
alien to eternity, which is simple. Therefore it is im-
properly said to be whole.
T. 91 7
Q. lo. Art. i THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 9^
Obj. 4. Many days cannot occur together, nor can many
times exist all at once. But in eternity days and times are
in the plural, for it is said, His going forth is from the begin-
ning, from the days of eternity (Mic. v. 2) ; and also it is
said, According to the revelation of the mystery hidden from
eternity (Rom. xvi. 25). Therefore eternity is not omni-
simultaneous.
Obj. 5. Further, the whole and the perfect are the same
thing. Supposing, therefore, that it is whole, it is super-
fluously described as perfect.
Obj. 6. Further, duration does not imply possession. But
eternity is a kind of duration. Therefore eternity is not
possession.
/ answer that, As we attain to the knowledge of simple
things by way of compound things, so we must reach to the
knowledge of eternity by means of time, which is nothing
but the numbering of movement by before and after. For
since succession occurs in every movement, and one part
comes after another, the fact that we reckon before and after
in movement, makes us apprehend time, which is nothing
else but the measure of before and after in movement. Now
in a thing bereft of movement, which is always the same,
there is no before and after. As therefore the idea of time
consists in the numbering of before and after in movement ;
so likewise in the apprehension of the uniformity of what is
outside of movement, consists the idea of eternity.
Further, those things are said to be measured by time
which have a beginning and an end in time, because in
everything which is moved there is a beginning, and there
is an end. But as whatever is wholly immutable can have
no succession, so it has no beginning, and no end.
Thus eternity is known from two sources: first, because
what is eternal is interminable — that is, has no beginning nor
end (that is, no term either way) ; secondly, because eternity
has no succession, being simultaneously whole.
Reply Obj. i. Simple things are usually defined by way of
negation ; as * a point is that which has no parts.' Yet this
is not to be taken as if the negation belonged to their
99 THE ETERNITY OF GOD Q. lo. Art. 2
essence, but because our intellect which first apprehends
compound things, cannot attain to the knowledge of simple
things except by removing the composite.
Reply Obj. 2. What is truly eternal, is not only being, but
also living; and life extends to operation, which is not
true of being. Now the protraction of duration seems to
belong to operation rather than to being ; hence time is the
numbering of movement.
Reply Obj. 3. Eternity is called whole, not because it
has parts, but because it is wanting in nothing.
Reply Obj. /\. As God, although incorporeal, is named in
Scripture metaphorically by corporeal names, so eternity
though simultaneously whole, is called by names implying
time and succession.
Reply Obj. 5. Two things are to be considered in time:
time itself, which is successive; and the now of time, which
is imperfect. Hence the expression simultaneously -whole is
used to remove the idea of time, and the word perfect is
used to exclude the now of time.
Reply Obj. 6. Whatever is possessed, is held firmly and
quietly ; therefore to designate the immutability and perma-
nence of eternity, we use the word possession.
Second Article,
whether god is eternal ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not eternal. For
nothing made can be predicated of God. But eternity is
a thing made; for Boethius says (De Trin. iv.) that. The now
that flows away makes time, the now that stands still makes
eternity; and Augustine says (Octog. Tri. QucBst.qu. 28) that
God is the author of eternity. Therefore God is not eternal.
Obj. 2. Further, what is before eternity, and after eternity,
is not measured by eternity. But, as Aristotle says {De Caus) ,
God is before eternity and He is after eternity: for it is written
that the Lord shall reign for eternity, and beyond * (Exod, xv,
18) . Therefore to be eternal does not belong to God.
* Douay, — for ever and ever.
Q. lo. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 100
Ohj. 3. Further, eternity is a kind of measure. But to be
measured belongs not to God. Therefore it does not belong
to Him to be eternal.
Ohj, 4. Further, in eternity there is no present, past, nor
future, since it is simultaneously whole; as was said in the
preceding article. But words denoting present, past, and
future time are applied to God in Scripture . Therefore God
is not eternal.
On the contrary, Athanasius says in his Creed : The Father
is eternal, the Son is eternal, the Holy Ghost is eternal.
I answer that. The idea of eternity follows immutability,
as the idea of time follows movement, as appears from the
preceding article. Hence, as God is supremely immutable,
it supremely belongs to Him to be eternal. Nor is He
eternal only; but He is His own eternity; whereas, no
other being is its own duration, as no other is its own being.
Now God is His own uniform being ; and hence, as He is His
own essence, so He is His own eternity.
Reply Ohj. i. The now that stands still, is said to make
eternity according to our apprehension. As the appre-
hension of time is caused in us by the fact that we appre-
hend the flow of the now; so the apprehension of eternity
is caused in us by our apprehending the now standing still.
When Augustine says that God is the author of eternity, this
is to be understood of participated eternity. For God
communicates His eternity to some in the same way as He
communicates His immutability.
Reply Ohj. 2. From this appears the answer to the second
objection. For God is said to be before eternity, accord-
ing as it is shared by immaterial substances. Hence, also,
in the same book, it is said that intelligence is equal to
eternity. In the words of Exodus, The Lord shall reign
for eternity, and heyond, eternity stands for age, as another
rendering has it. Thus, it is said that the Lord will reign
beyond eternity, inasmuch as He endures beyond every
age, that is, beyond every kind of given duration. For age
is nothing more than the period of each thing, as is said in
the book De Ccelo i. Or to reign beyond eternity can be
loi THE ETERNITY OF GOD Q. lo. Art. 3
taken to mean that if any other thing were conceived to
exist for ever, as the movement of the heavens according
to some philosophers, then God would still reign beyond,
inasmuch as His reign is simultaneously whole.
Reply Ohj. 3. Eternity is nothing else but God Himself.
Hence God is not called eternal, as if He were in any way
measured; but the idea of measurement is there taken
according to the apprehension of our mind alone.
Reply Ohj, 4. Words denoting different times are applied
to God, because His eternity includes all times ; not as if He
Himself were altered through present, past, and future.
Third Article,
whether to be eternal belongs to god alone ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article: —
Objection i. It seems that it does not belong to God alone
to be eternal. For it is written, that those who instruct many
to justice, shall be as stars unto perpetual eternities * (Dan.
xii. 3). Now if God alone were eternal, there could not be
many eternities. Therefore God alone is not the only eternal.
Ohj. 2. Further, it is written, Depart, ye cursed, into eternal
(Douay, everlasting) fire (Matt. xxv. 41). Therefore God is
not the only eternal.
Ohj, 3. Further, every necessary thing is eternal. But
there are many necessary things; as, for instance, all prin-
ciples of demonstration, and all demonstrative propositions.
Therefore God is not the only eternal.
On the contrary, Jerome says (Ep. ad Damasum, xv.) that
God is the only one who has no beginning. Now whatever
has a beginning, is not eternal. Therefore God is the only
one eternal.
/ answer that, Eternity truly and properly so called is
in God alone, because eternity follows on immutability;
as appears from the first article. But God alone is alto-
gether immutable, as was shown above (Q. IX. A. i).
Accordingly, however, as some receive immutability from
* Douay, — for all eternity.
Q. lo. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 102
Him, they share in His eternity. Thus some receive
immutabihty from God in the way of never ceasing to
exist; in that sense it is said of the earth, that it standeth
for ever (Eccl. i. 4). Again some things are called eternal
in Scripture because of the length of their duration, although
they are in nature corruptible; thus (Ps. Ixxv. 5) the hills
are called eternal, and we read of the fruits of the eternal hills
(Deut. xxxiii. 15). Some again, share more fully than others
in the nature of eternity, inasmuch as they possess unchange-
ableness either in being or further still in operation ; like the
angels, and the blessed, who enjoy the Word, because as
regards that vision of the Word, no changing thoughts exist in
the Saints, as Augustine says (De Trin. xv.). Hence those
who see God are said to have eternal life ; according to that
text, This is eternal life, that they may know Thee the only
true God, etc. (John xvii. 3).
Reply Ohj. i. There are said to be many eternities,
accordingly as many share in eternity, by the contempla-
tion of God.
Reply Ohj. 2. The fire of hell is called eternal, only because
it never ends. Still, there is change in the pains of the lost,
according to the words. To extreme heat they will pass from
snowy waters (Job xxiv. 19). Hence in hell true eternity
does not exist, but rather time ; according to the text of the
Psalm, Their time will he for ever (Ps. Ixxx. 16).
Reply Ohj. 3. Necessary means a certain mode of truth:
and truth, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. vi.), is in
the mind. Therefore in this sense the true and necessary
are eternal, because they are in the eternal mind, which is
the divine intellect alone; hence it does not follow that
anything beside God is eternal.
Fourth Article,
whether eternity differs from time }
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article: —
Ohjection i. It seems that eternity does not differ from
time. For two measures of duration cannot exist together,
unless one is part of the other; for instance two days or two
103 THE ETERNITY OF GOD Q. lo. Art. 4
hours cannot be together; nevertheless, we may say that a
day and an hour are together, considering hour as part of a
day. But eternity and time occur together, each of which
imports a certain measure of duration. Since therefore
eternity is not a part of time, forasmuch as eternity exceeds
time, and includes it, it seems that time is a part of eternity,
and is not a different thing from eternity.
Ohj. 2. Further, according to the Philosopher {Physic, iv.),
the now of time remains the same in the whole of time. But
the nature of eternity seems to be that it is the same indi-
visible thing in the whole space of time. Therefore eternity
is the now of time. But the now of time is not substantially
different from time. Therefore eternity is not substantially
different from time.
Ohj. 3. Further, as the measure of the first movement is
the measure of every movement, as said in Physic, iv., it thus
appears that the measure of the first being is that of every
being. But eternity is the measure of the first being — that
is, of the divine being. Therefore eternity is the measure
of every being. But the being of things corruptible is
measured by time. Time therefore is either eternity, or is
a part of eternity.
On the contrary, Eternity is simultaneously whole. But
time has. a before and an after. Therefore time and
eternity are not the same thing.
I answer that, It is manifest that time and eternity are
not the same. Some have founded this difference on the
fact that eternity has neither beginning nor an end; whereas
time has a beginning and an end. This, however, makes a
merely accidental, and not an absolute difference; because,
granted that time always was and always will be, according
to the idea of those who think the movement of the heavens
goes on for ever, there would yet remain a difference between
eternity and time, as Boethius says {De Consol. v.), arising
from the fact that eternity is simultaneously whole; which
cannot be applied to time: for eternity is the measure of a v
permanent being ; while time is the measure of movement. ^
Supposing, however, that the aforesaid difference be con-
Q lo. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 104
sidered on the part of the things measured, and not as
regards the measures, then there is some reason for it, inas-
much as that alone is measured by time which has beginning
and end in time. Hence, if the movement of the heavens
lasted always, time would not be its measure as regards the
whole of its duration, since the infinite is not measurable;
but it would be the measure of that part of its revolution
which has beginning and end in time.
Another reason for the same can be taken from these
measures in themselves, if we consider the end and the
beginning as potentialities; because, granted also that time
always goes on, yet it is possible to note in time both the
beginning and the end, by considering its parts : — thus we
speak of the beginning and the end of a day, or of a year ;
which cannot be applied to eternity. Still these differences
follow upon the essential and primary differences, that eter-
nity is simultaneously whole, but that time is not so.
Reply Obj. i. Such a reason would be a valid one if time
and eternity were the same kind of measure; but this is
seen not to be the case when we consider those things of
which the respective measures are time and eternity.
Reply Obj. 2. The now of time is the same as regards its
subject in the whole course of time, but it differs in aspect;
for inasmuch as time corresponds to movement, its now corre-
sponds to what is movable; and the thing movable has
the same one subject in all time, but differs in aspect as being
here and there ; and such alternation is movement. Likewise
the flow of the now as alternating in aspect, is time. But
eternity remains the same according to both subject and
aspect; and hence eternity is not the same as the now of
time.
Reply Obj. 3. As eternity is the proper measure of per-
manent being, so time is the proper measure of movement;
and hence, according as any being recedes, from permanence
of being, and is subject to change, it recedes from eternity,
and is subject to time. Therefore the being of things
corruptible, because it is changeable, is not measured by
eternity, but by time; for time measures not only things
105 THE ETERNITY OF GOD Q. lo. Art. 5
actually changed, but also things changeable; hence it not
only measures movement, but it also measures repose, which
belongs to whatever is naturally movable, but is not actually
in motion.
Fifth Article,
the difference of ieviternity and time.
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Obj. I. It seems that seviternity is the same as time.
For Augustine says (Gen. ad. lit. viii. 20, 22, 23), that God
moves the spiritual creature through time. But aeviternity is
said to be the measure of spiritual substances. Therefore
time is the same as aeviternity.
Obj. 2. Further, it is essential to time to have before
and after; but it is essential to eternity to be simultaneously
whole, as was shown above in the first article. Now
seviternity is not eternity; for it is written (Ecclus.i. i),
that eternal Wisdom is before age. Therefore it is not
simultaneously whole but has before and after; and thus it
is the same as time.
Obj. 3. Further, if there is no before and after in sevi-
ternity, it follows that in seviternal things there is no differ-
ence between being, having been, or going to be. Since
then it is impossible for seviternal things not to have been,
it follows that it is impossible for them not to be in the
future; which is false, since God can reduce them to nothing.
Obj. 4. Further, since the duration of seviternal things is
infinite as to subsequent duration, if seviternity is simul-
taneously whole, it follows that some creature is actually
infinite; which is impossible. Therefore seviternity does
not differ from time.
On the contrary, Boethius says (De. Consol. iii), Who
commandest time to be separate from ceviternity.
I answer that, iEviternity differs from time, and from
eternity, as the mean between them both. This difference
is explained by some to consist in the fact that eternity
has neither beginning nor end, aeviternity, a beginning but
no end, and time both beginning and end. This difference,
Q. lo. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 106
however, is but an accidental one, as was shown above, in
the preceding article; because even if seviternal things had
always been, and would always be, as some think, and
even if they might sometimes fail to be, which is possible
to God to allow; even granted this, aeviternity would still
be distinguished from eternity, and from time.
Others assign the difference between these three to consist
in the fact that eternity has no before and after; but that
time has both, together with innovation and veteration;
and that aeviternity has before and after without innovation
and veteration. This theory, however, involves a con-
tradiction; which manifestly appears if innovation and
veteration be referred to the measure itself. For since
before and after of duration cannot exist together, if aevi-
ternity has before and after, it must follow that with the
receding of the first part of aeviternity, the after part of
aeviternity must newly appear ; and thus innovation would
occur in aeviternity itself, as it does in time. And if they be
referred to the things measured, even then an incongruity
would follow. For a thing which exists in time grows old
with time, because it has a changeable existence, and from
the changeableness of a thing measured, there follows before
and after in the measure, as is clear from Physic, iv. There-
fore the fact that an aeviternal thing is neither inveterable,
nor subject to innovation, comes from its changelessness ;
and consequently its measure does not contain before and
after. We say then that since eternity is the measure of a
permanent being, in so far as anything recedes from per-
manence of being, it recedes from eternity. Now some
things recede from permanence of being, so that their
being is subject to change, or consists in change; and these
things are measured by time, as are all movements, and
also the being of all things corruptible. But others recede
less from permanence of being, forasmuch as their being
neither consists in change, nor is the subject of change;
nevertheless they have change annexed to them either
actually, or potentially. This appears in the heavenly
bodies, the substantial being of which is unchangeable;
107 THE ETERNITY OF GOD Q. lo. Art. 5
and yet with unchangeable being they have changeable-
ness of place. The same applies to the angels, who have
an unchangeable being as regards their nature with change-
ableness as regards choice ; moreover they have changeable-
ness of intelligence, of affections, and of places, in their
own degree. Therefore these are measured by aeviternity,
which is a mean between eternity and time. But the being
that is measured by eternity is not changeable, nor is it
annexed to change. In this way time has before and after;
aeviternity in itself has no before and after, which can,
however, be annexed to it ; while eternity has neither before
nor after, nor is it compatible with such at all.
Reply Obj. i. Spiritual creatures as regards successive
affections and intelligences, are measured by time. Hence
also Augustine says (ibid.), that to be moved through time,
is to be moved by affections. But as regards their nature
they are measured by aeviternity; whereas as regards the
vision of glory, they have a share of eternity.
Reply Obj. 2. ^viternity is simultaneously whole; yet it is
not eternity, because before and after are compatible with it.
Reply Obj. 3. In the very being of an angel considered
absolutely, there is no difference of past and future, but only
as regards accidental changes. Now to say that an angel
was, or is, or will be, is to be taken in a different sense
according to the acceptation of our intellect, which appre-
hends the angelic existence by comparison with different
parts of time. But when we say that an angel is, or was, we
suppose something, which being supposed, its opposite is
not subject to the divine power. Whereas when we say he
will be, we do not as yet suppose anything. Hence, since
the existence and non-existence of an angel considered abso-
lutely is subject to the divine power, God can make the
existence of an angel not future; but He cannot cause him
not to be while he is, or not to have been, after he has been.
Reply Obj. 4. The duration of aeviternity is infinite, for-
asmuch as it is not finished by time. Hence, there is no
incongruity in saying that a creature is infinite, inasmuch
as it is not ended by any other creature.
Q. lo. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " io8
Sixth Article,
whether there is only one ^viternity ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that there is not only one seviternity ;
for it is written in the apocryphal books of Esdras: Majesty
and power of ages are with Thee, 0 Lord.
Obj. 2. Further, different genera have different measures.
But some seviternal things belong to the corporeal genus, as
the heavenly bodies; and others are spiritual substances, as
the angels. Therefore there is not only one seviternity.
Obj, 3. Further, since seviternity is a term of duration,
where there is one seviternity, there is also one duration.
But not all seviternal things have one duration, for some
begin to exist after others; as appears in the case especially
of human souls. Therefore there is not only one seviternity.
Obj. 4. Further, things not dependent on each other, do
not seem to have one measure of duration ; for there appears
to be one time for all temporal things; since the first move-
ment, measured by time, is in some way the cause of all
movement. But seviternal things do not depend on each
other, for one angel is not the cause of another angel.
Therefore there is not only one seviternity.
On the contrary, ^Eviternity is a more simple thing than
time, and is nearer to eternity. But time is one only
Therefore much more is seviternity one only.
/ answer that, A twofold opinion exists on this subject.
Some say there is only one seviternity; others that there are
many seviternities. Which of these is true, may be con-
sidered from the cause why time is one ; for we can rise from
corporeal things to the knowledge of spiritual things.
Now some say that there is only one time for temporal
things, forasmuch as one number exists for all things
numbered ; as time is a number, according to the Philosopher
{Physic, iv. ). This, however, is not a sufficient reason ; because
time is not a number abstracted from the thing numbered,
but existing in the thing numbered; otherwise it would
109 THE ETERNITY OF GOD Q. lo. Art. 6
not be continuous; for ten ells of cloth are continuous not
by reason of the number, but by reason of the thing num-
bered. Now number as it exists in the thing numbered, is
not the same for all; but is different for different things.
Hence, others assert that the unity of eternity as the principle
of all duration is the cause of the unity of time. Thus all
durations are one in that view, in the light of their principle,
but are many in the light of the diversity of things receiving
duration from the influx of the first principle. On the
other hand others assign primary matter as the cause why
time is one ; as it is the first subject of movement, the measure
of which is time. Neither of these reasons, however, is
sufficient; forasmuch as things which are one in principle,
or in subject, especially if distant, are not one absolutely,
but accidentally. Therefore the true reason why time
is one, is to be found in the oneness of the first movement
by which, since it is most simple, all other movements are
measured. Therefore time is referred to that movement, not
only as a measure is to the thing measured, but also as
accident is to subject; and thus receives unity from it.
Whereas to other movements it is compared only as the
measure is to the thing measured. Hence it is not multi-
plied by their multitude, because by one separate measure
many things can be measured.
This being established, we must observe that a twofold
opinion existed concerning spiritual substances. Some
said that all proceeded from God in a certain equality, as
Origen said (Peri Archon. i.); or at least many of them, as
some others thought. Others said that all spiritual sub-
stances proceeded from God in a certain degree and order;
and Dionysius [CcbI. Hier. x.) seems to have thought so,
when he said that among spiritual substances there are the
first, the middle, and the last; even in one order of angels.
Now according to the first opinion, it must be said that
there are many seviternities, as there are many aeviternal
things of first degree. But according to the second opinion,
it would be necessary to say that there is one aeviternity
only; because since each thing is measured by the most
g. lo. Art. 6. THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " no
simple element of its genus, it must be that the existence
of all seviternal things should be measured by the existence
of the first ^viternal thing, which is all the more simple
the nearer it is to the first. Wherefore because the second
opinion is the truer, as will be shown later (Q. XLVII. A. 2) ;
we concede at present that there is only one seviternity.
Reply Obj. i. iEviternity is sometimes taken for age,
that is, a space of a thing's duration; and thus we say many
aeviternities when we mean ages.
Reply Obj. 2. Although the heavenly bodies and spiritual
things differ in the genus of their nature, still they agree in
having a changeless being, and are thus measured by
seviternity.
Reply Obj. 3. All temporal things did not begin together;
nevertheless there is one time for all of them, by reason of
the first measured by time; and thus all seviternal things
have one aeviternity by reason of the first, though all did
not begin together.
Reply Obj. 4. For things to be measured by one, it is not
necessary that the one should be the cause of all, but that it
be more simple than the rest.
QUESTION XI.
THE UNITY OF GOD.
{In Four Articles.)
After the foregoing, we consider the divine unity; con-
cerning which there are four points of inquiry: (i) Whether
one adds anything to being? (2) Whether one and many
are opposed to each other ? (3) Whether God is one ?
(4) Whether He is in the highest degree one ?
First Article,
whether one adds anything to being ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that one adds something to being.
For everything is in a determinate genus by addition to
being, which penetrates all genera. But one is in a deter-
minate genus, for it is the principle of number, which is a
species of quantity . Therefore one adds something to being.
Obj. 2. Further, what divides a thing common to all, is
an addition to it. But being is divided by one and by
many. Therefore one is an addition to being.
Obj. 3. Further, if one is not an addition to being, one
and being must have the same meaning. But it would be
nugatory to call being by the name of being : therefore it
would be equally so to call being one. Now this is false.
Therefore one is an addition to being.
On the contrary, Dionysius says {Div. Nom. V, ult.) : Nothing
which exists is not in some way one, which would be false if
one were an addition to being, in the sense of limiting it.
Therefore one is not an addition to being.
I answer that, One does not add any reality to beiitg ; but
III
Q. II. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 112
is only a negation of division: for one means undivided
being. This is the very reason why one is the same as being.
Now every being is either simple, or compound. But what
is simple, is undivided, both actually and potentially.
Whereas what is compound, has not being whilst its
parts are divided, but after they make up and compose it.
Hence it is manifest that the being of anything consists in
undivision ; and hence it is that everything guards its unity
as it guards its being.
Reply Obj. i. Some, thinking that the one convertible
with being is the same as the one which is the principle of
number, were divided into contrary opinions. Pythagoras
and Plato, seeing that the one convertible with being did
not add any reality to being, but signified the substance of
being as undivided, thought that the same applied to the
one which is the principle of number. And because number
is composed of unities, they thought that numbers were the
substances of all things. Avicenna, however, on the con-
trary, considering that one which is the principle of number,
added a reality to the substance of being (otherwise number
made of unities would not be a species of quantity), thought
that the one convertible with being added a reality to the
substance of beings; as white to man. This, however, is
manifestly false, inasmuch as each thing is one by its
substance. For if a thing were one by anything else but
by its substance, since this again would be one, supposing
it were again one by another thing, we should be driven on
to infinity. Hence we must adhere to the former statement ;
therefore we must say that the one which is convertible
with being, does not add a reality to being; but that the
one which is the principle of number, does add a reality to
being, belonging to the genus of quantity.
Reply Obj. 2. There is nothing to prevent a thing which
in one way is divided, from being another way undivided; as
what is divided in number, may be undivided in species;
thus it may be that a thing is in one way one, and in another
way many. Still, if it is absolutely undivided, either because
it is so according to what belongs to its essence, though it
113 THE UNITY OF GOD Q. n. Art. 2
may be divided as regards what is outside its essence, as
what is one in subject may have many accidents; or because
it is undivided actually, and divided potentially, as what is
one in the whole, and is many in parts; in such a case a
thing will be one absolutely, and many accidentally. On
the other hand, if it be undivided accidentally, and divided
absolutely, as if it were divided in essence and undivided in
idea or in principle or cause, it will be many absolutely, and
one accidentally; as what are many in number, and one in
species, or one in principle. Hence in that way, being is
divided by one, and by many; as it were by one absolutely,
and by many accidentally. For multitude itself would
not be contained under heing, unless it were in some way
contained under one. Thus Dionysius says {Div. Nom., cap.
nit.) that there is no kind of multitude that is not in a way one.
But what are many in their parts, are one in their whole; and
what are many in accidents, are one in subject; and what are
many in number, are one in species; and what are many in
species, are one in genus; and what are many in processions,
are one in principle.
Reply Obj. 3. It does not follow that it is nugatory to
say being is one ; forasmuch as one adds an idea to being.
Second Article,
whether one and many are opposed to each other ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article: —
Objection 1. It seems that one and many are not mutually
opposed. For no opposite thing is predicated of its oppo-
site. But every multitude is in a certain way one, as appears
from the preceding article. Therefore one is not opposed
to multitude,
Obj. 2. Further, no opposite thing is constituted by its
opposite. But multitude is constituted by one. Therefore
it is not opposed to multitude.
Obj. 3. Further, one is opposed to one. But the idea oifew
is opposed to many. Therefore one is not opposed to many,
Obj. 4. Further, if one is opposed to multitude, it is
I. 8
Q. II. Art. 2. THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " E14
opposed as the undivided is to the divided; and is thus
opposed to it as privation is to habit. But this appears to
be incongruous; because it would follow that one comes
after multitude, and is defined by it; whereas, on the con-
trary, multitude is defined by one. Hence there would
be a vicious circle in the definition; which is inadmissible.
Therefore one and many are not opposed.
On the contrary, Things which are opposed in idea, are
themselves opposed to each other. But the idea of one
consists in indivisibility; and the idea of multitude contains
division. Therefore one and many are opposed to each other.
/ answer that, One is opposed to many, but in various
ways. The one which is the principle of number, is
opposed to multitude which is number, as the measure is to
the thing measured. For one implies the idea of a primary
measure; and number is multitude measured by one, as is
clear from Metaph. x. But the one which is convertible
with being is opposed to multitude by way of privation;
as the undivided is to the thing divided.
Reply Ohj. i. No privation entirely takes away the being
of a thing, inasmuch as privation means negation in the
subject, according to the Philosopher (Categor. viii.) . Never-
theless every privation takes away some being; and so in
being, by reason of its universality, the privation of being has
its foundation in being ; which is not the case in privations
of special forms, as of sight, or of whiteness, and the like.
And what applies to being applies also to one and to good,
which are convertible with being, for the privation of good
is founded in some good; likewise the removal of unity is
founded in some one thing. Hence it happens that multi-
tude is some one thing ; and evil is some good thing, and non-
being is some kind of being. Nevertheless, opposite is not
predicated of opposite; forasmuch as one is absolute, and
the other is relative; for what is relative being (as a po-
tentiality) is non-being absolutely, i.e., actually; or what is
absolute being in the genus of substance, is non-being rela-
tively as regards some accidental being. In the same way,
what is relatively good is absolutely bad, or vice versa ;
115 'iHE UNITY OF GOD Q. n. Art. 2
likewise, what is absolutely one is relatively many, and
vice versa.
Reply Ohj. 2. A whole is twofold. In one sense it is
homogeneous, composed of like parts; in another sense it is
heterogeneous, composed of dissimilar parts. Now in every
homogeneous whole, the whole is made up of parts having
the form of the whole ; as, for instance, every part of water
is water ; and such is the constitution of a continuous thing
made up of its parts. In every heterogeneous whole, how-
ever, every part is wanting in the form belonging to the
whole ; as, for instance, no part of a house is a house, nor is
any part of man a man. Now multitude is such a kind
of whole. Therefore inasmuch as its part has not the form
of the multitude, the latter is composed of unities, as a
house is composed of not houses; not, indeed, as if unities
constituted multitude so far as they are undivided, in which
way they are opposed to multitude; but so far as they
have being, as also the parts of a house make up the house
by the fact that they are beings, not by the fact that they
are not houses.
Reply Ohj. 3. Many is taken in two ways: absolutely,
and in that sense it is opposed to one : in another way as
importing some kind of excess, in which sense it is opposed
to fev!) : hence in the first sense two are many ; but not in
the second sense.
Reply Ohj. 4. One is opposed to many privatively,
inasmuch as the idea of many involves division. Hence
division must be prior to unity, not absolutely in itself,
but according to our way of apprehension. For we appre-
hend simple things by compound things; and hence we
define a point to be, what has no part, or the beginning
of a line. Multitude also, in idea, follows on one ; because
we do not understand divided things to convey the idea
of multitude except by the fact that we attribute unity to
every part. Hence one is placed in the definition of multi-
tude ; but multitude is not placed in the definition of one.
But division comes to be understood from the very negation
of being: so what first comes to the mind is being; secondly.
Q. II. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 116
that this being is not that being, and thus we apprehend
division as a consequence ; thirdly, comes the notion of one ;
fourthly, the notion of multitude.
Third Articlb.
whether god is one ?
We proceed thus to the Third A rticle : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not one. For it
is written, For there he many gods and many lords (i Cor.
viii. 5).
Ohj. 2. Further, one, as the principle of number, cannot
be predicated of God, since quantity is not predicated of
God; likewise, neither can one which is convertible with
being be predicated of God, because it imports privation,
and every privation is an imperfection, which cannot apply
to God. Therefore God is not one.
On the contrary, It is written. Hear, 0 Israel, the Lord our
God is one Lord (Deut. vi. 4).
/ answer that. It can be shown from three sources that God
is one. First from His simplicity. For it is manifest that
the reason why any singular thing is this particular thing is
because it cannot be communicated to many: since that
whereby Socrates is a man, can be communicated to many ;
whereas, what makes him this particular man, is only com-
municable to one. Therefore, if Socrates were a man by
what makes him to be this particular man, as there cannot
be many Socrates, so there could not in that way be many
men. Now this belongs to God alone; for God Himself
is His own nature, as was shown above (Q. III. A. 3). There-
fore, in the very same way God is God, and He is this
God. Impossible is it therefore that many Gods should
exist.
Secondly, this is proved from the infinity of His perfection.
For it was shown above (Q. IV. A. 2) that God comprehends
in Himself the whole perfection of being. If then many gods
existed, they would necessarily differ from each other.
Sorr.ething therefore would belong to one, which did not
117 THE UNITY OF GOD Q. ii. Art. 3
belong to another. And if this were a privation, one of
them would not be absolutely perfect; but if a perfection,
one of them would be without it. So it is impossible for
many gods to exist. Hence also the ancient philosophers,
constrained as it were by truth, when they asserted an
infinite principle, asserted likewise that there was only one
such principle.
Thirdly, this is shown from the unity of the world. For all
things that exist are seen to be ordered to each other since
some serve others. But things that are diverse do not
harmonize in the same order, unless they are ordered
thereto by one. For many are reduced into one order by
one better than by many : because one is the per se cause of
one, and many are only the accidental cause of one, inas-
much as they are in some way one. Since therefore what
is first is most perfect, and is so per se and not accidentally,
it must be that the first which reduces all into one order
should be only one. And this one is God.
Reply Ohj. i. Gods are called many by the error of some
who worshipped many deities, thinking as they did that the
planets and other stars were gods, and also the separate
parts of the world. Hence the Apostle adds: Our God is
one, etc.
Reply Ohj. 2. One which is the principle of number is
not predicated of God, but only of material things. For
one the principle of number belongs to the genus of mathe-
matics, which are material in being, and abstracted from
matter only in idea . But one which is convertible with being
is a metaphysical entity, and does not depend on matter,
in its being. And although in God there is no privation,
still, according to the mode of our apprehension. He is
known to us by way only of privation and remotion. Thus
there is no reason why a certain kind of privation should
not be predicated of God; for instance, that He is incor-
poreal, and infinite; and in the same way it is said of God
that He is one.
g. II. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " ii8
Fourth Article,
whether god is supremely one ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not supremely one.
For one is so called from the privation of division. But
privation cannot be greater or less. Therefore God is not
more one than other things which are called one.
Ohj. 2. Further, nothing seems to be more indivisible
than what is actually and potentially indivisible; such as
a point, and unity. But a thing is said to be more one
according as it is indivisible. Therefore God is not more
one than unity is one and a point is one.
Ohj. 3. Further, what is essentially good is supremely
good. Therefore, what is essentially one is supremely
one. But every being is essentially one, as the Philosopher
says {Metaph. iv.). Therefore every being is supremely
one ; and therefore God is not one more than any other
being is one.
On the contrary, Bernard says (De Consid. v.) : Among all
things called one, the unity of the Divine Trinity holds the first
place.
I answer that, Since one is an undivided being, if anything
is supremely one it must be supremely being, and supremely
undivided. Now both of these belong to God. For He is
supremely being, inasmuch as His being is not determined
by any nature to which it is adjoined ; since He is being itself,
subsistent, absolutely undetermined. But He is supremely
undivided inasmuch as He is divided neither actually, nor
potentially, by any mode of division ; since He is altogether
simple, as was shown above (Q. HI. A. 7). Hence it is
manifest that God is one in the supreme degree.
Reply Ohj. i. Although privation considered in itself is not
susceptive of more or less, still according as its opposite is
subject to more and less, privation also can be considered
itself in the light of more and less. Therefore, according
as a thing is more divided, or is divisible, either less or not
119 THE UNITY OF GOD Q. n. Art. 4
at all, in that degree it is called more, or less, or supremely,
one.
Reply Ohj. 2. A point, and unity which is the principle of
number, are not supremely being, inasmuch as they have
being only in some subject. Hence neither of them can
be supremely one. For as a subject cannot be supremely
one, because of the difference within it of accident and
subject, so neither can an accident.
Reply Ohj. 3. Although every being is one by its substance,
still every such substance is not equally the cause of unity ;
for the substance of some things is compound, and of others
simple.
QUESTION XII.
HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US.
{In Thirteen Articles.)
As hitherto we have considered God as He is in Himself,
we now go on to consider in what manner He is in the
knowledge of creatures; concerning which there are
thirteen points of inquiry, (i) Whether any created
intellect can see the essence of God ? (2) Whether the
essence of God is seen by the intellect through any
created image ? (3) Whether the essence of God can be
seen by the corporeal eye ? (4) Whether any created in-
tellectual substance is sufficient by its own natural powers to
see the essence of God ? (5) Whether the created intellect
needs any created light in order to see the essence of God ?
(6) Whether of those who see God, one sees Him more
perfectly than another ? (7) Whether any created intellect
can comprehend the essence of God ? (8) Whether the
created intellect seeing the essence of God, knows all things
in it ? (9) Whether what is there known is known by any
similitudes ? (10) Whether the created intellect knows
all at once what it sees in God ? (11) Whether in the state
of this life any man can see the essence of God ? (12)
Whether by natural reason we can know God in this life ?
(13) Whether there is in this life any knowledge of God
through grace above the knowledge of natural reason ?
First Article,
whether any created intellect can see the essence
OF GOD ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that no created intellect can see the
essence of God. For Chrysostom [Horn. xiv. in Joan) com-
120
121 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. i
meriting on John i. 18, No man hath seen God at any time,
says: Not prophets only, huf neither angels nor archangels have
seen God. For how can a creature see what is increatable ?
Dionysius also says (Dii), Nom. i.), speaking of God: Neither
is there sense, nor image, nor opinion, nor reason, nor know-
ledge of Him.
Ohj. 2. Further, everything infinite, as such, is unknown.
But God is infinite, as was shown above (Q. VII. A. i).
Therefore in Himself He is unknown.
Ohj. 3. Further, the created intellect knows only existing
things. For what falls first under the apprehension of the
intellect is being. Now God is not something existing; but
He is rather super-existence, as Dionysius says {Div. Nom.
iv.) . Therefore God is not intelligible ; but above all intellect.
Ohj. 4. Further, there must be some proportion between
the knower and the known, since the known is the perfection
of the knower. But no proportion exists between the
created intellect and God; for there is an infinite distance
between them. Therefore the created intellect cannot see
the essence of God.
On the contrary, It is written: We shall see Him as He
is (i Johniii. 2).
/ answer that. Since everything is knowable according as
it is actual, God, Who is pure act without any admixture
of potentiality, is in Himself supremely knowable. But
what is supremely knowable in itself, may not be knowable
to a particular intellect, on account of the excess of the in-
telligible object above the intellect; as, for example, the
sun, which is supremely visible, cannot be seen by the bat
by reason of its excess of light.
Therefore some who considered this, held that no created
intellect can see the essence of God. This opinion, how-
ever, is not tenable. For as the ultimate beatitude of man
consists in the use of his highest function, which is the opera-
tion of the intellect ; if we suppose that the created intellect
could never see God, it would either never attain to beatitude,
or its beatitude would consist in something else beside God ;
which is opposed to faith. For the ultimate perfection
g. 12. Art. I THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 122
of the rational creature is to be found in that which is the
principle of its being ; since a thing is perfect so far as it attains
to its principle. Further the same opinion is also against
reason. For there resides in every man a natural desire
to know the cause of any effect which he sees ; and thence
arises wonder in men. But if the intellect of the rational
creature could not reach so far as to the first cause of things,
the natural desire would remain void.
Hence it must be absolutely granted that the blessed
see the essence of God.
Reply Obj. i. Both of these authorities speak of the
vision of comprehension. Hence Dionysius premises im-
mediately before the words cited, He is universally to
all incomprehensible, etc. Chrysostom, likewise after the
words quoted, says : He says this of the most certain vision of
the Father, which is such a perfect consideration and com-
prehension as the Father has of the Son.
Reply Obj. 2. The infinity of matter not made perfect by
form, is unknown in itself, because all knowledge comes by
the form; whereas the infinity of the form not limited by
matter, is in itself supremely known. God is Infinite in this
way, and not in the first way: as appears from what was
said above (Q. VH. A. i).
Reply Obj. 3. God is not said to be not existing as if He
did not exist at all, but because He exists above all that
exists; inasmuch as He is His own existence. Hence it
does not follow that He cannot be known at all, but that
He exceeds every kind of knowledge; which means that He
is not comprehended.
Reply Obj. 4. Proportion is twofold. In one sense it
means a certain relation of one quantity to another, according
as double, treble, and equal are species of proportion. In
another sense every relation of one thing to another is called
proportion. And in this sense there can be a proportion
of the creature to God, inasmuch as it is related to Him as
the effect to its cause, and as potentiality to its act ; and in
this way the created intellect can be proportioned to know
God.
123 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 2
Second Article.
whether the essence of god is seen by the created
intellect through an image ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the essence of God is seen
through an image by the created intellect. For it is
written: We know that when He shall appear, we shall he like
to Him, and (Vulg., because) we shall see Him as He is
(i John iii. 2).
Obj. 2. Further, Augustine says (De Trin, v.): When
we know God, some likeness of God is made in us.
Obj. 3. Further, the intellect in act is the actual in-
telligible; as sense in act is the actual sensible. But this
comes about inasmuch as sense is informed with the likeness
of the sensible object, and the intellect with the likeness of the
thing understood. Therefore, if God is seen by the created in-
tellect in act, it must be that He is seen by some similitude.
On the contrary, Augustine says {De Trin. xv.), that when
the Apostle says, * We see through a glass and in an enigma,'*
by the terms * glass ' and ' enigma ' certain similitudes are
signified by him, which are accommodated to the vision of God.
But to see the essence of God is not an enigmatic nor a specu-
lative vision, but is, on the contrary, of an opposite kind.
Therefore the divine essence is not seen through a similitude.
/ answer that, Two things are required both for sensible
and for intellectual vision — viz., power of sight, and union of
the thing seen with the sight. For vision is made actual only
when the thing seen is in a certain way in the seer. Now in
corporeal things it is clear that the thing seen cannot be
by its essence in the seer, but only by its likeness; as the
similitude of a stone is in the eye, whereby the vision is
made actual; whereas the substance of the stone is not there.
But if the principle of the visual power and the thing seen
were one and the same thing, it would necessarily follow
that the seer would receive both the visual power and the
form whereby it sees, from that one same thing.
* Douay, — in a dark manner.
Q. 12. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 124
Now it is manifest both that God is the author of the in-
tellectual power, and that He can be seen by the intellect.
And since the intellective power of the creature is not the
essence of God, it follows that it is some kind of participated
likeness of Him who is the first intellect. Hence also the
intellectual power of the creature is called an intelligible
light, as it were, derived from the first light, whether this be
understood of the natural power, or of some perfection
superadded of grace or of glory. Therefore, in order to see
God, there must be some similitude of God on the part of the
visual faculty, whereby the intellect is made capable of
seeing God. But on the part of the object seen, which must
necessarily be united to the seer, the essence of God cannot be
seen by any created similitude. First, because, as Dionysius
says {Div. Nom. i.), by the similitudes of the inferior order
of things, the superior can in no way he known ; as by the like-
ness of a body the essence of an incorporeal thing cannot
be known. Much less therefore can the essence of God be
seen by any created likeness whatever. Secondly, because
the essence of God is His own very existence, as was shown
above (Q. III. A. 4), which cannot be said of any created form ;
and so no created form can be the similitude representing
the essence of God to the seer. Thirdly, because the divine
essence is uncircumscribed, and contains in itself super-
eminently whatever can be signified or understood by the
created intellect. Now this cannot in any way be repre-
sented by any created likeness; for every created form is
determined according to some aspect of wisdom, or of power^
or of being itself, or of some like thing. Hence to say that
God is seen by some similitude, is to say that the divine
essence is not seen at all; which is false.
Therefore it must be said that to see the essence of God
there is required some similitude in the visual faculty, namely,
the light of glory strengthening the intellect to see God, which
is spoken of in the Psalm (xxxv. 10), In Thy light we shall
see light. The essence of God, however, cannot be seen by
any created similitude representing the divine essence itself
as it really is.
125 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 3
Reply Obj. i. That authority speaks of the simiUtude
which is caused by participation of the hght of glory.
Reply Obj. 2. Augustine speaks of the knowledge of God
here on earth.
Reply Obj. 3. The divine essence is existence itself.
Hence as other intelligible forms which are not their own
existence are united to the intellect by means of some
entity, whereby the intellect itself is informed, and made
in act ; so the divine essence is united to the created intellect,
as the object actually understood, making the intellect
in act by and of itself.
Third Article.
whether the essence of god can be seen with the
bodily eye ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : — ■
Objection 1. It seems that the essence of God can be seen
by the corporeal eye. For it is written (Job xix. 26): In
my flesh I shall see . . . God, and (ibid. xlii. 5), With the
hearing of the ear I have heard Thee, but now my eye seeth Thee.
Obj. 2. Further, Augustine says [De Civ. Dei xxix. 29):
Those eyes [namely of the glorified] will therefore have a
greater power of sight, not so much to see more keenly, as some
report of the sight of serpents or of eagles {for whatever acute-
ness of vision is possessed by these creatures, they can see only
corporeal things) but to see even incorporeal things. Now
whoever can see incorporeal things, can be raised up to
see God. Therefore the glorified eye can see God.
Obj. 3. Further, God can be seen by man through a vision
of the imagination. For it is written: / saw the Lord sitting
upon a throne, etc. (Isa. vi. i). But an imaginary vision
originates from sense ; for the imagination is moved by sense
to act. Therefore God can be seen by a vision of sense.
On the, contrary, Augustine says {De Vid. Deum, Ep.
cxlvii) : No one has ever seen God either in this life, as He is,
nor in the angelic life, as visible things are seen by corporeal
vision.
Q. 12. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 126
7 answer that, It is impossible for God to be seen by the
sense of sight, or by any other sense, or faculty of the sensi-
tive power. For every such kind of power is the act of a
corporeal organ, as will be shown later (Q. LXXVIIL).
Now act is proportional to the nature which possesses it.
Hence no power of that kind can go beyond corporeal things.
For God is incorporeal, as was shown above (Q. IH. A. i).
Hence He cannot be seen by the sense or the imagination,
but only by the intellect.
Reply Obj. i. The words. In my flesh I shall see God my
Saviour, do not mean that God will be seen with the eye of
flesh, but that man existing in the flesh after the resurrection
will see God. Likewise the words. Now my eye seeth Thee,
are to be understood of the mind's eye, as the Apostle
says: May He give unto you the spirit of wisdom . . . in
the knowledge of Him, that the eyes of your heart may be
enlightened (Eph. i. 17, 18).
Reply Obj. 2. Augustine speaks as one inquiring, and
conditionally. This appears from what he says previously:
Therefore they will have an altogether different power [viz.,
the glorified eyes], if they shall see that incorporeal nature ;
and afterwards he explains this, saying: It is very credible,
that we shall so see the mundane bodies of the new heaven and
the new earth, as to see most clearly God everywhere present,
governing all corporeal things, not as we now see the invisible
things of God as understood by what is made ; but as when
we see men among whom we live, living and exercising the
functions of human life, we do not believe they live, but see it.
Hence it is evident how the glorified eyes will see God, as
now our eyes see the life of another. But life is not seen with
the corporeal eye, as a thing in itself visible, but as the
indirect object of the sense; which indeed is not known by
sense, but at once, together with sense, by some other
cognitive power. But that the divine presence is known
by the intellect immediately on the sight of, and through,
corporeal things, happens from two causes — viz., from the
perspicuity of the intellect, and from the refulgence of the
divine glory infused into the body after its renovation.
127 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 4
Reply Ohj. 3. The essence of God is not seen in a vision
of the imagination ; but the imagination receives some form
representing God according to some mode of similitude;
as in divine Scripture divine things are metaphorically
described by means of sensible things.
Fourth Article.
whether any created intellect by its natural power s
can see the divine essence ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that a created intellect can see the
divine essence by its own natural power. For Dionysius
says [Div. Nom. iv.): An angel is a pure mirror, most clear,
receiving, if it is right to say so, the whole beauty of God. But
if a reflection is seen, the original thing is seen. Therefore,
since an angel by his natural power understands himself,
it seems that by his own natural power he understands the
divine essence.
Obj. 2. Further, what is supremely visible, is made less
visible to us by reason of our defective corporeal or intel-
lectual sight. But the angelic intellect has no such defect.
Therefore, since God is supremely intelligible in Himself, it
seems that in like manner He is supremely so to an angel.
Therefore, if he can understand other intelligible things by
his own natural power, much more can he understand God.
Obj. 3. Further, corporeal sense cannot be raised up to
understand incorporeal substance, which is above its nature.
Therefore if to see the essence of God is above the nature of
every created intellect, it follows that no created intellect can
reach up to see the essence of God at all. But this is false,
as appears from what is said above (A. i). Therefore it
seems that it is natural for a created intellect to see the
divine essence.
On the contrary, It is written : The grace of God is life ever-
lasting (Rom. vi. 23). But life everlasting consists in the
vision of the divine essence, according to the words: This
is eternal life, that they may know Thee the only true God, etc.
Q. 12. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 128
(John xvii. 3). Therefore, to see the essence of God is pos-
sible to the created intellect by grace, and not by nature.
/ answer that, It is impossible for any created intellect to
see the essence of God by its own natural power. For know-
ledge is regulated according as the thing known is in the
knower. But the thing known is in the knower according
to the mode of the knower. Hence the knowledge of every
knower is ruled according to its own nature. If therefore
l^'the mode of anything' s being exceeds the mode of the knower,
^^t must result that the knowledge of that object is above
the nature of the knower. Now the mode of being of things
is manifold. For some things have being only in this one
individual matter; as all bodies. But others are subsisting
natures, not residing in matter at all, which, however,
are not their own existence, but receive it : and these are the
incorporeal beings, called angels. But to God alone does it
belong to be His own subsistent being. Therefore, what
exists only in individual matter we know naturally, foras-
much as our soul, whereby we know, is the form of certain
matter. Now our soul possesses two cognitive powers;
one is the act of a corporeal organ, which naturally knows
things existing in individual matter; hence sense knows
only the singular. But there is another kind of cognitive
power in the soul, called the intellect ; and this is not the act
of any corporeal organ. Wherefore the intellect naturally
knows natures which exist only in individual matter; not
as they are in such individual matter, but according as they
are abstracted therefrom by the considering act of the intel-
lect ; hence it follows that through the intellect we can under-
stand these objects as universal; and this is beyond the
power of sense. Now the angelic intellect naturally knows
natures that are not in matter ; but this is beyond the power
of the intellect of our soul in the state of its present life,
united as it is to the body. It follows therefore that to know
self-subsistent being is natural to the divine intellect alone;
Wand this is beyond the natural power of any created intellect;
for no creature is its own existence, forasmuch as its existence
is participated. Therefore the created intellect cannot
129 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 4
see the essence of God, unless God by His grace unites
Himself to the created intellect, as an object made intelligible
to it.
Reply Obj. i. This mode of knowing God is natural to an
angel — namely, to know Him by His own likeness reful-
gent in the angel himself. But to know God by any created
similitude is not to know the essence of God, as was shov/n
above (A. 2). Hence it does not follow that an angel can
know the essence of God by his own power.
Reply Obj. 2. The angelic intellect is not defective, if
defect be taken to mean privation, as if it were without
anything which it ought to have. But if defect be taken
negatively, in that sense every creature is defective, when
compared with God; forasmuch as it does not possess the
excellence which is in God.
Reply Obj. 3. The sense of sight, as being altogether
material, cannot be raised up to immateriality. But our
intellect, or the angelic intellect, inasmuch as it is elevated
above matter in its own nature, can be raised up above its
own nature to a higher level by grace. The proof is, that
sight cannot in any way know abstractedly what it knows
concretely; for in no way can it perceive a nature except
as this one particular nature; whereas our intellect is able
to consider abstractedly what it knows concretely. Now
although it knows things which have a form residing in
matter, still it resolves the composite into both of these
elements; and it considers the form separately by itself.
Likewise, also, the intellect of an angel, although it naturally
knows the concrete in any nature, still it is able to separate
that existence by its intellect ; since it knows that the thing
itself is one thing, and its existence is another. Since there-
fore the created intellect is naturally capable of apprehend-
ing the concrete form, and the concrete being abstractedly,
by way of a kind of resolution of parts; it can by grace be
raised up to know separate subsisting substance, and separate
subsisting existence.
Q. 12. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA -' 130
Fifth Article.
whether the created intellect needs any created
light in order to see the essence of god ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the created intellect does not
need any created light in order to see the essence of God.
For what is of itself lucid in sensible things does not re-
quire any other light in order to be seen. Therefore the
same applies to intelligible things. Now God is intelligible
light . Therefore He is not seen by the means of any created
light.
Obj. 2. Further, if God is seen through a medium, He is
not seen in His essence. But if seen by any created light.
He is seen through a medium. Therefore He is not seen in
His essence.
Obj. 3. Further, what is created can be natural to some
creature. Therefore, if the essence of God is seen through
any created light, such a light can be made natural to
some other creature; and thus, that creature would not
need any other light to see God; which is impossible.
Therefore it is not necessary that every creature should re-
quire a superadded light in order to see the essence of God.
On the contrary, It is written: In Thy light we shall see
light (Ps. XXXV. 10).
/ answer that, Everything which is raised up to what ex-
ceeds its nature, must be prepared by some disposition above
its nature; as, for example, if air is to receive the form of
fire, it must be prepared by some disposition for such a
form. But when any created intellect sees the essence of
God, the essence of God itself becomes the intelligible
form of the intellect. Hence it is necessary that some
supernatural disposition should be added to the intellect
in order that it may be raised up to such a great and sublime
height. Now since the natural power of the created intellect
does not avail to enable it to see the essence of God, as was
shown in the preceding article, it is necessary that the
131 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 6
power of understanding should be added by divine grace.
Now this increase of the intellectual powers is called the
illumination of the intellect, as we also call the intelligible
object itself by the name of light or illumination. And this
is the light spoken of in the Apocalypse (xxi. 23) . The glory of
God hath enlightened it — viz., the society of the blessed who
see God. By this light the blessed are made deiform — that
is, like to God, according to the saying: When He shall appear
we shall he like to Him, and [Vulg., because] we shall see Him
as He is (i John iii. 2).
Reply Obj. i. The created light is necessary to see the
essence of God, not in order to make the essence of God
intelligible, which is of itself intelligible, but in order to
enable the intellect to understand in the same way as a
habit makes a power abler to act. Even so corporeal
light is necessary as regards external sight, inasmuch as it
makes the medium actually transparent, and susceptible
of colour.
Reply Obj. 2. This light is required to see the divine
essence, not as a similitude in which God is seen, but as a
perfection of the intellect, strengthening it to see God.
Therefore it may be said that this light is to be described
not as a medium in which God is seen, but as one by which
He is seen; and such a medium does not take away the
immediate vision of God.
Reply Obj. 3. The disposition to the form of fire can be
natural only to the subject of that form. Hence the light of
glory cannot be natural to a creature unless the creature has
a divine nature; which is impossible. But by this light the
rational creature is made deiform, as is said in this article.
Sixth Article.
whether of those who see the essence of god, one
sees more perfectly than another ?
We proceed thtis to the Sixth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that of those who see the essence
of God, one does not see more perfectly than another. For
Q. 12. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 132
it is written (i John iii. 2) : We shall see Him as He is. But
He is only in one way. Therefore He will be seen by all
in one way only; and therefore He will not be seen more
perfectly by one and less perfectly by another.
Obj. 2. Further, as Augustine says {Octog. Trium Quest.:
qu. xxxii.): One person cannot see one and the same thing
more perfectly than another. But all who see the essence of
God, understand the divine essence, for God is seen by the
intellect and not by sense, as was shown above (A. 3).
Therefore, of those who see the divine essence, one does
not see more clearly than another.
Ohj. 3. Further, That anything be seen more perfectly
than another can happen in two ways : either on the part
of the visible object, or on the part of the visual power of
the seer. On the part of the object, it may so happen
because the object is received more perfectly in the seer,
that is, according to the greater perfection of the simili-
tude; but this does not apply to the present question, for
God is present to the intellect seeing Him not by way
of a similitude, but by His essence. It follows then that
if one sees Him more perfectly than another, this happens
according to the difference of the intellectual power; thus
it follows too that the one whose intellectual power is the
higher, will see Him the more clearly; and this is incon-
gruous; since equality with angels is promised to men as
their beatitude.
On the contrary, Eternal life consists in the vision of God,
according to John xvii. 3: This is eternal life, that they may
know Thee the only trite God, etc. Therefore, if all saw the
essence of God equally in eternal life, all would be equal;
the contrary to which is declared by the Apostle: Star
differs from star in glory (i Cor. xv. 41).
/ answer that, Of those who see the essence of God, one
sees Him more perfectly than another. This, indeed, does
not take place as if one had a more perfect similitude of
God than another, since that vision will not spring from any
similitude; but it will take place because one intellect
will have a greater power or faculty to see God than another.
133 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 6
The faculty of seeing God, however, does not belong to
the created intellect naturally, but is given to it by the
light of glory, which establishes the intellect in a kind of
deiformity, as appears from what is said above, in the
preceding article.
Hence the intellect which has more of the light of glory will
see God the more perfectly; and he will have a fuller par-
ticipation of the light of glory who has more charity;
because where there is the greater charity, there is the more
desire ; and desire in a certain degree makes the one desiring
apt and prepared to receive the object desired. Hence
he who possesses the more charity, will see God the more
perfectly, and will be the more beatified.
Reply Obj. i. In the words. We shall see Him as He is,
the conjunction as determines the mode of vision on the part
of the object seen, so that the meaning is, we shall see Him
to be as He is, because we shall see His existence, which is
His essence. But it does not determine the mode of vision
on the part of the one seeing ; as if the meaning was that the
mode of seeing God will be as perfect as is the perfect
mode of God's existence.
Thus appears the answer to the Second Objection. For
when it is said that one intellect does not understand one
and the same thing better than another, this would be true
if referred to the mode of the thing understood, for whoever
understands it otherwise than it really is, does not truly
understand it, but not if referred to the mode of under-
standing, for the understanding of one is more perfect than
the understanding of another.
Reply Obj. 3. The diversity of seeing will not arise on the
part of the object seen, for the same object will be presented
to all — viz., the essence of God; nor will it arise from the
diverse participation of the object seen by different simili-
tudes; but it will arise on the part of the diverse faculty of
the intellect, not, indeed, the natural faculty, but the glorified
faculty.
Q. t2. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 134
Seventh Article.
whether those who see the essence of god
comprehend him ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Objection i. It seems that those who see the divine essence,
comprehend God. For the Apostle says (Phil. iii. 12) : But
I follow after, if I may by any means comprehend (Douay,
apprehend). But the Apostle did not follow in vain; for he
said (i Cor. ix. 26): I ... so run, not as at an uncertainty.
Therefore he comprehended; and in the same way others
also, whom he invites to do the same, saying: So run that
you may comprehend.
Obj. 2. Further, Augustine says {De Vid. Deum, Ep. cxlvii.) :
That is comprehended which is so seen as a whole, that nothing
of it is hidden from the seer. But if God is seen in His
essence, He is seen whole, and nothing of Him is hidden from
the seer, since God is simple. Therefore, whoever sees His
essence, comprehends Him.
Obj. 3. Further, if we say that He is seen as a whole, but
not wholly, it may be contrarily urged that wholly refers either
to the mode of the seer, or to the mode of the thing seen.
But he who sees the essence of God, sees Him wholly, if
the mode of the thing seen is considered; forasmuch as he
sees Him as He is; also, likewise, he sees Him wholly if the
mode of the seer be meant, forasmuch as the intellect will
with its full power see the divine essence. Therefore all
who see the essence of God see Him wholly; therefore they
comprehend Him.
On the contrary, It is written: 0 most mighty, great, and
powerful, the Lord of hosts is Thy NamvC. Great in counsel,
and incomprehensible in thought (Jer. xxxii. 18, 19). There-
fore He cannot be comprehended.
I answer that, It is impossible for any created intellect
to comprehend God; yet for the mind to attain to God in
some degree is great beatitude, as Augustine says {De Verb,
Dom., Serm. xxxviii.).
135 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 7
In proof of this we must consider that what is compre-
hended is perfectly known; and that is perfectly known
which is known so far as it can be known. Thus, if
anything which is capable of scientific demonstration is
held only by an opinion resting on a probable proof, it
is not comprehended; as, for instance, if anyone knows
by scientific demonstration that a triangle has three angles
equal to two right angles, he comprehends that truth;
whereas if anyone accepts it as a probable opinion
because wise men or most men teach it, he cannot be
said to comprehend the thing itself, because he does not
attain to that perfect mode of knowledge of which it is
intrinsically capable. But no created intellect can attain
to that perfect mode of the knowledge of the divine intellect
whereof it is intrinsically capable. Which thus appears —
Everything is knowable according to its actuality. But
God, whose being is infinite, as was shown above (Q. VII.),
is infinitely knowable. Now no created intellect can know
God infinitely. For the created intellect knows the divine
essence more or less perfectly in proportion as it receives
a greater or lesser light of glory. Since therefore the ■.
created light of glory received into any created intellect \
cannot be infinite, it is clearly impossible for any created \
intellect to know God in an infinite degree. Hence it is i
impossible that it should comprehend God.
Reply Obj. i. Comprehension is twofold: in one sense
it is taken strictly and properly, according as something
is included in the one comprehending ; and thus in no way is
God comprehended either by intellect, or in any other way ;
forasmuch as He is infinite and cannot be included in any
finite being; so that no finite being can contain Him in-
finitely, in the degree of His own infinity. In this sense we
now take comprehension. But in another sense comprehen-
sion is taken more largely as opposed to non-attai^iment ; for
he who attains to anyone is said to comprehend him when
he attains to him. And in this sense God is comprehended
by the blessed, according to the words, / held him, and I will
not let him go (Cant. iii. 4) ; in this sense also are to be under-
Q. 12. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 136
stood the words quoted from the Apostle concerning com-
prehension. And in this way comprehension is one of the
three prerogatives of the soul, responding to hope, as vision
responds to faith, and fruition responds to charity. For
even among ourselves not everything seen is held or
possessed, forasmuch as things either appear sometimes
afar off, or they are not in our power of attainment.
Neither, again, do we always enjoy what we possess; either
because we find no pleasure in them, or because such things
are not the ultimate end of our desire, so as to satisfy and
quell it. But the blessed possess these three things in God;
because they see Him, and in seeing him, possess Him as
present, having the power to see Him always; and possessing
Him, they enjoy Him as the ultimate fulfilment of desire.
Reply Obj. 2. God is called incomprehensible not because
anything of Him is not seen; but because He is not seen as
perfectly as He is capable of being seen; thus when any
demonstrable proposition is known by a probable reason only,
it does not follow that any part of it is unknown, either the
subject, or the predicate, or the composition; but that it
is not as perfectly known as it is capable of being known.
Hence Augustine, in his definition of comprehension, says
the whole is comprehended when it is seen in such a way
that nothing of it is hidden from the seer, or when its boun-
daries can be completely viewed or traced ; for the boundaries
of a thing are said to be completely surveyed when the end
of the knowledge of it is attained.
Reply Obj. 3. The word wholly denotes a mode of the
object; not that the whole object does not come under
knowledge, but that the mode of the object is not the
mode of the one who knows. Therefore, he who sees God's
essence, sees in Him that He exists infinitely, and is in-
finitely knowable; nevertheless, this infinite mode does
not extend to enable the knower to know infinitely; thus,
for instance, a person can have a probable opinion that a
proposition is demonstrable, although he himself does not
know it as demonstrated.
137 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 8
Eighth Article,
whether those who see the essence of god see all
IN GOD ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that those who see the essence of
God see all things in God. For Gregory says {Dialog, iv.) :
What do they not see, who see Him Who sees all things ? But
God sees all things. Therefore, those who see God see all
things.
Ohj. 2. Further, whoever sees a mirror, sees what is
reflected in the mirror. But all actual or possible things
shine forth in God as in a mirror; for He knows all things
in Himself. Therefore, whoever sees God, sees all actual
things in Him, and also all possible things.
Ohj. 3. Further, whoever understands the greater, can
understand the least, as is said in De Anima iii. But all
that God does, or can do, are less than His essence. There-
fore, whoever understands God, can understand all that God
does, or can do.
Ohj. 4. Further, the rational creature naturally desires
to know all things. Therefore, if in seeing God it does not
know all things, its natural desire will not rest satisfied;
thus, in seeing God it will not be fully happy; which is
incongruous . Therefore, he who sees God knows all things.
On the contrary, The angels see the essence of God; and
yet do not know all things. For, as Dionysius says [Ccel.
Hier. vii.), the inferior angels are cleansed from ignorance hy
the superior angels. Also they are ignorant of future con-
tingent things, and of secret thoughts; for this knowledge
belongs to God alone. Therefore, whosoever sees the essence
of God, does not know all things.
/ answer that, The created intellect, in seeing the divine
essence, does not see in it all that God does or can do.
For it is manifest that things are seen in God as they are
in Him. But all other things are in God as effects are
in the power of their cause. Therefore all things are seen
Q. 12. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 138
in God as an effect is seen in its cause. Now it is clear that
the more perfectly a cause is seen, the more of its effects can
be seen in it. For whoever has a lofty understanding,
as soon as one demonstrative principle is put before him
can gather the knowledge of many conclusions ; but this is
beyond one of a weaker intellect, for he needs things to be
explained to him separately. And so an intellect can know
all the effects of a cause and the reasons for those effects
in the cause itself, if it comprehends the cause wholly.
Now no created intellect can comprehend God wholly, as
shown above (A. 7) . Therefore no created intellect in seeing
God can know all that God does or can do, for this would be
to comprehend His power ; but of what God does or can do
any intellect can know the more, the more perfectly it sees
God.
Reply Obj. i. Gregory speaks as regards the object being
sufficient, namely, God, who in Himself sufficiently contains
and shows forth all things ; but it does not follow that who-
ever sees God knows all things, for he does not perfectly
comprehend Him.
Reply Obj. 2. It is not necessary that whoever sees a
mirror should see all that is in the mirror, unless his glance
comprehends the mirror itself.
Reply Obj. 3. Although it is more to see God than to see
all things else, still it is a greater thing to see Him so that
all things are known in Him, than to see Him in such a way
that not all things, but the fewer or the more, are known in
Him. For it has been shown in this article that the more
things are known in God according as He is seen more or
less perfectly.
Reply Obj. 4. The natural desire of the rational creature
is to know everything that belongs to the perfection of the
intellect, namely, the species and genera of things and their
types, and these everyone who sees the divine essence will
see in God. But to know other singulars, their thoughts and
their deeds does not belong to the perfection of the created
intellect nor does its natural desire go out to these things;
neither, again, does it desire to know things that exist not as
139 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 9
yet, but which God can call into being. Yet if God alone
were seen, Who is the fount and principle of all being and
of all truth. He would so fill the natural desire of knowledge
that nothing else would be desired, and the seer would be
completely beatified. Hence Augustine says {Confess, v.) :
Unhappy the man who knoweth all these (that is, all creatures)
and knoweth not Thee I but happy whoso knoweth Thee although
he know not these. And whoso knoweth both Thee and them
is not the happier for them, but for Thee alone.
Ninth Article.
whether what is seen in god, by those who see the
divine essence, is seen through any similitude ?
We proceed thus to the Ninth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that what is seen in God by those
who see the divine essence, is seen by means of some
similitude. For every kind of knowledge comes about by
the knower being assimilated to the object known. For thus
the intellect in act becomes the actual intelligible, and the
sense in act becomes the actual sensible, inasmuch as it is
informed by a similitude of the object, as the eye by the
similitude of colour. Therefore, if the intellect of one who
sees the divine essence understands any creatures in God,
it must be informed by their similitudes.
Obj. 2. Further, what we have seen, we keep in memory.
But Paul, seeing the essence of God whilst in ecstasy, when
he had ceased to see the divine essence, as Augustine says
(Gen. ad lit. xii. 28, 34), remembered many of the things he
had seen in the rapture ; hence he said : I have heard secret
words which it is not granted to man to utter (2 Cor. xii. 4).
Therefore it must be said that certain similitudes of what he
remembered, remained in his mind; and in the same way,
when he actually saw the essence of God, he had certain
similitudes or ideas of what he actually saw in it.
071 the contrary, A mirror and what is in it are seen by
means of one likeness. But all things are seen in God as
in an intelligible mirror. Therefore, if God Himself is not
Q. 12. Art. 9 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 140
seen by any similitude but by His own essence, neither are
the things seen in Him seen by any similitudes or ideas.
/ answer that, Those who see the divine essence see what
they see in God not by any likeness, but by the divine
essence itself united to their intellect. For each thing is
known in so far as its likeness is in the one who knows. Now
this takes place in two ways. For as things which are like
to one and the same thing are like to each other, the cog-
nitive faculty can be assimilated to any knowable object
in two ways. In one way it is assimilated by the object
itself, when it is directly informed by a similitude, and then
the object is known in itself. In another way when informed
by a similitude which resembles the object; and in this way
the knowledge is not of the thing in itself, but of the thing
in its likeness. For the knowledge of a man in himself differs
from the knowledge of him in his image. Hence to know
things thus by their likeness in the one who knows, is to
know them in themselves or in their own nature; whereas
to know them by their similitudes pre-existing in God, is to
see them in God. Now there is a difference between these
two kinds of knowledge. Hence, according to the knowledge
whereby things are known by those who see the essence of
God, they are seen in God Himself not by any other simili-
tudes but by the divine essence alone present to the intellect ;
by which also God Himself is seen.
Reply Ohj. i. The created intellect of one who sees God
is assimilated to what is seen in God, inasmuch as it is
united to the divine essence, in which the similitudes of
all things pre-exist.
Reply Ohj. 2. Some of the cognitive faculties form
other images from those first conceived; thus the imagina-
tion from the preconceived images of a mountain and of gold
can form the likeness of a golden mountain ; and the intellect,
from the preconceived ideas of genus and difference, forms
the idea of species; in like manner from the similitude of
an image we can form in our minds the similitude of the
original of the image. Thus Paul, or any other person who
sees God, by the very vision of the divine essence, can form
141 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 10
in himself the simiUtudes of what is seen in the divine
essence, which remained in Paul even when he had ceased
to see the essence of God. Still this kind of vision whereby
things are seen by this likeness thus conceived, is not the
same as that whereby things are seen in God.
Tenth Article.
whether those who see the essence of god see all
they see in it at the same time ?
We proceed thus to the Tenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that those who see the essence of
God do not see all they see in Him at one and the same
time. For, according to the Philosopher (Topic, ii.) : It
may happen that many things are known, hut only one is
understood. But what is seen in God, is understood; for
God is seen by the intellect. Therefore those who see
God do not see all in Him at the same time.
Obj. 2. Further, Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. viii. 22, 23),
God moves the spiritual creature according to time — that is,
by intelligence and affection. But the spiritual creature is
the angel, who sees God. Therefore those who see God
understand and are affected successively; for time means
succession.
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. xvi.): Our
thoughts will not be unstable, going to and fro from one thing to
another ; but we shall see all we know at one glance.
I answer that, What is seen in the Word is seen not suc-
cessively, but at the same time. In proof whereof, we
ourselves cannot know many things all at once, forasmuch as
we understand many things by means of many ideas. But
our intellect cannot be actually informed by many diverse
ideas at the same time, so as to understand by them; as one
body cannot bear different shapes simultaneously. Hence,
when many things can be understood by one idea, they are
understood at the same time; as the parts of a whole are
understood successively, and not all at the same time, if each
one is understood by its own idea; whereas if all are under-
Q. 12. Art. ii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 142
stood under the one idea of the whole, they are understood
simultaneously. Now it was shown above that things seen
in God, are not seen singly by their own similitude; but
all are seen by the one essence of God. Hence they are seen
simultaneously, and not successively.
Reply Obj. i. We understand one thing only when we
understand by one idea; but many things understood
by one idea are understood simultaneously, as in the idea
of a man we understand animal and rational ; and in the
idea of a house we understand the wall and the roof.
Reply Obj. 2. As regards their natural knowledge, whereby
they know things by diverse ideas given them, the angels
do not know all things simultaneously, and thus they are
moved in the act of understanding according to time ; but as
regards what they see in God, they see all at the same time.
Eleventh Article,
whether anyone in this life can see the essence of
GOD ?
We proceed thus to the Eleventh Article : —
Objection i. It seems that one can in this life see the
divine essence. For Jacob said : / have seen God face to face
(Gen. xxxii. 30). But to see Him face to face is to see His
essence, as appears from the words: We see now in a glass
and in a dark manner, but then face to face (i Cor. xiii. 12).
Therefore God can be seen in this life in His essence.
Ohj. 2. Further, the Lord said of Moses: / speak to him
mouth to mouth, and plainly, and not by riddles and figures
doth he see the Lord (Num. xii. 8) ; but this is to see God in
His essence. Therefore it is possible to see the essence of
God in this life.
Obj. 3. Further, that wherein we know all other things,
and whereby we judge of other things, is known in itself to
us. But even now we know all things in God ; for Augustine
says {Confess, viii.) : If we both see that what you say is true,
and we both see that what I say is true ; where, I ask, do we
see this ? neither I in thee, nor thou in me ; but both of us in
143 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 11
the very incommutable truth itself above our minds. He also
says [De Vera Relig. xxx.) that, We judge of all things accord-
ing to the divine truth ; and (De Trin. xii.) that, it is the duty
of reason to judge of these corporeal things according to the
incorporeal and eternal ideas ; which unless they were above
the mind, could not be incommutable. Therefore even in this
Hfe we see God Himself.
Obj. 4. Further, according to Augustine [Gen. ad lit. xii.
24, 25), those things that are in the soul by their essence
are seen by intellectual vision. But intellectual vision is
of intelligible things, not by simihtudes, but by their very
essences, as he also says [ibid.). Therefore, since God is in
our soul by His essence, it follows that He is seen by us
in His essence.
On the contrary, It is written, Man shall not see Me, and
live (Exod. xxxiii. 20), and a gloss upon this says: In this
mortal life God can be seen by certain images, but not by the
likeness itself of His own nature.
I answer that, God cannot be seen in His essence by a mere
human being, except he be separated from this mortal life.
The reason is, because, as was said above (A. 4j, the mode of
knowledge follows the mode of the nature of the knower.
But our soul, as long as we live in this life, has its being in
corporeal matter ; hence naturally it knows only what has a
form in matter, or what can be known by such a form.
Now it is evident that the divine essence cannot be known
through the nature of material things. For it was shown
above (AA. 2, 9) that the knowledge of God by means of
any created similitude is not the vision of His essence.
Hence it is impossible for the soul of man in this life to see
the essence of God. This can be seen in the fact that the
more our soul is abstracted from corporeal things, the more
it is capable of receiving abstract intelligible things.
Hence in dreams and alienations of the bodily senses divine
revelations and foresight of future events are perceived the
more clearly. It is not possible, therefore, that the soul in
this mortal life should be raised up to the supreme of
intelligible objects, that is, to the divine essence.
Q. 12. Art. ii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '* 144
Reply Ohj. i. According to Dionysius [Coel. Hier. iv.), a
man is said in the Scriptures to see God in the sense that
certain figures are formed in the senses or imagination,
according to some simiHtude representing in part the divinity.
So when Jacob says, I have seen God face to face, this does not
mean the divine essence, but some figure representing God.
And this is to be referred to some high mode of prophecy, so
that God seems to speak, though in an imaginary vision ; as
will later be explained (II. II., Q. CLXXIV.) in treating of
the degrees of prophecy. We may also say that Jacob
spoke thus to designate some exalted intellectual contem-
plation, above the ordinary state.
Reply Ohj. 2. As God works miracles in corporeal things,
so also He does supernatural wonders above the common
order, raising the minds of some living in the flesh beyond
the use of sense, even up to the vision of His own essence;
as Augustine says [Gen, ad lit. xii. 26, 27, 28) of Moses,
the teacher of the Jews; and of Paul, the teacher of the
Gentiles. This will be treated more fully in the question of
rapture (II. IL, Q. CLXXV.).
Reply Ohj. 3. All things are said to be seen in God, and
all things are judged in Him, because by the participation
of His light we know and judge all things; for the light of
natural reason itself is a participation of the divine light;
as likewise we are said to see and judge of sensible things
in the sun, that is, by the sun's light. Hence Augus-
tine says (Soliloq. i. 8), The lessons of instruction can only
he seen as it were hy their own sun, namely God. As therefore
in order to see a sensible object it is not necessary to see the
substance of the sun, so in like manner to see any intelligible
object, it is not necessary to see the essence of God.
Reply Ohj. 4. Intellectual vision is of the things which
are in the soul by their essence, as intelligible things are in
the intellect. And thus God is in the souls of the blessed;
not thus is He in our soul, but by presence, essence, and
power.
145 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 12
Twelfth Article,
whether god can be known in this life by natural
REASON ?
We proceed thus to the Twelfth Article : — ■
Objection i. It seems that by natural reason we cannot
know God in this Hfe. For Boethius says [De Consol. v.)
that reason does not grasp simple form. But God is a
supremely simple form, as was shown above (Q. III. A. 7):
Therefore natural reason cannot attain to know Him.
Obj. 2. Further, the soul understands nothing by natural
reason without the use of the imagination. But we cannot
have an imagination of God, Who is incorporeal. There-
fore we cannot know God by natural knowledge.
Obj. 3. Further, the knowledge of natural reason belongs
to both good and evil, inasmuch as they have a common
nature. But the knowledge of God belongs only to the
good; for Augustine says {De Trin. i.): The weak eye of the
human mind is not fixed on that excellent light unless purified
by the justice of faith. Therefore God cannot be known
by natural reason.
On the contrary, It is written (Rom. i. 19), That which
is known of God, namely, what can be known of God by
natural reason, is manifest in them,
I answer that, Our natural knowledge begins from sense.
Hence our natural knowledge can go as far as it can be led
by sensible things. But our mind cannot be led by sense so
far as to see the essence of God ; because the sensible effects
of God do not equal the power of God as their cause. Hence
from the knowledge of sensible things the whole power of
God cannot be known; nor therefore can His essence be seen.
But because they are His effects and depend on their cause,
we can be led from them so far as to know of God whether He
exists, and to know of Him what must necessarily belong to
Him, as the first. cause of all things, exceeding all things
caused by Him.
Hence we know that His relationship with creatures so
I* 10
Q. 12. Art. 13 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 146
far as to be the cause of them all ; also that creatures differ
from Him, inasmuch as He is not in any way part of what
is caused by Him; and that creatures are not removed
from Him by reason of any defect on His part, but because
He superexceeds them all.
Reply Obj. i. Reason cannot reach up to simple form,
so as to know what it is ; but it can know whether it is.
Reply Obj. 2. God is known by natural knowledge through
the images of His effects.
Reply Obj. 3. As the knowledge of God's essence is by
grace, it belongs only to the good; but the knowledge of
Him by natural reason can belong to both good and bad ;
and hence Augustine says {Retract, i.), retracting what
he had said before: I do not approve what I said in prayer,
* God who wiliest that only the pure should know truth.' For if
can be answered that many who are not pure can know many
truths, that is, by natural reason.
Thirteenth Article.
whether by grace a higher knowledge of god can be
obtained than by natural reason ?
We proceed thus to the Thirteenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that by grace a higher knowledge of
God is not obtained than by natural reason. For Dionysius
says {De Mystica Theol. i.), that whoever is the more united
to God in this life, is united to Him as to one entirely un-
known. He says the same of Moses, who nevertheless ob-
tained a certain excellence by the knowledge conferred by
grace. But to be united to God while ignoring of Him what
He is, comes about also by natural reason. Therefore
God is not more known to us by grace than by natural
reason.
Obj. 2. Further, we can acquire the knowledge of divine
things by natural reason only through the imagination;
and the same applies to the knowledge given by grace.
For Dionysius says {Ccel. Hier. i.) that it is impossible for
the divine ray to shine upon us except as screened round about
T47 HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US Q. 12. Art. 13
by the many coloured sacred veils. Therefore we cannot
know God more fully by grace than by natural reason.
Obj. 3. Further, our intellect adheres to God by the grace
of faith. But faith does not seem to be knowledge; for
Gregory says {Homil. xxvi. in Ev.) that things not seen are the
objects of faith, and not of knowledge. Therefore there is not
given to us a more excellent knowledge of God by grace.
On the contrary, The Apostle says that God hath revealed
to us by His Spirit, what none of the princes of this world knew
(i Cor. ii. 10), namely, the philosophers, as the gloss expounds.
/ answer that. We have a more perfect knowledge of God
by grace than by natural reason. Which is proved thus.
The knowledge which we have by natural reason contains
two things: images derived from the sensible objects; and
the^atural intelligible light, enabling^ jisjto abstract from
them intelHgible conceptions.
Now in both of these, human knowledge is assisted by the
revelation of grace. For the intellect's natural light is
strengthened by the infusion of gratuitous light; and some-
times also the images in the human imagination are divinely
formed, so as to express divine things better than those do
which we receive from sensible objects, as appears in pro-
phetic visions; while sometimes sensible things, or even
voices, are divinely formed to express some divine mean-
ing; as in the Baptism, the Holy Ghost was seen in the
shape of a dove, and the voice of the Father was heard.
This is My beloved Son (Matt: iii. 17).
Reply Obj. i. Although by the revelation of grace in this
life we cannot know of God what He is, and thus are united
to Him as to one unknown; still we know Him more fully
according as many and more excellent of His effects are
demonstrated to us, and according as we attribute to Him
some things known by divine revelation, to which natural
reason cannot reach, as, for instance, that God is Three and
One.
Reply Obj. 2. From the images either received from sense
in the natural order, or divinely formed in the imagination,
we have so much the more excellent intellectual knowledge^
Q. 12. Art. 13 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 148
the stronger the intelligible Hght is in man ; and thus through
the revelation given by the images a fuller knowledge is
received by the infusion of the divine light.
Reply Ohj. 3. Faith is a kind of knowledge, inasmuch as
the intellect is determined by faith to some knowable
object. But this determination to one object does not pro-
ceed from the vision of the believer, but from the vision of Him
who is believed. Thus, as far as faith falls short of vision,
it falls short of the knowledge which belongs to science, for
science determines the intellect to one object by the vision
and understanding of first principles.
QUESTION XIII.
THE NAMES OF GOD.
{In Twelve Articles.)
After the consideration of those things which belong to the
divine knowledge, we now proceed to the consideration of
the divine names. For everything is named by us according
to our knowledge of it.
Under this head, there are twelve points for inquiry,
(i) Whether God can be named by us ? (2) Whether any
names applied to God are predicated of Him substantially ?
(3) Whether any names applied to God are said of Him
literally, or are all to be taken metaphorically ? (4)
Whether any names applied to God are synonymous ?
(5) Whether some names are applied to God and to
creatures univocally or equivocally? (6) Whether, sup-
posing they are applied analogically, they are applied
first to God or to creatures ? (7) Whether any names are
applicable to God from time ? (8) Whether this name God
is a name of nature, or of the operation ? (9) Whether
this name God is a communicable name ? (10) Whether it
is taken univocally or equivocally as signifying God, by
nature, by participation, and by opinion ? (11) Whether
this name, Who is, is the supremely appropriate name of
God ? (12) Whether affirmative propositions can be formed
about God ?
First Article,
whether a name can be given to god ?
We proceed th^ts to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that no name can be given to God.
For Dionysius says {Div. Nom. i.) that, Of Him there is
149
g. 13. Art. I THE '* SUMMA TFIEOLOGICA " 150
neither name, nor can one he found of Him ; and it is written:
What is His name, and iiuhat is the name of His Son, if thou
know est ? (Pro v. xxx. 4).
Obj. 2. Further, every name is either abstract or concrete.
But concrete names do not belong to God, since He is
simple, nor do abstract names belong to Him, forasmuch as
they do not signify any perfect subsisting thing. Therefore
no name can be said of God.
Obj. 3. Further, nouns are taken to signify substance
with quality; verbs and participles signify substance with
time; pronouns the same with demonstration or relation.
But none of these can be applied to God, for He has no
quality, nor accident, nor time; moreover. He cannot be
felt, so as to be pointed out; nor can He be described by
relation, inasmuch as relations serve to recall a thing men-
tioned before by nouns, participles, or demonstrative pro-
nouns. Therefore God cannot in any way be named by us.
On the contrary, It is WTitten (Exod. xv. 3) : The Lord is
a man of war, Almighty is His name.
I answer that. Since according to the Philosopher [Peri-
herm. i.), words are signs of ideas, and ideas the similitude
of things, it is evident that words relate to the meaning of
things signified through the medium of the intellectual con-
ception. It follows therefore that we can give a name to any-
thing in as far as we can understand it. Now it was shown
above (Q. XH., AA. 11, 12) that in this life we cannot see the
essence of God ; but we know God from creatures as their
principle, and also by way of excellence and remotion. In
this way therefore He can be named by us from creatures,
yet not so that the name which signifies Him expresses
the divine essence in itself. Thus the name man expresses
the essence of man in himself, since it signifies the definition
of man by manifesting his essence; for the idea expressed
by the name is the definition.
Reply Obj. 1. The reason why God has no name, or is
said to be above being named, is because His essence is
above all that we understand about God and signify in
word.
151 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. i
Reply Ohj. 2. Because we know and name God from crea-
tures, the names we attribute to God signify what belongs
to material creatures, of which the knowledge is natural
to us. And because in creatures of this kind what is perfect
and subsistent is compound; whereas their form is not
a complete subsisting thing, but rather is that whereby a
thing is ; hence it follows that all names used by us to signify
a complete subsisting thing must have a concrete meaning
as applicable to compound things; whereas names given to
signify simple forms, signify a thing not as subsisting,
but as that whereby a thing is; as, for instance, whiteness
signifies that whereby a thing is white. And as God is
simple, and subsisting, we attribute to Him abstract names
to signify His simplicity, and concrete names to signify
His subsistence and perfection, although both these kinds
of names fail to express His mode of being, forasmuch as
our intellect does not know Him in this life as He is.
Reply Ohj. 3. To signify substance with quality is to
signify the suppositum with a nature or determined form
in which it subsists. Hence, as some things are said of God
in a concrete sense, to signify His subsistence and perfection,
so likewise nouns are applied to God signifying substance
with quality. Further, verbs and participles which signify
time, are applied to Him because His eternity includes all
time. For as we can apprehend and signify simple sub-
sistences only by way of compound things, so we can under-
stand and express simple eternity only by way of temporal
things, because our intellect has a natural affinity to com-
pound and temporal things. But demonstrative pronouns
are applied to God as describing what is understood, not
what is sensed. For we can only describe Him as far as we
vinderstand Him. Thus, according as nouns, participles and
demonstrative pronouns are applicable to God, so far can
He be signified by relative pronouns.
Q. 13. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 152
Second Article.
WHETHER ANY NAME CAN BE APPLIED TO GOdI
SUBSTANTIALLY ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that no name can be applied to
God substantially. For Damascene says {De Fid. Orth.
1.9): Everything said of God signifies not His substance, but
rather shows forth what He is not ; or expresses some relation,
or something following from His nature or operation.
Obj. 2. Further, Dionysius says [Div. Nom. i.): You
will find a chorus of holy doctors addressed to the end of dis-
tinguishing clearly and praiseworthily the divine processions
in the denominations of God. Thus the names applied by the
holy doctors in praising God are distinguished according
to the divine processions themselves. But what expresses
the procession of anything, does not signify its essence.
Therefore the names applied to God are not said of Him
substantially.
Obj. 3. Further, a thing is named by us according as
we understand it. But God is not understood by us in
this life in His substance. Therefore neither is any name
we can use applied substantially to God.
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. vi.) : The being
of God is the being strong, or the being wise, or whatever else
we may say of that simplicity whereby His substance is
signified.
Therefore all names of this kind signify the divine substance.
I answer that. Negative names applied to God or signifying
His relation to creatures manifestly do not at all signify
His substance, but rather express the distance of the creature
from Him, or His relation to something else, or rather, the
relation of creatures to Himself.
But as regards absolute and affirmative names of God, as
good, wise, and the like, various and many opinions have
been given. For some have said that all such names,
although they are applied to God affirmatively, nevertheless
153 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 2
have been brought into use more to express some remotion
from God, rather than to express anything that exists
positively in Him. Hence they assert that when we say
that God Hves, we mean that God is not hke an inanimate
thing; and the same in hke manner apphes to other names;
and this was taught by Rabbi Moses. Others say that
these names appHed to God signify His relationship towards
creatures : thus in the words, God is good, we mean, God is
the cause of goodness in things; and the same rule applies
to other names.
Both of these opinions, however, seem to be untrue for
three reasons. First because in neither of them can a reason
be assigned why some names more than others are applied
to God. For He is assuredly the cause of bodies in the same
way as He is the cause of good things; therefore if the words
God is good, signified no more than, God is the cause of good
things, it might in like manner be said that God is a body,
inasmuch as He is the cause of bodies. So also to say that
He is a body implies that He is not a mere potentiality, as
is primary matter. Secondly, because it would follow that
all names applied to God would be said of Him by way of
being taken in a secondary sense, as healthy is secondarily
said of medicine, forasmuch as it signifies only the cause of
health in the animal which primarily is called healthy.
Thirdly, because this is against the intention of those who
speak of God. For in saying that God lives, they assuredly
mean more than to say that He is the cause of our life,
or that He differs from inanimate bodies.
Therefore we must hold a different doctrine — viz., that f
these names signify the divine substance, and are predicated
substantially of God, although they fall short of a full \
representation of Him. Which is proved thus. For these
names express God, so far as our intellects know Him. Now
since our intellect knows God from creatures, it knows Him
as far as creatures represent Him. Now it was shown above
(Q. IV. A. 2) that God prepossesses in Himself all the
perfections of creatures, being Himself simply and univer-
sally perfect. Hence every creature represents Him, and is
Q. 13. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 154
like Him so far as it possesses some perfection: yet it
represents Him not as something of the same species or
genus, but as the excelling principle of whose form the
effects fall short, although they derive some kind of likeness
thereto, even as the forms of inferior bodies represent the
power of the sun. This was explained above (Q. IV. A. 3.),
in treating of the divine perfection. Therefore the aforesaid
names signify the divine substance, but in an imperfect
manner, even as creatures represent it imperfectly. So when
we say, God is good, the meaning is not, God is the cause of
goodness, or, God is not evil ; but the meaning is. Whatever good
we attribute to creatures, pre-exists in God, and in a more
excellent and higher way. Hence it does not follow that
God is good, because He causes goodness ; but rather, on the
contrary. He causes goodness in things because He is good ;
according to what Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ, i. 32),
Because He is good, we are.
Reply Obj. i. Damascene says that these names do not
signify what God is, forasmuch as by none of these names
is perfectly expressed what He is ; but each one signifies Him
in an imperfect manner, even as creatures represent Him
imperfectly.
Reply Obj. 2. In the signification of names, that from which
the name is derived is different sometimes from what it is
intended to signify, as for instance this name stone {lapis) is
imposed from the fact that it hurts the foot (Icedit pedem),
but it is not imposed to signify that which hurts the foot,
but rather to signify a certain kind of body; otherwise
everything that hurts the foot would be a stone.* So we
must say that these kinds of divine names are imposed
from the divine processions; for as according to the diverse
processions of their perfections, creatures are the representa-
tions of God, although in an imperfect manner; so likewise
our intellect knows and names God according to each kind
of procession; but nevertheless these names are not imposed
to signify the processions themselves, as if when we say God
* This refers to the Latin etymology of the word lapis, which has
no place in English.
155 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 3
lives, the sense were, life proceeds from Him ; but to signify
the principle itself of things, in so far as life pre-exists
in Him, although it pre-exists in Him in a more eminent way
than can be understood or signified.
Reply Obj. 3. We cannot know the essence of God in
this life, as He really is in Himself; but we know Him
accordingly as He is represented in the perfections of
creatures; and thus the names imposed by us signify Him
in that manner only.
Third Article.
whether any name can be applied to god in its
literal sense ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that no name is applied literally to
God. For all names which we apply to God are taken from
creatures; as was explained above (A. i). But the names
of creatures are applied to God metaphorically, as when
we say, God is a stone, or a lion, or the like. Therefore
names are applied to God in a metaphorical sense.
Obj. 2. Further, no name can be applied literally to any-
thing if it should be withheld from it rather than given to it.
But all such names as good, wise, and the like, are more
truly withheld from God than given to Him; as appears
from what Dionysius says {Ccel. Hier. ii.). Therefore none
of these names belong to God in their literal sense.
Obj. 3. Further, corporeal names are applied to God in
a metaphorical sense only; since He is incorporeal. But all
such names imply some kind of corporeal condition; for
their meaning is bound up with time and composition and
like corporeal conditions. Therefore all these names are
applied to God in a metaphorical sense.
On the contrary, Ambrose says (De Fide ii.). Some names
there are which express evidently the property of the divinity,
and some which express the clear truth of the divine majesty, but
others there are which are applied to God metaphorically by
way of similitude. Therefore not all names are applied to
Q. 13. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 156
God in a metaphorical sense, but there are some which are
said of Him in their literal sense.
/ answer that, According to the preceding article, our
knowledge of God is derived from the perfections which
flow from Him to creatures, which perfections are in God
in a more eminent way than in creatures. Now our intellect
apprehends them as they are in creatures, and as it
apprehends them it signifies them by names. Therefore
as to the names applied to God, there are two things to be
considered — viz., the perfections which they signify, such as
goodness, life, and the like, and their mode of signification.
As regards what is signified by these names, they belong
properly to God, and more properly than they belong to
creatures, and are applied primarily to Him. But as regards
their mode of signification, they do not properly and strictly
apply to God; for their mode of signification applies to
creatures.
Reply Obj. i. There are some names which signify these
perfections flowing from God to creatures in such a way
that the imperfect way in which creatures receive the divine
perfection is part of the very signification of the name
itself, as stone signifies a material being, and names of this
kind can be applied to God only in a metaphorical sense.
Other names, however, express these perfections absolutely,
without any such mode of participation being part of their
signification, as the words being, good, living, and the like,
and such names can be literally applied to God.
Reply Obj. 2. Such names as these, as Dionysius shows,
are denied of God for the reason that what the name signifies
does not belong to Him in the ordinary sense of its signi-
fication, but in a more eminent way. Hence Dionysius
says also that God is above all substance and all life.
Reply Obj. 3. These names which are applied to God
literally imply corporeal conditions not in the thing signi-
fied, but as regards their mode of signification: whereas
those which are applied to God metaphorically imply and
mean a corporeal condition in the thing signified.
157 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 4
Fourth Article,
whether names applied to god are synonymous?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that these names applied to God
are synonymous names. For synonymous names are those
which mean exactly the same. But these names applied to
God mean entirely the same thing in God ; for the goodness
of God is His essence, and likewise it is His wisdom.
Therefore these names are entirely synonymous.
Ohj. 2. Further, if it be said these names signify one and
the same thing in reality, but differ in idea, it can be objected
that an idea to which no reality corresponds is a vain notion.
Therefore if these ideas are many, and the thing is one, it
seems also that all these ideas are vain notions.
Ohj. 3. Further, a thing which is one in reality and in
idea, is more one than what is one in reality and many in
idea. But God is supremely one. Therefore it seems that
He is not one in reality and many in idea; and thus the
names applied to God do not signify different ideas; and
thus they are synonymous.
On the contrary, All synonyms united with each other
are redundant, as when we say, vesture clothing. Therefore
if all names applied to God are synonymous, we cannot
properly say good God, or the like, and yet it is written,
0 most mighty, great and powerful, the Lord of hosts is Thy
name ( J er. xxxii. 18) .
/ answer that, These names spoken of God are not synony-
mous. This would be easy to understand, if we said that
these names are used to remove, or to express the relation of
cause to creatures; for thus it would follow that there are
different ideas as regards the diverse things denied of God,
or as regards diverse effects connoted. But even accord-
ing to what was said above (A. 2), that these names signify the
divine substance, although in an imperfect manner, it is
also clear from what has been said (AA. i, 2) that they have
diverse meanings. For the idea signified by the name is the
conception in the intellect of the thing signified by the name.
Q. 13. Art. 5 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 158
But our intellect, since it knows God from creatures, in order
to understand God, forms conceptions proportional to the
perfections flowing from God to creatures, which perfec-
tions pre-exist in God unitedly and simply, whereas in
creatures they are received, divided and multiplied. As,
therefore, to the different perfections of creatures there
corresponds one simple principle represented by different
perfections of creatures in a various and manifold manner,
so also to the various and multiplied conceptions of our
intellect there corresponds one altogether simple principle,
according to these conceptions, imperfectly understood.
Therefore, although the names applied to God signify one
thing, still because they signify that thing under many and
different aspects, they are not synonymous.
Thus appears the solution of the First Objection, since
synonymous terms signify one thing under one aspect; for
words which signify different aspects of one thing, do not
signify primarily and absolutely one thing; because the
term only signifies the thing through the medium of the
intellectual conception, as was said above.
Reply Ohj. 2. The many aspects of these names are not
empty and vain, for there corresponds to all of them
one simple reality represented by them in a manifold and
imperfect manner.
Reply Ohj. 3. The perfect unity of God requires that
what are manifold and divided in others should exist in Him
simply and unitedly. Thus it comes about that He is one
in reality, and yet multiple in idea, because our intellect
apprehends Him in a manifold manner, as things represent
Him.
Fifth Article.
whether what is said of god and of creatures is
univocally predicated of them 1
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the things attributed to God
and creatures are uni vocal. For every equivocal term is
reduced to the univocal, as many are reduced to one : for if
159 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 5
the name dog be said equivocally of the barking dog, and
of the dogfish, it must be said of some uni vocally — viz.,
of all barking dogs; otherwise we proceed to infinitude.
Now there are some univocal agents which agree with their
effects in name and definition, as man generates man; and
there are some agents which are equivocal, as the sun
which causes heat, although the sun is hot only in an
equivocal sense. Therefore it seems that the first agent to
which all other agents are reduced, is an univocal agent:
and thus what is said of God and creatures, is predicated
univocally.
Obj. 2. Further, there is no similitude among equivocal
things. Therefore as creatures have a certain likeness to
God, according to the word of Genesis (i. 26), Let us make
man to our image and likeness, it seems that something can
be said of God and creatures univocally.
Obj. 3. Further, measure is homogeneous with the thing
measured. But God is the first measure of all beings.
Therefore God is homogeneous with creatures; and thus a
word may be applied univocally to God and to creatures.
On the contrary, Whatever is predicated of various things
under the same name but not in, the same sense, is predicated
equivocally. But no name belongs to God in the same
sense that it belongs to creatures; for instance, wisdom
in creatures is a quality, but not in God, Now a different
genus changes an essence, since the genus is part of the
definition ; and the same applies to other things. Therefore
whatever is said of God and of creatures is predicated
equivocally.
Further, God is more distant from creatures than any
creatures are from each other. But the distance of some
creatures makes any univocal predication of them im-
possible, as in the case of those things which are not in the
same genus. Therefore much less can anything be predicated
univocally of God and creatures; and so only equivocal
predication can be applied to them.
/ answer that, Univocal predication is impossible between
God and creatures. The reason of this is that every effect
Q. 13. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 160
which is not an adequate result of the power of the efficient
cause, receives the simihtude of the agent not in its full
degree, but in a measure that falls short, so that what is
divided and multiplied in the effects resides in the agent
simply, and in the same manner; as for example the sun
by the exercise of its one power produces manifold and
various forms in all inferior things. In the same way, as
said in the preceding article, all perfections existing in
creatures divided and multiplied, pre-exist in God unitedly.
Thus, when any term expressing perfection is applied to a
creature, it signifies that perfection distinct in idea from
other perfections ; as, for instance, by this term wise applied
to a man, we signify some perfection distinct from a man's
essence, and distinct from his power and existence, and from
all similar things; whereas when we apply it to God, we do
not mean to signify anything distinct from His essence, or
power, or existence. Thus also this term wise applied to
man in some degree circumscribes and comprehends the
thing signified ; whereas this is not the case when it is applied
to God ; but it leaves the thing signified as incomprehended,
and as exceeding the signification of the name. Hence it is
evident that this term wise is not applied in the same way
to God and to man. The same rule applies to other terms.
Hence no name is predicated uni vocally of God and of
creatures.
Neither, on the other hand, are names applied to God
and creatures in a purely equivocal sense, as some have
said. Because if that were so, it follows that from creatures
nothing could be known or demonstrated about God at all;
for the reasoning would always be exposed to the fallacy of
equivocation. Such a view is against the philosophers, who
proved many things about God, and also against what the
Apostle says: The invisible things of God are clearly seen
being understood by the things that are made (Rom. i. 20).
Therefore it must be said that these names are said of God
and creatures in an analogous sense, that is, according to
proportion.
Now names are thus used in two ways : either according
i6i THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 5
as many things are proportionate to one, thus for example
healthy is predicated of medicine and urine in relation and
in proportion to health of body, of which the former is the
sign and the latter the cause: or according as one thing is
proportionate to another, thus healthy is said of medicine
and animal, since medicine is the cause of health in the
animal body. And in this way some things are said of God
and creatures analogically, and not in a purely equivocal nor
in a purely uni vocal sense. For we can name God only
from creatures (A. i). Thus, whatever is said of God and
creatures, is said according to the relation of a creature to
God as its principle and cause, wherein all perfections of things
pre-exist excellently. Now this mode of community of idea
is a mean between pure equivocation and simple univoca-
tion. For in analogies the idea is not, as it is in univocals,
one and the same, yet it is not totally diverse as in equi-
vocals; but a term which is thus used in a multiple sense
signifies various proportions to some one thing ; thus healthy
applied to urine signifies the sign of animal health, and
applied to medicine signifies the cause of the same health.
Reply Ohj. i. Although equivocal predications must be
reduced to univocal, still in actions the non-univocal agent
must precede the univocal agent. For the non-univocal
agent is the universal cause of the whole species, as for
instance the sun is the cause of the generation of all men;
whereas the univocal agent is not the universal efficient
cause of the whole species (otherwise it would be the cause
of itself, since it is contained in the species), but is a particular
cause of this individual which it places under the species
by way of participation. Therefore the universal cause of
the whole species is not an univocal agent : and the universal
cause comes before the particular cause. But this universal
agent, whilst it is not univocal, nevertheless is not altogether
equivocal, otherwise it could not produce its own likeness,
but rather it is to be called an analogical agent, as all univocal
predications are reduced to one first non-univocal analogical
predication, which is being.
Reply Ohj, 2. The likeness of the creature to God is
I. II
Q. 13. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 162
imperfect, for it does not represent one and the same generic
thing (Q. IV. A. 3).
Reply Obj. 3. God is not the measure proportioned to
things measured; hence it is not necessary that God and
creatures should be in the same genus.
The arguments adduced in the contrary sense prove
indeed that these names are not predicated uni vocally of
God and creatures; yet they do not prove that they are
predicated equivocally.
Sixth Article.
whether names predicated of god are predicated
primarily of creatures ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article : — •
Objection i. It seems that names are predicated primarily
of creatures rather than of God. For we name anything
accordingly as we know it, since names, as the Philosopher
says, are signs of ideas. But we know creatures before we
know God. Therefore the names imposed by us are pre-
dicated primarily of creatures rather than of God.
Obj. 2. Further, Dionysius says {Div. Nom. i.): We name
God from creatures. But names transferred from creatures
to God, are said primarily of creatures rather than of God,
as lion, stone, and the like. Therefore all names applied to
God and creatures are applied primarily to creatures rather
than to God.
Obj. 3. Further, all names equally applied to God and
creatures, are applied to God as the cause of all creatures,
as Dionysius says {De Myst. Theol.). But what is applied
to anything through its cause, is applied to it secondarily;
for healthy is primarily predicated of animal rather than of
medicine, which is the cause of health. Therefore these
names are said primarily of creatures rather than of God.
On the contrary, It is written, / bow my knees to the Father
of our Lord Jesus Christ, of Whom all paternity in heaven and
earth is named (Eph. iii. 14, 15) ; and the same applies to the
other names applied to God and creatures. Therefore these
names are applied primarily to God rather than to creatures.
i63 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 6
/ answer that, In names predicated of many in an analogical
sense, all are predicated because they have reference to
some one thing; and this one thing must be placed in the
definition of them all. And since that expressed by the name
is the definition, as the Philosopher says {Metaph. iv.), such a
name must be applied primarily to that which is put in the
definition of such other things, and secondarily to these others
according as they approach more or less to that first Thus,
for instance, healthy applied to animals comes into the defini-
tion of healthy applied to medicine, which is called healthy
as being the cause of health in the animal ; and also into the
definition of healthy which is applied to urine, which is called
healthy in so far as it is the sign of the animal's health.
Thus, all names applied metaphorically to God, are applied
to creatures primarily rather than to God, because when said
of God they mean only similitudes to such creatures. For
as smiling applied to a field means only that the field in the
beauty of its flowering is like to the beauty of the human
smile by proportionate likeness, so the name of lion applied
to God means only that God manifests strength in His
works, as a lion in his. Thus it is clear that applied to
God the signification of names can be defined only from what
is said of creatures. But to other names not applied to
God in a metaphorical sense, the same rule would apply if
they were spoken of God as the cause only, as some have
supposed. For when it is said, God is good, it would then only
mean, God is the cause of the creature'' s goodness ; thus the
term good applied to God would include in its meaning the
creature's goodness. Hence good would apply primarily to
creatures rather than God. But as was shown above (A. 2),
these names are applied to God not as the cause only, but
also essentially. For the words, God is good, or wise, signify
not only that He is the cause of wisdom or goodness, but that
these exist in Him in a more excellent way. Hence as regards
what the name signifies, these names are applied primarily
to God rather than to creatures, because these perfections
flow from God to creatures ; but as regards the imposition
of the names, they are primarily applied by us to creatures
Q. 13. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 164
which we know first . Hence they have a mode of significa-
tion wliich belongs to creatures, as said above (A. 3).
Reply Ohj. i. This objection refers to the imposition of
the name.
Reply Ohj. 2. The same rule does not apply to meta-
phorical and to other names, as said above.
Reply Ohj. 3. This objection would be valid if these names
were applied to God only as cause, and not also essentially,
for instance as healthy is applied to medicine.
Seventh Article.
whether names which imply relation to creatures
are predicated of god temporally ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Ohjection i. It seems that names which imply i elation
to creatures are not predicated of God temporally. For all
such names signify the divine substance, as is universally held.
Hence also Ambrose says {De Fide i.) that this name Lord
is a name of power, which is the divine substance ; and Creator
signifies the action of God, which is His essence. Now the
divine substance is not temporal, but eternal. Therefore
these names are not applied to God temporally, but eternally.
Oh^j. 2. Further, that to which something applies tempor-
ally can be described as made ; for what is white temporally
is made white. But to be made does not apply to God.
Therefore nothing can be predicated of God temporally.
Ohj. 3. Further, if any names are applied to God tem-
porally as implying relation to creatures, the same rule
holds good of all things that imply relation to creatures.
Bot some names are spoken of God implying relation of
God to creatures from eternity; for from eternity He knew
and loved the creature, according to the word .* / have loved
thee with an everlasting love (Jer. xxxi. 3). Therefore also
other names implying relation to creatures, as Lord and
Creator, are applied to God from eternity.
Ohj. 4. Further, names of this kind signify relation.
Therefore that relation must be something in God, or in the
i65 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 7
creature only. But it cannot be that it is something in the
creature only, for in that case God would be called Lord
from the opposite relation which is in creatures ; and nothing
is named from its opposite. Therefore the relation must be
something in God also. But nothing temporal can be in God,
for He is above time. Therefore these names are not applied
to God temporally.
Ohj. 5. Further, a thing is called relative from relation;
for instance lord from lordship, as white from whiteness.
Therefore if the relation of lordship is not really in God,
but only in idea, it follows that God is not really Lord,
which is plainly false.
Ohj. 6. Further, in relative things which are not simul-
taneous in nature, one can exist without the other; as a
thing knowable can exist without the knowledge of it, as
the Philosopher says (Prcedic. v.). But relative things
which are said of God and creatures are not simultaneous in
nature. Therefore a relation can be predicated of God to the
creature even without the existence of the creature; and
thus these names. Lord and Creator, are predicated of God
from eternity, and not temporally.
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. v.), that this
relative appellation Lord is applied to God temporally.
I answer that, The names which import relation to creatures
are applied to God temporally, and not from eternity.
To see this we must learn that some have said that relation
is not a reality, but only an idea. But this is plainly seen
to be false from the very fact that things themselves have
a mutual natural order and habitude. Nevertheless it is
necessary to know that since relation has two extremes, it
happens in three ways that a relation is real or logical.
Sometimes from both extremes it is an idea only, as when
mutual order or habitude can only be between things in the
apprehension of reason; as when we say a thing the same
as itself. For reason apprehending one thing twice regards
it as two; thus it apprehends a certain habitude of a thing
to itself. And the same applies to relations between being
and non-being formed by reason, apprehending non-being as
Q. 13. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 166
an extreme. The same is true of relations that follow upon
an act of reason, as genus and species, and the like.
Now there are other relations which are realities as regards
both extremes, as when for instance a habitude exists be-
tween two things according to some reality that belongs to
both ; as is clear of all relations consequent upon quantity ;
as great and small, double and half, and the like ; for quantity
exists in both extremes: and the same applies to relations
consequent upon action and passion, as motive power and
the movable thing, father and son, and the like.
Again, sometimes a relation in one extreme may be a
reality, while in the other extreme it is an idea only: and
this happens whenever two extremes are not of one order;
as sense and science refer respectively to sensible things and
to intellectual things; which, inasmuch as they are realities
existing in nature, are outside the order of sensible and in-
telligible existence. Therefore in science and in sense a real
relation exists, because they are ordered either to the know-
ledge or to the sensible perception of things; whereas the
things looked at in themselves are outside this order, and
hence in them there is no real relation to science and sense,
but only in idea, inasmuch as the intellect apprehends them
as terms of the relations of science and sense. Hence, the
Philosopher says (Metaph. v.) that they are called relative,
not forasmuch as they are related to other things, but as
others are related to them. Likewise for instance, on the
right is not applied to a column, unless it stands as regards an
animal on the right side ; which relation is not really in the
column, but in the animal.
Since therefore God is outside the whole order of creation,
and all creatures are ordered to Him, and not conversely,
it is manifest that creatures are really related to God Himself ;
whereas in God there is no real relation to creatures, but a
relation only in idea, inasmuch as creatures are referred to
Him. Thus there is nothing to prevent these names which
import relation to the creature from being predicated of God
temporally, not by reason of any change in Him, but by
reason of the change of the creature; as a column is on the
i67 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 7
right of an animal, without change in itself, but by change
in the animal.
Reply Ohj. i. Some relative names are imposed to signify
the relative habitudes themselves, as master and servant,
father and son, and the like, and these relatives are called
predicamental {secundum esse). But others are imposed to
signify the things from which ensue certain habitudes, as
the mover and the thing moved, the head and the thing that
has a head, and the like: and these relatives are called
transcendental [secundum did). Thus, there is the same
twofold difference in divine names. For some signify the
habitude itself to the creature, as Lord, and these do not
signify the divine substance directly, but indirectly, in so
far as they presuppose the divine substance; as dominion
presupposes power, which is the divine substance. Others
signify the divine essence directly, and consequently the
corresponding habitudes, as Savioiir, Creator, and such-like ;
and these signify the action of God, which is His essence.
Yet both names are said of God temporally so far as they
imply a habitude either principally or consequently, but
not as signifying the essence, either directly or indirectly.
Reply Ohj. 2. As relations applied to God temporally are
only in God in our idea, so, to become, or to he made are
applied to God only in idea, with no change in Him, as for
instance when we say. Lord, Thou art become [Douay, hast
been] our refuge (Ps. Ixxxix. i).
Reply Ohj. 3. The operation of the intellect and will is
in the operator, therefore names signifying relations follow-
ing upon the action of the intellect or will, are applied to
God from eternity ; whereas those following upon the actions
proceeding according to our mode of thinking to external
effects are applied to God temporally, as Saviour, Creator,
and the like.
Reply Ohj. 4. Relations signified by these names which
are applied to God temporally, are in God only in idea ; but
the opposite relations in creatures are real. Nor is it in-
congruous that God should be denominated from relations
really existing in the thing, yet so that the opposite
Q. 13. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 168
relations in God should also be understood by us at the
same time; in the sense that God is spoken of relatively to
the creature, inasmuch as the creature is related to Him : thus
the Philosopher says (Metaph. v.) that the object is said to
be knowable relatively because knowledge relates to it.
Reply Obj. 5. Since God is related to the creature for the
reason that the creature is related to Him: and since the
relation of subjection is real in the creature, it follows that
God is Lord not in idea only, but in reality; for He is
called Lord according to the manner in which the creature
is subject to Him.
Reply Obj. 6. To know whether relations are simultaneous
by nature or otherwise, it is not necessary to consider the
order of things to which they belong but the meaning of the
relations themselves. For if one in its idea includes another,
and vice versa, then they are simultaneous by nature: as
double and half, father and son, and the like. But if one in
its idea includes another, and not vice versa, they are not
simultaneous by nature. This appHes to science and its
object; for the object knowable is considered as a poten-
tiality, and the science as a habit, or as an act. Hence the
knowable object in its mode of signification exists before
science, but if the same object is considered in act, then it is
simultaneous with science in act; for the object known is
nothing as such unless it is known. Thus, though God is
prior to the creature, still because the signification of Lord
includes the idea of a servant and vice versa, these two
relative terms. Lord and servant, are simultaneous by
nature. Hence God was not Lord until He had a creature
subject to Himself.
Eighth Article,
whether this name god is a name of the nature ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that this name, God, is not a name
of the nature. For Damascene says (De Fid. Orth. i.) that
God (@eo?) is so called from OeeXv which means to take care
169 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 8
of, and to cherish all things; or from aXOeiv, that is, to burn,
for our God is a fire consuming all malice; or from OeacrOatt
which means to consider all things. But all these names
belong to operation. Therefore this name God signifies His
operation and not His nature.
Obj. 2. Further, a thing is named by us as we know it.
But the divine nature is unknown to us. Therefore this
name God does not signify the divine nature.
On the contrary, Ambrose says (De Fide i.) that God is a
name of the nature.
/ answer that, Whence a name is imposed, and what the
name signifies are not always the same thing. For as we
know substance from its properties and operations, so we
name substance sometimes from its operation, or its property :
e.g., we name the substance of a stone from its act, as for
instance that it hurts the foot {Icedit pedem) ; but still this
name is not meant to signify the particular action, but the
stone's substance. The things, on the other hand, known to
us in themselves, such as heat, cold, whiteness, and the like,
are not named from other things. Hence as regards such
things the meaning of the name and its source are the same.
Because therefore God is not known to us in His nature,
but is made known to us from His operations or effects, we
can name Him from these, as said in A. i; hence this name
God is a name of operation so far as relates to the source of
its meaning. For this name is imposed from His universal
providence over all things ; since all who speak of God intend
to name God as exercising providence over all: hence Dio-
nysius says (Div. Nom. xii.), The Deity watches over all with
perfect providence and goodness. But taken from this opera-
tion, this name God is imposed to signify the divine nature.
Reply Obj. 1. All that Damascene says refers to providence;
which is the source of the signification of the name God.
Reply Obj. 2. We can name a thing according to the
knowledge we have of its nature from its properties and
effects. Hence because we can know what stone is in itself
from its property, this name stone signifies the nature of
stone in itself; for it signifies the definition of stone, by
Q. 13. Art. 9 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 170
which we know what it is, for the idea which the name
signifies is the definition, as is said in Mefaph. iv. Now
from the divine effects we cannot know the divine nature
in itself, so as to know what it is; but only by way of emi-
nence, and by way of causality, and of negation as stated
above (Q. XII. A. 12). Thus the name God signifies the
divine nature, for this name was imposed to signify some-
thing existing above all things, the principle of all things,
and removed from all things; for those who name God
intend to signify all this.
Ninth Article,
whether this name god is communicable ?
We proceed thus to the Ninth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that this name God is communicable.
For whosoever shares in the thing signified by a name
shares in the name itself. But this name God signifies the
divine nature, which is communicable to others, according to
the words, He hath given us great [Vulg., most great] and
precious promises, that by these we [Vulg., ye] may be made
partakers of the divine nature (2 Pet. i. 4). Therefore this
name God can be communicated to others.
Obj. 2. Further, only proper names are not communicable.
Now this name God is not a proper, but an appellative noun ;
which appears from the fact that it has a plural, according
to the text, / have said, You are gods (Ps. Ixxxi. 6). There-
fore this name God is communicable.
Obj. 3. Further, this name God comes from operation, as
explained. But other names given to God from His opera-
tions or effects are communicable; as good, wise, and the like.
Therefore this name God is communicable.
On the contrary, It is written: They gave the incommunic-
able name to wood and stones (Wis. xiv. 21), in reference to the
divine name. Therefore this name God is incommunicable.
I answer that, A name is communicable in two ways,
properly, and by similitude. It is properly communicable
in the sense that its whole signification can be given to
171 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 9
many; by similitude it is communicable according to some
part of the signification of the name. For instance this
name lion is properly communicated to all things of the
same nature as lion; by similitude it is communicable to
those who participate in the nature of a lion, as for instance
by courage, or strength, and those who thus participate
are called lions metaphorically. To know, however, what
names are properly communicable, we must consider that
every form existing in the singular subject, by which it is
individualized, is common to many either in reality, or in
idea; as human nature is common to many in reality, and
in idea; whereas the nature of the sun is not common to
many in reality, but only in idea ; for the nature of the sun
can be understood as existing in many subjects; and the
reason is because the mind understands the nature of every
species by abstraction from the singular. Hence to be in
one singular subject or in many is outside the idea of the
nature of the species. So, given the idea of a species, it
can be understood as existing in many. But the singular,
from the fact that it is singular, is divided off from all others.
Hence every name imposed to signify any singular thing is
incommunicable both in reality and idea: for the plurality
of this individual thing cannot be ; nor can it be conceived
in idea. Hence no name signifying any individual thing
is properly communicable to many, but only by way of
similitude; as for instance a person can be called Achilles
metaphorically, forasmuch as he may possess something of
the properties of Achilles, such as strength. On the other
hand, forms which are individualized not by any supposifum,
but by and of themselves, as being subsisting forms, if under-
stood as they are in themselves, could not be communicable
either in reality or in idea; but only perhaps by way of
similitude, as was said of individuals. Forasmuch as we
are unable to understand simple self-subsisting forms as
they really are, we understand them as compound things
having forms in matter; therefore, as was said in the first
article, we give them concrete names signifying a nature
existing in some suppositum. Hence, so far as concerns
Q. 13. Art. 9 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 172
names, the same rules apply to names we impose to signify
the nature of compound things as to names given by us to
signify simple subsisting natures.
Since, then, this name God is given to signify the divine
nature as stated above (A. 8), and since the divine nature
cannot be multiplied as shown above (Q. XL A. 3), it
follows that this name God is incommunicable in reality, but
communicable in opinion ; just in the same way as this name
sun would be communicable according to the opinion of
those who say there are many suns. Therefore, it is written:
You served them who by nature are not gods (Gal.iv. 8), and a
gloss adds, Gods not in nature, hut in human opinion. Never-
theless this name God is communicable, not in its whole sig-
nification, but in some part of it by way of similitude ; so that
those are called gods who share in divinity by likeness, ac-
cording to the text, / have said, You are gods (Ps. Ixxxi. 6).
But if any name were given to signify God not as to His
nature but as to His suppositum, accordingly as He is
considered as this something, that name would be absolutely
incommunicable; as, for instance, perhaps the Tetragram-
maton among the Hebrews ; and this is like giving a name
to the sun as signifying this individual thing.
Reply Ohj, i. The divine nature is only communicable
according to the participation of some similitude.
Reply Ohj. 2. This name God is an appellative name, and
not a proper name, for it signifies the divine nature in the
possessor; although God Himself in reality is neither univer-
sal nor particular. For names do not follow upon the mode
of being in things, but upon the mode of being as it is in our
mind. And yet it is incommunicable according to the truth
of the thing, as was said above concerning the name sun.
Reply Ohj. 3. These names good, wise, and the like, are
imposed from the perfections proceeding from God to
creatures; but they do not signify the divine nature, but
rather signify the perfections themselves absolutely; and
therefore they are in truth communicable to many. But this
name God is given to God from His own proper operation,
which we experience continually, to signify the divine nature.
173 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 10
Tenth Article.
whether this name god is applied to god univocally,
by nature, by participation, and according to
OPINION ?
We proceed thus to the Tenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that this name God is applied to
God univocally by nature, by participation, and according
to opinion. For where a diverse signification exists, there is
no contradiction of affirmation and negation ; for equivoca-
tion prevents contradiction. But a Catholic who says: An
idol is not God, contradicts a pagan who says : An idol is God.
Therefore God in both senses is spoken of univocally.
Obj. 2. Further, as an idol is God in opinion, and not in
truth, so the enjoyment of carnal pleasures is called happi-
ness in opinion, and not in truth. But this name eatitude
is applied univocally to this supposed happiness, and also to
true happiness. Therefore also this name God is applied
univocally to the true God; and to God also in opinion.
Obj. 3. Further, names are called univocal because they
contain one idea. Now when a Catholic says: There is one
God, he understands by the name of God an omnipotent
being, and one venerated above all; while the heathen
understands the same when he says : An idol is God. There-
fore this name God is applied univocally to both.
On the contrary, The idea in the intellect is the likeness
of what is in the thing as is said in Periherm. i. But the
word animal applied to a true animal, and to a picture of
one, is equivocal. Therefore this name God applied to the
true God and to God in opinion, is applied equivocally.
F'urther, No one can signify what he does not know.
But the heathen does not know the divine nature. So when
he says an idol is God, he does not signify the true Deity.
On the other hand, a Catholic signifies the true Deity when
he says there is one God. Therefore this name God is not
applied univocally, but equivocally to the true God, and to
God according to opinion.
Q 13. Art. 10 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 174
/ answer that, This name God in the three aforesaid
significations is taken neither univocally nor equivocally,
but analogically. This is apparent from this reason: —
Univocal terms mean absolutely the same thing, but
equivocal terms absolutely different ; whereas in analogical
terms a word taken in one signification must be placed in
the definition of the same word taken in other senses; as,
for instance, being which is applied to substance is placed
in the definition of being as applied to accident; and healthy
applied to animal is placed in the definition of healthy as
applied to urine and medicine. For urine is the sign of
health in the animal, and medicine is the cause of health.
The same applies to the question at issue. For this
name God, as signifying the true God, includes the idea of
God when it is used to denote God in opinion, or partici-
pation. For when we name anyone god by participation,
we understand by the name of god some likeness of the true
God. Likewise, when we call an idol god, by this name
god we understand and signify something which men think
is God; thus it is manifest that the name has different
meanings, but that one of them is comprised in the other
significations. Hence it is manifestly said analogically.
Reply Obj. 1. The multiplication of names does not
depend on the predication of the name, but on the significa-
tion: for this name man, of whomsoever it is predicated,
whether truly or falsely, is predicated in one sense. But it
would be multiplied if by the name man we meant to signify
different things ; for instance, if one meant to signify by this
name man what man really is, and another meant to signify
by the same name a stone, or something else. Hence it is
evident that a Catholic saying that an idol is not God
contradicts the pagan asserting that it is God ; because each
of them uses this name God to signify the true God. For
when the pagan says an idol is God, he does not use this
name as meaning God in opinion, for he would then speak
the truth, as also Catholics sometimes use the name in that
sense, as in the Psalm, All the gods of the Gentiles are demons
(Ps. xcv. 5).
175 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. h
The same remark applies to the second and third Objec-
tions. For those reasons proceed from the different pre-
dication of the name, and not from its various significations.
Reply Ohj. 4. The term animal apphed to a true and
a pictured animal is not purely equivocal; for the Philoso-
pher takes equivocal names in a large sense, including
analogous names; because also being, which is predicated
analogically, is sometimes said to be predicated equivocally
of different predicaments.
Reply Ohj. 5. Neither a Catholic nor a pagan knows the
very nature of God as it is in itself; but each one knows
it according to some idea of causality, or excellence, or
remotion (Q. XII. A. 12). So a pagan can take this name
God in the same way when he says an idol is God, as the
Catholic does in saying an idol is not God. But if anyone
should be quite ignorant of God altogether, he could not
even name Him, unless, perhaps, as we use names the
meaning of which we know not.
Eleventh Article,
whether this name, he who is, is the most proper name
OF GOD ?
We proceed thus to the Eleventh A rticle : —
Objection i. It seems that this name HE WHO IS is not
the most proper name of God. For this name God is an
incommunicable name. But this name' ^HE WHO IS, is not
an incommunicable name. Therefore this name HE WHO
IS is not the most proper name of God.
Obj. 2. Further, Dionysius says {Div. Nom. iii.) that
the name of good excellently manifests all the processions of
God. But it especially belongs to God to be the universal
principle of all things. Therefore this name good is
supremely proper to God, and not this name HE WHO IS.
Obj. 3. Further, every divine name seems to imply
relation to creatures, for God is known to us only through
creatures. But this name^H£: WHO IS, imports no relation
to creatures. Therefore this name HE WHO IS, is not the
most applicable to God.
g. 13. Art. II THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 176
On the contrary, It is written that when Moses asked, //
they should say to me, What is His name ? what shall I say
to them ? the Lord answered him, Thus shall thou say to them,
HE WHO IS hath sent me to you (Exod. iii. 13, 14). There-
fore this name, HE WHO IS, most properly belongs to God.
/ answer that, This name, HE WHO IS, is most properly
applied to God, for three reasons : —
First, because of its signification. For it does not signify
form, but simply existence itself. Hence since the existence
of God is His essence itself, which can be said of no other
(Q. III. A. 4), it is clear that among other names this one
specially denominates God, for everything is denominated
by its form.
Secondly, on^ccount of its universality. For all other
names are either less universal, or, if convertible with
it, add something above it at least in idea; hence in a
certain way they inform and determine it. Now our
intellect cannot know the essence of God itself in this life,
as it is in itself, but whatever mode it appHes in determin-
ing what it understands about God, it falls short of the
mode of what God is in Himself. Therefore the less deter-
minate the names are, and the more universal and absolute
they are, the more properly are they applied to God. Hence
Damascene says (De Fid. Orth. i.) that, HE WHO IS, is the
principal of all names applied to God; for comprehending
all in itself, it contains existence itself as an infinite and
indeterminate sea of substance. Now by any other name
some mode of substance is determined, whereas this name
HE WHO IS, determines no mode of being, but is indeter-
minate to all; and therefore it denominates the infinite
ocean of substance.
Thirdly, from its consignification, for it signifies present
existence ; and this above all properly applies to God, whose
existence knows not past or future, as Augustine says (Dc
Trin. v.).
Reply Obj. 1. This name HE WHO IS, is the name of
God more properly than this name God, as regards its source,
namely, existence; and as regards the mode of signification
177 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 12
and consignification, as said above. But as regards the
object intended by the name, this name God is more proper,
as it is imposed to signify the divine nature ; and still more
proper is the Tetragrammaton, imposed to signify the
substance of God itself, incommunicable and, if one may so
speak, singular.
Reply Obj. 2. This name good is the principal name of
God in so far as He is a cause, but not absolutely; for
existence considered absolutely comes before the idea of
cause.
Reply Obj. 3. It is not necessary that all the divine
names should import relation to creatures, but it suffices
that they be imposed from some perfections flowing from
God to creatures. Among these the first is existence, from
which comes this name, HE WHO IS.
Twelfth Article.
whether affirmative propositions can be formed
about god ?
We proceed thus to the Twelfth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that affirmative propositions cannot
be formed about God. For Dionysius says {Ccel. Hier. ii.)
that negations about God are true; but affirmations are vague.
Obj. 2. Further, Boethius says [De Trin. ii.), that a
simple form cannot be a subject. But God is the most
absolutely simple form, as shown (Q. III.): therefore He
cannot be a subject. But everything about which an affir-
mative proposition is made is taken as a subject. Therefore
an affirmative proposition cannot be formed about God.
Obj. 3. Further, every intellect is false which understands
a thing otherwise than as it is. But God has existence
without any composition as shown above {Q. iii. A. 7).
Therefore since every affirmative intellect understands
something as compound, it follows that a true affirmative
proposition about God cannot be made.
On the contrary, What is of faith cannot be false. But
some affirmative propositions are of faith; as that God is
I. 12
Q. 13. Art. 12 ^THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 178
Three and One; and that He is omnipotent. Therefore
true affirmative propositions can be formed about God.
/ answer that, True affirmative propositions can be formed
about God. To prove this we must know that in every
true affirmative proposition the predicate and the subject
signify in some way the same thing in reality, and different
things in idea. And this appears to be the case both in
propositions which have an accidental predicate, and in
those which have an essential predicate. For it is manifest
that man and white are the same in subject, and different in
idea ; for the idea of man is one thing, and that of whiteness is
another. The same applies when I say, man is an animal;
since the same thing which is man is truly animal; for in the
same suppositum there is sensible nature by reason of which he
is called animal, and the rational nature by reason of which
he is called man; hence here again predicate and subject are
the same as to suppositum, but different as to idea. But in
propositions where one same thing is predicated of itself,
the same rule in some way applies, inasmuch as the intellect
draws to the suppositum what it places in the subject; and
what it places in the predicate it draws to the nature of the
form existing in the suppositum; according to the saying
ih.3.t predicates are to be taken formally , and subjects materially.
To this diversity in idea corresponds the plurality of
predicate and subject, while the intellect signifies the
identity of the thing by the composition itself.
God, however, as considered in Himself, is altogether one
and simple, yet our intellect knows Him by different
conceptions because it cannot see Him as He is in Himself.
Nevertheless, although it understands Him under different
conceptions, it knows that one and the same simple object
corresponds to its conceptions. Therefore the plurality
of predicate and subject represents the plurality of idea;
and the intellect represents the unity by composition.
Reply Obj. i. Dionysius says that the affirmations about
God are vague or, according to another translation,
incongruous, inasmuch as no name can be applied to God
according to its mode of signification.
179 THE NAMES OF GOD Q. 13. Art. 12
Reply Obj. 2. Our intellect cannot comprehend simple
subsisting forms, as they really are in themselves; but it
apprehends them as compound things in which there is
something taken as subject and something that is inherent.
Therefore it apprehends the simple form as a subject, and
attributes something else to it.
Reply Obj. 3. This proposition. The intellect understanding
anything otherwise than it is, is false, can be taken in two
senses, accordingly as this adverb otherwise determines the
word understanding on the part of the thing understood, or
on the part of the one who understands. Taken as referring
to the thing understood, the proposition is true, and the
meaning is : Any intellect which understands that the thing
is otherwise than it is, is false. But this does not hold in the
present case; because our intellect, when forming a pro-
position about God, does not affirm that He is composite,
but that He is simple. But taken as referring to the one
who understands, the proposition is false. For the mode
of the intellect in understanding is different from the mode
of the thing in its essence. Since it is clear that our intellect
understands material things below itself in an immaterial
manner; not that it understands them to be immaterial
things; but its manner of understanding is immaterial.
Likewise, when it understands simple things above itself, it
understands them according to its own mode, which is in a
composite manner; yet not so as to understand them to
be composite things. And thus our intellect is not false in
forming composition in its ideas concerning God.
QUESTION XIV.
OF GOD'S KNOWLEDGE.
{In Sixteen Articles.)
Having considered what belongs to the divine substance,
we have now to treat of God's operation. And since one
kind of operation is immanent, and another kind of opera-
tion proceeds to the exterior effect, we treat first of know-
ledge and of will (for understanding abides in the intelligent
agent, and will is in the one who wills) ; and afterwards of
the power of God, the principle of the divine operation as
proceeding to the exterior effect. Now because to under-
stand is a kind of life, after treating of the divine knowledge,
we consider the divine life. And as knowledge concerns
truth, we consider truth and falsehood. Further, as every-
thing known is in the knower, and the types of things
as existing in the knowledge of God are called ideas, to the
consideration of knowledge will be added the treatment
of ideas.
Concerning knowledge, there are sixteen points for inquiry :
(i) Whether there is knowledge in God ? (2) Whether
God understands Himself ? (3) Whether He comprehends
Himself ? (4) Whether His understanding is His sub-
stance? (5) Whether He understands other things besides
Himself ? (6) Whether He has a proper knowledge of
them ? (7) Whether the knowledge of God is discursive ?
(8) Whether the knowledge of God is the cause of things ?
(9) Whether God has knowledge of non-existing things ?
(10) Whether He has knowledge of evil ? (11) Whether
He has knowledge of individual things ? (12) Whether
He knows the infinite ? (13) Whether He knows future
contingent things ? (14) Whether He knows enunciable
180
i8i GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. i
things ? (15) Whether the knowledge of God is variable ?
(16) Whether God has speculative or practical knowledge
of things ?
First Article,
whether there is knowledge* in god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that in God there is not knowledge.
For knowledge is a habit; and habit does not belong to
God, since it is the mean between potentiality and act.
Therefore knowledge is not in God.
Obj. 2. Further, since science is about conclusions^ it is
a kind of knowledge caused by something else which
is the knowledge of principles. But nothing is caused in
God; therefore science is not in God.
Obj. 3. Further, all knowledge is universal, or particular.
But in God there is no universal nor particular (Q. III.,
A. 5). Therefore in God there is not knowledge.
On the contrary, The Apostle says, 0 the depth of the
riches of the wisdom and of the knowledge of God (Rom. xi. 33) .
I answer that, In God there exists the most perfect know-
ledge. To prove this, we must note that intelligent beings
are distinguished from non-intelligent beings in that the
latter possess only their own form; whereas the intelligent
being is naturally adapted to have also the form of some other
thing; for the idea of the thing known is in the knower.
Hence it is manifest that the nature of a non-intelligent being
is more contracted and limited ; whereas the nature of intelli-
gent beings has a greater amplitude and extension ; therefore
the Philosopher says [De Anima iii.) that the soul is in a sense
all things. Now the contraction of the form comes from
the matter. Hence, as we have said above (Q. VII., A. 1)
forms according as they are the more immaterial, approach
more nearly to a kind of infinity. Therefore it is clear that
the immateriality of a thing is the reason why it is cognitive ;
and according to the mode of immateriality is the mode of
knowledge. Hence, it is said in De Anima ii. that plants do
* Scientia.
Q. 14. Art. 1 THE '* SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 182
not know, because they are wholly material. But sense is
cognitive because it can receive images free from matter,
and the intellect is still further cognitive, because it is more
separated from matter and unmixed, as said in De Anima iii.
Since therefore God is in the highest degree of immateriality
as stated above (Q. VII., A. i), it follows that He occupies
the highest place in knowledge.
Reply Ohj. i. Because perfections flowing from God to
creatures exist in a higher state in God Himself (Q. IV., A. 2),
whenever a name taken from any created perfection is
attributed to God, it must be separated in its signification
from anything that belongs to that imperfect mode proper
to creatures. Hence knowledge is not a quality in God,
nor a habit; but substance and pure act.
Reply Ohj. 2. Whatever is divided and multiplied in
creatures exists in God simply and unitedly (Q. XIII., A. 4).
Now man has different kinds of knowledge, according to the
different objects of his knowledge. He has intelligence as
regards the knowledge of principles ; he has science as regards
knowledge of conclusions; he has wisdom, according as he
knows the highest cause; he has counsel or prudence y accord-
ing as he knows what is to be done. But God knows all
these by one simple act of knowledge, as will be shown
(A. 7). Hence the simple knowledge of God can be named
by all these names ; in such a way, however, that there must
be removed from each of them, so far as they enter into the
divine predication, everything that savours of imperfection ;
and everything that expresses perfection is to be retained
in them. Hence it is said, With Him is wisdom and strength,
He hath counsel and understanding (Job xii. 13) .
Reply Ohj. 3. Knowledge is according to the mode of
the one who knows; for the thing known is in the knower
according to the mode of the knower. Now since the mode
of the divine essence is higher than that of creatures, divine
knowledge does not exist in God after the mode of created
knowledge, so as to be universal or particular, or habitual,
or potential, or existing according to any such mode.
i83 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 2
Second Article,
whether god understands himself ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection 1. It seems that God does not understand Him-
self. For it is said by the Philosopher (De Causis), Every
knower who knows his own essence, returns completely to his
own essence. But God does not go out from His own essence,
nor is He moved at all; thus He cannot return to His own
essence. Therefore He does not know His own essence.
Ohj. 2. Further, to understand is a kind of passion and
movement, as the Philosopher says [De Anima iii.); and
knowledge also is a kind of assimilation to the object known;
and the thing known is the perfection of the knower. But
nothing is moved, or suffers, or is made perfect by itself, nor,
as Hilary says (De Trin. iii.), is a thing its own likeness.
Therefore God does not understand Himself.
Ohj. 3. Further, we are like to God chiefly in our intellect,
because we are the image of God in our mind, as Augustine
says {Gen. ad. lit. vi.). But our intellect understands itself,
only as it understands other things, as is said in De Anima iii.
Therefore God understands Himself only so far perchance
as He understands other things.
On the contrary, It is written: The things that a^'e of God no
man knoweth, hut the Spirit of God (i Cor. ii. 11).
/ answer that, God understands Himself through Himself.
In proof whereof it must be known that although in opera-
tions which pass to an external effect, the object of the
operation, which is taken as the term, exists outside the
operator; nevertheless in operations that remain in the
operator, the object signified as the term of operation,
resides in the operator; and accordingly as it is in the
operator, the operation is actual. Hence the Philosopher
says {De Aniina iii.), that the sensible in act is sense in act,
and the intelligible in act is intellect in act. For the reason
why we actually feel or know a thing is because our intellect
or sense is actually informed by the sensible or intelligible
Q. 14. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 184
species. And because of this only, it follows that sense or
intellect is distinct from the sensible or intelligible object,
since both are in potentiality.
Since therefore God has nothing in Him of potentiality,
but is pure act, His intellect and its object are altogether
the same; so that He neither is without the intelligible
species, as is the case with our intellect when it understands
potentiall}^; nor does the intelligible species differ from the
substance of the divine intellect, as it differs in our intellect
when it understands actually; but the intelligible species
itself is the divine intellect itself, and thus God understands
Himself through Himself.
Reply Obj. i. Return to its own essence means only that
a thing subsists in itself. Inasmuch as the form perfects
the matter by giving it existence, it is in a certain way
diffused in it; and it returns to itself inasmuch as it has
existence in itself. Therefore those cognitive faculties
which are not subsisting, but are the acts of organs, do not
know themselves, as in the case of each of the senses;
whereas those cognitive faculties which are subsisting,
know themselves ; hence it is said in De Causis that, whoever
knows his essence returns to it. Now it supremely belongs
to God to be self-subsisting. Hence according to this mode
of speaking, He supremely returns to His own essence, and
knows Himself.
Reply Obj. 2. Movement and passion are taken equivo-
cally, according as to understand is described as a kind of
movement or passion, as stated in De Anima iii. For to
understand is not a movement that is an act of something
imperfect passing from one to another, but it is an act,
existing in the agent itself, of something perfect. Likewise
that the intellect is perfected by the intelligible object,
^'.^., is assimilated to it, this belongs to an intellect which is
sometimes in potentiality ; because the fact of its being in a
state of potentiality makes it differ from the intelHgible object
and assimilates it thereto through the intelligible species,
which is the likeness of the thing understood, and makes
it to be perfected thereby, as potentiality is perfected by
i85 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 3
act. On the other hand the divine intellect, which is no
way in potentiaHty, is not perfected by the intelligible object,
nor is it assimilated thereto, but is its own perfection, and
its own intelligible object.
Reply Obj. 3. Existence in nature does not belong to
primary matter, which is a potentiality, unless it is reduced
to act by a form. Now our passive intellect has the same
relation to intelligible objects as primary matter has to
natural things; for it is in potentiaHty as regards intelligible
objects, just as primary matter is to natural things. Hence
our passive intellect can be exercised concerning intelligible
objects only so far as it is perfected by the intelligible species
of something; and in that way it understands itself by an
intelligible species, as it understands other things : for it is
manifest that by knowing the intelHgible object it under-
stands also its own act of understanding, and by this act
knows the intellectual faculty. But God is a pure act in
the order of existence, as also in the order of intelligible
objects; therefore He understands Himself through Himself.
Third Article,
whether god comprehends himself ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not comprehend
Himself. For Augustine says {Octog. Tri. QucBst. xv.), that
whatever comprehends itself is finite as regards itself. But God
is in all ways infinite. Therefore He does not comprehend
Himself.
Obj. 2. If it be said that God is infinite to us, and finite to
Himself, it can be urged to the contrary, that everything
in God is truer than it is in us. If therefore God is finite to
Himself, but infinite to us, then God is more truly finite
than infinite; which is against what was laid down above
(Q. VII. , A. I) . Therefore God does not comprehend Himself.
On the contrary, Augustine says [ibid.), Everything that
understands itself, comprehends itself. But God understands
Himself. Therefore He comprehends Himself.
Q. 14. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 186
/ answer that, God perfectly comprehends Himself,
as can be thus proved. A thing is said to be compre-
hended when the end of the knowledge of it is attained,
and this is accomplished when it is known as perfectly
as it is knowable; as, for instance, a demonstrable proposi-
tion is comprehended when known by demonstration, not,
however, when it is known by some probable reason.
Now it is manifest that God knows Himself as perfectly
as He is perfectly knowable. For everything is knowable
according to the mode of its own actuality; since a thing is
not known according as it is in potentiality, but in so far
as it is in actuality, as said in Metaph. ix. Now the power
of God in knowing is as great as His actuality in existing;
because it is from the fact that He is in act and free from all
matter and potentiality, that God is cognitive, as shown
above (AA. i and 2). Whence it is manifest that He knows
Himself as much as He is knowable; and for that reason
He perfectly comprehends Himself.
Reply Obj. i. The strict meaning of cow/)r^A^wstow signifies
that one thing holds and includes another; and in this
sense everything comprehended is finite, as also is every-
thing included in another. But God is not said to be
comprehended by Himself in this sense, as if His intellect
were a faculty apart from Himself, and as if it held and
included Himself; for these modes of speaking are to be
taken by way of negation. But as God is said to be in
Himself, forasmuch as He is not contained by anything
outside of Himself; so He is said to be comprehended by
Himself, forasmuch as nothing in Himself is hidden from
Himself. For Augustine says [De VicL Dcum. ep, cxii.). The
whole is comprehended when seen, if it is seen in such a way
that nothing of it is hidden from the seer.
Reply Obj, 2. When it is said, God is finite to Himself,
this is to be understood according to a certain similitude of
proportion, because He has the same relation in not exceed-
ing His intellect, as anything finite has in not exceeding finite
intellect. But God is not to be called finite to Himself in
this sense, as if He understood Himself to be something finite.
i87 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 4
Fourth Article.
WHETHER THE ACT OF GOD's INTELLECT IS HIS
SUBSTANCE ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the act of God's intellect is
not His substance. For to understand is an operation.
But an operation signifies something proceeding from the
operator. Therefore the act of God's intellect is not His
substance.
Oh], 2. Further, To understand one's act of understand-
ing, is to understand something that is neither great nor
chiefly understood, but secondary and accessory. If there-
fore God be his own act of understanding, His act of under-
standing will be as when we understand our act of under-
standing: and thus God's act of understanding will not
be something great.
Ohj. 3. Further, every act of understanding means under-
standing something. When therefore God understands
Himself, if He Himself is not distinct from this act of under-
standing, He understands that He understands, and that
He understands that He understands Himself; and so on to
infinity. Therefore the act of God's intellect is not His
substance.
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. vii.).
In God to be is the same as to be wise. But to be wise
is the same thing as to understand. Therefore in God
to be is the same thing as to understand. But God's
existence is His substance, as shown above (Q. III., A. 4).
Therefore the act of God's intellect is His substance.
I answer that, It must be said that the act of God's intellect
is His substance. For if His act of understanding were
other than His substance, then something else, as the
Philosopher says [Metaph. xii.), would be the act and
perfection of the divine substance, to which the divine
substance would be related, as potentiality is to act, which
is altogether impossible; because the act of understanding
Q. 14. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 188
is the perfection and act of the one understanding. Let us
now consider how this is. As was laid down above (A. 2), to
understand is not an act passing to anything extrinsic; for
it remains in the operator as his own act and perfection ; as
existence is the perfection of the one existing: just as
existence follows on the form, so in like manner to under-
stand follows on the intelligible species. Now in God there
is no form which is something other than His existence, as
shown above (Q. III.). Hence as His essence itself is also
His intelligible species, it necessarily follows that His act of
understanding must be His essence and His existence.
Thus it follows from all the foregoing that in God, intellect,
and the object understood, and the intelligible species, and
His act of understanding are entirely one and the same.
Hence, when God is said to be understanding, no kind of
multiplicity is attached to His substance.
Reply Obj. i. To understand is not an operation pro-
ceeding out of the operator, but remaining in him.
Reply Obj. 2. When that act of understanding which is
not subsistent is understood, something not great is under-
stood ; as when we understand our act of understanding ; and
so this cannot be likened to the act of the divine under-
standing which is subsistent.
Thus appears the Reply to Obj. 3. For the act of divine
understanding subsists in itself, and belongs to its very self
and is not another's; hence it need not proceed to infinity.
Fifth Article.
whether god knows things other than himself ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection 1. It seems that God does not know things
besides Himself. For all other things but God are outside
of God. But Augustine says [Octog. Tri. QucBst., qu. xlvi.)
that God does not behold anything out of Himself. There-
fore He does not know things other than Himself.
Obj. 2. Further, the object understood is the perfection
of the one who understands. If therefore God understands
i89 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 5
other things besides Himself, something else will be the
perfection of God, and will be nobler than He; which is
impossible.
Ohj. 3. Further, the act of understanding is specified
by the intelligible object, as is every other act from its
own object. Hence the intellectual act is so much the
nobler, the nobler the object understood. But God is His
own intellectual act. If therefore God understands anything
other than Himself, then God Himself is specified by
something else than Himself; which cannot be. Therefore
He does not understand things other than Himself.
On the contrary, It is written: All things are naked and
open to His eyes (Heb. iv. 13).
/ answer that, God necessarily knows things other than
Himself. For it is manifest that He perfectly understands
Himself; otherwise His existence would not be perfect, since
His existence is His act of understanding. Now if anything
is perfectly known, it follows of necessity that its power is
perfectly known. But the power of anything can be per-
fectly known only by knowing to what its power extends.
Since therefore the divine power extends to other things by
the very fact that it is the first effective cause of all things,
as is clear from the aforesaid (Q. II., A. 3), God must neces-
sarily know things other than Himself. And this appears
still more plainly if we add that the very existence of the
first efficient cause — viz., God — is His own act of under-
standing. Hence whatever effects pre-exist in God, as in
the first cause, must be in His act of understanding, and
all things must be in Him according to an intelligible mode :
for everything which is in another, is in it according to the
mode of that in which it is.
Now in order to know how God knows things other than
Himself, we must consider that a thing is known in two ways :
in itself, and in another. A thing is known in itself when it
is known by the proper species adequate to the knowable
object; as when the eye sees a man through the image of
a man. A thing is seen in another through the image of
that which contains it; as when a part is seen in the whole
g. 14. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 190
by the image of the whole ; or when a man is seen in a mirror
by the image in the mirror, or by any other mode by which
one thing is seen in another.
So we say that God sees Himself in Himself, because
He sees Himself through His essence; and He sees other
things not in themselves, but in Himself; inasmuch as
His essence contains the similitude of things other than
Himself.
Reply Obj. i. The passage of Augustine in which it is said
that God sees nothing outside Himself is not to be taken in
such a way, as if God saw nothing outside Himself, but in
the sense that what is outside Himself He does not see
except in Himself, as above explained.
Reply Obj. 2. The object understood is a perfection of
the one understanding not by its substance, but by its
image, according to which it is in the intellect, as its form
and perfection, as is said in De Anima iii. For a stone is
not in the soul, but its image. Now those things which are
other than God are understood by God, inasmuch as the
essence of God contains their images as above explained;
hence it does not follow that there is any perfection in the
divine intellect other than the divine essence.
Reply Obj. 3. The intellectual act is not specified by
what is understood in another, but by the principal object
understood in which other things are understood. For the
intellectual act is specified by its object, inasmuch as the
intelligible form is the principle of the intellectual operation :
since every operation is specified by the form which is
its principle of operation; as heating by heat. Hence the
intellectual operation is specified by that intelligible form
which makes the intellect in act. And this is the image
of the principal thing understood, which in God is nothing
but His own essence in which all images of things are
comprehended. Hence it does not follow that the divine
intellectual act, or rather God Himself, is specified by
anything else than the divine essence itself.
igi GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 6
Sixth Article.
whether god knows things other than himself
by proper knowledge ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not know things other
than Himself by proper knowledge. For, as was shown
(A. 5.), God knows things other than Himself, according as
they are in Himself. But other things are in Him as in
their common and universal cause, and are known by God as
in their first and universal cause. This is to know them
by general, and not by proper knowledge. Therefore God
knows things besides Himself by general, and not by proper
knowledge.
Obj. 2. Further, the created essence is as distant from
the divine essence, as the divine essence is distant from the
created essence. But the divine essence cannot be known
by the created essence, as said above (Q . XH . , A . 2 .) . There -
fore neither can the created essence be known by the divine
essence. Thus as God knows only by His essence, it follows
that He does not know what the creature is in its essence,
so as to know what it is, which is to have proper knowledge
of it.
Obj. 3. Further, proper knowledge of a thing can come
only through its proper ratio. But as God knows all
things by His essence, it seems that He does not know
each thing by its proper ratio; for one thing cannot
be the proper ratio of many and diverse things. There-
fore God has not a proper knowledge of things, but a general
knowledge; for to know things otherwise than by their
proper ratio is to have only a common and general know-
ledge of them.
On the contrary, To have a proper knowledge of things
is to know them not only in general, but as they are dis-
tinct from each other. Now God knows things in that
manner. Hence it is written that He reaches even to the
division of the soul and the spirit, of the joints also and the
Q. 14, Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 192
marrow, and is a discerned of the thoughts and intents of the
heart ; neither is there any creature invisible in His sight
(Heb. iv. 12, 13).
I answer that, Some have erred on this point, saying that
God knows things other than Himself only in general, that is,
only as beings. For as fire, if it knew itself as the principle
of heat, would know the nature of heat, and all things else
in so far as they are hot ; so God, through knowing Himself
as the principle of being, knows the nature of being, and all
other things in so far as they are beings.
But this cannot be. For to know a thing in general and
not in particular, is to have an imperfect knowledge of it.
Hence our intellect, when it is reduced from potentiality
to act, acquires first a universal and confused knowledge
of things, before it knows them in particular ; as proceeding
from the imperfect to the perfect, as is clear from Physic, i.
If therefore the knowledge of God regarding things other
than Himself is only universal and not special, it would
follow that His understanding would not be absolutely
perfect; therefore neither would His being be perfect; and
this is against what was said above (Q. IV., A. i). We must
therefore hold that God knows things other than Himself
with a proper knowledge; not only in so far as being is
common to them, but in so far as one is distinguished from
the other. In proof thereof we may observe that some
wishing to show that God knows many things by one,
bring forward some examples, as, for instance, that if the
centre knew itself, it would know all lines that proceed from
the centre; or if light knew itself, it would know all colours.
Now these examples although they are similar in part,
namely, as regards universal causality, nevertheless they fail
in this respect, that multitude and diversity are caused by
the one universal principle, not as regards that which is the
principle of distinction, but only as regards that in which
they communicate. For the diversity of colours is not
caused by the light only, but by the different disposition
of the diaphanous medium which receives it ; and likewise,
the diversity of the lines is caused by their different position.
193 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 6
Hence it is that this kind of diversity and multitude cannot
be known in its principle by proper knowledge, but only
in a general way. In God, however, it is otherwise. For it
was shown above (Q. IV., A. 2) that whatever perfection exists
in any creature, wholly pre-exists and is contained in God in
an excelling manner. Now not only what is common to
creatures — viz. being — belongs to their perfection, but also
what makes them distinguished from each other; as living
and understanding, and the like, whereby living beings are
distinguished from the non-living, and the intelligent from
the non-intelligent. Likewise every form whereby each
thing is constituted in its own species, is a perfection ; and thus
all things pre-exist in God, not only as regards what is
common to all, but also as regards what distinguishes one
thing from another. And therefore as God contains all
perfections in Himself, the essence of God is compared to all
other essences of things, not as the common to the proper,
as unity is to numbers, or as the centre (of a circle) to the
(radiating) lines; but as perfect acts to Imperfect; as if I
were to compare man to animal; or six, a perfect number,
to the imperfect numbers contained under it. Now it is
manifest that by a perfect act imperfect acts can be known
not only In general, but also by proper knowledge ; thus, for
example, whoever knows a man, knows an animal by proper
knowledge ; and whoever knows the number six, knows the
number three also by proper knowledge.
As therefore the essence of God contains In itself all the
perfection contained In the essence of any other being, and
far more, God can know In Himself all of them with proper
knowledge. For the nature proper to each thing consists
in some degree of participation In the divine perfection.
Now God could not be said to know Himself perfectly unless
He knew all the ways in which His own perfection can be
shared by others. Neither could He know the very
nature of being perfectly, unless He knew all modes of
being. Hence it is manifest, that God knows all things
with proper knowledge, in their distinction from each
other.
I. 13
Q. 14. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 194
Reply Obj. i. So to know a thing as it is in the knower,
may be understood in two ways. In one way this adverb
so, imports the mode of knowledge on the part of the thing
known; and in that sense it is false. For the knower does
not always know the object known according to the existence
it has in the knower; since the eye does not know a stone
according to the existence it has in the eye ; but by the
image of the stone which is in the eye, the eye knows the
stone according to its existence outside the eye. And if any
knower has a knowledge of the object known according to
the (mode of) existence it has in the knower, the knower
nevertheless khows it according to its (mode of) existence out-
side the knower ; thus the intellect knows a stone according
to the intelligible existence it has in the intellect, inasmuch
as it knows that it understands ; while nevertheless it knows
what a stone is in its own nature. If however the adverb
so be understood to import the mode (of knowledge) on the
part of the knower, in that sense it is true that only the
knower has knowledge of the object known as it is in the
knower; for the more perfectly the thing known is in the
knower, the more perfect is the mode of knowledge.
We must say therefore that God not only knows that
things are in Himself ; but by the fact that they are in Him,
He knows them in their own nature and all the more perfectly,
the more perfectly each one is in Him.
Reply Obj. 2. The created essence is compared to the
essence of God, as the imperfect to the perfect act. There-
fore the created essence cannot sufficiently lead us to
the knowledge of the divine essence, but rather the
converse.
Reply Obj. 3. The same thing cannot be taken in an
eq al manner as the ratio of different things. But the
divine essence excels all creatures. Hence it can be
taken as the proper ratio of each thing according to the
diverse ways in which diverse creatures participate in, and
imitate it.
195 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 7
Seventh Article,
whether the knowledge of god is discursive ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the knowledge of God is dis-
cursive. For the knowledge of God is not habitual know-
ledge, but actual knowledge. Now the Philosopher says
(Topic, ii.) : The habit of knowledge may regard many things at
once; but actual understanding regards only one thing at a time.
Therefore as God knows many things, Himself and others,
as shown above (AA. 2, 5), it seems that He does not
understand all at once, but discourses from one to another.
Obj. 2. Further, discursive knowledge is to know the
effect through its cause. But God knows things through
Himself; as an effect (is known) through its cause. There-
fore His knowledge is discursive.
Obj. 3. Further, God knows each creature more perfectly
than we know it. But we know the effects in their created
causes; and thus we go discursively from causes to things
caused. Therefore it seems that the same applies to God.
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Trin. xv.), God does
not see all things in their particularity or separately, as if He
saw alternately here and there; but He sees all things together
at once.
I answer that, In the divine knowledge there is no dis-
cursion; the proof of which is as follows. In our know-
ledge there is a twofold discursion; one is according to
succession only, as when we have actually understood
anything, we turn ourselves to understand something else;
while the other mode of discursion is according to causality,
as when through principles we arrive at the knowledge of
conclusions. The first kind of discursion cannot belong to
God. For many things, which we understand in succession
if each is considered in itself, we understand simultaneously
if we see them in some one thing; if, for instance, we under-
stand the parts in the whole, or see different things in a
mirror. Now God sees all things in one (thing), which is Him-
Q. 14. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '* 196
self. Therefore God sees all things together, and not succes-
sively. Likewise the second mode of discursion cannot
be applied to God. First, because this second mode of
discursion presupposes the first mode; for whosoever pro-
ceeds from principles to conclusions does not consider both
at once; secondly, because to discourse thus is to proceed
from the known to the unknown. Hence it is manifest
that when the first is known, the second is still unknown;
and thus the second is known not in the first, but
from the first. Now the term of discursive reasoning is
attained when the second is seen in the first, by resolving
the effects into their causes; and then the discursion
ceases. Hence as God sees His effects in Himself as in their
cause. His knowledge is not discursive.
Reply Obj. i. Although there is only one act of under-
standing in itself, nevertheless many things may be under-
stood in one (medium), as shown above.
Reply Obj. 2. God does not know by their cause, known,
as it were previously, effects unknown; but He knows the
effects in the cause; and hence His knowledge is not dis-
cursive, as was shown above.
Reply Obj. 3. God sees the effects of created causes in
the causes themselves, much better than we can; but still
not in such a manner that the knowledge of the effects is
caused in Him by the knowledge of the created causes, as
is the case with us; and hence His knowledge is not dis-
cursive.
Eighth Article,
whether the knowledge of god is the cause of
THINGS ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that the knowledge of God is not
the cause of things. For Origen says, on Rom. viii. 30,.
Whom He called, them He also justified, etc.: A thing
will happen not because God knows it as future; but because
it is future, it is on that account known by God, before"
it exists.
197 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 8
Ohj. 2. Further, given the cause, the effect follows. But
the knowledge of God is eternal. Therefore if the knowledge
of God is the cause of things created, it seems that creatures
are eternal.
Ohj. 3. Further, The thing known is prior to knowledge^
and is its measure, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. x.).
But what is posterior and measured cannot be a cause.
Therefore the knowledge of God is not the cause of things.
On the contrary, Augustine says {De Trin. xv.), Not because
they are, does God know all creatures spiritual and temporal,
but because He knows them, therefore they are.
I answer that. The knowledge of God is the cause of
things. For the knowledge of God is to all creatures what
the knowledge of the artificer is to things made by his art.
Now the knowledge of the artificer is the cause of the things
made by his art from the fact that the artificer works by his
intellect. Hence the form of the intellect must be the
principle of action; as heat is the principle of heating.
Nevertheless, we must observe that a natural form, being
a form that remains in that to which it gives existence,
denotes a principle of action according only as it has an
inclination to an effect; and likewise, the intelligible form
does not denote a principle of action in so far as it resides
in the one who understands unless there is added to it the
inclination to an effect, which inclination is through the
will. For since the intelligible form has a relation to
opposite things (inasmuch as the same knowledge relates
to opposites), it would not produce a determinate efiect
unless it were determined to one thing by the appetite, as
the Philosopher says {Metaph. ix.). Now it is manifest that
God causes things by His intellect, since His being is His
act of understanding; and hence His knowledge must be the
cause of things, in so far as His will is joined to it. Hence
the knowledge of God as the cause of things is usually called
the knowledge of approbation.
Reply Ohj. i. Origen spoke in reference to that aspect of
knowledge to which the idea of causality does not belong
unless the will is joined to it, as is said abov e.
Q, 14. Art. 9 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 198
But when he says the reason why God foreknows some
things is because they are future, this must be understood
according to the cause of consequence, and not according
to the cause of essence. For if things are in the future, it
follows that God knows them; but not that the futurity of
things is the cause why God knows them.
Reply Obj. 2. The knowledge of God is the cause of things
according as things are in His knowledge. Now that things
should be eternal was not in the knowledge of God; hence
although the knowledge of God is eternal, it does not
follow that creatures are eternal.
Reply Obj. 3. Natural things are midway between the
knowledge of God and our knowledge : for we receive know-
ledge from natural things, of which God is the cause by His
knowledge. Hence, as the natural objects of knowledge
are prior to our knowledge, and are its measure, so, the
knowledge of God is prior to natural things, and is the
measure of them; as, for instance, a house is midway
between the knowledge of the builder who made it, and the
knowledge of the one who gathers his knowledge of the
house from the house already built.
Ninth Article,
whether god has knowledge of things that are not ?
We proceed thus to the Ninth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God has not knowledge of
things that are not. For the knowledge of God is of true
things. But truth and being are convertible terms. There-
fore the knowledge of God is not of things that are not.
Obj. 2. Further, knowledge requires Hkeness between the
knower and the thing known. But those things that are
not cannot have any likeness to God, Who is very being.
Therefore whut is not, cannot be known by God.
Obj. 3. Further, the knowledge of God is the cause of
what is known by Him .^' But it is not the cause of things
that are not, because a thing that is not, has no cause. There-
fore God has no knowledge of things that are not.
199 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 9
On the contrary, The Apostle says : Who . . . calleth those
things that are not as those that are (Rom. iv. 17).
/ answer that, God knows all things whatsoever that in any
way are. Now it is possible that things that are not abso-
lutely, should be in a certain sense. For things absolutely
are which are actual; whereas things which are not actual, are
in the power either of God Himself or of a creature, whether
in active power, or passive; whether in power of thought
or of imagination, or of any other manner of meaning
whatsoever. Whatever therefore can be made, or thought,
or said by the creature, as also whatever He Himself can do,
all are known to God, although they are not actual. And in
so far it can be said that He has knowledge even of things
that are not.
Now a certain difference is to be noted in the consideration
of those things that are not actual. For though some of
them may not be in act now, still they were, or they will be ;
and God is said to know all these with the knowledge of
vision: for since God's act of understanding, which is His
being, is measured by eternity; and since eternity is without
succession, comprehending all time, the present glance of
God extends over all time, and to all things which exist
in any time, as to objects present to Him. But there
are other things in God's power, or the creature's, which
nevertheless are not, nor will be, nor were; and as regards
these He is said to have the knowledge, not of vision, but of
simple intelligence. This is so called because the things
we see around us have distinct being outside the seer.
Reply Ohj. i. Those things that are not actual are true in
so far as they are in potentiality; for it is true that they are
in potentiaUty; and as such they are known by God.
Reply Ohj. 2. Since God is very being everything is, in so
far as it participates in the likeness of God; as everything
is hot in so far as it participates in heat. So, things in
potentiality are known by God, although they are not in
act.
Reply Ohj. 3 The knowledge of God, joined to His will
is the cause of things. Hence it is not necessary that what
Q. 14. Art. 10 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 200
ever God knows, is, or was, or will be; but only is this
necessary as regards what He wills to be, or permits to be.
Further, it is in the knowledge of God not that they be,
but that they be possible.
Tenth Article,
whether god knows evil things ?
We proceed thus to the Tenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not know evil things.
For the Philosopher (De Anima iii.) says that the intellect
which is not in potentiality does not know privation. But
evil is the privation of good, as Augustine says (Confess, iii. 7).
Therefore, as the intellect of God is never in potentiality,
but is always in act, as is clear from the foregoing (A. 2),
it seems that God does not know evil things.
Obj. 2. Further, all knowledge is either the cause of the
thing known, or is caused by it. But the knowledge of God
is not the cause of evil, nor is it caused by evil. Therefore
God does not know evil things.
Obj. 3. Further, everything known is known either by its
likeness, or by its opposite. But whatever God knows, He
knows through His essence, as is clear from the foregoing
(A. 5). Now the divine essence neither is the likeness of
evil, nor is evil contrary to it; for to the divine essence
there is no contrary, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xii.).
Therefore God does not know evil things.
Obj. 4. Further, what is known through another and not
through itself, is imperfectly known. But evil is not known
by God through itself, otherwise evil would be in God; for
the thing known must be in the knower. Therefore if evil
is known through another, namely, through good, it would
be known by Him imperfectly; which cannot be, for the
knowledge of God is not imperfect. Therefore God does
not know evil things.
On the contrary, It is written (Prov. xv. 11), Hell and
destruction are before God (Vulg., the Lord).
I answer that, Whoever knows a thing perfectly, must
know all that can be accidental to it. Now there are some
201 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. ii
good things to which corruption by evil may be accidental.
Hence God would not know good things perfectly, unless He
also knew evil things. Now a thing is knowable in the degree
in which it is ; hence, since this is the essence of evil that it
is the privation of good, by the very fact that God knows
good things. He knows evil things also ; as by light is known
darkness. Hence Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii.) : God
through Himself receives the vision of darkness, not otherwise
seeing darkness except through light.
Reply Obj. i. The saying of the Philosopher must be under-
stood as meaning that the intellect which is not in poten-
tiaUty, does not know privation by privation existing in
it; and this agrees with what he had said previously, that
a point and every indivisible thing are known by privation
of division. This is because simple and indivisible forms
are in our intellect not actually, but only potentially:
for were they actually in our intellect, they would not
be known by privation. It is thus that simple things
are known by separate substances. God therefore knows
evil, not by privation existing in Himself, but by the
opposite good.
Reply Obj. 2. The knowledge of God is not the cause of
evil; but is the cause of the good whereby evil is known.
Reply Obj. 3. Although evil is not opposed to the divine
essence, which is not corruptible by evil; it is opposed
to the effects of God, which He knows by His essence; and
knowing them. He knows the opposite evils.
Reply Obj. 4. To know a thing by something else only,
belongs to imperfect knowledge, if that thing is of itself
knowable; but evil is not of itself knowable, forasmuch as
the very nature of evil means the privation of good; there-
fore evil can neither be defined nor known except by good.
Eleventh Article,
whether god knows singular things ?
We proceed thus to the Eleventh Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God does not know singular
things. For the divine intellect is more immaterial than
Q. 14. Art. ii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 202
the human intellect. Now the human intellect by reason of
its immateriality does not know singular things; but as the
Philosopher says {De Anima ii.), reason has to do with
universals, sense with singular things. Therefore God does
not know singular things.
Ohj. 2. Further, in us those faculties alone know the
singular, which receive the species not abstracted from
material conditions. But in God things are in the highest
degree abstracted from all materiality. Therefore God does
not know singular things.
Ohj. 3. Further, all knowledge comes about through the
medium of some likeness. But the likeness of singular
things in so far as they are singular, does not seem to be in
God; for the principle of singularity is matter, which, since
it is in potentiaUty only, is altogether unlike God, Who is
pure act. Therefore God cannot know singular things.
On the contrary, It is written (Prov. xvi. 2), All the ways
of a man are open to His eyes.
I answer that, God knov/s singular things. For all perfec-
tions found in creatures pre-exist in God in a higher way, as is
clear from the foregoing (Q . IV., A . 2) . Now to know singular
things is part of our perfection. Hence God must know
singular things. Even the Philosopher considers it incon-
gruous that anything known by us should be unknown to
God; and thus against Empedocles he argues (De Anima i.
and Metaph. iii.) that God would be most ignorant if He
did not know discord. Now the perfections which are
divided among inferior beings, exist simply and unitedly in
God; hence, although by one faculty we know the universal
and immaterial, and by another we know singular and
material things, nevertheless God knows both by His simple
intellect.
Now some, wishing to show how this can be, said that God
knows singular things by universal causes. For nothing
exists in any singular thing, that does not arise from some
universal cause. They give the example of an astrologer
who knows all the universal movements of the heavens, and
can thence foretell all eclipses that are to come. This,
203 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. ii
however, is not enough; for singular things from universal
causes attain to certain forms and powers which, however
they may be joined together, are not individualized except
by individual matter. Hence he who knows Socrates
because he is white, or because he is the son of Sophroniscus,
or because of something of that kind, would not know him
in so far as he is this particular man. Hence according to
the aforesaid mode, God would not know singular things in
their singularity.
On the other hand, others have said that God knows
singular things by the application of universal causes to
particular effects. But this will not hold ; forasmuch as no
one can apply a thing to another unless he first knows that
thing; hence the said application cannot be the reason of
knowing the particular, for it presupposes the knowledge of
singular things.
Therefore it must be said otherwise, that, since God is the
cause of things by His knowledge, as stated above (A. 8),
His knowledge extends as far as His causality extends.
Hence as the active power of God extends not only to
forms, which are the source of universality, but also to
matter, as we shall prove further on (Q. XLIV., A. 2),
he knowledg of God must extend to singular things,
which are individualized by matter. For since He knows
things other than Himself by His essence, as being the
likeness of things, or as their active principle, His essence
must be the sufficing principle of knowing all things made bv
Him, not only in the universal, but also in the singular.
The same would apply to the knov/ledge of the artificer, if
it were productive of the whole thing, and not only of the
form.
Reply Obj. i. Our intellect abstracts the intelligible species
from the individualizing principles; hence the intelligible
species in our intellect cannot be the likeness of the individual
principles ; and on that account our intellect does not know
the singular. But the intelligible species in the divine
intellect, which is the essence of God, is immaterial not by
abstraction, but of itself, being the principle of all the
Q. 14. Art. 12 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 204
principles which enter into the composition of things,
whether principles of the species or principles of the indi-
vidual; hence by it God knows not only universal, but also
singular things.
Reply Obj. 2. Although as regards the species in the
divine intellect its being has no material conditions like the
images received in the imagination and sense, yet its power
extends to both immaterial and material things.
Reply Obj. 3. Although matter as regards its potentiality
recedes from likeness to God, yet, even in so far as it has
being in this wise, it retains a certain likeness to the divine
being.
Twelfth Article,
whether god can know infinite things ?
We proceed thus to the Twelfth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God cannot know infinite
things. For the infinite, as such, is unknown; since the
infinite is that which, to those who measure it, leaves always
something more to be measured, as the Philosopher says
{Physic, iii.). Moreover, Augustine says {De Civ. Dei xii.)
that whatever is comprehended by knowledge, is bounded by
the comprehension of the knower. Now infinite things have
no boundary. Therefore they cannot be comprehended by
the knowledge of God.
Obj. 2. Further, if we say that things infinite in them-
selves are finite in God's knowledge, against this it may be
urged that the essence of the infinite is that it is untra-
versable, and the finite that it is traversable, as said in
Physic, iii. But the infinite is not traversable either by
the finite or by the infinite, as is proved in Physic, vi.
Therefore the infinite cannot be bounded by the finite, nor
even by the infinite; and so the infinite cannot be finite
in God's knowledge, which is infinite.
Obj. 3. Further, the knowledge of God is the measure of
what is known. But it is contrary to the essence of the
infinite that it be measured. Therefore infinite things
cannot be known by God.
205 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 12
On the contrary, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xii.). Although
we cannot number the infinite, nevertheless it can he compre-
hended by Him whose knowledge has no bounds.
I answer that, Since God knows not only things actual
but also things possible to Himself or to created things, as
shown above (A. 9), and as these must be infinite, it must
be held that He knows infinite things. Although the know-
ledge of vision which has relation only to things that are,
or will be, or were, is not of infinite things, as some say, for
we do not say that the world is eternal, nor that generation
and movement will go on for ever, so that individuals be
infinitely multiplied; yet, if we consider more attentively,
we must hold that God knows infinite things even by the
knowledge of vision. For God knows even the thoughts
and affections of hearts, which will be multiphed to infinity
as rational creatures go on for ever.
The reason of this is to be found in the fact that the
knowledge of every knower is measured by the mode
of the form which is the principle of knowledge. For the
sensible image in sense is the Hkeness of only one individual
thing, and can give the knowledge of only one individual.
But the intelHgible species of our intellect is the likeness of
the thing as regards its specific nature, which is participable
by infinite particulars; hence our intellect by the intelligible
species of man in a certain way knows infinite men; not
however as distinguished from each other, but as com-
municating in the nature of the species; and the reason is
because the intelUgible species of our intellect is the like-
ness of man not as to the individual principles, but as to the
prmciples of the species. On the other hand, the divine
essence, whereby the divine intellect understands, is a suffic-
ing hkeness of all things that are, or can be, not only as
regards the universal principles, but also as regards the
principles proper to each one, as shown above. Hence it
follows that the knowledge of God extends to infinite things,
even as distinct from each other.
Reply Obj. i. The idea of the infinite pertains to quantity,
as the Philosopher says (Physic, i.). But the idea of
Q. 14. Art. 13 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 206
quantity implies the order of parts. Therefore to know the
infinite according to the mode of the infinite is to know part
after part; and in this way the infinite cannot be known; for
whatever quantity of parts be taken, there will always
remain something else outside. But God does not know
the infinite or infinite things, as if He enumerated part after
part; since He knows all things simultaneously, and not
successively, as said above (A. 7). Hence there is nothing
to prevent Him from knowing infinite things.
Reply Obj. 2. Transition imports a certain succession of
parts; and hence it is that the infinite cannot be traversed
by the finite, nor by the infinite. But equality sufiices
for comprehension, because that is said to be comprehended
which has nothing outside the comprehender. Hence, it is
not against the idea of the infinite to be comprehended by
the infinite. And so, what is infinite in itself can be called
finite to the knowledge of God as comprehended; but not
as if it were traversable.
Reply Obj. 3. The knowledge of God is the measure of
things, not quantitatively, for the infinite is not subject to
this kind of measure; but it is the measure of the essence
and truth of things. For everything has truth of nature
according to the degree in which it imitates the knowledge of
God, as the thing made by art agrees with the art. Granted,
however, an actually infinite number of things, for instance,
an infinitude of men, or an infinitude in continuous quantity,
as an infinitude of air, as some of the ancients held; yet it
is manifest that these would have a determinate and finite
being, because their being would be limited to some deter-
minate nature. Hence they would be measurable as regards
the knowledge of God.
Thirteenth Article.
whether the knowledge of god is of future
contingent things ?
We proceed thus to the Thirteenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the knowledge of God is not of
luture contingent things. For from a necessary cause pro-
207 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 13
ceeds a necessary effect. But the knowledge of God is the
cause of things known, as said above (A. 8). Since therefore
that knowledge is necessary, what He knows must also be
necessary. Therefore the knowledge of God is not of con-
tingent things.
Obj. 2. Further, every conditional proposition of which
the antecedent is absolutely necessary, must have an
absolutely necessary consequent. For the antecedent is
to the consequent as principles are to the conclusion: and
from necessary principles only a necessary conclusion can
follow, as is proved in Poster, i. But this is a true con-
ditional proposition, If God knew that this thing will be, it
will be, for the knowledge of God is only of true tilings. Now
the antecedent conditional of this is absolutely necessary,
because it is eternal, and because it is signified as past.
Therefore the consequent is also absolutely necessary.
Therefore whatever God knows, is necessary; and so the
knowledge of God is not of contingent things.
Obj. 3. Further, everything known by God must neces-
sarily be, because even what we ourselves know, must
necessarily be ; and, of course, the knowledge of God is much
more certain than ours. But no future contingent thing
must necessarily be. Therefore no contingent future thing
is known by God.
On the contrary, It is written (Ps. xxxii. 15), He Who hath
made the hearts of every one of them; Who understandeth all
their works , that is, of men. Now the works of men are
contingent, being subject to free will. Therefore God
knows future contingent things..
/ answer that, Since as was shown above (A. 9), God knows
all things; not only things actual but also things possible
to Him and the creature; and since some of these are
future contingent to us, it follows that God knows future
contingent things.
In evidence of this, we must consider that a contingent
thing can be considered in two ways; first, in itself, in so far
as it is now in act : and in this sense it is not considered as
future, but as present ; neither is it considered as contingent
(as having reference ~ to one of two terms, but as determined
Q. 14. Art. 13 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 208
to one; and on account of this it can be infallibly the object
of certain knowledge, for instance to the sense of sight, as when
I see that Socrates is sitting down. In another way a
contingent thing can be considered as it is in its cause ; and
in this way it is considered as future, and as a contingent
thing not yet determined to one; forasmuch as a contingent
cause has relation to opposite things: and in this sense a
contingent thing is not subject to any certain knowledge.
Hence, whoever knows a contingent effect in its cause only,
has merely a conjectural knowledge of it. Now God knows
all contingent things not only as they are in their causes, but
also as each one of them is actually in itself. And although
contingent things become actual successively, nevertheless
God knows contingent things not successively, as they are
in their own being, as we do ; but simultaneously. The reason
is because His knowledge is measured by eternity, as is
also His being; and eternity being simultaneously whole
comprises all time, as said above (Q. X., A. 2). Hence, all
things that are in time are present to God from eternity,
not only because He has the types of things present within
Him, as some say; but because His glance is carried from
eternity over all things as they are in their presentiality.
Hence it is manifest that contingent things are infallibly
known by God, inasmuch as they are subject to the divine
sight in their presentiality; yet they are future contingent
things in relation to their own causes.
Reply Obj. i. Although the supreme cause is necessary,
the effect may be contingent by reason of the proximate
contingent cause; just as the germination of a plant is
contingent by reason of the proximate contingent cause,
although the movement of the sun which is the first cause,
is necessary . So likewise things known by God are contingent
on account of their proximate causes, while the knowledge
of God, which is the first cause, is necessary.
Reply Obj. 2. Some say that this antecedent, God knew
this contingent to be future, is not necessarj', but contingent;
because, although it is past, still it imports relation to the
future. This however does not remove necessity from it;
:209 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 13
for whatever has had relation to the future, must have had it,
although the future sometimes does not follow. On the
other hand some say that this antecedent is contingent,
because it is a compound of necessary and contingent ; as this
saying is contingent, Socrates is a white man. But this also
is to no purpose ; for when we say, God knew this contingent
to he future, contingent is used here only as the matter of the
word, and not as the chief part of the proposition. Hence
its contingency or necessity has no reference to the necessity
or contingency of the proposition, or to its being true or false.
For it may be just as true that I said a man is an ass, as that
I said Socrates runs, or God is: and the same applies to
necessary and contingent. Hence it must be said that
this antecedent is absolutely necessary. Nor does it follow,
as some say, that the consequent is absolutely necessary,
because the antecedent is the remote cause of the consequent,
which is contingent by reason of the proximate cause. But
this is to no purpose. For the conditional would be false
were its antecedent the remote necessary cause, and the
consequent a contingent effect; as, for example, if I said,
if the sun moves, the grass will grow.
Therefore we must reply otherwise; that when the ante-
cedent contains anything belonging to an act of the soul,
the consequent must be taken not as it is in itself, but as it is
in the soul : for the existence of a thing in itself is different
from the existence of a thing in the soul. For example, when
I say, What the soul understands is immaterial; this is to be
understood that it is immaterial as it is in the intellect, not
as it is in itself. Likewise if I say, // God knew anything, it
will he, the consequent must be understood as it is subject to
the divine knowledge, that is, as it is in its presentiality.
And thus it is necessary, as also is the antecedent : for every"
thing that is, while it is, must necessarily he, as the Philosopher
says in Periherm. i.
Reply Ohj. 3. Things reduced to act in time, are known by
us successively in time, but by God (are known) in eternity,
which is above time. Whence to us tliey cannot be certain,
forasmuch as we know future contingent things as such; but
I. 14
Q. 14. Art. 13 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 210
(they are certain) to God alone, whose understanding is in
eternity above time. Just as he who goes along the road,
does not see thos« who eome after him ; whereas he who sees
the whole road from a height, sees at once all travelling by
the way. Hence what is known by us must be necessary
even as it is in itself; for what is future contingent in itself,
cannot be known by us. Whereas what is known by God
must be necessary according to the mode in which they are
subject to the divine knowledge, as already stated, but not
absolutely as considered in their own causes. Hence also
this proposition, Everything known by God must necessarily
he, is usually distinguished; for this may refer to the thing,
or to the saying. If it refers to the thing, it is divided,
and false; for the sense is. Everything which God knows is
necessary. If understood of the saying it is composite and
true ; for the sense is. This proposition, ' that which is known
by God is ' is necessary.
Now some urge an objection and say that this distinc-
tion holds good with regard to forms that are separable
from the subject; thus if I said, It is possible for a white
thing to be black, it is false as applied to the saying, and true
as applied to the thing : for a thing which is white, can
become black; whereas this saying, a white thing is black,
can never be true. But in forms that are inseparable from
the subject, this distinction does not hold, for instance, if
I said, A black crow can be white, for in both senses it is
false. Now to be known by God is inseparable from the
thing; for what is known by God cannot be not known.
This objection, however, would hold if these words that
which is known implied any disposition inherent to the
subject ; but since they import an act of the knower, some-
thing can be attributed to the thing known, in itself (even
if it always be known), which is not attributed to it in so far
as it stands under actual knowledge; thus material exist-
ence is attributed to a stone in itself, which is not attributed
to it inasmuch as it is known.
211 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 14
Fourteenth Article,
whether god knows enunciable things ?
We proceed thus to the Fourteenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not know enunciable
things. For to know enunciable things belongs to our
intellect as it composes and divides. But in the divine
intellect there is no composition. Therefore God does not
know enunciable things.
Obj. 2. Further, every kind of knowledge is made through
some likeness. But in God there is no likeness of enun-
ciable things, since He is altogether simple. Therefore God
does not know enunciable things.
On the contrary, It is written: The Lord knoweth the thoughts
oj men (Ps. xciii. 11). But enunciable things are contained
in the thoughts of men. Therefore God knows enunciable
things.
I answer that, Since it is in the power of our intellect to
form enunciations, and since God knows whatever is in His
own power or in that of creatures, as said above (A. 9),
it follows of necessity that God knows all enunciations that
can be formed.
Now just as He knows material things immaterially, and
composite things simply, so likewise He knows enunciable
things not after the manner of enunciable things, as if in
His intellect there were composition or division of enuncia-
tions; for He knows each thing by simple intelligence, by
understanding the essence of each thing ; as if we by the very
fact that we understand what man is, were to understand
all that can be predicated of man. This, however, does not
happen in our intellect, which discourses from one thing to
another, forasmuch as the intelligible species represents one
thing in such a way as not to represent another. Hence
when we understand what man is, we do not forthwith
understand other things which belong to him, but we
understand them one by one, according to a certain succes-
sion. On this account the things w<^ understand as separated ,
Q. 14. Art. 15 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 212
we must reduce to one by way of composition or division,
by forming an enunciation. Now the species of the divine
intellect, which is God's essence, suffices to represent all
things. Hence by understanding His essence, God knows
the essences of all things, and also whatever can be accidental
to them.
Reply Obj. i. This ol)jection would avail if God knew
enunciable things after the manner of enunciable things.
Reply Obj. 2. Enunciatory composition signifies some
existence of a thing; and thus God by His existence, which
is His essence, is the similitude of all those things which are
signified by enunciation.
Fifteenth Article,
whether the knowledge of god is variable ?
We proceed thus to the Fifteenth Article: — •
Objection i. It seems that the knowledge of God is
variable. For knowledge is related to what is knowable.
But whatever imports relation to the creature is applied to
God from time, and varies according to the variation of
creatures. Therefore the knowledge of God is variable
according to the variation of creatures.
Obj. 2. Further, whatever God can make. He can know.
But God can make more than He does. Therefore He can
know more than He knows. Thus His knowledge can vary
according to increase and diminution.
Obj. 3. Further, God knew that Christ would be born.
But He does not know now that Christ will be born ; because
Christ is not to be born in the future. Therefore God does
not know everythirg He once knew; and thus the know-
ledge of God is variable.
On the contrary, It is ^ aid, that in God there is no change
nor shadow of alteration (James, i. 17).
I answer thai, Since the knowledge of God is His substance,
as is clear from the foregoing (A. 4), just as His substance
is altogether immutable, as shown above (Q. IX., A. i), so
His knowledge likewise must be altogether invariable.
213 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 15
Reply Obj. 1. Lord, Creator, and the like, import relations
to creatures in so far as they are in themselves. But the
knowledge of God imports relation to creatures in so far as
they are in God; because everything is actually understood
according as it is in the one who understands. Now created
things are in God in an invariable manner; while they exist
variably in themselves. We may also say that Lord,
Creator, and the like, import the relations consequent upon
the acts which are understood as terminating in the creatures
themselves, as they are in themselves; and thus these
relations are attributed to God variously, according to the
variation of creatures. But knowledge and love, and the
like, import relations consequent upon the acts which are
understood to be in God; and therefore these are predicated
of God in an invariable manner.
Reply Obj. 2. God knows also what He can make, and
does not make. Hence from the fact that He can make
more than He makes, it does not follow that He can know
more than He knows, unless this be referred to the know-
ledge of vision, according to which He is said to know those
things which are in act in some period of time. But from
the fact that He knows some things might be which are not,
or that some things might not be which are, it does not follow
that His knowledge is variable, but rather that He knows
the variability of things. If, however, anything existed
which God did not previously know, and afterwards knew,
then His knowledge would be variable. But this could not
be ; for whatever is, or can be in any period of time, is known
by God in His eternity. Therefore from the fact that a
thing exists in some period of time, it follows that it is
known by God from eternity. Therefore it cannot be
granted that God can know more than He knows; because
such a proposition implies that first of all He did not know,
and then afterwards knew.
Reply Obj. 3. The ancient Nominalists said that it was
the same thing to say Christ is born and wil be born,
and was born; because the same thing i signified by these
three — viz., the nativity of Christ. Therefore it follows,
Q. 14. Art. 16 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 214
they said, that whatever God knew, He knows ; because
now He knows that Christ is born, which means the same
thing as that Christ will be born. This opinion, however,
is false; both because the diversity in the parts of a
sentence causes a diversity of enunciations; and because
it would follow that a proposition which is true once would
be always true; which is contrary to what the Philosopher
lays down (Categor. iii.) when he says that this sentence,
Socrates sits, is true when he is sitting, and false when he
rises up. Therefore, it must be conceded that this pro-
position is not true. Whatever God knew He knows, if referred
to enunciable propositions. But because of this, it does not
follow that the knowledge of God is variable. For as it is
without variation in the divine knowledge that God knows
one and the same thing sometime to be, and sometime
not to be, so it is without variation in the divine knowledge
that God knows an enunciable proposition is sometime
true, and sometime false. The knowledge of God, how-
ever, would be variable if He knew enunciable things by
way of enunciation, by composition and division, as occurs
in our intellect. Hence our knowledge varies either as
regards truth and falsity, for example, if when a thing
suffers change we retained the same opinion about it;
or as regards diverse opinions, as if we first thought that
anyone was sitting, and afterwards thought that he was
not sitting; neither of which can be in God.
Sixteenth Article,
whether god has a speculative knowledge of
THINGS ?
We proceed thus to the Sixteenth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God has not a speculative
knowledge of things. For the knowledge of God is the
cause of things, as shown above (A. 8). But speculative
knowledge is not the cause of the things known. Therefore
the knowledge of God is not speculative.
Ohj, 2. Further, speculative knowledge comes by abstrac-
215 GOD'S KNOWLEDGE Q. 14. Art. 16
tion from things; which does not belong to the divine
knowledge. Therefore the knowledge of God is not
speculative.
On the contrary, Whatever is the more excellent must be
attributed to God. But speculative knowledge is more
excellent than practical knowledge, as the Philosopher says
in the beginning of Metaph. Therefore God has a specu*
lative knowledge of things.
/ answer that, Some knowledge is speculative only; some
is practical only; and some is partly speculative and partly
practical. In proof whereof it must be observed that
knowledge can be called speculative in three ways: first,
on the part of the things known, which are not operable by
the knower; such is the knowledge of man about natural or
divine things. Secondly, as regards the manner of knowing
— as, for instance, if a builder consider a house by defining
and dividing, and considering what belongs to it in general:
for this is to consider operable things in a speculative
manner, and not as practically operable; for operable
means the application of form to matter, and not the
resolution of the composite into its universal formal prin-
ciples. Thirdly, as regards the end; /or the practical intellect
differs in its end from the speculative, as the Philosopher
says (De Anima iii.). For the practical intellect is ordered
to the end of the operation; whereas the end of the specu-
lative intellect Is the consideration of truth. Hence if a
builder should consider how a house can be made, not
ordering this to the end of operation, but only to know
(how to do it), this would be only a speculative considera-
tion as regards the end, although it concerns an operable
thing. Therefore knowledge which is speculative by reason
of the thing itself known, is merely speculative. But that
which is speculative either in its mode or as to its end is
partly speculative and partly practical: and when it is
ordained to an operative end It is simply practical.
In accordance with this, therefore, it must be said that
God has of Himself a speculative knowledge only; for He
Himself is not operable.
Q. 14. Art. 16 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 216
But of all other things He has both speculative and
practical knowledge. He has speculative knowledge as
regards the mode; for whatever we know speculatively in
things by defining and dividing, God knows all this much
more perfectly.
Now of things which He can make, but does not make at
any time, He has not a practical knowledge,^ accordingly as
knowledge is called practical from the end. But He has
a practical knowledge of what He makes in some period of
time. And, as regards evil things, although they are not
operable by Him, yet they fall under His practical know-
ledge, like good things, inasmuch as He permits, or impedes,
or directs them; as also sicknesses fall under the practical
knowledge of the physician, inasmuch as he cures them by
his art.
Reply Ohj. i. The knowledge of God is the cause, not
indeed of Himself, but of other things. He is actually the
cause of some, that is, of things that come to be in some
period of time; and He is virtually the cause of others, that
is, of things which He can make, and which nevertheless
are never made.
Reply Ohj. 2. The fact that knowledge is derived from
things known does not essentially belong to speculative
knowledge, but only accidentally in so far as it is human.
In answer to what is objected on the contrary, we must
say that perfect knowledge of operable things is .obtainable
only if they are known in so far as they are operable. There-
fore, since the knowledge of God is in every way perfect.
He must know what is operable by Him, formally as such,
and not only in so far as they are speculative. Nevertheless
this does not impair the nobility of His speculative know-
ledge, forasmuch as He sees all things other than Himself
in Himself, and He knows Himself speculatively; and so in
the speculative knowledge of Himself, He possesses both
speculative and practical knowledge of all other things.
QUESTION XV.
OF IDEAS.
{In Three Articles.)
After considering the knowledge of God, it remains to
consider ideas. And about this there are three points of
inquiry: (i) Whether there are ideas? (2) Whether they
are many, or one only ? (3) Whether there are ideas of
all things known by God ?
First Article,
whether there are ideas?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that there are no ideas. For
Dionysius says (Div. Nom. vii.), that God does not know
things by ideas. But ideas are for nothing else except
that things may be known through them. Therefore there
are no ideas.
Ohj. 2. Further, God knows all things in Himself, as has
been already said (Q. XIV., A. 5). But He does not know
Himself through an idea; neither therefore other things.
Ohj. 3. Further, an idea is considered to be the principle
of knowledge and action. But the divine essence is a
sufficient principle of knowing and effecting all things. It
is not therefore necessary to suppose ideas.
On the contrary, Augustine says {Octog. Tri. Qucest.; qu.
xlvi.). Such is the power inherent in ideas, that no one can he
wise unless they are understood.
I answer that, It is necessary to suppose ideas in the
divine mind. For the Greek word T^ea is in Latin Forma.
Hence by ideas are understood the forms of things, existing
217
Q. 15. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 218
apart from the things themselves. Now the form of any-
thing existing apart from the thing itself can be for one of
two ends; either to be the type of that of which it is called
the form, or to be the principle of the knowledge of that
thing, inasmuch as the forms of things knowable are said
to be in him who knows them. In either case we must
suppose ideas, as is clear for the following reason :
In all things not generated by chance, the form must be
the end of any generation whatsoever. But an agent does
not act on account of the form, except in so far as the like-
ness of the form is in the agent, as may happen in two ways
For in some agents the form of the thing to be made pre-
exists according to its natural being, as in those that act
by their nature ; as a man generates a man, or fire generates
fire. Whereas in other agents (the form of the thing to be
made pre-exists) according to intelligible being, as in those
that act by the intellect; and thus the likeness of a house
pre-exists in the mind of the builder. And this may be
called the idea of the house, since the builder intends to
build his house like to the form conceived in his mind. As
then the world was not made by chance, but by God acting
by His intellect, as will appear later (Q. XLVL, A. i), there
must exist in the divine mind a form to the likeness of
which the world was made. And in this the notion of an
idea consists.
Reply Obj. i. God does not understand things according
to an idea existing outside Himself. Thus Aristotle
(Metaph. ix.) rejects the opinion of Plato, who held that
ideas existed of themselves, and not in the intellect.
Reply Obj. 2. Although God knows Himself and all else
by His own essence, yet His essence is the operative prin-
ciple of all things, except of Himself. It has therefore the
nature of an idea with respect to other things; though not
with respect to Himself.
Reply Obj. 3. God is the similitude of all things according
to His essence; therefore an idea in God is identical with
His essence.
219 OF IDEAS g. 15. Art. 2
Second Article,
whether ideas are many ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that ideas are not many. For an
idea in God is His essence. But God's essence is one only.
Therefore there is only one idea.
Ohj. 2. Further, as the idea is the principle of knowing
and operating, so are art and wisdom. But in God there are
not several arts or wisdoms. Therefore in Him there is
no plurality of ideas.
Ohj. 3. Further, if it be said that ideas are multiplied
according to their relations to different creatures, it may
be argued on the contrary that the plurality of ideas is
eternal. If, then, ideas are many, but creatures temporal,
then the temporal must be the cause of the eternal.
Ohj. 4. Further, these relations are either real in creatures
only, or in God also. If in creatures only, since creatures
are not from eternity, the plurality of ideas cannot be from
eternity, if ideas are multiplied only according to these
relations. But if they are real in God, it follows that there
is a real plurality in God other than the plurality of Persons :
and this is against the teaching of Damascene (De Fide
Orthod. i. 10), who says, in God all things are one, except
ingeiter ability, generation, and procession. Ideas therefore
are not many.
On the contrary, Augustine says [Octog. Tri. Qucest.; qu.
xlvi.). Ideas are certain principal forms, or permanent and
immutable types of thi^igs, they themselves not being formed.
Thus they are eternal, and existing always in the same manner,
as being contained in the divine intelligence. Whilst, however,
they themselves neither come into being nor decay, yet we say
that in accordance with them everything is formed that can
arise or decay, and all that actually does so.
I answer that, It must necessarily be held that ideas are
many. In proof of which it is to be considered that in
every effect the ultimate end is the proper intention of the
Q. 15. Art. 2 THE ' SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 220
principal agent, as the order of an army (is the proper
intention) of the general. Now the highest good exist-
ing in things is the good of the order of the universe,
as the Philosopher clearly teaches in Mefaph. xii. There-
fore the order of the universe is properly intended by God,
and is not the accidental result of a succession of agents,
as has been supposed by those who have taught that God
created only the first creature, and that this creature
created the second creature, and so on, until this great
multitude of beings was produced. According to this
opinion God would have the idea of the first created thing
alone ; whereas, if the order itself of the universe was created
by Him immediately, and intended by Him, He must have
the idea of the order of the universe. Now there cannot
be an idea of any whole, unless particular ideas are had of
those parts of which the whole is made; just as a builder
cannot conceive the idea of a house unless he has the idea
of each of its parts. So, then, it must needs be that in the
divine mind there are the proper ideas of all things. Hence
Augustine says [Octog. Tri. Qucest.; qu. xlvi.), that each thing
was created by God according to the idea proper to if, from
which it follows that in the divine mind ideas are many.
Now it can easily be seen how this is not repugnant to the
simplicity of God, if we consider that the idea of a work
is in the mind of the operator as that which is understood,
and not as the image whereby he understands, which is a
form that makes the intellect in act. For the form of the
house in the mind of the builder, is something understood
by him, to the likeness of which he forms the house in
matter. Now, it is not repugnant to the simplicity of the
divine mind that it understand many things; though it
would be repugnant to its simplicity were His understanding
to be formed by a plurality of images. Hence many ideas
exist in the divine mind, as things understood by it; as
can be proved thus. Inasmuch as He knows His own
essence perfectly, He knows it according to every mode in
which it can be known. Now it can be known not only as
it is in itself, but as it can be participated in by creatures
221 OF IDEAS Q. 15. Art. 2
according to some degree of likeness. But every creature
has its own proper species, according to which it participates
in some degree in Hkeness to the divine essence. So far,
therefore, as God knows His essence as capable of such
imitation by any creature, He knows it as the particular
type and idea of that creature: and in like manner as
regards other creatures. So it is clear that God under-
stands many particular types of many things, and these
are many ideas.
Reply Ohj. i. The divine essence is not called an idea
in so far as it is that essence, but only in so far as it is the
likeness or type of this or that thing. Hence ideas are
said to be many, inasmuch as many types are understood
through the self -same essence.
Reply Ohj. 2. By wisdom and art we signify that by which
God understands ; but an idea, that which God understands.
For God by one understands many things, and that not
only according to what they are in themselves, but also
according as they are understood, and this is to understand
the several types of things. In the same way, an architect
is said to understand a house, when he understands the
form of the house in matter. But if he understands the form
of a house, as devised by himself, from the fact that he
understands that he understands it, he thereby understands
the type or the idea of the house. Now not only does God
understand many things by His essence, but He also under-
stands that He understands many tilings by His essence.
And this means that He understands the several types of
things ; or that many ideas are in His intellect as understood
by Him.
Reply Ohj, 3. Such relations, whereby ideas are multiplied,
are caused not by the things themselves, but by the divine
intellect comparing its own essence with these things.
Reply Ohj. 4. Relations multiplying ideas do not exist in
created things, but in God. Yet they are not real relations,
such as those whereby the Persons are distinguished, but
relations understood by God,
Q. 15. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 222
Third Article,
whether there are ideas of all things that god
KNOWS ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that there are not ideas in God
of all things that He knows. For the idea of evil is not in
God; since it would follow that evil was in Him. But evil
things are known by God. Therefore there are not ideas
of all things that God knows.
Ohj. 2. Further, God knows things that neither are, nor
will be, nor have been, as has been said above (A. 9). But of
such things there are no ideas, since, as Dionysius says
{Div, Nom. v.): Acts of the divine will are the determining
and effective types of things. Therefore there are not in God
ideas of all things known by him.
Ohj. 3. Further, God knows primary matter, of which there
can be no idea, since it has no form . Hence the same conclusion .
Ohj. 4. Further, it is certain that God knows not only
species, but also genera, singulars, and accidents. But
there are no ideas of these, according to Plato's teaching,
who first taught ideas, as Augustine says (Octog. Tri.
QticBst.; qu. xlvi.). Therefore there are not ideas in God of
all things known by Him.
On the contrary, Ideas are types existing in the divine
mind, as is clear from Augustine (ihid.). But God has the
proper types of all things that He knows; and therefore
He has ideas of all things known by Him.
/ answer that, As ideas, according to Plato, are principles
of the knowledge of things and of their generation, an idea
has this twofold office, as it exists in the mind of God.
So far as the idea is the principle of the making of things,
it may be called an exemplar, and belongs to practical
knowledge. But so far as it is a principle of knowledge,
it is properly called a type, and may belong to speculative
knowledge also. As an exemplar, therefore, it has respect
to everything made by God in any period of time; whereas
as a principle of knowledge it|has respect to all things known
2-23 OF IDEAS Q. 15. Art. 3
by God, even though they never come to be in time ; and to
all things that He knows according to their proper type, in
so far as they are known by Him in a speculative manner.
Reply Obj. i. Evil is known by God not through its own
type, but through the type of good. Evil, therefore, has
no idea in God, neither in so far as an idea is an exemplar,
nor as a type.
Reply Obj. 2. God has no practical knowledge, except
virtually, of things which neither are, nor will be, nor have
been. Hence, with respect to these there is no idea in
God in so far as idea signifies an exemplar, but only in so
far as it denotes a type.
Reply Obj. 3. Plato is said by some to have considered
matter as not created; and therefore he postulated not an
idea of matter but a concause with matter. Since, how-
ever, we hold matter to be created by God, though not
apart from form, matter has its idea in God; but not apart
from the idea of the composite; for matter in itself can
neither exist, nor be known.
Reply Obj. 4. Genus can have no idea apart from the
idea of species, in so far as idea denotes an exemplar ; for
genus cannot exist except in some species. The same is
the case with those accidents that inseparably accompany
their subject; for these come into being along with their
subject. But accidents which supervene to the subject,
have their special idea. For an architect produces through
the form of the house all the accidents that originally
accompany it; whereas those that are superadded to the
house when completed, such as painting, or any other such
thing, are produced through some other form. Now indi-
vidual things, according to Plato, have no other idea than
that of the species; both because particular things are
individualized by matter, which, as some say, he held to be
uncreated and the concause with the idea ; and because the
intention of nature regards the species, and produces indi-
viduals only that in them the species may be preserved.
However, divine providence extends not merely to species;
but to individuals, as will be shown later (Q.XXH., A. 3).
QUESTION XVI
OF TRUTH.
{In Eight Articles.)
Since knowledge is of things that are true, after the con-
sideration of the knowledge of God, we must inquire con-
cerning truth. About this there are eight points of inquiry :
(i) Whether truth resides in the thing, or only in the intel-
lect ? (2) Whether it resides only in the intellect composing
and dividing ? (3) On the comparison of the true to being.
(4) On the comparison of the true to the good. (5) Whether
God is truth ? (6) Whether all things are true by one
truth, or by many ? (7) On the eternity of truth. (8) On
the unchangeableness of truth.
First Article,
whether truth resides only in the intellect ?
We proceed thiis to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that truth does not reside only in
the intellect, but rather in things. For Augustine {Soliloq,
ii. 5) condemns this definition of truth, That is true which
is seen ; since it would follow that stones hidden in the
bosom of the earth would not be true stones, as they are
not seen. He also condemns the following, That is tnie
which is as it appears to the knower, who is willing and able
to know, for hence it would follow that nothing would be
true, unless someone could know it. Therefore he defines
truth thus: That is true which is. It seems, then, that truth
resides in things, and not in the intellect.
Obj. 2. Further, whatever is true, is true by reason of
truth. If, then, truth is only in the intellect, nothing will
be true except in so far as it is understood. But this is
224
225 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. i
the error of the ancient philosophers, who said that what-
ever seems to be true is so. Consequently mutual contra-
dictories can be true at the same time, since contradictories
seem to be true as seen by different persons at the same
time.
Ohj. 3. Further, that, on account of which a thing is so,
is itself more so, as is evident from the Philosopher {Poster, i.).
But it is from the fact that a thing is or is not, that our
thought or word is true or false, as the Philosopher teaches
{Prcedicam. iii.). Therefore truth resides rather in things
than in the intellect.
On the contrary, The Philosopher says {Metaph. vi.), The
trite and the false reside not in things, hut in the intellect.
I answer that. As the good denotes that towards which
the appetite tends, so the true denotes that towards which
the intellect tends. Now there is this difference between
the appetite and the intellect, or any knowledge whatsoever,
that knowledge is according as the thing known is in the
knower, whilst appetite is according as the desirer tends
towards the thing desired. Thus the term of the appetite,
namely good, is in the object desirable, and the term of
the intellect, namely true, is in the intellect itself. Now as
good exists in a thing so far as that thing is related to the
appetite — and hence the aspect of goodness passes on from
the desirable thing to the appetite, in so far as the appetite
is called good if its object is good; so, since the true is
in the intellect in so far as it is conformed to the object
understood, the aspect of the true must needs pass from the
intellect to the object understood, so that also the thing
understood is said to be true in so far as it has some relation
to the intellect. Now a thing understood may be in relation
to an intellect either essentially or accident aUy. It is
related essentially to an intellect on which it depends as
regards its essence; but accidentally to an intellect by
which it is knowable; even as we may say that a house is
related essentially to the intellect of the architect, but
accidentally to the intellect upon which it does not depend.
Now we do not judge of a thing by what is in it accident-
15
g. 16. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 226
ally, but by what is in it essentially. Hence, everything
is said to be true absolutely, in so far as it is related to
the intellect from which it depends; and thus it is that
artificial things are said to be true as being related
to our intellect. For a house is said to be true that ex-
presses the likeness of the form in the architect's mind;
and words are said to be true so far as they are the signs
of truth in the intellect. In the same way natural things
are said to be true in so far as they express the likeness
of the species that are in the divine mind. For a stone
is called true, which possesses the nature proper to a stone,
according to the preconception in the divine intellect. Thus,
then, truth resides primarily in the intellect, and secondarily
in things according as they are related to the intellect as
their principle. Consequently there are various definitions
of truth. Augustine says (De Vera Relig. xxxvi.). Truth is
that whereby is made manifest that which is ; and Hilary says
(De Trin. v.) that Truth makes being clear and evident:
and this pertains to truth according as it is in the intellect.
As to the truth of things in so far as they are related to
the intellect, we have Augustine's definition (loc. cit.),
Truth is a supreme likeness without any unlikeness to a
principle: also Anselm's definition [De Verit. xii.), Truth
is rightness, perceptible by the mind alone ; for that is right
which is in accordance with the principle; also Avicenna's
definition (Metaph. viii. 6), The truth of each thing is a
property of the essence which is immutably attached to it. The
definition that Truth is the equation of thoughi and thing is
applicable to it under either aspect.
Reply Obj. i. Augustine is speaking about the truth of
things, and excludes from the notion of this truth, relation
to our intellect; for what is accidental is excluded from
every definition.
Reply Obj. 2. The ancient philosophers held that the
species of natural things did not proceed from any intellect,
but were produced by chance. But as they saw that truth
implies relation to intellect, they were compelled to base
the truth of things on their relation to our intellect. From
227 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. 16. Art. 2
this, conclusions result that are inadmissible, and which the
Philosopher refutes {Metaph. iv.). Such, however, do not
follow, if we say that the truth of things consists in their
relation to the divine intellect.
Reply Ohj. 3. Although the truth of our intellect is caused
by the thing, yet it is not necessary that truth should be
there primarily, any more than that health should be
primarily in medicine, rather than in the animal: for the
virtue of medicine, and not its health, is the cause of health,
for here the agent is not univocal. In the same way the
being of the thing, not its truth, is the cause of truth in the
intellect. Hence the Philosopher says that a thought or
word is true from the fact that a thing is, not because a thing
is true.
Second Article.
whether truth resides only in the intellect
composing and dividing ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that truth does not reside only in
the intellect composing and dividing. For the Philosopher
says [De Anima iii.) that as the senses are always true as
regards their proper sensible objects, so is the intellect as
regards what a thing is. Now composition and division are
neither in the senses nor in the intellect knowing what a
thing is. Therefore truth does not reside only in the intellect
composing and dividing.
Obj. 2. Further, Isaac says in his book On Definitions that,
truth is the equation of thought and thing. Now just as.
the intellect with regard to complex things can be equated
to things, so also with regard to simple things; and this is
true also of sense apprehending a thing as it is. Therefore
truth does not reside only in the intellect composing and
dividing.
On the contrary, the Philosopher says {Metaph. vi.) that
with regard to simple things and what a thing is, truth is
found neither in the intellect nor in things.
I answer that, As stated before, truth resides, in its primary
Q. 16. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 228
aspect, in the intellect. Now since ever5^hing is true
according as it has the form proper to its nature, the intel-
lect, in so far as it is knowing, must be true, so far as it has
the likeness of the thing known, this being its form, as
knowing. For this reason truth is defined by the con-
formity of intellect and thing; and hence to know this
conformity is to know truth. But in no way can sense
know this. For although sight has the likeness of a visible
thing, yet it does not know the comparison which exists
between the thing seen and that which itself apprehends
concerning it. But the intellect can know its own con-
formity with the intelUgible thing; yet it does not appre-
hend it by knowing of a thing what a thing is. When,
however, it judges that a thing corresponds to the form
which it apprehends about that thing, then first it knows
and expresses truth. This it does by composing and
dividing: for in every proposition it either applies to, or
removes from the thing signified by the subject, some form
signified by the predicate: and this clearly shows that the
sense is true of any thing, as is also the intellect, when it
knows what a thing is; but it does not thereby know or
affirm truth. This is in like manner the case with complex
or non-complex words. Truth therefore may be in the
senses, or in the intellect knowing what a thing is, as in
anything that is true; yet not as the thing known in the
knower, which is implied by the word truth ; for the per-
fection of the intellect is truth as known. Therefore,
properly speaking, truth resides in the intellect composing
and dividing; and not in the senses; nor in the intellect
knowing what a thing is.
And thus the Objections given are solved.
Third Article,
whether the true and being are convertible terms ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Ohjectiofi I. It seems that the true and being are not
convertible terms. For the true resides properly in the
229 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. 3
intellect, as stated (A. i); but being is properly in things.
Therefore they are not convertible.
Ohj. 2. Further, that which extends to being and not-
being is not convertible with being. But the true extends
to being and not-being; for it is true that what is, is; and
that what is not, is not. Therefore the true and being are
not convertible.
Ohj. 3. Further, things which stand to each other in order
of priority and posteriority seem not to be convertible. But
the true appears to be prior to being; for being is not under-
stood except under the aspect of the true. Therefore it
seems they are not convertible.
On the contrary, the Philosopher says (Metaph. ii.) that
there is the same disposition of things in being and in truth.
/ answer that, As good has the nature of what is desir-
able, so truth is related to knowledge. Now everything,
in as far as it has being, so far is it knowable. Wherefore it
is said in De Anima iii. that the soul is in some manner all
things, through the senses and the intellect. And therefore,
as good is convertible with being, so is the true. But as good
adds to being the notion of desirable, so the true adds
relation to the intellect.
Reply Ohj. i. The true resides in things and in the intel-
lect, as said before (A. i). But the true that is in things
is convertible with being as to substance; while the true
that is in the intellect is convertible with being, as the
manifestation with the manifested; for this belongs to the
nature of truth, as has been said already {ibid.). It may,
however, be said, that being also is in things and in the
intellect, as is the true; although truth is primarily in the
intellect, while being is primarily in things; and this is so
because truth and being differ in idea.
Reply Ohj. 2. Not-being has nothing in itself whereby it
can be known; yet it is known in so far as the intellect
renders it knowable. Hence the true is based on being,
inasmuch as not-being is a kind of logical being, appre-
hended, that is, by reason.
Reply Ohj. 3. When it is said that being cannot be appre-
Q. i6. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 230
hended except under the notion of the true, this can be
understood in two ways. In the one way so as to mean
that being is not apprehended, unless the idea of the true
follows apprehension of being; and this is true. In the
other way, so as to mean that being cannot be apprehended
unless the idea of the true be apprehended also; and this
is false. But the true cannot be apprehended unless the
idea of being be apprehended also; since being is included
in the idea of the true. The case is the same if we compare
the intelligible object with being. For being cannot be
understood, unless being is intelligible. Yet being can be
understood while its intelligibility is not understood.
Similarly, being when understood is true, yet the true is
not understood by understanding being.
Fourth Article,
whether good is logically prior to the true ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that good is logically prior to the
true. For what is more universal is logically prior, as is
evident from Physic, i. But the good is more universal than
the true, since the true is a kind of good, namely, of the
intellect. Therefore the good is logically prior to the true.
Ohj. 2. Further, good is in things, but the true in the
intellect composing and dividing, as said before (A. 2). But
that which is in things is prior to that which is in the
intellect. Therefore good is logically prior to the true.
Ohj. 3. Further, truth is a species of virtue, as is clear
from Ethic, iv. But virtue is included under good; since,
as Augustine says [De Lib. Arbit. ii. 19), it is a good quality
of the mind. Therefore the good is prior to the true.
On the contrary, What is in more things is prior logically.
But the true is in some things wherein good is not, as, for
instance, in mathematics. Therefore the true is prior to
good.
I answer that, Although the good and the true are con-
vertible with being, as to suppositum, yet they differ
231 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. 4
logically. And in this manner the true, speaking absolutely,
is prior to good, as appears from two reasons. First,
because the true is more closely related to being than is
good. For the true regards being itself simply and im-
mediately; while the nature of good follows being in so far
as being is in some way perfect; for thus it is desirable.
Secondly, it is evident from the fact that knowledge naturally
precedes appetite. Hence, since the true regards know-
ledge, but the good regards the appetite, the true must be
prior in idea to the good.
Reply Obj. i. The will and the intellect mutually include
one another: for the intellect understands the will, and the
will wills the intellect to understand. So then, among
things directed to the object of the will, are comprised also
those that belong to the intellect ; and conversely. Whence
in the order of things desirable, good stands as the universal,
and the true as the particular; whereas in the order of
intelligible things the converse is the case. From the fact,
then, that the true is a kind of good, it follows that the good
is prior in the order of things desirable; but not that it is
prior absolutely.
Reply Obj. 2. A thing is prior logically in so far as it is
prior to the intellect. Now the intellect apprehends
primarily being itself; secondly, it apprehends that it
understands being; and thirdly, it apprehends that it
desires being. Hence the idea of being is first, that of
truth second, and the idea of good third, though good is
in things.
Reply Obj. 3. The virtue which is called truth is not truth
in general, but a certain kind of truth according to which
man shows himself in deed and word as he really is. But
truth as applied to life is used in a particular sense, inasmuch
as a man fulfils in his life that to which he is ordained by
the divine intellect, as it has been said that truth exists
in other things (A. i). Whereas the truth of justice is found
in man as he fulfils his duty to his neighbour, as ordained by
law. Hence we cannot argue from these particular truths
to truth in general.
g. i6. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 232
Fifth Article,
whether god is truth ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not truth. For truth
consists in the intellect composing and dividing. But in
God there is not composition and division. Therefore in
Him there is not truth.
Ohj, 2. Further, truth, according to Augustine [De Vera
Relig. xxxvi.), is a likeness to the principle. But in God
there is no likeness to a principle. Therefore in God there
is not truth.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever is said of God, is said of Him
as of the first cause of all things ; thus the being of God is the
cause of all being; and His goodness the cause of all good.
If therefore there is truth in God, all truth will be from
Him. But it is true that someone sins. Therefore this
will be from God; which is evidently false.
On the contrary, Our Lord says, I am the Way, the Truth
and the Life (John xiv. 6).
I answer that, As said above (A. i), truth is found in the
intellect according as it apprehends a thing as it is; and in
things according as they have being conformable to an in-
tellect. This is to the greatest degree found in God. For His
being is not only conformed to His intellect, but it is the
very act of His intellect; and His act of understanding is
the measure and cause of every other being and of every
other intellect, and He Himself is His own existence and
act of understanding. Whence it follows not only that is
truth in Him, but that He is truth itself, and the sovereign
and first truth.
Reply Obj. i. Although in the divine intellect there is
neither composition nor division, yet in His simple act of
intelligence He judges of all things and knows all things
complex; and thus there is truth in His intellect.
Reply Obj. 2. The truth of our intellect is according to its
conformity with its principle, that is to say, to the things
233 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. 6
from which it receives knowledge. The truth also of things
is according to their conformity with their principle, namely,
the divine intellect. Now this cannot be said, properly
speaking, of divine truth; unless perhaps in so far as truth
is appropriated to the Son, Who has a principle. But if we
speak of divine truth in its essence, we cannot understand this
unless the affirmative must be resolved into the negative,
as when one says : the Father is of Himself, because He is not
from another. Similarly, the divine truth can be called a
likeness to the principle, inasmuch as His existence is not
dissimilar to His intellect.
Reply Obj. 3. Not-being, and privation, have no truth of
themselves, but only in the apprehension of the intellect.
Now all apprehension of the intellect is from God. Hence
all the truth that exists in the statement, — that a person
commits fornication is true, is entirely from God. But to
argue. Therefore that this person fornicates is from God, is a
fallacy of Accident.
Sixth Article.
whether there is only one truth, according to
which all things are true ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that there is only one truth, ac-
cording to which all things are true. For according to
Augustine (De Trin. xv. i), nothing is greater than the
mind of man, except God. Now truth is greater than the
mind of man; otherwise the mind would be the judge of
truth: whereas in fact it judges all things according to truth,
and not according to its own measure. Therefore God
alone is truth. Therefore there is no other truth but God.
Obj. 2. Further, Anselm says {De Verit. xiv.), that, as is
the relation of time to temporal things, so is that of truth
to true things. But there is only one time for all temporal
things. Therefore there is only one truth, by which all
things are true.
On the contrary, it is written (Ps. xi. 2), Truths are decayed
from among the children of men.
Q. 16. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 234
/ answer that, In one sense truth, whereby all things
are true is one, and in another sense it is not. In proof
of which we must consider that when anything is predicated
of many things univocally, it is found in each of them
according to its proper nature; as animal is found in each
species of animal. But when anything is predicated of
many things analogically, it is found in only one of them
according to its proper nature, and from this one the rest
are denominated. So healthiness is predicated of animal, of
Vnne, and of medicine, not that health is only in the animal;
but from the health of the animal, medicine is called healthy,
in so far as it is the cause of health, and urine is called
healthy, in so far as it indicates health. And although
health is neither in medicine nor in urine, yet in either
there is something whereby the one causes, and the other
indicates health. Now we have said (A. i) that truth resides
primarily in the intellect ; and secondarily in things, accord-
ing as they are related to the divine intellect. If therefore
we speak of truth, as it exists in the intellect, according
to its proper nature, then are there many truths in many
created intellects; and even in one and the same intellect,
according to the number of things known. Whence a
gloss on Ps. xi. 2, Truths are decayed from among the
children of men, says : As from one man's face many
likenesses are reflected in a mirror, so many truths are
reflected from the one divine truth. But if we speak of
truth as it is in things, then all things are true by one
primary truth; to which each one is assimilated according
to its own entity. And thus, although the essences or
forms of things are many, yet the truth of the divine intellect
is one, in conformity to which all things are said to be true.
Reply Ohj. i. The soul does not judge of all things accord-
ing to any kind of truth, but according to the primary
truth, inasmuch as it is reflected in the soul, as in a mirror,
by reason of the first principles of the understanding. It
follows, therefore, that the primary truth is greater than
the soul. And yet, even created truth, which resides in our
intellect, is greater than the soul, not simply, but in a
235 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. 7
certain degree, in so far as it is its perfection; even as science
may be said to be greater than the soul. Yet it is true
that nothing subsisting is greater than the rational soul,
except God.
Reply Obj. 2. The saying of Anselm is correct in so far
as things are said to be true by their relation to the divine
intellect.
Seventh Article,
whether created truth is eternal .'*
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Objection i. It seems that created truth is eternal. Fo;
Augustine says (De Lib. Arbit. ii. 8), Nothing is more eternal
than the nature of a circle, and that two added to three make
five. But the truth of these is a created truth. Therefore
created truth is eternal.
Obj. 2. Further, that which is always, is eternal. But
universals are always and everywhere; therefore they are
eternal. So therefore is truth, which is the most universal.
Obj. 3. Further, it was always true that what is true in
the present was to be in the future. But as the truth of a
proposition regarding the present is a created truth, so is
that of a proposition regarding the future. Therefore some
created truth is eternal.
Obj. 4. Further, all that is without beginning and end is
eternal. But the truth of enunciables is without beginning
and end; for if their truth had a beginning, since it was
not before, it was true that truth was not, and true, of
course, by reason of truth; so that truth was before it
began to be. Similarly, if it be asserted that truth has an
end, it follows that it is after it has ceased to be, for it
will still be true that truth is not. Therefore truth is
eternal.
On the contrary, God alone is eternal, as laid down before
(Q. X., A. 3).
I answer that, The truth of enunciations is no other than
the truth of the intellect. For an enunciation resides in the
intellect, and in speech. Now according as itj is in the
Q. i6. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 236
intellect it has truth of itself: but according as it is in
speech, it is called enunciable truth, according as it
signifies some truth of the intellect, not on account of
any truth residing in the enunciation, as though in a
subject. Thus urine is called healthy, not from any
health within it but from the health of an animal
which it indicates. In like manner it has been already
said that things are called true from the truth of the
intellect. Hence, if no intellect were eternal, no truth
would be eternal. Now because only the divine intellect
is eternal, in it alone truth has eternity. Nor does it follow
from this that anything else but God is eternal; since the
truth of the divine intellect is God Himself, as shown
already (A. 5).
Reply Obj. i. The nature of a circle, and the fact that
two and three make five, have eternity in the mind of God.
Reply Obj. 2. That something is always and everywhere,
can be understood in two ways. In one way, as having
in itself the power of extension to all time and to all places,
as it belongs to God to be everywhere and always. In the
other way as not having in itself determination to any place
or time, as primary matter is said to be one, not because
it has one form, as man is one by the unity of one form,
but by the absence of all distinguishing form. In this
manner all universals are said to be everywhere and always,
in so far as universals are independent of place and time.
It does not, however, follow from this that they are eternal,
except in an intellect, if one exists that is eternal.
Reply Obj. 3. That which now is, was future, before it
(actually) was; because it was in its cause that it would be.
Hence, if the cause were removed, that thing's coming to
be was not future. But the first cause is alone eternal.
Hence it does not follow that it was always true that what
now is would be, except in so far as its future being was
in the sempiternal cause; and God alone is such a cause.
Reply Obj. 4. Because our intellect is not eternal, neither
is the truth of enunciable propositions which are formed
by us, eternal, but it had a beginning in time. Now before
237 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. 8
such truth existed, it was not true to say that such a
truth did exist, except by reason of the divine intellect,
wherein alone truth is eternal. But it is true now to say
that that truth did not then exist : and this is true only by
reason of the truth that is now in our intellect ; and not
by reason of any truth in the things. For this is truth
concerning not-being; and not-being has no truth of itself,
but only so far as our intellect apprehends it. Hence it is
true to say that truth did not exist, in so far as we appre-
hend its not-being as preceding its being.
Eighth Article,
whether truth is immutable ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that truth is immutable. For
Augustine says [De Lib. Arbit. ii. 12), that Truth and
mind do not rank as equals, otherwise truth would be mutable,
as the mind is.
Obj. 2. Further, what remains after every change is
immutable; as primary matter is unbegotten and incor-
ruptible, since it remains after all generation and corruption.
But truth remains after all change; for after every change
it is true to say that a thing is, or is not. Therefore, truth
is immutable.
Obj. 3. Further, if the truth of an enunciation changes, it
changes mostly with the changing of the thing. But it
does not thus change. For truth, according to Anselm
[De Verit. viii.), is a certain rightness in so far as a thing
answers to that which is in the divine mind concerning it.
But this proposition Socrates sits, receives from the divine
mind the signification that Socrates does sit; and it has the
same signification even though he does not sit. Therefore
the truth of the proposition in no way changes.
Obj. 4. Further, where there is the same cause, there is
the same effect. But the same thing is the cause of the
truth of the three propositions, Socrates sits, will sit, sat.
Therefore the truth of each is the same. But one or other
Q. 16. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 238
of these must be the true one. Therefore the truth of these
propositions remains immutable; and for the same reason
that of any other.
On the contrary, It is written (Ps. xi. 2), Truths are decayed
from among the children of men.
I answer that, Truth, properly speaking, resides only in
the intellect, as said before (A. i) ; but things are called true
in virtue of the truth residing in an intellect. Hence the
mutability of truth must be regarded from the point of view
of the intellect, the truth of which consists in its conformity
to the thing understood. Now this conformity may vary
in two ways, even as any other likeness, through change in
one of the two extremes. Hence in one way truth varies
on the part of the intellect, from the fact that a change of
opinion occurs about a thing which in itself has not changed,
and in another way, when the thing is changed, but not
the opinion; and in either way there can be a change from
true to false. If, then, there is an intellect wherein there
can be no alternation of opinions, and the knowledge of
which nothing can escape, in this is immutable truth. Now
such is the divine intellect, as is clear from what has been
said before (Q. XIV., A. 15). Hence the truth of the
divine intellect is immutable. But the truth of our intellect
is mutable; not because it is itself the subject of change,
but in so far as our intellect changes from truth to falsity,
for thus forms may be called mutable. Whereas the truth
of the divine intellect is that according to which natural
things are said to be true, and this is altogether immutable.
Reply Obj. i. Augustine is speaking of divine truth.
Reply Obj. 2. The true and being are convertible terms.
Hence just as being is not generated nor corrupted of itself,
but accidentally, in so far as this being or that is corrupted
or generated, as is said in Physic, i., so does truth change,
not so as that no truth remains, but because that truth
does not remain which was before.
Reply Obj. 3. A proposition not only has truth, as other
things are said to have it, in so far, that is, as they corre-
spond to that which is the design of the divine intellect
239 CONCERNING TRUTH Q. i6. Art. 8
concerning them; but it is said to have truth in a special
way, in so far as it indicates the truth of the intellect, which
consists in the conformity of the intellect with a thing.
When this disappears, the truth of an opinion changes, and
consequently the truth of the proposition. So therefore
this proposition, Socrates sits, is true, as long as he is sitting,
both with the truth of the thing, in so far as the expression
is significative, and with the truth of signification, in so far
as it signifies a true opinion. When Socrates rises, the first
truth remains, but the second is changed.
Reply Obj. 4. The sitting of Socrates, which is the cause
of the truth of the proposition, Socrates sits, has not the
same meaning when Socrates sits, after he sits, and before
he sits. Hence the truth which results, varies, and is
variously sig ij&ed by these propositions concerning present,
past, or future. Thus it does not follow, though one of
the three propositions is true, that the same truth remains
invariable.
QUESTION XVII.
CONCERNING FALSITY.
{In Four Articles.)
We next consider falsity. About this four points of
inquiry arise : (i) Whether falsity exists in things ?
(2) Whether it exists in the sense ? (3) Whether it exists
in the ntiellect ? (4) Concerning the opposition of the true
and the false.
First Article,
whether falsity exists in things ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It appears that falsity does not exist in
things. For Augustine says (Soliloq. ii. 8), If the true is that
which is, it will he concluded that the false exists nowhere ;
whatever reason may appear to the contrary.
Ohj. 2. Further, false is derived iiom falter e (to deceive).
But things do not deceive; for, as Augustine says {De vera
y^lig' 33), they show nothing but their own species. There-
fore the false is not found in things.
Ohj. 3. Further, the true is said to exist in things by con-
formity to the divine intellect, as stated above (Q. XVI.).
But everything, in so far as it exists, imitates God. There-
fore everything is true without admixture of falsity ; and
thus nothing is false.
On the contrary, Augustine says {ihid. 34) : Every hody is a
true hody and a false unity : for ii imitates unity without being
unity. But everything imitates the divine unity yet falls
short of it. Therefore in all things falsity exists.
/ answer that, Since true and false are opposed, and since
opposites stand in relation to the same thing, we must
240
241 CONCERNING FALSITY Q. 17. Art. i
needs seek falsity, where primarily we find truth ; that is to
say, in the intellect. Now, in things, neither truth nor
falsity exists, except in relation to the intellect. And since
every thing is denominated simply by what belongs to it
per se, but is denominated relatively by what belongs to
it accidentally ; a thing indeed may be called false simply
when compared with the intellect on which it depends,
and to which it is compared per se ; but may be called
false relatively as directed to another intellect, to which
it is compared accidentally. Now natural things depend
on the divine intellect, as artificial things on the human.
Wherefore artificial things are said to be false simply and
in themselves, in so far as they fall short of the form of the
art; whence a craftsman is said to produce a false work,
if it falls short of the proper operation of his art.
In things that depend on God, falseness cannot be found,
in so far as they are compared with the divine intellect;
since whatever takes place in things proceeds from the
ordinance of that intellect, unless perhaps in the case of
voluntary agents only, who have it in their power to with-
draw themselves from what is so ordained ; wherein consists
the evil of sin. Thus sins themselves are called untruths
and lies in the Scriptures, according to the words of the text.
Why do you love vanity, and seek after lying ? (Ps. iv. 3) : as
on the other hand virtuous deeds are called the truth of life
as being obedient to the order of the divine intellect. Thus
it is said, He that doth truth, cometh to the light (John iii. 21).
But in relation to our intellect, natural things which are
compared thereto accidentally, can be called false; not
simply, but relatively; and that in two ways. In one way
according to the thing signified, and thus a thing is said to be
false as being signified or represented by word or thought
that is false. In this respect anything can be said to be false
as regards any quality not possessed by it; as if we should
say that a diameter is a false commensurable thing, as the
Philosopher says (Metaph. v. 34). So, too, Augustine says
(Soliloq. ii. 10) : The true tragedian is a false Hector: even as,
on the contrary, anything can be called true, in regard to
I, 16
Q. 17. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 242
that which is becoming to it. In another way a thing can
be called false, by way of cause — and thus a thing is said to
be false that naturally begets a false opinion. And whereas
it is innate in us to judge of things by external appearances,
since our knowledge takes its rise from sense, which principally
and naturally deals with external accidents, therefore those
external accidents, which resemble things other than them-
selves, are said to be false with respect to those things;
thus gall is falsely honey; and tin, false gold. Regarding
this, Augustine says {ibid. 6) : We call those things false that
appear to our apprehension like the true: and the Philosopher
says [loc. cit.): Things are called false that are naturally apt
to appear such as they are not, or what they are not. In this
way a man is called false as delighting in false opinions or
words, and not because he can invent them ; for in this way
many wise and learned persons might be called false, as
stated in Metaph. v. 34.
Reply Ohj. i. A thing compared with the intellect is
said to be true in respect to what it is; and false in respect
to what it is not. Hence, The true tragedian is a false Hector,
as stated in Soliloq. ii. {loc. cit.). As, therefore, in things
that are is found a certain non-being, so in things that
are is found a degree of falseness.
Reply Ohj. 2. Things do not deceive by their own nature,
but by accident. For they give occasion to falsity, by the
likeness they bear to things which they actually are not.
Reply Ohj. 3. Things are said to be false, not as compared
with the divine intellect, in which case they would be
false simply, but as compared with our intellect; and
thus they are false only relatively.
To the argument which is urged on the contrary, like-
ness or defective representation does not involve the idea
of falsity except in so far as it gives occasion to false opinion.
Hence a thing is not always said to be false, because it
resembles another thing; but only when the resemblance
is such as naturally to produce a false opinion, not in any one
case, but in the majority of instances.
243 CONCERNING FALSITY Q. 17. Art. 2
Second Article,
whether there is falsity in the senses ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that falsity is not in the senses.
For Augustine says {De vera relig. 33) : // all the bodily senses
report as they are affected, I do not know what more we can
require from them. Thus it seems that we are not deceived
by the senses ; and therefore that falsity is not in them.
Obj. 2. Further, the Philosopher says (Metaph. iv. 24) that
falsity is not proper to the senses, but to the imagination.
Obj. 3. Further, in non-complex things there is neither
true nor false, but in complex things only. But affirmation
and negation do not belong to the senses. Therefore in the
senses there is no falsity.
On the contrary, Augustine says (Soliloq. ii. 6), It appears
that the senses entrap us into error by their deceptive similitudes.
I answer that, Falsity is not to be sought in the senses
except as truth is in them. Now truth is not in them in
such a way as that the senses know truth, but in so far as
they apprehend sensible things truly, as said above (Q. XVL,
A. 2), and this takes place through the senses apprehending
things as they are, and hence it happens that falsity exists
in the senses through their apprehending or judging things
to be otherwise than they reaUy are.
The knowledge of things by the senses is in proportion to
the existence of their Hkeness in the senses; and the like-
ness of a thing can exist in the senses in three ways. In the
first way, primarily and of its own nature, as in sight there
is the likeness of colours, and of other sensible objects proper
to it. Secondly, of its own nature, though not primarily;
as in sight there is the likeness of shape, size, and of other
sensible objects common to more than one sense. Thirdly,
neither primarily nor of its own nature, but accidentally, as
in sight, there is the likeness of a man, not as man, but in so
far as it is accidental to the coloured object to be a man.
Sense, then, has no false knowledge about its proper
objects, except accidentally and rarely, and then^ because of
Q. 17. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 244
the unsound organ it does not receive the sensible form
rightly; just as other passive subjects because of their indis-
position receive defectively the impressions of the agent.
Hence, for instance, it happens that on account of an un-
healthy tongue sweet seems bitter to a sick person. But as
to common objects of sense, and accidental objects, even a
rightly disposed sense may have a false judgment, because
it is referred to them not directly, but accidentally, or as a
consequence of being directed to other things.
Reply Obj. i. The affection of sense is its sensation itself.
Hence, from the fact that sense reports as it is affected, it
follows that we are not deceived in the judgment by which
we judge that we experience sensation. Since, however,
sense is sometimes affected erroneously by its object, it follows
that it sometimes reports erroneously of that object; and
thus we are deceived by sense about the object, but not about
the fact of sensation.
Reply Obj. 2. Falsity is said not to be proper to sense,
since sense is not deceived as to its proper object. Hence
in another translation it is said more plainly. Sense, about
its proper object, is never false. Falsity is attributed to
the imagination, as it represents the likeness of some-
thing even in its absence. Hence, when anyone perceives
the likeness of a thing as if it were the thing itself, falsity
results from such an apprehension; and for this reason
the Philosopher (Metaph. v. 34) says that shadows, pictures,
and dreams are said to be false inasmuch as they convey the
likeness of things that are not present in substance.
Rtpiy Obj. 3. This argument proves that the false is not
in the sense, as in that which knows the true and the false.
Third Article,
whether falsity is in the intellect ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that falsity is not in the intellect.
For Augustine says (Qq. Ixxxiii. 32), Everyone who is deceived,
understands not that in which he is deceived. But falsity
245 CONCERNING FALSITY Q. 17. Art. 3
is said to exist in any knowledge in so far as we are deceived
therein. Therefore falsity does not exist in the intellect.
Ohj. 2. Further, the Philosopher says (De anima iii. 51)
that the intellect is always right. Therefore there is no
falsity in the intellect.
On the contrary, It is said in De anima iii. 21, 22 that
where there is composition of objects understood, there is truth
and falsehood. But such composition is in the intellect.
Therefore truth and falsehood exist in the intellect.
/ answer that, Just as a thing has being by its proper form,
so the knowing faculty has knowledge by the likeness of the
thing known. Hence, as natural things cannot fall short of
the being that belongs to them by their form, but may fall
short of accidental or consequent qualities, even as a man
may fail to possess two feet, but not fail to be a man ; so the
faculty of knowing cannot fail in knowledge of the thing
with the likeness of which it is informed ; but may fail with
regard to something consequent upon that form, or acci-
dental thereto. For it has been said (A. 2), that sight is not
deceived in its proper sensible, but about common sensibles
that are consequent to that object; or about accidental
objects of sense. Now as the sense is directly informed by
the likeness of its proper object, so is the intellect by the
Hkeness of the essence of a thing. Hence the intellect is
not deceived about the essence of a thing, as neither the
sense about its proper object. But in affirming and deny-
ing, the intellect may be deceived, by attributing to the
thing of which it understands the essence, something which
is not consequent upon it, or is opposed to it. For the
intellect is in the same position as regards judging of such
things, as sense is as to judging of common, or accidental,
sensible objects. There is, however, this difference, as
before mentioned regarding truth (Q. XVL, A. 2), that
falsity can exist in the intellect not only because the know-
ledge of the intellect is false, but because the Intellect is
conscious of that knowledge, as it is conscious of truth;
whereas in sense falsity does not exist as known, as stated
above (A. 2).
Q. 17. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '* 246
But because falsity of the intellect is concerned essenti-
ally only with the composition of the intellect, falsity occurs
also accidentally in that operation of the intellect whereby it
knows the essence of a thing, in so far as composition of the
intellect is mixed up in it. This can take place in two ways.
In one way, by the intellect applying to one thing the
definition proper to another; as that of a circle to a man.
Wherefore the definition of one thing is false of another.
In another way, by composing a definition of parts which
are mutually exclusive. For thus the definition is not only
false of the thing, but false in itself. A definition such as
' a reasonable four-footed animal ' would be of this kind,
and the intellect false in making it; for such a statement
as ' some reasonable animals are four-footed ' is false in
itself. For this reason the intellect cannot be false in its
knowledge of simple essences; but it is either true, or it
understands nothing at all.
Reply Ohj. i. Because the essence of a thing is the proper
object of the intellect, we are properly said to understand a
thing when we reduce it to its essence, and judge of it
thereby; as takes place in demonstrations, in which there is
no falsity. In this sense Augustine's words must be under-
stood, that he who is deceived, understands not that wherein
he is deceived; and not in the sense that no one is ever de-
ceived in any operation of the intellect.
Reply Ohj. 2. The intellect is always right as regards first
principles; since it is not deceived about them for the same
reason that it is not deceived about what a thing is. For
self-known principles are such as are known as soon as
the terms are understood, from the fact that the predicate
is contained in the definition of the subject.
Fourth Article,
whether true and false are contraries ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that true and false are not con-
traries. For true and false are opposed, as that which is to
247 CONCERNING FALSITY Q. 17. Art. 4
that which is not; for truth, as Augustine says (Soliloq. ii. 5),
is that which is. But that which is and that which is not are
not opposed as contraries. Therefore true and false are
not contrary things.
Obj. 2. Further, one of two contraries is not in the
other. But falsity is in truth, because, as Augustine says,
(Soliloq. ii. 10), A tragedian would not be a false Hector, if he
were not a true tragedian. Therefore true and false are not
contraries,
Obj. 3. Further, in God there is no contrariety, for nothing
is contrary to the Divine Substance, as Augustine says (De civ.
Dei, xii. 2). But falsity is opposed to God, for an idol is
called in Scripture a lie, They have laid hold on lying (Jer.
viii. 5), that is to say, an idol, as a gloss says. Therefore
false and true are not contraries.
On the contrary. The Philosopher says (Periherm. ii.), that
a false opinion is contrary to a true one.
I answer that. True and false are opposed as contraries,
and not, as some have said, as affirmation and negation.
In proof of which it must be considered that negation neither
asserts anything nor determines any subject, and can there-
fore be said of being as of not-being, for instance not-seeing
or not-sitting. But privation asserts nothing, whereas it
determines its subject, for it is negation in a subject, as stated
in Metaph. iv. 4: v. 27; for blindness is not said except of
one whose nature it is to see. Contraries, however, both
assert something and determine the subject, for blackness
is a species of colour. Falsity asserts something, for a thing
is false, as the Philosopher says [Metaph. iv. 27), inasmuch
as something is said or seems to be something that it is not,
or not to be what it really is. For as truth impHes an
adequate apprehension of a thing, so falsity impHes the
contrary. Hence it is clear that true and false are contraries.
Reply Obj. i. What is in things is the truth of the thing;
but what is apprehended, is the truth of the intellect,
wherein truth primarily resides. Hence the false is that
which is not as apprehended. To apprehend being, and not-
being, implies contrariety; for, as the Philosopher proves,
Q. 17. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 248
(Periherm. ii.), the contrary of this statement good is good
is, good is not good.
Reply Ohj. 2. Falsity is not founded in the truth which
is contrary to it, just as evil is not founded in the good which
is contrary to it, but in that which is its proper subject. This
happens in either, because true and good are universals,
and convertible with being. Hence, as every privation is
founded in a subject, that is a being, so every evil is founded
in some good, and every falsity in some truth.
Reply Ohj. 3. Because contraries, and opposites by way of
privation, are by nature about one and the same thing,
therefore there is nothing contrary to God, considered in
Himself, either with respect to His goodness or His truth,
for in His intellect there can be nothing false. But in our
apprehension of Him contraries exist, for the false opinion
concerning Him is contrary to the true. So idols are called
lies, opposed to the divine truth, inasmuch as the false
opinion concerning them is contrary to the true opinion of
the divine unity.
QUESTION XVIII.
THE LIFE OF GOD.
{In Four Articles.)
Since to understand belongs to living beings, after con-
sidering the divine knowledge and intellect, we must
consider the divine life. About this, four points of inquiry
arise: (i) To whom does it belong to live ? (2) What is
life ? (3) Whether life is properly attributed to God ?
(4) Whether all things in God are life ?
First Article,
whether to live belongs to all natural things ?
We proceed thus to the First Article: —
Objection 1. It seems that to Hve belongs to all natural
things. For the Philosopher says (Phys. viii. i) that Move-
ment is like a kind of life possessed by all things existing in
nature. But all natural things participate in movement.
Therefore all natural things partake in life.
Obj. 2. Further, plants are said to live, inasmuch as they
have in themselves a principle of movement of growth and
decay. But local movement is naturally more perfect than,
and prior to, movement of growth and decay, as the Philo-
sopher shows {ibid., 56, 57). Since, then, all natural bodies
have in themselves some principle of local movement, it
seems that all natural bodies live.
Obj. 3. Further, amongst natural bodies the elements are
the less perfect. Yet life is attributed to them, for we
speak of ' living waters.' Much more, therefore, have other
natural bodies life.
On the contrary, Dionysius says (Div» Nom. vi. i) that
249
Q. i8. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 250
The last echo of life is heard in the plants, whereby it is inferred
that their hfe is life in its lowest degree. But inanimate
bodies are inferior to plants. Therefore they have not life.
/ answer that, We can gather to what things life belongs,
and to what it does not, from such things as manifestly
possess life. Now life manifestly belongs to animals, for it is
said in De Vegetab. i.* that in animals life is manifest. We
must, therefore, distinguish living from lifeless things, by
comparing them to that by reason of which animals are
said to live: and this it is in which life is manifested first
and remains last. We say then that an animal begins to live
when it begins to move of itself : and as long as such move-
ment appears in it, so long is it considered to be alive.
When it no longer has any movement of itself, but is only
moved by another power, then its life is said to fail, and the
animal to be dead. Whereby it is clear that those things are
properly called living that move themselves by some kind
of movement, whether it be movement properly so called,
as the act of an imperfect thing, i.e., of a thing in potentiality,
is called movement ; or movement in a more general sense, as
when said of the act of a perfect thing, as understanding and
feeling are called movement. Accordingly all things are
said to be alive that determine themselves to movement or
operation of any kind: whereas those things that cannot
by their nature do so, cannot be called living, unless by
a similitude.
Reply Ohj. i. These words of the Philosopher may be
understood either of the first movement, namely, that of the
celestial bodies, or of movement in its general sense. In
either way is movement called the life, as it were, of natural
bodies, speaking by a similitude, and not attributing it to
them as their property. The movement of the heavens is
in the universe of corporeal natures as the movement of the
heart, whereby life is preserved, is in animals. Similarly
also every natural movement in respect to natural things
has a certain similitude to the operations of life. Hence,
if the whole corporeal imiverse were one animal, so that its
* De Plantis i. i.
351 THE LIFE OF GOD Q.i8.Art.2
movement came from an intrinsic moving force, as some in
fact have held, in that case movement would really be the
life of all natural bodies.
Reply Ohj. 3. To bodies, whether heavy or light, move-
ment does not belong, except in so far as they are displaced
from their natural conditions, and are out of their proper
place; for when they are in the place that is proper and
natural to them, then they are at rest. Plants and other
living things move with vital movement, in accordance with
the disposition of their nature, but not by approaching
thereto, or by receding from it, for in so far as they recede
from such movement, so far do they recede from their
natural disposition. Heavy and light bodies are moved by
an extrinsic force, either generating them and giving them
form, or removing obstacles from their way. They do not
therefore move themselves, as do living bodies.
Reply Ohj. 3. Waters are called living that have a con-
tinuous current : for standing waters, that are not connected
with a continually flowing source, are called dead, as in
cisterns and ponds. This is merely a similitude, inasmuch
as the movement they are seen to possess makes them look as
if they were alive. Yet this is not life in them in its real
sense, since this movement of theirs is not from themselves
but from the cause that generates them. The same is the
case with the movement of other heavy and light bodies.
Second Article,
whether life is an operation ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that life is an operation. For
nothing is divided except into parts of the same genus. But
life is divided by certain operations, as is clear from the
Philosopher [De anima ii. 13), who distinguishes four kinds
of life, namely nourishment, sensation, local movement, and
understanding. Therefore life is an operation.
Ohj, 2, Further, the active life is said to be different
from the contemplative. But the contemplative is only
Q. i8. Art. 2 THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 252
distinguished from the active by certain operations. There-
fore life is an operation.
Ohj. 3. Further, to know God is an operation. But this
is Hfe, as is clear from the words of John xviii. 3, Now this is
eternal life, that they may know Thee, the only true God.
Therefore life is an operation.
On the contrary, The Philosopher says {De aniina ii. 37),
In living things to live is to he.
I answer that, As is clear from what has been said (Q. XVII.,
A. 3), our intellect, which takes cognizance of the essence of a
thing as its proper object, gains knowledge from sense, of
which the proper obj ects are external accidents. Hence from
external appearances we come to the knowledge of the
essence of things. And because we name a thing in accor-
dance with our knowledge of it, as is clear from what has
already been said (Q. XIII. A. i), so from external properties
names are often imposed to signify essences. Hence such
names are sometimes taken strictly to denote the essence
itself, the signification of which is their principal object ; but
sometimes, and less strictly, to denote the properties by
reason of which they are imposed. And so we see that the
word body is used to denote a genus of substances from the
fact of their possessing three dimensions: and is sometimes
taken to denote the dimensions themselves; in which sense
body is said to be a species of quantity. The same must
be said of life. The name is given from a certain external
appearance, namely, self -movement, yet not precisely to
signify this, but rather a substance to which self-movement
and the application of itself to any kind of operation, belong
naturally. To live, accordingly, is nothing else than to
exist in this or that nature ; and life signifies this, though in
the abstract, just as the word running denotes to run in the
abstract.
Hence living is not an accidental but an essential predicate.
Sometimes, however, life is used less properly for the
operations from which its name is taken, and thus the
Philosopher says [Ethic, ix. 9) that to live is principally to
sense or to understand.
253 THE LIFE OF GOD Q.iS.Art.s
Reply Ohj. i. The Philosopher here takes to live to mean
an operation of Hfe. Or it would be better to say that
sensation and intelligence, and the like, are sometimes taken
for the operations, sometimes for the existence itself of the
operator. For he says [Ethic, ix. 9) that to live is to sense or
to understand — in other words, to have a nature capable oi
sensation or understanding. Thus, then, he distinguishes Hfe
by the four operations mentioned. For in this lower world
there are four kinds of living things. It is the nature of
some to be capable of nothing more than taking nourishment,
and, as a consequence, of growing and generating. Others
are able, in addition, to sense, as we see in the case of shellfish
and other animals without movement. Others have the
further power of moving from place to place, as perfect
animals, such as quadrupeds, and birds, and so on. Others,
as man, have the still higher faculty of understanding.
Reply Ohj. 2. By vital operations are meant those whose
principles are within the operator, and in virtue of which
the operator produces such operations of itself. It happens
that there exist in men not merely such natural principles
of certain operations as are their natural powers, but some-
thing over and above these, such as habits inclining themi
like a second nature to particular kinds of operations, so
that the operations become sources of pleasure. Thus, as
by a similitude, any kind of work in which a man takes
delight, so that his bent is towards it, his time spent in it,
and his whole life ordered with a view to it, is said to be
the life of that man. Hence some are said to lead a life of
self-indulgence, others a life of virtue. In this way the
contemplative life is distinguished from the active, and thus
to know God is said to be life eternal.
Wherefore the Reply to the third objection is clear.
Third Article,
whether life is properly attributed to god ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article: —
Objection i. It seems that life is not properly attributed
to God. For things are said to live inasmuch as they move
Q. i8. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 254
themselves, as previously stated (A. 2). But movement does
not belong to God. Neither therefore does life.
Obj. 2. Further, in all living things we must needs suppose
some principle of life. Hence it is said by the Philosopher
{De anima ii. 4) that the soul is the cause and principle of the
living body. But God has no principle. Therefore life
cannot be attributed to Him.
Obj. 3. Further, the principle of life in the living things
that exist among us is the vegetative soul. But this exists
only in corporeal things. Therefore life cannot be attributed
to incorporeal things.
On the contrary. It is said (Ps. Ixxxiii. 3) : My heart and my
flesh have rejoiced in the living God.
I answer that, Life is in the highest degree properly in
God. In proof of which it must be considered that since
a thing is said to live in so far as it operates of itself and not
as moved by another, the more perfectly this power is found
in anything, the more perfect is the life of that thing. In
things that move and are moved a threefold order is found.
In the first place the end moves the agent : and the principal
agent is that which acts through its form, and sometimes it
does so through some instrument that acts by virtue not of its
own form, but of the principal agent, and does no more than
execute the action. Accordingly there are things that move
themselves, not in respect of any form or end naturally
inherent in them, but only in respect of the executing of the
movement; the form by which they act, and the end of
the action being alike determined for them by their nature.
Of this kind are plants, which move themselves according
to their inherent nature, with regard only to executing the
movements of growth and decay.
Other things have self -movement in a higher degree,
that is, not only with regard to executing the movement,
but even as regards the form, the principle of movement,
which form they acquire of themselves. Of this kind are
animals, in which the principle of movement is not a
naturally implanted form ; but one received through sense.
Hence the more perfect is their sense, the more perfect
is their power of self -movement. Such as have only the
255 THE LIFE OF GOD Q.18.ART.3
sense of touch, as shellfish, move only with the motion of
expansion and contraction; and thus their movement
hardly exceeds that of plants. Whereas such as have the
sensitive power in perfection, so as to recognize not only
connection and touch, but also objects apart from them-
selves, can move themselves to a distance by progressive
movement. Yet although animals of the latter kind receive
through sense the form that is the principle of their move-
ment, nevertheless they cannot of themselves propose to
themselves the end of their operation, or movement ; for this
has been implanted in them by nature; and by natural
instinct they are moved to any action through the form
apprehended by sense. Hence such animals as move them-
selves in respect to an end they themselves propose are
superior to these. This can only be done by reason and
intellect; whose province it is to know the proportion be-
tween the end and the means to that end, and duly co-
ordinate them. Hence a more perfect degree of life is that
of intelligent beings; for their power of self -movement is
more perfect. This is shown by the fact that in one and the
same man the intellectual faculty moves the sensitive
powers; and these by their command move the organs of
movement. Thus in the arts we see that the art of using a
ship, i.e., the art of navigation, rules the art of ship-designing;
and this in its turn rules the art that is only concerned with
preparing the material for the ship.
But although our intellect moves itself to some things, yet
others are supplied by nature, as are first principles, which
it cannot doubt ; and the last end, which it cannot but will.
Hence, although with respect to some things it moves itself,
yet with regard to other things it must be moved by another.
Wherefore that being whose act of understanding is its
very nature, and which, in what it naturally possesses, is not
determined by another, must have life in the most perfect
degree. Such is God; and hence in Him principally is
life. From this the Philosopher concludes (Metaph. xii. 51),
after showing God to be intelligent, that God has life most
perfect and eternal, since His intellect is most perfect and
always in act.
Q. i8. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 256
Reply Obj. i. As stated in Metaph. ix. 16, action is two-
fold. Actions of one kind pass out to external matter, as
to heat or to cut ; whilst actions of the other kind remain in
the agent, as to understand, to sense, and to will. The
difference between them is this, that the former action is the
perfection not of the agent that moves, but of the thing
moved; whereas the latter action is the perfection of the
agent. Hence, because movement is an act of the thing
n movement, the latter action, in so far as it is the act of
the operator, is called its movement, by this similitude,
that as movement is an act of the thing moved, so an act of
this kind is the act of the agent, although movement is an
act of the imperfect, that is, of what is in potentiality;
while this kind of act is an act of the perfect, that is to say,
of what is in act as stated in De anima iii. 28. In the sense,
therefore, in which understanding is movement, that which
understands itself is said to move itself. It is in this sense
that Plato also taught that God moves Himself; not in the
sense in which movement is an act of the imperfect.
Reply Obj. 2. As God is His own very existence and
understanding, so is He His own life; and therefore He so
Hves that He has no principle of life.
Reply Obj. 3. Life in this lower world is bestowed on a
corruptible nature, that needs generation to preserve the
species, and nourishment to preserve the individual. For
this reason life is not found here below apart from a vegeta-
tive soul: but this does not hold good with incorruptible
natures.
Fourth Article,
whether all things are life in god ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that not all things are life in God.
For it is said (Acts xvii. 28), In Him we live, and move, and
be. But not all things in God are movement. Therefore
not all things are life in Him.
Obj. 2. Further, all things are in God as their first model.
But things modelled ought to conform to the model. Since,
257 THE LIFE OF GOD Q. i8. Art. 4
then, not all things have life in themselves, it seems that not
all things are life in God.
Ohj. 3. Further, as Augustine says (De vera relig. 29),
a living substance is better than a substance that does not
live. If, therefore, things which in themselves have not life,
are life in God, it seems that things exist more truly in God
than in themselves. But this appears to be false; since in
themselves they exist actually, but in God potentially.
Obj. 4. Further, just as good things and things made in
time are known by God, so are bad things, and things that
God can make, but that never will be made. If, therefore,
all things are life in God, inasmuch as known by Him, it
seems that even bad things and things that will never be
made are life in God, as known by Him, and this appears
inadmissible.
On the contrary (John i. 3, 4), It is said, What was made, in
Him was life. But all things were made, except God.
Therefore all things are life in God.
/ answer that, In God to live is to understand, as before
stated (A. 3). In God intellect, the thing understood, and
the act of understanding, are one and the same. Hence
whatever is in God as understood is the very living or life
of God. Now, wherefore, since all things that have been
made by God are in Him as things understood, it follows
that all things in Him are the divine life itself.
Reply Obj. 1. Creatures are said to be in God in a two-
fold sense. In one way, so far as they are held together
and preserved by the divine power; even as we say that
things that are in our power are in us. And creatures are
thus said to be in God, even as they exist in their own
natures. In this sense we must understand the words of the
Apostle when he says, In Him we live, and move, and be;
since our being, living, and moving are themselves caused
by God. In another sense things are said to be in God,
as in Him who knows them, in which sense they are in
God through their proper ideas, which in God are not dis-
tinct from the divine essence. Hence things as they are in
God are the divine essence. And since the divine essence
I. 17
0. i8. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 258
is life and not movement, it follows that things existing in
God in this manner are not movement, but life.
Reply Ohj, 2. The thing modelled must be like the model
according to the form, not the mode of being. For sometimes
the form has being of another kind in the model from that
which it has in the thing modelled. Thus the form of a
house has in the mind of the architect immaterial and
intelligible being; but in the house that exists outside his
mind, material and sensible being. Hence the ideas of
things, though not existing in themselves, are life in the
divine mind, as having a divine existence in that mind.
Reply Ohj. 3. If form only, and not matter, belonged to
natural things, then in all respects natural things would exist
more truly in the divine mind, by the ideas of them, than in
themselves. For which reason, in fact, Plato held that the
separate man was the true man; and that man as he exists
in matter, is man only by participation. But since matter
enters into the being of natural things, we must say that
those things have simply being in the divine mind more
truly than in themselves, because in that mind they have
an uncreated being, but in themselves a created being:
whereas this particular being, a man, or a horse, for example,
has this being more truly in its own nature than in the
divine mind, because it belongs to human nature to be
material, which, as existing in the divine mind, it is not.
Even so a house has nobler being in the architect's mind
than in matter; yet a material house is called a house more
truly than the one which exists in the mind ; since the former
is actual, the latter only potential.
Reply Ohj. 4. Although bad things are in God's know-
ledge, as being comprised under that knowledge, yet they
are not in God as created by Him, or preserved by Him, or
as having their type in Him. They are known by God
through the types of good things. Hence it cannot be said
that bad things are life in God. Those things that are not
in time may be called life in God in so far as life means under-
standing only, and inasmuch as they are understood by God;
but not in so far as life implies a principle of operation.
QUESTION XIX.
THE WILL OF GOD.
{In Twelve Articles.)
After considering the things belonging to the divine
knowledge, we consider what belongs to the divine will.
The first consideration is about the divine will itself; the
second about what belongs strictly to His will; the third
about what belongs to the intellect in relation to His will.
About His will itself there are twelve points of inquiry:
(i) Whether there is will in God ? (2) Whether God wills
things apart from Himself ? (3) Whether whatever God
wills, He wills necessarily ? (4) Whether the will of God
is the cause of things ? (5) Whether any cause can be
assigned to the divine will ? (6) Whether the divine will
is always fulfilled ? (7) Whether the will of God is
mutable ? (8) Whether the will of God imposes necessity
on the things willed ? (9) Whether there is in God the will
of evil ? (10) Whether God has free will ? (11) Whether the
will of expression is distinguished in God ? (12) Whether
five expressions of will are rightly assigned to the divine
will ?
First Article,
whether there is will in god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that there is not will in God. For
the object of will is the end and the good. But we cannot
assign to God any end. Therefore there is not will in
God.
Ohj. 2. Further, will is a kind of appetite. But appetite,
as it is directed to things not possessed, implies imperfec-
259
Q. 19. Art. i THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 260
tion, which cannot be imputed to God. Therefore there
is not will in God.
Ohj. 3. Further, according to the Philosopher {De anima
iii. 54), the will moves, and is moved. But God is the first
cause of movement, and Himself is unmoved, as proved in
Phys. viii. 49. Therefore there is not will in God.
On the contrary, The Apostle says (Rom. xii. 2) : That you
may prove what is the will of God.
I answer that, There is will in God, as there is intellect :
since will follows upon intellect. For as natural things
have actual existence by their form, so the intellect is actually
intelligent by its intelligible form. Now everything has
this aptitude towards its natural form, that when it has it
not it tends towards it ; and when it has it, it is at rest therein.
It is the same with every natural perfection, which is a
natural good. This aptitude to good in things without know-
ledge is called natural appetite. Whence also intellectual
natures have a like aptitude to good as apprehended through
its intelligible form; so as to rest therein when possessed,
and when not possessed to seek to possess it, both of which
pertain to the will. Hence in ever intellectual being there is
will, just as in every sensible being there is animal appetite.
And so there must be will in God, since there is intellect in
Him. And as His intellect is His own existence, so is His will.
Reply Ohj. i. Although nothing apart from God is His
end, yet He Himself is the end with respect to all things
made by Him. And this by His essence, for by His essence
He is good, as shown above (Q. VL, A. 3) : for the end has
the aspect of good.
Reply Ohj. 2. Will in us belongs to the appetitive part,
which, although named from appetite, has not for its only
act the seeking what it does not possess ; but also the loving
and delighting in what it does possess. In this respect will
is said to be in God, as having always good which is its object,
since, as already said, it is not distinct from His essence.
Reply Ohj. 3. A will of which the principal object is a
good outside itself, must be moved by another: but the
object of the divine will is His goodness, which is His
26i THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 2
essence. Hence, since the will of God is His essence, it
is not moved by another than itself, but by itself alone,
in the same sense as understanding and willing are said to
be movement. This is what Plato meant when he said
that the first mover moves itself.
Second Article,
whether god wills things apart from himself ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not will things apart
from Himself. For the divine will is the divine existence.
But God is not other than Himself. Therefore He does
not will things other than Himself.
Ohj. 2. Further, the willed moves the wilier, as the appe-
tible the appetite, as stated in De anima iii. 54. If, there-
fore, God wills anything apart from Himself, His will must
be moved by another ; which is impossible.
Ohj. 3. Further, if what is willed suffices the wilier, he
seeks nothing beyond it. But His own goodness suffices
God, and completely satisfies His will. Therefore God
does not will anything apart from Himself.
Ohj. 4. Further, acts of the will are multiplied in propor-
tion to the number of their objects. If, therefore, God wills
Himself and things apart from Himself, it follows that the
act of His will is manifold, and consequently His existence,
which is His will. But this is impossible. Therefore God
does not will things apart from Himself.
On the contrary, The Apostle says (i Thess. iv. 3) : This is
the will of God, your sanctification.
I answer that, God wills not only Himself, but other
things apart from Himself. This is clear from the com-
parison which we made above (A. i). For natural things
have a natural inclination not only towards their own proper
good, to acquire it if not possessed, and, if possessed, to rest
therein; but also to spread abroad their own good amongst
others, so far as possible. Hence we see that every agent,
in so far as it is perfect and in act, produces its like. It
Q. 19. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 262
pertains, therefore, to the nature of the will to communicate
as far as possible to others the good possessed ; and especially
does this pertain to the divine will, from which all perfection
is derived in some kind of likeness. Hence, if_ natural
things, in so far as they are perfect, communicate their
good to others, much more does it appertain to the divine
will to communicate by likeness its own good to others,
as much as is possible. Thus, then. He wills both Himself
to be, and other things to be; but Himself as the end, and
other things as ordained to that end; inasmuch as it befits
the divine goodness that other things should be partakers
therein.
Reply Ohj. i. The divine will is God's own e^^istence
essentially, yet they differ in aspect, according to the
different ways of understanding them and expressing them,
as is clear from what has been already said (Q. XIII., A. 4).
For when we say that God exists, no relation to any other
object is implied, as we do imply when we say that God
wills. Therefore, although He is not anything apart from
Himself, yet He does will things apart from Himself.
Reply Ohj. 2. In things willed for the sake of the end,
the whole reason for our being moved is the end, and this
it is that moves the will, as most clearly appears in things
willed only for the sake of the end. He who wills to take a
bitter draught, in doing so wills nothing else than health; and
this alone moves his will. It is different with one who takes
a draught that is pleasant, which anyone may will to do, not
only for the sake of health, but also for its own sake. Hence,
although God wills things apart from Himself only for the
sake of the end, which is His own goodness, it does not
follow that anything else moves His will, except His good-
ness. So, as He understands things apart from Himself
by understanding His own essence, so He wills things
apart from Himself by willing His own goodness.
- Reply Ohj. 3. From the fact that His own goodness
suffices the divine will, it does not follow that it wills nothing
apart from itself, but rather that it wills nothing except by
reason of its goodness. Thus, too, the divine intellect.
363 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 3
though its perfection consists in its very knowledge of the
divine essence, yet in that essence knows other things.
Reply Ohj. 4. As the divine intellect is one, as seeing the
many only in the one, in the same way the divine will is one
and simple, as willing the many only through tjie one, that
is, through its own goodness.
Third Article.
whether whatever god wills he wills neces-
SARILY ? ,
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that whatever God wills He wills
necessarily. For everything eternal is necessary. But
whatever God wills, He wills from eternity, for otherwise
His will would be mutable. Therefore whatever He wills.
He wills necessarily.
Ohj, 2. Further, God wills things apart from Himself.
inasmuch as He wills His own goodness. Now God wills
His own goodness necessarily. Therefore He wills things
apart from Himself necessarily.
Ohj. 3. Further, whatever belongs to the nature of God
is necessary, for God is of Himself necessary being, and the
principle of all necessity, as above shown (Q. IL, A. 3). But
it belongs to His nature to will whatever He wills; since
in God there can be nothing over and above His nature
as stated in Metaph. v. 6. Therefore whatever He wills.
He wills necessarily.
Ohj. 4. Further, being that is not necessary, and being
that is possible not to be, are one and the same thing.
If, therefore, God does not necessarily will a thing that He
wills, it is possible for Him not to will it, and therefore
possible for Him to will what He does not will. And so the
divine will is contingent upon one or the other of two things,
and imperfect, since everything contingent is imperfect and
mutable.
Ohj. 5. Further, on the part of that which is indifferent
to one or the other of two things, no action results unless it
Q. 19. Art. 3 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 264
is inclined to one or the other by some other power, as the
Commentator* says on Phys. ii. If, then, the Will of God is
indifferent with regard to anything, it follows that His
determination to act comes from another; and thus He has
some cause prior to Himself.
Ohj. 6. Further, whatever God knows, He knows neces-
sarily. But as the divine knowledge is His essence, so is
the divine will. Therefore whatever God wills. He wills
necessarily.
On the contrary, The Apostle says (Eph. i. 11): Who
worketh all things according to the counsel of His will. Now,
what we work according to the counsel of the will, we do not
will necessarily. Therefore God does not will necessarily
whatever He wills.
/ answer that, There are two ways in which a thing is
said to be necessary, namely, absolutely, and by supposition.
We judge a thing to be absolutely necessary from the relation
of the terms, as when the predicate forms part of the defini-
tion of the subject : thus it is absolutely necessary that man
is an animal. It is the same when the subject forms part
of the notion of the predicate; thus it is absolutely neces-
sary that a number must be odd or even. In this way it
is not necessary that Socrates sits : wherefore it is not neces-
sary absolutely, though it may be so by supposition; for,
granted that he is sitting, he must necessarily sit, as long as
he is sitting. Accordingly as to things willed by God, we must
observe that He wills something of absolute necessity: but
this is not true of all that He wills. For the divine will has
a necessary relation to the divine goodness, since that is its
proper object. Hence God wills His own goodness neces-
sarily, even as we will our own happiness necessarily, and
as any other faculty has necessary relation to its proper
and principal object, for instance the sight to colour, since
it tends to it by its own nature. But God wills things apart
from Himself in so far as they are ordered to His own good-
ness as their end. Now in willing an end we do not necessarily
>yill things that conduce to it, unless they are such that the
* i^.verroes.
265 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 3
end cannot be attained without them ; as, we will to take food
to preserve life, or to take ship in order to cross the sea.
But we do not necessarily will things without which the end
is attainable, such as a horse for a journey which we can take
on foot, for we can make the journey without one. The
same applies to other means. Hence, since the goodness
of God is perfect, and can exist without other things inas-
much as no perfection can accrue to Him from them, it
follows that His willing things apart from Himself is not abso-
lutely necessary. Yet it can be necessary by supposition,
for supposing that He wills a thing, then He is unable not
to will it, as His will cannot change.
Reply Obj. i. From the fact that God wills from eternity
whatever He wills, it does not follow that He wills it neces-
sarily; except by supposition.
Reply Obj. 2. Although God necessarily wills His own
goodness, He does not necessarily will things willed on
account of His goodness; for it can exist without other
things.
Reply Obj. 3. It is not natural to God to will any of those
other things that He does not will necessarily; and yet it is
not unnatural or contrary to His nature, but voluntary.
Reply Obj. 4. Sometimes a necessary cause has a non-
necessary relation to an effect; owing to a deficiency in the
effect, and not in the cause. Even so, the sun's power has
a non-necessary relation to some contingent events on this
earth, owing to a defect not in the solar power, but in
the effect that proceeds not necessarily from the cause. In
the same way, that God does not necessarily will some of the
things that He wills, does not result from defect in the
divine will, but from a defect belonging to the nature of
the thing willed, namely, that the perfect goodness of God can
be without it ; and such defect accompanies all created good.
Reply Obj. 5. A naturally contingent cause must be
determined to act by some external power. The divine
will, which by its nature is necessary, determines itself to
vAll things to which it has no necessary relation.
Reply Obj. 6. As the divine existence is necessary of
Q. 19. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 266
itself, so is the divine will and the divine knowledge; but
the divine knowledge has a necessary relation to the thing
known; not the divine will to the thing willed. The reason
for this is that knowledge is of things as they exist in the
knower; but the will is directed to things as they exist in
themselves. Since then all other things have necessary exist-
ence inasmuch as they exist in God ; but no absolute neces-
sity so as to be necessary in themselves, in so far as they
exist in themselves; it follows that God knows necessarily
whatever He knows, but does not will necessarily whatever
He wills.
Fourth Article,
whether the will of god is the cause of things ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the will of God is not the cause
of things. For Dionysius says {Div. Nom. iv. 1): As our sun,
not by reason nor by pre-election, but by its very being, en-
lightens all things that can participate in its light, so the divine
good by its very essence pours the rays of its goodness upon
everything that exists. But every voluntary agent acts by
reason and pre-election. Therefore God does not act by
will; and so His will is not the cause of things.
Obj. 2. Further, The first in any order is that which is
essentially so, thus in the order of burning things, that comes
first which is fire by its essence. But God is the first agent.
Therefore He acts by His essence; and that is His nature.
He acts then by nature, and not by will. Therefore the
divine will is not the cause of things.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever is the cause of anything,
through being such a thing, is the cause by nature, and not
by will. For fire is the cause of heat, as being itself hot;
whereas an architect is the cause of a house, because he
wills to build it. Now Augustine says {De Doct. Christ, i. 32),
Because God is good, we exist. Therefore God is the cause of
things by His nature, and not by His will.
Obj. 4. Further, Of one thing there is one cause. But
the cause of created things is the knowledge of God, as
267 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 4
said before (Q. XIV., A. 8). Therefore the will of God
cannot be considered the cause of things.
On the contrary, It is said (Wis. xi. 26), How could anything
endure, if Thou wouldst not ?
I answer that, We must hold that the will of God is the
cause of things; and that He acts by the will, and not, as
some have supposed, by a necessity of His nature.
This can be shown in three ways: First, from the order
itself of active causes. Since both intellect and nature act
for an end, as proved in Phys. ii. 49, the natural agent must
have the end and the necessary means predetermined for it
by some higher intellect; as, the end and definite movement
is predetermined for the arrow by the archer. Hence the
intellectual and voluntary agent must precede the agent that
acts by nature. Hence, since God is first in the order of
agents. He must act by intellect and will.
This is shown, secondly, from the character of a natural
agent, of which the property is to produce one and the
same effect; for nature operates in one and the same way,
unless it be prevented. This is because the nature of
the act is according to the nature of the agent; and hence
as long as it has that nature, its acts will be in accordance
with that nature; for every natural agent has a determinate
being. Since, then, the Divine Being is undetermined, and
contains in Himself the full perfection of being, it cannot
be that He acts by a necessity of His nature, unless He
were to cause something undetermined and indefinite in
being: and that this is impossible has been already shown
(Q. VII., A. 2). He does not, therefore, act by a necessity
of His nature, but determined effects proceed from His own
infinite perfection according to the determination of His
will and intellect.
Thirdly, it is shown by the relation of effects to their
cause. For effects proceed from the agent that causes them,
in so far as they pre-exist in the agent; since every agent
produces its like. Now effects pre-exist in their cause
after the mode of the cause. Wherefore since the Divine
Being is His own intellect, effects pre-exist in Him after the
Q. 19. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 268
mode of intellect, and therefore proceed from Him after the
same mode. Consequently, they proceed from Him after
the mode of will, for His inclination to put in act what
His intellect has conceived appertains to the will. There-
fore the will of God is the cause of things.
Reply Obj. 1. Dionysius in these words does not intend to
exclude election from God absolutely; but only in a certain
sense, in so far, that is, as He communicates His goodness
not merely to certain beings, but to all; and as election
implies a certain distinction.
Reply Obj. 2. Because the essence of God is His intellect
and will, from the fact of His acting by His essence, it
follows that He acts after the mode of intellect and will.
Reply Obj. 3. Good is the object of the will. The words,
therefore, Because God is good, we exist, are true inasmuch
as His goodness is the reason of His willing all other things,
as said before (A. 2, ad 2).
Reply Obj. 4. Even in us the cause of one and the same
effect is knowledge as directing it, whereby the form of
the work is conceived, and will as commanding it, since the
form as it is in the intellect only is not determined to exist
or not to exist in the effect, except by the will. Hence,
the speculative intellect has nothing to say to operation.
But the power is cause, as executing the effect, since it
denotes the immediate principle of operation. But in God
all these things are one.
Fifth Article,
whether any cause can be assigned to the divine
WILL ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that some cause can be assigned to
the divine will. For Augustine says {Qq. Ixxxiii. 46) : Who
would venture to say that God made all things irrationally ?
But to a voluntary agent, what is the reason of operating,
is the cause of wilHng. Therefore the will of God has some
cause.
269 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 5
Ohj. 2. Further, in things made by one who wills to
make them, and whose will is influenced by no cause, there
can be no cause assigned except the will of him who wills.
But the will of God is the cause of all things, as has been
already shown (A. 4). If, then, there is no cause of His will,
we cannot seek in any natural things any cause, except the
divine will alone. Thus all science would be in vain, since
science seeks to assign causes to effects. This seems inad-
missible, and therefore we must assign some cause to the
divine will.
Ohj. 3. Further, what is done by the wilier, on account
of no cause, depends simply on his will. If, therefore, the
will of God has no cause, it follows that all things made
depend simply on His will, and have no other cause. But
this also is not admissible.
On the contrary, Augustine says {Qq. Ixxxiii. 28): Every
efficient cause is greater than the thing effected. But nothing
is greater than the will of God. We must not then seek for
a cause of it.
/ answer that, In no wise has the will of God a cause. In
proof of which we must consider that, since the will follows
from the intellect, there is a cause of the will in the person
that wills, in the same way as there is a cause of the under-
standing, in the person that understands. The case with
the understanding is this: that if the premiss and its con-
clusion are understood separately from each other, the
understanding the premiss is the cause that the conclusion
is known. If the understanding perceive the conclusion in
the premiss itself, apprehending both the one and the other
at the same glance, in this case the knowing of the conclusion
would not be caused by understanding the premisses, since
a thing cannot be its own cause; and yet, it would be true
that the thinker would understand the premisses to be the
cause of the conclusion. It is the same with the will, with
respect to which the end stands in the same relation to the
means to the end, as do the premisses to the conclusion with
regard to the understanding.
Hence, if anyone in one act wills an end, and in another
Q. 19. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 270
act the means to that end, his willing the end will be the
cause of his wilUng the means. This cannot be the case if
in one act he wills both end and means; for a thing cannot
be its own cause. Yet it will be true to say that he wills to
order to the end the means to the end. Now as God by one
act understands all things in His essence, so by one act He
wills all things in His goodness. Hence, as in God to under-
stand the cause is not the cause of His understanding the
effect, for He understands the effect in the cause, so, in Him,
to will an end is not the cause of His willing the means, yet
He wills the ordering of the means to the end. Therefore
He wills this to be as means to that; but does not will this
on account of that.
Reply Ohj. i. The will of God is reasonable, not because
anything is to God a cause of willing, but in so far as He
wills one thing to be on account of another.
Reply Ohj. 2. Since God wills effects to proceed from
definite causes, for the preservation of order in the universe,
it is not unreasonable to seek for causes secondary to the
divine will. It would, however, be unreasonable to do so, if
^uch were considered as primary, and not as dependent on
the will of God. In this sense Augustine says [De Trin.
iii. 2) : Philosophers in their vanity have thought fit to attribute
contingent effects to other causes, being utterly unable to perceive
the cause that is above all others, the will of God.
Reply Obj. 3. Since God wills effects to come from causes,
all effects that presuppose some other effect do not depend
solely on the will of God, but on something else besides:
but the first effect depends on the divine will alone. Thus,
for example, we may say that God willed man to have
hands to serve his intellect by their work, and intellect,
that he might be man; and willed him to be man that he
might enjoy Him, or for the completion of the universe.
But this cannot be reduced to other created secondary ends.
Hence such things depend on the simple will of God; but
the others on the order of other causes.
271 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 6
Sixth Article,
whether the will of god is always fulfilled ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the will of God is not always
fulfilled. For the Apostle says (i Tim. ii. 4) : God will have
all men to he saved, and to come to the knowledge of the truth.
But this does not happen. Therefore the will of God is not
always fulfilled.
Obj. 2. Further, as is the relation of knowledge to truth,,
so is that of the will to good. Now God knows all truth.
Therefore He wills all good. But not all good actually
exists; for much more good might exist. Therefore the will
of God is not always fulfilled.
Obj. 3. Further, since the will of God is the first cause, it
does not exclude intermediate causes. But the effect of a
first cause may be hindered by a defect of a secondary cause ;
as the effect of the motive power may be hindered by weak-
ness of the limb. Therefore the effect of the divine will
may be hindered by a defect of the secondary causes. The
will of God, therefore, is not always fulfilled.
On the contrary, It is said (Ps. cxiii. 11) : God hath done all
things, whatsoever He would.
I answer that. The will of God must needs always be ful-
filled. In proof of which we must consider that since an
effect is conformed to the agent according to its form, the
rule is the same with active causes as with formal causes.
The rule in forms is this: that although a thing may fall
short of any particular form, it cannot fall short of the
universal form. For though a thing may fail to be, for
example, a man or a living being, yet it cannot fail to be a
being. Hence the same must happen in active causes.
Something may fall outside the order of any particular
active cause, but not outside the order of the universal
cause; under which all particular causes are included: and
if any particular cause fails of its effect, this is because of
the hindrance of some other particular cause, which is
Q. 19. Art. 5 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 272
included in the order of the universal cause. Therefore an
effect cannot possibly escape the order of the universal cause.
Even in corporeal things this is clearly seen. For it may
happen that a star is hindered from producing its effects ; yet
whatever effect does result, in corporeal things, from this
hindrance of a corporeal cause, must be referred through
intermediate causes to the universal influence of the first
heaven. Since, then, the will of God is the universal cause
of all things, it is impossible that the divine will should not
produce its effect. Hence that which seems to depart from
the divine will in one order, returns into it in another order ;
as does the sinner, who by sin falls away from the divine will
as much as lies in him, yet falls back into the order of that
will, when by its justice he is punished.
Reply Obj. i. The words of the Apostle, God will have all
men to he saved, etc., can be understood in three ways.
First, by a restricted application, in which case they would
mean, as Augustine says [De prcBd. sanct. i. 8: Enchir. 103),
God wills all men to he saved that are saved, not because there
is no man whom He does not wish saved, hut because there is
no man saved whose salvation He does not will. Secondly,
they can be understood as applying to every class of indi-
viduals, not to every individual of each class; in which case
they mean that God wills some men of every class and con-
dition to be saved, males and females, Jews and Gentiles,
great and small, but not all of every condition. Thirdly,
according to Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii. 29), they are
understood of the antecedent will of God; not of the conse-
quent will. This distinction must not be taken as applying
to the divine will itself, in which there is nothing antecedent
nor consequent, but to the things willed.
To understand this we must consider that everything, in
so far as it is good, is willed by God. A thing taken in its
primary sense, and absolutely considered, may be good or
evil, and yet when some additional circumstances are taken
into account, by a consequent consideration may be changed
mto the contrary. Thus that a man should live is good ; and
that a man should be killed is evil, absolutely considered.
373 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 7
But if in a particular case we add that a man is a murderer or
dangerous to society, to kill him is a good; that he live is an
evil. Hence it may be said of a just judge, that antecedently
he wills all men to live ; but consequently wills the murderer
to be hanged. In the same way God antecedently wills all
men to be saved, but consequently wills some to be damned,
as His justice exacts. Nor do we will simply, what we will
antecedently, but rather we will it in a qualified manner;
for the will is directed to things as they are in themselves,
and in themselves they exist under particular qualifications.
Hence we will a thing simply inasmuch as we will it when all
particular circumstances are considered; and this is what is
meant by willing consequently. Thus it may be said that
a just judge wills simply the hanging of a murderer, but in
a qualified manner he would will him to live, to wit inas-
much as he is a man. Such a qualified will may be called a
willingness rather than an absolute will. Thus it is clear
that whatever God simply wills takes place ; although what
He wills antecedently may not take place.
Reply Ohj. 3. An act of the cognitive faculty is according
as the thing known is in the knower; while an act of the
appetitive faculty is directed to things as they exist in
themselves. But all that can have the nature of being and
truth virtually exists in God, though it does not all exist
in created things. Therefore God knows all truth ; but does
not will all good, except in so far as He wills Himself, in
Whom all good virtually exists.
Reply Ohj. 3. A first cause can be hindered in its effect by
deficiency in the secondary cause, when it is not the universal
first cause, including within itself all causes; for then the
effect could in no way escape its order And thus it is with
the will of God, as said above.
Seventh Article,
whether the will of god is changeable ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article: —
Objection i. It seems that the Will of God is changeable.
For the Lord says (Gen. vi. 7) : It repenteth Me thai I have
n 18
Q. 19. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 274
made man. But whoever repents of what he has done, has
a changeable will. Therefore God has a changeable will.
Ohj. 2,. Further, it is said in the person of the Lord : I will
speak against a nation and against a kingdom, to root out, and
to pull down, and to destroy it; but if that nation shall repent of
its evil, I also will repent of the evil that I have thought to do to
them (Jer. xviii. 7, 8). Therefore God has a changeable will.
Obj, 3. Further, whatever God does, He does voluntarily.
But God does not always do the same thing, for at one time
He ordered the law to be observed, and at another time
forbade it. Therefore He has a changeable will.
Obj. 4. Further, God does not will of necessity what He
wills, as said before (A. 3). Therefore He can both will and
not will the same thing. But whatever can incline to either
of two opposites, is changeable ; as that which can exist and
not exist is changeable substantially; and that which can
exist in a place or not in that place, is changeable locallyti
Therefore God is changeable as regards His will.
On the contrary, It is said: God is not as a man, that He
should lie, nor as the son of man, that He should be changed
(Num. xxili. 19).
I answer thut. The will of God is entirely unchangeable.
On this point we must consider that to change the will is one
thing; to will that certain things should be changed is
another. It is possible to will a thing to be done now, and
its contrary afterwards; and yet for the will to remain
permanently the same: whereas the will would be changed,
if one should begin to will what before he had not willed;
or cease to will what he had willed before. This cannot
happen, unless we presuppose change either in the knowledge
or in the disposition of the substance of the wilier. For since
the will regards good, a man may in two ways begin to
will a thing. In one way when that thing begins to be good
for him, and this does not take place without a change in
him. Thus when the cold weather begins, it becomes good
to sit by the fire ; though it was not so before. In another
way when he knows for the first time that a thing is good for
him, though he did not know it before: hence we take
275 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 7
counsel in order to know what is good for us. Now it has
already been shown that both the substance of God and His
knowledge are entirely unchangeable (QQ. IX. A. i;
XIV. A. 15). Therefore His will must be entirely unchange-
able.
Reply Ohj. i. These words of the Lord are to be under-
stood metaphorically, and according to the likeness of our
nature. For when we repent, we destroy what we have
made; although we may even do so without change of will;
as, when a man wills to make a thing, at the same time
intending to destroy it later. Therefore God is said to have
repented, by way of comparison with our mode of acting,
in so far as by the deluge He destroyed from the face of the
earth man whom He had made.
Reply Ohj. 2. The will of God, as it is the first and uni-
versal cause, does not exclude intermediate causes that have
power to produce certain effects. Since however all inter-
mediate causes are inferior in power to the first cause, there
are many things in the divine power, knowledge and will
that are not included in the order of inferior causes. Thus
in the case of the raising of Lazarus, one who looked only at
inferior causes might have said: Lazarus will not rise again;
but looking at the divine first cause might have said:
Lazarus will rise again. And God wills both: that is, that
in the order of the inferior cause a thing shall happen ; but
that in the order of the higher cause it shall not happen ; or
He may will conversely. We may say, then, that God
sometimes declares that a thing shall happen according as
it falls under the order of inferior causes, as of nature, or
merit, which yet does not happen as not being in the designs
of the divine and higher cause. Thus He foretold to
Ezechias: Take order with thy house, for thou shall die, and
not live (Isa. xxxviii. i). Yet this did not take place, since
from eternity it was otherwise disposed in the divine know-
ledge and will, which is unchangeable. Hence Gregory says
{Moral, xvi. 5): The sentence of God changes, hut not His
counsel — that is to say, the counsel of His will. When
therefore He says, / also will repent, His words must be
Q. 19. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 276
understood metaphorically. For men seem to repent, when
they do not fulfil what they have threatened.
Reply Obj. 3. It does not follow from this argument that
God has a will that changes, but that He sometimes wills
that things should change.
Reply Obj. 4. Although God's willing a thing is not by
absolute necessity, yet it is necessary by supposition, on
account of the unchangeableness of the divine will, as has
been said above (A. 3).
Eighth Article.
whether the will of god imposes necessity on
the things willed ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that the will of God imposes neces-
sity on the things willed. For Augustine says (Enchir. 103) :
No one is saved, except whom God has willed to be saved. He
must therefore be asked to will it; for if He wills it, it must
necessarily be.
Obj. 2. Further, every cause that cannot be hindered,
produces its effect necessarily, because, as the Philosopher
says: (Phys. ii. 84) Nature always works in the same way, if
there is nothing to hinder it. But the will of God cannot be
hindered. For the Apostle says (Rom. ix. 19): Who re-
sist eth His will .^ Therefore the will of God imposes neces-
sity on the things willed.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever is necessary by its antecedent
cause is necessary absolutely; it is thus necessary that
animals should die, being compounded of contrary elements.
Now things created by God are related to the divine will
as to an antecedent cause, whereby they have necessity.
For the conditional statement is true that if God wills a
thing, it comes to pass: and every true conditional state-
ment is necessary. It follows therefore that all that God
wills is necessary absolutely.
On the contrary, All good things that exist God wills to be.
If theriefore His will imposes necessity on things willed, it
277 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 8
follows that all good happens of necessity; and thus there
is an end of free will, counsel, and all other such things.
/ answer that, The divine will imposes necessity on some
things willed but not on all. The reason of this some have
chosen to assign to intermediate causes, holding that what
God produces by necessary causes is necessary; and what
He produces by contingent causes contingent.
This does not seem to be a sufficient explanation, for two
reasons. First, because the effect of a first cause is con-
tingent on account of the secondary cause, from the fact
that the effect of the first cause is hindered by deficiency in
the second cause, as the sun's power is hindered by a defect
in the plant. But no defect of a secondary cause can hinder
God's will from producing its effect. Secondly, because if
the distinction between the contingent and the necessary
is to be referred only to secondary causes, this must be
independent of the divine intention and will; which is
inadmissible. It is better therefore to say that this happens
on account of the efficacy of the divine will. For when a
cause is efficacious to act, the effect follows upon the cause,
not only as to the thing done, but also as to its manner
of being done or of being. Thus from defect of active
power in the seed it may happen that a child is born unlike
its father in accidental points, that belong to its manner of
being. Since then the divine will is perfectly efficacious,
it follows not only that things are done, which God wills to
be done, but also that they are done in the way that He wills.
Now God wills some things to be done necessarily, some con-
tingently, to the right ordering of things, for the building up
of the universe. Therefore to some effects He has attached
necessary causes, that cannot fail; but to others defectible
and contingent causes, from which arise contingent effects.
Hence it is not because the proximate causes are contingent
that the effects willed by God happen contingently, but
because God has prepared contingent causes for them, it
being His will that they should happen contingently.
Reply Ohj. i. By the words of Augustine we must under-
stand a necessity in things willed by God that is not abso-
Q. 19. Art. 9 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 278
lute, but conditional. For the conditional statement that if
God wills a thing it must necessarily be, is necessarily true.
Reply Obj. 2. From the very fact that nothing resists the
divine will, it follows that not only those things happen
that God wills to happen, but that they happen necessarily
or contingently according to His will.
Reply Obj. 3. Consequents have necessity from their
antecedents according to the mode of the antecedents.
Hence things effected by the divine will have that kind of
necessity that God wills them to have, either absolute or
conditional. Not all things, therefore, are absolute neces-
sities.
Ninth Article,
whether god wills evils ?
We proceed thus to the Ninth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God wills evils. For every
good that exists, God wills. But it is a good that evil
should exist. For Augustine says (Enchir. 95) : Although
evil in so far as it is evil is not a good, yet it is good that not
only good things should exist, but also evil things. Therefore
God wills evil things.
Obj. 2. Further, Dionysius says {Div. Norn. iv. 23) : Evil
would conduce to the perfection of everything, i.e., the universe.
And Augustine says [Enchir. 10, 11) : Out of all things is built
up the admirable beauty of the universe, wherein even that which
is called evil, properly ordered and disposed, commends the
good the more evidently in that good is more pleasing and
praiseworthy when contrasted with evil. But God wills all
that appertains to the perfection and beauty of the universe,
for this is what God desires above all things in His creatures.
Therefore God wills evil.
Obj. 3. Further, that evil should exist, and should not
exist, are contradictory opposites. But God does not will
that evil should not exist; otherwise, since various evils
do exist, God's will would not always be fulfilled. Therefore
God wills that evil should exist.
279 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 9
On the contrary, Augustine says (Qq. LXXXIII. 3): No
wise man is the cause of another man becoming worse. Now
God surpasses all men in wisdom. Much less therefore is
God the cause of man becoming worse: and when He is said to
be the cause of a thing, He is said to will it. Therefore it is
not by God's will that man becomes worse. Now it is clear
that every evil makes a thing worse. Therefore God wills
not evil things.
/ answer that. Since the ratio of good is the ratio of appeti-
bihty, as said before (Q. V. A. i), and since evil is opposed
to good, it is impossible that any evil, as such, should be
sought for by the appetite, either natural, or animal, or by
the intellectual appetite which is the will. Nevertheless evil
may be sought accidentally, so far as it accompanies a good,
as appears in each of the appetites. For a natural agent
intends not privation or corruption, but the form to which is
annexed the privation of some other form, and the generation
of one thing, which implies the corruption of another. Also
when a lion kills a stag, his object is food, to obtain which the
killing of the animal is only the means. Similarly the forni-
cator has merely pleasure for his object, and the deformity
of sin is only an accompaniment. Now the evil that accom-
panies one good, is the privation of another good. Never
therefore would evil be sought after, not even accidentally,
unless the good that accompanies the evil were more desired
than the good of which the evil is the privation. Now God
wills no good more than He wills His own goodness ; yet He
wills one good more than another. Hence He in no way wills
the evil of sin, which is the privation of right order towards
the divine good. The evil of natural defect, or of punish-
ment, He does will, by willing the good to which such evils
are attached. Thus in willing justice He wills punishment;
and in willing the preservation of the natural order, He wills
some things to be naturally corrupted.
Reply Obj. i. Some have said that although God does not
will evil, yet He wills that evil should be or be done, because,
although evil is not a good, yet it is good that evil should be
or be done. This they said because things evil in them-
Q. 19. Art. 10 THE ** SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 280
selves are ordered to some good end; and this order they
thought was expressed in the words that evil should he or he
done. This, however, is not correct; since evil is not of
itself ordered to good, but accidentally. For it is beside
the intention of the sinner, that any good should follow from
his sin; as it was beside the intention of tyrants that the
patience of the martyrs should shine forth from all their
persecutions. It cannot therefore be said that such an
ordering to good is implied in the statement that it is a good
thing that evil should be or be done, since nothing is judged
of by that which appertains to it accidentally, but by that
which belongs to it essentially.
Reply Ohj. 2. Evil does not operate towards the perfec-
tion and beauty of the universe, except accidentally, as said
above (ad i). Therefore Dionysius in saying that evil would
conduce to the perfection of the universe, draws a conclusion
by reduction to an absurdity.
Reply Ohj. 3. The statements that evil exists, and that evil
exists not, are opposed as contradictories; yet the statements
that anyone wills evil to exist and that he wills it not to be,
are not so opposed; since either is affirmative. God there-
fore neither wills evil to be done, nor wills it not to be done,
but wills to permit evil to be done ; and this is a good.
Tenth Article,
whether god has free-will ?
We proceed thus to the Tenth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God has not free-will. For
Jerome says, in a homily on the prodigal son*: God alone
is He who is not liahle to sin, nor can he liahle: all others, as
having free-will, can he inclined to either side.
Ohj. 2. Further, free-will is the faculty of the reason and
will, by which good and evil are chosen. But God does not
will evil, as has been said (A. 9). Therefore there is not free-
will in God.
On the contrary, Ambrose says {De Fide ii. 3) : The Holy
* Ep. 146, ad Damas.
28i THE WILL OF GOD Q. iq.Art.ii
Spirit divideth unto each one as He will, namely, according to
the free choice of the will, not in obedience to necessity.
I answer that, We have free-will with respect to what we
will not of necessity, nor by natural instinct. For our will to
be happy does not appertain to free-will, but to natural in-
stinct. Hence other animals, that are moved to act by
natural instinct, are not said to be moved by free-will.
Since then God necessarily wills His own goodness, but other
things not necessarily, as shown above (A. 3), He has free
will with respect to what He does not necessarily will.
Reply Ohj. i, Jerome seems to deny free-will to God not
simply, but only as regards the inclination to sin.
Reply Ohj. 2. Since the evil of sin consists in turning
away from the divine goodness, by which God wills all
things, as above shown [I.e.), it is manifestly impossible for
Him to will the evil of sin ; yet He can make choice of one of
two opposites, inasmuch as He can will a thing to be, or
not to be. In the same way we ourselves, without sin, can
will to sit down, and not will to sit down.
Eleventh Article.
whether the will of expression is to be
distinguished in god ?
We proceed thus to the Eleventh Article: —
Objection i. It seems that the will of expression is not to
be distinguished in God. For as the will of God is the cause
of things, so is His wisdom. But no expressions are assigned
to the divine wisdom. Therefore no expressions ought to
be assigned to the divine will.
Obj. 2>. Further, every expression that is not in agreement
with the mind of him who expresses himself, is false. If
therefore the expressions assigned to the divine will are
not in agreement with that will, they are false. But if they
dp agree, they are superfluous. No expressions therefore
must be assigned to the divine will.
On the contrary, The will of God is one, since it is the very
essence of God. Yet sometimes it is spoken of as many,
Q. 19. Art. ii THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 282
as in the words of Ps. ex. 2: Great are the works of the Lord,
sought out according to all His wills. Therefore, sometimes
the sign must be taken for the will.
/ answer that, Some things are said of God in their strict
sense; others by metaphor, as appears from what has been
said before (Q. XIII. A. 3). When certain human passions
are predicated of the Godhead metaphorically, this is done
because of a likeness in the effect. Hence a thing that is in
us a sign of some passion, is signified metaphorically in God
under the name of that passion. Thus with us it is usual
for an angry man to punish, so that punishment becomes
an expression of anger. Therefore punishment itself is
signified by the word anger, when anger is attributed to God.
In the same way, what is usually with us an expression of
will, is sometimes metaphorically called will in God; just as
when anyone lays down a precept, it is a sign that he wishes
that precept obeyed. Hence a divine precept is sometimes
called by metaphor the will of God, as in the words : Thy will
be done on earth, as it is in heaven (Matth. vi. 10). There
is, however, this difference between will and anger, that anger
is never attributed to God properly, since in its primary
meaning it includes passion; whereas will is attributed to
Him properly. Therefore in God there are distinguished
will in its proper sense, and will as attributed to Him by
metaphor. Will in its proper sense is called the will of good
pleasure ; and will metaphorically taken is the will of expres-
sion, inasmuch as the sign itself of will is called will.
Reply Obj. 1. Knowledge is not the cause of a thing being
done, unless through the will. For we do not put into act
what we know, unless we will to do so. Accordingly
expression is not attributed to knowledge, but to will.
Reply Obj. 2. Expressions of will are called divine wills,
not as being signs that God wills anything; but because
what in us is the usual expression of our will, is called
the divine will in God. Thus punishment is not ^^01
that there is anger in God; but it is called anger in^M^
from the fact that it is an expression of anger in ourselves.
283 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 12
Twelfth Article.
whether five expressions of will are rightly
assigned to the divine will ?
We proceed thus to the Twelfth Article: —
Objection 1. It seems that five expressions of will —
namely, prohibition, precept, counsel, operation, and permis-
sion— are not rightly assigned to the divine will. For the
same things that God bids us do by His precept or counsel,
these He sometimes operates in us, and the same things
that He prohibits, these He sometimes permits. They
ought not therefore to be enumerated as distinct.
Obj. 2. Further, God works nothing unless He will it,
as the Scripture says (Wis. xi. 26). But the will of expres-
sion is distinct from the will of good pleasure. Therefore
operation ought not to be comprehended in the will of
expression.
Obj. 3. Further, operation and permission appertain to all
creatures in common, since God works in them all, and
permits some action in them all. But precept, counsel, and
prohibition belong to rational creatures only. Therefore
they do not come rightly under one division, not being of
one order.
Obj. 4. Further, evil happens in more ways than good,
since good happens in one way, but evil in all kinds of ways,
as declared by the Philosopher [Ethic ii. 6), and Dionysius
{Div. Norn. iv. 22). It is not right therefore to assign one
expression only in the case of evil — namely, prohibition —
and two — namely, counsel and precept — in the case of good.
/ answer that, By these signs we name the expression of
will by which we are accustomed to show that we will some-
thing. A man may show that he wills something, either by
himself or by means of another. He may show it by him-
self, by doing something either directly, or indirectly and
accidentally. He shows it directly when he works in his own
person; in that way the expression of his will is his own
working. He shows it indirectly, by not hindering the
doing of a thing; for what removes an impediment is called
Q. 19. Art. 12 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 284
an accidental mover. In this respect the expression is
called permission. He declares his will by means of another
when he orders another to perform a work, either by in-
sisting upon it as necessary by precept, and by prohibiting
its contrary; or by persuasion, which is a part of counsel.
Since in these ways the will of man makes itself known, the
same live are sometimes denominated with regard to the
divine will, as the expression of that will. That precept,
counsel, and prohibition are called the will of God is clear
from the words of Matth. vi. 10: Thy will he done on earth
as it is in heaven. That permission and operation are called
the will of God is clear from Augustine (Enchir. 95), who
says : Nothing is done, unless the Almighty wills it to be done,
either by permitting it, or by actually doing it.
Or it may be said that permission and operation refer to
present time, permission being with respect to evil, opera-
tion with regard to good. Whilst as to future time, prohibi-
tion is in respect to evil, precept to good that is necessary
and counsel to good that is of supererogation.
Reply Obj, i. There is nothing to prevent anyone declar-
ing his will about the same matter in different ways ; thus we
find many words that mean the same thing. Hence there
is no reason why the same thing should not be the subject
of precept, operation, and counsel; or of prohibition or
permission.
Reply Obj. 2. As God may by metaphor be said to will
what by His will, properly speaking. He wills not; so He
may by metaphor be said to will what He does, properly
speaking, will. Hence there is nothing to prevent the same
thing being the object of the will of good pleasure, and of
the will of expression. But operation is always the same as
the will of good pleasure ; while precept and counsel are not ;
both because the former regards the present, and the two
latter the future; and because the former is of itself the
effect of the will; the latter its effect as fulfilled by means
of another.
Reply Obj. 3. Rational creatures are masters of their own
acts; and for this reason certain special expressions of the
285 THE WILL OF GOD Q. 19. Art. 12
divine will are assigned to their acts, inasmuch as God
ordains rational creatures to act voluntarily and of them
selves. Other creatures act only as moved by the divine
operation; therefore only operation and permission are
concerned with these.
Reply Ohj. 4. All evil of sin, though happening in many
ways, agrees in being out of harmony with the divine will.
Hence with regard to evil, only one expression is assigned,
that of prohibition. On the other hand, good stands in
various relations to the divine goodness, since there are good
deeds without which we cannot attain to the fruition of that
goodness, and these are the subject of precept; and there are
others by which we attain to it more perfectly, and these are
the subject of counsel. Or it may be said that counsel is
not only concerned with the obtaining of greater good; but
also with the avoiding of lesser evils.
QUESTION XX.
GOD'S LOVE.
{In Four Articles.)
We next consider those things that pertain absolutely to the
will of God. In the appetitive part of the soul there are
found in ourselves both the passions of the soul, as joy, love,
and the like; and the habits of the moral virtues, as justice,
fortitude, and the like. Hence we shall first consider the
love of God, and secondly his justice and mercy. About the
first there are four points of inquiry : (i) Whether love exists
in God ? (3) Whether He loves all things ? (3) Whether
He loves one thing more than another ? (4) Whether He
loves more the better things ?
First Article,
whether love exists in god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that love does not exist in God. For
in God there are no passions. Now love is a passion.
Therefore love is not in God.
Obj. 2t. Further, love, anger, sorrow, and the like, are
mutually divided against one another. But sorrow and
anger are not attributed to God, unless by metaphor.
Therefore neither is love attributed to Him.
Obj. 3. Further, Dionysius says [Biv. Nom. iv.) : Love is
a unitihg and binding force. But this cannot take place in
God, since He is simple. Therefore love does not exist in
God.
On the contrary, It is written: God is love (i John iv. 16).
/ answer that, We must needs assert that in God there is
286
28; GOD'S LOVE Q. 20. Art. i
love : because love is the first movement of the will and of
every appetitive faculty. For since the acts of the will and
of every appetitive faculty tend towards good and evil, as to
their proper objects : and since good is essentially and especi-
ally the object of the will and the appetite, whereas evil is
only the object secondarily and indirectly, as opposed to
good; it follows that the acts of the will and appetite that
regard good must naturally be prior to those that regard
evil; thus, for instance, joy is prior to sorrow, love to hate:
because what exists of itself is always prior to that which
exists through another. Again, the more universal is
naturally prior to what is less so. Hence the intellect is
first directed to universal truth; and in the second place
to particular and special truths. Now there are certain
acts of the will and appetite that regard good under some
special condition, as joy and delight regard good present
and possessed; whereas desire and hope regard good not
as yet possessed. Love, however, regards good universally,
whether possessed or not. Hence love is naturally the first
act of the will and appetite; for which reason all the other
appetitive movements presuppose love, as their root and
origin. For nobody desires anything nor rejoices in any-
thing, except as a good that is loved; nor is anything an
object of hate except as opposed to the object of love
Similarly, it is clear that sorrow, and other things like to it,
must be referred to love as to their first principle. Hence,
in whomsoever there is will and appetite, there must also
be love: since if the first is wanting, all that follows is also
wanting. Now it has been shown that will is in God
(O. XIX., A. i), and hence we must attribute love
to Him.
Reply Ohj. i. The cognitive faculty does not move except
through the medium of the appetitive: and just as in our-
selves the universal reason moves through the medium of
the particular reason, as stated in De anima iii. 58, 75, so in
ourselves the intellectual appetite, or the will as it is called,
moves through the medium of the sensitive appetite.
Hence, in us the sensitive appetite is the proximate motive-
Q. 20. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 388
force of our bodies. Some bodily change therefore always
accompanies an act of the sensitive appetite, and this change
affects especially the heart, which, as the Philosopher says
[De part, animal, ii. i; iii. 4), is the first principle of move-
ment in animals. Therefore acts of the sensitive appetite,
inasmuch as they have annexed to them some bodily change,
are called passions ; whereas acts of the will are not so called.
Love, therefore, and joy and delight are passions, in so far as
they denote acts of the sensitive appetite; but in so far
as they denote acts of the intellective appetite, they are not
passions. It is in this latter sense that they are in God.
Hence the Philosopher says {Ethic vii.) : God rejoices by an
operation that is one and simple, and for the same reason He
loves without passion.
Reply Ohj. 3. In the passions of the sensitive appetite
there may be distinguished a certain material element —
namely, the bodily change — and a certain formal element,
which is on the part of the appetite. Thus in anger, as the
Philosopher says [De anima iii. 15, 63, 64), the material
element is the kindling of the blood about the heart; but
the formal, the appetite for revenge. Again, as regards the
formal element of certain passions a certain imperfection is
implied, as in desire, which is of the good we have not, and
in sorrow, which is about the evil we have. This applies also
to anger, which supposes sorrow. Certain other passions,
however, as love and joy, imply no imperfection. Since
therefore none of these can be attributed to God on their
material side, as has been said [ad i) ; neither can those that
even on their formal side imply imperfection be attributed
to Him; except metaphorically, and from likeness of effects,
as already shown (QQ. III., A. 3, ad 3 and XIX., A. 11).
Whereas, those that do not imply imperfection, such as love
and joy, can be properly predicated of God, though without
attributing passion to Him, as said before (Q. XIX., A. 11).
Reply Ohj. 3. An act of love always tends towards two
things; to the good that one wills, and to the person for
whom one wills it : since to love a person is to wish that person
good. Hence, inasmuch as we love ourselves, we wish
289 GOD'S LOVE Q. 20. Art. 2
ourselves good ; and, so far as possible, union with that good.
So love is called the unitive force, even in God, yet without
implying composition; for the good that He wills for Him-
self, is no other than Himself, Who is good by His essence,
as above shown (Q. VI., AA. i, 3). And by the fact that
anyone loves another, he wills good to that other. Thus
he puts the other, as it were, in the place of himself; and
regards the good done to him as done to himself. So far
love is a binding force, since it aggregates another to our-
selves, and refers his good to our own. And then again
the divine love is a binding force, inasmuch as God wills
good to others ; yet it implies no composition in God.
Second Article,
whether god loves all things ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not love all things.
For according to Dionysius {Div. Nom. iv. i), love places
the lover outside himself, and causes him to pass, as it
were, into the object of his love. But it is not admissible
to say that God is placed outside of Himself, and passes into
other things. Therefore it is inadmissible to say that God
loves things other than Himself.
Ohj. 2. Further, the love of God is eternal. But things
apart from God are not from eternity; except in God.
Therefore God does not love anything, except as it exists
in Himself. But as existing in Him, it is no other than
Himself. Therefore God does not love things other than
Himself.
Ohj. 3. Further, love is twofold— the love, namely, of
desire, and the love of friendship. Now God does not love
irrational creatures with the love of desire, since He needs no
creature outside Himself. Nor with the love of friendship ;
since there can be no friendship with irrational creatures,
as the Philosopher shows [Ethic, viii. 2). Therefore God
does not love all things.
Ohj. 4. Further, it is written (Ps. v. 7) : Thou hatest all
u 19
Q. 20. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 290
the workers of iniquity. Now nothing is at the same time
hated and loved. Therefore God does not love all things.
On the contrary, It is said (Wis. xi. 25): Thou lovest all
things that are, and hatest none 0/ the things which Thou hast
made.
I answer that, God loves all existing things. For all
existing things, in so far as they exist, are good, since the
existence of a thing is itself a good; and likewise, whatever
perfection it possesses. Now it has been shown above
(Q. XIX., A. 4) that God's will is the cause of all things. It
must needs be, therefore, that a thing has existence, or
any kind of good, only inasmuch as it is willed by God. To
every existing thing, then, God wills some good. Hence,
since to love anything is nothing else than to will good to
that thing, it is manifest that God loves everything that
exists. Yet not as we love. Because since our will is
not the cause of the goodness of things, but is moved by it
as by its object, our love, whereby we will good to anything,
is not the cause of its goodness ; but conversely its goodness,
whether real or imaginary, calls forth our love, by which we
will that it should preserve the good it has, and receive be-
sides the good it has not, and to this end we direct our
actions: whereas the love of God infuses and creates
goodness.
Reply Ohj. i. A lover is placed outside himself, and made
to pass into the object of his love, inasmuch as he wills good
to the beloved; and works for that good by his providence
even as he works for his own. Hence Dionysius says {I.e.):
On behalf of the truth we must make hold to say even this, that He
Himself, the cause of all things, by His abounding love and
goodness, is placed outside Himself by His providence for
all existing things.
Reply Ohj. 2. Although creatures have not existed from
eternity, except in God, yet because they have been in Him
from eternity, God has known them eternally in their proper
natures; and for that reason has loved them, even as we,
by the images of things within us, know things existing in
themselves.
291 GOD'S LOVE Q. 20. Art. 3
Reply Ohj. 3. Friendship cannot exist except towards
rational creatures, who are capable of returning love, and
communicating one with another in the various works of
life, and who may fare well or ill, according to the changes
of fortune and happiness; even as to them is benevolence
properly speaking exercised. But irrational creatures
cannot attain to loving God, nor to any share in the intel-
lectual and beatific life that He lives. Strictly speaking,
therefore, God does not love irrational creatures with the
love of friendship ; but as it were with the love of desire, in so
far as He orders them to rational creatures, and even to
Himself. Yet this is not because He stands in need of
them; but only on account of His goodness, and of the
services they render to us. For we can desire a thing for
others as well as for ourselves.
Reply Ohj. 4. Nothing prevents one and the same thing
being loved under one aspect, while it is hated under another.
God loves sinners in so far as they are existing natures; for
they have existence, and have it from Him. In so far as
they are sinners, they have not existence at all, but fall
short of it ; and this in them is not from God. Hence under
this aspect, they are hated by Him.
Third Article,
whether god loves all things equally ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God loves all things equally.
For it is said: He hath equally care of all (Wis. vi. 8). But
God's providence over things comes from the love wherewith
He loves them. Therefore He loves all things equally.
Ohj. 2. Further, the love of God is His essence. But
God's essence does not admit of degree; neither therefore
does His love. He does not therefore love some things
more than others.
Ohj. 3. Further, as God's love extends to created things,
so do His knowledge and will extend. But God is not said
to know some things more than others; nor to will one thing
Q. 20. Art. 3 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 2(j2
more than another. Neither therefore does He love some
things more than others.
On the contrary, Augustine says {Tract, in Joan, ex.): God
loves all things that He has made, and amongst them rational
creatures more, and of these especially those who are members
of His only-begotten Son ; and much more than all, His only-
begotten Son Himself
I answer that. Since to love a thing is to will it good, in a
twofold way anything may be loved more, or less. In
one way on the part of the act of the will itself, which is
more or less intense. In this way God does not love some
things more than others, because He loves all things by an
act of the will that is one, simple, and always the same.
In another way on the part of the good itself that a person
wills for the beloved. In this way we are said to love that
one more than another, for whom we will a greater good,
though our will is not more intense. In this way we must
needs say that God loves some things more than others.
For since God's love is the cause of goodness in things, as
has been said (A. 2), no one thing would be better than
another, if God did not will greater good for one than for
another.
Reply Obj. i. God is said to have equally care of all, not
because by His care He deals out equal good to all, but
because He administers all things with a like wisdom and
goodness.
Reply Obj. 2. This argument is based on the intensity of
love on the part of the act of the will, which is the divine
essence. But the good that God wills for His creatures, is not
the divine essence. Therefore there is no reason why it
may not vary in degree.
Reply Obj. 3. To understand and to will denote the act
alone, and do not include in their meaning objects from the
diversity of which God may be said to know or will more or
less, as has been said with respect to God's love.
293 GOD'S LOVE Q. 20. Art. 4
Fourth Article,
whether god always loves more the better things ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God does not always love more
the better things. For it is manifest that Christ is better
than the whole human race, being God and man. But God
loved the human race more than He loved Christ ; for it is
said : He spared not His own Son, hut delivered Him up for
us all (Rom. viii. 32). Therefore God does not always love
more the better things.
Ohj. 2. Further, an angel is better than a man. Hence it
is said of man: Thou hast made him a little less than the
angels (Ps. viii. 6). But God loved men more than He
loved the angels, for it is said: Nowhere doth He take hold
of the angels, but of the seed of Abraham He taketh hold (Heb.
ii. 16). Therefore God does not always love more the better
things.
Obj. 3. Further, Peter was better than John, since he
loved Christ more. Hence the Lord, knowing this to be
true, asked Peter, saying : * Simon, son of fohn, lovest thou
Me more than these ?' Yet Christ loved John more than
He loved Peter. For as Augustine says, commenting on
the words, * Simon, son of John, lovest thou Me ?' By this
very mark is John distinguished from the other disciples, not
that He loved him only, but that He loved him more than
the rest. Therefore God does not always love more the
better things.
Ohj. 4. Further, the innocent man is better than the re-
pentant, since repentance is, as Jerome says (Cap. 3 inlsa.),
a second plank after shipwreck. But God loves the penitent
more than the innocent ; since He rejoices over him the more
For it is said; / say to you that there shall be joy in heaven upon
one sinner that doth penance, more than upon ninety-7iine just
who need not penance (Luke xv. 7). Therefore God does not
always love more the better things.
Obj. 5. Further, the just man who is foreknown is better
than the predestined sinner. Now God loves more the
Q. 20. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 294
predestined sinner, since He wills for him a greater good,
life eternal. Therefore God does not always love more
the better things.
On the contrary, Everything loves what is like it, as appears
from (Ecclus. xiii. 19) : Every beast loveth its like. Now the
better a thing is, the more like is it to God. Therefore the
better things are more loved by God.
/ answer that, It must needs be, according to what has
been said before, that God loves more the better things.
For it has been shown (AA. 2, 3), that God's loving one thing
more than another is nothing else than His willing for that
thing a greater good: because God's will is the cause of
goodness in things ; and the reason why some things are better
than others, is that God wills for them a greater good.
Hence it follows that He loves more the better things.
Reply Ohj. i. God loves Christ not only more than He
loves the whole human race, but more than He loves the
entire created universe: because He willed for Him the
greater good in giving Him a name thai is above all names,
in so far as He was true God. Nor did anything of His
excellence diminish when God delivered Him up to death
for the salvation of the human race; rather did He become
thereby a glorious conqueror: The government was placed
upon His shotilder, according to Isa. ix. 6.
Reply Obj. 2. God loves the human nature assumed by
the Word of God in the person of Christ more than He loves
all the angels; for that nature is better, especially on the
ground of union with the Godhead. But speaking of human
nature in general, and comparing it with the angelic, the
two are found equal, in the order of grace and of glory:
since according to Apoc. xxi. 17, the measure of a man and
of an angel is the same. Yet so that, in this respect, some
angels are found nobler than some men, and some men
nobler than some angels. But as to natural condition an
angel is better than a man. God therefore did not assume
human nature because He loved man, absolutely speaking,
more; but because the needs of man were greater; just as
the master of a house may give some costly delicacy to a
295 GOD'S LOVE Q. 20. Art. 4
sick servant, that he does not give to his own son in sound
health.
Reply Ohj. 3. This doubt concerning Peter and John has
been solved in various ways. Augustine {I.e.) interprets it
mystically, and says that the active life, signified by Peter,
loves God more than the contemplative signified by John,
because the former is more conscious of the miseries of this
present life, and therefore the more ardently desires to be
freed from them, and depart to God. God, he says, loves
more the contemplative life, since He preserves it longer.
For it does not end, as the active life does, with the life of
the body.
Some say that Peter loved Christ more in His members,
and therefore was loved more by Christ also, for which
reason He gave him the care of the Church; but that
John loved Christ more in Himself, and so was loved more
by Him; on which account Christ commended His mother
to his care. Others say that it is uncertain which of them
loved Christ more with the love of charity, and uncertain
also which of them God loved more and ordained to a
greater degree of glory in eternal life. Peter is said to have
loved more, in regard to a certain promptness and fervour ;
but John to have been more loved, with respect to certain
marks of familiarity which Christ showed to him rather
than to others, on account of his youth and purity. While
others say that Christ loved Peter more, from his more
excellent gift of charity; but John more, from his gifts of
intellect. Hence, absolutely speaking, Peter was the better
and the more beloved; but, in a certain sense, John was the
better, and was loved the more. However, it may seem
presumptuous to pass Judgment on these matters; since
the Lord and no other, is the weigher of spirits (Prov.
xvi. 2).
Reply Ohj. 4. The penitent and the innocent are related
as exceeding and exceeded. For whether innocent or peni-
tent, those are the better and the better loved who have
most grace. Other things being equal, innocence is the
nobler thing and the more beloved. God is said to rejoice
Q. 20. Art. 4 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 296
more over the penitent than over the innocent, because often
penitents rise from sin more cautious, humble, and fervent.
Hence Gregory commenting on these words [Horn, xxxiv.
in Ev.) says that. In battle the general loves the soldier who
after flight returns and bravely pursues the enemy, more than
him who has never fled, but has never done a brave deed.
Or it may be answered that gifts of grace, equal in them-
selves, are more as conferred on the penitent, who deserved
punishment, than as conferred on the innocent, to whom
no punishment was due; just as a hundred pounds (marcce)
are a greater gift to a poor man than to a king.
Reply Obj. 5. Since God's will is the cause of goodness in
things, the goodness of one who is loved by God is to be
reckoned according to the time when some good is to be
given to him by the divine goodness. According therefore
to the time, when there is to be given by the divine will
to the predestined sinner a greater good, the sinner is the
better; although according to some other time he is the
worse; because even according to some time he is neither
good nor bad.
QUESTION XXL
THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD.
{In Four Articles.)
After considering the divine love, we must treat of God's
justice and mercy. Under this head there are four points of
inquiry: (i) Whether there is justice in God ? (2) Whether
His justice can be called truth ? (3) Whether there is
mercy in God ? (4) Whether in every work of God there
are justice and mercy ?
First Article,
whether there is justice in god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that there is not justice in God.
For justice is divided against temperance. But temperance
does not exist in God: neither therefore does justice.
Obj. 2. Further, he who does whatsoever he wills and
pleases does not work according to justice. But, as the
Apostle says: God worketh all things according to the counsel
of his will (Ephes. i. 11). Therefore justice cannot be
attributed to Him.
Obj. 3. Further, the act of justice is to pay what is due.
But God is no man's debtor. Therefore justice does not
belong to God.
Obj. 4. Further, whatever is in God, is His essence. But
justice cannot belong to this. For Boethius says (De
Hebdom.): Good regards the essence; justice the act. Therefore
justice does not belong to God.
On the contrary, It is said (Ps. x. 8) : The Lord is just, and
hath loved justice.
297
Q. 21. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 298
/ answer that, There are two kinds of justice. The one
consists in mutual giving and receiving, as in buying and
selHng, and other kinds of intercourse and exchange. This
the Philosopher {Ethic, v. 4) calls commutative justice, that
directs exchange and the intercourse of business. This does
not belong to God, since, as the Apostle says : Who hath first
given to Him, and recompense shall he made him ? (Rom.
^i- 35)- The other consists in distribution, and is called
distributive justice; whereby a ruler or a steward gives to
each what his rank deserves. As then the proper order
displayed in ruling a family or any kind of multitude evinces
justice of this kind in the ruler, so the order of the universe,
which is seen both in effects of nature and in effects of will,
shows forth the justice of God. Hence Dionysius says
{Div. Nom. viii. 4) : We must needs see that God is truly just,
in seeing how He gives to all existing things what is proper to
the condition of each; and preserves the nature of each one in
the order and with the powers that properly belong to it.
Reply Ohj. i. Certain of the moral virtues are concerned
with the passions, as temperance with concupiscence, forti-
tude with fear and daring, meekness with anger. Such
virtues as these can only metaphorically be attributed to
God; since, as stated above (Q. XX., A. i), in God there are
no passions ; nor a sensitive appetite, which is, as the Philo-
sopher says {Ethic, iii. 10), the subject of those virtues. On
the other hand, certain moral virtues are concerned with
works of giving and expending; such as justice, liberality,
and magnificence; and these reside not in the sensitive
faculty, but in the will. Hence, there is nothing to prevent
our attributing these virtues to God; although not in civil
matters, but in such acts as are not unbecoming to Him.
For, as the Philosopher says {Ethic, x. 8), it would be absurd
to praise God for His political virtues.
Reply Ohj. 2. Since good as perceived by the intellect is
the object of the will, it is impossible for God to will any-
thing but what His wisdom approves. This is, as it were,
His law of justice, in accordance with which His will is
right and just. Hence, what He does according to His will
299 THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD Q.2i.Art. i
He does justly: as we do justly what we do according to
law. But whereas law comes to us from some higher power
God is a law unto Himself.
Reply Ohj. 3. To each one is due what is his own. Now
that which is directed to a man is said to be his own. Thus
the master owns the servant, and not conversely, for that
is free which is its own cause. In the word debt, therefore,
is implied a certain exigence or necessity of the thing to
which it is directed. Now a twofold order has to be con-
sidered in things: the one, whereby one created thing is
directed to another, as the parts to the whole, accident to
substance, and all things whatsoever to their end; the other,
whereby all created things are ordered to God. Thus in the
divine operations debt may be regarded in two ways, as due
either to God, or to creatures, and in either way God pays
what is due. It is due to God that there should be fulfilled
in creatures what His will and wisdom require, and what
manifests His goodness. In this respect God's justice
regards what befits Him; inasmuch as He renders to Him-
self what is due to Himself. It is also due to a created thing
that it should possess what is ordered to it; thus it is due
to man to have hands, and that other animals should serve
him. Thus also God exercises justice, when He gives to
each thing what is due to it by its nature and condition.
This debt however is derived from the former ; since what is
due to each thing is due to it as ordered to it according to
the divine wisdom. And although God in this way pays
each thing its due, yet He Himself is not the debtor, since
He is not directed to other things, but rather other things
to Him. Justice, therefore, in God is sometimes spoken
of as the fitting accompaniment of His goodness ; sometimes
as the reward of merit. Anselm touches on either view
where he says (Prosolog. 10) : When Thou dost punish the
wicked, it is just, since it agrees with their deserts ; and when
Thou dost spare the wicked, it is also just ; since it befits Thy
goodness.
Reply Ohj. 4. Although justice regards act, this does not
prevent its being the essence of God; since even that which
Q. 21. Art. 2 THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 300
is of the essence of a thing may be the principle of action.
But good does not always regard act ; since a thing is called
good not merely with respect to act, but also as regards
perfection in its essence. For this reason it is said (ibid.),
that the good is related to the just, as the general to the
special.
Second Article,
whether the justice of god is truth ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the justice of God is not truth.
For justice resides in the will; since, as Anselm says (Dial.
Verit. 13), it is a rectitude of the will, whereas truth resides
in the intellect, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. vi. 8:
Ethic, vi. 2, 6). Therefore justice does not appertain to
truth.
Obj. 2. Further, according to the Philosopher (E'jJ/^^c. iv. 7),
truth is a virtue distinct from justice. Truth therefore does
not appertain to the idea of justice.
On the contrary, It is said (Ps. Ixxxiv. 11): Mercy and
truth have met each other : where truth stands for justice.
/ answer that, Truth consists in the equation of mind
and thing, as said above (Q. XVI., A. i). Now the mind,
that is the cause of the thing, is related to it as its rule
and measure: whereas the converse is the case with the
mind, that receives its knowledge from things. When
therefore things are the measure and rule of the mind,
truth consists in the equation of the mind to the thing, as
happens in ourselves. For according as a thing is, or is not,
our thoughts or our words about it are true or false. But
when the mind is the rule or measure of things, truth
consists in the equation of the thing to the mind; just
as the work of an artist is said to be true, when it is in
accordance with his art.
Now as works of art are related to the art, so are works o^
justice related to the law with which they accord. There-
fore God's justice, which establishes things in the order con-
formable to the rule of His wisdom, which is the law of His
301 THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD Q. 21. Art. 3
justice, is suitably called truth. Thus we also in human
affairs speak of the truth of justice.
Re^ly Ohj. i. Justice, as to the law that governs, resides
in the reason or intellect; but as to the command whereby
our actions are governed according to the law, it resides in
the will.
Reply Ohj. 2. The truth of which the Philosopher is speak-
ing in this passage, is that virtue whereby a man shows
himself in word and deed such as he really is. Thus it
consists in the conformity of the sign with the thing sig-
nified; and not in that of the effect with its cause and rule;
as has been said regarding the truth of justice.
Third Article,
whether mercy can be attributed to god ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that mercy cannot be attributed to
God. For mercy is a kind of sorrow, as Damascene says
{De Fide Orth. ii. 14). But there is no sorrow in God; and
therefore there is no mercy in Him.
Ohj. 2. Further, mercy is a relaxation of justice. But
God cannot remit what appertains to His justice. For it is
said (2 Tim. ii. 13) : // we helieve not, He contimieth faithful :
He cannot deny Himself. But He would deny Himself, as
a gloss says, if He should deny His words. Therefore mercy
is not becoming to God.
On the contrary, It is said (Ps. ex. 4) : He is a merciful and
gracious Lord.
I answer that, Mercy is especially to be attributed to God,
as seen in its effect, but not as an affection of passion. In
proof of which it must be considered that a person is said
to be merciful (misericors), as being, so to speak, sorrowful
at heart {miserum cor)] being affected with sorrow at the
misery of another as though it were his own. Hence it
follows that he endeavours to dispel the misery of this other,
as if it were his ; and this is the effect of mercy. To sorrow,
therefore, over the misery of others belongs not to God;
Q. 21. Art. 3 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 302
but it does most properly belong to Him to dispel that
misery, whatever be the defect we call by that name.
Now defects are not removed, except by the perfection of
some kind of goodness : and the primary source of goodness
is God, as shown above (Q. VI., A. 4). It must, however, be
considered that to bestow perfections appertains not only
to the divine goodness, but also to His justice, liberality, and
mercy; yet under different aspects. The communicating
of perfections, absolutely considered, appertains to good-
ness, as shown above (Q. VI., AA. i, 4); in so far as per-
fections are given to things in proportion, the bestowal of
them belongs to justice, as has been already said (A. i) ;
in so far as God does not bestow them for His own use,
but only on account of His goodness, it belongs to liberality ;
in so far as perfections given to things by God expel defects,
it belongs to mercy.
Reply Ohj. i. This argument is based on mercy, regarded
as an affection of passion.
Reply Ohj. 2. God acts mercifully, not indeed by going
against His justice, but by doing something more than
justice; thus a man who pays another two hundred pieces
of money, though owing him only one hundred, does nothing
against justice, but acts Uberally or mercifully. The case
is the same with one who pardons an offence committed
against him, for in remitting it he may be said to bestow
a gift. Hence the Apostle calls remission a forgiving:
Forgive one another, as Christ has forgiven you (Eph. iv. 32).
Hence it is clear that mercy does not destroy justice, but
in a sense is the fulness thereof. And thus it is said : Mercy
exalteth itself above judgment (Jas. ii. 13)
303 THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD Q. 21. Art. 4
Fourth Article.
whether in every work of god there are mercy
and justice ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that not in every work of God are
mercy and justice. For some works of God are attributed
to mercy, as the justification of the ungodly; and others to
justice, as the damnation of the wicked. Hence it is said:
Judgment without mercy to him that hath not done mercy
(Jas. ii. 13). Therefore not in every work of God do mercy
and justice appear.
Ohj. 2. Further, the Apostle attributes the conversion of
the Jews to justice and truth, but that of the Gentiles to
mercy (Rom. xv.). Therefore not in every work of God are
justice and mercy.
Ohj. 3. Further, many just persons are afflicted in this
world; which is unjust. Therefore not in every work of
God are justice and mercy.
Ohj. 4. Further, it is the part of justice to pay what is
due, but of mercy to relieve misery. Thus both justice and
mercy presuppose something in their works: whereas
creation presupposes nothing. Therefore in creation neither
mercy nor justice is found.
On the contrary, It is said (Ps. xxiv. 10) : All the ways of the
Lord are mercy and truth.
I answer that, Mercy and truth are necessarily found in
all God's works, if mercy be taken to mean the removal of
any kind of defect. Not every defect, however, can pro-
perly be called a misery; but only defect in a rational
nature whose lot is to be happy; for misery is opposed to
happiness. For this necessity there is a reason, because
since a debt paid according to the divine justice is one due
either to God, or to some creature, neither the one nor the
other can be lacking in any work of God : because God can do
nothing that is not in accord with His wisdom and good-
ness; and it is in this sense, as we have said, thd,t anything
Q. 21. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 304
is due to God. Likewise, whatever is done by Him in
created things, is done according to proper order and pro-
portion wherein consists the idea of justice. Thus justice
must exist in all God's works. Now the work of divine
justice always presupposes the work of mercy ; and is founded
thereupon. For nothing is due to creatures, except for
something pre-existing in them, or foreknown. Again, if
this is due to a creature, it must be due on account of some-
thing that precedes. And since we cannot go on to infinity,
we must come to something that depends only on the
goodness of the divine will — which is the ultimate end.
We may say, for instance, that to possess hands is due to
man on account of his rational soul; and his rational soul
is due to him that he may be man; and his being man is on
account of the divine goodness. So in every work of God,
viewed at its primary source, there appears mercy. In all
that follows, the power of mercy remains, and works indeed
with even greater force; as the influence of the first cause
is more intense than that of second causes. For this reason
does God out of the abundance of His goodness bestow upon
creatures what is due to them more bountifully than is
proportionate to their deserts: since less would suffice for
preserving the order of justice than what the divine goodness
confers; because between creatures and God's goodness there
can be no proportion.
Reply Obj. i. Certain works are attributed to justice, and
certain others to mercy, because in some justice appears
more forcibly and in others mercy. Even in the damnation
of the reprobate mercy is seen, which, though it does not
totally remit, yet somewhat alleviates, in punishing short
of what is deserved.
In the justification of the ungodly justice is seen, when
God remits sins on account of love, though He Himself
has mercifully infused that love. So we read of Magdalen:
Many sins are forgiven her, because she hath loved much
(Luke vii. 47).
Reply Obj. 2. God's justice and mercy appear both in the
conversion of the Jews and of the Gentiles. But an aspect of
305 THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD Q. 21. Art. 4
justice appears in the conversion of the Jews which is not
seen in the conversion of the Gentiles; inasmuch as the
Jews were saved on account of the promises made to the
fathers.
Reply Obj. 3. Justice and mercy appear in the punish-
ment of the just in this world, since by afflictions lesser
faults are cleansed in them, and they are the more raised up
from earthly affections to God. As to this Gregory says:
(Moral, xxvi. 9): The evils that press on us in this world
force us to go to God.
Reply Obj. 4. Although creation presupposes nothing in
the universe ; yet it does presuppose something in the know-
ledge of God. In this way too the idea of justice is pre-
served in creation ; by the production of beings in a manner
that accords with the divine wisdom and goodness. And
the idea of mercy, also, is preserved in the change of crea-
tures from non-existence to existence.
I. 20
QUESTION XXII.
THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD.
{In Four Articles.)
Having considered all that relates to the will absolutely, we
must now proceed to those things which have relation to
both the intellect and the will, namely providence, in
respect to all created things; predestination and reproba-
tion and all that is connected with these acts in respect
especially of man as regards his eternal salvation. For
in the science of morals, after the moral virtues them-
selves, comes the consideration of prudence, to which pro-
vidence would seem to belong. Concerning God's providence
there are four points of inquiry: (i) Whether providence is
suitably assigned to God ? (2) Whether everything comes
under divine providence ? (3) Whether divine providence is
immediately concerned with all things ? (4 ) Whether divine
providence imposes any necessity upon things foreseen ?
First Article,
whether providence can suitably be attributed
TO GOD ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that providence is not becoming
to God. For providence, according to TuUy [De Invent, ii.),
is a part of prudence. But prudence, since, according to the
Philosopher (Ethic, vi. 5, 9, 18), it gives good counsel, cannot
belong to God, Who never has any doubt for which He
should take counsel. Therefore providence cannot belong
to God.
306
307 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD Q. 22. Art. i
Ohj. 2. Further, whatever is in God, is eternal. But
providence is not anything eternal, for it is concerned
with existing things that are not eternal, according to
Damascene (De Fide Orthod. ii. 29). Therefore there is no
providence in God.
Obj. 3. Further, there is nothing composite in God. But
providence seems to be something composite, because it
includes both the intellect and the will. Therefore providence
is not in God.
On the contrary, It is said (Wis. xiv. 3) : But Thou, Father,
governeth all things by providence. *
1 answer that, It is necessary to attribute providence to
God. For all the good that is in created things has been
created by God, as was shown above (Q. VI., A. 4). In
created things good is found not only as regards their
substance, but also as regards their order towards an end
and especially their last end, which, as was said above, is
the divine goodness (Q. XXL, A. 4). This good of order
existing in things created, is itself created by God. Since,
however, God is the cause of things by His intellect, and
thus it behoves that the type of every effect should pre-
exist in Him, as is clear from what has gone before (Q. XIX.,
A. 4), it is necessary that the type of the order of things
towards their end should pre-exist in the divine mind : and
the type of things ordered towards an end is, properly
speaking, providence. For it is the chief part of prudence.
to which two other parts are directed — namely, remembrance
of the past, and understanding of the present ; inasmuch as
from the remembrance of what is past and the under-
standing of what is present, we gather how to provide for
the future. Now it belongs to prudence, according to the
Philosopher [Ethic, vi. 12), to direct other things towards
an end, whether in regard to oneself— as, for instance, a man
is said to be prudent, who orders well his acts towards the
end of life — or in regard to others subject to him, in a family,
city, or kingdom; in which sense it is said (Matth. xxiv. 45),
a faithful and wise servant, whom his lord hath appointed over
* Vulg., But Thy providence, O Father, governeth it.
Q. 22. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 308
his family. In this way prudence or providence may
suitably be attributed to God. For in God Himself there
can be nothing ordered towards an end, since He is the last
end. This type of the order in things towards an end is
therefore in God called providence. Whence Boethius says
{De Consol. iv. 6) that Providence is the divine type itself,
seated in the Supreme Ruler ; which disposeth all things :
which disposition may refer either to the type of the order
of things towards an end, or to the type of the order of
parts in the whole.
Reply Obj. i. According to the Philosopher {Ethic, vi. 9, 10),
Prudence is what, strictly speaking, commands all that
' eubulia ' has rightly counselled and ' synesis ' rightly judged.*'
Whence, though to take counsel may not be fitting to God»
from the fact that counsel is an inquiry into matters that
are doubtful, nevertheless to give a command as to the
ordering of things towards an end, the right reason of which
He possesses, does belong to God, according to Ps. cxlviii. 6 :
He hath made a decree, and it shall not pass away. In this
manner both prudence and providence belong to God.
Although at the same time it may be said that the very
reason of things to be done is called counsel in God; not
because of any inquiry necessitated, but from the certitude
of the knowledge, to which those who take counsel come
by inquiry. Whence it is said: Who worketh all things ac-
cording to the counsel of His will (Eph. i. 11).
Reply Obj. 2. Two things pertain to the care of providence
— namely, the reasmi of order, which is called providence
and disposition ; and the execution of order, which is termed
government. Of these, the first is eternal, and the second
is temporal.
Reply Obj. 3. Providence resides in the intellect; but pre-
supposes the act of willing the end. Nobody gives a precept
about things done for an end; unless he will that end.
Hence prudence presupposes the moral virtues, by means
of which the appetitive faculty is directed towards good, as
the Philosopher says. Even if Providence has to do with
* C/. I.-II., Q. LVII., A. 6.
309 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD Q. 22. Art. 2
the divine will and Intellect equally, this would not affect
the divine simplicity, since in God both the will and in-
tellect are one and the same thing, as we have said above
(Q.XIX.).
Second Article,
whether everything is subject to the providence
OF GOD ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that everything is not subject to
divine providence. For nothing foreseen can happen by
chance. If then everything was foreseen by God, nothing
would happen by chance. And thus hazard and luck
would disappear; which is against common opinion.
Obj. 2. Further, a wise provider excludes any defect or
evil, as far as he can, from those over whom he has a care.
But we see many evils existing. Either, then, God cannot
hinder these, and thus is not omnipotent; or else He does
not have care for everything.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever happens of necessity does not
require providence or prudence. Hence, according to the
Philosopher [Ethic, vi. 5, 9, 10, 11): Prudence is the right
reason of things contingent concerning which there is counsel
and choice. Since, then, many things happen from necessity,
everything cannot be subject to providence.
Obj. 4. Further, whatsoever is left to itself cannot be
subject to the providence of a governor. But men are left
to themselves by God, in accordance with the words: God
made man from the beginning, and left him in the hand of his
own counsel (Ecclus. xv. 14). And particularly in reference
to the wicked: / let them go according to the desires of their
heart (Ps. Ixxx. 13). Everything, therefore, cannot be
subject to divine providence.
Ohj. 5. Further, the Apostle says (i Cor. ix. 9): God doth
not care for oxen"^ : and we may say the same of other irra-
tional creatures. Thus everything cannot be under the
care of divine providence.
* Vulg., — Doth God fake care for oxen ?
g. 22. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 310
On the contrary, It is said of Divine Wisdom : She reacheth
from end to end mightily, and ordereth all things sweetly
(Wis. viii. i).
/ answer that. Certain persons totally denied the existence
of providence, as Democritus and the Epicureans, main-
taining that the world was made by chance. Others taught
that incorruptible things only were subject to providence,
and corruptible things not in their individual selves, but
only according to their species ; for in this respect they are
incorruptible. They are represented as saying (Job
xxii. 14) : The clouds are His covert ; and He doth not consider
our things ; and He walketh about the poles of heaven. Rabbi
Moses, however, excluded men from the generality of things
corruptible, on account of the excellence of the intellect
which they possess, but in reference to all else that suffers
corruption he adhered to the opinion of the others.
We must say, however, that all things are subject to
divine providence, not only in general, but even in their
own individual selves. This is made evident thus. For
since every agents acts for an end, the ordering of effects
towards that end extends as far as the causality of the
first agent extends. Whence it happens that in the effects
of an agent something takes place which has no reference
towards the end, because the effect comes from a cause
other than, and outside the intention of the agent. But
the causality of God, Who is the first agent, extends to all
being, not only as to the constituent principles of species, but
also as to the individualizing principles; not only of things
incorruptible, but also of things corruptible. Hence all
things that exist in whatsoever manner are necessarily
directed by God towards some end; as the Apostle says:
Those things that are of )od are well ordered* (Rom. xiii. i).
Since, therefore, as the providence of God is nothing less
than the type of the order of things towards an end, as we
have said ; it necessarily follows that all things, inasmuch as
* Vulg., — Those powers that are, are ordained of God: — Qucs
autem sunt, a Deo ordinatcB sunt. St. Thomas often quotes this
passage, and invariably reads: Qucb a Deo sunt, ordinata sunt.
311 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD Q. 22. Art. 2
they participate existence, must likewise be subject to
divine providence. It has also been shown (Q. XIV.,
AA. 6, 11) that God knows all things, both universal and
particular. And since His knowledge may be compared
to the things themselves, as the knowledge of art to the
objects of art, all things must of necessity come under His
ordering; as all things wrought by art are subject to the
ordering of that art.
Reply Ohj. i. There is a difference between universal
and particular causes. A thing can escape the order of a
particular cause; but not the order of a universal cause.
For nothing escapes the order of a particular cause, except
through the intervention and hindrance of some other
particular cause; as, for instance, wood may be prevented
from burning, by the action of water. Since, then, all
particular causes are included under the universal cause, it
could not be that any effect should take place outside the
range of that universal cause. So far then as an effect escapes
the order of a particular cause, it is said to be casual or for-
tuitous in respect to that cause; but if we regard the universal
cause, outside whose range no effect can happen, it is said
to be foreseen. Thus, for instance, the meeting of two
servants, although to them it appears a chance circumstance,
has been fully foreseen by their master, who has purposely
sent them to meet at the one place, in such a way that the
one knows not about the other.
Reply Ohj. 2. It is otherwise with one who has care of a
particular thing, and one whose providence is universal,
because a particular provider excludes all defects from
what is subject to his care as far as he can; whereas, one
who provides universally allows some little defect to remain,
lest the good of the whole should be hindered. Hence,
corruption and defects in natural things are said to be
contrary to some particular nature; yet they are in keeping
with the plan of universal nature; inasmuch as the defect
in one thing yields to the good of another, or even to the
universal good: for the corruption of one is the generation
of another, and through this it is that a species is kept in
Q. 22. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 312
existence. Since God, then, provides universally for all
being, it belongs to His providence to permit certain defects
in particular effects, that the perfect good of the universe may
not be hindered, for if all evil were prevented, much good
would be absent from the universe. A lion would cease to
live, if there were no slaying of animals ; and there would be
no patience of martyrs if there were no tyrannical persecu-
tion. Thus Augustine says {Enchir. ii.) : Almighty God would
in no wise permit evil to exist in His works, unless He were
so almighty and so good as to produce good even from evil.
It would appear that it was on account of these two argu-
ments to which we have just replied, that some were per-
suaded to consider corruptible things — e.g., casual and evil
things — as removed from the care of divine providence.
Reply Ohj. 3. Man is not the author of nature; but he uses
natural things in applying art and virtue to his own use.
Hence human providence does not reach to that which takes
place in nature from necessity; but divine providence
extends thus far, since God is the author of nature. Ap-
parently it was this argument that moved those who with-
drew the course of nature from the care of divine provi-
dence, attributing it rather to the necessity of matter, as
Democritus, and others of the ancients.
Reply Ohj. 4. When it is said that God left man to himself,
this does not mean that man is exempt from divine provi-
dence ; but merely that he has not a prefixed operating force
determined to only the one effect ; as in the case of natural
things, which are only acted upon as though directed by
another towards an end ; and do not act of themselves, as if
they directed themselves towards an end, like rational
creatures, through the possession of free will, by which
these are able to take counsel and make a choice. Hence
it is significantly said : In the hand of his own counsel. But
since the very act of free will is traced to God as to a cause,
it necessarily follows that everything happening from the
exercise of free will must be subject to divine providence.
For human providence is included under the providence of
God, as a particular under a universal cause. God, however.
313 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD Q. 22. Art. 3
extends His providence over the just in a certain more
excellent way than over the wicked ; inasmuch as He prevents
anything happening which would impede their final salva-
tion. For to them that love God, all things work together unto
good (Rom. viii. 28). But from the fact that He does not
restrain the wicked from the evil of sin, He is said to abandon
them : not that He altogether withdraws His providence from
them; otherwise they would return to nothing, if they were
not preserved in existence by His providence. This was the
reason that had weight with Tully, who withdrew from
the care of divine providence human affairs concerning
which we take counsel.
Reply Ohj. 5. Since a rational creature has, through its
free will, control over its actions, as was said above (Q. XIX.,
A. 10), it is subject to divine providence in an especial
manner, so that something is imputed to it as a fault, or
as a merit; and there is given it accordingly something by
way of punishment or reward. In this way the Apostle
withdraws oxen from the care of God: not, however, that
individual irrational creatures escape the care of divine
providence ; as was the opinion of the Rabbi Moses.
Third Article.
whether god has immediate providence over
everything ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God has not immediate pro-
vidence over all things. For whatever is contained in the
notion of dignity, must be attributed to God. But it belongs
to the dignity of a king, that he should have ministers ;
through whose mediation he provides for his subjects.
Therefore much less has God HimseH immediate providence
over all things.
Ohj. 2. Further, it belongs to providence to order all
things to an end. Now the end of everything is its perfec-
tion and its good. But it appertains to every cause to
direct its effect to good; wherefore every active cause is a
Q. 22.ART. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 314
cause of the effect of providence. If therefore God were to
have immediate providence over all things, all secondary
causes would be withdrawn.
Ohj. 3. Further, Augustine says {Enchir. 17) that, It is
better to be ignorant of some things than to know them, for
example, vile things: and the Philosopher says the same
{Metaph. xii. 51). But whatever is better must be assigned
to God. Therefore He has not immediate providence over
bad and vile things.
On the contrary, It is said (Job xxxiv. 13) : What other hath
He appointed over the earth ? or whom hath He set over the
world which He made ? On which passage Gregory says
(Moral, xxiv. 20): Himself He ruleth the world which He
Himself hath made.
I answer that, Two things belong to providence — namely,
the type of the order of things foreordained towards an end ;
and the execution of this order, which is called government.
As regards the first of these, God has immediate providence
over everything, because he has in His intellect the types
of everything, even the smallest; and whatsoever causes
He assigns to certain effects. He gives them the power to
produce those effects. Whence it must be that He has
beforehand the type of those effects in His mind. As to
the second, there are certain intermediaries of God's provi-
dence; for He governs things inferior by superior, not on
account of any defect in His power, but by reason of the
abundance of His goodness ; so that the dignity of causality
is imparted even to creatures. Thus Plato's opinion, as
narrated by Gregory of Nyssa {De provid. viii. 3), is ex-
ploded. He taught a threefold providence. First, one which
belongs to the supreme Deity, Who first and foremost has
provision over spiritual things, and thus over the whole
world as regards genus, species, and universal causes. The
second providence, which is over the individuals of all that
can be generated and corrupted, he attributed to the divi-
nities who circulate in the heavens ; that is, certain separate
substances, which move corporeal things in a circular
direction. The third providence, over human affairs, he
315 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD Q. 22. Art. 4
assigned to demons, whom the Platonic philosophers placed
between us and the gods, as Augustine tells us (De Civ.
Dei ix. I, 2 : viii. 14).
Reply Ohj. i. It pertains to a king's dignity to have
ministers who execute his providence. But the fact that
he has not the plan of those things which are done by them
arises from a deficiency in himself. For every operative
science is the more perfect, the more it considers the par-
ticular things with which its action is concerned.
Reply Ohj. 2. God's immediate provision over every-
thing does not exclude the action of secondary causes;
which are the executors of His order, as was said above
(Q. XIX., AA. 5, 8).
Reply Ohj. 3. It is better for us not to know low and vile
things, because by them we are impeded in our knowledge of
what is better and higher; for we cannot understand many
things simultaneously; and because the thought of evil
sometimes perverts the will towards evil. This does not
hold with God, Who sees everything simultaneously at one
glance, and whose will cannot turn in the direction of evil.
Fourth Article.
whether providence imposes any necessity
on things foreseen ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Ohjection i. It seems that divine providence imposes
necessity upon things foreseen. For every effect that
ha». a per se cause, either present or past, which it neces-
slfily follows, happens from necessity; as the Philosopher
proves (Metaph. vi. 7). But the providence of God, since
it is eternal, pre-exists; and the effect flows from it of
necessity, for divine providence cannot be frustrated.
Therefore divine providence imposes a necessity upon things
foreseen.
Ohj. 2. Further, every provider makes his work as stable
as he can, lest it should fail. But God is most powerful.
Therefore He assigns the stability of necessity to things
provided.
Q. 22. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 316
Ohj. 3. Further, Boethius says {De Consol. iv. 6): Fate
from the immutable source of providence hinds together human
acts and fortunes by the indissoluble connexion of causes.
It seems therefore that providence imposes necessity upon
things foreseen.
On the contrary, Dionysius says that (Div. Norn. iv. 23)
to corrupt nature is not the work of providence. But it is in
the nature of some things to be contingent. Divine pro-
vidence does not therefore impose any necessity upon things
so as to destroy their contingency.
/ answer that, Divine providence imposes necessity upon
some things; not upon all, as some formerly believed. For
to providence it belongs to order things towards an end.
Now after the divine goodness, which is an extrinsic end to
all things, the principal good in things themselves is the
perfection of the universe; which would not be, were not all
grades of being found in things. Whence it pertains to
divine providence to produce every grade of being. And
thus it has prepared for some things necessary causes, so
that they happen of necessity ; for others contingent causes,
that they may happen by contingency, according to the
nature of their proximate causes.
Reply Obj. i. The effect of divine providence is not only
that things should happen somehow; but that they should
happen either by necessity or by contingency. Therefore
whatsoever divine providence ordains to happen infallibly
and of necessity happens infallibly and of necessity; and
that happens from contingency, which the plan of divine
providence conceives to happen from contingency. ^
Reply Obj. 2. The order of divine providence is unchange-
able and certain, so far as all things foreseen happen as they %
have been foreseen, whether from necessity or from (con-
tingency.
Reply Obj. 3. That indissolubility and unchangeableness
of which Boethius speaks, pertain to the certainty of provi-
dence, which fails not to produce its effect, and that in
the way foreseen; but they do not pertain to the necessity
of the effects. We must remember that properly speaking
317 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD Q. 22. Art. 4
necessary and contingent are consequent upon being, as
such. Hence the mode both of necessity and of contingency
falls under the foresight of God, who provides universally
for all being; not under the foresight of causes that provide
only for some particular order of things.
QUESTION XXIII.
OF PREDESTINATION.
{In Eight Articles.)
After the consideration of divine providence, we must
treat of predestination and the book of life. Concerning per-
destination there are eight points of inquiry: (i) Whether
predestination is suitably attributed to God ? (2) What
is predestination, and whether it places anything in the
predestined ? (3) Whether to God belongs the reprobation
of some men ? (4) On the comparison of predestination
to election; whether, that is to say, the predestined are
chosen ? (5) Whether merits are the cause or reason of
predestination, or reprobation, or election ? (6) Of the
certainty of predestination; whether the predestined will
infalUbly be saved ? (7) Whether the number of the pre-
destined is certain ? (8) Whether predestination can be
furthered by the prayers of the saints ?
First Article,
whether men are predestined by god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article: —
Objection i. It seems that men are not predestined by God^
for Damascene says {De Fide Orthod. ii. 30) : It must be borne
in mind that God foreknows but does not predetermine every-
thing, since He foreknows all that is in us, but does not
predetermine it all. But human merit and demerit are in
us, forasmuch as we are the masters of our own acts by
free-will. All that pertains therefore to merit or demerit
is not predestined by God; and thus man's predestination
is done away.
318
319 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. i
Ohj. 2. Further, all creatures are directed to their end
by divine providence, as was said above (Q. XXIL, AA. i, 2).
But other creatures are not said to be predestined by God.
Therefore neither are men.
Obj. 3. l^Slrther, the angels are capable of beatitude, as
well as men. But predestination is not suitable to angels,
since in them there never was any unhappiness (miseria) ;
for predestination, as Augustine says (De prcedest. sand. 17),
is the purpose to take pity (miserendi)^. Therefore men
are not predestined.
Obj. 4. Further, the benefits God confers upon men are
revealed by the Holy Ghost to holy men according to the
saying of the Apostle (i Cor. ii. 12): Now we have received
not the spirit of this world, but the Spirit that is of God: that
we may know the things that are given us from God. Therefore
if man were predestined by God, since predestination is a
benefit from God, his predestination would be made known
to each predestined; which is clearly false.
On the contrary, It is written (Rom. viii. 30) : Whom He
predestined, them He also called.
I answer that. It is fitting that God should predestine
men. For all things are subject to His providence, as was
shown above (Q. XXIL, A. 2). Now it belongs to provi-
dence to direct things towards their end, as was also said
(Q. XXIL, AA. I, 2). The end towards which created things
are directed by God is twofold; one which exceeds all
proportion and faculty of created nature; and this end is
Hfe eternal, that consists in seeing God which is above the
nature of every creature, as shown above (Q. XIL, 4). The
other end, however, is proportionate to created nature,
to which end created being can attain according to the
power of its nature. Now if a thing cannot attain to some-
thing by the power of its nature, it must be directed thereto .^
by another ; thus, an arrow is directed by the archer towards
a mark. Hence, properly speaking, a rational creature,*
capable of eternal life, is led towards it, directed, as it were,
by God. The reason of that direction pre-exists in God;
* SeeQ. XXII. A. 3.
Q. 23. Art. i THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 320
as in Him is the 15^6 of the order of all things towards an
end, which we proved above to be providence. Now the
type in the mind of the doer of something to be done, is a
kind of pre-existence in him of the thing to be dope. Hengg
the type of the aforesaid direction of a ratitMlfcfSBB^
towards the end of life eternal is called predestination.
For to destine, is to direct or send. Thus it is clear
that predestination, as regards its objects, is a part of
providence.
Reply Obj. i. Damascene calls predestination an impo-
sition of necessity, after the manner of natural things
which are predetermined towards one end. This is clear
from his adding: He does not will malice, nor does He
compel virtue. Whence predestination is not excluded
by him.
Reply Obj. 2. Irrational creatures are not capable of that
end which exceeds the faculty of human nature. Whence
they cannot be properly said to be predestined; although
improperly the term is used in respect of any other end.
Reply Obj. 3. Predestination applies to angels, just as
it does to men, although they have never been unhappy.
For movement does not take its species from the term
wherefrom, but from the term whereto. Because it matters
nothing, in respect of the notion of making white, whether
he who is made white was before black, yellow, or red.
Likewise it matters nothing in respect of the notion of
predestination whether one is predestined to life eternal
from the state of misery or not. Although it may be said
that every conferring of good above that which is due per-
tains to mercy; as was shown previously (Q. XXL, AA. 3, 4).
Reply Obj. 4. Even if by a special privilege their pre-
destination were revealed to some, it is not fitting that it
should be revealed to everyone ; because, if so, those who were
not predestined would despair; and security would beget
negligence in the predestined.
321 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 2
Second Article.
whether predestination places anything in the
predestined ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article: —
Objection i. It seems that predestination does place
something in the predestined. For every action of itself
causes passion. If therefore predestination is action in
God, predestination must be passion in the predestined.
Obj. 2. Further, Origen says on the text, He who was pre-
destined, etc. (Rom. i. 4) : Predestination is of one who is not;
destination, of one who is. And Augustine says (De Prced.
Sand.): What is predestination but the destination of one who
is ? Therefore predestination is only of one who actually
exists ; and it thus places something in the predestined.
Obj. 3. Further, preparation is something in the thing
prepared. But predestination is the preparation of God's
benefits, as Augustine says {De Freed. Sand. ii. 14). There-
fore predestination is something in the predestined.
Obj. 4. Further, nothing temporal enters into the defini-
tion of eternity. But grace, which is something temporal,
is found in the definition of predestination. For predestina-
tion is the preparation of grace in the present ; and of glory
in the future. Therefore predestination is not anything
eternal. So it must needs be that it is in the predestined,
and not in God ; for whatever is in Him is eternal.
On the contrary, Augustine says {ibid.) that predestination
is the foreknowledge of God's benefits. But foreknowledge is
not in the things foreknown, but in the person who fore-
knows them. Therefore, predestination is in the one who
predestines, and not in the predestined.
/ answer that. Predestination is not anything in the pre-
destined; but only in the person who predestines. We have
said above that predestination is a part of providence.
Now providence is not anything in the things provided
for ; but is a type in the mind of the provider, as was proved
above (Q. XXII., A. i.). But thie execution of providence*
Q. 23. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 322
which is called government, is in a passive way in the thing
governed, and in an active way in the governor. Whence
it is clear that predestination is a kind of type of the order-
ing of some persons towards eternal salvation, existing in
the divine mind. The execution, however, of this order is
in a passive way in the predestined, but actively in God.
The execution of predestination is the calhng and magnifi-
cation; according to the Apostle (Rom. viii. 30): Whom He
predestinated, them He also called; and whom He called, them
He also magnified (Vulg., justified).
Reply Ohj. i. Actions passing out to external matter
imply of themselves passion — for example, the actions of
warming and cutting; but not so actions remaining in the
agent, as understanding and wilHng, as said above
(QQ. XIV., A. 2. ; XVIIL, A. 3, ad i). Predestination is an
action of this latter class. Wherefore, it does not put any-
thing in the predestined. But its execution, which passes
out to external things, has an effect in them.
Reply Ohj, 2. Destination sometimes denotes a real
mission of someone to a given end; thus, destination can
only be said of someone actually existing. It is taken,
however, in another sense for a mission which a person
conceives in the mind; and in this manner we are said
to destine a thing which we firmly propose in our mind.
In this latter way it is said that Eleazar determined not to
do any unlawful things for the love of life (2 Mac. vi. 20).
Thus destination can be of a thing which does not exist.
Predestination, however, by reason of the antecedent
nature it implies, can be attributed to a thing which does
not actually exist ; in whatsoever way destination is accepted.
Reply Ohj, 3. Preparation is twofold: of the patient in
respect to passion and this is in the thing prepared and of
the agent, to action, and this is in the agent. Such a pre-
paration is predestination, as an agent by intellect is said to
prepare itself to act, accordingly as it preconceives the
idea of what is to be done. Thus, God from all eternity
prepared by predestination, conceiving the idea of the
order of some towards salvation.
323 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 3
Reply Ohj, 4. Grace does not come into the definition of
predestination, as something belonging to its essence, but
inasmuch as predestination implies a relation to grace,
as of cause to effect, and of act to its object. Whence
it does not follow that predestination is anything temporal.
Third Article,
whether god reprobates any man ?
We proceed thus to the third Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God reprobates no man. For
nobody reprobates what he loves. But God loves every
man, according to (Wis. xi. 25) : Thou lovest all things that
are, and Thou hatest none of the things Thou hast made.
Therefore God reprobates no man.
Ohj. 2. Further, if God reprobates any man, it would be
necessary for reprobation to have the same relation to the
reprobate as predestination has to the predestined. But
predestination is the cause of the salvation of the pre-
destined. Therefore reprobation will Hkewise be the cause
of the loss of the reprobate. But this is false. For it is
said (Osee xiii. 9) : Destruction is thy own, 0 Israel; Thy help
is only in Me. God does not, then, reprobate any man.
Ohj. 3. Further, to no one ought anything to be imputed
which he cannot avoid. But if God reprobates anyone, that
one must perish. For it is said (Eccl. vii. 14) : Consider the
works of God, that no man can correct whom He hath despised.
Therefore it could not be imputed to any man, were he to
perish. But this is false. Therefore God does not reprobate
anyone.
On the contrary, It is said (Malach. i. 2, 3): / have loved
Jacoh, hut have hated Esau.
I answer that, God does reprobate some. For it was said
above (A. i) that predestination is a part of providence. To
providence, however, it belongs to permit certain defects
in those things which are subject to providence, as was
said above (Q. XXII. , A. 2). Thus, as men are ordained
to eternal life through the providence of God, it likewise is
Q. 23. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 324
part of that providence to permit some to fall away from
that end ; this is called reprobation. Thus, as predestination
is a part of providence, in regard to those ordained to eternal
salvation, so reprobation is a part of providence in regard
to those who turn aside from that end. Hence reprobation
imphes not only foreknowledge, but also something more,
as does providence, as was said above (Q. XXII., A. i).
Therefore, as predestination includes the will to confer grace
and glory ; so also reprobation includes the will to permit
a person to fall into sin, and to impose the punishment of
damnation on account of that sin.
Reply Ohj. i. God loves all men and all creatures, inas-
much as He wishes them all some good; but He does not
wish every good to them all. So far, therefore, as He does
not wish this particular good — namely, eternal life — He is
said to hate or reprobate them.
Reply Ohj. 2. Reprobation differs in its causaHty from
predestination. This latter is the cause both of what is
expected in the future life by the predestined — namely*
glory — and of what is received in this life — namely, grace.
Reprobation, however, is not the cause of what is in the
present — namely, sin; but it is the cause of abandonment
by God. It is the cause, however, of what is assigned in the
future — namely, eternal punishment. But guilt proceeds
from the free-will of the person who is reprobated and
deserted by grace. In this way the word of the prophet
is true —namely. Destruction is thy own, 0 Israel.
Reply Ohj. 3. Reprobation by God does not take any-
thing away from the power of the person reprobated.
Hence, when it is said that the reprobated cannot obtain
grace, this must not be understood as implying absolute
^ impossibility; but only conditional impossibility: as was
said above (Q. XIX., A. 3), that the predestined must neces-
sarily be saved; yet by a conditional necessity, which does
not do away with the liberty of choice. Whence, although
anyone reprobated by God cannot acquire grace, nevertheless
that he falls into this or that particular sin comes from the use
bf his frefe-will. Hence it is rightly imputed to him as guilt.
325 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 4
Fourth Article,
whether the predestined are chosen by god ?*
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that the predestined are not chosen
by God. For Dionysius says (Div. Norn. iv. i) that as the
corporeal sun sends his rays upon all without selection,
so does God His goodness. But the goodness of God is
communicated to some in an especial manner through a
participation of grace and glory. Therefore God without
any selection communicates His grace and glory; and this
belongs to predestination.
Obj. 2. Further, election is of things that exist. But pre-
destination from all eternity is also of things which do not
exist. Therefore, some are predestined without election.
Obj. 3. Further, election implies some discrimination.
Now God wills all men to be saved (i Tim. ii. 4). Therefore,
predestination which ordains men towards eternal salvation,
is without election.
On the contrary, It is said (Ephes. i. 4): He chose us in
Him before the foundation of the world.
I answer that, Predestination presupposes election in the
order of reason; and election presupposes love. The reason
of this is that predestination, as stated above (A. i), is a
part of providence. Now providence, as also prudence, is
the plan existing in the intellect directing the ordering
of some things towards an end; as was proved above
(Q. XXII., A. 2). But nothing is directed towards an
end unless the will for that end already exists. Whence
the predestination of some to eternal salvation presupposes,
in the order of reason, that God wills their salvation; and
to this belong both election and love: — ^love, inasmuch as
He wills them this particular good of eternal salvation;
since to love is to wish well to anyone, as stated above
(Q. XX., AA. 2, 3.) :— election, inasmuch as He wills this good
to some in preference to others; since He reprobates some,
as stated above (A. 3.) Election and love, however, are
* Eligantur.
Q. 23. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 326
differently ordered in God, and in ourselves: because in
us the will in loving does not cause good, but we are incited
to love by the good which already exists; and therefore we
choose someone to love, and so election in us precedes love.
In God, however, it is the reverse. For His will, by which
in loving He wishes good to someone, is the cause of that
good possessed by some in preference to others. Thus it
is clear that love precedes election in the order of reason,
and election precedes predestination. Whence all the
predestinate are objects of election and love.
Reply Ohj. i. If the communication of the divine good-
ness in general be considered, God communicates His good-
ness without election; inasmuch as there is nothing which
does not in some way share in His goodness, as we said
above (Q. VL, A. 4.) But if we consider the communication
of this or that particular good. He does not allot it without
election; since He gives certain goods to some men, which
He does not give to others. Thus in the conferring of grace
and glory election is implied.
Reply Ohj. 2. When the will of the person choosing is
incited to make a choice by the good already pre-existing
in the object chosen, the choice must needs be of those
things which already exist, as happens in our choice. In
God it is otherwise ; as was said above (Q. XX., A. 2.) . Thus,
as Augustine says [De Verb. Ap. Serm. 11) : Those are chosen
by God, who do not exist; yet He does not err in His choice.
Reply Ohj, 3. God wills all men to be saved by His ante-
cedent will, which is to will not simply but relatively; and
not by His consequent will, which is to will simply.
Fifth Article.
whether the foreknowledge of merits is the
cause of predestination?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that foreknowledge of merits is the
cause of predestination. For the Apostle says (Rom. viii. 29) :
Whom He foreknew, He also predestinated. Again a gloss of
327 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 5
Ambrose on Rom. ix. 15: / will have mercy upon whom I
will have mercy says : / will give mercy to him who, I foresee,
will turn to Me with his whole heart. Therefore it seems
the foreknowledge of merits is the case of predestination.
Ohj. 2. Further, Divine predestination includes the divine
will, which by no means can be irrational ; since predestina-
tioa is the purpose to have mercy, as Augustine says {De
Prazd. Sand. ii. 17). But there can be no other reason for
predestination than the foreknowledge of merits. There-
fore ix must be the cause or reason of predestination.
Ohj. 3. Further, There is no injustice in God (Rom. ix. 14).
Now it would seem unjust that unequal things be given to
equals. But all men are equal as regards both nature and
original sin ; and inequality in them arises from the merits
or demerits of their actions. Therefore God does not prepare
unequal things for men by predestinating and reprobating,
unless through the foreknowledge of their merits and
demerits,
On the contrary, The Apostle says (Tit. iii. 5) : Not by the
works of justice which we have done, hut according to His
mercy He saved us. But as He saved us, so He predestined
that we should be saved. Therefore, foreknowledge of
merits is not the cause or reason of predestination.
I answer that. Since predestination includes will, as was
said above (A. 4), the reason of predestination must be
sought for in the same way as was the reason of the will
of God. Now it was shown above (Q. XIX., A. 5.), that
we cannot assign any cause of the divine will on the part
of the act of willing ; but a reason can be found on the part
of the things willed; inasmuch as God wills one thing on
account of something else. Wherefore nobody has been
so insane as to say that merit is the cause of divine predes-
tination as regards the act of the predestinator. But this
is the question, whether, as regards the effect, predestination
has any cause; or what comes to the same thing, whether
God pre-ordained that He would give the effect of predes-
tination to anyone on account of any merits.
Accordingly there were some who held that the effect
Q. 23. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 328
of predestination was pre-ordained for some on account of
pre-existing merits in a former life. This was the opinion
of Origen, who thought that the souls of men were created
in the beginning, and according to the diversity of their
works different states were assigned to them in this world
when united to the body. The Apostle, however, rebuts this
opinion where he says (Rom. ix. 11, 12) : For when they
were not yet born, nor had done any good or evil, . . . noi of
works, hilt of Him that calleth, it was said to her: The dder
shall serve the younger.
Others said that pre-existing merits in this life are the
reason and cause of the effect of predestination. For the
Pelagians taught that the beginning of doing well came
from us; and the consummation from God: so that it
came about that the effect of predestination was granted
to one, and not to another, because the one made a beginning
by preparing, whereas the other did not. But against this
we have the saying of the Apostle (2 Cor. iii. 5), that
ive are not sufficient to think anything of ourselves as of our-
selves. Now no principle of action can be imagined previous
to the act of thinking. Wherefore it cannot be Said that
anything begun in us can be the reason of the 1 effect of
predestination. j
And so others said that merits following the effect of pre-
destination are the reason of predestination; giving us to
understand that God gives grace to a person, and pre-ordains
that He will give it, because He knows beforehaiid that He
will make good use of that grace, as if a king were to give a
horse to a soldier because he knows he will make good use of
it. But these seem to have drawn a distinction between that
which flows from grace, and that which flows f rpm free will,
as if the same thing cannot come from both. It is, however,
manifest that what is of grace is the effect of predestination ;
and this cannot be considered as the reason of predestination,
since it is contained in the notion of predestination. There-
fore, if anything else in us be the reason of predestination, it
will be outside the effect of predestination. Now there is no
distinction between what flows from free will, and what is
329 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 5
of predestination; as there is no distinction between what
flows from a secondary cause and from a first cause. For the
providence of God produces effects through the operation of
secondary causes, as was above shown (Q. XXIL, A. 3).
Wherefore, that which flows from free-will is also of pre-
destination. We must say, therefore, that the effect of
predestination may be considered in a twofold light — in one
way, in particular; and thus there is no reason why one
effect of predestination should not be the reason or cause of
another; a subsequent effect being the reason of a previous
effect, as its final cause; and the previous effect being the
reason of the subsequent as its meritorious cause, which is
reduced to the disposition of the matter. Thus we might
say that God preordained to give glory on account of merit,
and that He preordained to give grace to merit glory.
In another way, the effect of predestination may be con-
sidered in general. Thus, it is impossible that the whole
of the effect of predestination in general should have any
cause as coming from us; because whatsoever is in man
disposing him towards salvation, is all included under the
effect of predestination; even the preparation for grace.
For neither does this happen otherwise than by divine help,
according to the prophet Jeremias (Lam. v. 21) : Convert us,
0 Lord, to Thee, and we shall he converted. Yet predestina-
tion has in this way, in regard to its effect, the goodness of
God for its reason; towards which the whole effect of pre-
destination is directed as to an end; and from which it
proceeds, as from its first moving principle.
Reply Obj. i. The use of grace foreknown by God is
not the cause of conferring grace, except after the manner
of a final cause; as was explained above.
Reply Obj. 2. Predestination has its foundation in the
goodness of God as regards its effects in general. Con-
sidered in its particular effects, however, one effect is the^
reason of another; as already stated.
Reply Obj. 3. The reason for the predestination of some,
and reprobation of others, must be sought for in the goodness
of God. Thus He is said to have made all things through
Q. 23. Art. 5 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 330
His goodness, so that the divine goodness might be repre-
sented in things. Now it is necessary that God's goodness,
which in itself is one and undivided, should be manifested in
many ways in His creation ; because creatures in themselves
cannot attain to the simplicity of God. Thus it is that for
the completion of the universe there are required different
grades of being; some of which hold a high and some a low
place iti the universe. That this multiformity of grades may
be preserved in things, God allows some evils, lest many good
things should never happen, as was said above (Q. XXII.
A. 2). Let us then consider the whole of the human race,
as we consider the whole universe. God wills to manifest
His goodness in men; in respect to those whom He pre-
destines, by means of His mercy, in sparing them; and in
respect of others, whom he reprobates, by means of His
justice, in punishing them. This is the reason why God
elects some and rejects others. To this the Apostle refers,
saying (Rom. ix. 22, 23) : What if God, willing to show His
wrath [that is, the vengeance of His justice], and to make
His power known, endured [that is, permitted] with much
patience vessels of wrath, fitted for destruction; that He might
show the riches of His glory on the vessels of mercy, which He
hath prepared unto glory (Rom. ix. 22, 23) : and (2 Tim. ii. 20) :
But in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver;
but also of wood and of earth; and some, indeed, unto honour,
hut some unto dishonour. Yet why He chooses some for
glory, and reprobates others, has no reason, except the divine
will. Whence Augustine says {Tract, xxvi. in Joan.): Why
He draws one, and another He draws not, seek not to judge, if
thou dost not wish to err. Thus too, in the things of nature,
a reason can be assigned, since primary matter is altogether
uniform, why one part of it was fashioned by God from the
beginning under the form of fire, another under the form of
earth, that there might be a diversity of species in things
of nature. Yet why this particular part of matter is under
this particular form, and that under another, depends upon
the simple will of God ; as from the simple will of the artificer
it depends that this stone is in this part of the wall, and that
331 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 6
in another; although the plan requires that some stones
should be in this place, and some in that place. Neither on
this account can there be said to be injustice in God, if He
prepares unequal lots for not unequal things. This would
be altogether contrary to the notion of justice, if the effect of
predestination were granted as a debt, and not gratuitously.
In things which are given gratuitously a person can give
more or less, just as he pleases (provided he deprives nobody
of his due), without any infringement of justice. This is
what the master of the house said: Take what is thine, and
go thy way. Is it not lawful for me to do what I will ? (Matth.
XX. 14, 15).
Sixth Article,
whether predestination is certain ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that predestination is not certain.
Because on the words Hold fast that which thou hast, that
no one take thy crown (Apoc. iii. 11), Augustine says {De Corr.
et Grat. 15): Another will not receive, unless this one were to
lose it. Hence the crown which is the effect of predestina-
tion can be both acquired and lost. Therefore predestina-
tion cannot be certain.
Obj. 2. Further, granted what is possible, nothing impos-
sible follows. But it is possible that one predestined —
e.g., Peter — may sin and then be killed. But if this were
so, it would follow that the effect of predestination would
be thwarted. This, then, is not impossible. Therefore pre-
destination is not certain.
Obj. 3. Further, whatever God could do in the past. He can
do now. But He could have not predestined whom He hath
predestined. Therefore now He is able not to predestine
him. Therefore predestination is not certain.
On the contrary, A gloss on Rom. viii. 29: Whom He fore-
knew, He also predestinated, says : Predestination is the fore-
knowledge and preparation of the benefits of God, by which
whosoever are freed will most certainly be freed.
I answer thct, Predestination most certainly and infallibly
Q. 23. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 332
takes effect; yet it does not impose any necessity, so that,
namely, its effect should take place from necessity. For it was
said above (A. i), that predestination is a part of providence.
But not all things subject to providence are necessary; some
things happening from contingency, according to the nature
of the proximate causes, which divine providence has
ordained for such effects. Yet the order of providence is
infalUble, as was shown above (Q. XXIL, A. 4). So also
the order of predestination is certain; yet free will is not
destroyed; whence the effect of predestination has its
contingency. Moreover all that has been said about the
divine knowledge and will (QQ. XIV., A. 13, and XIX., A. 4)
must also be taken into consideration; since they do not
destroy contingency in things, although they themselves
are most certain and infallible.
Reply Ohj. i. The crown may be said to belong to a person
in two ways; first, by God's predestination, and thus no
one loses his crown: secondly, by the merit of grace; for
what we merit, in a certain way is ours ; and thus anyone may
lose his crown by mortal sin. Another person receives that
crown thus lost, inasmuch as he takes the former's place.
For God does not permit some to fall, without raising others;
according to Job xxxiv. 24: He shall break in pieces many and
innumerable, and make others to stand in their stead. Thus
men are substituted in the place of the fallen angels ; and
the Gentiles in that of the Jews. He who is substituted
for another in the state of grace, also receives the crown of
the fallen in that in eternal life he will rejoice at the good
the other has done, in which life he will rejoice at all good
whether done by himself or by others.
Reply Obj. 2. Although it is possible for one who is pre-
V destinated considered in himself to die in mortal sin; yet
it is not possible, supposed, as in fact it is supposed, that he
is predestinated. Whence it does not follow that predesti-
nation can fall short of its effect.
Reply Obj. 3. Since predestination includes the divine will
as stated above (A. 4): and the fact that God wills any
created thing is necessary on the supposition that He so wills.
333 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 7
on account of the immutability of the divine will, but is not
necessary absolutely; so the same must be said of pre-
destination. Wherefore one ought not to say that God is
able not to predestinate one whom He has predestinated,
taking it in a composite sense, though, absolutely speaking,
God can predestinate or not. But in this way the certainty
of predestination is not destroyed.
Seventh Article,
whether the number of the predestined is certain ?
We proceed thus to the Seventh Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the number of the predestined
is not certain. For a number to which an addition can be
made is not certain. But there can be an addition to the
number of the predestined as it seems; for it is written
(Deut. i. 11) : The Lord God adds to this number many thou-
sands, and a gloss adds, fixed by God, who knows those who
belong to Him. Therefore the number of the predestined
is not certain.
Obj. 2. Further, no reason can be assigned why God
preordains to salvation one number of men more than
another. But nothing is arranged by God without a reason.
Therefore the number to be saved preordained by God
cannot be certain.
Obj. 3. Further, the operations of God are more perfect
than those of nature. But in the works of nature, good is
found in the majority of things; defect and evil in the
minority. If, then, the number of the saved were fixed by
God at a certain figure, there would be more saved than
lost. Yet the contrary follows from Matth. vii. 13, 14:
For wide is the gate, and broad the way that leadeth to destruc-
tion, and many there are who go in thereat. How narrow is
the gate, and strait is the way that leadeth to life; and few there
are that find it ! Therefore the number of those preordained
by God to be saved is not certain.
On the contrary, Augustine says {De Corr. et Grat. 13):
The number of the predestined is certain, and can neither be
increased nor dimi^iished.
Q. 23. Art. 7 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 334
I answer that, The number of the predestined is certain.
Some have said that it was formally, but not materially
certain ; as if we were to say that it was certain that a hun-
dred or a thousand would be saved; not however these or
those individuals. But this destroys the certainty of
predestination; of which we spoke above (A. 6). Therefore
we must say that to God the number of the predestined
is certain, not only formally, but also materially. It must,
however, be observed that the number of the predestined
is said to be certain to God, not only by reason of His know-
ledge, because, that is to say. He knows how many will be
saved (for in this way the number of drops of rain and the
sands of the sea are certain to God) ; but by reason of His
deliberate choice and determination. For the further
evidence of which we must remember that every agent
intends to make something finite, as is clear from what has
been said above when we treated of the infinite (Q. VH.,
AA. 2, 3). Now whosoever intends some definite measure
in his effect thinks out some definite number in the essential
parts, which are by their very nature required for the
perfection of the whole. For of those things which are
required not principally, but only on account of something
else, he does not select any definite number per se ; but he
accepts and uses them in such numbers as are necessary on
account of that other thing. For instance, a builder thinks
out the definite measurements of a house, and also the
definite number of rooms which he wishes to make in the
house; and definite measurements of the walls and the roof;
he does not, however, select a definite number of stones,
but accepts and uses just so many as are sufficient for the
required measurements of the wall. So also must we con-
sider concerning God in regard to the whole universe, which
is His effect. For He preordained the measurements of
the whole of the universe, and what number would befit
the essential parts of that universe — that is to say, which
have in some way been ordained in perpetuity; how many
spheres, how many stars, how many elements, and how
many species. Individuals, however, which undergo cor-
335 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 7
ruption, are not ordained as it were chiefly for the good
of the universe, but in a secondary way, inasmuch as the
good of the species is preserved through them. Whence,
although God knows the total number of individuals, the
number of oxen, flies, and such-like, is not preordained by
God per se; but divine providence produces just so many
as are sufficient for the preservation of the species. Now of
all creatures the rational creature is chiefly ordained for the
good of the universe, being as such incorruptible; more
especially those who attain to eternal happiness, since they
more immediately reach the ultimate end. Whence the
number of the predestined is certain to God ; not only by way
of knowledge, but also by way of a principal preordination.
It is not exactly the same thing in the case of the number
of the reprobate, who would seem to be preordained by God
for the good of the elect, in whose regard all things work
together unto good (Rom. viii. 28). Concerning the number
of all the predestined, some say that so many men will be
saved as angels fell; some, so many as there were angels
left; others, as many as the number of angels who fell,
added to that of all the angels created by God. It is,
however, better to say that, to God alone is known the number
for whom is reserved eternal happiness.*
Reply Obj. i. These words of Deuteronomy must be
taken as applied to those who are marked out by God
beforehand in respect to present righteousness. For their
number is increased and diminished, but not the number of
the predestined.
Reply Obj. 2. The reason of the quantity of any one part
must be judged from the proportion of that part to the
whole. Thus in God the reason why He has made so many
stars, or so many species of things, or predestined so many,
is according to the proportion of the principal parts to the
good of the whole universe.
Reply Obj. 3. The good that is proportionate to the
common state of nature is to be found in the majority; and
is wanting in the minority. The good that exceeds the
* Fiomthe^secret prayer in the missal, pro vivis et defunctis.
Q. 23. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA *' 336
common state of nature is to be found in the minority, and
is wanting in the maj ority . Thus it is clear that the maj ority
of men have a sufficient knowledge for the guidance of hfe ;
and those who have not this knowledge are said to be half-
witted or f ooHsh ; but they who attain to a profound know-
ledge of things intelligible are a very small minority in
respect to the rest. Since their eternal happiness, consisting
in the vision of God, exceeds the common state of nature,
and especially in so far as this is deprived of grace through
the corruption of original sin, those who are saved are in
the minority. In this especially, however, appears the
mercy of God, that He has chosen some for that salvation,
from which very many in accordance with the common
course and tendency of nature fall short.
Eighth Article.
whether predestination can be furthered by the
prayers of the saints ?
We proceed thus to the Eighth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that predestination cannot be
furthered by the prayers of the saints. For nothing eternal
can be preceded by anything temporal ; and in consequence
nothing temporal can help towards making something else
eternal. But predestination is eternal. Therefore, since
the prayers of the saints are temporal, they cannot so
help as to cause anyone to become predestined. Pre-
destination therefore is not furthered by the prayers of
the saints.
Ohj. 2. Further, as there is no need of advice except on
account of defective knowledge, so there is no need of help
except through defective power. But neither of these things
can be said of God when He predestines. Whence it is said:
Who hath helped the Spirit of the Lord ?* Or who hath been
His counsellor? (Rom. xi. 34). Therefore predestination
cannot be furthered by the prayers of the saints.
Obj. 3. Further, if a thing can be helped, it can also be
* Vulg^i Who hath known th^ mind of the Lord ?
337 PREDESTINATION Q. 23. Art. 8
hindered. But predestination cannot be hindered by any-
thing. Therefore it cannot be furthered by anything.
On the contrary, It is said that Isaac besought the Lord
for his wife because she was barren; and He heard Him and
made Rebecca to conceive (Gen. xxv. 21). But from that
conception Jacob was born, and he was predestined. Now
his predestination would not have happened if he had never
been born. Therefore predestination can be furthered by
the prayers of the saints.
/ answer that, Concerning this question, there were different
errors. Some, regarding the certainty of divine predestina-
tion, said that prayers were superfluous, as also anything
else done to attain salvation; because whether these things
were done or not, the predestined would attain, and the
reprobate would not attain, eternal salvation. But against
this opinion are all the warnings of Holy Scripture, exhorting
us to prayer and other good works.
Others declared that the divine predestination was
altered through prayer. This is stated to have been the
opinion of the Egyptians, who thought that the divine
ordination, which they called fate, could be frustrated by
certain sacrifices and prayers. Against this also is the
authority of Scripture. For it is said : But the triumpher in
Israel will not spare and will not be moved to repentance
(i Kings XV. 39) ; and that the gifts and the calling of God are
without repentance (Rom. xi. 29).
Wherefore we must say otherwise that in predestination
two things are to be considered — namely, the divine pre-
ordination; and its effect. As regards the former, in no
possible way can predestination be furthered by the prayers
of the saints. For it is not due to their prayers that anyone
is predestined by God. As regards the latter, predestina-
tion is said to be helped by the prayers of the saints, and
by other good works ; because providence, of which predes-
tination is a part, does not do away with secondary causes
but so provides effects, that the order of secondary causes
falls also under providence. So, as natural effects are
provided by God in such a way that natural causes are
It 22
Q. 23. Art. 8 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 338
directed to bring about those natural effects, without which
those effects would not happen; so the salvation of a person
is predestined by God in such a way, that whatever helps
that person towards salvation falls under the order of
predestination; whether it be one's own prayers, or those of
another ; or other good works, and suchUke, without which
one would not attain to salvation. Whence, the predes-
tined must strive after good works and prayer; because
through these means predestination is most certainly ful-
filled. For this reason it is said: Labour the more that by
good works you may make sure your calling and election
(2 Pet. i. 10).
Reply Obj. i. This argument shows that predestination
is not furthered by the prayers of the saints, as regards
the preordination.
Reply Obj, z. One is said to be helped by another in two
ways; in one way, inasmuch as he receives power from
him: and to be helped thus belongs to the weak; but this
cannot be said of God, and thus we are to understand. Who
hath helped the Spirit of the Lord ? In another way one is
said to be helped by a person through whom he carries out
his work, as a master through a servant. In this way God
is helped by us ; inasmuch as we execute His orders, accord-
ing to I Cor. iii. 9: We are God's coadjutors. Nor is this on
account of any defect in the power of God, but because He
employs intermediary causes, in order that the beauty of
order may be preserved in the universe; and also that He
may communicate to creatures the dignity of causality.
Reply Obj, 3. Secondary causes cannot escape the order
of the first universal cause, as has been said above (Q. XIX.,
A. 6), indeed, they execute that order. And therefore
predestination can be furthered by creatures, but it cannot
be impeded by them.
QUESTION XXIV.
THE BOOK OF LIFE.
{In Three Articles.)
We now consider the book of life; concerning which there
are three points of inquiry: (i) What is the book of hfe ?
(2) Of what Hfe is it the book ? (3) Whether anyone can
be blotted out of the book of life ?
First Article.
whether the book of life is the same as
predestination ?
We proceed thus to the First Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the book of life is not the
same thing as predestination. For it is said, All these
things are the hook of life (Ecclus. xxiv. 32) — i.e. the Old and
New Testament according to a gloss. This, however, is not
predestination. Therefore the book of life is not predestina-
tion.
Ohj. 2. Further, Augustine says {De Civ. Dei, xx. 14) that
the hook of life is a certain divine energy, hy which it happens
that to each one his good or evil works are recalled to memory.
But divine energy belongs seemingly, not to predestina-
tion, but rather to divine power. Therefore the book of
life is not the same thing as predestination.
Ohj. 3. Further, Reprobation is opposed to predestination*
So, if the book of life were the same as predestination, there
should also be a book of death, as there is a book of life.
On the contrary, It is said in a gloss upon Ps. Ixviii. 29,
Let them be blotted out of the book of the living: This book is th^
339
Q. 24. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 340
knowledge of God, by iMch He hath predestined to life those
whom He foreknew.
I answer that, The book of life is in God taken in a meta-
phorical sense, according to a comparison with human
affairs. For it is usual among men that they who are
chosen for any office should be inscribed in a book; as,
for instance, soldiers, or counsellors, who formerly were
called conscript fathers. Now it is clear from the preceding
(Q. XXIII. , A. 4) that all the predestined are chosen by
God to possess eternal life. This conscription, therefore, of
the predestined is called the book of hfe. A thing is said
metaphorically to be written upon the mind of anyone when
it is firmly held in the memory, according to Prov. (iii. 3) :
Forget not My law, and let thy heart keep My commandments,
and further on, Write them in the tables of thy heart. For
things are written down in material books to help the
memory. Whence, the knowledge of God, by which He
firmly remembers that He has predestined some to eternal
life, is called the book of hfe. For as the writing in a book
is the sign of things to be done, so the knowledge of God
is a sign in Him of those who are to be brought to eternal
life, according to 2 Tim. ii. 19 : The sure foundation of God
standeth firm, having this seal; the Lord knoweth who are His.
Reply Obj. i. The book of life may be understood in two
senses. In one sense as the inscription of those who are
chosen to life; thus we now speak of the book of life. In
another sense the inscription of those things which lead
us to life may be called the book of life; and this also is
twofold, either as of things to be done; and thus the Old
and New Testaments are called a book of hfe; or of things
already done, and thus that divine energy by wliich it
happens that to each one his deeds will be recalled to
memory, is spoken of as the book of hfe. Thus that also
may be called the book of war, whether it contains the names
inscribed of those chosen for mihtary service; or treats of
the art of warfare, or relates the deeds of soldiers.
Hence the solution of the Second Objection is clear.
Reply Obj. 3. It is the custom to inscribe, not those whp
341 THE BOOK OF LIFE Q. 24. Art. 2
are rejected, but those who are chosen. Whence there is
no book of death corresponding to reprobation ; as the book
of life to predestination.
Reply Ohj. 4. Predestination and the book of life are
different aspects of the same thing. For this latter implies
the knowledge of predestination; as also is made clear from
the gloss quoted above.
Second Article.
whether the book of life regards only the life of
glory of the predestined ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the book of life does not only
regard the life of glory of the predestined. For the book
of life is the knowledge of life. But God, through His
own life, knows all other life. Therefore the book of life
is so called in regard to divine life ; and not only in regard
to the life of the predestined.
Ohj. 2. Further, as the life of glory comes from God, so
also does the life of nature. Therefore, if the knowledge
of the life of glory is called the book of life ; so also should
the knowledge of the life of nature be so called.
Ohj. 3. Further, some are chosen to the life of grace who
are not chosen to the life of glory ; as is clear from what is
said : Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil ?
(John vi. 71). But the book of life is the inscription of
the divine election, as stated above (A. i). Therefore it
applies also to the life of grace.
On the contrary, The book of life is the knowledge of
predestination, as stated above [ihid.]. But predestination
does not regard the life of grace, except so far as it is directed
to glory; for those are not predestined who have grace
and yet fail to obtain glory. The book of Hfe therefore is
only so called in regard to the life of glory.
I answer that, The book of life, as stated above {ihid.),
implies a conscription or a knowledge of those chosen to
life. Now a man is chosen for something which does not
Q. 24. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 342
belong to him by nature; and again that to which a man
is chosen has the aspect of an end. For a soldier is not
chosen or inscribed merely to put on armour, but to fight;
since this is the proper duty to which miUtary service is
directed. But the life of glory is an end exceeding human
nature, as said above (Q. XXII I. , A. i). Wherefore,
strictly speaking, the book of life regards the life of glory.
Reply Ohj. i. The divine life, even considered as a life of
glory, is natural to God; whence in His regard there is no
election, and in consequence no book of life : for we do not
say that anyone is chosen to possess the power of sense,
or any of those things that are consequent on nature.
From this we gather the Reply to the Second Objection.
For there is no election, nor a book of life as regards the life
of nature.
Reply Ohj. 3. The life of grace has the aspect, not of an
end, but of something directed towards an end. Hence
nobody is said to be chosen to the life of grace, except so
far as the life of grace is directed to glory. For this reason
those who, possessing grace, fail to obtain glory, are not
said to be chosen simply, but relatively. Likewise they
are not said to be written in the book of life simply, but
relatively; that is to say, that it is in the ordination and
knowledge of God that they are to have some relation to
eternal life, according to their participation in grace.
Third Article,
whether anyone may be blotted out of the book
OF LIFE ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that no one may be blotted out of
the book of life. For Augustine says {De Civ. Dei, xx. 15) :
God*s foreknowledge, which cannot he deceived, is the book of
life. But nothing can be taken away from the foreknow-
ledge of God, nor from predestination. Therefore neither
can anyone be blotted out from the book of life.
Obj. 2. Further, whatever is in a thing, is in it according
343 THE BOOK OF LIFE Q. 24. Art. 3
to the disposition of that thing. But the book of life is
something eternal and immutable. Therefore whatsoever
is written therein, is there not in a temporary way, but
immovably and indelibly.
Ohj. 3. Further, blotting out is the contrary to inscripi-
tion. But nobody can be written a second time in the
book of life. Neither therefore can he be blotted out.
On the contrary, It is said, Let them be blotted out from the
book of the living (Ps. Ixviii. 29).
/ answer that, Some have said that none could be blotted
out of the book of life as a matter of fact, but only in the
opinion of men. For it is customary in the Scriptures
to say that something is done when it becomes known.
Thus some are said to be written in the book of life, inas-
much as men think they are written therein, on account
of the present righteousness they see in them; but when it
becomes evident, either in this world or in the next, that
they have fallen from that state of righteousness, they are
then said to be blotted out. And thus a gloss explains the
passage : Let them be blotted out of the book of the living. But
because not to be blotted out of the book of life is placed
among the rewards of the just, according to the text, He
that shall overcome, shall thus be clothed in white garments,
and I will not blot his name out of the book of life (Apoc. iii. 5)
(and what is promised to holy men, is not merely something
in the opinion of men), it can therefore be said that to be
blotted out, and not blotted out, of the book of life is not
only to be referred to the opinion of man, but to the reality
of the fact. For the book of life is the inscription of those
ordained to eternal life, to which one is directed from two
sources; namely, from predestination, which direction
never fails, and from grace; for whoever has grace, by
this very fact becomes fitted for eternal life. This direction
fails sometimes; because some are directed, by possessing
grace, to obtain eternal life, yet they fail to obtain it through
mortal sin. Therefore those who are ordained to possess
eternal life through divine predestination are written down
in the book of life simply, because they are written therein
Q. 24. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '^ 344
to have eternal life in reality; such are never blotted out
from the book of life. Those, however, who are ordained
to eternal life, not through the divine predestination, but
through grace, are said to be written in the book of life
not simply, but relatively, for they are written therein
not to have eternal life in itself, but in its cause only. Yet
though these latter can be said to be blotted out of the book
of life, this blotting out must not be referred to God, as if
God foreknew a thing, and afterwards knew it not ; but to
the thing known, namely, because God knows one is first
ordained to eternal life, and afterwards not ordained when
he falls from grace.
Reply Obj. i. The act of blotting out does not refer to the
book of life as regards God's foreknowledge, as if in God
there were any change; but as regards things foreknown,
which can change.
Reply Obj. 2. Although things are immutably in God,
yet in themselves they are subject to change. To this it is
that the blotting out of the book of life refers.
Reply Obj. 3. The way in which one is said to be blotted
out of the book of life is that in which one is said to be
written therein anew; either in the opinion of men, or be-
cause he begins again to have relation towards eternal life
through grace; which also is included in the knowledge
of God, although not anew.
QUESTION XXV.
THE POWER OF GOD.
{In Six Articles.)
After considering the divine foreknowledge and will,
and other things pertaining thereto, it remains for us to
consider the power of God. About this are six points of
inquiry : (i) Whether there is power in God ? (2) Whether
His power is infinite ? (3) Whether He is almighty ?
(4) Whether He could make the past not to have been ?
(5) Whether He could do what He does not, or not do what
He does ? (6) Whether what He makes He could make
better ?
First Article,
whether there is power in god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article: —
Objection i. It seems that power is not in God. For as
primary matter is to power, so God, who is the first agent,
is to act. But primary matter, considered in itself, is
devoid of all act. Therefore, the first agent — namely, God
— is devoid of power.
Ohj. 2. Further, according to the Philosopher (Metaph.
vi. 19), better than every power is its act. For form is
better than matter; and action than active power, since
it is its end. But nothing is better than w^hat is in God;
because whatsoever is in God, is God, as was shown above
(Q. III., A. 3). Therefore, there is no power in God.
Obj. 3. Further, Power is the principle of operation. But
the divine power is God's essence, since there is nothing
accidental in God: and of the essence of God there is no
principle. Therefore there is no power in God.
345
Q. 25. Art. i THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 346
Obj. 4. Further, it was shown above (QQ. XIV., A. 8;
XIX., A. 4) that God's knowledge and will are the cause
of things. But the cause and principle of a thing are iden-
tical. We ought not, therefore, to assign power to God;
but only knowledge and will.
On the contrary, It is said: Thou art mighty, 0 Lord, and
Thy truth is round about Thee (Ps. Ixxxviii. g).
/ answer that, Power is twofold — namely, passive, which
exists not at all in God; and active, which we must assign
to Him in the highest degree. For it is manifest that
everything, according as it is in act and is perfect, is the
active principle of something : whereas everything is passive
according as it is deficient and imperfect. Now it was
shown above (QQ. III., A. 2; IV., AA. i, 2), that God is
pure act, simply and in all ways perfect, nor in Him does
any imperfection find place. Whence it most fittingly
belongs to Him to be an active principle, and in no wa\'
whatsoever to be passive. On the other hand, the notion
of active principle is consistent with active power. For
active power is the principle of acting upon something else ;
whereas passive power is the principle of being acted upon
by something else, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. v. 17).
It remains, therefore, that in God there is active power in
the highest degree.
Reply Obj, i. Active power is not contrary to act, but is
founded upon it, for everything acts according as it is
actual: but passive power is contrary to act; for a thing
is passive according as it is potential. Whence this poten-
tiality is not in God, but onl}'' active power.
Reply Obj. 2. Whenever act is distinct from power, act
must be nobler than power. But God's action is not
distinct from His power, for both are His divine essence;
neither is His existence distinct from His essence. Hence
it does not follow that there should be anything in God
nobler than His power.
Reply Obj. 3. In creatures, power is the principle not only
of action, but likewise of effect. Thus in God the idea of
power is retained, inasmuch as it is the principle of an
347 THE POWER OF GOD Q.25.ART.4
effect; not, however, as it is a principle of action, for this
is the divine essence itself; except, perchance, after our
manner of understanding, inasmuch as the divine essence,
which precontains in itself all perfection that exists in
created things, can be understood either under the notion
of action, or under that of power; as also it is understood
under the notion of a suppositum possessing nature, and
under that of nature. Accordingly the notion of power
is retained in God in so far as it is the principle of an effect.
Reply Ohj. 4. Power is predicated of God not as some-
thing really distinct from His knowledge and will, but
as differing from them logically; inasmuch as power implies
a notion of a principle putting into execution what the will
commands, and what knowledge directs, which three things
in God are identified. Or we may say, that the knowledge
or will of God, according as it is the effective principle, has
the notion of power contained in it. Hence the consideration
of the knowledge and will of God precedes the consideration
of His power, as the cause precedes the operation and effect.
Second Article,
whether the power of god is infinite ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article: —
Objection 1. It seems that the power of God is not infinite.
For everything that is infinite is imperfect according to the
Philosopher (Phys. iii. 6). But the power of God is far from
imperfect. Therefore it is not infinite.
Obj. 2. Further, every power is made known by its
effect; otherwise it would be ineffectual. If, then, the
power of God were infinite, it could produce an infinite effect ,
but this is impossible.
Obj. 3. Further, the Philosopher proves (Phys. viii. 79)
that if the power of any corporeal thing were infinite, it
would cause instantaneous movement. God, however,
does not cause instantaneous movement, but moves the
spiritual creature in time, and the corporeal creature in
place and time, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. 20, 22, 23).
Therefore, His power is not infinite.
Q. 25. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 348
On the contrary, Hilary says [De Trin. viii.), that God's
power is immeasurable. He is the living ^nighty One. Now
everything that is immeasurable is infinite. Therefore the
power of God is infinite.
/ answer that, As stated above (A. i), active power exists
in God according to the measure in which He is actual.
Now His existence is infinite, inasmuch as it is not limited by
anything that receives it, as is clear from what has been said,
when we discussed the infinity of the divine essence (Q. VH.,
A. i). Wherefore, it is necessary that the active power in
God should be infinite. For in every agent is it found that
the more perfectly an agent has the form by which it acts
the greater its power to act. For instance, the hotter a
thing is, the greater power has it to give heat ; and it would
have infinite power to give heat, were its own heat infinite.
Whence, since the divine essence, through which God acts,
is infinite, as was shown above {I.e.), it follows that His
power likewise is infinite.
Reply Obj. i. The Philosopher is here speaking of an
infinity in regard to matter not Hmited by any form; and
such infinity belongs to quantity. But the divine essence
is otherwise, as was shown above (Lc); and consequently
so also His power. It does not follow, therefore, that it is
imperfect.
Reply Obj. 2. The power of a uni vocal agent is wholly
manifested in its effect. The generative power of man, for
example, is not able to do more than beget man. But the
power of a non-univocal agent does not wholly manifest
itself in the production of its effect: as, for example, the
power of the sun does not wholly manifest itself in the
production of an animal generated from putrefaction. Now
it is clear that God is not a univocal agent. For nothing
agrees with Him either in species or in genus, as was shown
above (QQ. HI., A. 5, and IV., A. 3). Whence it follows
that His effect is always less than His power. It is not
necessary, therefore, that the infinite power of God should be
manifested so as to produce an infinite effect. Yet even if it
were to produce no effect, the power of God would not be
349 THE POWER OF GOD Q. 25. Art. 3
ineffectual ; because a thing is ineffectual which is ordained
towards an end to which it does not attain. But the power
of God is not ordered toward its effect as towards an end;
rather, it is the end of the effect produced by it.
Reply Ohj. 3. The Philosopher {Phys. viii. 79) proves that
if a body had infinite power, it would cause a non-temporal
movement. And he shows that the power of the mover of
heaven is infinite, because it can move in an infinite time. It
remains, therefore, according to his reckoning, that the
infinite power of a body, if such existed, would move without
time ; not, however, the power of an incorporeal mover. The
reason of this is that one body moving another is a univocal
agent ; wherefore it follows that the whole power of the agent
is made known in its motion. Since then the greater the
power of a moving body, the more quickly does it move ; the
necessary conclusion is that if its power were infinite it would
move beyond comparison faster, and this is to move without
time. An incorporeal mover, however, is not a univocal
agent ; whence it is not necessary that the whole of its power
should be manifested in motion, so as to move without time ;
and especially since it moves in accordance with the dis-
position of its will.
Third Article,
whether god is omnipotent ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not omnipotent. For
movement and passiveness belong to everything. But this
is impossible with God, for He is immovable, as was said
above (Q. II., A. 3). Therefore He is not omnipotent.
Ohj. 2. Further, sin is an act of some kind. But God
cannot sin, nor deny Himself, as it is said 2 Tim. ii. 13.
Therefore He is not omnipotent.
Ohj. 3. Further, it is said of God that He manifests His
omnipotence especially hy sparing and having mercy.*
Therefore the greatest act possible to the divine power is
to spare and have mercy. There are things much greater,
* Collect, tenth Sunday after Pentecost.
Q. 25. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '' 350
however, than sparing and having mercy; for example, to
create another world, and the Uke. Therefore God is not
omnipotent.
Ohj. 4. Further, upon the text, God hath made foolish
the wisdom of this world (i Cor. i. 20), a gloss says: God
hath made the wisdom of this world foolish,^ by showing those
things to he possible which it judges to be impossible. Whence
it would seem that nothing is to be judged possible or im-
possible in reference to inferior causes, as the wisdom of
this world judges them; but in reference to the divine
power. If God, then, were omnipotent, all things would
be possible; nothing, therefore, impossible. But if we take
away the impossible, then we destroy also the necessary;
for what necessarily exists is impossible not to exist. There-
fore there would be nothing at all that is necessary in things
if God were omnipotent. But this is an impossibility.
Therefore God is not omnipotent.
On the contrary, It is said: No word shall be impossible
with God (Luke i. 37).
/ answer that, All confess that God is omnipotent; but
it seems difficult to explain in what His omnipotence precisely
consists: for there may be a doubt as to the precise meaning
of the word " all " when we say that God can do all things.
If, however, we consider the matter aright, since power is said
in reference to possible things, this phrase, God ca?i do all
things, is rightly understood to mean that God can do all
things that are possible ; and for this reason He is said to be
omnipotent. Now according to the Philosopher {Mefaph.
V. 17), a thing is said to be possible in two ways. First in
relation to some power, thus whatever is subject to human
power is said to be possible to man. Secondly absolutely,
on account of the relation in which the very terms stand to
each other. Now God cannot be said to be omnipotent
through being able to do all things that are possible to created
nature; for the divine power extends farther than that.
If, however, we were to say that God is omnipotent because
He can do all things that are possible to His power, there
* Vulg., Hath not God, etc:
351 THE POWER OF GOD Q. 25. Art. 3
would be a vicious circle in explaining the nature of His
power. For this would be saying nothing else but that
God is omnipotent, because He can do all that He is able
to do.
It remains, therefore, that God is called omnipotent
because he can do all things that are possible absolutely;
which is the second way of saying a thing is possible. For
a thing is said to be possible or impossible absolutely,
according to the relation in which the very terms stand to
one another, possible if the predicate is not incompatible
with the subject, as that Socrates sits; and absolutely
impossible when the predicate is altogether incompatible
with the subject, as, for instance, that a man is a donkey.
It must, however, be remembered that since every agent
produces an effect like itself, to each active power there
corresponds a thing possible as its proper object according
to the nature of that act on which its active power is founded;
for mstance, the power of giving warmth is related as to its
proper object to the being capable of being warmed. The
divine existence, however, upon which the nature of power
in God is founded, is infinite, and is not limited to any genus
of being; but possesses within itself the perfection of all
being. Whence, w^hatsoever has or can have the nature of
being, is numbered among the absolutely possible things,
in respect of which God is called omnipotent. Now nothing
is opposed to the idea of being except non-being. There-
fore, that which implies being and non-being at the same
time is repugnant to the idea of an absolutely possible
thing, within the scope of the divine omnipotence. For
such cannot come under the divine omnipotence, not because
of any defect in the power of God, but because it has not
the nature of a feasible or possible thing. Therefore,
everything that does not imply a contradiction in terms,
is numbered amongst those possible things, in respect of
which God is called omnipotent : whereas whatever implies
contradiction does not come within the scope of divine
omnipotence, because it cannot have the aspect of possi-
bility. Hence it is better to say that such things cannot
Q. 25. Art. 3 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 352
be done, than that God cannot do them. Nor is this
contrary to the word of the angel, saying : No word shall be
impossible with God. For whatever imphes a contradiction
cannot be a word, because no intellect can possibly conceive
such a thing.
Reply Obj. i. God is said to be omnipotent in respect to
His active power, not to passive power, as was shown
above (A. i). Whence the fact that He is immovable or
impassible is not repugnant to His omnipotence.
Reply Obj. 2. To sin is to fall short of a perfect action;
hence to be able to sin is to be able to fall short in action,
which is repugnant to omnipotence. Therefore it is that
God cannot sin, because of His omnipotence. Never-
theless, the Philosopher says (Top. iv. 3) that God can
deliberately do what is evil. But this must be understood
either on a condition, the antecedent of which is impossible —
as, for instance, if we were to say that God can do evil
things if He will. For there is no reason why a conditional
proposition should not be true, though both the antecedent
and consequent are impossible : as if one were to say : // man
is a donkey, he has Jour feet. Or he may be understood to
mean that God can do some things which now seem to be
evil : which, however, if He did them, would then be good.
Or he is, perhaps, speaking after the common manner of the
heathen, who thought that men became gods, like Jupiter
or Mercury.
Reply Obj. 3. God's omnipotence is particularly shown
in sparing and having mercy, because in this is it made
manifest that God has supreme power, that He freely
forgives sins. For it is not for one who is bound by laws
of a superior to forgive sins of his own free will. Or, because
by sparing and having mercy upon men, He leads them on
to the participation of an infinite good; which is the ulti-
mate effect of the divine power. Or because, as was said
above (Q. XXL, A. 4), the effect of the divine mercy is the
foundation of all the divine works. For nothing is due to
anyone, except on account of something already given him
gratuitously by God. In this way the divine omnipotence
353 i'HE POWER OF GOD Q. 25. Art. 4
is particiilarly made manifest, because to it pertains the first
foundation of all good things.
Reply Obj. 4. The absolute possible is not so called in
reference either to higher causes, or to inferior causes,
but in reference to itself. But the possible in reference
to some power is named possible in reference to its proxi-
mate cause. Hence those things which it belongs to God
alone to do immediately — as, for example, to create, to
justify, and the like — are said to be possible in reference to
a higher cause. Those things, however, which are of such
kind as to be done by inferior causes are said to be possible
in reference to those inferior causes. For it is according
to the condition of the proximate cause that the effect has
contingency or necessity, as was shown above (Q. XIV.,
A. I, ad 2). Thus is it that the wisdom of the world is
deemed foolish, because what is impossible to nature, it
judges to be impossible to God, So it is clear that the
omnipotence of God does not take away from things their
impossibility and necessity.
Fourth Article,
whether god can make the past not to have
BEEN ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God can make the past not to
have been. For what is impossible in itself is much more
impossible than that which is only impossible accidentally.
But God can do what is impossible in itself, as to give sight
to the blind, or to raise the dead. Therefore, and much
more can He do what is only impossible accidentally. Now
for the past not to have been is impossible accidentally:
thus for Socrates not to be running is accidentally impossible,
from the fact that his running is a thing of the past. There-
fore God can make the past not to have been.
Obj. 2. Further, what God could do. He can do now,
since His power is not lessened. But God could have
effected, before Socrates ran, that he should not run.
I* 23
Q. 25. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA "
Therefore, when he has run, God could effect that he did
not run.
Ohj. 3. Further, charity is a more excellent virtue than
virginity. But God can supply charity that is lost; there-
fore also lost virginity. Therefore He can so effect that
what was corrupt should not have been corrupt.
On the contrary, Jerome says {Ep. 22 ad Eustoch.) : Although
God can do all things, He cannot make a thing that is corrupt
not to have been corrupted. Therefore, for the same reason.
He cannot effect that anything else which is past should
not have been.
/ answer that, As was said above (Q. VII., A. 2), there does
not fall under the scope of God's omnipotence anything
that implies a contradiction. Now that the past should
not have been implies a contradiction. For as it implies
a contradiction to say that Socrates is sitting, and is not
sitting, so does it to say that he sat, and did not sit. But
to say that he did sit is to say that it happened in the past.
To say that he did not sit, is to say that it did not happen.
Whence, that the past should not have been, does not come
under the scope of divine power. This is what Augustine
means when he says (Contra Faust, xxix. 5): Whosoever
says. If God is almighty, let Him make what is done as if it
were not done, does not see that this is to say: If God is almighty
let Him effect that what is true, by the very fact that it is true,
be false: and the Philosopher says (Ethic, vi. 2): Of this one
thing alone is God deprived — namely, to make undone the
things that have been done.
Reply Obj. i. Although it is impossible accidentally for
the past not to have been, if one considers the past thing
itself, as, for instance, the running of Socrates; neverthe-
less, if the past thing is considered as past, that it should
not have been is impossible, not only in itself, but absolutely
since it impUes a contradiction. Thus, it is more impossible
than the raising of the dead; in which there is nothing con-
tradictory, because this is reckoned impossible in reference
to some power, that is to say, some natural power; for such
impossible things do come beneath the scope of divine power.
355 THE POWER OF GOD Q. 25. Art. 5
Reply Obj. 2. As God, in accordance with the perfection
of the divine power, can do all things, and yet some things
are not subject to His power, because they fall short of
being possible; so, also, if we regard the immutabiUty of the
divine power, whatever God could do. He can do now.
Some things, however, at one time were in the nature of
possibility, whilst they were yet to be done, which now fall
short of the nature of possibiUty, when they have been done.
So is God said not to be able to do them, because they
themselves cannot be done.
Reply Obj. 3. God can remove all corruption of the mind
and body from a woman who has fallen; but the fact that
she had been corrupt cannot be removed from her; as also
is it impossible that the fact of having sinned or of having
lost charity thereby can be removed from the sinner.
Fifth Article,
whether god can do what he does not ?
We proceed thus to the Fifth Article : —
Objection I. It seems that God cannot do other than what
He does. For God cannot do what He has not foreknown
and preordained that He would do. But He neither fore-
knew nor preordained that He would do anything except
what He does. Therefore He cannot do except what He does.
Obj, 2. Further, God can only do what ought to be done
and what is right to be done. But God is not bound to do
what He does not; nor is it right that He should do what
He does not. Therefore He cannot do except what he does.
Obj. 3. Further, God cannot do anything that is not good
and befitting creation. But it is not good for creatures nor
befitting them to be otherwise than as they are. There-
fore God cannot do except what He does.
On the contrary, It is said : Thinkest thou that I cannot ask
My Father, and He will give Me presently more than twelve
legions of angels ? (Matth. xxvi. 53). But He neither asked
for them, nor did His Father show them to refute the Jews,
Therefore God can do what He does not.
Q. 25. Art. 5 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 356
/ answer that, In this matter certain persons erred in two
ways. Some laid it down that God acts from natural
necessity in such way that as from the action of nature
nothing else can happen beyond what actually takes place —
as, for instance, from the seed of man, a man must come, and
from that of an olive, an olive ; so from the divine operation
there could not result other things, nor another order of
things, than that which now is. But we showed above
(Q. XIX., A. 3) that God does not act from natural necessity,
but that His will is the cause of all things; nor is that will
naturally and from any necessity determined to those things.
Whence in no way at all is the present course of events pro-
duced by God from any necessity, so that other things could
not happen. Others, however, said that the divine power
is restricted to this present course of events through the
order of the divine wisdom and justice, without which
God does nothing. But since the power of God, which is
His essence, is nothing else but His wisdom, it can indeed
be fittingly said that there is nothing in the divine power
which is not in the order of the divine wisdom; for the
divine wisdom includes the whole potency of the divine
power. Yet the order placed in creation by divine wisdom, in
which order the notion of His j ustice consists, as said above
(Q. XXL, A. 2), is not so adequate to the divine wisdom
that the divine wisdom should be restricted to this present
order of things. Now it is clear that the whole idea of order
which a wise man puts into things made by him is taken
from their end. So, when the end is proportionate to the
things made for that end, the wisdom of the maker is re-
stricted to some definite order. But the divine goodness
is an end exceeding beyond all proportion things created.
Whence the divine wisdom is not so restricted to any par-
ticular order that no other course of events could happen.
Wherefore we must simply say that God can do other things
than those He has done.
Reply Obj, i. In ourselves, in whom power and essence
are distinct from will and intellect, and again intellect
from wisdom, and will from justice, there can be some-
357 THE POWER OF GOD Q. 25. Art. 5
thing in the power which is not in the just will nor in the
wise intellect. But in God, power and essence, will and
intellect, wisdom and justice, are one and the same.
Whence, there can be nothing in the divine power which
cannot also be in His just will or in His wise intellect.
Nevertheless, because His will cannot be determined from
necessity to this or that order of things, except upon sup-
position, as was said above (Q. XIX., A. 3), neither are the
wisdom and justice of God restricted to this present order,
as was shown above ; so nothing prevents there being some-
thing in the divine power which He does not will, and which
is not included in the order which He has placed in things.
Again, because power is considered as executing, the will
as commanding, and the intellect and wisdom as directing;
what is attributed to His power considered in itself, God
is said to be able to do in accordance with His absolute power.
Of such a kind is everything which has the nature of being,
as was said above (A. 3). What is, however, attributed to
the divine power, according as it carries into execution the
command of a just will, God is said to be able to do by His
ordinary power. In this manner, we must say that God
can do other things by His absolute power than those He
has foreknown and preordained He would do. But it could
not happen that He should do anything which He had not
foreknown, and had not preordained that He would do,
because His actual doing is subject to His foreknowledge
and preordination, though His power, which is His nature,
is not so. For God does things because He wills so to do;
yet the power to do them does not come from His will,
but from His nature.
Reply Ohj. 2. God is bound to nobody but Himself.
Hence, when it is said that God can only do what He ought,
nothing else is meant by this than that God can do nothing
but what is befitting to Himself, and just. But these
words befitting and just may be understood in two ways:
one, in direct connection with the verb is; and thus they
would be restricted to the present order of things; and would
concern His power. Then what is said in the objection is
Q. 25. Art. 6 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 358
false; for the sense is that God can do nothing except what
is now fitting and just. If, however, they be joined directly
with the verb can (which has the e^ect of extending the
meaning), and then secondly with is, the present will be
signified, but in a confused and general way. The sentence
would then be true in this sense: God cannot do anything
except that which, if He did it, would he suitable and just.
Reply Ohj. 3. Although this order of things be restricted
to what now exists, the divine power and wisdom are not
thus restricted. Whence, although no other order would
be suitable and good to the things which now are, yet
God can do other things and impose upon them another
order.
Sixth Article,
whether god can do better than what he does ?
We proceed thus to the Sixth Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God cannot do better than He
does. For whatever God does, He does in a most powerful
and wise way. But a thing is so much the better done
as it is more powerfully and wisely done. Therefore God
cannot do anything better than He does.
Ohj. 2. Further, Augustine thus argues (Contra Maximin.
iii. 8) : If God could, hut would not, beget a Son His equal,
He would have been envious. For the same reason, if God
could have made better things than He has done, but was
not willing so to do. He would have been envious. But
envy is far removed from God. Therefore God makes
everything of the best. He cannot therefore make any-
thing better than He does.
Obj. 3. Further, what is very good and the best of all
cannot be bettered; because nothing is better than the best.
But as Augustine says (Enchir. 10), each thing that God has
made is good, and, taken all together they are very good; because
in them all consists the wondrous beauty of the universe.
Therefore the good in the universe could not be made better
by God.
Ohj. 4. Further, Christ as man is full of grace and truth.
359 THE POWER OF GOD Q. 25. Art. 6
and has the Spirit without measure; and so He cannot be
better. Again created happiness is described as the highest
good, and thus could not be better. And the Blessed Virgin
Mary is raised above all the choirs of angels, and so cannot
be better than she is. God cannot therefore make all things
better than He has made them.
On the contrary, It is said (Eph. iii. 20) : God is able to do
all things more abundantly than we desire or understand.
I answer that, The goodness of anything is twofold; one,
which is of the essence of it — ^thus, for instance, to be rational
pertains to the essence of man. As regards this good, God
cannot make a thing better than it is itself; although He
can make another thing better than it ; even as He cannot
make the number four greater than it is ; because if it were
greater it would no longer be four, but another number.
For the addition of a substantial difference in definitions
is after the manner of the addition of unity in numbers
{Metaph. viii. 10). Another kind of goodness is that which
is over and above the essence; thus, the good of a man is
to be virtuous or wise. As regards this kind of goodness,
God can make better the things He has made. Absolutely
speaking, however, God can make something else better
than each thing made by Him.
Reply Obj. i. When it is said that God can make a thing
better than He makes it, if better is taken substantively,
this proposition is true. For He can always make something
else better than each individual thing: and He can make
the same thing in one way better than it is, and in another
way not; as was explained above. If, however, better is
taken as an adverb, implying the manner of the making;
thus God cannot make anything better than He makes it,
because He cannot make it from greater wisdom and good-
ness. But if it implies the manner of the thing done. He can
make something better; because He can give to things
made by Him a better manner of existence as regards the
accidents, although not as regards the substance.
Reply Obj. 2. It is of the nature of a son that he should
be equal to his father, when he comes to maturity. But
Q. 25. Art. 6 THE '' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 360
it is not of the nature of anything created, that it should
be better than it was made by God. Hence the comparison
fails.
Reply Ohj. 3. The universe, the present creation being
supposed, cannot be better, on account of the most beautiful
order given to things by God; in which the good of the
universe consists. For if any one thing were bettered, the
proportion of order would be destroyed; as if one string
were stretched more than it ought to be, the melody of the
harp would be destroyed. Yet God could make other
things, or add something to the present creation; and then
there would be another and a better universe.
Reply Ohj. 4. The humanity of Christ, from the fact
that it is united to the Godhead; and created happiness
from the fact that it is the fruition of God ; and the Blessed
Virgin from the fact that she is the mother of God; have
all a certain infinite dignity from the infinite good, which is
God. And on this account there cannot be anything better
than these; just as there cannot be anything better than
God.
QUESTION XXVI.
OF THE DIVINE BEATITUDE.
{In Four Articles.)
After considering all that pertains to the unity of the
divine essence, we come to treat of the divine beatitude.
Concerning this, there are four points of inquiry : (i) Whether
beatitude belongs to God ? (2) In regard to what is God
called blessed; does this regard His act of intellect ?
(3) Whether He is essentially the beatitude of each of the
blessed ? (4) Whether all other beatitude is included in
the divine beatitude ?
First Article,
whether beatitude belongs to god ?
We proceed thus to the First Article: —
Objection i. It seems that beatitude does not belong to
God. For beatitude according to Boethius [De consol. iv.)
is a state made perfect by the aggregation of all good things.
But aggregation of goods has no place in God; nor has
composition. Therefore beatitude does not belong to God.
Obj. 2. Further, Beatitude or happiness is the reward of
virtue, according to the Philosopher (Ethic, i. 9). But reward
does not apply to God; as neither does merit. Therefore
neither does beatitude.
On the contrary, The Apostle says : Which in His times
He shall show, who is the Blessed and only Mighty, the King
of Kings and Lord of Lords (i Tim. vi. 15).
I answer that. Beatitude belongs to God in a very special
manner. For nothing else is understood to be meant by
the term beatitude than the perfect good of an intellectual
361
Q. 26. Art. 2 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGIGA " 362
nature ; which is capable of knowing that it has a sufficiency
of the good which it possesses, to which it is competent
that good or ill may befall, and which can control its own
actions. All of these things belong in a most excellent
manner to God — namely, to be perfect, and to possess in-
telligence. Whence beatitude belongs to God in the highest
degree.
Reply Ohj. i. Aggregation of good is in God, after the
manner not of composition, but of simplicity; for those
things which in creatures are manifold, pre-exist in God,
as was said above (QQ. IV., A. 3; XI 1 1., A. 4), in simplicity
and unity.
Reply Ohj. 2. It belongs as an accident to beatitude or
happiness to be the reward of virtue, so far as anyone attains
to beatitude; even as to be the term of generation belongs
accidentally to a being, so far as it passes from potentiality
to act. As, then, God has being, though not begotten; so
He has beatitude, although not acquired by merit.
I
Second Article.
whether god is caixed blessed in respect of
his intellect ?
We proceed thus to the Second Article : —
Objection i. It seems that God is not called blessed in
respect of His intellect. For beatitude is the highest good.
But good is said to be in God in regard to His essence,
because good has reference to being which is according
to essence, according to Boethius {De hehdom.). Therefore
beatitude also is said to be in God in regard to His essence,
and not to His intellect.
Ohj. 2. Further, Beatitude implies the notion of end.
Now the end is the object of the will, as also is the good.
Therefore beatitude is said to be in God with reference to
His will, and not with reference to His intellect.
On the contrary, Gregory says [Moral, xxxii. 7) : He is in
glory, Who whilst He rejoices in Himself, needs not further
praise. To be in glory, however, is the same as to be blessed.
363 THE DIVINE BEATITUDE Q. 26. Art. 3
Therefore, since we enjoy God in respect of our intellect,
because vision is the whole of the reward, as Augustine
says {De Civ. Dei xxii.), it would seem that beatitude is
said to be in God in respect of His intellect.
I answer that, Beatitude, as stated above (A. i), is the perfect
good of an intellectual nature. Thus it is that, as everything
desires the perfection of its nature, intellectual nature desires
naturally to be happj^ Now that which is most perfect
in any intellectual nature is the intellectual operation,
by which in some sense it grasps everything. Whence the
beatitude of every intellectual nature consists in understand-
ing. Now in God, to be and to understand are one and the
same thing; differing only in the manner of our understanding
them. Beatitude must therefore be assigned to God in
respect of His intellect; as also to the blessed, who are
called blessed {heati) by reason of the assimilation to His
beatitude.
Reply Ohj. i. This argument proves that beatitude belongs
to God; not that beatitude pertains essentially to Him
under the aspect of His essence ; but rather under the aspect
of His intellect.
Reply Ohj. 2. Since beatitude is a good, it is the object of
the will; now the object is understood as prior to the act
of a power. Whence in our manner of understanding,
divine beatitude precedes the act of the will at rest in it.
This cannot be other than the act of the intellect ; and thus
beatitude is to be found in an act of the intellect.
Third Article,
whether god is the beatitude of each of the
BLESSED ?
We proceed thus to the Third Article: —
Objection i. It seems that God is the beatitude of each
of the blessed. For God is the supreme good, as was said
above (Q. VI., AA. 2, 4). But it is quite impossible that
there should be many supreme goods, as also is clear from
what has been said above (Q. XL, A. 3). Therefore, since
g. 26. Art. 3 THE *' SUMMA THEOLOGICA " 364
it is of the essence of beatitude that it should be the
supreme good, it seems that beatitude is nothing else but
God Himself.
Ohj. 2. Further, Beatitude is the last end of the rational
nature. But to be the last end of the rational nature belongs
only to God. Therefore the beatitude of every blessed is
God alone.
On the co7ityary, The beatitude of one is greater than
that of another, according to i Cor. xv. 41 : Star differ eth
from star in glory. But nothing is greater than God. There-
fore beatitude is something different from God.
/ answer that, The beatitude of an intellectual nature
consists in an act of the intellect. In this we may consider
two things — namely, the object of the act, which is the thing
understood; and the act itself, which is to understand.
If, then, beatitude be considered on the side of the object,
God is the only beatitude; for everyone is blessed from
this sole fact, that he understands God, in accordance with
the saying of Augustine {Conf. v. 4): Blessed is he who
knoweth Thee, though he know nought else. But as regards
the act of understanding, beatitude is a created thing in
beatified creatures; but in God, even in this way, it is an
uncreated thing.
Reply Ohj. i. Beatitude, as regards its object, is the
supreme good absolutely, but as regards its act, in beatified
creatures it is their supreme good, not absolutely, but in
that kind of goods which a creature can participate.
Reply Ohj. 2. End is twofold namely, ohjective and
suhjective, as the Philosopher says {Greater Ethics, i. 3),
namely, the thing itself a.nd its use. Thus to a miser the end
is money, and its acquisition. Accordingly God is indeed
the last end of a rational creature, as the thing itself; but
created beatitude is the end, as the use, or rather fruition,
of the thing.
365 THE DIVINE BEATITUDE Q. 26. Art. 4
Fourth Article.
whether all other beatitude is included in the
beatitude of god ?
We proceed thus to the Fourth Article : —
Objection i. It seems that the divine beatitude does not
embrace all other beatitudes. For there are some false
beatitudes. But nothing false can be in God. Therefore
the divine beatitude does not embrace all other beatitudes.
Obj. 2. Further, a certain beatitude, according to some,
consists in things corporeal; as in pleasure, riches, and such
like. Now none of these have to do with God, since He is
incorporeal. Therefore His beatitude does not embrace
all other beatitudes.
On the contrary, Beatitude is a certain perfection. But
the divine perfection embraces all other perfection, as was
shown above (Q. IV., A. 2.). Therefore the divine beatitude
embraces all other beatitudes.
/ answer that, Whatever is desirable in whatsoever beati-
tude, whether true or false, pre-exists wholly and in a more
eminent degree in the divine beatitude. As to contempla-
tive happiness, God possesses a continual and most certain
contemplation of Himself and of all things else; and as to
that which is active, he has the governance of the whole
universe. As to earthly happiness, which consists in
delight, riches, power, dignity, and fame, according to
Boethius (De Consol. iii. 10), He possesses joy in Himself
and all things else for His delight ; instead of riches He has
that complete self-sufficiency, which is promised by riches;
in place of power, He has omnipotence; for dignities, the
government of all things; and in place of fame. He possesses
the admiration of all creatures.
Reply Obj. i. A particular kind of beatitude is false
according as it falls short of the idea of true beatitude;
and thus it is not in God. But whatever semblance it has,
howsoever slight, of beatitude, the whole of it pre-exists
in the divine beatitude.
Q. 26. Art. 4 THE " SUMMA THEOLOGICA '* 366
Reply Ohj. 2. The good that exists in things corporeal
in a corporeal manner, is also in God, but in a spiritual
manner.
We have now spoken enough concerning what pertains
to the unity of the divine essence.
Prinied in England
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The '*SuTnma theologica" of
St. Thomas Aquinas
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