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THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS

IN EDUCATION
EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY

THE SUPERVISION OF
INSTRUCTION

HUBERT WILBUR

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR

OF TEACHER TRAINING, OHIO

WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO

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CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS
PRINTED IN TUB U. S. A.

Ed./PsycH*
Library

THE TEACHING PROFESSION

EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION

THE following discussion and analysis of the elements
of the supervisory process, and statement of the tech-
nique and professional standards for the supervision of
instruction, will be read with interest by those who are
concerned with the work of school supervision. The
author of the volume is a school supervisor of experi-
ence, who has been unusually successful in training
young people for the teaching service. Training nov-
ices for success in teaching is even more difficult work
than that of a school principal or superintendent in
initiating new or poorly experienced teachers into the
work of a city-school system. Out of his experience he
has worked out the following analytical discussion of
the principles underlying classroom supervision, and
the devices and technique which should, and which
should not be employed.

The fundamental purpose of all school supervision
is to increase the efficiency of the classroom teacher.
School supervision is worthy of the name only when
it results in such an increase. Supervisors who con-
ceive their function to be that of an inspector, and who
go about checking up work accomplished and locating
those who do not follow directions, are worth little.

viii EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION

Such service is unintelligent service, and requires but
little preparation or thought. To be constructively
critical and helpful, though, requires a good under-
standing of both the purposes and the technique of
supervision; and the fundamental principles and meth-
ods underlying such helpful and constructive service
the author of the present volume has here set forth.

The treatise should be read with interest and profit
by city-school supervisors and training-school direc-
tors generally, and should find a place for itself in
training-school work.

ELLWOOD P. CUBBEBLET

March 31, 1920

PREFACE

THE rapid growth of training schools for the training of
teachers, and the development of supervision of actual
teaching in the public schools, has emphasized more and
more every year the necessity for training supervisors spe-
cifically for the "job" of supervision. Moreover, skilled
supervision on the part of the principals and superintendents
is becoming a most important factor in their success. Train-
ing in supervision cannot be adequately accomplished until
a definite body of psychological and pedagogical principles
that apply specifically to the problems of supervision has
been discovered and formulated. These principles must be
discovered by experimentation, and by analysis of experi-
ences that have been accumulated in supervising teachers in
training and teachers in regular service. The writer under-
took, about two years ago, to formulate some of the princi-
ples that seem valid on the basis of experimentation and
extended experience. The results of this undertaking were
set forth in A Handbook for Supervisors of Student- Teachers.
This handbook, which is little more than an outline or brief,
was published by the State Printer of Kansas and as a bulle-
tin of the School of Education of the University. It was
intended not only for the supervisors of the Oread Training
School, but also for supervisors, principals, and superin-
tendents in the State, who might find it suggestive and
helpful.

The kindly consideration that this booklet received and
the many requests for supplementary discussion-material
based on the outline led the writer to believe that a some-
what detailed formulation and discussion of the principles

x PREFACE

set forth might prove helpful to those who are interested in
the specific undertaking of training supervisors, and also be
of direct service to those who are engaged in the actual work
of supervision. The purpose, therefore, of this book is to
set forth such a formulation of the problems and principles
of supervision as may serve as a basis for classroom discus-
sions, individual study, and experimentation. If the book
proves serviceable in contributing material ready-to-hand
for intensive study and discussion and in making fruitful
suggestions, the writer feels that his efforts will not have
been in vain.

The writer is indebted to the supervisors of the Oread
Training School for critical discussions of the material and
helpful suggestions. He is also greatly indebted to Dean
F. J. Kelly, Professor R. E. Carter, and other colleagues for
critical reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions as
to form and content.

H. W. NUTT
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS

January 15, 1920

CONTENTS

CHAPTER!. INTRODUCTION

1. The need for trained supervisors — Composition of the
teaching force — Lack of professional training — Need for pro-
fessional supervision — The training school and supervision —
Administrators need supervisory training.

2. Is there danger of formalism? — The formality of technique
— Transforming technique into habits — Why teachers fail in us-
ing technique — Is there a formal stage in all training? — Train-
ing and attaining efficiency — Meaning of the formal period —
Supervisors, too, must master technique — Formalism eliminated
by mastery.

3. The problem of training supervisors — Two questions in-
volved — The plan of this book — The greatest weakness of su-
pervision — Details vs. generalities — Chapter summary.

PART I
THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

CHAPTER II. SUPERVISING ACTIVITIES 23

Laying the basis for cooperative teaching — Selecting and or-
ganizing the subject-matter of courses — Teaching for purposes
of experimentation and demonstration — Directing systematic
observation of expert and inexpert teaching performances — Di-
recting teaching activities — Checking up pupil progress — Meas-
uring progress and efficiency of teacher — Measuring the effi-
ciency of supervision — The supervisory job of the administra-
tor — Chapter summary — Class exercises.

PART H

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE SUPERVISION OF
INSTRUCTION

SECTION A

SUPERVISORY METHOD

CHAPTER III. THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF METHOD ... 35

Necessity for common knowledge — Teaching a cooperative
enterprise — Chapter summary — Class exercises.

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV. PARTICULAR BASIS FOR COOPERATIVE TEACHING
IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 88

1. The elementary school as an institution — The purpose of
the elementary school — The place of the elementary school —
Curriculum of the elementary school.

2. Pupils of the elementary school — Dominant physiological
characteristics — Psychological characteristics — Relation of
these characteristics to schoolroom procedure — Social status
of children — Chapter summary. — Class exercises.

CHAPTER V. PARTICULAR BASIS FOR COOPERATIVE TEACHING
IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL ........ 45

1. The secondary school — The purpose of the secondary
school — The purpose stated negatively — The place of the
secondary school — The beginning stage of adolescence — The
second period of adolescent development — The third stage of
adolescence — The curriculum — The psychological approach —
The purpose of the studies — Thinking in terms of the student.

2. The pupils of the secondary school — Traits and tendencies

— Physiological traits — Psychological characteristics — Social
status and outlook — Physical conditions and adolescent devel-
opment — Adolescent embarrassments — Other physiological
disturbances — Adolescence and habit formation — Instinctive
backgrounds — Mental maturing through experiences — Erratic
behavior; rules of procedure — Pupil to choose freely — Door of
opportunity not closed — Teacher not to worry — Teacher and
supervisor in agreement — Importance of frank dealings — Ado-
lescence and the religious instinct — Catching interests at the
crest — Keep the pupil in the center of the stage — School should
provide social opportunities — Socializing subject-matter —
Make the social situations accurate and true — Chapter sum-
mary — Class exercises.

CHAPTER VI. GENERAL BASIS FOR COOPERATIVE TEACHING
m EITHER ELEMENTARY OR SECONDARY SCHOOL ... 75
Other necessary common ground — The principles of method

— Problems in teaching and method — Devices and their use —
Teaching technique — Agreements as to teaching procedure —
Teaching standards — Proper teaching relationships — The pur-
pose of supervision — Chapter summary — Class exercises.

CHAPTER VII. OTHER PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SUPERVI-
SORY METHOD 83

1. The second principle of method — Anticipatory teaching —
Value of the anticipatory process — Observation of teaching —

CONTENTS xiii

Actual instruction — Directed teaching — Practice to form right
habits — Teaching habits to be made automatic.

2. The third principle of method — Breaking up incorrect
habits — Finding out things for and by one's self — Application to
teacher training — Breaking bad habits; training schools ta. city
schools.

8. The fourth principle of method — Developing initiative and
independence — Summary of the section — Class exercises — -
Selected references for Section A.

SECTION B
DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

CHAPTER Vllt. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE SELECTION OP
DEVICES 97

Devices should be economical — General instructions to senior
teachers — Instructions to regular teachers — Saving the time
of the teacher — Conservation of materials — Economy a rela-
tive matter — Devices should be effective — Devices should be
usable — Devices should not be too numerous — Devices should
not be too meager — Devices should bear a logical relation to the
end they are to aid in accomplishing — Devices should be a
means — Devices should be classified — Chapter summary —
Class exercises.

CHAPTER IX. DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE PRINCIPLE ONE OF
METHOD 113

The problem — Facts as to educational situations — Value of
printed forms — Section summary — Class exercises.

CHAPTER X. DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE THE REMAINING

PRINCIPLES OF METHOD 117

I. THE SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER

1. The courses and instruction — Subject-matter in perma-
nent form — Purpose for which the subject was organized — Pur-
pose for which taught — Changes going on in the subject — Unit
of credit — Range of subject-matter to be covered — Content
and formal subject-matter in course — Essential facts and prin-
ciples to be mastered — Body of habits to result from study —
Prerequisites — Sequences — Divisions of course — Class pe-
riods — Outside preparation — Laboratory studies — Class of
pupils for whom pitched — Class given full credit — Items in
pupil records — Range of marks — Material to be covered in
each part of course.

xiv CONTENTS

2. Textbooks and their use — Instructions as to textbooks —
Instructions to teachers as to their use — Relative emphasis of
parts — Relative time to presentation and drill — Sources of
supplementary material — Notebooks and other necessary ma-
terial — Specimen assignments and reports — Chapter summary

— Class exercises.

CHAPTER XI. DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE THE REMAINING
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD (continued) 138

II. DEMONSTBATION TEACHING AND DIRECTED OBSERVATION

1. Demonstration teaching — The purpose — Aim of the les-
son to be seen — Taking notes — Critical discussion afterward

— Examples of the process — Typical outlines — Section sum-
mary — Class exercises.

2. Directed observation of teaching — Preliminary observa-
tion — Critical observation — Observation assignments — Two
plans for this assignment — Critical evaluation — Judgment-
forming — Use of the assignment — Typical assignments — Pur-
pose and use of these observation assignments.

3. Observation to evaluate teaching — Prerequisites for this
type of observation — Evaluation outline — Use of this type of
observation — Section summary — Class exercises.

4. Emergency demonstration teaching — Use and purpose of
this — Examples of — Situations that justify supervisory inter-
ference — Section summary — Class exercises.

CHAPTER XII. DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE THE REMAINING
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD (contimted) 163

III. DIRECTED TEACHING AND SUPERVISED STUDY

1. Directed teaching — What this involves — Outline for —
Choice of specific habits of skill — Definite detailed lesson plans

— Differences between teachers — The requirements in making
lesson plans — Weekly lesson plans — Forms for — Daily lesson
plans — Value of these — Do not lead to mechanical work —
Clarify thinking for the beginner — Relative recitation time to
oral and written work — Quizzes, and their character — Prepara-
tion of lessons — Section summary — Class exercises.

2. Supervised study — The recitation — The lesson assign-
ment— The recitation demands — Study during the recitation

— Supervised study period — Literature on study — Training in
use of tests and scales — Value of in grading and promotion —
Standardized tests and standardized skills — Section summary —
Class exercises — Selected references for Section B.

CONTENTS xv

SECTION C
TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

CHAPTER XTTT- PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE SELECTION OF
TECHNIQUE 193

The purpose of supervision — Supervision to develop inde-
pendence and efficiency — Constructive work a necessity —
Supervisory technique not unvarying — Technique should be
economical — Chapter summary — Class exercises.

CHAPTER XTV. SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE . . . 199

Technique and devices.

1. Visiting the teacher at work — When should the supervisor
begin visiting? — Answer in the light of purpose — Entering the
classroom — Position in classroom — Leaving the room — Mak-
ing comments on the recitation — Delivering the written notes.

2. Criticizing the work of the teacher — Outline form of notes

— Rate of procedure in supervision.

3. Conferences and checking up of work — Types of confer-
ences with teachers — Checking the work of the pupils taught —
Assigning grades and marks to pupils — Chapter summary —
Class exercises.

CHAPTER XV. ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER . 214

Considerations in estimating success — The rating of teachers

— Suggested outline for rating of — General scholarship — Special
scholarship — Ability to express thoughts — Teaching ability —
Mastery of the principles of method — Intelligence and resource-
fulness — Lesson planning and skill in following — Skill and re-
liability in technique — Ability to secure desired results — Abil-
ity to test and grade well — Ability to manage and discipline —
A philosophy of school discipline — Personal appearance — Qual-
ities of leadership — Professional attitude — Type of school
fitted for — Type of community 6tted for — The critical point

— Chapter summary — Class ext rcises.

CHAPTER XVI. ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION . 231

The advent of supervision — Taking stock as to supervisory
efficiency — Two steps involved in measuring supervisory effi-
ciency.

1. The principles involved in measuring supervisory efficiency

— Set up definite attainable goals — Designate definite types of
objective data — Secure designated types of data — Study the

xri CONTENTS

supervisory performances — The consideration of principles gives
psychological perspective.

2. Programs for measuring supervisory efficiency.

A. Measuring the supervisory activities of the superin-
tendent — Limit the undertaking to tangible goals — Defi-
nite goals suggested — Types of data to be secured —
Sources of valid data — Consideration of the supervisory
activities.

B. Measuring the supervisory work of the assistant super-
intendent, the supervising principal, and the building prin-
cipal.

c. Measuring the supervisory activities of the special
supervisor — Definite goals for special supervisor — Types
of evidence that indicate the efficiency of the special super-
visor — Sources of valid evidences — Consideration of
special supervisor's performances.

D. Measuring the efficiency of supervisory activities car-
ried on by the supervisor in a training school — Goals to be
attained — Types of evidence of supervisory efficiency —
Sources of evidences — Devices for securing objective data
— Chapter summary — Class exercises.

INDEX 267

THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

THE SUPERVISION OF
INSTRUCTION

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1. The need for trained supervisors

Composition of the teaching force. A critical survey of
the teaching body of the elementary and the secondary
schools reveals one impressive, outstanding fact. This ob-
vious fact is that the teaching force from year to year is
a rapidly changing group. A little further careful study
shows that the force is not only changing rapidly, but that
it is to a great extent a body of workers with limited profes-
sional training. The significance of these two important
facts is best seen by noting the make-up of the teaching
corps of almost any city in the country.

Every city of any size finds itself each year with a number
of new teachers in its ranks. These new teachers are of at
least two, and very often three, types. The first type is the
one that is usually thought of when one mentions a new
teacher; namely, the teacher who is new to the profession, or
who is just beginning to teach. The second type is the
teacher who is new to the particular system of schools that
one might be surveying. The third type of new teacher w
the one who is new to teaching some particular grade or to
teaching some particular subject or subjects to which he has
been assigned. This third type may include teachers who
are old to the profession and old to the system in which they

4 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

are employed. The fact that a considerable number of
teachers in the force are new either to all or part of the teach-
ing situations that must be met each year, gives rise to the
need for setting up some agency that will most adequately
direct the work of all the teachers in the system, so as to im-
prove the efficiency of individuals and to harmonize the
work of the entire body. The problem of harmonizing the
work of experienced and inexperienced teachers, who are
dealing with the same grades or lines of work in the system,
requires quite as much attention to the old teachers as it
does to the new.

This changing from year to year in personnel of the teach-
ing force is not confined to the ranks of city and town teach-
ers. It is also true of the county corps of teachers in the
rural schools. In fact, if there is any difference, the country
schools suffer most in this regard. Many teachers who are
beginning to teach for the first tune every year enter the
rural schools. Then, too, many experienced rural teachers
are new each year to the particular schools in which they
teach. This fact increases the demand for more adequate
supervision of the teaching forces of the rural schools, and is
gradually bringing about an organization of counties into
systems of units that are small enough to make adequate
supervision possible. This type of organization gives the
county superintendent a corps of supervisors similar to that
which the city superintendent has who provides for assistant
superintendents and supervising principals for the different
wards in his system, and it surmounts one of the chief admin-
istrative difficulties that has so seriously handicapped the
rural schools.

Lack of professional training. There is still another very
important reason why supervision of teaching is an absolute
necessity in order to improve the efficiency of the teaching
forces. This is the fact that out of the large number of

INTRODUCTION 5

teachers who enter the ranks each year a very great many
are not professionally trained in any true sense of the word.
Moreover, many of the older, experienced teachers who are
already in the profession have not been sufficiently trained
for their work. If, therefore, the great body of teachers,
which is as yet so largely unprofessional, is to become more
efficient from year to year, as it should, then certainly some
supervising agency must be set up whereby teachers in serv-
ice may be systematically trained in connection with the
performance of their regular teaching duties. The main
effort of this supervising agency should necessarily be ex-
pended on that part of the teaching force which is newest to
the profession and which is least adequately trained pro-
fessionally. The attention to the remainder of the teaching
body should be simply that which is needed hi order to har-
monize the work of the entire group.

If an adequate supply of teachers could be sufficiently
educated and thoroughly trained professionally before en-
tering the ranks of the profession, then there would be little
need for any provision for such thoroughgoing supervision
as has been indicated by the above discussion. Under such
ideal conditions, a good execution of the administrative
functions that superintendents and principals should be
performing would no doubt be all that would be necessary
to develop and maintain any school organization at a high
standard of efficiency. But such conditions do not exist
and such ideal conditions cannot exist for years to come, if
they can ever be secured, so that the necessity for training
supervisors for the specific job of supervising the teaching
activities of teachers, and especially beginning teachers, is at
hand and must be met if genuine progress in professional
efficiency is to be secured.

Need for professional supervision. The need for such
supervision as has been referred to above has been realized

6 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

to a considerable extent by city superintendents, and they
have made a fair beginning in providing for the supervision
of teachers in the elementary schools. Rural schools in
some States are also now beginning to attack this vital prob-
lem. The future should and will doubtless see a rapid de-
velopment in provision for adequate supervision of elemen-
tary city, town, and rural schools. Meanwhile, practically
no attention has been paid to the needs for supervision of
teaching activities in the high schools. The rapid growth
of high schools demands a large increase in the number of
teachers every year. All that has been said in regard to the
shifting, unprofessional character of the teaching body as a
whole can be said truthfully with double emphasis in respect
to the body of high-school teachers. Normal schools have
been turning out a goodly number of elementary-school
teachers yearly for a long time, and these teachers, compared
to the rank and file, are fairly well trained professionally.

On the other hand, the attempt to train high-school
teachers is of recent date, and the schools that are equipped
to do the work are not nearly so numerous as the normal
schools. The result is that only a very small part of the
number of high-school teachers who begin teaching each
year has been anything like professionally trained. The
high schools are vastly worse off than the elementary
schools, and in fact as bad if not worse off than the rural
schools, when it comes to the professional efficiency of its
teaching force. Therefore, all the arguments that have
been advanced for the need for making adequate provision
for the supervision of the teaching activities in the elemen-
tary city and rural schools hold most emphatically for the
high school. The only way to escape the necessity of mak-
ing provision for thoroughgoing supervision of high-school
teachers is to provide enough agencies for training high-
school teachers to supply an adequate number of trained

INTRODUCTION 7

teachers to keep the ranks full. The day when that ideal
condition will be reached is far in the future; hence to-day
must take care of itself and even provide for the many to-
morrows that must come before that ideal condition can be
even approximated.

The training school and supervision. The discussion
thus far has been directed to pointing out the conditions hi
public schools that make necessary the development of a
comprehensive and thoroughgoing science of supervision of
instruction, and the training of a body of supervisors who
shall be competent to do this distinct service in education.
If, as has been suggested above, an adequate supply of
trained teachers could be provided so that no teacher would
ever enter the ranks of active service until thoroughly com-
petent to teach, independent of other than ordinary admin-
istrative guidance, then supervisors for public schools would
be for the most part unnecessary; but the problem and the
job of supervising teachers and training them during and
through their actual teaching activities would merely be
concentrated in the training schools organized and main-
tained for this specific purpose. The science of supervision
would remain the same and the problems that the supervisor
must solve would remain the same, for training schools must
provide genuine teaching situations that are similar to those
found in ordinary public schools. The training school is
merely a setting-apart of a limited school population and
facilities for the purpose of tram ing teachers instead of tak-
ing the whole public school system for that purpose.

If the problem of training teachers could be adequately
solved through the establishment of a sufficient number of
training schools, then the problem of providing supervisors
who are competent to take charge of the supply of beginning
teachers and develop them into efficient teachers would be
greatly simplified. There would still be the need, however,

8 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

for the development of the science of supervision, and the
training of an adequate supply of supervisors for the train-
ing schools. This condition regarding a supply of trained
teachers does not exist, hence beginning teachers must be
trained in both the public schools and in the training schools.
Therefore a large number of supervisors needs to be trained
for this specific job of supervision in both of these fields. If
agencies do not already exist that are adapted to accom-
plishing this work, then such agencies should be devised and
put into operation as rapidly as it can possibly be done. The
natural agencies for doing this line of training are evidently
the teacher-training institutions. In these institutions,
just as the teacher in training can see expert teaching dem-
onstrated and also teach under expert guidance, so can the
supervisor in training see expert supervision demonstrated
and also supervise under expert guidance.

The newest function, then, that thoroughly established
training schools and colleges should undertake to perform is
that of training a supply of supervisors for the public schools
and for training schools as well. In order to meet this grow-
ing demand for trained supervisors, the science of supervi-
sion must be developed and formulated so that the subject-
matter of supervision may be studied in as definite and as
thorough a fashion as the student of teaching studies the
principles of method, devices, and technique. Then, just as
the student-teacher is given ample opportunity to practice
teaching under careful supervision, so must the student-
supervisor be given ample opportunity to practice supervis-
ing under careful, competent supervision.

Administrators need supervisory training. The tendency
to-day is to regard the chief function of school administra-
tors as that of dealing with the subject-matter of instruction
and the process of instruction. The clerical work, the finan«
cial details, and general business routine are taken over now

INTRODUCTION 9

almost entirely by the business manager and clerical assist-
ants. As these business matters are taken off of the super-
intendent or principal, he is expected to give more attention
to improving the efficiency of instruction. The tendency is
to bring about improvement by securing the best teachers
available, and by improving the work of the weaker ones
through supervision.

The fact, then, is perfectly obvious that since in many
school systems the superintendent, assistant superintend-
ent, supervising principal, and building principal, as the
case may be, must undertake the task of supervising the
teaching, the success of the administrator is being measured
more and more to-day by the improvement he brings about
in courses of instruction and in the efficiency with which the
courses are taught. The more thoroughly the administra-
tor is trained for the specific work of supervision, the more
successful he will be in carrying on this work in connection
with his other duties. The more successful he is in carrying
on any phase of the supervising activities, the better able
he will be to show the value of having the work of super-
vision thoroughly done. He can show not only the value
of supervision, but also the impossibility of doing all that
could and should be done, without adequate assistance.
This assistance may be in the line of more clerical help that
will enable him to devote more time to supervision, or it
may be in the provision of supervisory help. In any case,
the administrator who is trained for supervision has a great
advantage over the one who is not so trained, and he has a
wonderful opportunity to make such a contribution to the
work of public education that it will not go unrecognized.

S. Is there danger of formalism?

The formality of technique. One criticism that has been
made on the training school is that it tends to become too

10 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

formal in its organization and administration, due to the
fact that it attempts to make the study of teaching inten-
sive. The same criticism will no doubt be made against the
proposition to train supervisors through intensive study and
practice in training-school institutions. At first thought
the organization of any school or class for the purpose of
carrying out the training of supervisors according to the
principles, devices, and technique set forth in the following
discussions would seem to be a pretty formal sort of an or-
ganization. A careful examination of the whole situation,
however, reveals the error of such a conclusion.

First of all one must set up a definition of formalism. The
usual idea of formalism seems to be that it is carrying on a
performance in keeping with some fixed rule or standard
that exists in and for itself without respect to the particular
situation in which the performance is carried on. For ex-
ample, a teacher in the training school studies the art of
questioning. While he is studying the art of questioning, he
is concerned with the form of his questions, with the number
of questions, with the speed of asking them, etc. He studies
the performance of the expert teaching supervisor in asking
questions and notes the form of the questions, number, etc.
Then he goes out into the public schools and tries to follow
the exact form of questioning that he saw used and perhaps
used himself in the training school. Very often the results
are very unsatisfactory, and the failure is blamed on the
formal training that the teacher received in the training
school. The criticism is that the training-school situation
was made too formal in order to teach the student-teacher
the art of questioning; hence, when the teacher gets out into
a real school situation, where no one is concerned about the
art of questioning for its own sake, he cannot use his train-
ing-school stuff and has to acquire real teaching experience
through trial and error, main strength and awkwardness, etc.

INTRODUCTION 11

Some even go so far as to say that the sooner the teacher
forgets the formal stuff that he got in the training school,
the better off he will be and the sooner he will get down to
practical teaching activities.

Transforming technique into habits. There is truth in
the statement that teachers go out from the training school
acd blindly follow the formulae that were demonstrated in
their training, and as a result fail in their teaching. The
reason, however, that such teachers fail is not because they
received formal training in the training institution, but be-
cause they did not continue their training long enough to
become masters of the formulae. The training-school teach-
ers who demonstrated these formulae would not have made
the failures that the student-teachers made had they been
placed in the same teaching situations that confronted these
student-teachers when they went into the public schools.
This is an important fact that the critics have overlooked,
and it is the fact that gives the answer to the whole question.

Why would the expert training-school supervisor not have
failed where the student- teacher failed? The reason is that
the supervisor has mastered the principles of method, de-
vices, technique, and management so thoroughly that they
are to him merely the tools with which he works in the busi-
ness of educating the pupils in his classes. He has passed
through the necessary stages of habit formation, so that he
is no longer engrossed with induction, deduction, art of
questioning, etc., as aspects of teaching in and of them-
selves, but they come readily to mind in the most appropri-
ate form in which they can be used to meet particular teach-
ing situations. The expert supervisor is free to give his
attention to analyzing the educational needs of the pupils
and depends upon his habits to take care of themselves in
enabling him to meet successfully these needs.

Why teachers fail in using technique. Why, then, does

12 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

the teacher fresh from the training school often fail? The
reason is that he has not got beyond the stage of learning
where he can ignore the art of questioning, induction, etc.,
as existences in and of themselves, and depend upon them
as efficient habits. He must stop to decide whether the
inductive or the deductive organization of subject-matter
should be used. Moreover, when he has decided that in-
duction, for example, should be used, then he becomes
engrossed with getting the material into the inductive form
and in so doing often loses sight of needs of the pupils. The
result is that he gets his lesson presented in a formal induc-
tive organization, but fails to accomplish the desired re-
sults. What this teacher needs is more and yet more of the
study of the formal nature of the tools of teaching, and more
and more practice in using them under the wise guidance of
an expert, so that finally he ceases to be concerned with
these tools in and of themselves. When this stage of formal,
habit-forming training has been reached, the teacher will be
able to forget his formal training and can trust it to take
care of itself in the form of definite habits when he is en-
grossed with the vital needs of the pupils whom he is teach-
ing. This kind of a formally trained teacher will not fail.
The trouble is that teachers are turned out of the training
school at the time when the most fruitful part of their train-
ing is just ready to begin. A whole year given entirely to
teaching under expert supervision would be short enough
time to accomplish satisfactory results.

Is there a formal stage in all training ? The question thai
is now valid to raise is whether a teacher can ever under any
conditions become a successful, efficient teacher without
passing through this so-called formal phase of training
Must not all teachers form habits that enable them to use
the tools of teaching effectively if they ever succeed as
teachers? Can habits of teaching be formed more effec-

INTRODUCTION 13

lively and more economically through accidental, haphazard
experiences than through systematic study and training?
Can the teacher study the tools of teaching better in the
midst of the complexities of the actual teaching situations
than he can study them when they are taken one at a time
and thoroughly analyzed for his particular benefit until he
has mastered all of them? Cannot the teacher bring just as
much initiative and individual genius to the study of the
tools of teaching when they are brought before him by an
expert teacher of teaching as he can when these same prob-
lems are presented incidentally and accidentally in the
course of his untutored teaching experiences?

The answers to all of these questions and to other ques-
tions of similar character that might well be asked are cer-
tainly obvious. No teacher can escape passing through the
stages of habit formation that have been termed formal
training, no matter whether the habits formed are good or
bad. And certainly no one will argue that important habits
can be formed more economically and more thoroughly by
accidental, spontaneous means than they can be formed by
thoroughgoing systematic study and practice. Such an
argument, if valid, would settle the whole question most
effectively, because, if people acted in keeping with it, there
would be no schools and no teachers would be needed.

Training and attaining efficiency. One more question is
valid in this connection, and that is as to whether a teacher
who has been trained in this so-called formal way, although
seeming to fail at first, will not become more efficient in time
and in a much shorter time than will the teacher who enters
the ranks without such training, taking for granted that all
other things are equal in the two cases. The answer that is
furnished by the testimony of competent school people is in
favor of the training-school-teacher product. This fact,
and the fact that teachers must under present conditions

14 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

leave the training school for active service before anything
like such mastery of the tools of teaching as has been sug-
gested above can be accomplished, make it all the more im-
perative that provision be made for adequate supervision of
instruction in the public schools as well as in the training
school. Such supervision will hasten the completion of the
training of the training-school product, and also take care
of the untrained forces that still crowd the ranks from year
to year.

Meaning of the formal period. A final most vital point
that should be noted is that it is not the fact that one is
studying his teaching performance in a training school under
the direction of an expert supervisor, or the fact that he is
studying his teaching performance in a public school with-
out the help of any one, that makes his training formal or
otherwise, but it is the fact that one turns his whole atten-
tion to the study of the tools of teaching and makes, for the
time being, their essential characteristics his whole concern.
This taking time off from the job of teaching, in either case,
in order to master the tools with which to do the job most
efficiently is formal study and formal training. In each
case the teacher studies the tools for their own sakes, and
tries them out until he discovers how they work and why
they work, then practice soon puts them in the realm of
habit and the teacher is freed from the formalism of his
training.

How does the training school compare, then, with the
public school as to formality of organization? The answer
is not far to seek. The training school is no more formal
than the public school so far as the work of the pupils is con-
cerned. The trained supervisor, while he affords opportu-
nity for the student-teacher to study the tools of teaching
systematically and thoroughly, at the same tune keeps these
tools adapted and adjusted to the teaching situations so that

INTRODUCTION 15

just as practical and thorough results are secured as can be
secured under any school conditions. In fact, the training
school in the hands of highly efficient supervisors is less apt
to suffer on account of formalism than is the public school
whose teacher is passing through the formal stage of his de-
velopment on his own initiative without guidance. The
reason is that such a teacher will not always by any means
keep the tools adapted and adjusted to the teaching situa-
tions while he is in the process of mastering them. Whether
the teachers be trained in schools designated as training
schools or in the regular public schools, the schools them-
selves can be saved from all the dangers of formalism by
providing an adequate force of competent supervisors to
carry on the training work.

Supervisors, too, must master technique. The training
of supervisors demands that they, too, must master the
tools of supervision. Then supervisors, like other teachers,
must study the principles of method, devices, and technique
of supervision for their own sakes until they have thor-
oughly mastered these tools and can trust them to take care
of themselves in the form of efficient habits, leaving the
supervisors free to give then* whole attention to the needs of
the supervising situations. This formal phase of training
cannot be escaped on the part of the would-be supervisors,
and candidates for this most important service in education
should not stop their training until thorough mastery and
high efficiency is reached. This training can be successfully
completed in a well-equipped training school, or it may be
begun there and finished in the public school by provision
being made for training of supervisors while they are en-
gaged in the active duties of supervision. That is to say,
just as provision needs to be made for improving teachers in
service, so provision needs to be made for the improvement
of supervisors in service.

16 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

This need is all the more pressing because of the fact that
just as training schools cannot as yet turn out an adequate
supply of thoroughly trained teachers, so they can supply
only a small part of efficiently trained supervisors that are
needed. Some cities have already undertaken to do some-
thing in this direction through extension courses, profes-
sional lectures, and the study of educational literature.
These means are helpful, but they are far from adequate to
accomplish thoroughgoing results. Some agency must be
set up whereby competent direction of the work of the su-
pervisors is systematically carried on throughout the school
year.

Formalism eliminated by mastery. The final suggestion
that needs to be made in closing this part of the discussion
is that formalism in the training of supervisors can be elimi-
nated only by thoroughly mastering the principles which
comprise the tools of supervision. Merely studying the
subject-matter of supervision until one comprehends what
the principles are will not suffice. The study must be con-
tinued until the principles become a coherent unity and
form the basis of efficient habits intelligently practiced.

3. The problem of training supervisors

Two questions involved. The problem of training super-
visors involves two fundamental and distinct questions:
(l) What are the activities that supervisors in training
schools and in public schools carry on in the performance of
their duties? (2) What are the kinds of training that best
prepare supervisors to perform these duties? The answer
to the first question is obviously the starting-point in de-
termining the answer to the second, for one must necessarily
know what the job of supervision is before one can formu-
late a practical program of training that will prove adequate
in preparing supervisors for the specific job of supervision.

INTRODUCTION 17

A satisfactory answer to the second question means a pretty
definite solution of the large problem of supervision.

The plan of this book. The organization of the material
of this discussion is based upon the two questions just pro-
posed.

Part I is devoted to the task of defining the job of super-
vision and to setting forth, in some detail, the activities that
supervisors in training schools and in public schools cany on
in pursuance of the purposes for which they have been
employed in their respective fields.

Part II is given to the solution of the problem of train-
ing supervisors adequately so that they may perform, most
efficiently, the activities set forth in Part I.

The material of Part II is divided into three sections, ac-
cording to the fundamental aspects of the pedagogical prob-
lem involved — namely, method, device, and technique.

These three aspects of the problem are practically of equal
importance, but considerable of emphasis has been given to
the discussion of the principles of method, and especially to
the first principle. This emphasis upon method seems, in
the mind of the writer, to be justifiable on the basis of defi-
nite facts concerning supervision.

The greatest weakness of supervision. The first fact
that justifies the emphasis placed upon method is the fact
that the greatest weakness of supervision is its proneness
to be largely a matter of devices and technique. Definite,
recognized principles have been lacking. Such principles
are the very foundation of the whole procedure in carrying
on the work of supervision; hence it seems worth while to
spend a considerable amount of time in an intensive study
that will make possible a thorough mastery of the essential
details. Supervisors and teachers in general have given
little or no consideration to the facts set forth under princi-
ple one, and this is one of the principal reasons why the work

18 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

of supervision has been so inadequate and so unsatisfactory.
The refinement of the supervising activities, and of the de-
vices and technique employed in carrying on these activities,
can be brought about only by setting up definite principles
of method and then adhering to them strictly at all times.
Details vs. generalities. The amount of details that are
given, not only in the section on method, but also in parts of
the section devoted to the discussion of devices, seems justi-
fiable on the basis of the general tendency to stop with gen-
eralities. The tendency to agree upon the generalizations
and to take the details for granted is one of the rocks upon
which a good many pedagogical crafts have been wrecked.
Mental agreement upon a principle never appreciably af-
fects the procedure of supervisors and teachers unless the
details that are implied in the principle are set forth defi-
nitely, are mastered, and are kept clearly in mind at all
times. For example, the reader may agree with the writer
that the supervisor and the teachers who work under him
should have common knowledge concerning the psychologi-
cal characteristics of adolescents, but, if the writer had not
set forth the details of the body of common knowledge that
he had in mind, the reader would not know exactly what
facts the writer thought ought to be so thoroughly mastered
and held in mind that they would be readily recognized at
any tune that they appeared in the behavior of the pupils.
Moreover, the reader would likely have followed the natu-
ral tendency to be satisfied with a vague idea of what these
facts might be, and would not have taken the time and the
energy to work out a set of details for himself and commit
them to definite form. The more one commits himself to
the details that embody a concept or idea of a principle, the
more one refines his thinking in that particular connection,
and the more he refines his behavior in getting control over
the situation.

INTRODUCTION 19

Chapter summary. The shifting, unprofessional charac-
ter of the teaching body makes the provision for competent
supervision of instruction not only desirable, but necessary.
The danger of formalism in training of supervisors can be
met by thorough mastery of the comprehensive body of
principles that comprise the tools of supervision and ade-
quate practice in their applications. The undertaking of
training supervisors involves the setting-forth of the job or
activities of supervision, and the organizing of the means by
which supervisors can best be trained to perform their du-
ties. The remainder of this discussion is devoted to this
undertaking.

PART I
THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

CHAPTER H
SUPERVISING ACTIVITIES

THE activities that are carried on by the supervisor in a
training school and the activities that are performed by the
supervisory official in a public school are fundamentally the
same. Some modifications in emphasis upon this or that
activity may be necessary in the one field or in the other.
Such modifications as seem important to note will be indi-
cated and discussed in the light of their importance in each
field. In general there seem to be at least eight forms of
activity that are carried on to a greater or less degree in both
fields.

Laying the basis for cooperative teaching. The super-
visor should realize first of all that he makes his contribution
to the education of the pupils who are being taught through
the work of the teachers who teach under his direction. In
order to make a valid, definite contribution to the education
of the pupils, the supervisor must secure the hearty coopera-
tion of the teachers in carrying out his ideas. On the other
hand, the supervisor must cooperate most heartily with the
teachers in the performance of their duties so that their in-
dividual efforts in carrying out his ideas will be most effec-
tive. In other words, both supervisor and teachers should
feel that the teaching of the pupils is a mutual undertaking
to which each must make his contribution in harmonious
cooperation with the other.

The first objective, then, that the supervisor should strive
to attain is the securing of the proper attitude of his teachers
toward his work with them. He is responsible for working
out and establishing the definite basis of mutual under-

24 THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

standing regarding the duties that he is to perform and the
duties that the teachers are to perform, so that on the basis
of common knowledge and common purposes the teachers
may enter into their work in a spirit of hearty support and
cooperation. A detailed account of what the supervisor
may do in laying a definite basis for cooperative teaching
will be given under the discussion of the first principle of
method in the first section of Part II.

Selecting and organizing the subject-matter of courses.
The supervisor in a training school usually has a fairly free
hand in shaping the courses under his charge to conform to
what he thinks these courses ought to be. Even where
quite definite courses of study are already mapped out by a
state department of education, or by a department in the
training institution, the supervisor still has the responsibil-
ity of adapting the work to the particular groups of pupils
that are being taught. The supervisor has not only a great
responsibility in solving the problem of selection and adap-
tation of subject-matter, but he has also a great opportu-
nity. In order to make the most of this opportunity, the
supervisor must know thoroughly the needs of the respec-
tive groups of pupils who are taught under his direction, and
he must also know accurately and thoroughly the value of
the various types and phases of subject-matter that may be
employed in meeting the needs of the pupils.

The supervisor who works in a public school system very
often has the entire responsibility of making up the course of
study in the line or lines of work that he supervises. If,
however, the course of study is already mapped out by the
state department, or by the head of the system in which the
supervisor works, then, as has just been suggested in refer-
ence to the supervisor in the training school, the supervisor
still has the responsibility and the opportunity of adapting
the subject-matter to the particular groups of pupils who

SUPERVISING ACTIVITIES 25

are being taught under his supervision. In any case, the
supervisor must possess a thoroughgoing knowledge of the
needs of the pupils and adequately comprehend the value of
the kinds of subject-matter that may best minister to these
needs. Moreover, the supervisor must know the limitations
of the pupils' abilities to accomplish work within the time
limits of the recitation periods that the school program
makes possible.

This task of selecting and organizing subject-matter is a
very vital one, and the supervisor who does not acquire a
high degree of skill in carrying out this phase of his work
will never become a thoroughly efficient and independent
director of teaching activities. The attainment of a satis-
factory degree of skill in this line of service demands indus-
try, insight, and a vast amount of time and energy. The
supervisor must become conversant with the literature that
bears upon this problem and he must also become ac-
quainted with the practices in modern schools in regard to
problems of curriculum-making that are similar to those
that he is called upon to solve. If he as a supervisor does
not have the authority to make needed changes in the
selection and arrangement of the subject-matter in the
courses under his charge, he is at least responsible for under-
taking to convince those who are in authority of the validity
of the changes that he deems necessary to make. There-
fore> the supervisor must not only have definite convictions
concerning curriculum-making, but he must have skill in
the technique of working out courses in great detail, and he
must be able to produce evidences in support of his point
of view in respect to the selection and the arrangement of
subject-matter.

Teaching for purposes of experimentation and demon-
stration. The supervisor, whether he works in a training
school or in a public school system, should be an expert

26 THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

teacher of the lines of work that he undertakes to supervise.
One of the functions that the supervisor should perform is
that of bringing about an improvement in the teaching
process. In order to contribute to this end, he must not
only be able to see the possibilities of making improvement
through modifications in the procedure of teaching, but he
must be able to set up experimental conditions and to carry
out the actual experiment in a satisfactory manner. The
supervisor must not only be able to tell others how to do an
excellent job of teaching, but he should be able to demon-
strate by actual performance the sort of teaching efficiency
that he is striving to develop in those who are working under
his direction. For example, if the supervisor believes that
the teaching of spelling can be accomplished best by the
project plan of procedure, then he should be able to set up
the conditions and to carry on the teaching of spelling by
that plan for a sufficient length of tune fully to demonstrate
the validity of the plan and to give the teachers a good ex-
hibition of skillful teaching of spelling in the form of a proj-
ect or projects, as the case might be. This means that the
supervisor must plan to do more or less of teaching, and that
he should keep in practice so he will not lose his skill and
efficiency as a teacher.

The supervisor needs to teach, not only for the purpose of
experimenting and of demonstrating, but also for the pur-
pose of discovering the actual difficulties and possibilities
that exist in the particular teaching situations with which
he has to deal. He needs to carry on this activity to an ex-
tent sufficient to enable him to keep a true perspective of
actual things that the pupils face in pursuing their studies,
and the things that the teachers face in carrying out their
duties. In no other way can the supervisor keep himself so
well in a helpful attitude toward his teachers.

Directing systematic observation of expert and inexpert

SUPERVISING ACTIVITIES 27

teaching performances. This activity is carried on more
extensively and more intensively in training schools than it
is in public school systems. More or less of observation
work, however, is carried on in many of the larger public
school systems and much more of it could profitably be done.
The people who do the observing are cadet teachers, supply
teachers, and even regular teachers who have not had ex-
tended experience or who desire to improve their work.
The observing that is ordinarily done in the public school is
usually general and rather indefinite. The observers are
left too much to their own devices and not trained system-
atically in observing definite phases of teaching perform-
ances. Teachers "visit" schools and carry away only very
vague general impressions, or at most, perhaps, they copy
a few devices that seem to be new and novel.

The supervisor in any case cannot direct the work of ob-
servation so that it will result in practical development and
training of teachers unless he himself is a keen, accurate ob-
server of teaching activities. In addition to this he must
acquire skill hi directing others in their study of teaching
performances so that they too will acquire skill in observa-
tion. In order to accomplish this result, in training teach-
ers to observe the supervisor must master two vital skills
that have to be carried on at the same time. The supervisor
must be able to see what is going on in the teaching perform-
ance, and he must at the same time know pretty definitely
what is going on in the minds of the observers.

The observation, on the part of the supervisor, of the
observation performance of the teachers is by far the most
difficult of the two skills. The difficulties that are experi-
enced by the observers in making a discriminating study of
the teaching performance must be discovered and overcome
by proper guidance and practice. A detailed analysis of
this problem will be given in a later discussion.

28 THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

Directing teaching activities. This may be of student-
teachers, or of regular teachers in public schools. This is
one of the most obvious of the duties that the supervisor
must carry out. It is also the activity that makes the most
searching test of his skill and efficiency. The primary idea
in the work of supervision is that the supervisor is a director
of the teaching activities of teachers. Therefore, he must
seek to discover all the practical phases of the actual teach-
ing performance that may be materially improved through
adequate supervision, and then strive to acquire the highest
degree of skill in directing these activities in such a way as to
secure the best results.

Checking up pupil progress. Checking up the progress of
the pupils who are being taught by the student-teacher, or
by the regular teacher, and seeing that the work of the pu-
pils is up to a satisfactory standard, is a fifth important form
of activity of the supervisor. He is responsible to a large
extent for the progress that the pupils make under the teach-
ing that is done under his supervision. The supervisor
should keep systematic records of the work of the pupils,
and he should study both the pupils and the teachers as
they work together, so that ultimately he may be able to
estimate accurately the actual progress of both pupils and
teachers. Protecting the welfare of the pupils is a large re-
sponsibility, and the supervisor must prepare himself to
meet this duty in a highly satisfactory manner.

Measuring progress and efficiency of teacher. The
measurement of the progress and efficiency of the student-
teacher, or of the regular teacher who teaches under the di-
rection of the supervisor, is one of the most difficult phases
of the supervisor's work. He is in the best position of any
person connected with the work of the teacher under his
charge to measure intelligently and accurately the actual
accomplishment of the teacher. The student-teacher must

SUPERVISING ACTIVITIES 99

depend upon the fairness, justness, and reliability of the
supervisor's judgment in determining his grade, credit, and
recommendation for a teaching position. The regular
teacher in a public school system must depend upon the re-
liability and fairness of the supervisor's judgment for his
grade in success, his recommendation for reemployment,
and his recommendation for promotion in rank and salary.
This duty of the supervisor is one of the most far-reaching
in its results; hence it is one of the most responsible activi-
ties that he must perform. Therefore the supervisor must
study faithfully to master a set of practical standards that
may be used validly in measuring the work of the teacher,
and he must strive diligently to acquire skill in employing
the standards.

Measuring the efficiency of supervision. The supervisor
should make as careful a measure of his own work as he is
able to do. This matter is just as important as the measur-
ing of the work done by the teacher who works under his
direction. The supervisor should be willing to submit his
work to the same kind of objective measurements that he
applies to measuring the work of the teacher. Therefore
he should master practical standards for measuring his su-
pervising activities, and he should seek to attain skill in
applying these standards to his own case.

The goal of supervision, when the supervisor works in a
training school, is the making of efficient teachers. When
the supervisor works in a public school system it is to im-
prove teachers in service and to secure efficient teaching re-
sults. The scope of activities performed by the supervisor
should be the same hi each case. The relation of these ac-
tivities to the goal he is trying to attain is readily recognized.
For example, the supervisor could not have much freedom in
training teachers, or in directing them, if he could not have
a considerable degree of control over the selection and

30 THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

organization of the subject-matter of the courses supervised.
The same thing is true in reference to the other activities.
He cannot do a complete piece of work if any of the activi-
ties enumerated are omitted. The relation of each of these
activities to the finished product of each of the two types of
supervisory situations will become more and more apparent
as the method, devices, and technique are worked out in
definite detail.

The supervisory job of the administrator. The fact that
the superintendent, assistant superintendent, supervising
principal, and building principal, as has already been
pointed out, will have to undertake in many school systems
whatever is attempted in the way of supervision, makes
clear at once the impossibility of any one of these officials
carrying out so comprehensive a program of supervising
activities as has been set forth above. The administrator,
in such cases, must necessarily select those activities that
are most important and possible in the particular situation.
Then, by concentrating upon a few things, he will be able to
make a material improvement in the work of his teachers.
If the same teaching force is retained practically intact year
after year, the administrator can work intensively upon
different supervisory activities each year. This plan will
accomplish much better results than can be secured by un-
dertaking to carry on all of the activities each year, and by
so doing give only a meager amount of time to each.

Another plan may be followed in systems where the teach-
ing force remains relatively the same year after year. This
plan is that of supervising closely the work of one group of
teachers one year and that of another group the next, and so
on around. For example, the work of the first three grades
might be supervised one year, the intermediate grades the
next year, and the junior high school the next. The plan
would need to be modified according to the size of the school

SUPERVISING ACTIVITIES 31

systems. In a fairly large system each grade group of teach-
ers might be as large a group as could well be worked with
during a year. In smaller systems the teachers might very
well be handled in two groups in successive years.

Another plan would be to divide the teachers into groups,
as has just been suggested, and then work intensively a
month with each group in succession throughout the year-
There could also be grouping within the grade groups so
that those who most needed the help of supervision would
get the most. The best-trained teachers, for example, and
those who had worked longest with the administrator, would
likely need less of supervisory assistance than the others.

A still further plan would be that of undertaking the su-
pervision of the teaching of certain subjects one year, and
other subjects another year, and so on. For example, the
teaching of geography and history might be given the great-
est emphasis one year, reading and spelling another year,
language and grammar another year, arithmetic and man-
ual arts another year, and the other subjects another year.
This plan might be combined with one of the above plans
according to the size of the school system. For instance, in
some systems the supervision of reading and spelling hi just
the primary grades might well be all that could be under-
taken seriously during a year.

The administrator who is trained thoroughly for the job
of supervision will be able to determine the best plan to fol-
low in his particular situation and to initiate a constructive
program of supervision that will extend over several years.
He can then set forth his program to his school board and to
his corps of teachers. By undertaking each year only that
which can be reasonably accomplished, and by intensive,
thorough work, he can demonstrate the value of the super-
vision undertaken and show genuine progress toward greater
efficiency in the schools.

32 THE JOB OF SUPERVISION

Chapter summary. The supervisor must carry out eight
distinct pieces of work. He must lay the basis for effective
cooperative teaching; select and organize the subject-mat-
ter of courses of study; teach for purposes of demonstration
and experimentation; direct systematic observation; direct
the teaching activities of his teachers; check up the progress
made by the pupils; measure the efficiency and progress of
his teachers; and measure the efficiency of his own super-
vising performances. The performance of these various
pieces of work demands thorough training pointed specifi-
cally to these distinct activities.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Make a list of points of contact between the supervisor and his teach-
ers that demand cooperation.

2. Construct a set of suggestions that would help one in justifying his
selection and organization of subject-matter in any subject.

3. Name five teaching possibilities or problems that supervisors might
well experiment with in their teaching.

4. Estimate the amount of time that should be distributed to each of the
eight supervising activities daily, weekly, monthly, yearly in an ele-
mentary school.

5. Estimate the amount that should be distributed to each of the eight
supervising activities daily, weekly, monthly, yearly in a secondary
school.

PART II

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE SUPERVISION
OF INSTRUCTION

SECTION A
SUPERVISORY METHOD

CHAPTER III
THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF METHOD

Necessity for common knowledge. The first principle of
method is that the supervisor and the teachers who work
under his direction must possess common knowledge, aiid
hold common points of view concerning the school situation
in which they are working together.

The most important general aspects that are found in any
school situation are suggested below.

I. The school as to its

A. Fundamental purpose

B. Place in the educational systems and

C. Curriculum
II. Pupils as to their

A. Dominant physiological characteristics

B. Psychological traits and characteristic tendencies; and

C. Social status and outlook

HI. General principles of method of teaching; and
IV. Method of teaching the particular subject or subjects
V. General principles of devices
VI. General principles of technique
VII. Standards for judging the results of teaching
VIII. Relations that the teacher and supervisor are to bear to the
pupils being taught, and to the administrator in matters of
management

IX. Relations that should exist between supervisor and teacher;
that is, the purpose and service that the supervisor is to
accomplish

Teaching a cooperative enterprise. The validity of this
first principle is grounded in the idea that teaching under

36 SUPERVISORY METHOD

supervision is a cooperative enterprise; therefore each party
to the undertaking must possess the means by which genu-
ine cooperation may be accomplished. Teacher and super-
visor must come to think in similar terms, and to talk the
same language in the interchange of ideas. That is to say,
they must see, think, and talk about the same points or
problems. They cannot well do this if they do not start out
together with a definite understanding of what they are
seeking to do, and agree as to exactly how they will under-
take to get it done.

If the student-teacher, or the regular teacher, is lacking in
knowledge of fundamental facts and principles, he cannot
understand the suggestions of the supervisor, and very often
the criticisms will seem quite harsh and unjust. On the
other hand, if the Supervisor does not know what the teacher
has in mind, he cannot have a sympathetic attitude toward
the teaching performance. If the teacher holds one point of
view and the supervisor holds one radically different, then
very little beneficial results can come from the work of the
supervisor. The teacher will teach in accordance with his
point of view, and the supervisor will criticize the teaching
from his point of view. The result will be unsympathetic,
caustic criticisms on the one hand ; and resentful, prejudiced
antagonism on the other. Neither the teacher nor the su-
pervisor should be groping around in the dark as to what
the other has in mind at any time, and most of all they should
never be working from different points of view or at cross-
purposes. Therefore both teacher and supervisor should un-
derstand the full significance of this first principle, and they
should seek assiduously to make its realization the founda-
tion upon which their whole cooperative endeavor rests.

The validity of this principle and the necessity for get-
ting it thoroughly established and fully realized will be
brought out more clearly and forcibly by a somewhat de-

THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF METHOD 37

tailed discussion of the fundamental facts and points of
view that may well be taken as the basis for cooperative
teaching in an elementary school, and those that may be
taken for the basis of cooperative teaching in a secondary
school.

Chapter summary. The first principle in supervision is
that the supervisor and the teacher must possess common
knowledge concerning the school as an institution, the im-
portant characteristics of the pupils, general and special
principles of method, principles of devices, principles of
technique, standards for measuring the results of teaching,
relation of teacher and supervisor to management, and the
specific function of the supervisor. The supervisor is chiefly
responsible for securing the realization of this principle in his
work.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give two or more cases from experience in which the teacher and su-
pervisor held antagonistic views concerning the purpose of the ele-
mentary school. State the effect upon their work.

2. Give three or more cases from experience in which the teacher and
supervisor held opposite points of view concerning certain psychologi-
cal traits of children. State the effect upon their work.

S. Give two or more examples from experience of the results upon the
supervisor's work of not having clear distinctions in mind between
general principles and special principles of method.

4. Give two illustrations of the results upon the work of the supervisor of
not having a definite idea of his relation to problems of school man-
agement.

5. Give two or more illustrations of the results upon the work of the su-
pervisor of having an autocratic idea concerning his relation to mat-
ters of management.

6. Give three cases from experience in which neither the supervisor nor
the teacher had any clear-cut conception of the function of the super-
visor. What were the results?

7. Give two cases from experience in which the supervisor regarded his
work as that of an inspector, and assumed no responsibility for the
improvement of his teachers. What were the results?

8. Give two cases from experience in which the supervisor regarded his
work as setting tasks for teachers to perform. What were the remits?

CHAPTER IV

PARTICULAR BASIS FOR CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING
IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

1. The elementary school as an institution

The purpose of the elementary school. The purpose of
the elementary school is to administer to the needs of child-
hood. These needs are intellectual, physical, moral, and
social. The intellectual need is a thorough mastery of the
fundamental tools of learning, and an accumulation of use-
ful bodies of knowledge. The physical need is stimulation
of normal, healthy growth of the body, safeguarding the
vital sense organs against undue strain and development of
defects, and the discovery and correction of physical de-
fects. The moral need is a setting-up and maintaining of
recognized standards of conduct and insistence upon obedi-
ence to rightful authority. The social need is an organiza-
tion of group activities of every kind that belong in the life
of the public school, that will afford opportunities for in-
dividual responsibilities and individual contributions to the
activities carried on, and that at the same time unify the
efforts of all hi the final accomplishing of group purposes.

This conception of purpose, as stated in detail, will enable
the teacher and the supervisor to point their efforts to spe-
cific educational problems in attempting to meet the needs
of children. This conception will become clearer as one
studies the characteristics of childhood that are set forth
below. The importance, however, of stating and agreeing
even tentatively upon the specific aspects of purpose is
obvious.

The place of the elementary school. The place of the

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — ELEMENTARY 39

elementary school, as has been indicated by the statement
of purpose, is at the beginning of the scheme of systematic
education. The elementary school is the school for chil-
dren. The home is the school of infancy. The infant is
helpless and requires parental care. Infancy gives way to
childhood as the activities of the individual become more
and more controlled and self -directed. Finally the individ-
ual reaches the stage of development where he can profit by
systematic efforts and organized means of assisting him in
acquiring experience and training. Children of four and
five years of age are ready for a modification of the abso-
lutely free, spontaneous life that they have been leading,
and can profit by such systematic organized means as the
kindergarten affords for the gradual change toward a well-
ordered regime of conduct.

The kindergarten is the first stage of the elementary
school. It should be adapted to administer to the detailed
needs, already set forth, of children of ages four and five.
The second stage of the elementary school is the primary.
It is the stage in which the systematic mastery of the funda-
mental tools of learning is emphasized. Definite stages of
mastery are marked out and their accomplishment seriously
undertaken. In fact, the child is not expected to pass on
to the next stage until the primary stages of mastering the
elements of knowledge are satisfactorily completed. The
third stage is the last division of the elementary school of
the present time. That is to say, the general trend at least
of educational reorganization is in the direction of a seven-
or eight-year elementary school, beginning with a kinder-
garten of one or two years and ending with what is ordina-
rily considered the sixth year of the elementary school. This
last stage, then, covers what are usually designated as the
intermediate grades, or grades four, five, and six. This
organization of the field of the elementary school is based

40 SUPERVISORY METHOD

upon the psychological evidence that childhood is giving
way to adolescence, or the secondary period of human de-
velopment, at about eleven years of age. The elementary
school, therefore, should complete its training by the end of
the present sixth grade; that is, by the time the child reaches
twelve years of age and is passing rapidly into the adolescent
stage of development. The secondary school, as will be
shown later, should begin normally at this age.

Curriculum of the elementary school. The curriculum
of the elementary school, as has been indicated by the state-
ment of purpose and place, should include at least three
important aspects of subject-matter. These types of sub-
ject-matter should be emphasized in the order in which
they are enumerated, as follows : fundamental tools of learn-
ing, fundamental bodies of knowledge, and fundamental
manual arts. The tools of learning are reading, arithme-
tic, writing, spelling, and language, which includes compo-
sition and grammar. The fundamental bodies of knowledge
are American history, geography, history and current knowl-
edge of trades and industries, agriculture, physiology, and
hygiene. The fundamental manual arts are manual train-
ing and household economics or home-making. The selec-
tion of the subject-matter for each of these phases of ele-
mentary education should be determined by the mental
characteristics and capabilities of childhood, and by the
degree of mastery attained in each grade over the funda-
mental tools of learning. The subject-matter that is to be
employed in giving the pupils mastery over these tools of
learning should be very carefully selected and graded so as
to give it a progressive development of complexity and
difficulty. The subject-matter of the other two aspects of
training should be selected according to the degree of mas-
tery attained over the fundamental tools of learning, so
that they can be employed to advantage in mastering the

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — ELEMENTARY 41

fundamental bodies of knowledge and manual arts, and the
subject-matter of these divisions should also be selected
according to the mental characteristics and tendencies of
childhood.

2. Pupils of the elementary school

Dominant physiological characteristics. The dominant
physiological characteristics of childhood are as follows:

1. Rapid growth of the brain mass, which is practically full grown
at ages nine and ten.

2. Rapid development of reflex motor coordinations.

3. Rapid development of voluntary motor coordinations.

4. Spontaneous motor reactions to stimuli.

5. Active sensory processes.

6. Sense organs easily strained and injured.

7. Relatively rapid changes in growth of the cartilaginous portions
of the bones into osseous tissue, and corresponding tendency to
derangement of articulations and normal bone formation due to
excessive strain.

8. Susceptibility to colds, and to the so-called children's diseases.

9. Acute sensitiveness to pain, and to variations from normal tem-
perature of atmosphere.

These physiological characteristics have a profound bear-
ing upon the problems of length of school sessions, length
of recitations, frequency and length of play intermissions,
playground activities, lighting, heating, and ventilating of
schoolrooms, seating, use of blackboards, intensive straining
drills and exercises, measures of discipline, retardation in
mental work, acceleration in mental work, and other prob-
lems of the more general management of the school.

Psychological characteristics. The dominant psychologi-
cal characteristics of childhood are as follows:

1. Extreme suggestibility of the physiological and motor types.

2. Impulsive, spontaneous action before reflection can take place.

3. Shifting interests.

42 SUPERVISORY METHOD

4. Certain instincts more strongly active than others. The most
characteristic ones are:

a. Imitation, particularly of unconscious type.

b. Curiosity.

c. Self-satisfaction or selfishness.

d. Fear.

e. Play, which manifests three types, namely, individualistic,
cooperative, competitive.

/. Gregariousness, or gang spirit.
g. Fight.

h. Approbation and friendliness.
i. Jealousy.

5. Imagination of fanciful type very active. This is often mis-
taken for vicious, premeditated lying.

6. Credulity very great.

7. Volition vacillating and easily influenced.

8. Emotions easily excited, but impressions fault and fleeting.

Relation of these characteristics to schoolroom procedure.
These psychological characteristics have a definite relation
to the problems of length of recitations, selection of devices,
general management, and selection and organization of sub-
ject-matter. Take imitation for example. The teacher
and supervisor should utilize this instinct through the em-
ployment of devices that will not only stimulate uncon-
scious imitation, but also provide for opportunities con-
sciously to imitate correct performances. Moreover, they
should be careful that, particularly in the moral field, the
pupils shall have worthy models and standards to imitate.
The example in conduct set by the teacher and supervisor,
for instance, should be of the character that stimulates imi-
tation, and that when imitated leads to wholesome results.
Many opportunities arise in the teaching of the elementary-
school subjects for utilizing imitation through proper de-
vices, and through the technique of the teacher. The
teacher and supervisor should not only have these psycho-
logical characteristics definitely in mind, but they should

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — ELEMENTARY 43

also have a definite understanding as to the specific ways in
which these various traits and tendencies can be utilized in
teaching. The supervisor should work out a detailed list of
such possible utilizations, according to the grade, and the
subject-matter of the subjects being taught. This will give
the teacher an opportunity to understand the supervisor's
point of view and to work in agreement with it.

Social status of children. The children of the elementary
school are dependents. They are not called upon by society
to perform social activities of real vital significance. In
fact, society tends to foster helplessness and dependency in
childhood by providing everything for the children and giv-
ing them nothing to say about what shall be provided. The
school affords an opportunity for stimulating personal re-
sponsibility and for giving individuals social problems to
solve. The right of childhood to social recognition can be
provided for in recitation work, on the playground, and in
general group life of the school. Teacher and supervisor
should agree upon the definite types of social situations that
the particular school situation affords, and agree upon the
provisions that should be made for according children whole-
some kinds of social recognition.

Chapter summary. The particular basis for cooperative
teaching in the elementary school involves: an agreement
that the purpose of the elementary school is to equip pupils
with the fundamental tools of learning; that the place of the
elementary school is that of the first or childhood school, and
that the curriculum should include the fundamental tools of
learning, fundamental bodies of knowledge, and fundamen-
tal manual arts; an understanding of the important physio-
logical and psychological characteristics of childhood, and
the social status and outlook of children during this period.
These principles must be applied to concrete individual
cases in order to make them effective in dealing with children.

44 SUPERVISORY METHOD

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Name at least five group activities that normally belong to elemen-
tary-school life, and indicate their essential characteristics.

2. What are some of the first lines of training that should be taken up
systematically in the kindergarten?

8. Name at least five reflex motor coordinations that are developed fully
in childhood.

4. Name five voluntary motor coordinations that are developed during
the period of childhood.

5. Give in detail two illustrations of spontaneous motor reactions of
children, that have come under your observation.

6. What proofs can you give that the child's sensory processes are very
active?

7. Give at least two examples of injury to children's sense organs, that
you have observed, that could have been avoided.

8. Give specific examples of malformations of bodily growth that have
been due to improper school conditions.

9. Give two examples of childish conduct that were due to physiological
suggestion.

10. Give two examples of childish conduct that were due to impulsiveness
and lack of reflection.

11. Give three examples of how childish interests shift.

12. Give two examples of the use of unconscious imitation in school work.
Give two examples of the use of conscious imitation.

13. What types of play are most emphasized in childhood? Give exam-
ples.

14. How can the gang spirit be capitalized to good advantage in the ele-
mentary school?

15. How can the instinct to fight be used to advantage in teaching the
elementary-school subjects?

16. Give five examples of children's lies and explain the psychology in-
volved.

17. Illustrate some of the ways in which teachers unintentionally play
upon the credulity of children.

18. What is the chief problem presented to the teacher by the vacillating
will of the child?

CHAPTER V

PARTICULAR BASIS FOR CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING
IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL

1. The secondary school

The purpose of the secondary school. The purpose of the
secondary school is to administer to every phase of growth
and development of adolescent boys and girls during their
secondary period of existence. In other words, the second-
ary school is the chief agency for maturing adolescent hu-
man beings mentally, morally, and physically. The needs
of these young people are determined primarily by the
dominant mental traits and tendencies and the critical
physiological changes which come during the secondary
period of human life; and their needs are determined second-
arily by the present and future demands made upon them
by society as productive, reliable, useful citizens. Fortu-
nately the good of the individual and the good of society are
not antagonistic. Therefore, the best welfare of the indi-
vidual and the best interests of society can be secured simul-
taneously by the proper selection, organization, administra-
tion, and teaching of subject-matter that meets the needs of
adolescent boys and girls. That is to say, adolescent boys
and girls can be brought up to fully developed and well-
balanced maturity in such a way that they will live sane,
productive lives, and at the same time under the same train-
ing they can be prepared to take on some form of specialized
training in college, if they so choose, or to enter some useful
occupation.

The purpose of the secondary school may be stated some-
what more definitely by comparing it with the purpose of

46 SUPERVISORY METHOD

the elementary school and the purpose of the college or uni-
versity. The purpose of the elementary school is to give
children the fundamental tools of knowledge. The college
or university is to give students a rather highly specialized
training that will fit them to do certain specific things with a
high degree of efficiency. The secondary school is to de-
velop every physical, mental, and moral faculty of adoles-
cents to such degree that they may find their greatest possi-
bilities, and make an intelligent selection of their work for
life. It is the laboratory in which the human material for
future society's building is to be thoroughly tested, accu-
rately selected, and to a considerable extent vocationally
directed and trained.

The purpose stated negatively. The purpose of the sec-
ondary school may also be stated negatively, in order to get
away from certain traditional conceptions on the one hand
and certain modern conceptions on the other. The second-
ary school is not a preparatory school for colleges and uni-
versities. Graduates of the secondary school, however,
should be able to take care of themselves in colleges and
universities if they choose to enter these institutions.
Again the secondary school is not a trade school. Gradu-
ates, however, should be able to enter certain trades and in-
dustries with little or no further special training. Finally
the secondary school is not a place in which individuals are
to follow haphazard, one-sided lines of study. Human life
is complex and interests are manifold; hence the develop-
ment of minor traits and tendencies is as necessary as the
development of the most promising talents that individuals
possess. The secondary school must seek to organize the
growths and developments of the many aspects of human
activities into definite, matured results; hence it must not
be an opportunistic school. Natural interests and native
Capacities should, however, be given opportunity for de-

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 47

velopment along lines of least resistance. The secondary
school, then, is no one of these types in particular, but it is
all of them with equal emphasis.

The place of the secondary school. The place of the
secondary school in the whole scheme of education is, as in-
dicated by the statement of purpose, between the elemen-
tary school, on the one hand, and the college or university, or
entrance into some vocation, on the other. It is the school
for adolescents, and since the range in age for the adolescent
period is approximately from eleven or twelve to twenty or
twenty -one, it should cover a period of at least six years, and
possibly seven or eight. This means that the secondary
school should begin at the close of the six-year elementary
school, and continue through a period that shall be long
enough to bring those who graduate from its courses up to a
desired degree of maturity and to prepare them for entrance
into some higher school for special training, or to enter upon
some useful vocation. Under present conditions a six-year
period seems to be fairly adequate. As the elementary
school succeeds more and more in equipping the pupils, who
complete its curriculum, with the fundamental tools of
learning and gives more and more thorough mastery over
essential bodies of knowledge, and as the secondary school
succeeds in bringing its pupils up through its courses with-
out loss of time, the time will soon arrive when practically
all of the graduates from the secondary school will have
completed the required fifteen or sixteen units of credit be-
fore they have reached full mature development. This
fact, and the fact that the first two years of college work are
general in character and intended to help students find
themselves in order that they may make a wise selection of
some line of specialization, seem to point in the direction of
an extension of the time spent in the secondary school to a
period of seven or eight years, or, in other words, so that

48 SUPERVISORY METHOD

the first two years of college work will be included in the
curriculum of the secondary school.

Agreement upon this point of view is important, espe-
cially for the reason that it enables the teacher and super-
visor to determine definitely the kind and degree of training
that may reasonably be expected from the elementary
school as a basis for taking up secondary-school subjects.
It is also important in keeping constantly before the teacher
and supervisor the various future possibilities of the pupils
after they have reached mature years. This point of view
broadens the perspective of those who undertake really to
educate adolescent boys and girls, and helps to keep atten-
tion centered on the boys and girls themselves. If this
point of view is clearly comprehended and strictly adhered
to, then the efforts of both teacher and supervisor will be
properly placed at all tunes. The secondary school will
neither assume the role of the elementary school in its first
years nor the place of the adult school in its upper years, but
it will properly place its efforts in dealing with beginning
adolescence, distinctive adolescence, and maturing adoles-
cence.

The beginning stage of adolescence. This extends ap-
proximately from eleven to thirteen inclusive. The boys
and girls during this period manifest many of the tendencies
of full adolescence. The school must adjust its require-
ments in scholastic attainment to meet both of these phases
of the pupil's nature. The traits of childhood should disap-
pear under the training of the school, and the growing tend-
encies of the more fully developed adolescent individual
must be recognized and utilized to the best advantage.
These pupils must be given sympathetic consideration when
they do absolutely childish things, and again they should be
given courteous, respectful treatment when they try to act
like older people. They will have their times of feeling very

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 49

wise and important. They should be consulted to a suffi-
cient degree to make them feel the thrill of personal respon-
sibility. On the other hand, they should not be given too
full rein and not too much consideration for fear of spoiling
the effect of proper social recognition.

The second period of adolescent development. This ex-
tends from about fourteen to seventeen inclusive. This is
the period of deepest stress and strain. The individual is
for the most part very little inclined to feel like a child, but
is practically all the time seeing his relation to the world in
terms of adult responsibility. The adolescent youth does
exhibit very many childish points of view in meeting situa-
tions that arise, and is far from having the adult conception
of most things, but the individual must be given much the
same recognition that would be accorded an adult under
similar circumstances. In other words, the adolescent at
this period of development should never be treated as a
child. This does not mean that he can or should be left
entirely to his own devices, and allowed to make his own
choices and decide all the issues that come up. Indeed,
quite the contrary. The youth must be kept face to face
with the fundamental problems. While he should be held
responsible to do things, the teacher and supervisor are re-
sponsible to see that he is made responsible and also that he
meets his responsibility. This seems like a paradox, and yet
it is true that the youth must be made responsible for his
conduct and at the same time he must be made to fulfill his
responsibility.

The third stage of adolescence. This extends from eight-
een on to twenty or twenty-one inclusive. This is the stage
during which the responsibility can and should be shifted to
considerable degree to the individual himself. The young
man and woman at this period should begin to have definite
ideas about their future work and training. They should

60 SUPERVISORY METHOD

be given very large opportunities to seek advice and obtain
definite information concerning the different electives and
the things toward which they lead. Moreover, the subjects
that are adapted to pupils of this stage of development
should have tangible values that are readily recognized and
worth while. One of the problems of secondary education
is to define every subject in the whole curriculum in terms
of definitely recognized values, but especially does this need
to be done in regard to those subjects that are offered only
to upper-class pupils, and the subjects that now constitute
the preliminary college courses for the first two years. The
school should begin, through giving opportunities for choice
of subjects, to test the maturity of the pre-adult youth.
Definite indications of maturity of purposes, maturity of
thinking, and maturity of behaving should be manifested by
this group of adolescents, and the school should show that it
expects to find these evidences in its own product.

The curriculum. The two demands set forth above, that
are insistent upon the secondary school, can be realized
only by proper selection, organization, administration, and
teaching of subject-matter. The selection of fields of sub-
ject-matter or subjects should be guided by at least four
considerations; namely, the character and extent of the ele-
mentary-school training that may be reasonably pre-sup-
posed as a foundation for secondary-school education, the
character and extent of the special lines of training from
which the students may choose upon entering college or
university, the lines of industry and vocations upon which
one may enter without making extended special prepara-
tion, and the dominant mental, moral, and physical traits
and tendencies of adolescents at the three recognized levels
of adolescent development.

This means that practically every phase of manual, lit-
erary, linguistic, scientific, and artistic training should i be

CO-OPERATIVE TEACfiWG —'SECONDARY 31

found in the curriculum of the; secondary sehooh The or-
ganization, administration, and teaching of the subject-
matter within each subject should be determined almost
wholly by the central purpose for which the human race has
brought the subject-matter into existence, and by the domi-
nant characteristics and- tendencies df adolescence at what-
ever level of adolescent development the group studying the
subject may be1. ' Young people should ultimately dome to
an? understanding and an appreciation of the 'Conventional
significance which attaches to all subject-matter! They
should approach this conventional* Value; -however, psycho-
logically rather than historically or otherwise.

The psychological approach. The approach to the con-
ventional significance -of subject-matter must proceed from
the point of view of the immature mind as the starting-
point, and, through carefully graded steps of increasing diffi-
culty and complexity, develop the thinking of the individual
up to the mature or conventional point of view. This de-
velopment of the maturing mind through the conventional
significance of the subject-matter should come as a growth
and development of the thinking of the individual, and no
attempt should be made to force the adult point of view
upon the adolescent mind. The psychological approach,
then, means beginning with the interest that the immature
individual has in the problem, and with the simpler, more
fundamental aspects of it that fall within the range of ado-
lescent experience. The problem is to extend this experi-
ence until the adult or conventional point of view is inter-
esting and natural to assume.

The road over which the adolescent youth of to-day may
travel to reach the mature appreciation of the value of things
need not be the same road of actual sequence or experiences
through which the race has passed. Modern conditions
short-cut the route to many things. Many problems that

52 SUPERVISORY METHOD

engrossed the attention of the race for years are now taken
as a matter of course by the youth. Therefore the historical
approach to many modern problems is tedious, and not only
uninteresting, but even valueless. The principles involved
in many problems are the same as those involved in the
same types of problems of past decades, but the conditions
under which these problems now arise are so vastly changed
that the old or historical approach is not of interest or value.
By psychological approach, then, is meant the most direct
road over which the adolescent individual may grow from
an immature appreciation of the values of subject-matter to
a full understanding and appreciation of the values that are
now conventionally accepted as of most worth.

The purpose of the studies. The curriculum of the sec-
ondary school must be regarded as a means to an end, and
not the end itself. The study of any subject should contrib-
ute to the education of the student; that is, to the maturing
of the student's mental habits. The study of French, for
example, should result in the maturing of one's linguistic
habits. French thus becomes the means of education, and
not the end. If teacher and supervisor hold this point of
view they will be more anxious about the maturing of defi-
nite linguistic habits than about the development of the
subject. The matter of covering so many rules and princi-
ples in grammar, or of reading so many pages of literary
material in the foreign language, will no longer be the guide
and standard that impel the hurrying along in order that
the traditional ground may be gone over. On the contrary,
the question that will be uppermost all the time will be,
What is the study of French doing to the linguistic habits of
the student? The fact is that the future intelligence of the
student will not be greatly affected by the failure to remem-
ber French vocabulary and grammatical rules, and that the
student who acquires but little facility in the use of the

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 53

French language will, in a very large number of cases, make
as much use in after life of the education that he received
from the study of the language as the best student in the
class will make of the education he receives from the study.
The important question is whether or not each student
acquired the fullest amount of mental development that
was possible for him to receive from the study of the lan-
guage. If this has been accomplished, then the teaching of
French has resulted hi the education of both types of stu-
dents.

Thinking in terms of the student. The importance of
holding to this point of view, not merely agreeing to it, can-
not, in the writer's judgment, be too strongly emphasized.
Teacher and supervisor are inclined to think in terms of the
subject instead of in terms of the student. Subject-matter
has been standardized instead of the stages of mental ma-
turity of students. The teacher and supervisor have been
dealing with the subject so long that it has become a familiar
acquaintance; hence it has become more or less a sacred
thing. The subject has become a habit with them; it is re-
garded as something permanent and abiding; hence to leave
out any of the sacred facts seems almost sacrilegious and
criminal. On the other hand, the student is transient.
Students come and students go; hence to leave the student
out is justifiable. In fact, leaving the student out may be
getting rid of an unappreciative butcher who haggles and
mangles the sacred subject most horribly in his attempts to
find food for mental maturing. The relief that is usually
manifested by teachers and supervisors when the student
who is not " getting on " in the subject drops out is a defi-
nite indication that the subject is more important to them
than is the student. Whenever teachers and supervisors
begin talking about education by means of the subject
" getting on " in the student instead of the student " getting

64 4 , ,T ..., SUPERVISORY METHOD ., ,.,,.

on " in the subject, then a radical change will come about in
the teaching in secondary schools.

i '•••»'> i • i '•** ' ' * • ' *

2. The pupils of the secondary school

Traits and tendencies. The points that require common
agreement are those concerning the dominant physiological
and psychological traits and tendencies of adolescent boys
and girls and their social status and outlook. The teacher
arid supervisor must not only recognize the "fundamental
facts as to what these traits and tendencies are, but they
must see the direct bearing that they have upon the educa-
tional activities of the secondary-school pupils. The sig-
nificance of the three sets of facts for educational practice
can best be realized by enumerating them in separate lists,
and then discussing the most important bearings that they
have upon the work of the teacher and supervisor.

Physiological traits. The most important physiological
traits of adolescents are as follows:

1 . Rapid functioning of higher brain centers.

2. Excess of energy and restless, excessive physical activities at
v- times, and extreme Sluggishness and averseiiess to any sort of

physical effort at other times*, ,,..;.:, v ...

8. Alternate periods of §lpw bodily grpwth, which are attended,
respectively, by relatively, slow and rapid, mental progress. .;_,

4. Completion of practically all of tfre coordinations that the in-
dividual will'^ver possess.

5.> -Extremely awkward, Ungainly, and bungling •general coordina-
'• .tions, but great .facility for forming specific finer, coordinations.

6. Enormpus increase, in the. size pf the heaijt.an,d jji ^Jood pressure.

7. Profound, organic changes due to the maturing pf the sex organs.

* Psychological characteristics. The significant psycholog-
ical characteristics are as follows: -> •>

11 Mental, 'embtional, moral, and motor habit formation, rela-
tively rapid and permanent.
2. Manifestation and; relatively rapid development of many in-

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 55

stincts which take on new significance for the individual during
this period. The most important of these are:

a. Self-assertion and individuality.

b. Social recognition and prestige.

c. Attraction toward the opposite sex.

d. Rivalry and emulation. .

e. Spirit of romance and love of adventure.
/. Pugnacity and love of combat.

g. Acquisition of material possessions.

h. Leadership and fellowship.

t. Display and desire to attract attention, and their opposites.

j. Tendency to tease.

k. Play of the motor, intellectual, emotional, and volitional

types.

8. General uncertainty of intellectual, emotional, and moral be-
havior, which is manifested by their:

a. Uncertainty of choices of subjects and future vocations.

b. Tendency to follow what seem to be the lines of least re-
sistance.

c. Rashness in deciding important matters upon very meager
and insufficient data.

d. Fickleness of purpose and vacillation of will power hi the
face of difficulties.

e. Extreme stubbornness at times, and at other tunes un-
usual meekness,

/. Tendency to be hysterical hi critical situations, or to be
exceedingly cool, indifferent, and self-contained.

g. Tendency to be bold, to bluff, and to take long chances, or
to evade, to prevaricate, conceal, and use soft solder.

h. High susceptibility to suggestion and vivid power of imag-
ination, which often leads them to make very erratic in-
terpretations of the conduct and motives of others.

4. General mental alertness and interest in the dominant qualities
of things.

5. Philosophical turn of mind and tendency to question the valid-
. ity of practically every phase of fact and truth.

6. Dominant interest fluctuating between theory, principles, and
abstract truths on the one hand, and actual experience and
practice in mastering material things through the application of
theories and principles on the other.

7. Religious attitude.

56 SUPERVISORY METHOD

Social status and outlook. The important items con-
cerning the social status and outlook of the pupils of the
secondary school cover the following range of conditions : ,

1. Present social status economically.

a. Total dependency for food, clothing, shelter, and spending-

money.
6. Partially self-supporting.

c. Self-supporting.

d. Self-supporting and contributing to the support of others.

2. Outlook for future economic social status.

a. Total dependency for indefinite period of time due to eco-
nomic resources of parents.

6. Partially self-supporting at close of secondary school a
necessity.

c. Wholly self-supporting at close of secondary education a
necessity.

d. Self-supporting and contributing to the support of others
at close of secondary education a necessity.

3. Present social activities make very few demands for use of
scholastic attainments in particular subjects. These activities
are such as:

a. Social functions; that is, parties, picnics, etc.

6. Church activities.

c. Civic enterprises.

d. Home life.

e. General affairs of school life, such as:

(1) Assemblies.

(2) Literary societies, clubs, etc.

(3) Athletics.

4. Future social activities, such as social functions, church activi-
ties, etc., make few specific demands upon scholastic attain-
ments in particular subjects.

5. Future social activities of an economic and industrial nature
demand specific scholastic attainments in particular subjects.

The vital question to raise at this point is what beneficial
effect will the agreement of teacher and supervisor upon
these various items concerning the physiological, psycho-
logical, and social characteristics of adolescent boys and

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 57

girls have upon the process of cooperative teaching? In
other words, what bearing do these facts have upon the
education of adolescents, so that by knowing these facts one
may be able better to adapt his procedure in dealing with
the teaching problems in the secondary school? The exact
influence that each of the above-enumerated items has upon
the intellectual, emotional, moral, and motor activities of
adolescent individuals is not at all definite and accurately
known, but their bearing in total is readily recognized and
should not be ignored by those who undertake to direct the
educational activities of youth.

Physical conditions and adolescent development. What,
then, are the general effects of the combined physical con-
ditions of the secondary period of development? One im-
portant effect is the general instability of the central nervous
system, and another is the enormous burden placed upon
the circulatory system. These two should be thought of to-
gether because they are so much affected by the same condi-
tions. The nervous system is easily excited, and accelerated
circulation of the blood accompanies this excitement. Even
very simple situations may arouse such a condition of ex-
treme nervousness and rapid circulation that the individual
is for the time incapacitated to make a satisfactory normal
reaction. The teacher may be ignorant of this fact, or he
may be unobservant of the indications of the actual physical
strain and confusion that the pupil is undergoing. The re-
sult is that he deals with the case in such a way that the
strain and confusion are increased instead of being relieved.
Stimuli are multiplied right at the time when they should
be decreased, and the pupil is relentlessly pursued when he
should be sympathetically led and guided. The ignorant
teacher not infrequently imposes physical conditions, such
as standing at the blackboard to do a piece of work, or stand-
ing before the class while grilling questions are asked in

68 , ,,„,,„ , SUPERVISORY METHOD

rapid, confusing, third-degree fashion, when instead the
pupil needs a few moments of calm repose in order to clear
the disturbed neural pathways and restore circulation bal-
ance.

The supervisor may be as ignorant or as unobservant, as
the teacher. If this is the case, then no remedy will come
through the advice and guidance of the one who should oe
ekpert in such matters. But if the teacher and the super-
visor both know the significance of these physical tenden-
cies, then the supervisor at least should be able, to diagnose
the situation correctly and the teacher will be able to ap-
preciate his suggestions and to profit by them in dealing
with similar cases in the future.

Adolescent embarrassments. Another effect is the em-
barrassment that young people feel during the periods of
rapid bodily growth, and the tendency to extreme sluggish-
ness of physical reactions. This effect should be considered
along with the fact that many of the general coordinations
are awkward and ungainly, while many of the finer coordi-
nations may be quite facile and expert. The teacher often
takes the slowness to action to be perverseness*, and hags at
the boy or girl to get a speed of response that is not natural.
Again, the pupil's awkward, ungainly movements are taken
to be indications of unwillingness to do what is asked. - This
is very apt to be the case when the youth undertakes tb hide
the embarrassment he feels because of his clumsiness by say-
ing or doing something to turn attention sCwafy from His
bungling performance.

Again, the pupil may do his very best to perform the ta!sk
as directed, but the more he tries, and the more the teacher
insists that he do better, the more confused he becomes and
the more impossible it is for him to do the thing skillfully.
The teacher often compares this bungling performance with
some skilled performance of the same individual and con-

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 69

eludes that the pupil is simply showing off and trying to get
out of doing the task right. He has failed, perhaps, to note
that the two performances call for two totally different
types of coordinations, and that skill in eon trolling one set
of coordinations does not give skill in control of the other
type. If the teacher had understood the situation he might
have handled the matter in such a way that the boy would
not have been embarrassed by his effort, and he would not
have felt the need of trying to escape the' discbmfiture of
being laughed at by doing something that would cause the
other pupils to laugh with him.

Other physiological disturbances. The effect produced by
the maturing of the sex organs is subtle and yet observable.
The mental blankness that often occurs is largely due to the
sudden deep-seated organic disturbances that throw the
whole organism in upon itself. The whole being gropes for
understanding of its own mystery, and the organism strug-
gles to readjust its forces. The result is that for the mo-
ment the outside world is shut out, and, when tfce individual
turns attention once more to external stimuli, mental con-
nections must be reestablished before the gap of blankness
disappears. Again,1 the individual often suffers sb intensely
from organic shock that life holds little of Interest -for the
time being. As a result -the individual seems morose; dis-
tracted, depressed; --and unable to dd anything with satis^
faction. • ~4f«

Summarizing briefly the bearing that physiological tenden*
cies of adolescence should have upon educational proced-
ure, one may rightfully say that the teacher and supervisor
should regard these physical conditions as the barometer
which indicates the varying kinds of pressure that affect
the atmosphere of the classroom. Readjustments should be
made in the light of the barometric readings, so that difficul-
ties may be lessened and damages reduced to the minimum.

60 SUPERVISORY METHOD

Adolescence and habit formation. How can the teacher
and supervisor capitalize their knowledge of the funda-
mental facts concerning the psychological characteristics of
adolescents? The first great fact that can and should be
capitalized is that adolescence is the supreme period of habit
formation. Habits of thinking, habits of knowing, habits of
feeling, habits of willing, habits of acting are all being formed
at a relatively rapid rate and tend to become permanent.
This fact should help those who undertake to educate youth
to keep the development of the individual constantly before
them as the goal of all their endeavors. The question that
should be asked about any body of subject-matter is, What
habits will it contribute to and how may it be made to con-
tribute to them most effectively? The teacher should view
his own performance in the light of how effectively it con-
tributes to the process of habit formation in the pupil. In
other words, this fact held in mind should give the teacher a
proper perspective of the purpose of the secondary school,
and enable him to see the secondary educational life of the
adolescent youth as a constant struggle between conflicting
habit-formation tendencies.

Instinctive backgrounds. The knowledge concerning the
dominant instincts that manifest themselves during this
period should enable the teacher to discover the motives
that pupils have for doing many of the things that they do
with no plausible explanation of why they do them. These
instincts may also be made the basis for consciously moti-
vating the work of the pupils, although the pupils them-
selves may not recognize the fact that their instincts are be-
ing appealed to. The appeal to instincts must be subtle,
and must seemingly be natural interest in some concrete ob-
ject or goal. The understanding of instincts also helps the
teacher in classifying pupils according to the degree to
which certain instincts are dominant. For example, one

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 61

type of pupil desires to be in the limelight of public notice;
another desires to escape public attention; one type craves
adventure, while another is satisfied with commonplace
affairs, etc. Tact is largely the knack of intuitively recog-
nizing these instinctively prompted groups and of dealing
with them so as to capitalize the instincts in the form of
motivation. Most of all, however, the understanding of
these instincts enables the teacher to appreciate the con-
flicting impulses and instinctive desires that struggle for
expression in the behavior of the adolescent youth.

The habit of analyzing conduct to discover its instinctive
background will go far toward making the teacher broad-
minded enough to be sympathetic, charitable, and imper-
sonal in his dealings with his pupils. The great impatience
that older people hi general feel with regard to the foolish
behavior of youth must give way to an abiding patience
that is based upon faith in the outcome of rational educa-
tion, and which keeps one on the alert to discover, in the
midst of what seems to be chaos, a definitely forming body
of conduct which ultimately becomes the character of the
adult. The teacher and the supervisor who do not have
this faith, who do not possess this patience, and who do not
find in the instinctive reactions of adolescent boys and girls
the most absorbing opportunities for understanding human
life, are out of place in the secondary school.

Mental maturing through experiences. How can a
knowledge of the facts concerning the general uncertainty
of intellectual, emotional, and moral behavior be of value to
teacher and supervisor in carrying on cooperative teaching?
On first consideration one is inclined to think that the very
nature of the facts seems to preclude the possibility of
formulating any definite plans for procedure in dealing with
the adolescent pupils. If, however, one keeps in mind the
purpose of secondary education, a knowledge of these facts

62 SUPERVISORY METHOD

enables one to formulate some- very definite Tides for guid-

ance.

A careful analysis of the causes of these uncertain, erratic
forms of behavior discloses the fact that they are1 due to
three fundamental causes? naniely * disturbed physical , con-
ditions that ihave already been described, -conflicting im-
pulses and tendencies as has just been pointed out, and lack
of experience or lack of data Upon which to base judgments.
The last cause gives the key to the whole problem. .Give
the immature individual experiences that will bring about
maturity of his various physical, mental, and moral traits
and he will acquire .stable physical conditions and definite,
dependable instinctive tendencies; and, finally, the acquisi-
tion of experiences with the resulting mental maturing will
lay a foundation for rational, reliable choices of conduct.
The pupil must be brought back from his erratic wander-
ings to things that do not change with his change of purpose
or point of view. While subject-matter should not become
sacred, it should be stable and organically dependable.
While the development of the subject is not the prime ob-
ject, the subject should not be made to correspond to the
erratic mind-wanderings of the immature pupil. After all,
it is not how many rules and principles or how many pages,
etc., that the pupil studies, but the coming-back to the con-
sideration of the thing that remains organized that finally
brings about order in the behavior of the individual. Sta-
bility of purpose on the part of the teacher in dealing with
subject-matter, and patience of endeavor in keeping the
pupil face to face with definite problems that are reasonable
and possible for him to solve if he sticks to the task, must be
among the safeguards of secondary educatio'n.

In other words, the school must be stable enough to pre-
sent the opportunities for rational behavior on the part of
the pupil; then, when the pupil has his moments of normal,

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 63

instinctive promptings and his moments of rational choos-
ing of conduct, he will be in harmony with the program and
efforts of the school. On the other hand, the school must
be flexible enough that, when the pupii wavers into erratic
forms of behavior, he can come back to the stable path again
without undue stress and strain over the errors, and without
too much emphasis being placed on the atoning for the mis-
takes. Many times it is better to ignore the errors entirely
and start with a clean slate, so as to catch at its fullest swing
the impulse to go right and let it carry the individual as far
on the right road as possible. Neither the fulfillment of the
letter. -of the law, nor the license of total disregard of law
should1 be contended for in secondary education. This is
especially; true in matters of discipline, but it is also a valid
point in regard to behavior in response to subject-matter.

Erratic behavior; rules of procedure. Another way of
stating the rule of procedure is that the school should be
stable in its organization, reasonable in its requirements,
but steadfast in having its requirements reasonably met,
patient in its offering of opportunities, waiting for the er-
ratic behavior of youth to wear itself out by futile endeavor,
then starting on again as though the error had not occurred.
The result of such procedure is that the youth stays longer
and longer on the steady track each time he comes back and
gets the right kind of a new start, until finally he can be
trusted to hold himself to recognized standards or rational
behavior.

Pupil to choose freely. . Another rule1 that is sound is that
when the pupil chooses an erratic form of behavior, let him
choose it freely, but make hurt fully responsible for the re-
sults of his choice of conduct. The youngster who, through
a stubborn impulse, has set himself to resist: some require-
ment and suddenly finds that his stubbornness has nothing
to combat, but -that his failure to meet the requirement will

64 SUPERVISORY METHOD

mean a certain loss of some recognizable value, concludes
that he was foolish and hasty in his decision. He expected
a fuss over his action, and he has defeated himself and is
glad to get back in line. In other words, the individual gets
an overdose of his own medicine. Another way to put the
point is that the pupil is made responsible for his own choice,
while at the same time he is made to realize what the fruits
of a stable form of behavior would be. He realizes that the
choice of action is freely his, but the fruits of a stable form of
action are out of his control. Moreover, he must bear the
blame of his own loss.

Door of opportunity not dosed. Another rule is that the
school must not be vindictive in dealing with the erratic
behavior of youth, and it must not treat the erring individ-
ual with suspicion when he is given a new opportunity.
The school must be candid and frank in its attitude toward
the erratic individual. And a still further rule that is closely
related to these two is that the door of opportunity should
never be closed to any individual as long as the individual
makes a sincere, reasonable effort to make use of the op-
portunity when it is offered. On the other hand, a rule that
is just as important is that unappreciated opportunities
should not be forced on the individual. This does not mean
that individuals must never be held to doing things that are
irksome and uninteresting, but it means that the individual
should be made to realize some degree of appreciation of the
value of the opportunity, even though the appreciation has
to be in the negative form. For example, the pupil may
have a negative appreciation of the opportunity to do a piece
of work because he realizes what his loss or discomfiture
will be if he does not avail himself of the opportunity.

Teacher not to worry. Another rule is that the teacher
should not become worried over the erratic interpreta-
tions of his behavior toward the pupil. He must be broad-

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 65

minded enough to go more than halfway to set the pupil on
the right track. Again, he must calmly ignore the erratic
impression and treat the pupil just the same as if the pupil
made the right interpretation instead of a grossly erratic
one. In other words, the teacher must not be unduly sensi-
tive to the criticisms that pupils make of his conduct toward
them. He must be willing, however, to dispel their false
impressions by showing them that he did not mean to give
them any such impressions. He must be willing to take part
of the responsibility for the error and hi this way get the
personal influence that will broaden the pupil's point of
view. The teacher must not strive unduly to vindicate his
own position» but rather to give the pupil the benefit of the
doubt. This attitude will usually lead the pupil to question
his own interpretation of the situation and to doubt the re-
liability of his judgment. This attitude on the part of the
pupil soon leads to the formation of the habit of considering
such situations from different angles before forming and
expressing definite conclusions.

Adolescent boys and girls are living through the most
highly suggestible period of their whole lives. They are
bound to make errors of conduct, and to do very many an-
noying things. Many if not largely all their actions are
prompted by suggestions. Usually these suggestions are
immediate, spontaneous, and impelling. The action fol-
lows so closely upon the suggestion that reflection is not
possible. One of the problems of secondary education is to
replace this spontaneous behavior with controlled behavior
that is based upon meditation. The one important fact
that stands out during the development of the individual
from a condition of spontaneous behavior ruled by sugges-
tion to a condition of habitual reflective behavior, is that
the motives of the adolescent are usually not malicious.
The fact that the actions are due to suggestion and not to

66 SUPERVISORY METHOD

premeditation should lead one to seek for the suggestions
that may have led to the conduct, instead of charging the
individual with vicious intent. This point of view does not
condone irrational behavior, but it does help the teacher
and supervisor to keep a proper perspective and to analyze
the situations accurately. To hold the pupil responsible
for his erratic behavior is right, but to charge him with vi-
cious motives and premeditated mischief, when he has only
yielded to impulse, is wrong.

Teacher and supervisor hi agreement. There is perhaps
no point in the whole list of items upon which teacher and
supervisor should possess common knowledge, and hold
common points of view, that is of more importance than
this. The development of stable habits of behavior cannot
be brought about by divided counsels and opposite attitudes.
If the teacher regards the act of the pupil as an outrage and
a disgrace that should be severely dealt with because of the
meanness of the offense, and the supervisor sees only a typi-
cal expression of a spontaneous, instinctive impulse, then
the teacher is likely to think the supervisor is upholding and
excusing the pupil.

On the other hand, the supervisor is apt to think that
the teacher is pettish, narrow-minded, and needs discipline
quite as much as the pupil. Teacher and supervisor should
cooperate so that the pupil gets the impression that they
both have the same attitude toward him. This is practi-
cally impossible unless both teacher and supervisor hold the
same point of view concerning the suggestibility of adoles-
cent boys and girls. Both should hold to the idea that a
careful analysis will account for the causes of errors in con-
duct just as truly as an intelligent analysis will reveal the
causes of errors in solving problems, translating language,
or any other sort of mental performance.

Importance of frank dealings. What influence on the

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 67

teacher's procedure in dealing with adolescent boys and
girls should the fact have, that these young people are
beginning to philosophize and to question the validity of
things? One very important effect should be that the
teacher will be very careful not to get caught up on the
things in which he can and should be accurate and reliable.
Moreover, if he should happen to get caught, unprepared to
give accurate information, he should be honest and not at-
tempt to bluff the matter through in order to avoid the ap-
pearance of being ignorant. Pupils will respect the teacher
if he says frankly that he is not prepared to give the correct
answer, and that since it can be found out definitely there is
no call for guessing about it. He can volunteer to look the
matter up, or ask some one else to do it, with the under-
standing that the results of the investigator are to be ac-
cepted and verified. If, however, the teacher is continu-
ally confessing to ignorance on matters about which he
should be informed and about which he could be informed
through study and consistent preparation, then pupils will
soon lose confidence hi his reliability.

The teacher who attempts to play upon the credulity of
adolescent young people will soon come to grief. Moreover,
the teacher must have a great deal of patience with the
skepticism of youth, and not always try to convince the
pupil that he is right, or to be too much concerned about
disproving the fallacious philosophy of youth. Respect the
pupil's point of view, and he tends to become more tolerant
of the point of view of others.

Adolescence and the religious instinct. Another aspect
of this philosophical attitude of youth is the religious tend-
ency of adolescence. The youth is greatly impressed by
the mysterious readjustments that are taking place within .
his own being, and by the dawning consciousness of the
great mysteries of life in all its manifestations. The senti-

68 SUPERVISORY METHOD

merits, the overwhelming emotions that well up within the
youth in the presence of those things which symbolize the
mystery and power of God, and those intangible promptings
of the soul which surge through his whole being when in the
presence of those things which symbolize his social relations
and obligations to his group, rule his conduct.

The teacher who sneers at these lofty emotional reactions
of youth can never hope to make a lasting impression upon
the real character that is being built. The teacher who can-
not sympathize with the consuming emotional responses of
youth should not be permitted to hold a responsible position
in a secondary school. One who would lead youth must
capitalize the surging emotional forces by expressing some
sentiment, patriotic or religious, that will become the
watchword to loyal and moral forms of conduct. The more
objectively these sentiments can be expressed or symbolized,
the stronger the appeal they will make to the emotional
natures of adolescent youth. The teacher who is cold,
worldly-wise, and blase in respect to those situations which
afford the opportunity for using the religious tendencies of
youth to advantage in building character should have no
place hi the secondary school.

Catching interests at the crest. The fact that the domi-
nant interests of adolescents fluctuate between the mastery
of theory and the application of theories to practical activi-
ties should be of great value to teacher and supervisor in
adapting the subject-matter of courses to the groups study-
ing them. Each interest caught at its crest will greatly
facilitate the mastery of the subject and promote the devel-
opment of the individuals. All coui-ses in the secondary
school have tended to become too theoretical. Bodies of
principles and facts are organized with little provision for
the using of the principles and facts in the solving of practi-
cal problems that enable one to get on in the world. The

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 69

result is that the secondary pupils get fed up on theory until
they rebel. The rebellion is not always open, but usually
takes the form of neglected preparation of lessons, inatten-
tion in class, and other equally annoying manifestations
of disinterest. Even manual-training courses have been
known to consist very largely of the study of principles of
construction, use and care of tools, uses of different kinds of
materials, etc., with very little opportunity to make useful
objects the making of which would involve the use of the
materials studied, the use of tools, and the application of the
principles of construction.

Such sciences as physics, chemistry, botany, etc., have
been almost wholly concerned with the study and demon-
stration of principles. Even the laboratory work in these
sciences has been theoretical rather than the application of
principles to the solution of useful problems. When the
courses in history, language, and English are considered, the
case is even more damaging. These courses are stuffed with
facts and theories, while the opportunities for applying the
facts and theories to interesting problems and situations are
very meager. In other words, the general theory and prac-
tice of secondary education has been that of stuffing the
pupils as full of facts and theories as possible. The applica-
tion of these facts and principles is left to be worked out by
the individual after he leaves school. Facts and principles
must necessarily be the core of any subject that is taught,
but ample provision must be made for the using of the facts
and principles hi the actual doing of things. The facilities
of the school are limited for giving the pupils opportunities
to apply the facts and principles learned to problems outside
of school or to similar problems in school, but the most
should be made of the facilities that the school does have at
its command.

Keep the pupil in the center of the stage. The facts con-

70 SUPERVISORY METHOD

cerning the range of conditions existing in the social status
and outlook of the secondary-school pupils should enable
the teacher and supervisor to keep the pupil in the center of
the stage, instead of making the subject the center of atten-
tion. The pupil, who is partially or wholly self-supporting
during his period of secondary education, is entitled to con-
siderations that the pupil who does nothing toward his own
support does not need to have accorded him. The educa-
tional effect of the outside school work may be equally as
great as the mental maturing that results from the study
of subject-matter included hi school courses. Such a pupil
may miss recitations at times without serious loss to the net
results of his education, although he may not cover all of the
subject-matter prescribed in a course. The main point to
keep in mind is what the study of the subject can contribute
to the different individuals according to the future social de-
mands that will be made upon them, as well as the present
conditions Under which they are working.

School should provide social opportunities. Another
phase of this problem is that of giving these adolescent boys
and girls social opportunities in the school. They are con-
tributing very little in the main to the activities of the
larger public social group. They must necessarily feel that
they are dependents. They desire social independence and
individual recognition. The school should give them op-
portunities for making individual and group contributions
to the general life of the classroom and to the life of the
school at large. Social responsibilities and personal obli-
gations must come to the adolescent youth through proper
associations with his fellows who are on the same social foot-
ing as himself. Every recitation is a social situation.

Sometimes people talk about the socialized recitation as if
a new device had been discovered in teaching. Their dis-
cussion seems to indicate that recitations are usually not

CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 71

social unless some extraordinary technique of procedure is
followed. The fact is that recitations cannot be anything
else than social situations, but the opportunities that indi-
viduals have for contributing to the occasion may vary
greatly according to the technique of procedure that is fol-
lowed hi directing the performance. The one vital point
that must not be overlooked is that the school must recog-
nize the equality of the social status of its pupils, and op-
portunity must be accorded to each pupil without being in-
fluenced by the economic conditions that may figure in the
social status of families hi the larger social whole. In other
words, the spirit of the school must be truly democratic, and
the attitude of the teacher and the supervisor toward the
pupils must be genuinely democratic.

Socializing subject-matter. The present social status of
the pupils of the secondary school and their future outlook
make clear that one of the vital problems is to give as great
opportunity as possible to adolescents to become acquainted
with the social conditions of the present time. One of the
most fundamental ways hi which this can be done is by in-
troducing such subjects as economics, commercial geogra-
phy, commercial law, sociology, and political economy into
the secondary-school curriculum. Another very important
and far-reaching means, however, is to socialize the subject-
matter of all courses in the curriculum to a much greater de-
gree. This can be done by bringing into each subject its
social usefulness and adaptations.

Take mathematics, for example. It has its scientific side
as a coherent scheme of principles, and also its social side in
various commercial transactions and industrial activities.
Dry measure as a scheme for counting is scientific in charac-
ter, but when the scheme is used in such a transaction as a
fanner makes in marketing his potato crop, the situation is a
social one which makes use of the counting scheme as a con-

72 SUPERVISORY METHOD

venience. Take English, for another example. When the
pupil studies the rules of grammar and rhetoric, he is dealing
with a science, but when he stands before an audience to
read a paper upon some topic of interest, he faces a social
situation.

The important problem psychologically is that of deter-
mining when to center the attention of the pupil upon the
mastery of the science, and when to direct his attention
wholly to the mastery of the social situations in which the
science may prove serviceable. Whether the scientific facts
should be alternated with social facts, or whether the scien-
tific facts should be largely mastered before taking up the
social facts, or whether the scientific facts and the social
facts should be presented simultaneously in the same sub-
ject-matter is the vital problem and one that cannot be
answered conclusively without careful and thoroughgoing
experimentation. The chief danger that should be avoided
is that of thinking the pupil is learning the social facts
because they happen to be present hi the subject-matter,
when he may be entirely engrossed with mastering the sci-
entific facts. For example, the pupil in arithmetic may be
so concerned about getting the right relations between the
quantities involved in the problems, and in carrying on the
right operations to reach a correct numerical result, that he
gives no thought at all to the social factors.

Make the social situations accurate and true. The most
important aspect of the problem of socializing the various
subjects of the curriculum is that of making the social situa-
tions that are created in the school as accurate and true to
actual social conditions as is possible. The social situations
may be used as practice material, or opportunities for mas-
tering the scientific rules and principles through use, but
they should do more than that. They should develop an
understanding and mastery of actual social behavior. The

COOPERATIVE TEACHING — SECONDARY 73

different subjects should thus give the pupil an appreciation
of actual social obligations, and an insight into his own so-
cial obligations. In addition to this, such socialization of
experiences, along with the study of the social sciences,
should give the pupil an outlook and definite point of view
concerning the obligations of society as a whole and the in-
terrelated duties and obligations of groups within the larger
social group. The whole vital problem may be summed up
by saying that the secondary school should seek in every
way to give its constituency a potential social status that
will be practically certain to function in the future activities
in which these young people engage. In other words, while
they are largely dependent socially, make them potentially
independent.

Chapter summary. The particular basis for cooperative
teaching in the secondary school involves: agreement that
the secondary school is the school for adolescents; that its
place is to cover the gap between the elementary school and
the college; that its curriculum should be extensive in range
of subjects; an understanding of the important physiological
and psychological characteristics of adolescents, and their
social status and outlook. Specific application of these
principles must be made to concrete cases hi order to render
the knowledge of them effective in dealing with adolescents.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give an illustration from any high-school subject of the difference
between the psychological and the historical approach to subject-
matter.

2. Give three examples of slow bodily growth attended by rapid mental
development, and three in which rapid bodily growth was attended
by slow mental growth.

3. Name some of the finer coordinations that adolescents form with
facility.

4. Name some of the general coordinations that adolescents do not form
readily.

74 SUPERVISORY METHOD

5. Give two specific cases of conduct that were due to the instinct for
social recognition and prestige.

6. How may the instinct of attraction toward the opposite sex prove
troublesome to the teacher? How may it be capitalized to bring
about good results instead of trouble?

7. How may the spirit of rivalry and emulation be used to advantage in
school work?

8. What types of play should be emphasized during the adolescent pe-
riod?

9. Give three cases of conduct that manifested fickleness of purpose in
adolescents.

10. Give two cases of the same individual in which stubbornness was
manifested in an extreme degree in the one case, and unusual meek-
ness in the other.

11. Give examples of hysterical reactions in both adolescent boys and
girls.

12. Give example of unreasonable emotional explosions in the conduct of
adolescents.

IS. Give three examples of erratic interpretations of the conduct of the
teacher that adolescents have made, due to suggestion.

14. Does the present secondary-school curriculum adequately provide for
the fluctuation of interest between theory and study of principles and
practice or doing things? What changes in the curriculum should be
made to meet this psychological fact?

15. What problems for the teacher and supervisor arise on account of the
fact that some of the secondary-school pupils must make part or all of
their living?

16. Give an example in which letting a pupil choose an erratic form of be-
havior freely resulted in a realization on the part of the pupil of his
own responsibility.

17. Give an example of a case in which the teacher dealt with the pupil in
a vindictive spirit.

CHAPTER VI

GENERAL BASIS FOR CO-OPERATIVE TEACHING IN
EITHER ELEMENTARY OR SECONDARY SCHOOL

Other necessary common ground. So far the considera-
tion of facts and principles upon which common agreement
is essential for successful cooperative teaching has dealt only
with those that help to give a proper perspective of the hu-
man materials that are involved in elementary and in sec-
ondary education, and the attitude that should be con-
stantly assumed by those who undertake to mould these
human materials through a rational procedure in elementary
and in secondary education. The next facts and principles
pertain to the active processes of bringing the child mind
and the adolescent mind and the subject-matter of particu-
lar subjects together in the recitation. When teacher and
supervisor face the task of assigning and teaching lessons,
they need to have in mind the same fundamental facts con-
cerning the definition of method, the principles underlying
method, the problems of teaching growing out of an under-
standing of method, the principles and problems underlying
devices, and the principles and problems involved in decid-
ing upon the technique that should be practiced. The
supervisor cannot make definite, pointed, clear-cut sugges-
tions, and the teacher cannot appreciate such suggestions
when they are made, unless both have in mind the clear dis-
tinctions that should be made between these various phases
of the whole performance of teaching. A detailed treat-
ment of these distinctions is hardly in point in this discus-
sion, but a rather brief statement of the point of view that
might well be taken as the ground of common agreement
between teacher and supervisor for guidance, in either ele-

76 SUPERVISORY METHOD

mentary or secondary teaching, will be given to make clear
the types of pedagogical material that are involved and to
emphasize the argument.

The principles of method. Method is the characteristic
mental procedure of the mind of the learner in attending to
any object that is brought before it for consideration. This
characteristic mental procedure is as follows : The mind first
sees the object as a vague whole; it then analyzes the object,
noting its prominent characteristics; it discovers some domi-
nant characteristic, and reorganizes the object around this
dominant characteristic; this same form of analysis and reor-
ganization takes place whenever this object, or one similar to
it, is present before the mind, until it becomes the habitual
form of reaction of the mind to such an object. This pro-
cedure of the mind in learning is always the same, no matter
what the type of object may be that is presented for consid-
eration.

The principles of method are the psychological laws gov-
erning the mental processes that are active during the men-
tal movement of analysis and synthesis. Analysis and
synthesis involve sense perception, imagination, memorys
judgment-forming, and reasoning. One is dealing with a
principle of method when trying to determine the way hi
which sense perception should be employed in the analysis
of a particular type of object. Again, it is a principle of
method that is involved in discovering the type of memo-
rization that is most effective in making a synthesis of par-
ticular material that has been analyzed, etc.

Problems in teaching and method. Problems of teaching
that grow out of an understanding of method and its princi-
ples are numerous. A few typical ones may be mentioned.
One of the most important is the problem of deciding
whether the subject-matter in a particular course should be
organized predominantly hi the form of inductive problems,

GENERAL BASIS 77

or predominantly in the form of deductive problems, in or-
der to facilitate the pupil's acts of analysis and synthesis in
learning the subject. The interrelation between the induc-
tive and deductive organization of subject-matter in any
course is also of vital importance. These organizations are
never isolated or independent of each other, but always co-
exist in varying degrees of emphasis which makes the one
or the other most obvious. Another one is the problem of
organizing the subject-matter of the whole subject so that
the pupil will readily get a fundamental comprehension of it
as a whole at the outset, and then be able to analyze it into
its large divisions and important subdivisions as the study
of the subject progresses. Still another problem is that of
determining the types and extent of subject-matter wholes
that should be taken as the units for memorizing. And still
another problem is that of determining the degree to which
the different mental processes of sense perception, imagi-
nation, etc., should be employed in mastering the various
divisions and subdivisions of the subject.

Devices and their use. A device is a means that may be
used to bring objects before the mind of the learner. Ques-
tions are a device. Pictures are a device. Devices are both
intellectual and material. They are innumerable. Devices
should not be confused with method, or with principles and
problems of teaching that are based on method and its prin-
ciples. One of the vital problems of teaching is to select
devices that are valid for the teaching of a particular subject
hi a particular school situation. This is a problem in which
teacher and supervisor will be greatly helped by coming to a
common agreement, based on the principles underlying the
selection of devices.

These principles are as follows:

1. Devices should be economical as to time consumed in prepa-
ration and in actual employment relative to the results se-
cured by their use.

78 SUPERVISORY METHOD

2. Devices in general should be of such a character as to appeal
to at least seventy -five per cent of the class.

3. Devices should be varied enough to appeal to the entire class
individually.

4. Devices should be of such a character as to be readily acces-
sible when needed.

5. Devices are not good in and of themselves. They must be
adapted to meet specific situations. What is good at one
time may be actually bad at another.

6. Devices must be of such a character that they do not attract
attention to themselves.

The teacher must not be absorbed in the manipulation of
devices, and they must not become a task for the pupil.
History outlines and science notebooks are cases in point.
These devices very often become the chief task of the pupils
instead of being welcome aids. Having agreed to these
principles, the chief problem for teacher and supervisor is to
agree upon the extent to which such devices as blackboard
outlines, notebooks, graphs, maps, lectures, questions, etc.,
should be used hi teaching the particular course or courses.
When ineffective results are secured the criticisms should be
based upon these principles.

Teaching technique. Technique is the body of actual
performances or the various activities put forth by the
teacher in conducting the recitation. The asking of ques-
tions to develop a point is a device, but the number of ques-
tions asked, the speed with which they are asked, the form
of the questions, the attitude of the teacher manifested in
asking the questions, etc., are points of technique. The
technique of the teacher is perhaps the one phase of the
teacher's training that can be most effectively developed
through supervision; hence the vital importance of teacher
and supervisor having a definite understanding of the defini-
tion of technique, and of the principles underlying the de-
velopment of a rational body of teaching acts or skill.

GENERAL BASIS 79

The determination of technique should be guided by the
following principles:

1. The acts of the teacher should be natural.

2. The acts of the teacher should be as inconspicuous as possible.

3. The acts of the teacher should occupy as little time of the
recitation as possible.

4. The teacher should set a good example in all those things that
are asked or required of the pupil.

5 The acts of the teacher should be premeditated, as a rule.

6. The acts of the teacher should be adapted to the environment
of the school, the nature of the subject-matter, the dominant
characteristics of the pupils being taught, and the purpose for
which the lesson is being taught.

7. What is good technique at one time may be bad at another
time, and vice versa.

8. The nature of devices must determine to considerable extent
the technique that should be employed in using them.

9. The skill in the technique practiced determines almost wholly
the effectiveness of the devices used, and furthers or hinders
the method of the learner.

10. Skill hi technique saves time and energy of teacher and pupils.

11. The effectiveness of technique is largely determined by the
personality of the teacher.

Agreements as to teaching procedure. After getting
these principles of technique well in mind, the teacher and
supervisor should agree upon a fairly definite body of acts
— such as asking the question and giving time for thinking
out the answer before naming the pupil who is to respond,
bringing each pupil into the recitation frequently, etc. —
that are considered as usually being good technique. They
should also agree upon a number of acts — such as repeating
the answers of pupils, asking questions that can be answered
by yes and no, etc. — that are considered as a rule to be bad
technique. The criticisms of the supervisor can then be
based on definite principles and pointed to a definite prob-
lem which the teacher must work out in his own procedure.
The teacher will have a basis for appreciating the sugges-

80 SUPERVISORY METHOD

tions of the supervisor, and also a definite guide in planning
in advance for the recitation.

Teaching standards. Another matter upon which teacher
and supervisor should have a definite understanding is the
standards by which the teaching performance is to be
judged. These standards should take into account the
status of development of the pupils at the time the teacher
takes charge of them, the purpose for which the subject as a
whole is being taught, the purpose for which the individual
lessons are being taught, the skill of the teacher in handling
the class and in presenting the subject-matter of the recita-
tion, and the results secured in the minds of the pupils.
These standards may be more or less arbitrary according to
the point of view of the supervisor, but, whatever they are
to be, the teacher is entitled to know at the outset on what
points and on what types of evidence his teaching will be
judged. If teacher and supervisor agree to have the same
understanding of the types of evidence that will be taken as
the criteria for judging the success of the teaching perform-
ance, then the teacher can recognize the validity of criti-
cisms and can study intelligently the suggestions made by
the supervisor as to how he can improve his teaching.
This agreement will go far toward creating the genuine spirit
of cooperation which is so essential to securing good results
from the work of supervision.

Proper teaching relationships. Another point upon
which a clear understanding between teacher and supervisor
is necessary is that of the relation each is to bear to the pu-
pils being taught, and to the director of the school in matters
of management. The teacher should be given as full re-
sponsibility and authority as conditions make possible, but
whatever the basis of cooperation in management is to be, a
definite understanding must be had in order to prevent con-
fusion and unintentional criss-crossing of decisions and ac-

GENERAL BASIS 81

tions. This agreement must not only cover the relations
that are to exist between the teacher and supervisor and di-
rector, but it must also include the standards of discipline
and the items that are considered in general as constituting
good management of the general affairs of the classroom.
The teacher should know to what extent he can exercise his
authority in dealing with these problems, and he should
have some definite idea of the measures that are considered
as unwise or at least exceptional. The difference between
emergency conditions and those that are normal in the life
of the school should be matters of common understanding. In
other words, a comprehensive perspective of the whole field
of management should be mutually understood at the outset.

The purpose of supervision. A final point which should
be mutually understood is the purpose of supervision. The
teacher and the supervisor must agree that the teaching
under supervision on the one hand and the supervising of
teaching on the other must contribute to the accomplish-
ment of two definite ends, namely, the attainment of insight
and skill on the part of the teacher, and the efficient educa-
tion of the children or adolescent boys and girls who are
taught by the teacher. The teacher must see quite as
clearly as does the supervisor that the education of the pu-
pils in either the training school or the public school must be
thoroughly safeguarded. On the other hand, the supervisor
must recognize the fact that the efficient training of the
teacher must be carefully safeguarded, and in order to do
this the teacher must be given as full and free opportunity
as possible to overcome weaknesses as well as to strengthen
strong points.

The supervisor must realize that he has a great respon-
sibility to meet in making the teacher skillful and reliable as
a teacher. He must regard the success or failure of the
teacher as his own success or failure in very large degree.

82 SUPERVISORY METHOD

On the other hand, the teacher must regard the work of the
supervisor as a supreme opportunity for learning how to
teach, and for being trained in the skill of teaching. The
supervisor must be regarded as a sympathetic helper from
whom consolation, encouragement, insight, and wise direc-
tion may be secured. Every suggestion and action of the
supervisor must be welcomed as being for the direct benefit
of the teacher. In fine, one may say that the teacher and
supervisor should feel that their welfare is mutual, and that
they succeed or fail together.

Chapter summary. The general basis for cooperative
teaching in either the elementary or secondary school in-
volves: clear-cut definitions of method, device, and tech-
nique, and an understanding of the fundamental principles
underlying each; an understanding of the standards that are
to be used in judging the teaching performances; an under-
standing of the relations the teacher and the supervisor bear
to the pupils and the director in matters of management;
and an understanding of the exact purpose of the work of
the supervisor.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Compare the definition of method given in this chapter with the defi-
nitions given by other pedagogical writers.

2. Give two devices that might be used in the teaching of geography that
satisfactorily meet all the principles set forth above.

8. Show how the making of history outlines and the keeping of science
notebooks may become merely additional tasks for the pupils to per-
form, instead of being valuable aids to the pupils in mastering the
subjects.

4. Make a list of fifteen items of technique that are ordinarily considered
to be good.

5. Make a list of ten items of technique that are ordinarily considered to
be bad.

6. Make a list of the types of evidence that you would secure as a means
of judging the success of the teaching performance.

7. Show how the success of the pupil being taught by the teacher, the
success of the teacher, and the success of the supervisor are mutually
interdependent.

CHAPTER VH

OTHER PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SUPERVISORY
METHOD

1. The second principle of method

THIS is that one learns to teach by teaching. This is the
fundamental principle upon which rests the idea that teach-
ers can be efficiently and economically trained in the science
and art of teaching under the supervision of expert teachers
in a training school. While this principle is psychologically
correct, it must be interpreted in terms of the various activi-
ties that the teacher must put forth in learning how to teach
and in acquiring skill in the actual performance.

Anticipatory teaching. The first interpretation of this
principle is that one learns not merely by doing, but by cor-
rect doing. What, then, is the first step in correct doing?
The psychological answer is that one takes the first step in
correct doing when he goes through the mental performance
of doing the act in anticipation of the actual performance of
the act. This mental doing of the act is carried on first
through the mastery of the theory or the principles involved
in the correct doing of the particular act. When the
teacher plans the teaching of a certain lesson, he should
teach that lesson in imagination in keeping with the princi-
ples involved in the correct teaching of that particular sub-
ject or phase of subject-matter. Therefore the first form of
teaching that the teacher should practice is that of teaching
in anticipatory imagination.

This anticipatory mental teaching is an essential part of
the whole performance of teaching. The teacher should
master this aspect of teaching as rapidly and as thoroughly

84 SUPERVISORY METHOD

as possible. This phase of correct teaching is the point at
which the active work of supervision begins concretely.
The supervisor and the teacher work together in setting up
the teaching situation in advance of the actual recitation.
The teacher, with the guidance of the supervisor, analyzes
the situation thoroughly and goes through the recitation in
imagination. The supervisor directs the doing or teaching
in imagination according to his standards of correct teach-
ing. He must see to it that the mental performance is as
nearly correct and as thoroughly standardized as possible,
in order that it may be used as the measure for guiding and
improving the actual teaching performance.

Value of the anticipatory process. This phase of learning
to teach correctly by correct theoretical teaching cannot be
too strongly emphasized. The teacher who attempts to
learn to teach by actual teaching acts, without a period of
mental, imaginative teaching, has no standard or back-
ground against which to project the actual teaching per-
formance; hence he has little opportunity for knowing when
he is improving and when he is deteriorating. When the
teacher has no training in anticipatory imaginative teach-
ing, the supervisor has very little opportunity for making
constructive suggestions; hence he must try to construct the
standard of correct teaching out of the present immediate
teaching experiences of the teacher. These experiences
themselves are so engrossing that the teacher has great diffi-
culty in seeing beyond them or through them to the princi-
ples involved in the situation.

The teacher in this situation is like the individual who
undertakes to learn to ride a bicycle by means of the actual
performance without any antecedent imaginative, mental
riding of the wheel. The result is that, as the bicycle rider
is wholly engrossed with trying to keep the machinery going
in an upright position and somewhere in the road, so the

OTHER PRINCIPLES 85

teacher is absorbed in the task of keeping the recitation
moving and somewhere in the direction it is supposed to go.
The memory of what one actually does on such occasions is
a very poor means of checking up the teaching performance
so that it can be analyzed and made the basis of learning
how to teach correctly. On the other hand, the teacher who
is constantly going through a warming up period of imagina-
tive, mental doing of the teaching performance becomes
saturated with the principles of correct doing, and can read-
ily recognize how well the actual act of teaching measures
up to the more perfect imaginative standard. His actual
teaching can thus be made the starting-point for an im-
proved performance in the future, and the improvement can
be secured rather rapidly. The value of the work of the
supervisor hi guiding the training of the teacher in anticipa-
tory imaginative teaching is at once obvious.

Observation of teaching. A second phase of correct theo-
retical, mental teaching is that which one goes through
when he alertly and intelligently observes the correct teach-
ing exhibited by the expert in the particular line of teaching.
The observer in this case carries on the mental doing of the
teaching act under the direct sensory stimulus of the actual
act going on at the same tune. This sort of imaginative,
mental performance of the teaching act enables the teacher
to acquire the habit and skill of measuring the actual act of
the expert teacher as it progresses, by means of the more
perfect imaginative standard. The observer has an oppor-
tunity to acquire a true perspective of both performances.
Practice in measuring the actual teaching in comparison
with the more ideal performance will lay the foundation for
practice hi reversing the process.

Finally, then, the teacher should acquire a fair degree of
skill in carrying on the actual act of teaching, and at the
same time keep the more perfect imagined performance or

80 SUPERVISORY METHOD

standard clearly enough in mind to be able to check up the
actual teaching against the standard, somewhat during the
recitation itself, but particularly after the recitation. The
suggestions of the supervisor will be one of the means by
which the teacher may be helped in doing this. The out-
come of intelligent observation should be also a direct con-
tribution to the development of a clear conception of a high
standard of the actual teaching performance. That is to
say, the teacher should possess both an actual standard and
a more perfect imaginative standard.

Actual instruction. The third phase in learning to teach
by correct teaching is that of performing the act of teaching
by direct, conscious imitation of the standard performance
of the supervisor, and at the same time making a keen, in-
telligent analysis of the processes being imitated. The bet-
ter the teaching done by the supervisor and the more per-
fectly this teaching is imitated by the teacher, the more
efficient the teacher will become, provided, of course, that
the teacher analyzes accurately the standard he imitates and
finally discovers the principles that underlie the standard
performance. In fact, the type of imitation that is meant
here is the imitation of the application of principles to the
problems of teaching rather than the mere mimicking of the
specific acts of the expert teacher. In this sense one cannot
imitate unless one analyzes the validity and full significance
of what is imitated. The teacher should not ape the super-
visor; that is, should not mimic his specific acts.

The result of studied imitation of the type just suggested
is independence and finally initiative on the part of the
teacher. The teacher who can analyze an actual teaching
performance to discover its excellent points that are worthy
of imitation, and can then successfully imitate that same
skilled performance, or even approximate it in an actual act
of teaching, has gone far on the road toward success and

OTHER PRINCIPLES 87

efficiency in teaching. The teacher who can reproduce an
actual performance in teaching that equals or even approxi-
mates a standard of actual teaching will soon become effi-
cient in imitating in his teaching the more perfect theoreti-
cal standards that he sets up in making intelligent lesson
plans. The more skill one acquires in imitating or even ap-
proximating the theoretical standards of teaching, the more
skilled his actual teaching will become, for one can always
theorize better than he can practice. Conscious imitation,
then, of correct teaching is a definite road to efficiency in
teaching.

Directed teaching. Another step in learning to teach by
correct teaching is that of teaching by following specific di-
rections and instructions in an intelligent manner. One
cannot carry out instructions efficiently without accurately
interpreting the meaning of the directions. Accurate inter-
pretation of teaching instructions is a severe test of the
teacher's intelligence and resourcefulness. The teacher who
cannot understand intelligent directions and carry them out
successfully will not be likely to make very intelligent plans
on his own initiative. On the other hand, the teacher who
can readily comprehend and follow instructions literally will
be able to plan and to carry out intelligent schemes of pro-
cedure without help. Following specific directions that are
given by an expert in the particular line of teaching is an
excellent way to acquire valuable experience and to attain
skill in doing things definitely.

Learning to do definite things and learning to do things
definitely are highly valuable phases of acquiring skill in
correct teaching. As the teacher acquires skill in interpret-
ing and following specific detailed instructions, the super-
visor should modify the instructions so that they become
more and more general. This process of modification will
leave more and more details to be worked out by the teacher,

88 SUPERVISORY METHOD

until finally the teacher will be thoroughly competent to
plan entirely on his own initiative. The supervisor can now
become merely an adviser and make suggestions for the im-
provement of the directions which the teacher himself sets
up for his own guidance in teaching.

Practice to form right habits. A final step in the process
of learning to teach by correct teaching is that of practicing
with the attention or whole conscious effort centered upon
the forming of right habits. The teacher finally arrives,
through the training that comes from the various steps of
learning to teach correctly, at the place where he is fully
aware of what the habits are that he should make perma-
nent in his training. He must now have opportunity to
plan for the practice upon certain definite habits and then
consciously to attend to the process of putting them into
practice. This is a vital aspect of teacher training. The
significance of it is that every habit practiced has to pass the
test of conscious attention. If one gives close attention to
the thing he is doing, he is apt to discover whether it is good
or bad ; therefore, undesirable habits are not so apt to creep
in unconsciously and become set.

Teaching habits to be made automatic. Another inter-
pretation that should be made of the principle that one
learns to teach by correct teaching is that one must continue
the correct teaching until the habits of correct teaching be-
come automatic. Otherwise the process of learning does
not pass beyond the stage of mere comprehension. Correct
habits of teaching must pass beyond the stage of mere com-
prehension and become automatic before the teacher attains
freedom in doing things spontaneously upon his own initia-
tive. The teacher who has had no supervision in the form-
ing of correct habits of teaching, and who goes into a public
school system to teach where little or no systematic super-
vision is provided, may seem to have a great opportunity to

OTHER PRINCIPLES 89

exercise initiative. This is true, in a certain sense, but such
a teacher has the best opportunity in the world for forming
many incorrect habits of teaching which will be very diffi-
cult to break, even after the teacher becomes aware that the
habits are bad and desires to get away from them.

There is a vital difference between initiative that is based
upon the unconscious utilization of habits that have been
formed in keeping with sound principles, and initiative that
means merely the freedom to learn things by the trial-and-
error plan of doing. Such initiative is not really freedom,
for the teacher is a prey to his own ignorance and lack of
skill in teaching. If one wishes to arrive at a definite goal in
the shortest time possible, one must travel on the road that
leads most directly to the goal. The most direct road to in-
telligent initiative hi teaching is that of imitating and fol-
lowing specific directions of an expert teacher, and of prac-
ticing, with conscious attention upon the task of forming
right habits, until a reliable body of correct habits has been
rendered automatic. The danger is not that the teacher
will become too automatic in his habits, but that he will not
become automatic enough. In other words, habits that have
not become thoroughly automatic require too much atten-
tion of the performer, so that the purpose that the practice
of the habits is to further is largely lost sight of in the recita-
tion. The more automatic the habits have become, the
more unconsciously they are performed ; hence the attention
of the teacher is fully free to consider the real goal of the
recitation.

2. The third principle of method

Breaking up incorrect habits. Incorrect habits of teach-
ing can be largely if not wholly avoided and prevented, by
practice under the consistent and intelligent guidance and
advice of the supervisor, especially during the early attempts

90 SUPERVISORY METHOD

of the teacher. A second aspect of the principle is that in-
correct habits can be discovered and broken up before they
have become at all fixed or automatic. This is a funda-
mental point. Many people hold the idea that one has to
make errors in order to learn the correct way to do a thing.
They argue that one learns as much from his mistakes as he
does from the things he gets right. A common expression is
that "One has to find things out for himself." This is un-
doubtedly correct according to the psychology of learning,
but, while one must find things out for himself, he does not
have to find them out by himself. The intelligent human
being can learn from the advice and explanations of one who
knows what is right and what is wrong without committing
the error.

If this is not true, then the whole psychology of appercep-
tion is false, and imagination is a. rather useless mental proc-
ess. The individual who lacks the apperceptive basis that
would enable him to understand an explanation of why a
certain habit is not good is hardly ready for teaching under
supervision. Such an individual will take too much time
acquiring the basis if he has to acquire it from practicing
mistakes.

Finding out things for and by one's self. What, then, is
the difference between finding things out for one's self and
finding them out by one's self? The psychological explana-
tion is this; if a person really knows a thing, he must possess
the mental elements and put forth the mental processes that
are necessarily involved in the knowing of that thing. No
other person can do this for the individual. This being
true, then the problem resolves itself into determining the
kinds of agencies that may stimulate the mind of the indi-
vidual to put forth the necessary mental processes and or-
ganize the essential mental elements. If the learner is so
situated that he must find the agencies for stimulating his

OTHER PRINCIPLES 01

mind to put forth the mental processes and to organize the
mental elements in his own immediate acts, then he learns
what is wrong or right, for himself and by himself. If, how-
ever, the learner is stimulated to set up the mental processes
and to organize the essential mental elements by the advice
and explanations of another person, then he learns the thing
for himself, but not by himself. He has learned for himself
what the race or some other individual had to learn by him-
self. In other words, the individual has learned for himself
so that he knows full well, by the aid of the supervisor, the
mistake or error, without going through the actual per-
formance of making the mistake.

Application to teacher training. This is one of the most
important arguments that can be brought to bear upon the
point of view that some hold that practice schools cannot in
any true sense train teachers by giving them genuine experi-
ence. In fact, it is the basic argument upon which the whole
idea of education by means of schools must rest. If it will
not hold, then the present generation cannot profit by the
wisdom of the past, and "book-lam in'" is an empty sham.
That being true would mean that schools are a sham, for
they must necessarily deal with a vast amount of "book-
larnin'"; or, to put it less harshly, they must engender a
great amount of learning from and by means of books. To
point the argument back again to the problem under dis-
cussion, one may rightly say that if schools in general are
justified agencies of education, then training schools are
certainly justified agencies for educating teachers. And,
finally, if the training school is a justified agency for train-
ing teachers, then teacher-" larnin' " or, better, supervisor-
"larnin"' is valid. Furthermore, the work of the supervi-
sor in keeping the teacher from practicing incorrect acts of
teaching is just as valid as that of directing the teacher in
putting forth correct performances.

92 SUPERVISORY METHOD

Breaking bad habits; training schools vs. city schools.
The problem of breaking incorrect habits is much more
prominent and perhaps more difficult in case of the city
supervisor than it is in the case of the supervisor hi a training
school. The teacher in the public school has usually had
some experience in teaching, and very often has formed a
number of habits in technique that in general are bad. The
teacher is often satisfied with his technique, no matter how
faulty it may be, and tends often to feel resentful toward the
criticisms and suggestions of the supervisor.

The first objective that the supervisor should attain is
that of securing a receptive attitude toward suggestions and
constructive criticisms. The next objective is that of
eliminating the faulty habits of teaching and establishing
correct ones in their stead. This objective can be reached
most effectively by attacking one or two of the most vital
incorrect habits at a time, and continuing the attack upon
them until they are thoroughly broken up. This plan in-
sures a steady and definite progress in the elimination of bad
habits.

If too many bad habits are attacked at once, slow progress
will be made in breaking them up. This slowness of prog-
ress is due to less concentration of attention than can be se-
cured when only one or two habits are under consideration
at one time. The fact that slow progress is made in break-
ing up a number of habits that the teacher recognizes as bad
tends to discourage the teacher and makes him still less effi-
cient than he would otherwise be. The success attained hi
dealing definitely with one or two bad habits at a time en-
courages the teacher and strengthens his appreciation of the
value of the work of the supervisor. The teacher gains con-
fidence in his ability to improve, and the effect of this atti-
tude of the teacher toward his own work is inestimable.

OTHER PRINCIPLES 93

5. The fourth principle of method

Developing initiative and independence. The fourth
principle is that the teacher must ultimately be given ample
opportunity to plan and cany out regular teaching work,
and be responsible for every phase of it, without suggestions
or help of any kind from the supervisor. This stage of the
training should develop the habit of attacking new problems
and working out their solution independently. Initiative at
this stage should mean, as perhaps never before, the habit of
going into things thoroughly and intelligently. Up to this
time the teacher has consulted the supervisor before attack-
ing new problems in order that he might acquire most rap-
idly the insight into correct principles of teaching and be
safeguarded against forming incorrect habits. Now, how-
ever, the teacher comes to the final test as to whether the
training given under the guidance of the supervisor has laid
the foundation for thoroughgoing initiative.

The supervisor must now keep hands off, and keep out of
the teacher's way. The time has now come for applying the
standards by which the work of the teacher should be judged
and finally ranked. It is also the time for the supervisor to
apply the standards that should be employed in measuring
the effectiveness of the work of supervision. The work of
the supervisor at this stage of the training is that of a sym-
pathetic visitor, who is anxious to see the teacher at his best
and who is looking for the best that the teacher exhibits in
his work.

Summary of the section. The method of supervision is
based upon four fundamental principles: First, the teacher
and supervisor must possess common knowledge and hold
common points of view concerning the school, the pupils,
the subject-matter, the principles of method of teaching,
principles of devices, principles of technique, the standards

04 SUPERVISORY METHOD

by which teaching should be judged, the responsibility and
authority of each in matters of management, and the pur-
pose of the work of supervision. This basis enables teacher
and supervisor intelligently to understand one another in
everything that they do in cooperation. Second, one learns
to teach by correct teaching. Third, errors are not neces-
sary to further the learning process, and incorrect habits
may be avoided and prevented through the advice and guid-
ance of the supervisor. Fourth, the test of guided teaching
is whether or not it lays the foundation for independent
thinking and initiative in discovering and solving new prob-
lems.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give five examples from daily life to show that one goes through the
mental performance of doing things in anticipation of being called
upon actually to do them.

2. Give a description of your mental performance that went on in antici-
pation of your first day in the schoolroom as a teacher.

8. Describe your actual performance on that first day of school, and
check it with the anticipatory mental performance to see how nearly
they coincide.

4. Analyze as accurately as you can your mental performance on your
first observation of an expert teacher's presentation of a particular
lesson. To what extent were you able to anticipate the successive
acts performed by the teacher? Did the ability to foresee the acts of
the teacher develop with practice in such observation?

5. Give five illustrations of actual imitative performances that were as
exact copies of the original performances as the imitators were able
to make them.

6. Give two illustrations of actual imitative performances that followed
the same principles that underlay the original performances, but
adapted the acts or steps to suit the particular situation.

7. Give four or five illustrations from your experience that show how
difficult it is to give a set of directions that will be proof against mis-
interpretations.

8. Make a set of directions that would enable another person to go,
without loss of time and without securing other aid, to a certain place
in a particular city, or large town, or country; to a certain room in a
large building; to secure a certain book from a shelf in a particular
library of some size.

OTHER PRINCIPLES 95

9. Give five examples from your own experience of the effect upon habit
formation of concentration of attention upon the steps of the habit.

10. Give as many examples as you can from your own experience of teach-
ing habits that have become automatic.

11. Give five examples from your own experiences, outside of school, of
errors that you have avoided by being advised ahead of time.

12. Give five examples, from your own experiences, of errors that you
have avoided by being advised by some experienced individual.

13. Give five examples, from experience, of faulty habits that were read-
ily broken up through advice and supervision in the first stages of
their formation.

14. Give one or more examples in which the supervisor hindered the
development of the teacher by failing to put the teacher on his own
responsibility at the proper time in his training.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR SECTION A

Ayer, Fred C. Eighteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Education;
chap, v, "Present Status of Drawing with respect to Scientific Investiga-
tion."

Discusses principles of method.

Belts, George Herbert. Classroom Method and Management.

Excellent discussion of general problems.
Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching.

Splendid discussion of method from view point of function.
Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches.

Good discussion of special application of principles of method.

Freeman, Frank N. Eighteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of
Education; chap, i, "Principles of Method in Teaching Writing, as De-
rived from Scientific Investigation."

Excellent account of the findings and conclusions drawn.
Freeman, Frank N. How Children Learn.

Splendid analysis.

Gray, Wm. S. Eighteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Education;
chap, ii, " Principles of Method in Teaching Reading, as Derived from
Scientific Investigation."

Excellent discussion and interpretation of the findings.

Hall, G. S. Adolescence; Its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology,
Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education. 2 vols.

Valuable for the concrete data accumulated.

Horn, Ernest. Eighteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Education;
chap, in, " Principles of Method in Teaching Spelling as Derived from
Scientific Investigation."

Excellent discussion of principles, which are well stated.
Judd, C. H. The Pm/c.hology of the High-School Subjects.

Excellent and stimulating discussion of application of psychological principles to con-
crete teaching problems.

96 SUPERVISORY METHOD

Kendall, Calvin N., and Mirick, Geo. A. How to Teach the Special Subjects,

Good practical discussion of elementary-school teaching problems.
King, Irving. The High-School Age.

Stimulating discussion of adolescent life.
Kirkpatrick, Edwin E. Fundamentals of Child Study.

Comprehensive discussion of most vital issues.

Monroe, Walter S. Eighteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of
Education; chap, iv, "Principles of Method in Teaching Arithmetic as
Derived from Scientific Investigation."

Excellent account of experiments and summing-up of principles.
Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High School.

Principles thoroughly discussed and amply illustrated.

Thorndike, Edward L. Educational Psychology, vol. in. " Mental Work
and Fatigue, and Individual Differences and their Causes."

Comprehensive account of experimental data and discussion of principles thug
derived.

Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. The Motivation of School Work.
Gives concrete data and very helpful suggestions.

SECTION B

DEVICES OF SUPERVISION
CHAPTER

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE SELECTION OF
DEVICES

THE significance of the principles involved in the selection
of devices will be more readily seen by again getting clearly
in mind the definition of device. A device is any means,
other than subject-matter itself, employed by the teacher in
presenting subject-matter to the mind of the learner.

Devices should be economical. One of the important
phases of economy is the saving of time for the supervisor.
A device may require a considerable amount of time to work
it out thoroughly and completely in the beginning, but, if
the device is a permanent one that may be used for a long
time and with very little modification from time to time,
then the device is an economical one. By economy of time
for the supervisor, one should consider the ultimate amount
of time, and not the immediate amount that is required for
the preparation of a thoroughgoing, permanent device.

The idea of permanency of devices should be emphasized.
Devices have been poorly selected if they have to be dis-
carded when the same situation is to be dealt with again and
again. For example, a set of general instructions to begin-
ning teachers is a good device. If these instructions are
thoroughly organized and clearly stated, then printed forms
may be used for a number of years without any changes be-
ing necessary. The working-out of such a set of instructions
would require some time and care, but the permanency of it

98 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

would save the time and energy of the supervisor in the long
run. The following is an example of such a set of permanent
directions:

OREAD TRAINING SCHOOL

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO SENIOR TEACHERS

Caution.

1. Read these instructions carefully. Be sure that you under-
stand them. Go over them each day before going to class
until you have thoroughly mastered them and can carry
them out automatically.

Conferences.

2. Confer with the supervisor of the course before beginning
the work.

S. Teachers' meeting every Wednesday, at 8 A.M. This is a
part of the teacher's work, and absence from these meetings
will count the same as absence from the teaching hour.
Absence.

4. When absence from any of the work is unavoidable, the
teacher must notify the director and also the supervisor of
the work in ample time for provision to be made for the class.
All requests for absence must be made to the director of the
school.

Class schedule.

5. The Oread class schedule: (a) All classes meet five days per
week; (6) all sciences have double periods for laboratory two
days per week; (c) all classes begin and close according to the
schedule of hours that governs the University classes;
(d) whenever University classes are set aside for convocation,
holiday, or special occasion, the Oread classes are set aside
for the same periods of time.

6. Do not dismiss the class before the end of the period. Do
not permit students to leave the room before the end of the
period on quiz days.

Lesson plans.

7. Weekly lesson plans are required from the beginning. In
making out the advance lesson plans on blank A, give the
full outline of the assignment as it will be given to the class.
Blank B should give the exact order of procedure and the

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES 99

work actually done. Both blanks are due in the director's
office on Monday before the class period, the A blank for the
week just beginning, and the B blank for the week just past.
These must be in on time to be of value and to be fully
credited.

8. A copy of all quiz questions must be filed in the office at least
one day before the quiz is to be given.

Class records.

9. Enter the names of students in the class record in alpha-
betical order, giving the surname first.

10. Enroll only those who have class cards properly signed.

11. Keep the class record according to the following system of
marking: E for entered; W for withdrawn; X in lower half of
square for present; T for tardy; A for excused absence;
A/O for unexcused absence.

12. Require each student to present an excuse signed by the
director for each absence or tardiness. Sign the excuse.
Return it to the office if you are the last teacher who should
receive it.

Reports.

13. Report all absences and tardiness each day before leaving
the building.

14. Report unsatisfactory work at once to the office. Have a
conference immediately with each student who is doing un-
satisfactory work. Report each conference to the office with-
out delay. Use the regular blanks provided for these reports.

15. Report cards are issued to the students at the close of each
nine weeks. Get these cards from the office on Monday of
the ninth week. Issue them to the students on Wednesday.
Take them up and return them to the office on Friday.

Grading of students.

16. Enter a grade in per cent for each week. This grade is the
summation or average of all the items of work required.
Enter a final grade in capital letters at the close of each nine
weeks. This grade is the summation or average of class work,
oral and written quizzes, notebook, etc. Enter also a final
grade in per cent for each item that goes to make up the
capital letter grade. Indicate what part each item is of the
final grade. The capitals used are: A, B, C, D; and F ior
failure, Cond. for conditioned. State the terms of the con-
dition. Use "No Ex" for not examined.

100 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

Conferences with students.

17. Encourage students to come to you voluntarily for confer-
ences about their work. Set a regular conference hour that
will enable the students to meet you. Give them your name,
telephone number, and street address, and encourage them to
call you up about their work, especially when they are ab-
sent from class. Indicate the time when they can be surest
of reaching you.

18. Decide what kinds of work can be made up by the student
when he has missed the recitation and what kinds cannot be
made up. Have a definite plan for the making up of each
kind of work. Set a definite time within which the work
must be done.

19. Watch the bulletin board daily for announcements.

The following list of instructions to teachers which might
well be used by a supervising principal or a superintendent
in a small school system is another example of such a perma-
nent set of directions:

INSTRUCTIONS TO REGULAR TEACHERS

School sessions.

A. First day of school.

a. Assemble the pupils promptly at the regular time for
beginning the school day.

b. Secure the names of the pupils.

c. Determine positively that each pupil belongs in your
room.

d. Give the pupils the list of books and other materials that
they need.

0. Dismiss the pupils for the day.

/. Devote the remainder of the day to arranging your pro-
gram and organizing your work for the week.

B. Regular school days.

a. Keep the school full time unless instructed to dismiss
earlier.

b. Provide in your program for two ten-minute intermis-
sions during each session.

C. Holidays.

a. School will not be in session on Labor Day, Thanks-

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES / 101

xj?^ *^ S

giving Day anaT^^d^Oltft^Ut^lJ^om.Ji'fiaay before
Christmas until theOTWitejiEteH«WHig, New Year's
Day, Washington's Birthday, Columbus Day, Decora-
tion Day.

D. Last day of each semester.

a. The pupils will come for their reports at the last hour in
the school day.

E. Teachers' meetings.

a. Meetings will be held at the central building every two

weeks on Friday at 3.30. Dismiss at 3 on those days.
SuppZiw.

A. Send an accurate itemized estimate of all supplies needed for
the following month to the principal on Monday of the last
week of each month.

B. See that supplies are not wasted or destroyed.
Records.

A. Keep accurate daily records of pupils' grades, absences, and
tardiness.

B. Keep an accurate record of the amount of each kind of
material used per pupil for the year. This is important as a
basis for estimating the amount of supplies needed for the
succeeding year.

C. Keep a record of parental visits to the school.
Reports.

A. Report all absences to the principal at the beginning of each
school session.

B. Report promptly concerning any school property that needs
looking after, such as broken windows, damaged window
shades, etc.

C. Report promptly when the temperature of the schoolroom
is too low for comfort and health. If the condition cannot
be satisfactorily remedied within an hour, dismiss school for
the remainder of the half-day session or whole-day session
according to the conditions.

D. Report promptly any seeming indications of possible break-
ing out in school of contagious diseases.

General management.

A. Teachers in charge of playgrounds, halls, and toilet-rooms
during intermissions will have control over all pupils under
their supervision.

B. Allow only one pupil to be abse^ frow^'e rbom\t a timo ^
during class hours.

10* DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

C. Instruct pupils to report all found articles at the office, and
to inquire there for lost articles. Do not permit pupils to go
from room to room to inquire for lost articles or for owners of
found articles.

D. Be alert to respond to the fire alarm at any time. You will
not be notified as to whether it is for drill or actual fire.

E. The teacher should, except in very extreme cases, handle all
matters of discipline without appealing to the principal.

F. Keep luncheon pupils in the room until the others have passed
out of the building, then send them to the lunch room.

G. Pupils should not remain in the room during intermissions
except in special cases.

H. Pupils should not enter the building before the time for class-
work to begin, except in inclement weather, and special indi-
vidual cases.
I. Supplementary books furnished by the school should not be

taken from the building.

J. Pupils should be assembled and dismissed in orderly fashion.
K. Home study should not be assigned to grade pupils.

Saving the time of the teacher. Another phase of econ-
omy is the saving of the time of the teacher. The use of the
device ought to save time according to the results to be se-
cured. Take again the example just mentioned of the
printed instructions to beginning teachers. This device
gives the teacher an opportunity to study the instructions
thoroughly and to keep looking them over until their signifi-
cance is thoroughly understood and the duties they enjoin
are made habit. If the teachers had to receive these in-
structions verbally from the supervisor, they would have to
take the time to copy them before they could be mastered.
Errors in copying would occur and confusion on important
points would result. Count up the amount of the teachers'
time that would be consumed through giving general in-
structions orally and it will certainly convince one that a
device should conserve the teachers' time.

Conservation of materials. Another form of economy in
devices is that of the conservation of materials consumed.

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES 103

Economy of the materials must be judged in the light of the
results obtained. The printed instruction sheet, for exam-
ple, would be economical compared to oral instructions in
the light of the results obtained. The sheet itself may be
planned in such a way as to save space without decreasing
the effectiveness of the device. If the print is too small, the
conservation of material cripples the effectiveness of the de-
vice and no genuine economy has been effected. Here again
comes in the idea of permanency of the device. A device
that can be used only once, or a very few times at most,
wastes materials to no good purpose. For instance, a
printed form for a daily lesson plan would be wasteful and
ineffective if the items in it were changed every semester, or
every year or two, so that the old forms not used up would
have to be discarded. This conservation of materials should
be taken into account in working out devices, so that the
greatest care will be exercised in making the devices as per-
fect and permanent as possible.

Another phase of economy of materials used is the cost of
permanent materials. The first cost of hectographed or
mimeographed sheets of instructions, for instance, would no
doubt be less than the cost of printed sheets, but the printed
sheets are of better material, or should be, and in the long
run they are more economical from a cost standpoint. Take
the course of study in a subject as another illustration. A
printed course will be more durable and serviceable than a
mimeographed outline, although the first cost will be greater.
The point, then, is that for permanent devices the economy
is not in the cheapness of materials, but in securing the most
satisfactory and usable materials.

Economy a relative matter. The principle of economy in
devices is a relative matter, as has been shown by the above
discussion, and it must be worked out in relation to the other
principles that are important to consider in the selection of

104 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

devices as well as in keeping with the four aspects of econ-
omy that have just been set forth. The dominant idea that
should determine whether the devices used by the supervisor
are economical or not is that of the time saved in getting
things well done. Devices that are effective in saving time
for both supervisor and teacher must necessarily eliminate
the waste that is entailed by the inefficiency of a device that
consumes time to no good purpose. In other words, to save
time and yet do a piece of work thoroughly and efficiently,
one must do only necessary things; that is, one must deal
with just the essentials. The value of learning to do things
definitely and concisely is very great. One cannot do things
concisely without having a definite, clear-cut goal in view.
Therefore, the working-out of devices that economize time
insure a clarity of thinking and direct attack upon specific
problems in training and directing teachers.

Devices should be effective. One criterion of the effec-
tiveness of devices is the immediate results that come from
the use of the devices. The value of the immediate results
should be commensurate with the time, energy, and cost in-
volved in the use of the devices. The giving of general in-
structions, for example, in printed form consumes little time
and energy on the part of both supervisor and teachers.
The immediate results are perhaps as great as could be se-
cured from the use of any other form of device. If these
same instructions are given orally, the supervisor can dis-
cuss the points and illustrate the significance of the various
instructions. This might mean that the immediate results
are more effective than they are when the printed instruc-
tions are used. The difference, however, in the immediate
results that are secured by the oral device and those secured
by the printed instructions is not commensurate with the
difference in time and energy consumed by the use of the
oral and printed devices respectively. Moreover, the im«

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES 105

mediate results secured from the use of the printed device
are highly satisfactory.

Another criterion of the effectiveness of devices is the ul-
timate results that are secured through their use. The ulti-
mate results, likewise, should be commensurate with the
time, energy, cost, and immediate results involved in the
use of the particular devices considered. The ultimate re-
sults of one device should also be compared with the im-
mediate and ultimate results of other devices. The ulti-
mate results of the printed instructions, for example, far
surpass both the immediate and the ultimate results of the
oral instructions, for they afford a longer period of study and
they can be consulted again and again in the face of actual
situations that call for their application. The ultimate re-
sults of the printed devices also greatly augment the im-
mediate results and build directly upon them. This not
only makes the printed device more effective, but also more
economical from the standpoint of permanent habit forma-
tion.

Devices should be usable. One criterion of the usability
of devices is the frequency with which they may be employed
to advantage. Other things being equal, the more fre-
quently the devices can be used effectively the better they
are. The printed instructions measure up satisfactorily in
this regard. They can be used term after term without
modification or extra effort in preparing them for use. A
device that could be used only at long intervals must be
found valuable for other reasons than the frequency with
which it may be employed.

A second criterion of the usability of devices is the extent
to which they can be employed in different subjects and
situations. Take, for example, a detailed plan for daily
recitation. A well-organized plan should be usable for
practically every day's lessons and for all subjects. Such a

106 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

form should be inclusive so that the essential items that may
enter into any recitation will be definitely considered. The
items that do not happen to come into a particular recita-
tion can easily be left blank. The fact that the form con-
tains all the essential items that are necessary to be included
in recitations at different times renders the device all the
more effective because of the suggestiveness of such a con-
stant reminder of the points concerning which decision must
be made when making a detailed daily lesson plan.

A third criterion of usability is the accessibility of the de-
vices when they are needed. The printed instructions for
beginning teachers and printed forms for daily lesson plans
are good examples of devices that are readily accessible
when needed. Suppose the supervisor depends upon giving
instructions, as they seem to be needed, through the device
of teachers' meetings, then the device is not readily accessi-
ble, for such a meeting cannot be held at just any and all
times. Accessibility, then, is an item that should be given
very careful consideration hi planning and selecting devices.

Devices should not be too numerous. The number of de-
vices employed by the supervisor, especially to accomplish
the same purpose, should not be multiplied needlessly. One
carefully selected device that has been highly perfected will
accomplish more than several devices more spontaneously
selected and less thoroughly organized and perfected. Sup-
pose, for example, the supervisor undertakes to use teachers'
meetings, bulletin board, hurriedly written mimeographed
sheets, announcements in classrooms, and individual verbal
notifications as devices for giving instructions. The very
multiplicity of devices is confusing to the supervisor and
even more confusing to the teachers. The supervisor makes
hurried decisions as to which device to use for a particular
kind of instruction, and often chooses the one that is least
effective for that particular situation and time. The teach-

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES 107

ers are confused as to what form is to be looked to for im-
portant information. They get to relying on one form and
miss the instructions when they are issued in another form.

If, on the other hand, the supervisor depends entirely
upon a printed sheet for giving all general instructions, and
perfects this device until it includes all essential items, well
organized and classified, then there is no confusion on the
part of either teachers or supervisor. The supervisor knows
when the full instructions are in the possession of the teach-
ers, and the teachers know how to keep fully posted as to
their general duties.

Devices should not be too meager. The work of the su-
pervisor may be seriously handicapped if the number of de-
vices is too meager. While a multiplicity of devices is apt
to be confusing, a paucity of them is likely to be deadening.
Take the problem of coming to a common agreement upon
the dominant mental traits of childhood or adolescence, for
example. Here the supervisor might first give an oral dis-
cussion of these mental characteristics. Then he might
give the teachers definite references to books on psychology
that would give these same mental tendencies, and finally
he might put printed or mimeographed copies of a well-or-
ganized list of these dominant mental traits and tendencies
into the hands of the teachers. Each device has brought the
materials before the teachers in a different form, and in this
way has secured prolonged attention and study with the
interest that comes through comparison, verification, and
completeness of knowledge. Any one of these devices alone
would not have accomplished the same results. Paucity of
devices, then, may readily lead to indifference and ineffec-
tive or partial mastery of very important subject-matter.

Devices should bear a logical relation to the end they are
to aid in accomplishing. For example, putting a printed
list of the dominant mental traits of childhood into the pos-

108 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

session of the teacher is logically related to the aim of secur-
ing a body of common knowledge concerning children. The
use of the bulletin board as a means of giving specific in-
structions to individual teachers is using a device that is not
logically related to the end it is to further. One does not
naturally look to a bulletin board for other than general an-
nouncements; hence it is not a good medium for giving de-
tailed information to a considerable number of people. On
the other hand, the bulletin board is a logical device for dis-
seminating general news and emergency information.

Devices should be a means. The devices used by super-
visors should never become an end in themselves, but should
always be the means of accomplishing definite ends. There-
fore the devices should not attract attention to themselves,
but they should be the means of centering the attention of
teachers upon the things that are to be mastered, and they
should make the mastery of these things more readily and
effectively accomplished. This point should be clear and
emphatic in the mind of the supervisor. The supervisor
should not become so engrossed in the problem of inventing
devices that his attention is more upon the devices than it is
upon the results to be obtained by using the devices. In
other words, the manipulation of any device ought not to
detract the attention from the consideration of the matter
that is being presented by means of the device.

Take, for example, the form for a daily lesson plan. The
device is to aid in securing a systematic, definite preparation
and thorough organization of the lesson in advance of the
recitation. The supervisor may become so engrossed with
getting just certain items — such as the five formal steps,
for instance — put down in a regular order in every plan
that he loses sight of the purpose for which the device was
invented. Then the device gets in its own way and the best
results cannot be secured. The matter of chief concern to

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES 109

the teacher is that of getting every item down just so. That
is to say, the teacher is engrossed with manipulating the de-
vice so that every cog of the machine is there, whether it is
of any service in the particular lesson or not. A form for a
daily lesson plan is a good device that will train teachers in
the ability and skill to do things thoroughly and definitely.
Such a form, however, should be suggestive and not manda-
tory. It should be inclusive, but adaptable. The teacher
should be free to bend the device to the helpful purpose it is
intended to serve.

Devices should be classified. Supervisors may be greatly
aided in their thinking about devices, and especially in mak-
ing clear distinctions between principles of method and de-
vices, and between principles of technique and devices, by
working out definite classifications of all devices. Any
classification of devices must be more or less arbitrary. If,
however, the definition of device that was given in a former
part of this discussion is adhered to, then the main idea that
should dominate in classifying devices is that of inclusive-
ness. That is to say, every type of means that may be em-
ployed in the work of a supervisor should be included in an
adequate scheme of classification.

The following scheme of classification is intended to sug-
gest the various types of devices that may be helpful in this
field:

I. General devices. A general device is one that constitutes
a part of any well-equipped school, and one that may be used
by many people for a variety of services. General devices
are of two kinds :

a. Material. A bulletin board is a general device of the
material type. A printed sheet of general instructions
to teachers is a general device of the material sort. A
material device, then, is a device which renders its serv-
ice by virtue of its material form of existence.
6. Intellectual. An intellectual device is one that renders its

110 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

service by virtue of its intellectual form of existence.
A discussion, a lecture, and a series of questions are
intellectual devices.

c. Material and intellectual. A device may be both materia'
and intellectual. For example, the supervisor may give
the teacher a list of questions that the teacher must an-
swer in working out a lesson plan, or a list to be used in
dealing with problems of discipline. In such cases the
material device is employed to make the intellectual de-
vice available. A clear distinction should be drawn be-
tween such cases as these and the printed sheet of general
instructions. The material device in the printed sheet
of instructions is for the purpose of presenting subject-
matter. When the teacher reads this subject-matter he
has received what the device was used to accomplish.
This is not the case in the list of printed questions given
to the teacher in reference to the lesson plan. In this
case the material device presents a form of subject-
matter that is a further device for assisting the teacher
in acquiring the ultimate form of subject-matter that the
supervisor wishes to have mastered. That is to say, the
form of the questions is not the goal of learning, but a
device to stimulate learning. Clearness of thinking on
this point will prevent the intellectual device from be-
coming the center of the supervisor's attention instead
of simply a means of centering the teacher's attention
upon the real goal of learning.

2. Special devices. A special device is one that has been
invented for use in a particular situation, or for use in con-
nection with a particular subject, or some particular phase of
a subject. Special devices are also of two kinds:

a. Material. A series of graphs showing the distribution of
grades of the pupils in the particular subject or subjects
for former years would be a special device of the material
type. The point that was made in the discussion of
general devices should be kept in mind in making this
classification. The material form of this graph is for the
purpose of presenting definite subject-matter that is the
goal of instruction, and not for the purpose of making an
intellectual device available.
6. Intellectual. A demonstration lecture on the art of ques-

THE SELECTION OF DEVICES 111

tioning in history would be a particular or special intel-
lectual device. Special forms of questions that are
adapted to stimulate certain types of teachers to an
appreciation of their needs is a special intellectual device.
Every supervisor should make a careful study of such
devices and be resourceful in inventing them.
t. Material and intellectual. The special device that is both
material and intellectual possesses the same character-
istics that were set forth in the discussion of the general
device of this same type; that is, its material form is
employed to make its intellectual form available. A
printed list of questions that are adapted to making
teachers of a certain type realize their weakness would
be a good example of a special device of the material and
intellectual type.

Chapter summary. The principles involved in the selec-
tion of the devices of supervision include the following char-
acteristics: devices should be economical, effective, usable,
not multiplied needlessly, not too meager, logically related
to the ends they are to further, not an end in themselves,
and classified according to well-defined distinctions. Su-
pervisors and teachers should study these principles thor-
oughly, and the selection of all devices should be made in
keeping with the bearing these principles have upon the
goals to be attained through the use of proper adequate
devices.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Criticize the list of "General Instructions to Senior Teachers," given
at the beginning of the chapter, as to organization, completeness,
or excessiveness of details, etc.

2. Make an estimate of the amount of time actually saved for the
administrative officer by the use of the printed instructions, instead
of giving the same instructions orally to a group of thirty teachers.
Estimate the additional time saved for ten supervisors, who would
necessarily have to supplement and repeat the oral instructions given
by the administrator.

8. Give an illustration of a device that, otherwise good, would involve
such expensive materials or other expense that it should not be used.

DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

4. Give an illustration of a device that would be valuable just for the
immediate results it would secure.

5. Give an illustration of a device that would be valuable chiefly for the
ultimate results it would secure.

6. Give three or four devices that show marked differences in usability
as to frequency, in different subjects, and accessibility.

7. Give ten examples, from your experience, of the employment of too
many devices.

8. Give an example, from experience, in which too few devices were used.

9. Give three illustrations of logical devices.

10. Give three illustrations of illogical devices.

11. Give two examples, from experience, of devices that were made ends
instead of means.

12. Criticize the classification of devices given in the chapter as to help-
fulness, consistency of organization, completeness or excessiveness of
details, etc.

CHAPTER IX

DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE PRINCIPLE ONE OF
METHOD

THE devices that are herein given have been used by the
writer and supervisors working under his direction and
found valuable as measured by the principles involved in
the selection of devices, as just stated, and as measured by
the extent to which they further the application of the prin-
ciples of method previously stated as underlying the science
and art of supervision. The primary point of departure in
working out the problems of selecting devices is the princi-
ple of method that is to be applied. The secondary point
of attack upon the problem is the set of principles under-
lying the selection of devices. The writer has already indi-
cated how the application of this set of principles may be
employed as a criterion for determining the selection of ade-
quate devices. Therefore, in this discussion and description
of devices, only the primary point of attack will be raised.
The reader will raise the secondary point of attack and pass
judgment as to how far the devices described measure up to
the criteria set forth in the preceding chapter.

The problem. The problem here is to invent devices that
will aid the teacher and supervisor in understanding the
same facts and holding the same points of view concerning
the educational situation in which the cooperative teaching
is to be carried on. The educational situation involves the
school, the pupils, the course of study, the science of method
of teaching, management of the teaching situation, judging
the results of teaching, and the purpose of cooperative teach-
ing. The goal may be stated in simple form as follows: To
give teachers and supervisors common understanding and

114 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

points of view concerning the educational situations in
which they work together.

Facts as to educational situations. The first fact that is
perfectly obvious is that the teacher and supervisor must
canvass the facts that each knows about the different as-
pects of the educational situations that confront them, and
come to an agreement as to the essential facts that shall be
accepted as valid. These facts can then be held in mind and
referred to as a basis for departure in the solution of teach-
ing and management problems. The most reliable means
of getting a comprehensive body of facts together is to set
them down in printed form. Since the supervisor is to be
the leader hi the process of cooperative teaching, the super-
visor should commit his knowledge and points of view of the
educational situation to printed form, so that it may be used
as a ready means of getting the whole body of data before
the mind of the teacher. Nothing clarifies one's thinking
more effectively than the committing of one's ideas to defi-
nite and permanent language forms.

For example, the supervisor may have the psychological
principles of the psychology of childhood and of adolescence
fairly well in mind. The teacher may also have these prin-
ciples quite well in mind, as a body of psychological facts.
The truth is, however, that these facts of psychology will
have very little influence upon the teaching and manage-
ment performance unless they are translated into definite,
detailed items of application, and illustrated by cases of
actual behavior of school pupils.

A second fact that is quite as obvious is that when one has
committed his point of view to a permanent form, he has an
anchor that keeps him from drifting about when the peda-
gogical stream becomes turbulent and muddy. One forgets
what he has said and thought and done if he has no witness
whose evidence is unimpeachable to put the record before

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 115

him. The supervisor cannot make the mistake of giving the
teacher one point of view to-day and a radically different one
to-morrow if he has committed his point of view to printed
form, and if the teacher has agreed with the supervisor upot
that point of view. This printed form also serves as an an-
chor for the thinking of the teacher, once the teacher has
agreed to its validity. Then the teacher cannot plead ig-
norance as an excuse for the things that he does, and he can-
not attempt to justify his procedure on the validity of a
point of view different from the one upon which they had
come to a satisfactory agreement.

Value of printed forms. The first suggestion, then, is
that the supervisor shall put printed material, concerning
the aspects of the educational situation upon which he
should come to common understanding and agreement with
his teachers, into the hands of the teachers at the very be-
ginning of their cooperative undertaking. The second sug-
gestion is that the supervisor will not take for granted that
the mere reading of this printed material will bring the
teacher into harmony with his own thinking, but that he
should go over this material in personal conference after the
teacher has studied it thoroughly. The teacher should be
held responsible to accept or to object to the various details
of the material, and to give valid grounds for accepting or
rejecting each item. And, finally, a definite and mutually
satisfactory understanding should be reached before the
first cooperative class recitation is held. Then teacher and
supervisor should get into the habit of coming back to defi-
nite data upon which they have agreed as the point of de-
parture in interpreting and meeting the actual conditions
and circumstances of the schoolroom.

The suggestive printed material that supervisors might
use as the device for getting the data concerning the school,
the pupils, general principles of method, principles underly-

116 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

ing the selection of devices for classroom instruction, prin-
ciples of technique, and a statement of the relations that
might well exist between teacher and supervisor in the proc-
ess of cooperative teaching, has already been given hi suffi-
cient detail to render the repetition of the data unnecessary.
The devices, then, that have proven most adequate in ap-
plying the first principle of method are: definite detailed
printed data placed in the hands of the teacher, and per-
sonal conferences, either group or individual, or both, until
the desired agreement is reached.

Section summary. The best means for enabling one to
know what he really thinks and believes is to set one's ideas
down in printed form. The supervisor and the teacher can
best come to an understanding and common agreement upon
their mutual educational problems by committing their
ideas and beliefs to printed form, and then conferring upon
them until agreement is reached. The things upon which
they agree should be committed to printed form and held by
each as the guide to common practice.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Make a list of ten concrete cases of actual behavior of pupils that
exhibit principles of child psychology which teacher and supervisor
should understand in common.

2. Make a list of ten concrete cases of actual behavior of pupils which
exhibit principles of adolescent psychology that teacher and supervisor
should understand in common.

3. Give two examples, from experience, in which failure of teacher and
supervisor to see the same principles of child psychology involved led
to friction and inefficient handling of the cases.

4. Give two examples, from experience, in which failure of teacher and
supervisor to see the same principles of adolescent psychology involved
led to friction and inefficient handling of the cases.

5. Make a list of instructions that you think would be helpful to a teacher
in handling a particular group of pupils on the first day he is placed
in charge.

6. Select some teaching problem and commit to written form your views
concerning it. Note the effect that the procedure has upon rejection
of first ideas and satisfactoriness of final selection of ideas.

CHAPTER X

DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE THE REMAINING
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD

I. THE SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER

PRACTICALLY all the devices that are now to be given
further the remaining principles of method, hi varying de-
grees; hence they will be given without attempting to iden-
tify them specifically with the principle or principles that
they may seem to further most adequately. To attempt to
do so would entail a great deal of repetition of discussion
without materially increasing the value of the suggestions.
The reader will be able to place the devices in their proper
relations to the principles of method that they further. The
connections of the devices suggested with the last seven
activities that the supervisor should carry on are obvious
enough to make a statement in each case unnecessary.

1. The courses and instruction

Subject-matter in permanent form. The selection and
organization of subject-matter should be worked out in per-
manent printed form. The supervisor should work out a
comprehensive, detailed statement for each course that he
supervises. The complete course should be placed in the
hands of each teacher, and each teacher should be held re-
sponsible for knowing the relation that the part of the course
he happens to teach bears to the whole course. A complete
statement of a course should include the items discussed
below.

Purpose for which the subject was organized. The
teacher should know definitely the conventional significance

118 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

that attaches to the subject-matter he is attempting to
teach. This should have been and probably has been learned
in the special course in method of teaching, but the repeated
coming-back to the statement will be of great value in keep-
ing the ultimate end of the learning of the subject clearly
in mind, and will enable the teacher to keep a proper balance
between the conventional purpose and the immediate pur-
pose for which the subject is being taught.

Purpose for which the subject is being taught. This
statement requires the greatest care and most thorough con-
sideration. After one has got the conventional significance
of a subject hi mind as a science, and has also in mind the
psychological needs of the child, or adolescent, then he is
ready to decide on what grounds any particular subject
should be taught to any certain group of children, in either
the elementary or secondary school.

He can decide what phases of the science as a whole, and
what degree of complexity of these phases should be or can
be taught to advantage to the particular group of children.
The immediate purpose, then, involves a definite stage of
progress toward a mastery of the conventional significance
of the subject, and a realization of the psychological needs
of the pupil through the proper stimulation and develop-
ment of his normal tendencies and capabilities. The state-
ment of immediate aim or purpose for teaching the subject
to the particular group of pupils has a great influence upon
the daily work of the teacher. This part of the statement
of the course of study should, therefore, be made very clear
and explicit. It should be clear enough and explicit enough
to show what the particular subject will do that no other
subject will do toward the education of the pupil.

Changes going on hi the subject. The accumulation of
human knowledge has become so great that many modifica-
tions and changes are going on hi most subjects to meet

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 11Q

changing social and psychological needs of pupils. Changes
are also necessary in many subjects for the purpose of solv-
ing pedagogical and administrative difficulties. The state-
ment of the course should make clear whatever changes are
going on in the subject as a part of the elementary- or sec-
ondary-school curriculum, and why these changes are taking
place.

Define the unit of credit in the subject. The outline of
work for each period of four, six, nine, or twelve weeks of the
course as suggested below define the unit of the course to
some extent. A more definite detailed statement, however,
will be of advantage in determining the problem of granting
a certain amount of credit for work completed. A thorough
consideration of the unit of credit, or half-unit of credit in
any subject, involves a number of items. These items are
as follows:

1. The range or scope of subject-matter that should be cov-
ered. Take a course in seventh-grade arithmetic, for exam-
ple. The problem of scope determines what topics will be
included in the course. These topics may be percentage,
applications of percentage, mensuration, etc. There may
be a large number or relatively small number of topics in-
cluded in the unit. Take elementary algebra for another
example. The topics may be fractions, factoring, simple
equations, etc. There is a tendency at present to cut down
the number of topics in the algebra course. Whatever the
number may be is determined by the solution of the problem
of scope of subject-matter of the unit.

2. The quantity of both content and formal subject-matter of
the course. The relative amount of each type of subject-
matter is highly important. Most courses tend to over-
crowd the content side of subject-matter. A definite state-
ment of the approximate amount of formal material that
should accompany a certain body of content matter will be

120 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

of advantage in working out the outline suggested under 13
below. The tendency to-day is to cut down the content
subject-matter by restricting it to what is considered as ab-
solutely essential and practical, and greatly to increase the
amount of drill or formal material that will make possible a
thorough mastery of the application of the content that is
presented. Every elementary- and secondary -school course
is undergoing careful, discriminating criticism, and super-
visors should be able to make intelligent, accurate state-
ments concerning the courses under their charge.

3. The body of essential facts and principles that should be
thoroughly mastered and remembered. Some phases of con-
tent subject-matter are necessary in developing the usable
facts and principles. They are not necessary, however,
when it comes to the application of the fundamental content
material of a course. Therefore a statement of the scope
and quantity of content subject-matter does not give the
teacher a clear criterion and definite guide as to what should
be learned temporarily and what should be learned perma-
nently. The importance of making this distinction is obvi-
ous, and the discussion of the unit of credit should include
such a statement.

4- The body of habits that should result from the study of the
course. The statement of habit should be specific and de-
tailed. One of the weaknesses of educational thinking is the
tendency to keep in the realm of broad generalities. For
example, it is not enough to say that the study of a subject
should develop accuracy. The important point is to de-
termine the specific form in which accuracy should be mani-
fested. It may be accuracy in adding numbers, making let-
ters, describing objects, interpreting language, judging
appropriateness of conduct, etc. The statement should in-
dicate those forms of accuracy that the study of the subject
is intended to develop. The more detailed the statements

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 121

are in regard to the habits that are to be formed through the
study of any particular subject, the better and more helpful
the statements will be. They will not only be more helpful
to the teachers, but also more helpful to the supervisors
themselves.

5. The prerequisites to the course, in the same subject and in
other subjects. The statement of prerequisites should show,
first, those subjects that are essential for one to have studied
in order to profit by the study of the particular course. In
addition to this, the statement should point out the helpful-
ness of other courses that are not required or considered as
absolutely necessary to precede the particular subject. The
statement should do more than merely enumerate the pre-
requisite subjects. It should point out the specific correla-
tions that exist between these various bodies of related ma-
terial.

6. The courses in the same subjects to which the particular
course leads. One of the things that a pupil needs to know
before he takes up the study of a specific course is whether
the outcome of the study is largely within the course itself,
or whether, in addition to certain immediate outcomes,
there is the definite opening-up of opportunities that would
be closed to one without the study of this particular subject.
The statement of the lines of study or of occupations to
which a particular subject leads should not be a mere enu-
meration of subjects or occupations, but it should point out
the definite, direct connections that exist between the sub-
ject and the opportunities to which it leads. Every subject
should have some educational or vocational appeal, and the
definition of a unit in the subject should state the outlooks
that will appeal to pupils.

7. The shortest periods into which the subject can be organ-
ized. One of the problems that puzzles teachers is the ques-
tion of recording credit for any amount of work less than the

122 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

unit or half -unit according to the length of the course offered
in the subject. Most schools will not record credit on a per-
manent record for less than a half -unit of work. Some
schools organize their courses so that permanent credit will
be recorded for periods of six weeks where they are on the
quarter system, and others for nine weeks where they are
on the semester system. Still other schools record perma-
nent credit for six weeks of work even though the school is
on the semester system. In all of these schools, however, the
course must be completed before any of it can be counted
toward graduation. The length of period for which credit
may be recorded and carried forward for the student must
be decided by the organization of the subject-matter. If
the subject is of such a nature that a complete division or
definitely organized part of the material can be completed
during each six weeks of the time during which the course is
offered, then it is not only feasible, but fair and just to both
the pupil and the school as well, that permanent credit
should be recorded for the work completed.

It is perfectly feasible in some subjects for the pupil to
fail, or miss the first six or nine weeks, as the case may be,
and go on successfully with the next six or nine weeks. He
may even miss or lose out on the next six or nine weeks and
go on successfully with the next blocks of the subject. In
the end he might have, let us say, credit for the second and
fourth periods of nine weeks and be lacking in the work of
the first and third nine-week periods. These two blocks of
work could be made up without the pupil taking the entire
course over again. Whatever the possibilities are of organ-
izing the subject so that definite parts of the unit may be
completed and permanent credit given before the comple-
tion of the entire unit, the supervisor should know and
should commit some definite scheme of organization of the
subject-matter to permanent form for this purpose. The

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 123

organization of subject-matter into definite blocks of unified
material for periods of six, nine, or twelve weeks will have an
excellent effect upon the teaching of the subject. Most sub-
jects are less effectively taught than they should be on ac-
count of lack of definiteness.

8. The length and number of class periods. By this is
meant the length and number of class periods per week for
which any fractional credit toward the unit and for which
whole-unit credit should be given. This problem should be
determined by the size of the class, the experience and skill
of the teacher, the amount of personal supervision given to
each pupil's work, and the number of subjects the pupils are
taking. A large class taught by a skilled teacher of consid-
erable experience can cover the subject-matter of a course
thoroughly and yet more rapidly than a smaller class taught
by a less skillful teacher. If the pupils each receive a great
amount of individual attention from the teacher, regardless,
of the size of the class, then more work can be thoroughly
covered in a shorter period of time than would ordinarily be
required to do the same amount of work. If pupils are
carrying only a normal amount of work, or if they are car-
rying less than the normal load, they can complete work in
a shorter period of time and yet do it thoroughly. All of
these considerations should be taken into account and defi-
nite analyses of actual situations should be employed in de-
termining the amount of actual class time that, under the
varying conditions, will insure a successful completion of the
work.

9. The amount of time required in study preparation outside
of class. This is not a problem that can be settled by tradi-
tions. It must be determined by a careful consideration of
actual practices and conditions. The amount of time will
vary with different pupils and with different subjects. The
most important point is the development of the habit on the

124 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

part of the pupil of making a definite preparation of the les-
son assigned. If the beginning lessons only require fifteen
minutes of intensive study, and the pupil gets the habit of
studying intensively and mastering the lesson, then a
twenty-minute lesson, and a twenty-five-minute lesson, and
a thirty-minute lesson, etc., may be assigned and the pupil
will continue to prepare his lessons thoroughly, just because
he has got into the habit of getting the assignment. Ulti-
mately in this way a reasonable standard of time require-
ment for outside preparation will be established in the habits
of the pupil. The reasonableness of this final standard of
time should be determined by the maturity of the pupils,
the nature of the subject-matter, and the length of the reci-
tation period. The longer the recitation period, the less
time required outside in the study of the lesson, and vice
versa, relatively speaking. The relation between the length
of the recitation and the length of outside study should be
definitely worked out by each supervisor and stated in the
form of a workable standard.

10. The amount of laboratory and recitation time in subjects
requiring laboratory work. The number and length of recita-
tion periods per week, and the number and length of labora-
tory periods per week, should be determined by the size of
the class, the experience and skill of the teacher, the amount
of individual attention given each pupil, and the number of
subjects the pupils are taking. The amount of laboratory
time in relation to recitation time is usually two double peri-
ods of laboratory to three single periods of recitation. The
relation, however, is traditional, and in many cases results
in the isolation of laboratory experiments from the class dis-
cussions. The relation between recitation and laboratory
should be that of complementary devices, each of which
furthers the study of the subject. Recitation and book
study may at times continue for several days in order to get

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 125

a good grasp of certain laws and principles from mere mental
analysis. Then a week or two of intensive laboratory work
might well follow as the means of mastering the applications
of laws and principles. However the relation between the
two types of study devices works out, it should be on the
basis of definite, consistent progress in the subject, and not
on the traditional basis of so many times per week to use the
one device and so many to use the other. Even the idea
that laboratory work should be for double periods and reci-
tations for single periods is traditional. Proper method,
adequate devices, and efficient technique may change the
whole idea of the amount of time needed for thorough labo-
ratory work.

a. Experiments to be performed by the pupil. This is
merely another item of this same problem. The number of
laboratory experiments that should be required of each pu-
pil or group of pupils must be considered. The number of
such experiments in science courses has been determined al-
most wholly upon the basis of the number of double labora-
tory periods there would be during the year. The experi-
ments should bear some direct relation to the realization of
the purposes for which the courses are being taught. They
should further the mastery of truths and comprehension of
principles, and they should promote the development of
definite habits. The number, therefore, may vary with
different classes and with different individuals. The defini-
tion of the unit of the course should give the types of experi-
ments that should be performed and range in number that
would meet the varying conditions.

b. Experiments to be performed by the teacher. This is still
another item of this same problem. Here, again, the num-
ber to be demonstrated by the teacher should be determined
by the purposes of the course. The demonstrations should
be directly related to the mastering of truths and compre-

120 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

hension of principles on the part of the pupils. They should
especially relate to those phases of content material that are
to be learned only temporarily as a means of developing a
thorough mastery of those phases of content that are to be
learned permanently. Demonstration experiments should
relate to the problem of supplementing and enriching the
fundamental body of content material. The exact relations
that demonstrations are to bear to the various phases and
aspects of the courses taught under his supervision is one of
the important problems for the supervisor to solve. He
should work out a definite, detailed statement of these rela-
tions and the types and relative number of demonstrations
that he thinks should be employed in the teaching of the
course.

11. The doss of pupils for whom the course is pitched.
This is usually not a difficult problem for supervisors of
work in elementary schools. There are cases, however, even
in the elementary schools, where different grades and sec-
tions of grades are thrown together for music, drawing, etc.
The same conditions prevail in such cases in the elementary
school as are found in secondary schools in the teaching of
elective courses. Pupils of different ages and of different
stages of school progress are thrown together in the same
course. The problem is, shall the course be pitched to the
pupils of lowest stage of school advancement, or shall it be
pitched to those of the highest stage of school advance-
ment? The supervisor should determine this point and
indicate in the definition of the unit the exact status of the
course as it is to be taught with reference to the maturity
and school progress of the pupils who may be allowed to
take the course.

12. The classes of pupils to whom, the course is open for full
or fractional credit. This is a much-mooted question to-day,
especially in the secondary school. The question of giving

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 127

full credit to a senior for a language, or a history course, or a
science course that ordinarily is taken in the freshman or
sophomore year, has been argued pro and con for some time
and the solution seems to be as far away as ever. The ques-
tions of the class of pupils for whom the course shall be open
for full credit, and the pupils to whom it shall be open for
fractional credit, are all part of the same problem; namely,
the problem of offering a course in such a way that it will
further the education of every class of pupils taking it, and
of measuring the amount of development, brought about by
the taking of the course, in terms of units and fractional
units. The problem presents a number of difficulties, and
the supervisor is very apt to pass them over by simply fol-
lowing the traditions of the school hi which he works, or the
ruling of some association that is working in the interest of
uniformity of practice in dealing with this problem. How-
ever this may be, the definition of the unit of a course should
contain a definite statement of this point, so that teachers
may know the plan of administration at the outset.

13. The items that shall determine the pupil's record and
credit in the course. The definition of the unit should con-
tain a statement as to the relative amount of emphasis that
should be given to the different items that are considered to
be the most reliable evidences of the realization of the pur-
poses for which the course is being taught. The degree of
emphasis given to these items will vary with the nature of
the subject. The number of the items may also vary ac-
cording to the nature of the subject. In general, however,
these items fall into four groups, as follows :

1. Achievement in knowledge of subject-matter.

2. Faithful, consistent effort in pursuing the study of the subject.

3. General habits in technique of organization and manipulation
of subject-matter, materials, and apparatus that will be help-
ful in the further study of the same subject, or in the study of
some related subject.

128 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

4. Specific habits of study and habits of attacking subject-
matter, which show initiative and power to analyze new
subject-matter and new situations, and to apply knowledge
to the solution of new problems.

A course that is largely informational should place a high
degree of emphasis upon item 1, above. On the other hand,
a course that is largely developmental should emphasize
points 2 and 4. Some courses will no doubt emphasize
points 1, 3, and 4 to about the same degree. Point 2 is open
to a good deal of question, but it certainly deserves most
careful consideration. This point demands a decision upon
the negative results of education, as well as recognition of
the positive results. Points 1, 3, and 4 are not usually satis-
fied without point 2 also being satisfied. There are cases,
however, when point 1 in a course that is very largely in-
formational is satisfied without 2 being satisfactorily met.
Then there are the most perplexing cases of all, those in
which point 2 is satisfied and none of the other points are
satisfactorily met.

If education is to help pupils find their capabilities, the
question of giving credit for having discovered through
faithful efforts the things that one cannot do successfully is
pertinent. Moreover, many times the individual who finds
he has ability in a certain subject may never use that attain-
ment for any special purpose in life. The mental maturity,
and the quality of character that is being developed in the
individual who is learning the bitter lesson that no amount
of effort and industry will enable him to attain efficiency in
a certain field of subject-matter, may be vastly more valua-
ble to society than the maturity and character that develop
in the individual who attains a high mark in a subject with-
out half trying. Why not give credit toward graduation,
then, to both types of individuals, or rather for both types of
results? The seeming negative outcome of education be-

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 129

comes positive when viewed in relation to the future of the
individual instead of circling it round with the immediate
little scholastic circle of an educational institution. Teach-
ers need guidance on this problem of determining the final
reward of the pupil ; hence the supervisor should have a defi-
nite solution of the problem in reference to the administra-
tion of the courses under his charge, and he should not only
commit his solution to definite form in defining the unit of
credit, but he should also define the crediting of the unit to
pupils.

14. The range of marks that shall be used in indicating
credit in the course. First of all the standard mark should
be indicated. Second, the range of marks above and below
the standard or passing mark should be given. Third, the
method of computing the final mark should be explained.
If, for example, point 1 above is to count two thirds of the
final mark, and point 3 and 4 each one sixth, then it should
be so stated and the method of determining the final mark
should be shown. If standard tests are to be used in de-
termining the degree of attainment in a subject, then these
tests should be indicated and instructions given as to how
they are to be used in administering the final outcome of the
course in determining the credit that shall be given.

15. Quantity of material to be covered in any fraction of the
course. One of the most difficult problems for beginning
teachers, as well as for teachers who are teaching a subject
for the first time or teaching a subject with which they are
not very familiar, is the problem of assigning a reasonable
amount of subject-matter for each daily recitation. This
definite problem of the daily recitation cannot well be got at
without working out the whole course hi a definite way for
certain blocks of time, such as the quantity of material to be
covered in each four, six, nine, or twelve weeks of the course.
The supervisor should be able to do this much more accu-

180 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

rately than the teacher; therefore one of the important serv-
ices that the supervisor can render to both the teachers and
the pupils being taught is that of placing a detailed organiza-
tion of unified blocks of subject-matter in the hands of the
teachers. The teachers will acquire accuracy and insight
into this phase of curriculum-making from then* practice in
accomplishing what the course lays out to be done. Granted
that the supervisor has made a reasonable allotment of sub-
ject-matter to each period of time, then one of the critical
tests of teaching efficiency is that of getting the designated
work thoroughly and satisfactorily completed. Finally the
teacher should be able to organize the course quantitatively
on his own responsibility to meet a particular teaching situa-
tion.

2. Textbooks and their use

Instructions as to textbooks. The supervisor should give
definite instructions concerning the weaknesses and the ex-
cellences of the textbooks that are to be used in the course.
Beginning teachers, and teachers who are beginning the
teaching of a subject, are largely dependent upon textbooks
in determining the arrangement of material and the empha-
sis that should be given to each phase of the subject-matter.
Textbooks are not often organized as courses of study, but
usually as compilations of subject-matter. Nearly every
text has some weakness that must be offset by the under-
standing and skill of the teacher in using it. The supervisor
can render an important service to the teachers by showing
them how to bridge over the weaknesses of the texts so that
they can be used to best advantage as a means of furthering
the purpose for which the course is being taught. The su-
pervisor should also undertake to set up a standard or crite-
rion for determining the characteristics of a high-grade or
standard text for the course. Teachers are usually very

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 131

much at a loss when they are called upon to select text-
books.

The texts selected, even by State Textbook Commissions,
afford ample proof that standards for judging the usability
of textbooks are badly needed. The fundamental considera-
tions that should guide in setting up such standards are as
follows:

1. Is the text organized in keeping with the purpose for which
the course is being taught?

2. Is the text adapted to the specific school field in which it is
to be used? For example, is it a strictly high-school text, OP
has it been compiled with a view to filling both a high-school
and junior-college demand? Too many textbooks have been
prepared for commercial purposes; hence they are not the
best for any one specific field.

3. Is the text organized as a device, and as such does it measure
up adequately to the principles and criteria for determining
the selection of devices?

4. Is the text organized in the form of clearly conceived problems
of method in teaching? If so, is its organization psycho-
logically sound as to the type or form of method problem that
is adapted to the particular group of pupils that will use the
text?

5. Is the text made of the kind of paper and is it printed in the
kind of type that enable it to meet the sanitary standards of
favorable visualization? The statement of the supervisor
should give a critical resume of the weaknesses and the excel-
lences of the textbooks used, in the light of the above prin-
ciples.

Instructions to the teachers in the use of textbooks.
Textbooks may be used by pupils in preparation of lessons
as the most economical agency that the pupils can use in
securing valid material for the study of the particular sub-
ject. They may also be used as an economical means of
getting definite data before the class during a recitation.
The idea that books should be closed when pupils come to
class has prevailed so long that books are often closed when

132 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

they should be open. The recitation as an activity does not
demand that books be closed or open. The teacher must
learn to use textbooks to the best advantage in furthering
immediate ends of the recitation, and the ultimate ends for
which the subject is being taught.

Relative emphasis or importance of the divisions of the
course. One way of indicating the importance of one divi-
sion as compared with the importance of another division is
the amount of time that is allotted to each of the divisions.
This criterion, however, is not an absolute one. A division
may be of equal importance as compared with another and
yet be more difficult to master. Therefore another way to
designate the importance of the divisions of subject-matter
is to set up a standard, or state the degree to which they
should be mastered. For example, in composition the rules
for capitalization of letters is perhaps of equal importance
with the use of the comma. Both are necessary in accurate
written expression. The rules for capitalization can be
learned in less time than it takes to master the rules for using
the comma. Therefore to designate twice as much time
for mastery of the comma as for mastery of capitalization
gives a fair comprehension of the relative difficulty of each
of these topics, and some idea of then* relative importance.
A statement of the degree of accuracy to which each should
be mastered would establish the conception of their relative
importance.

Relative time to presentation and drill. The supervisor
should definitely indicate the relative amount of time that
should be given to the presentation and demonstration of
content subject-matter, and the amount of time that should
be given to drill. This problem is correlated with point 4,
above, and goes into the distinction between content ma-
terial and formal drill material. One of the weaknesses of
modern education is that of overcrowding courses with con-

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 133

tent subject-matter and devoting too little time upon the
practice material that would render the content material
thoroughly usable. A knowledge of rules and principles
should be followed by attainment of skill and accuracy in
applying them. Pupils may learn clearly the meaning in a
recitation of a rule that would require a week of practice to
attain accuracy in its use. The correct balance between the
time needed for learning how, and the time for attainment in
doing the thing, is one of the critical problems involved hi
curriculum-making. The teacher must master this prob-
lem, and one of the most economical ways for this to be
done is by f ollowing a properly organized course of subject-
matter, and clearly recognizing the effective results that are
secured through a proper balance between presentation of
content and practice upon formal application of the con-
tent.

Sources of supplementary material. The supervisor
should also indicate the amount and sources of supplemen-
tary material that will be used in connection with the course.
The amount and nature of the supplementary materials that
should be used hi connection with any course should be de-
termined by the usability of the textbooks, character of the
subject, and the maturity of the pupils. If the textbook is
an excellent one and has been compiled with a view to fur-
nishing ample material for the study of the subject, then little
or no supplementary material is necessary. Mathematics
and language texts usually need considerable supplementary
drill material. Histories usually need to be supplemented.
Books in chemistry, physics, and most of the biological
sciences need relatively little supplementing. The supple-
mentary material in science is largely laboratory experi-
ments. Most of the supplementary materials for the ele-
mentary school are for practice and drill, or for the purpose
of enabling the pupils to use an acquired skill as a means of

134 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

enjoyment. Hence supplementary readers, supplementary
arithmetics and story books are needed. High-school pu-
pils should be able to make use of supplementary material to
advantage in pursuing many of their subjects.

Notebooks and other necessary material. The kinds of
notebooks and other materials that will be used in connec-
tion with the course should be made clear. Notebooks for
the different science courses have been largely standardized.
There is advantage, however, in selecting for particular
situations, and some notebooks are more convenient than
others. The supervisor having several classes in the group
finds uniformity of notebook and other materials desirable.
Uniformity in quiz papers and all written work makes for
economy of time on the part of the teachers and supervisor.
Teachers who use such selected materials soon realize their
advantage, and recognize the validity of the grounds upon
which they have been selected. The time saved for the
teachers, by the supervisor's indicating the materials to be
used, in getting the teaching situation well in hand is an
important consideration.

Special assignments and reports. Finally, the supervisor
should give specific directions as to assignments and reports
to be given by individual members of the class. The nature
of special assignments to individual pupils should be de-
termined by the nature of the subject and the maturity of
the pupils. Even elementary-school pupils can employ
their reading skill to advantage in reading interesting sto-
ries, geography, and history material, etc., and give the rest
of the class the results of their reading. High-school pupils
should do a good deal of this kind of individual work in al-
most every subject. A definite plan of having such reports
given, and of insuring that the class profits by the reports, is
essential. The supervisor should be able to give the teach-
ers an efficient body of devices and technique for doing this

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 135

kind of work. The teacher then will soon be able to modify
the plan to suit varying conditions.

Chapter pyrnimary. The selection and organization of
subject-matter in a course should be worked out in definite
form. This should show: The purpose for which the subject
came into existence, and why it is being taught; the changes
going on in the subject; unit of credit in the course, involv-
ing content, outcomes, prerequisites, courses to which pre-
requisite, time in length of class periods, study preparation,
and number of weeks, class of students for whom adapted,
to whom open for full and partial credit, and standards for
grading and range of marks; quantity of material to be cov-
ered each four, six, etc., weeks; weaknesses of textbooks;
instructions on use of textbooks ; relative importance of each
division of the course; relative amount of time given to con-
tent material and to drill; amount and sources of supple-
mentary material; notebooks and other materials needed;
and directions on special assignments.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Select two fundamental elementary-school subjects, and write out a
statement of the purpose for which each subject came into existence,
and the purpose for which each is now taught in school.

2. Select two required high-school subjects, and state the purposes for
which they came into existence, and the purposes for which they are
now taught.

8. Select one fundamental elementary-school subject, and state the
changes that are going on in the subject, and the reasons for the
changes.

4. Select one required high-school subject, and state the changes -that
are going on in the subject, and the reason for the changes.

5. Make a topical outline for an up-to-date sixth-grade arithmetic course.

6. Make a topical outline for an up-to-date elementary algebra
course.

7. Take one topic in sixth-grade arithmetic, and outline in detail the
content material and the formal-drill material.

8. Take one topic in the elementary algebra course, and outline in detail
the content material and the drill material.

136 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

9. Make an outline of the essential facts and principles that should be
mastered in sixth-grade arithmetic.

10. Make an outline of the habits that the sixth-grade arithmetic course
should develop.

11. Make an outline of the essential facts and principles that should be
mastered in elementary algebra.

12. Make an outline of the habits that the elementary algebra course
should develop.

18. State definitely the prerequisites of the elementary algebra course.

14. State definitely the courses to which elementary algebra is a pre-
requisite.

15. Give reasons why credit should or should not be given for periods of
four, six, nine, twelve, and eighteen weeks in sixth-grade arithmetic;
in elementary algebra.

16. Compare the length of class periods and the number of periods per
week that would be necessary for an elementary algebra class of thirty
under an excellent teacher, with that of a class of ten under a begin-
ning teacher.

17. Estimate the amount of time that would be required, in outside prepa-
ration of an elementary algebra lesson, in mastering the first content
assignment in simple equations under the expert teacher with thirty
pupils in the class.

18. Make a list of the laboratory experiments that you think ought to be
required in the first nine or eighteen weeks of the course in physiology,
or general science. Estimate the time it will take each pupil or pair
of pupils to work out these experiments.

19. What range of pupils would you permit in a beginning language course
for equal credit? Why?

80. Criticize the list of items given in the chapter for grading the attain-
ment of pupils, as to practicability of measurement, completeness, or
excessiveness of details.

21. Criticize the range of marks suggested in the chapter, and give con-
crete illustrations in which the range below passing would have been
of decided advantage.

22. Criticize the suggestions on judging the value of a textbook, as to
practicability and completeness.

23. Select a recent textbook in one of the fundamental elementary-school
subjects, and make out a detailed set of instructions to teachers in the
use of the book.

24. Select a recent textbook in a high-school subject, and make out a
detailed list of instructions in the use of the book.

25. Make a topical list of the content subject-matter for the first nine
weeks of a course in plane geometry, and state the amount of time
that should be given to the presentation of each topic and the
amount of time given to drill.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 137

26. Make a careful outline of the amount and sources of supplementary
material that would be needed, in using any particular American his-
tory text, for the first month's work in a high-school class.

27. Make an outline of the essential characteristics of a notebook for use
in a general science course. In a history course.

28. Make a general outline that you would use in giving pupils instructions
in the preparation and presentation of special assignments.

CHAPTER XI

DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE THE REMAINING
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD (continued)

II. DEMONSTRATION TEACHING AND DIRECTED
OBSERVATION

1. Demonstration teaching

The purpose. The chief purpose of demonstration teach-
ing is to exemplify the use of sound method, show what de-
vices are effective and how to employ them, and to exhibit
the results of good technique. Demonstration teaching
should also be done for the purpose of experimentation.
Critic teachers and supervisors should attempt to discover
new applications of the laws of learning, so that ultimately
the profession of teaching will be guided by concrete illus-
trations of what has and can be done to make education
more effective. The greater part of demonstration teach-
ing, however, should be for the purpose of exhibiting so
much of the science and art of teaching as has thus far
proved sound and worthy of mastering. Such teaching
should afford excellent opportunities for the beginning
teacher, and for the teacher beginning the teaching of a sub-
ject that is practically new to him, to go through the mental
theoretical performance of teaching under the stimulus of
the actual expert teaching performance that is going on.
Demonstration teaching can be made a very effective de-
vice, but it should be very carefully planned and conducted.

The following suggestions are based upon actual practice
and have been found to be effective.

Aim of the lesson to be seen. Meet the group of teachers

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 139

who are to do the observing of the demonstration, before the
recitation begins, and set forth clearly the method, devices,
and technique that are to be demonstrated. See that the
group have a definite outline of the points that are to be
exhibited and a clear comprehension of their significance.
In other words, have a mental, theoretical rehearsal of the
pedagogical play that is to be staged for their benefit. This
point is a very important one. The observer who is not left
groping in the dark of his unfamiliarity with pedagogical
procedure will receive vastly greater benefit from his ob-
servations. The observer who knows what is coming has
some chance of keeping pace mentally with what is really
going on, and in consequence gets a unified impression of the
demonstration. He should be required to check up men-
tally his recognition of the points that were to be demon-
strated, and even to make some notation of the points on
the outline. If for any reason the demonstration should
fail to include all of the points, the observer should be able
to account for the omission. In order to do this effectively
and systematically the next point is suggested.

Taking notes. Require the observers of the demonstra-
tion to take careful and rather complete notes of the actual
performance of the demonstration. These notes should be
complete enough to furnish the basis of a thorough discus-
sion of the demonstration. They should describe the per-
formance fully enough to enable the observer to point out
the part of the performance that demonstrates a particular
principle, device, or point of technique as the case may be.
These notes should be checked with the outline of points
that were to be demonstrated to see how successfully the
demonstrator carried out his announced plan.

Critical discussion afterward. Meet the group after the
demonstration for a thorough discussion of the points as
they have them identified in their notes. This discussion

140 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

should be a critical one. The observers should be critical
in checking up their notes to see how much they are in agree-
ment, and the supervisor should critically check the notes
against the actual steps of the demonstration.

If the above suggestions are put into practice, they insure
two abstract and one concrete intensive mental performance
of the pedagogical play or procedure. Such intensive prac-
tice soon develops keenness of insight, alertness of recog-
nition, and completeness of comprehension of a particular
pedagogical situation. The number of group meetings
necessary for carrying on such intensive demonstration
studies may be cut down by having the period for discussion
long enough so that the notes taken on the past demonstra-
tion and the outline of the next demonstration may both be
discussed quite thoroughly.

Examples of the process. The following examples will
illustrate the process of demonstration teaching :

I. Outline of a demonstration lesson in elementary arithmetic.

1. Purpose of the lesson. The purpose of the lesson was to teach
the pupils how to multiply one fraction by another fraction.

2. Purpose of the demonstration. The purpose of the demon-
stration was to show :

a. How the purpose of the lesson may be realized by pre-
senting the subject-matter in the form of an inductive
problem.

b. The effectiveness of material devices that appeal to the
sense of vision.

c. The effectiveness of material devices that guide the
mental processes of the pupils in the selection of relevant
facts and ideas.

d. The effectiveness of definite technique in presenting
subject-matter in the form of an inductive problem.
Adequate technique involves :

(1) Selection of representative examples or cases.

(2) Vividness of illustrations.

(3) Ampleness of cases considered.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 141

(4) Thoroughness of practice hi analyzing cases.

(5) Definiteness of statement of the generalization or
rule.

e. The effectiveness of definite technique hi employing both
material and intellectual devices. Such technique
involves :

(1) Variety of forms.

(2) Thorough preparation of forms.

(3) Wise choice of form or forms for any particular
case.

(4) Skill in manipulation of forms.

The above outline was thoroughly discussed until the
teachers had a definite conception of what the demonstra-
tion should exhibit if it at all adequately realized the pur-
pose of the lesson and the purpose of the demonstration.
Careful notes were taken on the demonstration lesson, and
these were made the basis of a follow-up discussion.

II. Outline of a demonstration lesson in plane geometry.

1 . Purpose of the lesson. The purpose of the lesson was to teach
the pupils the fundamental definitions on pages 1 and 2 of
Schultze and Sevenoaks' Plane and Solid Geometry.

£. Purpose of the demonstration. The purpose of the demon-
stration was to show:

a. How the purpose of the lesson may be realized by pre-
senting subject-matter in the form of a deductive prob-
lem.

b. The effectiveness of material devices.

c. The effectiveness of intellectual devices.

d. The effectiveness of definite technique in presenting the
subject-matter in the form of a deductive problem.
Adequate technique involves :

(1) Beginning with clear statement of each definition
or generalization.

(2) Thorough analysis of each definition or generali-
zation.

(3) Use of typical illustrations of the application of
the generalization.

(4) Ampleness of typical illustrations.

142 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

(5) Thoroughness of practice in making applications

of the generalizations.

e. The effectiveness of definite technique in employing both
material and intellectual devices. Such technique in-
volves:

(1) Variety of forms.

(2) Thoroughness of preparation of forms.

(3) Wise choice of form or forms for any particular
case.

(4) Skill in manipulating forms.

The above outline was handed in in the same way as the
one previously given, and was discussed in a similar way.

Section summary. Demonstration teaching should have
a definite goal. This goal should be clearly known by the
observers before the performance begins. The observers
should take careful notes during the performance. These
notes and the performance should be thoroughly discussej
with the observers by the demonstrator, after the perform-
ance is completed.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Make a detailed assignment to a group that is to observe a demon-
stration lesson in sixth-grade geography, which you are to present.

2. Make a detailed assignment for the observation of a demonstration
lesson in elementary algebra.

8. Make a definite plan for conducting the discussion of the group's
observation notes on each of the above assignments.

4. Criticize the illustrative assignments given in the chapter, as to
organization, completeness or excessiveness of details, and practi-
cability.

2. Directed observation of teaching

Directed observation. The demonstration teaching that
has just been described is one form of directed observation.
Another form of such observation is that in which the teach-
ers are sent to observe the work of an expert teacher or the
teaching performance of one of their own number. This

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 143

form of observation should be carried on somewhat differ-
ently from the directed observation of demonstration les-
sons. Systematic observation of this character may be
carried on for several purposes. The plan for carrying it on
and the specific directions to the teachers who do the ob-
serving will vary, according to the purpose or purposes for
which the observing is being done. Various purposes and
suggestive outlines of directions, which have been taken
from actual practice, are given below.

a. Preliminary observation

Observation for a few days for the purpose of becoming
acquainted with the class and its work and its surroundings
before taking charge of it to teach.

This type of observation is usually carried on in training
schools in connection with practice teaching. The assign-
ment for such observation is ordinarily of the following
character:

OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT

1. Study the names of the pupils in the class.

2. Note the seating arrangement.

3. Note the physical conditions; that is, ventilation, tempera-
ture and humidity, lighting, etc.

4. Note personal characteristics of pupils and their general
tendencies.

5. Observe the general spirit and procedure of the recitation.

6. Make special note of conditions that you think should be
improved and submit your plans for making the improve-
ments.

b. Critical observation

Observation for the purpose of making a critical study of
the teaching and management performance of any teacher,
whether expert or otherwise.

This type of observation is quite different from the ob-

144 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

servation of demonstration lessons and different from that
given above. This type is used in connection with method
classes in training schools, and in public schools when teach-
ws are sent to visit other schools. The assignment for this
type of observation varies according to the situation in
which it is carried on. The work is important, and requires
a careful organization and direction of the observing group
in order to make its efforts effective. Assign only a few ob-
vious aspects of the teaching and management performance,
at the outset of such observation, at any one time.

The following suggestions are the result of experience,
and may be helpful in developing insight and skill in mak-
ing a critical study of the work of a teacher.

OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT (I)

(Note. Write the name of the school, grade, name of teacher,
date, and your name. Hand your notes in as you leave the room.)
1. Note the physical conditions of the room.

a. Ventilation.

(1) Satisfactory. How secured?

(2) Unsatisfactory. Could it be made satisfactory?
How?

b. Temperature and humidity.

(1) Satisfactory. How secured?

(2) Unsatisfactory. Could it be made satisfactory?
How?

c. Lighting.

(1) Satisfactory. How secured?

(2) Unsatisfactory. Could it be made satisfactory:
How?

d. Condition of walls and ceiling.

(1) Papered or painted.

(2) Clean or dingy.

(8) Pleasing effect or displeasing.
(4) Pictures and other decorations.

e. Condition of floors.

(1) Oiled or unoiled.

(2) Clean or littered.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 145

/. Blackboards.

(1) Amount of space: — Adequate for the room or in-
adequate.

(2) Light good on boards from all parts of room or
otherwise.

(3) Good surface and usable order or otherwise.

(4) Clean and in good usable order or otherwise,

(5) Clean chalk trays or otherwise.

(6) Clean erasers or otherwise.
g. Condition of pupils' desks.

(1) Undamaged or otherwise.

(2) Rickety or substantial.

(3) Adapted to size of pupils or otherwise.

(4) Arrangement in relation to light and blackboards.
h. Apparatus.

(1) Maps: — Well placed or otherwise, and condition.

(2) Globes : — Well placed or otherwise, and condition.
(8) Charts : — Well placed or otherwise, and condition.

(4) Supplementary books : — Well placed or otherwise,
and condition.

(5) Dictionaries: — Well placed or otherwise, and con-
dition.

(6) Other items of apparatus-placement, and condi-
tion.

i. Displays of work.

(1) Kinds.

(2) Placement
j. Pupils.

(1) Number in room.

(2) Races and number of each.

(3) Number of each sex.

(4) Clothing: fitness, adequacy, cleanliness.

(5) General appearance: cleanly, healthy.

This assignment contains a number of items, but they are
simply the details of the physical conditions under which
the teaching is going on. An alert observer should be able
to check up on all of them during a fifty-minute period of
observation. A good device for saving time in checking up
these details, and thus stimulating the alertness of the

146 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

observer, is a printed form with blank spaces opposite each
item, so that the results of the observations can be noted
briefly and quickly.

Two plans for this assignment. Two plans have been
followed in doing this assignment in observation. One plan
is to make the assignment for the first one or two days that
the observers visit a room. Usually a course in systematic
observation includes a number of regular visits to several
different grades or classes, made in some definite order. For
example, the observation class in an elementary training
school will probably visit a primary grade for three weeks,
an intermediate grade for three weeks, an upper grade for
three weeks, and a rural school three weeks. If the above
assignment is given for the first two days in each room vis-
ited, the class would make eight such critical observations
of the physical conditions that exist in the various rooms.

A second plan is to visit each room in succession for proba-
bly two days to each room, the entire time for the first eight
days of observation being devoted to the above assignment.
This plan has some advantages, but many disadvantages;
hence it is not commonly used. The plan favors rapid habit
formation in the observation of physical conditions. It does
not link the observation so readily, however, with the effect
of these conditions upon the recitation work that would be
observed during the working-out of the subsequent observa-
tion assignments. The plan may also involve administra-
tive difficulties that are not easy to offset. For instance,
the matter of transportation may not be as readily met as
it can be when the class goes regularly to the same school
for as long a period as it will visit that particular school.
The matter of seating equipment may also be more advan-
tageously handled by the first plan.

Critical evaluation; judgment-forming. When the first
plan is followed, the discussions that are held on the physi-

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 147

cal conditions of each of the succeeding rooms visited should
involve comparison of the different physical conditions ob-
served, and the corresponding effects upon the class work.
The habit of critical evaluation of what is observed is just
as important as the habit of alertness in seeing many details
in a given situation. In fact, unless such a habit is formed
the habit of alertness in seeing existing things will be of little
value. The habit of taking everything in quickly and ac-
curately, however, must come first in order that the observer
may have the basis for exercising critical judgment-form-
ing. If the observer does not see important details in the
physical situation, he has very little to evaluate. The more
he can see in each situation studied, the more basis he has
for making valid comparisons, and the better opportunity
he has for relating the observed items to the items of sub-
sequent observation.

The advantage of starting observation work with this
type of an assignment is that the physical conditions are the
most obvious and most readily observed. Then, too, the
observers are doing a type of observation that is more or
less familiar, and in which they have had considerable gen-
eral practice. The matter, therefore, is relatively simple
for them so far as seeing things is concerned, and they can
devote most of their energies to acquiring technique and
skill in writing down the things that they observe. This
point is a very important one. The use of the printed de-
vice suggested above, however, facilitates practice and the
technique of taking brief accurate notes is soon fairly well
acquired.

OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT (II)

(Note. Write the name of the school, grade, name of the
teacher, your name, and date. Hand your notes in as you leave
the room.)

148 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

1. Note the devices employed by the teacher in the presentation
of the lesson; classify them as indicated.

a. Physical devices. Note each device and the extent to
which it was used.

(1) General.

(a) Blackboard.

(6) Books.

(2) Special.

(a) Particular objects.

(b) Special drawings, charts, graphs, etc.

b. Mental devices. Note each device and the extent to
which it was used.

(1) Lecture.

(2) Questions.

(3) Objective presentation of facts.

(4) Correlations, etc.
JL Critical comments.

a. Were the physical devices well chosen, and were they

used too much or too little?
6. Would you suggest physical devices that were not used,

but that might have secured better results?

c. Were the mental devices well chosen, and were they
used too much or too little?

d. Would you suggest mental devices that were not used,
but that might have secured better results?

e. Were all devices thoroughly prepared and ready for use
at the right time?

Note. If the question device is used, write down as many of
the questions in complete form as possible.

Use of this assignment. The note-taking on this assign-
ment may be greatly facilitated by placing printed forms,
with ample blank space under each type of device, in the
hands of the observers. The more time and energy the ob-
server can give to seeing things, and to writing them down
under proper headings with the least amount of actual writ-
ing, the better. The observers will see more and get it down
in more usable form than they can possibly do if they have

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 149

to make their own headings and classifications in the midst
of the activity of observing and recording their observations.
This assignment logically follows the assignment of the
first type. Devices are more obvious and more readily ob"
served than the items of the teaching performance that are
given in the next assignments. If plan one as outlined above
is followed, then the assignment on devices will be given
about the second or third visit to each room, and the same
assignment continued until the class acquires insight, accu-
racy, and skill in observing the use of devices in teaching.
At least four or five assignments of the second type should
be given for each room visited.

OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT (EH)

(Note. Write the name of the school, grade, the teacher's name,
your name, and date. Hand your notes in as you leave the room.)
1. Note the technique of the teacher. Note each item of tech-
nique that was prominent and when possible note the number
of times practiced. The following items are suggestive.
Extend the list as the situation demands,
a. Repeating answers of pupils.
6. Asking too many questions, or too few.

c. Failing to state questions clearly, and in the fewest pos-
sible words.

d. Excellent statement of questions.

e. Clear explanations, or the opposite.

/. Naming the pupil who is to answer before asking the

question.
g. Asking question first and then naming pupil who is to

answer.
A. Not giving sufficient time for thinking out the answer

or discussion before naming the pupil who is to recite.
i. Automatically saying "all right," "correct," "yes," or

any set indication that the answer is satisfactory,
j. Indicating the answer by the form of the question.
k. Breaking the subject-matter up into too small units.
/. Not breaking the subject-matter up into small enough

units.

150 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

m. Teacher's voice: Pitch, modulation, quality, power.
n. Teacher's attitude : Enthusiastic, sympathetic, or oppo-

sites.
o. Teacher's bearing: Natural, dignified, self-reliant, or

opposites.

2. What is the effect of any particular item of technique upon
the class and the recitation?

Use of this assignment. The use of a printed form for
this type of observation assignment is highly essential if the
observers are to get anything down systematically and ac-
curately. The mere writing-out of the various headings or
items of technique that may be observed during forty or
fifty minutes would take all of the observer's time, so that
little or no check could be made of the recurrence of items
that should be noted accurately. Accuracy and fairness
should be insisted upon. Sometimes it is best to assign only
a part of the above items at a time, and so develop a sensi-
tiveness to some of the best and some of the worst forms of
technique. All of the above and possibly more items should
be included in the assignments before this type of assign-
ment is discontinued. At least five or six assignments for
each room visited should be made before taking up the next
type of assignment.

The discussions that are held on this type of assignment
should lay a great deal of stress upon the results of particular
items of technique, as shown by the reactions of the pupils.
The fact should be made patent that an item of technique
in itself is neither good nor bad, but that its use in a particu-
lar connection makes it good or bad. Observers should be
cautioned and trained to discriminate accurately between
effective and ineffective use of the same item of technique.

OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT (IV)

(Note. Write the name of the school, grade, name of the teacher,
your name, and date. Hand your notes in as you leave the room.]

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 151

1. Note the application of method to the organization and pres-
entation of subject-matter. Indicate as fully as possible the
organization under the appropriate headings.

a. Inductive type of organization.

(1) Number of cases presented. — Note as many com-
plete cases as possible.

(2) Representativeness of cases.

(3) Vividness of appeal of cases.

(4) Ampleness of material.

(5) Thoroughness of practice.

(6) Clearness of generalization.

b. Deductive type of organization.

(1) Generalization presented.

(2) Typical illustrative cases.
(S) Ampleness of cases.

(4) Thoroughness of practice.

2. Critical comments.

a. Was the type of organization selected well adapted to

the subject-matter of the subject?
6. Was the type of organization selected well adapted to

the mental maturity of the class?

Use of this assignment. The items on this assignment
are not so readily observable in the recitation as are the
items of the previous assignments. For the first two or
three observation assignments of this type, the observers
should have the teacher's assignment of subject-matter and
the plan for its presentation before they visit the class. This
will give them an opportunity to study the application of
method that is intended by the teacher. Then the period of
observation can be devoted to observing critically the ap-
plication of method that is actually made in the recitation.
Finally, however, the observers should be able to analyze
the recitation performance accurately enough to be able to
say definitely that the one or the other type of organization
of subject-matter was employed throughout, or that one
type was used in part of the recitation and the other type
was used in another part.

159 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

Purpose and use of these observation assignments. The
purpose of the above types of observation assignments is
obvious. The aim is to develop skill in observing groups of
items that become more and more difficult of observation.
It also aims at attacking specific problems in the teaching
performance. The ability to separate the method em-
ployed, from the devices and the technique, is highly im-
portant. Practice in giving attention to these different
aspects of the teaching performance in turn will finally
develop the ability to study all three in parallel during a
recitation and to take accurate notes upon them. The dis-
cussions on these assignments should seek to develop con-
structive criticisms and positive suggestions. Observers
should get the point of view that to see what takes place
is not enough, but that one must see how improvement
could be made.

The following rules as to the use of observation assign-
ments will prove helpful if followed:

1. Continue each assignment of the above sort until the ob-
servers have acquired skill in observing these aspects of
school work.

2. Gradually combine these groups of points into larger groups
until the observers are able to note accurately all the aspects
of teaching and management that are exhibited during their
visits.

3. Require detailed notes to be written during the period of
observation and handed in before leaving the room.

4. Meet the group for a discussion of their notes on the same
day. The director of the observation should go over the
notes carefully before the discussion period, and be prepared
to discuss the various types of errors and weaknesses in skill
of making critical observations that the notes reveal. Con-
structive suggestions as to how these defects can be remedied
should be made. In order to do this effectively the director
or supervisor of the observation work should follow the next
suggestion.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 153

5. Accompany the class on every observation visit that is to be
discussed at a later period. The director should observe the
same performance, and make accurate mental and written
notes of the things that the class has opportunity to observe.
This is the only accurate basis upon which a constructive
discussion of the observation made by the class can be
carried on.

3. Observation to evaluate teaching

Another phase of observation is that in which teachers
study the total teaching performance for the purpose of
writing a critical evaluation of it. This type of observation
is a test of the effectiveness of the work that has been done
under the preceding type. The practice of first observing
small groups of points, and later of observing larger and
larger combinations of these groups until finally all the
points in teaching and management that are important are
included in each assignment, will finally develop a degree of
mental alertness and accuracy that is dependable in taking
in all the important points exhibited in any teaching per-
formance. As soon as this skill has been developed to a sat-
isfactory degree of accuracy, then the teacher is ready to re-
ceive training in evaluating the teaching and management
performance.

Prerequisites for this type of observation. The observer
cannot make an accurate and fair evaluation of a teacher's
work without knowing what purpose the teacher has in
mind and how he plans to accomplish the purpose. The ob-
server should not only know the teacher's purpose and plan
for accomplishing it, but he should also have a thorough
knowledge of the subject-matter that the teacher expects to
employ in the recitation that is to be observed. Therefore,
in order to carry on this type of observation so as to develop
skill and fairness in evaluating the worth of a teacher's
classroom performance, the observer should be required to:

154 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

EVALUATION OBSERVATION OUTLINE

1. Study the subject-matter of each lesson that is to be observed.

2. Have a copy of the teacher's lesson plan for the recitation
that is to be observed, long enough before the recitation to
make a careful study of it.

3. Take notes on the recitation under the headings :

a. Application of method or form of subject-matter organi-
zation employed. (That is, inductive or deductive.)

b. Devices used.

(1) Physical: skill or lack of skill in manipulating each
device.

(2) Mental : skill or lack of skill in manipulating each
device.

C. Technique, or habit practiced.

(1) Right habits: number of times each was used and
effect upon the results of the recitation.

(2) Wrong habits : number of times each was used and
effect upon the results of the recitation.

d. Critical comments.

(1) Did the recitation accomplish the purpose stated
in the lesson plan?

(2) What knowledge was definitely acquired?

(3) What habits were positively furthered?

(4) Was the lesson plan followed completely? If not,
were the changes hi procedure justifiable?

(5) What could the teacher have done to render the
recitation more effective?

(6) In what phase of teaching was the teacher strongest ?

(a) Application of method?

(b) Selection and manipulation of devices?

4. Rank the performance as a whole, based upon the specific
acts of the teacher and the reactions of the pupils.

a. Superior.

b. Excellent.

c. Good.

d. Fair.

e. Poor.

/. Very poor.

6. Hand the written notes on the whole procedure in before
leaving the room.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 155

Use of this type of observation. The director or super-
visor should visit the same performance that the class of ob-
servers visits, and make a critical evaluation of the recita-
tion according to the above suggestions. The group should
meet for discussion of the notes they have taken and handed
in. The supervisor should go over these notes before the
discussion period, and prepare a constructive discussion of
their excellences and their defects. If possible, the teacher
whose work was observed should be present at this discus-
sion. The teacher observed should have an opportunity to
defend his procedure when he feels that the criticisms are
unjust or in error. He should have the opportunity to profit
by valid suggestions and intelligent comments on his work.
Often there are conditions and influences that the teacher
cannot control and for which he is not responsible. These
conditions and influences may go far toward defeating the
most skillful teaching performance. The teacher should
not be judged without opportunity to give information of
this character, for observation may not reveal these factors.

The critical test of the ability of teachers to observe teach-
ing discriminatingly is the accuracy and completeness of the
notes they take on all the observable aspects of teaching and
management exhibited in a single recitation. The thor-
oughness with which they classify the observed items ex-
hibited, under the distinct aspects of the situation — that
is, under physical conditions, devices, technique, and
method — is a fair criterion of the intelligence with which
the observing is carried on. A last test of the results of this
observation training is the ability of the observers to dis-
cover the particular phases of the teaching performance that
are responsible for the success or failure of the recitation, so
far as it can be determined on its face. Special emphasis
should be given to this item in the critical comments that
are required in the above outline.

156 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

Section summary. Directed observation should develop
skill in evaluating teaching performances. Such observa-
tion should begin with a study of a few of the most obvious
physical aspects of the classroom, and progress to a study of
the most obvious aspects of the teaching performance, then
to the less obvious, then to the least obvious aspects, and
finally to a study of all aspects of the classroom and the
teaching performance, during each observation period.

The plan of administration may be to carry the study of
each type of assignment through all the classrooms that are
to be visited before taking up the next type, or it may be to
take up each type of assignment in one classroom before
going to another room. The assignment should be clearly
understood by the observers before the visit to the recita-
tion is made. They should take detailed notes on the as-
signment during the period of observation and these notes
should be discussed with the observers after the observation
period.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Make an outline of the observation assignment you would give a
teacher to help him in becoming acquainted with a particular class
and classroom.

2. Make a blank that would be economical for observers to use in noting
the physical aspects of a teaching situation. Study critically the
outline for such an assignment given in the chapter, and try to im-
prove upon it in making the blank.

3. Make a similar blank for use in noting the devices employed by the
teacher in a particular recitation.

4. Criticize the assignment outline given in the chapter for observing
devices used, as to practicability, completeness or excessiveness ol
details, formalism, and organization.

5. Make a blank form that will be economical for use in noting the tech-
nique of the teacher in a teaching performance.

6. Criticize the outline given in the chapter for observing technique, as
to practicability, completeness or excessiveness of details, and organi-
zation.

7. Make a blank form for use in noting the principles of method used by
the teacher in the presentation of a lesson.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 157

8. Criticize the assignment outline given in the chapter for the observa-
tion of method, as to organization, and completeness or excessiveness
of details.

9. Make a blank form that will include the fundamental items from all
the types of observation assignments made in the chapter. Make a
list of instructions that will guide the observers in using the blank,
systematically and economically, in taking observation notes on all
the aspects of the teaching performance during a single recitation
performance.

10. Make an outline of the procedure you would follow in discussing the
observation notes of the various types with the observers, after the
observation period is over.

11. Criticize the outline given in the chapter for making an estimate of
the efficiency of the teaching performance that is observed, as to
organization, completeness or excessiveness of details, and possibility
of accuracy in judging each item.

12. Make a plan for conducting a discussion of the observers' evaluation
of the teacher's efficiency, with the teacher being criticized present
and participating in the discussion.

4- Emergency demonstration teaching

Use and purpose of this. The main idea in directing the
work of teachers is to anticipate the pitfalls and instruct the
teacher in the science and art of avoiding them. If this idea
is carried out thoroughly, the further development of the
teacher can be accomplished through corrective suggestions.
As a rule, therefore, the teacher should be undisturbed
throughout the recitation. There are times, however, when
the supervisor should, in the interest of the teacher and in
the interest of the class being taught, take up the recitation
in its midst and conduct it for a part or for all of the remain-
der of the period. Such cases should be very adroitly and
diplomatically handled, so that the class will be safeguarded
in its learning and so that the teacher will be prevented from
making serious errors. The teacher must be enabled, how-
ever, to sustain his dignity before the class and to retain
authority over the situation.

The two purposes of this type of demonstration teaching
should be held clearly in mind by the supervisor, for they

158 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

determine when the situation warrants the interruption of
the teacher's procedure. A brief description of typical
cases will bring out both the sorts of situations that are
meant and the technique of making the transition of the
leadership or teaching from the teacher to the supervisor.

Example i. A pupil in a plane geometry class was trying
to apply a theorem to the solution of a practical problem.
He was experiencing difficulty in getting the data organized
into the correct series of steps that would lead to a valid con-
clusion. The teacher attempted to help him by asking
questions concerning certain facts and principles that were
involved in the solution. The pupil continued to flounder
around and was obviously not getting any help from the
teacher's questions and suggestions. The supervisor recog-
nized both the difficulty of the pupil and the difficulty of the
teacher. Time was being lost, and neither pupil nor teacher
was gaining any ground in the solution of the respective
problem. The pupil was trying to learn the connection be-
tween the practical situation presented in the problem and
the principles of geometry that he had learned. The
teacher was trying to discover the difficulty of the pupil and
to find the best line of procedure in guiding his thinking so
he would correct his errors. The supervisor realized two
responsibilities; namely, that of helping the pupil to learn
the thing he was trying to master, and to help the teacher
to discover why she was not succeeding in her attempts to
extricate the pupil from his difficulties.

The supervisor allowed the situation to develop to the
point where both teacher and pupil realized they were not
succeeding. He showed by his attitude that he was inter-
ested and in sympathy with both teacher and pupil. Fi-
nally he said, " Miss B , may I ask L a question? "

The teacher gladly consented. Then the supervisor by a
series of questions led the pupil to visualize the parts of the

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 159

figure that had been used in developing the facts and prin-
ciples of the particular theorem. He then directed the at-
tention of the pupil to the clear visualization of the practical
situation presented in the problem. As soon as the pupil
visualized the two situations clearly, he could readily recog-
nize that the same logic applied in both cases, and the solu-
tion of the particular problem was easily reached.

The result for the pupil of the intervention of the super-
visor was an intensive effort that netted him a definite men-
tal gain. The result for the teacher was that she recognized
that her failure was due to directing the attention of the
pupil to the logic of the two situations, without first having
the visualization of them clearly established as the basis for
the application of the proper logic. In other words, the
pupil learned something about applying geometrical prin-
ciples to practical situations, and the teacher learned some-
thing about how to teach a pupil to learn how to apply prin-
ciples to practical problems. As soon as the pupil had
arrived at a clear solution of the problem upon which he
was working the supervisor dropped into the background,
and the teacher went on with the recitation.

Example 2. A pupil in a beginning Latin class was called
upon to translate an English sentence into Latin. The
sentence involved a difficult construction in the indirect
discourse. The teacher by suggestions and questions led
the pupil to work out a translation that she accepted. The
translation, however, contained a rather serious error. The
teacher was evidently accepting the error because she did
not know that it was an error. The construction in point
would come up in subsequent lessons, hence the supervisor
hesitated a moment as to whether or not he should interfere.
The wrong impression upon the minds of the pupils was
likely to be difficult to counteract if they were allowed to
take the case in hand as a good illustration of the particular

160 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

construction. The supervisor quickly decided that the
situation demanded correction then and there. Since the
teacher was proceeding, through lack of accurate knowledge
of the subject, to teach something that was incorrect, the
situation was somewhat embarrassing. The emergency,
however, seemed to warrant running the risk of embarrass-
ing the teacher and even the risk of making the pupils doubt
her reliability in the future.

The supervisor said, " Miss B , may I hear the trans-
lation of that sentence again? I am not sure that I heard it
all the way through, particularly that expression" — nam-
ing the expression — " on which I have to watch myself very
closely to keep from getting it wrong." This statement put
pupils and teacher on guard to study the difficult part of the
sentence as it was translated. It also made the pupils feel
that even for the teacher to make an error on that construc-
tion was no reason to condemn her, for the supervisor ad-
mitted the probability of almost any one, no matter how
expert, making a slip in trying to express it in Latin. The
supervisor then proceeded to raise questions about the con-
struction, and soon led both teacher and pupils to see what
was correct. After the point seemed to be satisfactorily
settled, he suggested that they all watch for that particular
construction and see how many examples of it they found in
the succeeding lessons. He then dropped into the back-
ground, and the teacher went on with the recitation.

Situations that justify supervisory interference. The
situations that seem to justify the interferences on the part
of the supervisor are those in which the pupil is not learning,
and the teacher is not learning how to help the pupil to learn,
and those in which the teacher is teaching something that is
incorrect. In the first type of case the teacher was not lack-
ing in knowledge of the subject, but was lacking in insight
and skill in teaching. In the second type of case the pupils

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 161

were learning and the teacher was succeeding in helping
them to learn, but the thing being taught was wrong. These
two types cover practically all the emergencies that will
arise. The third type of case necessarily would be a com-
bination of these two; namely, a situation in which the
teacher was unsuccessfully trying to teach something that
was wrong, but was not succeeding on account of not realiz-
ing just what the mental difficulties of the pupils were. The
pupils in this case would not be learning the thing they were
trying to learn, because they would be failing to carry on the
proper mental activities that would be involved in learn-
ing even the incorrect form of subject-matter. Such a case
would not involve any different procedure on the part of the
supervisor from that given above.

The supervisor should know what the assignment is and
the teacher's plan for teaching that assignment before he
visits the recitation, if he is to be in a position to judge wisely
as to how long he should continue the emergency demonstra-
tion teaching. If the crucial point is not likely to be seri-
ously involved throughout the remainder of the recitation,
as was the case in the illustrations above, the supervisor can
readily drop into the background and let the teacher go on
alone. In fact, the supervisor really has appeared in the at-
titude of a member of the group, and the teacher has re-
mained in his position as leader so that his authority and
control over the class has not been interfered with. If,
however, the crucial point is seriously involved in the re-
mainder of the recitation, and the supervisor feels that he
will likely have to keep breaking in with suggestions in order
to help both teacher and pupils, then the supervisor had
better teach the rest of the lesson.

Section summary. The supervisor should take the teach-
ing situation out of the hands of the teacher only when a real
emergency exists. Such an emergency exists when the

162 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

pupil is not learning, and the teacher is at a loss to know
what to do to help him; and such an emergency exists when
the teacher is succeeding, but is teaching something that is
incorrect. The supervisor should handle the situation in
such a way as to uphold the dignity and authority of the
teacher, and to strengthen his future work.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give five cases, from your own experience, in which there was a de-
cided gain to pupils and to the teacher through the emergency teach-
ing of the supervisor.

2. Give five cases, from your own experience, in which there was a de-
cided loss to pupils and to the teacher through the failure of the super-
visor to intervene in the recitation with emergency teaching.

3. Give five cases, from your own experience, in which there was a de-
cided loss to pupils and to the teacher through the untimely emergency
teaching of the supervisor.

4. Give two or more illustrations, from experience of the emergency situ-
ation in which the teacher was at a loss to know what to do to help
the pupil learn.

5. Give two or more illustrations, from experience, of the emergency
situation in which the teacher was successfully teaching something
that is incorrect.

6. Give two or more illustrations, from experience, of the emergency
situation in which the teacher was trying to teach something that was
incorrect, but was not succeeding.

7. Give an example of an emergency situation in which the supervisor
should take charge of the recitation for only a short time.

8. Give an example of an emergency situation in which the supervisor
should take charge of the recitation until the end of the period.

CHAPTER XH

DEVICES THAT ILLUSTRATE THE REMAINING
PRINCIPLES OF METHOD (continued)

HI. DIRECTED TEACHING AND SUPERVISED STUDY

1. Directed teaching

What this involves. The direction of actual teaching
work of student teachers and regular teachers, means direc-
tion of all the activities that are involved in preparing for
and conducting each daily recitation that the student or
regular teacher is to hold. Hence the supervision of teach-
ing must begin before the teacher enters the classroom to
teach, as well as to direct the work of the teacher in the reci-
tation. The knowledge involved under I, II, III, below,
should have been mastered by the student teacher in other
courses prerequisite to the teaching, but the supervisor
should check them up to the teacher, as indicated below, for
convenient reference during the course.

The act of teaching and managing a class involves three
fundamental factors — namely, the method, the devices,
and the technique — that most adequately motivate the
work of the pupils and secure mastery of the subject. Ef-
fective supervision must take into account the distinctions
between these factors and instruct the learning teacher in
the principles of method, make the teacher acquainted with
the devices, and train the teacher in proper efficient tech-
nique.

Therefore the supervisor should give the teacher an out-
line somewhat as follows:

164 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

OUTLINE FOB DIBECTED TEACHING

I. As to method

1. Whether the subject as a whole can be developed best in the
form of inductive problems, or deductive problems.

2. What parts of the subject can be developed best in the form of
inductive problems, and what parts can be taught best in the
form of deductive problems.

3. The technique of presenting subject-matter in the form of
inductive problems, which is as follows:

a. Use striking representative cases first, then less striking
cases, and then still less striking cases, etc., until the gen-
eralization seems to be mastered.

6. Make the illustrations appeal as vividly as possible to both
the sensory and mental experiences of the pupils.

c. Use an ample amount of material.

d. Practice upon the material thoroughly.

e. Require a definite and accurate statement of the generali-
zation.

4. The technique of presenting subject-matter in the form of
deductive problems, which is as follows:

a. Begin with a clear statement of the generalization or
definition.

b. Use typical illustrations of its application.

c. Use an ample number of applications and practice thor-
oughly.

II. As to devices

1. To what extent such general devices as blackboards, maps,
encyclopaedia, dictionary, charts, lantern, lecture, questions,
correlations, etc., are essential and helpful in the presentation
of the subject.

2. To what extent devices special to the subject or to certain phases
of the subject, such as objects, models, outlines, graphs, special
apparatus, special correlations, special types of questions, etc.,
are essential and helpful in the presentation of the subject.

3. Technique in using devices, which involves the habit of:

a. Deciding when making the daily plan exactly:

(1) What physical devices will be used and the extent
to which they will be used.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 165

(2) What mental devices will be used and the extent to

which they will be used.

6. Working out each device carefully and fully preparing it
before class time. Technique in manipulating devices
should give special attention to the art of questioning and
of lecturing. The outline below suggests important habits
that should be formed :
(1) Questioning:

(a) Preparing careful list of questions before reci-
tation rather than depending upon spontane-
ous questions during the recitation.

(b) Adapting the kinds of questions to the nature
of the subject-matter, the development of the
pupils, and the purpose of the recitation. Such
adaptation will include:

(6 l) Thought-provoking questions, demand-
ing interpretations of subject-matter.

(b 2) Fact questions, demanding memory.

(6 3) Developing questions.

(b *) Pivotal questions.

(6 6) Questions answered by yes or no (at
times).

(6 ') Questions that answer themselves (at
times).

(c l) The nature of the subject-matter and
the amount that is involved in the
answer.

(c *) The size of the class and the maturity
of pupils.

(c s) The length of the recitation.

(d) Regulating the speed of asking questions by
the purpose of the lesson as to whether for:

(d l) Review.
(d 2) Drill; or

(d s) Discussion of new material.
(«) Having pupils :

(e l) Question one another on the interpreta-
tion of the subject-matter; and
(e *) Question one another about their dis-
cussions.

168 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

(/) Guarding against:

(/ J) Repeating the answers of the pupils.
(f 2) Asking too many questions, or too few.
(/3) Breaking subject-matter up into too

small fragments.
(/ 4) Failing to state questions clearly in the

fewest words.
(/ 5) Indicating the answer by the form of

the question.
(/ 6) Naming the pupil who is to answer

before asking the question.
(/ 7) Not giving sufficient time for thinking
out the answer or discussion before
naming the one who is to recite.
(/ 8) Automatically saying "all right," "cor-
rect," "yes," or any other set indica-
tion that the answer is satisfactory.
Train pupils to weigh answers, and to
learn from what follows whether or not
the answer is satisfactory.
(2) Lecturing:

(a) Give a brief summary outline of the organiza-
tion of the lecture at the beginning.
(6) Outline in detail the argument under each
large point in the lecture, as it is taken up in
turn, before giving the illustrated discussion of
the argument.

(d) Have all charts, drawings, graphs, and ap-
paratus of any sort that is to be used for mak-
ing demonstrations fully prepared and con-
veniently arranged for use at the proper time.
(Be sure to test apparatus and all mechanical
devices near enough up to the time for the lec-
ture to know that they will work satisfacto-
rily.)-

(e) Require pupils to take down the summary and
the important detailed points of the argument
and at times to hand them in at the close of the
lecture.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 167

(/) Stand or sit in a commanding position, so that
every member of the class can see and hear
distinctly the entire lecture.

(0) Face the class and catch the various physical
reactions and facial expressions that indicate
the attention and interest of the pupils.

(A) Modulate the voice and regulate the force of
utterance according to the size of the room and
the size of the class.

(1) Be sure that graphs, charts, etc., are placed so
that every member of the class can see easily.
(Note. — Lecturing in elementary and high-
school classes should be employed chiefly in
making demonstrations in science, and in in-
troducing supplementary material that is not
readily accessible in any other form.)

c. Carefully testing the mechanics of devices to insure suc-
cess in their use.

d. Arranging devices conveniently for use at the right time.

m. As to technique

1. General habits that apply to all teaching. The following items
are suggested :

a. In reference to teaching:

(1) Thorough preparation for each day's recitation.
This involves the mastery of the subject-matter to
be taught and a detailed plan for its presentation.

(2) Promptness in beginning and closing the recitation.

(3) Correcting the errors in the English of the class.

(4) Addressing questions to the class and not to the
book, the blackboard, etc.

(5) Facing the class when explaining or discussing a
point.

(6) Requiring the pupils to do most of the reciting.

(7) Bringing each pupil into the recitation frequently so
as to give all an equal opportunity and to stimulate
interest.

(8) Requiring each pupil to recite for the benefit of the
whole class.

(9) Sticking to the lesson and not being sidetracked, es-

168 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

pecially by keen-witted pupils who have not prepared
their lessons.

(10) Respecting the individuality of the pupils.

(11) Modulating the voice well; enunciating clearly; using
good English.

b. In reference to discipline:

(1) Holding up clearly high standards of conduct, good
order, and work.

(2) Deciding quickly and acting promptly.

(3) Meeting pupils in personal conferences in order to
bring about a definite understanding with them as to
what is expected of them. This is one of the best
ways of making the pupil feel his responsibility to the
school and also of establishing a close friendly tie be-
tween teacher and pupil.

(4) Seeing and hearing everything that goes on hi the
room, in the halls, on the playground, on the street,
and in public places where the conduct of pupils
should be observed.

(5) Dignified, firm bearing; attitude of sureness of self
and just what is going to be done.

(6) Controlling temper; keeping cool in emergencies.

(7) Alertness and accuracy in interpreting the acts of
pupils, so as to anticipate their conduct and to start
counter-suggestions to prevent undesirable behavior.

(8) Not having a chip on the shoulder; not supersensi-
tive; not easily upset by aggravating things.

(9) Willingness to go more than halfway in meeting a
pupil who is being disciplined.

(10) Looking upon the misconduct of pupils as an oppor-
tunity to do a piece of real vital work in education;
remembering that it is the character of the individual
and not personal satisfaction or justification that is
to be sought in discipline.

(11) Making the punishment the logical consequence of
the act.

c. In reference to self:

(1) Regular hours for all activities; conserving one's best
energies for school work.

(2) Not letting whims or peculiar habits interfere with
the work.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 169

(3) Genuine enthusiasm for the subject and for the ado-
lescent boys and girls.

(4) Sympathy with the pupils in their study difficulties
and in the mental, physical, social, and domestic
stresses that they have to meet each day.

(5) Cheerfulness and optimism; faith in the final results
of the teacher's work.

(6) Sincerity and straightforwardness; not affected in
speech or in manners.

(7) Model personal habits; moderation in dress; good
postures in sitting, standing, and walking.

(8) Willingness to give up any habit that may mislead
pupils, or that may mislead the public in forming its
opinion as to a teacher's true character and motives.

d. In reference to the classroom :

(1) Noting the temperature at the beginning and during
the recitation.

(2) Noting the condition of the air at the beginning of
the recitation and regulating the ventilation so as to
keep the condition as nearly right as possible.

(3) Noting the light at the beginning and during the
recitation, and regulating it by proper adjustment of
window shades and other means that may be avail-
able.

(4) Noting the general physical condition, such as ar-
rangement of chairs, and their condition as to dust,
cuttings, markings, etc., cleanliness of floor and black-
boards; position and condition of the equipment,
such as maps, dictionary, etc.

(5) Noting the physical condition of students as to dress,
colds, skin eruptions, etc.

(6) Seating of students in systematic order, but so as to
provide for individual difficulties in hearing and see-
ing, and so as to be able to shift the class from their
chairs to the blackboard with facility; seating stu-
dents so as to avoid disciplinary problems.

(7) Keeping the teacher's desk in neat, orderly condition.
«. In reference to the use of the textbooks :

(1) Examining the textbook thoroughly from preface to
index before attempting to make assignments from it
or to use it as a source of information.

170 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

(2) Mastering the author's point of view and organiza-
tion of subject-matter before attempting to use the
book.

(3) Evaluating the materials of the book in the light of
textbook standards and the purposes for which the
subject is being taught.

(4) Being definite and very specific in directing the pu-
pils in the use of the text for the purpose of preparing
lesson assignments.

(5) Marking for the class at the beginning of the course
all material that is not important.

/. In reference to the use of reference works:

(1) Giving author, title of book, title of chapters to be
read, topics, and pages.

(2) Giving the title of the article, author, title of the
magazine, page, month, and year.

(3) Giving the library, the room, and whatever specific
directions that will enable the pupils to secure the
use of the references, without loss of tune and energy.

g. In reference to one's superiors, one's colleagues, and the
school :

(1) Prompt and willing performance of all duties.

(2) Making efficient service one's chief concern.

(3) Loyalty to the ideals and policies of the administra-
tive forces.

(4) Loyalty to one's fellow teachers in their work.

(5) Keeping still on the outside of school concerning
matters that are discussed in teachers' meetings or
the office, as school family affairs.

(6) Boosting the school as a whole; boosting the work of
the superintendent, the supervisors, and one's fellow
teachers.

(7) Loyal support to musical, literary, and athletic or-
ganizations and enterprises.

(8) Active participation in the social affairs of the school.

Choice of specific habits of skill. The supervisor should
indicate the specific habits of skill that are particularly effec-
tive in teaching the particular subject. Some subjects can
be taught most effectively by skilled technique in the art of

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 171

questioning. Others may be taught well by use of lectures
or by conversation. And still others may be taught best
by skillfully manipulated apparatus and materials, and the
efficient management of a laboratory, etc. Whatever forms
of technique are most effective should be outlined in detail
as they apply to the teaching of the subject-matter of the
particular subject.

Definite detailed lesson plans. The supervisor can safe-
guard the welfare of the pupils who are being taught, and
further the training of the teacher, by giving the beginning
teacher, or the teacher beginning the teaching of a new or
relatively unfamiliar subject, definite detailed lesson plans
that the teacher is to follow. The teacher should follow
these plans carefully and thoroughly. If the plans are
rightly made, the teacher should be able to accomplish in
each recitation the work that has been laid out to be done.
The mastery of such lesson plans involves keen, intelligent
interpretation of the meihod involved, the devices employed,
and the technique to be practiced. The teacher who can
accurately interpret the plans of the expert teacher or super-
visor has taken the first step toward independence in making
lesson plans on his own initiative. Intelligent interpreta-
tion must be followed by effective technique in carrying out
the plans.

The better the teacher understands the plans, the more
likely will he be to carry them out in an effective and thor-
oughgoing way. Therefore the study and teaching of les-
sons according to excellent plans develops insight and skill.
The teacher may soon acquire such intelligent insight into
the nature, extent, and form of effective plans for teaching
the subject, and such reliable habits in carrying out definite
detailed plans, that he can be entrusted with doing his own
planning, subject to the approval of the supervisor. The
teacher who has not the intelligence to interpret and follow

172 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

the carefully worked-out instructions of the supervisor
not be able to make plans of his own that will be effective.

This device, then, is one of the most searching tests that
can be applied to the teacher to determine his possibilities
at the earliest period possible in his training. The teacher
who fails in this regard will likely fail in meeting the further
tests of independence and initiative. The person who can-
not exhibit genius in carrying out a set piece of work will not
have the genius to set a piece of work to carry out.

Differences between teachers. Some teachers can carry
out detailed directions that have been set for them better
than they can set definite directions for themselves to follow.
Such teachers will always do their best teaching when they
are working under close supervision, or following a very
detailed course of study. They are not hindered, however,
by the following of expert detailed plans for a number of
lessons at the outset of their teaching, in their development
toward the highest degree of independence and initiative
that is possible for them to attain. They will be able by
the use of such plans to pass the first test of an intelligent
teacher, and to prove themselves worthy of being given
further opportunity. They may fail to meet the test satis-
factorily when thrown upon their own responsibility. The
fact that they have passed only the first test in a satisfactory
manner enables the supervisor to classify them as skilled in
interpretation and execution, but weak in initiative and
independent organization. Accurate classification of teach-
ers on this basis will enable the supervisor to make an intelli-
gent statement concerning the type of teaching position for
which the particular teacher is best adapted.

The requirements in making lesson plans. Two types of
lesson plans should be required of teachers who teach under
close supervision, either in the public schools or in a training
school. The first type is the weekly lesson plan. The pur-

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 173

pose of the weekly lesson plan is twofold; namely, to train
the teacher in planning ahead work that can actually be
done thoroughly, and to train the teacher to do what is
planned out to be done. The weekly lesson plan should be
gone over by the supervisor and revisions suggested before
the work of the week is started.

Two forms of the weekly plan may be used. The first
form should be for the work planned a week in advance, and
the second form should be for the work actually accom-
plished during the same week. The first form may be desig-
nated as the A blank, and the second as the B blank. These
blanks as filled out by the teachers should be kept on file in
the supervisor's office. The progress of the teachers will be
shown by the lessening difference between the data on the
A and B blanks for the same week until they are practically
identical. The accumulation of B blanks for successive
years in the same subject will afford an excellent basis for
determining the quantity of subject-matter that can be
taught in the subject to a certain age or grade group of
pupils.

Weekly lesson plans. The more carefully the weekly
plans have been prepared, the more reliable they will be
as an objective basis for determining the unit of subject-
matter. A reduced copy of each form that is used in the
University of Kansas Training School is given herewith.
The actual size of the forms is nine and one half by eight
inches, and only one side of the sheet is used.

The daily lesson plan. These represent a second type of
plan, and should be worked out in detail and submitted for
approval before the recitation. The teacher should have
time to make any revisions that seem necessary for the im-
provement of the plans. These plans should be made in
duplicate, so that the teacher and supervisor may each have
a copy during the progress of the recitation. The super-

174 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

WEEKLY LESSON PLAN

(Form A)

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Work Planned for the Week 1919.

A
Subject Teacher

Mon..

Tues..

Wed.

Thur..

Fri..

Remarks : .

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 175

WEEKLY LESSON PLAN

(Form B)

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
Work Completed for the Week. 1919. . . .

Subject Teacher.

Mon..

Tues..

Wed.

Thur..

Fri..

Remarks : .

176 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

visor should give the teacher a definite outline to follow in
making the daily lesson plans. Such an outline should be
inclusive, so that no items will be omitted that ever occur
in recitations. The teacher should understand that not all
of the items on the outline will enter into every day's plan.
Some recitations, however, will involve all of the items to
some extent. The outline should be practical rather than
pedagogically ideal. The following plan is suggestive, and
has been found to be usable and practical:

DAILY LESSON PLAN

Class and subject Teacher

1. Assignment of advance lesson — Number of minutes.

a. At beginning or close of period?

b. Outline.

2. Review — Number of minutes.

a. Ground to be covered.

b. Definite questions or outline.

c. Distributed through the recitation, or all at one time?

3. The day's lesson — Number of minutes.

o. Purpose.

b. Quizzing the preparation of the pupils.

(1) Definite questions or outline.

c. Development of points that the study of the pupils war
not expected to give.

(1) Outline.

(2) Devices.

d. Introduction of new or supplementary material.

(1) Outline.

4. Drill — Number of minutes.

a. Special points to be practiced.

b. Devices.

c. Materials.

Value of daily lesson plans. The practice of making de-
tailed daily lesson plans is one of the important means of
training teachers to accomplish what they plan to do. A
great deal of time and energy is lost through poor teaching,

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 177

and one of the chief causes of poor teaching is lack of defi-
niteness. The teacher who plans definitely what is to be
done during a recitation and holds rather strictly to the
plan will refine his teaching performance many fold. He
will not be easily sidetracked, but will bring everything to
bear upon accomplishing what he set out to do.

Another effect of the practice of making detailed lesson
plans is that of developing the habit of having a worth-while
goal. The very fact that one attempts to work out a defi-
nite procedure in teaching a lesson impels him to have a
definite goal toward which he will work. Therefore the
assignments that the teacher makes will become more and
more definite. This will be especially true if the teacher
prepares the detailed lesson plan for teaching the lesson be-
fore the assignment of that lesson is made. The teacher
who plans the details of the recitation, before making the
assignment of the lesson, will not be so likely to assign too
much or too little to be accomplished in the recitation period.
The more definitely the teacher has planned the teaching of
the assignment, before making it, the more definite will be
his instructions to the pupils in directing them in their study
of the assignment.

Lesson plans do not lead to mechanical work. The mak-
ing of detailed lesson plans does not make mechanical
teachers. The teacher who follows the practice soon be-
comes skilled in anticipating the reactions of the pupils, and
will find little need for modifications of the planned proced-
ure during the recitation. When modification is needed,
however, the teacher who has worked out a clear, definite
scheme of procedure is better prepared to make the proper
modification in the face of the recitation situation. In the
first place, the teacher has something definite to modify, and
can, therefore, make a definite modification to meet a definite
situation. The teacher who is capable of making an intelli'

178 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

gent, detailed plan for teaching a lesson will be intelligent
enough to make intelligent modifications of the procedure
as the recitation situation may demand.

The practice of making detailed daily lesson plans will not
make the reactions of the pupils mechanical or rob them of
their spontaneity. In other words, the pupils will not be
sacrificed for the plan. The teacher plans for the pupils in
making her program of procedure in teaching. The various
possible reactions are anticipated, and the plan undertakes
to set up a scientific psychological handling of all the fac-
tors involved in the recitation, so that a definitely attainable
goal may be most effectively reached. The more definitely
the teacher plans, the less likely he will be to lose sight of
the vital interests of the pupils.

They clarify thinking for the beginner. Finally, then,
one may say that making detailed lesson plans clarifies
one's thinking and gives a perspective of teaching problems
that cannot be got in any other way. One must get away
from the generalities of pedagogical principles, and get down
to the specific details of actual procedure if he is to make any
progress in becoming skilled and efficient in conducting the
recitation. A comprehension of general laws and principles
is essential, but specific applications or exhibitions of these
laws in particular acts, in the teaching of particular lessons,
is the only process by which the teaching performance can
be refined and rendered effective. The teacher who thinks
in broad, general terms of pedagogy in planning a lesson will
not discriminate sharply between the essentials and the non-
essentials. Such a teacher may keep in the general direction
and may make a good deal of a show of the recitation per-
formance, but he never knows surely and accurately when
he has arrived. On the other hand, the teacher who com-
mits his pedagogical ideals to definite subject-matter form,
to definite forms of devices, and to systematic technique,

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 179

will know quite accurately when he has accomplished a
specific piece of work.

Relative recitation time to be given to oral and to written
work. This varies according to the subject, the size of the
class, and the length of the recitation. Either device may
be used too exclusively for securing the best results. The
tendency to fall into the habit of relying almost entirely
upon the one form or the other makes it important for the
supervisor to suggest the value of each form and the relative
emphasis that should be given each.

Time for quizzes, relative number and character of ques-
tions. The time for holding quizzes may vary according to
the amount of emphasis that the supervisor wishes to give
to this phase of the teacher's work. Short quizzes may be
held at the completion of definite phases of subject-matter.
They may also be held at stated periods, such as every six,
nine, twelve, or eighteen weeks. Whatever practice the
supervisor desires to have followed, he should indicate
clearly in these instructions to teachers.

The relative number of questions and their character
should also be indicated. Teachers tend to ask too many
questions for the length of time the pupils have to write.
They also tend to ask questions that are too largely memory
tests. The character of the questions should be determined
by the nature of the subject, the purpose for which it is
being taught, the maturity of the pupils, and the relative
emphasis that has been placed upon content material and
formal material in presenting the subject.

The supervisor should also indicate the procedure in
grading quiz papers. This should be determined by the
nature of the subject and the purpose of the quiz. If the
quiz contains different types of questions, such as memory
questions, reasoning tests, tests of application of principles,
etc., it is likely that the types should have different value

180 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

on the basis of one hundred points for the whole quiz. The
amount of value that should be attached to the form of the
answer, and the value that should be given to the intelli-
gence or correctness of procedure, should be definitely de-
termined and indicated.

Preparation of lessons. The length of time that the
pupils should spend in the preparation of the different types
of lessons, such as the lesson demanding the mastery of new
subject-matter, and the lesson demanding practice upon
material that is understood, will of course vary. As a rule
the lesson demanding practice upon material already under-
stood should take more time than the one demanding the
mastery of new subject-matter. The reason for this is that
the pupils are better prepared to carry on this type of study,
and can work longer with less danger of falling into errors and
becoming discouraged. The lesson demanding mastery of
new subject-matter may be developed very largely through
the recitation period. Therefore the preparation for such
a lesson should usually demand less time, but more concen-
trated effort.

Section summary. The supervisor should begin to direct
the thinking of the teacher in preparation for his teaching
performance as well as during the progress of his teaching.
The fundamental points upon which the teacher's thinking
should be directed are: The important distinctions that set
off method, device, and technique from each other; the
essential characteristics of method, device, and technique
that should be thoroughly mastered; the making of weekly
and daily lesson plans; the relative emphasis, in the recita-
tion, of the oral and written work; the holding of quizzes;
and the demands upon pupils in preparation of their lessons.
Carefully prepared detailed outlines are the most economi-
cal means that the supervisor can use in accomplishing this
task systematically.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 181

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Select one of the fundamental elementary-school subjects, and make
an outline that indicates the points as to method, devices, and tech-
nique according to the suggested outline given in this chapter.

2. Make an outline of specific habits of skill that apply to the teaching
of the subject selected under 1, above.

3. Select one of the high-school subjects, and make an outline as under 1,
above.

4. Make an outline of specific habits of skill that apply to the teaching
of the high-school subject under 3, above.

5. Make a blank form that you would recommend to teachers for use in
making weekly lesson plans.

6. Criticize the daily lesson-plan form given in the chapter, and make
a form that you think would be more helpful to the teacher.

7. Select one elementary-school subject, and determine the relative
amount of time that should be given to oral and written work in the
daily recitation.

8. Select one high-school subject, and determine the relative amount
of time that should be given to oral and written work in the daily
recitation.

9. Make an outline of the suggestions that you would give the teacher
of a fifth-grade arithmetic class, as to the time for holding quizzes,
and the relative number and the character of quiz questions.

10. Make an outline of the suggestions that you would give the teacher

of , a high-school subject, as to the time for holding quizzes, and

relative number and character of quiz questions.

11. Select an elementary-school subject, and determine the amount of
time the pupils should spend in the preparation of a specified new
subject-matter lesson. Determine the amount of time that should
be spent in preparation of a lesson on practice material in the same
subject.

12. Select a high-school subject, and determine the amount of time the
pupils should spend in the preparation of a specified new subject-
matter lesson. Determine the amount of time that should be spent
in preparation of a lesson on practice material in the same subject.

2. Supervised study

Supervised study is used here to mean every phase of the
teacher's work that aids the pupil in the mastery of subject-
matter, formation of study habits, putting forth consistent
effort in the study of the subject, and in developing power
of analysis, technique of organization of subject-matter, and

182 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

ability to apply knowledge to new situations. The chief
ways in which the teacher may effectively supervise the
study of pupils are as follows:

The recitation. The recitation as an effective means of
directing the study of pupils should involve at least three
important items.

1. The lesson assignment. The assignment of the lesson
should be clear and definite. The assignment should enable
the pupils to know what to do and how to go about it. The
pupils should be required to take full notes on the lesson
assignment, so that they will not depend upon memory for
guidance in their study. The assignment should include
instructions in the use of textbooks and other helps that the
pupils should use in the preparation of the lesson.

The definiteness of the assignment should be emphasized.
The pupils should have clear-cut problems to attack, and
they should realize fully what they are to accomplish by
their study. They should also know what they must do to
accomplish these definite results. In other words, the as-
signment should indicate the procedure that really consti-
tutes study of the subject-matter assigned.

2. The recitation demands. The recitation should make
such demands upon the pupils that they will be compelled to
prepare the lesson in the way that they have been directed.
This means that the recitation must deal with the subject-
matter assigned for that particular recitation, and it must
be dealt with in the way that the assignment indicated it
would be taken up. The recitation should not introduce
new demands for which the pupils have not prepared. This
does not mean that new points may not be developed, but it
does mean that the development of new points must demand
the use of the preparation that was made in studying for the
recitation.

One important item is that the recitation should keep

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 183

up with the assignments. Teachers sometimes make such
erroneous plans for their assignments that they keep falling
farther behind with the recitation until the recitation never
gets to any of the lesson assigned the day before, and even
does not touch on any of the lesson assigned two days be-
fore. In such cases the teacher usually goes on assigning
the advance lesson as if the recitations were keeping right
up with the assignments. The result of such a condition
is that the pupils soon cease to study the assignment with
any degree of seriousness. They do not know when they will
get caught up with the game, so they take things easily.
Teachers should be cautioned against falling into such a
habit. They should be advised as to the best way in which
to extricate themselves in case they do get caught in this
unfortunate situation. Careful study of the proposition
that the recitation should make such demands upon the
pupils that they must study in the way that they have been
directed will enable the teacher to avoid this unfortunate
situation.

3. Study during ilie recitation. The recitation should be
a continued study of the subject, rather than a mere quizzing
for facts which have been memorized in preparation for the
recitation. This should be true especially when the recita-
tion involves the study of new subject-matter. Some reci-
tations must be for drill, and others for reviews. Most
recitations, however, that demand study at all on the part of
the pupils should be genuine group-study periods of the
cooperative type. This idea of the recitation needs to be
emphasized. The more that teachers plan to use the reci-
tation as a means of directing the study of the pupils, and
of leading them farther into the subject-matter than the
individual study of the pupils will take them, the more effec-
tive the teaching will be and the better the study habits of
the pupils will be.

184 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

One important point that can and should be brought out
in the study recitation is that of indicating clearly to the
pupils the subject-matter that should be learned and memo-
rized just temporarily, as a means to an end in study, and the
subject-matter that should be learned permanently. Pupils
should be guided in their memorizing practices so that each
type of subject-matter will be learned most economically.
The teacher should guide the study of the pupils in such a
way that the pupils will know when they are ready to spend
time upon the thorough memorization of a unit of perma-
nent subject-matter. Outlines and other devices should be
given the pupils that will take the place of memorization
during the development of the unit of subject-matter that
is to be permanently memorized after it has been thoroughly
worked out.

Supervised study period. Some schools have adopted a
plan of double periods for the classes in which they desire to
carry on supervised study. The teacher conducts recita-
tion for half the double period, and guides the study of the
same group for the other half of the period. This plan as-
sumes that every day the group should or will be assigned a
lesson that requires study of the analytical, interpretative
sort. Therefore the teacher is to supervise the study of the
lesson, and later have the recitation that tests the results of
the study. If the suggestion that has been made above is
followed, namely, that the recitation should be a continued
study of the lesson rather than a mere testing and quizzing
of the pupils on the facts studied, the supervised study period
as something set apart from the recitation will be unneces-
sary. Whether the regular recitation period is utilized for
a supervised study performance, or regular periods other
than the recitation are set aside for such supervised study,
the procedure of the teacher should be practically the
same.

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 185

The following outline is suggestive of the technique that
may be practiced :

Group study.

1. Raise specific problems.

2. Suggest relevant subject-matter that will aid in the solution
of the problems. This should include the kinds of materials
and the source of the materials.

8. Suggest means of sifting and selecting relevant facts, princi-
ples, laws, etc.

4. Suggest means of testing and verifying results.

5. Indicate subject-matter that is to be used purely as a means
and subject-matter that is to be learned as an end.

6. Give special attention to individual differences that are due
to:

a. Sex.

b. Age.

c. Stage of mental and physiological development,
rf. Previous t raining and experience.

e. Influence of economic and social conditions.
/. Status of health.

Individual study conferences. The teacher should have
individual study conferences with every pupil who is not
getting along well in his work. These conferences should
follow some definite technique of procedure. The following
suggestions may be helpful:

1. Seek out particular weaknesses.

2. Vary the point of attack upon subject-matter to meet the in-
dividual needs of pupils.

S. Raise specific problems.

4. Suggest relevant subject-matter that will aid in the solution
of the problems. This should include the kinds and the
sources of materials.

5. Suggest means of sifting and selecting relevant facts, princi-
pies, rules, etc.

0. Suggest means of testing and verifying results.

7. Stimulate initiative and secure maximum effort.

8. Indicate subject-matter that is to be used purely as a means,
and subject-matter that is to be learned as an end.

186 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

9. Give special attention to individual differences that are due
to:

a. Sex.

b. Age.

c. Stage of mental and physiological development.

d. Previous training and experience.

e. Influence of economic and social conditions.
/. Status of health.

Make-up work. Teachers should have a definite plan for
guiding pupils in making up work that has been missed.
The following items are suggestive of the technique that
might well be adopted.

1. Technique in handling make-up work is important and should
involve:

a. A definite assignment of problems and materials.

6. A definite form in which the work is to be submitted.

c. A definite time for the work to be completed.

d. A definite means of testing the efficiency of the work.

The teacher should have an ample supply of supplemen-
tary material that may be used for make-up work instead
of the material that was used in class while the pupil was
absent. The same problems should be presented and the
same habits and skills required as have been given to the
class . Presenting the same problems with different materials
avoids the possibility of the pupil's copying another pupil's
work instead of really making the work up.

Literature on study. The teacher should put literature
into the hands of the pupils which gives practical informa-
tion and suggestions as to habit formation and self-govern-
ment. Supplement this literature with a definite list of
habits that will be helpful in learning how to study the par-
ticular subject.

Conferences. Two types of conference are suggested as
good devices for keeping in close contact with the develop-
ment of teachers; namely, group conferences and individual

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 187

conferences. Both types are important and essential to good
supervision. The technique of directing these conferences
will be discussed in some detail in Section C.

Training in use of standard tests and scales. Standard
tests and scales have been thoroughly enough established
now so that they may be used to great advantage in deter-
mining pedagogical problems. The use of such tests and
scales, however, is accompanied by certain dangers which
can be avoided only by a thorough understanding of the
purpose and nature of these tests.

One of the most important points that should be given
careful consideration is the fact that anything that is stand-
ardized is necessarily limited in its function. A standard is
designed to measure a certain thing and nothing else. A
standard test only tests that for which it has been designed;
hence it must not be taken as a measure of other things.
The silent-reading tests, for example, are designed to test
the speed and accuracy with which the pupil reads assigned
material. They do not test the pupil's ability to appreciate
and enjoy what he reads. Neither do they test his ability
to work out the meanings of new and difficult words, and to
choose appropriate meanings where more than one con-
struction might be put upon the words. In short, these
reading tests are limited to measuring just a small part of
the mental results that training in reading should develop in
the mind of the pupil. This small part of the mental re-
sults is highly important, however, and it should be meas-
ured in the thorough way that these tests enable it to be
measured. The frequent use of these tests will enable the
teacher to locate definitely the individual needs of the pu-
pils in silent reading. The range of individual differences
in this respect can be accurately established, and this will
enable the teacher to distribute his time and energy to best
advantage in bringing all the pupils up to the desired stand-

188

ard of efficiency. Moreover, the use of the tests enables the
teacher to measure the relative value of the various devices
and technique that he may employ in endeavoring to ac-
complish the desired results.

On the other hand, the teacher must employ other means
than the standard silent-reading tests in the measuring of
the other mental results that are desirable to secure in read-
ing. If standard tests are available for measuring any of
these other results, they should be used for measuring those
particular things, but if no such tests are at hand, then such
unstandardized means as experience has proved best must
be used.

Value of tests in grading and promoting. A second point
that is of great importance is the relative value of the stand-
ard tests and the unstandardized tests in determining the
grading and promotion of pupils. If the mental results that
are measured by the standard tests are the most important,
then the tests may be used very largely for the purpose of
determining promotions, but the teacher should be very
sure that these results are not given more weight than they
really merit. The mental results that have as yet never
been standardized may be the most important ultimately,
if not now, and they should be duly evaluated in determin-
ing grades and promotions. After all, it is only the formal
aspects of training that best lend themselves to standardiza-
tion. The enriching, the broadening, the character-making
aspects of education are much more difficult to standardize.
Nevertheless, as ultimate outcomes of education, they are
more important than any form of standardized habit or skill.

Standardized tests and standardized skills. What, then,
is the pedagogical relation that should exist between the
standardized skills and the unstandardized outcomes of edu-
cation? The relation is that of means to an end. The
standardized aspects of training should be the means of

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 189

furthering the unfonnalized processes of mental develop-
ment. They should free the mind of the learner from the
consideration of its formal development by becoming so
thoroughly habit that they function automatically. The
great danger is that these standardized aspects of training
will be made too much the end of education, and that so
much time will be given to these tools for their own sakes
that the more vital issues will be neglected. In other words,
the danger is that education will end with the mastery of
formalized, standardized habits and skills when it should
just be beginning. These standardized skills must be mas-
tered, and the standard tests are the best means yet devised
for knowing when they have been mastered to a satisfactory
degree, but education to be highly effective must always go
beyond the stages of attention to formal things for their own
sakes.

Some knowledge of their use a necessity. Not only
teachers, but supervisors and administrators, need to know
the limitations of the functions of standard tests. The
supervisor can be greatly aided in measuring the efficiency
of his teachers, in respect to securing results hi those aspects
of education that can be formalized, by the use of standard
tests. The administrator can likewise use these tests in
measuring the efficiency of his school system hi respect to
these formal aspects of education. The supervisor can de-
termine definitely, by use of these tests, what teachers need
most help in dealing with the standardized phases of sub-
ject-matter. The administrator can use the tests to locate
the particular schools or grades in his system that are weak-
est in respect to formal training. The danger is that the
efficiency of teachers and the efficiency of the school system
as a whole will be measured too much by the results secured
by the administration of standard tests, whereas these tests
should be used to discover the time in school progress at

190 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

which to stress the other aspects of education, and to use
other valid means than these tests in measuring the effi-
ciency of teachers and the efficiency of the system as a whole
in attaining the more vital outcomes of education.

Skill in using standard tests and scales should be made an
important part of every teacher's training. The technique
of administering these tests can be acquired only through
actual practice. Ample opportunity for such practice
should be provided, and it should be carried on under very
careful supervision until the desired skill has been attained.
The results secured should be utilized to the fullest possible
extent in locating individual needs, and in measuring the
value of the various devices and the forms of technique em-
ployed in the teaching of the subjects hi which the tests are
given.

Section summary. The teacher should be trained to di-
rect the study of his pupils chiefly through : definite, clearly
understood lesson assignments; recitation demands that
utilize and capitalize the preparation the pupils have been
directed to make; and making most recitations a continued
study of the lesson. Where a separate period is used for
supervised study, the teacher should master the technique
of directing group study. The technique of directing in-
dividual study through personal conferences should be mas-
tered, and this should include a definite plan for handling
make-up work. The teacher should place literature on
How to Study in the hands of the pupils.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Make an outline that will help the teacher in making lesson assign-
ments definite and clearly understood.

2. Make out in detail lesson assignments in two or more elementary-
school subjects, in keeping with your outline.

8. Make out in detail lesson assignments in two or more high-school sub-
jects, in keeping with your outline.
4. Give detailed suggestions as to the demands in the recitations in

ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES 191

geography, arithmetic, and reading that would compel the pupils to
study in the way they were directed, in order to get along well in the
recitation.

5. Give detailed suggestions as to the recitation demands that you would
make in high-school classes in history, algebra, Latin, English litera-
ture, and one of the sciences, in order to control the kind of study
preparation made by the pupils.

6. Make a detailed study recitation plan for a lesson in one of the ele-
mentary-school subjects.

7. Make a detailed study recitation plan for a lesson in one of the high-
school subjects.

8. Criticize the suggested outline given in the chapter for the direction
of group study, as to definiteness of organization, completeness or
excessiveness of details, formalism, etc. Try to improve the outline
for your own use.

9. Criticize the outline for individual conferences, and make a more
usable plan.

10. Select an elementary-school subject, and make a definite detailed plan
for handling make-up work in it.

11. Select a high-school subject, and make a definite detailed plan for
handling make-up work in it.

12. Select two or more books on How to Study that would be suitable
to place in the hands of high-school pupils.

IS. Make a set of instructions that you would recommend for grade

pupils, to aid them in studying all lessons.
14. Make a set of instructions for one subject that you would recommend

for grade pupils to aid them in preparing lessons in that subject.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR SECTION B
Betts, Geo. Herbert. The Recitation.

Good discussions of methods, devices, and technique of recitation.

Belts, Geo. Herbert. Classroom Method and Management.

Much helpful data on organization of subject-matter in elementary-school subjects.

Breed, Frederick S. " Measured Results of Supervised Study," in School
Review, March and April, 1919.

Gives experimental data and valuable conclusions.

Hall-Quest, Alfred L. Supervised Study.

Important discussions of principles, practices, and good account of experimental data.

Hall-Quest, Alfred L. The Textbook.

Good discussion of standards for judging textbooks and suggestions as to their u«e.

Jones, L. H. "The Relation of Observation to Practice Teaching in the
Preparation of the Young Teacher"; in Proc. N.E.A.. 1908, pp. 728-32.
Makes helpful distinction between observation and practice teaching.

Maxwell, C. R. The Observation of Teaching.

Good discussion of the details of observation with helpful outline*.

192 DEVICES OF SUPERVISION

McMurry, Frank. How to Study and Teaching How to Study.
A very readable and valuable book.

Monroe, W. S. Measuring the Results of Teaching.

Very valuable to the teacher as a description of the use and importance of the stand*
ard tests.

Sandwick, Richard L. How to Study and What to Study.

Discussion of " What to Study " especially helpful to pupils.

U.S. Bureau of Education. Practice Teaching for Teachers in Secondary
Schools. Bulletin 29, 1917.

See particularly page 41 for a brief description of completely organized system* of
practice teaching.

Watt, H. J. Economy and Training of Memory.
Contains excellent summary of rules.

Whipple, G. M. How to Study Effectively.

Excellent discussion of principles, and good summary of rules.

SECTION C
TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

CHAPTER XIII

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE SELECTION OF
TECHNIQUE

The purpose of supervision. That the supervisor exists
for the sake of the teachers who work under his direction,
and for the sake of the pupils who work under the direction
of the teachers, may be stated as the first important prin-
ciple in good supervision. This is a fundamental point of
view, and every supervisor who holds this point of view will
render more efficient service than he could otherwise do.
Supervisors too often look upon teachers and pupils as a
means of exploiting their ideas about the teaching of their
particular line or lines of work. They seek to show off their
own performance and to attract attention to themselves.
The progress of the teachers under his direction should be
the immediate concern of the supervisor, and indirectly the
progress of the pupils being taught by these teachers.

This might be stated just the opposite way and yet the
meaning remain the same. That is to say, the supervisor
is interested directly in the progress of the pupils being
taught, and indirectly in the progress in teaching of the
teachers who are teaching pupils. In other words, the su-
pervisor cannot secure the progress desired on the part of
the pupils being taught without securing the desired prog-
ress in teaching on the part of the teachers being supervised.
Therefore the efforts of the supervisor should be centered
upon the teaching performance of the teacher primarily as a

194 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

means of accomplishing definite desired results. Keep the
teacher in the foreground, then, should be the motto of the
supervisor.

This point of view gives the supervisor a large responsibil-
ity in the training and directing of the teachers. The suc-
cess or failure of the teachers is to a considerable extent the
success or failure of the supervisor. The supervisor should
make the teachers realize at the outset that he is there for
the purpose of helping, and that their interests are mutual.
The teachers should be encouraged to regard the presence
and efforts of the supervisor as an opportunity for them in
becoming more efficient and successful as teachers. They
should feel free to consult the supervisor at any and all
times, and upon any phase of their work upon which they
feel the need of assistance. In other words, the teachers
should be made to feel that they should study diligently to
discover the ways in which the supervisor can serve them
most.

Supervision to develop independence and efficiency.
That every act of the supervisor should be for the purpose
of making the teachers under his direction independent and
efficient, may be stated as the second fundamental principle
in good supervision. One of the prime objects is to develop
independence on the part of the teachers. This independ-
ence must come through the formation of right habits and
the acquisition of skill in applying these habits to the prob-
lems of teaching. The supervisor must not let his technique
of supervision get in the way of the process of developing in-
dependence and initiative on the part of the teachers under
him. The teachers must not only become independent and
acquire the habit of taking the initiative, but they must be
efficient and reliable in their independence.

Teachers, though, may easily initiate ideas that will not
lead to good results. Therefore the supervisor is responsi-

THE SELECTION OF TECHNIQUE 195

ble for the development of reliability of judgment as well as
the habit of initiative. In other words, the habit of under-
taking new experiments to meet situations — that is, initia-
tive — must be checked by the practice of proceeding upon
some definitely accurate basis that is significant. The
teachers must not be encouraged to dash into things spon-
taneously in order to exhibit initiative and originality. The
technique of the supervisor should tend to develop the relia-
ble type of initiative and dependable independence rather
than the spontaneous trial-and-error sort of independence
and haphazard form of initiative that undertakes new
things, but seldom makes anything out of them that is
worth while.

Constructive work a necessity. That the technique of
the supervisor should be constructive, and not destructive,
may be stated as the third fundamental principle hi good
supervision. This is of fundamental importance, and
should be followed in selecting the technique of the super-
visor. It is likewise one of the most difficult principles to
follow. All criticism tends to be destructive. One must
not lose sight of the fact that often before one can build one
must destroy that which stands in the place of what is to be
built. Destruction, therefore, may be the preliminary step
of real constructive procedure. As a rule, however, the de-
struction of the undesirable is brought about best by the
substitution of the desirable. In other words, the processes
of destruction and construction are simultaneous, instead of
consecutive or alternative.

A really destructive criticism, then, would be one that
merely destroys or attacks an existing practice without sub-
stituting anything in its place. Such criticism is never help-
ful, and never has a good effect upon the relations between
supervisor and teachers. Such a destructive procedure is
not only not helpful, but it is even dangerous for the super-

196 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

visor. The supervisor who finds fault, picks flaws, and cen-
sures without showing clearly the practice that should be
followed, and without showing what the results of better
practice would be, will soon lose the confidence of his teach-
ers. Any one can find fault, but who can show how to mend
the defect? That is the critical point for the teacher, and
the supervisor should practice such technique as to meet
this critical test fairly and satisfactorily.

Supervisory technique not unvarying. That the tech-
nique of supervision should be modified to meet the varying
conditions under which the work of supervision is carried
on is a fourth important principle of supervision. No act of
technique is in and of itself either good or bad. The value
of each act must be measured by the conditions under which
it is put forth and the character of the results secured. In
other words, the supervisor should select his technique in
keeping with the satisfactory outcome of his performance,
and not according to some preconceived notion of what
ought to constitute good technique. If the supervisor puts
forth acts merely because they conform to some concept
that he has of how the work should be done, but fails to
modify his performance in the face of unsatisfactory results,
he will look upon his work as being well done, and with per-
fect complacency he will lay the cause of failure to obtain
desired results to other factors, elements, or conditions than
his own acts. Since his own acts were religiously performed,
and with a regularity and definiteness that are practically
perfect, he is apt to feel that the unsatisfactory results can-
not possibly be due to such seemingly perfect technique.
Therefore, instead of looking about for new points hi tech-
nique that may possibly remedy the situation, the super-
visor shifts the responsibility upon the teachers supervised,
or upon conditions, etc.

The technique of supervision should be economical. This

THE SELECTION OF TECHNIQUE 197

may be given as a fifth important principle in the supervi-
sion of instruction. The acts of the supervisor in directing
the work of teachers should be of such a character that they
will enable him to accomplish a maximum of results with a
minimum of time and energy. This economy of time and
energy must be measured by the ultimate results of the su-
pervisor's work, and not merely by the immediately obvious
results. Immediate results that are good usually lay the
foundation for ultimate results that are satisfactory; there-
fore technique that secures excellent immediate results is for
the most part fundamentally correct. Sometimes, however,
the immediate results may be meager or even unsatisfactory,
and yet the technique practiced prove eventually to have
been correct because of the ultimate results that were not
apparent from the immediate outcome of the supervising
activities. Ultimate results are the final test, for they bear
fruit after the activities of the supervisor are no longer car-
ried on in connection with the work of the teacher and the
efforts of the pupils. Therefore, in selecting technique on
the basis of its economy, the determining criterion should be
the ultimate results of the supervising activities, and these
results must be established by experience rather than by
mere theory.

Chapter summary. The supervisor exists for the sake of
his teachers; hence he should make every act further their
independence and efficiency. His technique should always
be constructive instead of destructive, and modified to meet
the conditions under which the supervision is carried on,
and in such a way as to render the technique most effective
and economical.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give three or more cases, from your experience, in which the super-
visor did not exist for the sake of his teachers.

2. Give three or more cases, from your experience, in which the super*
visor did exist for the sake of his teachers.

198 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

8. Give two or more examples, from your experience, in which the
supervisor made his teachers independent.

4. Give two or more examples, from your experience, in which the super-
visor stifled the independence of his teachers.

5. Give five illustrations of destructive criticism of teaching perform-
ances.

6. Give five illustrations of constructive criticism of teaching perform-
ances.

7. Give five illustrations of how the same point of technique may be
good in one situation and bad in another.

8. Give two or more cases, from your experience, in which the technique
of the supervisor was not economical.

9. Give two or more examples, from your experience, of economical
technique in supervision.

CHAPTER XIV
SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE

Technique and devices. The discussion of technique will
involve some discussion of devices which are so closely in-
volved hi the technique itself as to be difficult to treat sepa-
rately and yet be practical. These devices were omitted
under the regular discussion of devices in order to avoid
needless repetition. In like manner and for the same pur-
pose some degree of discussion of technique was given in the
discussion of devices. Some few phases of devices and tech-
nique have necessarily been given under both discussions.
This fact, however, will merely serve to emphasize their im-
portance. In actual practice the supervisor must practice
good technique in manipulating devices, and he must em-
ploy good devices that enable him to execute efficient tech-
nique. In other words, sometimes the technique must be
adapted for the sake of securing the best results from the
device, but for the most part the device exists for the sake of
the technique.

1. Visiting the teacher at work

The supervisor must visit the teacher at work in the class-
room in order to become acquainted with his strong points
and his weaknesses. This aspect of the supervisor's work
presents several important problems. These will be taken
up in order and discussed in some detail.

When should the supervisor begin visiting? The teacher
is given charge of the class, and is now to be held responsible
for conducting it for a definite period of time. The super-
visor has given the teacher full instructions concerning the

200 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

various duties that he is to perform, and, let us suppose, has
also placed detailed lesson plans in the hands of the teacher
to guide his work for the first few days. Now comes the
question as to whether the supervisor shall begin visiting
from the very outset, or shall stay away for a day or two
and give the teacher some opportunity to get the situation
somewhat in hand so that he will not feel so self-conscious
when the supervisor is present.

This question may be answered satisfactorily by weighing
all the factors that should be considered in deciding that the
teacher is ready to take up the active work of managing and
teaching a class. Presumably the teacher should be able to
get along for a few days without the presence of the super-
visor. If the teacher cannot be trusted to this extent, there
is certainly a large question as to the advisability of putting
him in charge of a class at all. On the other hand, if the
teacher is capable of handling the class independently and
without danger of serious results for the class, then the
teacher cannot be seriously disturbed by the presence of the
supervisor from the very first day. The actual facts are
that practically everything depends upon the personality
and attitude of the supervisor and the temperament of the
teacher. Some teachers find it very difficult ever to become
accustomed to visitors of any character whatsoever. Such
teachers will always feel more or less self-conscious when-
ever the supervisor is present in the classroom. Again,
some teachers feel perfectly free hi the presence of one super-
visor, and are badly flustered and ill at ease in the presence
of another supervisor. How, then, shall the answer to the
question be determined?

Answer in the light of purpose. Every supervisor must
settle this question in the light of ah1 the facts in each case.
The suggestion that seems valid, however, is that the more
visiting the supervisor does, the better it is for both super-

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE 201

visor and teacher. The more they work together, the better
they will come to understand one another and to appreciate
one another's individual characteristics. The more timid
and self-conscious the teacher is, the more he needs to be
visited in order that he may have ample opportunity to
overcome his weakness. The time that the supervisor has
charge of the work of the teacher is all too short at best, and
every day that passes is that much opportunity gone for-
ever. Therefore the logical time to begin visiting the work
of the teacher is the very first recitation that the teacher
conducts. The visits should be for the whole period, and
they should continue, as time permits, until the teacher has
thoroughly mastered the situation. The visits may then be
less frequent, but they should continue to be relatively fre-
quent, as long as there is possibility of assisting the teacher
in overcoming faults and in establishing new habits of effi-
cient teaching. The main point for the supervisor to keep
in mind is that the performance of supervision must seek al-
ways to further the development of the teacher, and never
to really get in the way of this development. That is to say,
all things considered, the teacher and the pupils under the
teacher should be better off because of the presence of the
supervisor in the classroom during the recitation.

Entering the classroom. The supervisor often has to en-
ter the classroom after the beginning of the recitation. He
should enter in such a manner as to attract as little atten-
tion as possible. The supervisor should not intentionally
become the center of attraction as soon as he enters the
room. The writer has seen a supervisor come bustling into
the room, hi the midst of a recitation, interrupt the whole
procedure to say, "Good-morning, boys and girls," and

" Good-morning, Miss X ." Then would follow a few

minutes of animated consultation with the teacher or some
gtagy fussing around the teacher's desk before finally set-

tling down and allowing the teacher to go on with the work
that had been interrupted.

Presumably the only justification for such a cyclonic per-
formance was an attempt to create a social situation and
teach the children good manners. The real effect, however,
was that of making it apparent to every one that the super-
visor had arrived, and his majestic presence must be prop-
erly greeted and recognized before the work in hand could
proceed properly. His show of enthusiasm and his fussing
around before the pupils were all for effect. He wished to
seem important and to make his visit seem to contribute
immediately something noticeable to the life of the school.
The real fact is that he contributed little else than a diver-
sion. Diversions may be good things occasionally, but
much better devices than well-paid supervisors could be em-
ployed to create highly interesting diversions.

Position of the supervisor in the classroom. The super-
visor should sit in an inconspicuous place in the classroom,
but so as to be able to observe both the teacher and the en-
tire class. Rooms that are to be visited regularly by super-
visors should have desk chairs conveniently placed for them
These should usually be in the rear of the room, but they
may be near the front if the rooms are so arranged that the
passing to the rear would attract more attention than would
otherwise be the case. Most schoolrooms are so arranged
as to have an entrance at the rear from a cloakroom or hall.
When this is the case the supervisor can easily enter quietly
at the rear and attract no attention other than that the
pupils become aware that he is present. The supervisor
should not sit at the teacher's desk unless he intends to con-
duct the recitation, and has come primarily for that purpose.
The reason is obvious. The supervisor at the teacher's desk
is more conspicuous than the teacher, and pupils cannot give
undivided attention to the work of the recitation. More-

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE 203

over, the teacher is placed in an awkward position, and finds
it difficult to offset the feeling that the supervisor has as-
sumed a critical attitude and a judicial air. The teacher
cannot help feeling that he is on trial before the high court.
Not all teachers would feel this embarrassment, and not all
supervisors would create such an impression, no matter
where they sat during the recitation, but many teachers will
feel this embarrassment; hence the best plan is to follow a
technique that precludes the forceful suggestiveness that
comes from taking the seat of authority in the classroom.

When the supervisor sits in the rear of the room, or in
some equally inconspicuous place, the teacher is made to
feel that the supervisor is for the time being a member of
the class. The teacher in presenting the lesson to the pupils
is also presenting it to the supervisor. Moreover, the super-
visor and teacher can develop a sort of team work that will
enable them to communicate with each other without the
pupils being aware of the fact. For example, the room may
need a little ventilating, or adjustment of light, etc. The
teacher may not notice these items until a glance from the
supervisor directs his attention to them. The teacher can
then tactfully look after them in such a manner as to create
the least possible disturbance, and so lose the least possible
time. Other suggestions may also be conveyed to the
teacher without attracting the attention of the pupils. The
possibilities of utilizing the place in the room to direct the
recitation in this way should not be neglected by super-
visors.

Leaving the room. The supervisor often finds it neces-
sary to leave the room before the end of the recitation pe-
riod. Whenever this is the case, the supervisor should with-
draw in such a manner as to attract as little attention as
possible. The supervisor who was mentioned above always
made his departure as conspicuous as his arrival. He must

«04 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

say, "Good-bye, boys and girls," and "Good-bye, Miss
X ." Then he would go sweeping out with a royal dig-
nity that held the attention of the pupils until he was out of
sight and hearing. The supervisor who is attempting to do
constructive educational work through training and direct-
ing the teachers will find no advantage or benefit in such
spectacular, grand-stand performances. The departure of
the supervisor should not be an event in the life of the school,
unless, perhaps, it is a permanent departure. That would
certainly be worth celebrating if the supervisor were like the
one mentioned.

The arrival of the supervisor, the place he occupies in the
classroom, and his departure should all be in keeping with
the first principle of technique; namely, that the supervisor
should exist for the sake of the teachers and pupils. The
greater the power and efficiency of the supervisor, the less
conspicuous his presence needs to be in visiting the teachers
in the classrooms. The person who resorts to making a
spectacular display of his performance of visiting has little
to commend him, for he lacks valid means of making his
work felt. In other words, it is just a form of bluffing to
hide inefficiency. Here, as in most cases, the person who
seems to do the least is usually doing the most, and vice
versa.

Making comments on the recitation. The supervisor
should make a good many notes on the recitation. This
should be done in such a manner as not to attract the atten-
tion of the pupils and not to disconcert the teacher. The
teacher will have some difficulty at first, no doubt, La over-
coming the tendency to self-consciousness that the writing
of notes by the supervisor on the recitation during its prog-
ress will produce. The character of the notes and comments
will have much to do with helping the teacher to become
accustomed to the note-taking, so that he will no longer be

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE *05

distracted or made anxious by it. The notes should be an
accurate account of what actually takes place and the com-
ments should be suggestive rather than critical. Many of
the notes should be in the nature of diagnoses of the indi-
vidual difficulties of pupils, as shown by the actual reactions
during the recitation. These diagnoses will be very helpful
to the teacher, and will give him a basis for modifying his
subsequent procedure. Such a concrete basis would be very
difficult if not well-nigh impossible for the teacher to secure
during the progress of the recitation. An expert teacher
should be able to do this sort of diagnosing in the midst of
the recitation, but it cannot be expected of the teacher who
is working under supervision.

Delivering the written notes and comments. If feasible
a conference between the teacher and supervisor should fol-
low the class to discuss it in a way that would be most help-
ful to the teacher. If circumstances do not permit this, the
supervisor should, as a rule, leave the written notes, com-
ments, and suggestions in closed form; that is, so that a
glance at the outside will not disclose the contents. This
should be especially true when the notes must be left in the
room upon leaving. If possible, the notes should be left in
the office, or in a place prepared for that purpose, such as a
box of pigeon-holes marked alphabetically and conveniently
placed for the use of the teachers in receiving written com-
munications. This plan will avoid curiosity that may be
aroused in the minds of the pupils and the anxiety that may
be caused in the mind of the teacher. All written notes and
suggestions should be in duplicate or triplicate form, so that
the teacher and supervisor may each have a copy.

As a final suggestion it may be well to add that all visita-
tion, supervision, and inspection of the work of the teacher
should be open and at the same time inconspicuous, as has
been suggested above. The visits of the supervisor should

206 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

never be of the keyhole-inspection type. The results of the
inspection or visit should always be submitted to the
teacher. The teacher should always have an opportunity
to explain conditions for which he is not responsible, and
these explanations should be given due consideration in
evaluating the worth of the teacher's work.

2. Criticizing the work of the teacher

Outline form for notes. The supervisor should take care-
ful and accurate notes on the recitation, and base sugges-
tions and criticisms upon the actual acts of the teacher and
reactions of the pupils. The work of taking notes may be
greatly simplified by using a regular printed form that con-
tains practically all of the points that the supervisor needs
to check up on the recitation. This printed form should be
so made that a carbon sheet can be used. This will enable
the supervisor to give one copy of his notes and suggestions
to the teacher, and retain a copy for his own reference. The
following outline is suggestive of the points that might well
be included in such a form:

SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOE NOTES

J. Physical conditions.

1. Temperature of room.

2. Quality of air.

3. Posture of pupils.

4. Good housekeeping.

5. Discipline.

//. Method.

1. Defects and errors in the application of the principles of
method. Description of actual procedure should be
given as the basis for pointing out defects and errors.

2. Suggestive outline for correct presentation of same les-
son or phases of subject-matter, or for presentation of
the succeeding lesson if it employs the application of the

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE 207

game principles of method. This outline should be in
considerable detail, and should contain very definite
constructive suggestions as to the application of the
principles of method. The key to the principles of
method that are applied in the teaching of the lesson is
found in the mental procedure of the pupils. This is an
important point, and one that should be consciously in
the mind of the supervisor as he studies the progress of
the recitation.

III. Devices.

1. General.

a. Lack of effective ones.

b. Wrong use of good ones.

c. Wrong devices used.

d. Good devices used.

2. Special.

a. Lack of effective ones.

b. Wrong use of good ones.

c. Wrong devices used.

d. Good devices used.

The supervisor should be careful to get quite full data
on the actual use of devices. Constructive suggestions
should be made as to how the good devices that were
wrongly used should have been used.

IV. Technique.

1. Quantitative data.

a. Number of times each fault of technique was com-
mitted during the time the supervisor was in the
room. For example, the teacher may repeat the
answers given by the pupils twenty or thirty times
during a single recitations. The supervisor should
make accurate observations and record them. The
teacher will usually be greatly astonished to learn
he is practicing such faulty technique in so auto-
matic a manner.

6. Number of times each good point of technique was
practiced during the time the supervisor was in the
room. This might not be regarded by some as a
criticism. It is, however, a form of positive criti-

308 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

cism that should not be overlooked. The supervi-
sor will do well to try to match every negative criti-
cism with a positive one that needs to be retained
and perfected.
2. Qualitative data.

a. Effect of specific acts of the teacher upon the recita-
tion. For example, the constant repetition of the
answer of the pupils invariably leads to inattention
and indifference on the part of the pupils. It also
tends to slow up the recitation, and thus decrease
interest. It also consumes a great amount of valu-
able tune.

The supervisor should be careful to warn the teacher re-
peatedly against thinking that because an application of a
principle of method, a use of a device, or a bit of technique
is wrong in a particular situation, it is always wrong. On
the other hand, the teacher should also be warned against
thinking that because an application of a principle of
method, a device used, or a bit of technique practiced is
right in a particular situation, it is always right. For ex-
ample, the repetition of the answer of the pupils by the
teacher is not always a wrong practice in technique. Its
practice, however, in general tends to produce detrimental
effects such as were pointed out above. Take as another
example the asking of the question first before naming the
pupil who is to answer. This practice is in general right.
There are times, however, when it is perfectly good tech-
nique to name the pupil before asking the question. In
other words, the situation, the group of pupils, and sur-
rounding conditions modify the practice in technique and
determine very largely whether it is right or wrong. The
suggestive criticisms and suggestions of the supervisor
should be consistent and persistent in breaking up wrong
habits. This should be especially true in regard to the habits
of technique.

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE 209

V. Subject-matter.

1. Lack of knowledge.

2. Errors. These should be carefully tabulated in order
that they may be brought to the notice of the teacher.

VI. Results.

1. Accomplishment of ami stated in the lesson plan.

2. Knowledge definitely acquired by the class.

3. Habits positively furthered.

VII. Adherence to lesson plan. If changes-were made, were they
justifiable? Criticisms of the lesson plans should be made
orally, and preferably they should precede the recitation. No
criticism of the teacher's work should be made orally during
the recitation or in the presence of the pupils.

Rate of procedure in supervision. The supervisor will
find it to be of great advantage to attack only a limited part
of the above points at a time. The selection of a few of the
most obvious and very vital points at a time, and careful
consideration of these before taking up another group of
points, will bring the best results. The teacher cannot
think and watch all the many points in technique and ap-
plication of principles of method at the same time. If he
tries to become master over a small group first, and then an-
other small group, etc., until all the vital and fundamental
points have been rounded up and practiced upon, the best
progress will be made in habit formation and the most effi-
cient permanent results will be secured.

3. Conferences, and checking-up icork

Types of conferences with teachers. The supervisor
should hold two types of conferences with the teachers;
namely, group conferences and individual conferences. A
definite technique for conducting these conferences will go
far toward rendering them effective. The following points
may well be characteristic of these conferences:

210 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

NATURE AND PURPOSE OP CONFERENCES

/. Group conferences.

1. Meet the group of teachers at fixed times, and for a defi-
nite period.

2. Make the teachers feel that the conference is an oppor-
tunity, and not just a requirement.

3. Encourage the teachers to raise the problems that have
come to them in their work.

4. Throw each individual's question and problems open for
free discussion by the group. Stimulate the exchange of
ideas and comparison of experiences in dealing with the
questions and problems.

5. Present general suggestions and constructive criticisms
in the form of questions based upon data accumulated
during classroom visits.

6. Stimulate discussion of the suggestions and criticisms, so
that the teachers themselves determine the correct an-
swers and formulate the procedure that should be fol-
lowed in setting up more efficient practices.

II. Individual conferences.

1. Meet each teacher for a personal conference at a definite
time, preferably each week, to go over the lesson plans
for the entire week.

2. Where feasible, meet each teacher for a short conference
each day to go over the detailed daily lesson plan for the
next recitation.

8. Encourage the teachers to come individually to talk over
their difficulties and to consult for advice on special
problems. Let them ask for such conferences and ar-
range the time.

4. Encourage the teachers to come for individual conferences
regarding the written notes and comments made on par-
ticular recitations. Stimulate the teachers to answer the
problems that are based upon these written data so that
they become their own critics. One of the important out-
comes of supervision should be that of making the teach-
ers critical of their own performances.

5. Present specific suggestions and constructive criticisms in
the form of questions and problems based on the above
data.

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE 211

6. Encourage the teachers by specific suggestions to individ-
uals to take the initiative in discovering and solving prob-
lems of teaching.

Checking the work of the pupils taught. This is to be
done as a basis for constructive criticism of the work of the
teacher, as a means for guarding the welfare of the pupils in
their progress in the subject or subjects taught, and to in-
sure justice and uniformity in giving marks and assigning
the credit that should be given the pupils at the close of the
work.

The supervisor should carry out a definite program of
procedure in checking up the work of the pupils. The fol-
lowing items are suggestive of what may be done to good
advantage:

1. Note the character of the responses made by the pupils in the
recitation, as indicative of motivated interest in the subject.

2. Note the individual differences of pupils as to general ma-
turity of physical and mental development, background of
knowledge and experience that is helpful in the study of the
subject, and rate of progress in mastering the subject. Is the
teacher adapting the course to meet these differences?

8. From time to time make a record of marks that should be as-
signed to the pupils, and compare with the marks given by
the teacher for the same piece of work.

4. Examine all quiz questions before they are given; examine
and mark a set of examination papers of the pupils, and com-
pare marks with those given by the teacher.

5. Give recognized standard tests at appropriate times during
the course, to discover whether or not the pitch of the course
is standard and the rate of progress up to the normal possi-
bilities.

6. Test ability of the pupils to learn new subject-matter in the
same field and in allied fields.

7. From time to time secure information as to the actual length
of time spent in the outside preparation of the lessons.

Assigning grades and marks to pupils. The assigning of
grades and marks is a very difficult problem, and requires

212 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

excellent technique to insure accuracy and fairness. There-
fore the supervisor, in carrying out the suggestions outlined
above, should work out definite, detailed technique for
grading and marking the work of the pupils. Such tech-
nique should involve a number of standards.
The following suggestions have proved practical:

I. Standards of achievement, which designate:

1. A definite number of fact units.

2. A maximum and minimum of speed, accuracy, etc., in
special habits and skills.

3. A definite evidence of achievement in general habits and
skills.

II. A range of marks which extends as far below the minimum or
passing mark as it does above it. For example, if D is pass-
ing, the marks should range from A to G. The marks, E, F,
G are just as significant in showing how far below the mini-
mum the pupils fall as are A, B, C in giving the upper range.
HI. A scheme of grading, that gives definite weight to:

1. Form, and

2. Content, according to the nature of the subject and the
phase of achievement that is being tested.

IV. A scheme of recording marks that shows the achievement:

1. Phases (facts, habits); and by

2. Units within the phases. For example, in arithmetic
the pupil might have a mark of A in knowledge of com-
mon fractions, and a mark of D in decimals. Likewise
he might have a mark of B in speed of adding whole
numbers, and a mark of E in accuracy.

The supervisor should make every effort to eliminate the
influence of physical condition, mood, prejudice, partiality,
over-enthusiasm for the subject, over-sympathy for the
pupil, etc., in grading and marking the tests.

Chapter summary. The supervisor should visit the
teacher at work almost daily from the very beginning. He
should enter and leave the room in an inconspicuous man-
ner, and occupy an inconspicuous position while in the
room. He should make detailed notes on the work ob-

SELECTED FORMS OF TECHNIQUE 213

served, and deliver these notes to the teacher in such form
and manner as not to distract or embarrass the teacher.
The criticisms offered upon the teacher's work should cover
points in method, devices, and technique, but they should
be focused at first upon a few of the most vital points, and
be gradually extended as the teacher develops. The super-
visor should encourage the teacher, through conference, to
discover and solve his own problems. He should safeguard
the work of the pupils by checking up their work from time
to time, and grading them on their work.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give examples, from your experience, of incorrect technique of enter-
ing, leaving, and position occupied in the room practiced by a super-
visor when visiting a teacher at work.

2. Give examples, from your experience, of good technique in classroom
visitation practiced by a supervisor.

3. Make two visits to different classes at work and hand in copies of the
notes taken during the visits, in the same form that you would submit
them to the teacher visited.

4. Make a blank form for the supervisor to use in criticizing the work of
his teachers. Criticize the outline for criticism of the teacher's work
that is given in this chapter, and show how it can be improved.

5. Make five visits to different teachers, and hand in copies of lists of
the most obvious vital points in method, devices, and technique that
might well be attacked first by the supervisor in developing these
teachers.

6. Plan in detail a group conference with teachers you have visited, and
show how you would lead them to raise the teaching problems and
carry on the discussion of them.

7. Make a suggestive outline that you might give to teachers to help
them in becoming critical of their own performances.

8. Visit a class at work, report in writing the motives that seem to influ-
ence the pupils, and give the types of responses upon which you deter-
mine the motives.

9. Visit a class at work, and make a written report of the kinds and
ranges of individual differences discovered during the recitation.

10. Visit a class daily for a week, and grade and assign marks to the class
according to the suggestions given in this chapter under "Assigning
grades and marks to pupils."

CHAPTER XV
ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER

Considerations in estimating success. The estimate of
the success of the teacher is based upon two large considera-
tions which are so related as to make the relative emphasis
that should be given to each very difficult to determine. The
one consideration is the success of the teacher in mastering
the principles of method, his resourcefulness in inventing
devices, his success in acquiring skill of technique, and his
independence of thought in analyzing new teaching situa-
tions and of action in meeting them. The other considera-
tion is the results of the teacher's work, which are shown by
a careful checking-up and measuring of the work of the pu-
pils who are under the teacher's charge. This second item
is the gauge that is used ordinarily by school people and the
general public in deciding the success of the teacher, and
very often the teacher is held responsible when the pupils
and other individuals should bear the blame. The teacher
might be highly successful from the standpoint of the first
consideration, and still fail to accomplish the desired results
in the work of the pupils because he is too consciously ab-
sorbed in achieving mastery over the items of mere teach-
ing. If, however, the teacher has such mastery of the sci-
ence of teaching that he subconsciously adapts it to the
achievement of desired results in the work and lives of his
pupils, the failure of the pupils can surely not be charged to
the teacher. Conditions over which the teacher may have
no control may obtain to the degree that the most expert
teaching cannot succeed in accomplishing the desired re-
sults. Conditions may be such that the pupils themselves
are not to be blamed for failure.

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER £15

On the other hand, the teaching may be poor, and yet the
pupils show very satisfactory results when their work is
checked. That is to say, the pupils may be getting outside
of school from other sources the training that the teacher is
supposed to be giving them. Hence, judging the efficiency
of the teaching, without seeing and carefully studying his
work, by the tests which the pupils may be able to pass, is
not sound practice. The conclusion seems evident that in
order to place the correct relative emphasis upon these two
considerations in deciding the success of the teacher, the
supervisor must check his measure of the performances of
the teacher against the results shown by tests given to the
pupils, and at the same time account for the other factors
that in any given situation have had much to do with de-
termining the effectiveness of the teacher's work.

The rating of teachers. The rating of the teacher as
measured by the first consideration just set forth requires a
most careful study and accurate analysis of the teacher's
classroom performances, in the light of a definite set of
standards. Vague generalizations and broad guesses must
give way to scientific analysis and accurate measurement.
If a set of definite standards cannot be set up, by means of
which the efficiency of the teacher can be reliably measured,
then the rating of teachers should be abandoned altogether.
The standards that are used must involve many detailed
points, but each point must admit of definite measurement.
That is to say, each point must be objectively exhibited in
the performance of the teacher. If other points than those
that can be objectively measured seem desirable, these
points should be given under the head of general impres-
sions and personal reactions.

A number of schemes for rating teachers has been devised.
These have been used with varying degrees of success. The
main point that must be kept in mind in the use of any

210 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

scheme is that of carefully analyzing the evidences secured
in valid ways and basing all estimates upon the results of
such analysis. The outline that follows in this discussion is
merely suggestive of the sort of detailed analysis the su-
pervisor should make of the teaching performances of hif
teachers.

Suggested outline for teacher rating

Intellectual ability. The future growth and development
of the teacher is largely dependent upon his native intellec-
tual ability. The present efficiency of the teacher is also
greatly determined by the ability that he has to grasp the
various situations presented from day to day in the school-
room, and to think intelligently about them. Since the
supervisor is concerned with both the present performance of
the teacher and the promise it holds for his future efficiency,
he should make a careful study of the various evidences that
come under his observation and estimate this factor of in-
tellectual ability as accurately as possible. The employ-
ment of standardized intelligence tests may be the most
reliable means of determining this factor, but such tests
should be given only by experts. Even then the check of
practical observations of the teacher's keenness of intellect
is desirable and invaluable in determining the rank of the
teacher in this trait.

General scholarship. One very important item in the
efficiency of the teacher is his general scholarship. The in-
dividual who possesses a wide range of knowledge, and es-
pecially an intelligent acquaintance with many fields of
modern activity, will be able to present the specific prob-
lems in any particular subject in their relations to broader
problems and fields of subject-matter. The supervisor
should check up the range of the teacher's general training
and experience, including high-school, even elementary-

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 217

school work, college courses, and industrial, professional,
civic, and social activities that the teacher has engaged in
specifically and definitely. He should study the influence
that this background of training seems to have upon the
teacher's efficiency, and be able to advise him as to the lines
in which he needs to extend his general equipment and
development.

Special scholarship. The item of scholarship that most
immediately and most noticeably affects the teacher's effi-
ciency in the classroom is his special knowledge of the sub-
jects he is teaching, and his knowledge of the science of edu-
cation, particularly his mastery of the science of teaching
these particular subjects. The supervisor needs to know
the range of training that the teacher has in the subjects he
is teaching, and the training he has received in subjects
closely allied to them. Moreover, he should know the gen-
eral degree of success with which the teacher has dealt with
these bodies of subject-matter. The supervisor should in
like manner know the range of professional subject-matter
studied by the teacher, and the degree of success with which
he has pursued these studies.

The efficiency of the teacher in dealing accurately with
the facts in the subjects he teaches should not only be care-
fully checked up, but inefficiency at any time should be ac-
counted for as far as possible in terms of the teacher's train-
ing in these special subjects. The supervisor should be able
to judge whether or not the present inaccuracies of knowl-
edge exhibited in the teacher's work will likely disappear
with experience as the specific training in the subjects has
more and more opportunity to be used, or whether the
teacher needs more specific training and study in certain
aspects of his special lines of work. The supervisor should
keep in mind the important fact that he is not only estimat-
ing the present efficiency of the teacher's knowledge, but

218 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

that he is also predicting the future efficiency as indicated
by the range of training and present measure or rank.

Ability to express thoughts. The most important item in
expression of thoughts is fluency and correctness of English.
The teacher who lacks command of a vocabulary that is not
only appropriate to the subject being taught, but that is
also appropriate to the language ability of the pupils being
taught, is not an efficient teacher, no matter how fluent and
correct his speech may be. The test of ability to express
thoughts, then, is in what the pupils get readily and clearly
from the language of the teacher. All other things being
equal, fluency of expression will no doubt contribute to the
readiness with which the pupils grasp what the teacher says,
and correctness will have an influence upon the language
habits of the pupils.

A second factor in expressing thoughts is the quality and
control of the voice. The teacher may use appropriate
words and fluent, correct sentences, and yet fail to make his
ideas clearly and readily understood because he has such
a shrill, explosive, rasping, muffled, or other disagreeable
quality of voice. Not only the quality of voice, but its con-
trol, has much to do with the readiness of comprehension on
the part of the listener. A monotonous or lifeless tone of
voice does not carry thought as does the well-modulated yet
vigorous voice. The power of the voice must be regulated
to suit the size of the room and the character of the discus-
sion, as well as the age of the pupils. Young pupils may be
frightened by the too loud, or be soothed by the well-regu-
lated force of the teacher's vocal expression. ,The teacher
needs to know both his present effectiveness and his future
possibilities in regard to his voice as a factor in expressing
his thoughts.

Teaching ability. This item should be confined to those
factors that bear immediately upon the preparation and

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 219

presentation of subject-matter. A number of details figure
in this, and they should be critically studied over a consid-
erable period of time in order to get an accurate measure
ment of each point. As many concrete evidences as possi
ble should be accumulated under each point suggested in the
following discussion.

1. Mastery of the principles of method. The test of effi-
ciency on this point is in the recognition the teacher gives ta
the mental procedure going on in the minds of the pupils
during the recitation, and the degree to which he anticipate*
what the mental procedure will be in the study preparation
of the pupils. The mere fact that the teacher organizes
subject-matter in the form of inductive or deductive prob-
lems does not indicate a mastery of the principles of method.
The attempt of the teacher to have pupils memorize ma-
terials by the "whole method" rather than by the "part
method " does not show that he understands the pedagogi-
cal principles involved. The crucial point is, does the
teacher have an intelligent conception of what the minds of
the pupils are doing in the learning of whatever it is he is
undertaking to teach them? This test cannot be applied by
mere observation of the classroom performance. Critical
discussions with the teacher before the recitation, and also
after, to get definitely what he anticipates will happen and
what he realizes did happen, are necessary in making an
accurate measure of the teacher's efficiency, so far as it is
indicated by his mastery of method.

2. Intelligence and resourcefulness in selecting and adapt-
ing devices. Devices are invented, and no set of inventions
that fits one situation or one type of situation just exactly
fits another situation or type. The teacher should show
that he knows what each pupil needs to further his learning,
and when to discard devices that l>ecome tasks rather than
aids to the pupils. The fact that the teacher can enumerate

220 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

glibly the general range of devices that have customarily
been used in teaching a subject or any phase of a subject,
and the use of these devices in his teaching, is not necessa-
rily evidence of his efficiency. The supervisor must get into
the thinking of the teacher and find out why he made this
selection or that selection of devices, this modification or
that modification, and why he failed to modify or even dis-
card this or that device in the face of a given situation. The
observation of the devices used by the teacher may disclose
accidental success or failure when the data are checked up
with the teacher and carefully analyzed. The objective
data secured by keen observation are absolutely necessary
in measuring the efficiency of the teacher in respect to de-
vices, but the data must be evaluated and not just taken at
face value.

3. Definiteness of lesson planning and skill in following the
plan. This is largely a matter of habit, and the supervisor
cannot measure it by scrutinizing a few written plans and by
visiting a few recitations. This habit must be studied as it
manifests its efficiency in all types of subject-matter and
various recitation situations. It involves a clear conception
of the aims of education and the specific purposes for which
the subject is being taught. Definite planning must mean
worth-while planning as well as ability to organize a plan of
action and then to carry it through. The supervisor must
get an insight into the teacher's thinking about the purposes
the teacher is trying definitely to realize in his teaching, ul-
timately and immediately. Knowing this the supervisor
can judge how definite the teacher's plans are and how thor-
oughly he realizes them. Then, upon a sufficient amount of
objective data in the way of written plans and teaching per-
formances based on these plans, a reliable measure can be
made of the degree to which the habit has been formed.

4. Skill and reliability of technique. This item of effi-

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 221

ciency is a highly important one, and the supervisor should
secure a vast amount of objective data that reliably shows
the degree to which typically good habits have been well
formed, and the extent to which typically bad habits are
practiced by the teacher. A large number of visits, that in-
sures the witnessing of the teaching of different types of
materials and teaching under different conditions, is essen-
tial to discover the many points in technique necessary to
the highest degree of efficiency that should be expected of
the teacher. Good days must be checked against bad days,
good conditions against poor conditions, etc. The ability to
adapt his technique to suit conditions, rather than following
supposed typical good forms of technique blindly, should be
taken as one of the chief tests of the teacher's efficiency in
technique.

5. Ability to secure desired results. This factor in the
teacher's efficiency must be measured by a somewhat defi-
nite standard or set of results that can be objectively demon-
strated. The supervisor can secure such objective data
only by the most careful study of the reactions of the pupils
during recitations and study periods. All formal results in
the way of skills and knowledge of facts may well be tested
by means of standardized tests, and examinations. The
following list of results is suggestive of what might well be
taken as the basis for judging the teacher's ability to secure
measurable results:

1. Motivated interest in the subject or subjects taught.

2. Faithful consistent effort in pursuing the study of the sub-
ject.

3. Achievement in knowledge of subject-matter.

4. Special habits and skills, according to the nature of the sub-
ject. These habits may be speed and accuracy, such as are
demanded in mathematics, shorthand, typewriting, etc.

5. General habits and skills, such as :

a. Technique of organizing subject-matter and of using

222 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

books, materials, and apparatus in the solution of prob-
lems.

6. Habits of study and methods of attacking subject-mat-
ter with initiative; power to analyze new situations and
new subject-matter; and power to apply knowledge to
the solution of new problems.

c. Habit and power of concentration of attention for long
periods of time.

6. Ability to test and grade definitely and accurately the
work of the pupils. The fundamental aspects of this factor
are, the ability, first, to devise fair and reliable tests and
examinations for measuring the attainments of the pupils,
and second, to evaluate accurately the data secured from the
pupils on their tests and examinations. Such tests and ex-
aminations must be adapted to the maturity and develop-
ment of the pupils in any particular grade or class. The
teacher must demonstrate his knowledge of the principles
underlying all forms of tests, his ability to devise good de-
vices for administering them, and his skill in technique in
devising, administering, and evaluating the tests and the re-
sults secured from them. The supervisor must study the
teacher as he carries on all these phases of the testing per-
formance, and base his measurement of this factor in effi-
ciency upon a considerable amount of objective data.

Ability to manage and discipline. This ability involves
two general problems of management; namely, the manage-
ment of the classroom and the management of the pupils.

The management of the classroom includes the orderly
arrangement of chairs, maps, apparatus, and other physical
equipment, according to the purposes of the recitation, and
the routinizing of attention to such matters as ventilation,
temperature, and light.

The management of the pupils may be analyzed into a
number of very definite points, which can be measured on

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 223

the basis of concrete evidences. The following items are
suggested as worth considering and measuring definitely:

1. Understanding of proper standards of conduct, according to
the age of the pupils and the school conditions.

2. Understanding of rational measures of discipline that are
adequate to maintain the standards set up.

8. Conception of the purpose of discipline, which involves the
idea that discipline should be constructive education for the
development of character through social behavior, as opposed
to the idea that it is a form of penal atonement for wrong con-
duct.

4. Understanding and appreciation of the different types of
pupils.

5. Ability to adapt the measures of discipline to the different
ages and types of pupils.

6. Ability to select the measures of discipline, for each case, that
are logical in relation to the nature of the offense and the con-
structive results that are to be secured through discipline.

7. The ability of the teacher hi administering disciplinary meas-
ures to be impersonal, businesslike, and self -controlled instead
of personal, haphazard, flustered, timid, and unreasonable.

The supervisor should study the teacher's performance in
handling a number of cases of discipline, in order to secure
concrete data on as wide a range of types and individual
cases as possible. The general estimate of the teacher's
efficiency in managing pupils should be based upon a careful
measurement of each detailed point set forth alwve. More-
over, the teacher's whole conception of discipline as related
to human behavior should be got at through critical discus-
sions, based upon some well-defined philosophy of education
by means of constructive discipline.

A philosophy of school discipline. The supervisor may
be helped in getting a definite philosophical basis for judging
the efficiency of the teacher's ability to administer disciplin-
ary measures, as a form of constructive education, by study-
ing the suggestions given below and by getting his teachers

224 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

to adopt them as the guiding point of view in their disciplin-
ary procedure. The suggestions cover not only the funda-
mental principles of a philosophy of discipline, but to some
extent important devices and forms of technique. The
writer has found these suggestions very helpful in this par-
ticular form, hence they will be submitted without further
detailed discussion of them.

A MODERN POINT OF VIEW OF SCHOOL DISCIPLINE

1. No act of discipline and no form of punishment should ever
be administered as a penalty for the offense committed, but as
a means of making the offender realize that the real wrong is
his attitude of mind, his willingness to commit such an act,
and that the only amelioration of the offense is to change his
attitude.

2. No act of discipline and no form of punishment should be ad-
ministered in such a way as to make the offender an example
before the school, but in such a manner that the offender is
made to feel he is given an opportunity to redeem himself by
personal help and advice of the teacher, without his weakness
being paraded before public gaze.

8. Rules and regulations should be clearly set forth at the outset,
and the function that they are to serve in promoting the wel-
fare of the school as a whole carefully explained; but there-
after each offender should be talked to individually, even
though several may have committed the same offense at the
same time. Seek the confidence of the individual, and make
him feel that his integrity in facing the situation fairly can be
trusted.

4. Make pupils feel that the teacher's presence and watchful-
ness are just as helpful in overcoming weaknesses of conduct
as in overcoming difficulties in his other lessons.

5. Look upon misconduct of pupils as an opportunity to do a
piece of real work in education, remembering that it is the
character of the individual and not personal satisfaction or
justification that is to be sought in discipline.

6. Hold up clearly high standards of conduct, good order, and
work.

7. Meet pupils in personal conferences in order to bring about a

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 225

definite understanding with them as to what is expected of
them. This is one of the best ways of making the pupil feel
his responsibility to the school, and also of establishing a
close, friendly tie between teacher and pupil.

8. Never hold up one pupil as a model to another, and never dis-
cuss the conduct of one pupil with another. Hold up ideals
of group welfare, and seek the cooperation of each pupil in
realizing the ideals.

9. Be alert and accurate in interpreting the acts of pupils so as to
anticipate then- conduct, and to start counter-suggestions to
prevent undesirable behavior.

10. Decide quickly and act promptly.

11. See and hear everything that goes on in the room, in the halls,
on the playground, on the street, and in public places where
the conduct of pupils may be observed.

12. Have a dignified, firm bearing, attitude of sureness of self, and
just what is going to be done.

13. Control of temper; keep cool in emergencies.

14. Do not have a chip on the shoulder; be not supersensitive,
and not easily upset by aggravating things.

' 15. Be willing to go more than halfway to meet a pupil who is be-
ing disciplined.

16. Never announce in advance what the punishment will be for
any offense, and never threaten what will be done in any case.
The pupil is sometimes led to commit an offense because he
has contempt for the punishment.

17. Make the punishment the logical consequence of the offense.

18. Do not talk to people outside of school about disciplinary
problems and measures that have been administered.

Personal appearance. The appearance of the teacher is
affected by two factors, namely, physical development and
health and dress and carriage. The supervisor should note
the effects of these two factors during a sufficient period of
time to enable him to know quite definitely whether the
teacher has the strength to keep up a vigorous program of
work, and whether his habits of dress are in keeping with
school work and school conditions. Good looks are so much
a matter of personal taste that the supervisor cannot meas-

226 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

lire them and rate the efficiency upon them with any degree
of assurance. If the supervisor feels that he should make
some statement in regard to looks, he should give the state-
ment as merely his own personal judgment and impression.

Qualities of leadership. This is an important item, and
the supervisor should secure definite data on the recognition
that is accorded the teacher by his fellows, and the people
with whom he associates in different lines of activity, and
the recognition he receives from his pupils. The efficiency
of the teacher in leadership is shown not so much by mere
popularity as by the number and kinds of demands that are
made upon him in assuming the lead in carrying on worth-
while group enterprises and activities. Another evidence of
leadership is shown in his ability to initiate ideas and ideals,
and to influence people to adopt them. An abundance of
concrete cases should be the basis for measuring this factor
in the teacher's efficiency.

The ability of the teacher to direct and to participate in
the social activities of the school, such as assemblies, par-
ties, commencements, etc., affords an excellent opportunity
for measuring leadership by concrete evidences. Note
should be made of the critical situations that arise in which
the teacher was able to take the initiative, and to keep it in
the face of difficulties. The measure of the degree to which
the teacher is able to assert leadership, as shown by such
evidences as have been suggested, is important, but the char-
acter and quality of his leadership and influence should also
be given consideration. Granted that the teacher will lead,
then his moral and religious habits and tendencies will de-
termine the character of his leadership. This point should
not be made an orthodox one, but just one of good common
sense, and the supervisor should have more than a mere im-
pression of what the quality of any teacher's leadership will
in all probability be.

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 227

Professional attitude. This factor is shown by the spirit
of cooperation with which the teacher enters into his duties,
and the promptness with which he performs them. Another
evidence of professional spirit is the earnestness with which
he makes efficient service his chief concern. Another item
is the loyalty shown to his fellows and his superiors, through
keeping still on the outside of school concerning matters
that are discussed in teachers' meetings, or in the office as
strictly school affairs; boosting the school as a whole; boost-
ing the work of the superintendent, the supervisors, and his
fellow teachers; supporting the musical, literary, and ath-
letic organizations and enterprises; and taking active par-
ticipation in the social affairs of the school. A still further
manifestation of professional attitude is the extent to which
the teacher reads recent educational books, magazines, and
daily newspapers; attends teachers' institutes, associations,
and other educational meetings; attends public lectures and
general gatherings of public interest; and participates in
parent-teacher oganizations and other civic enterprises.

Type of school in which the teacher would be most effi-
cient. This is one of the important points and is recognized
to-day as an important responsibility of the supervisor.
The teacher who is well adapted to kindergarten and pri'
mary grades may be a very indifferent teacher in the in-
termediate or upper grades, and vice versa. A good sen-
ior high school teacher may be a failure hi the junior high
school, and vice versa. A teacher poorly adapted to teach in
the senior high school might be a very successful teacher in
the junior or senior college, or in a normal school. The best
means for determining just what type of school the teacher
is best adapted to would be that of trying the teacher out in
each type of school. This cannot always be done; hence
other means will have to be employed. Having the teacher
visit the various types of schools and make careful reports

228 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

of their observations, and discussing these reports with the
teacher to discover his own idea as to what particular school
situation appeals most to him, may be made a very helpful
means of determining the right placement of the teacher.
Whatever means the supervisor may have at his command
for deciding this point should be used as fully as possible,
and whether these means happen to be ample or meager
the supervisor should make some decision as to the field
or fields for which he would recommend the teacher with
assurance.

Type of community in which the teacher will be most
efficient. Determining the type of community hi which
the teacher would be likely to do his best work is quite as
important as deciding the type of school or the particular
grade of work for which he is best fitted. The rural district,
the small town, the small city, and the large city each pre-
sents conditions that differ widely in the demands they all
make upon the teacher. Not every individual possesses the
power of adapting himself to such a wide range of conditions
to the extent that he would be successful in any or all of
these types of communities. Even a teacher well adapted
to teach in a large city might be successful in a native-popu-
lation ward and a failure in a foreign-population ward, and
vice versa. Here again the supervisor needs to employ about
the same means that have been suggested above for deter-
mining the type of school in which the teacher should be
placed.

The critical point. The critical point in the measuring of
the teacher's efficiency is that objective data and thorough
analysis of all the elements involved must take the place of
subjective impressions. Objective data and careful analy-
ses cannot be secured through a few hasty inspectional trips
or visits to the teacher's classroom. The rating of teachers
on inspectional data and impressions is educationally un<

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF THE TEACHER 229

scientific, and the practice should be replaced by that thor-
ough supervision which can guarantee reliable measurement
of teaching efficiency.

Chapter summary. The worth of the teacher can be esti-
mated only by a careful study of the actual teaching per-
formances, and by accurate measurement of the attainments
of the pupils which can be accounted for in terms of the
teacher's work. Objective data must be the basis for all
of these estimates and measurements. Definite standards
must be set up that shall include only such items as admit of
objective measurement. The large items of such standards
might be: intellectual ability, scholarship, ability to express
thoughts, teaching ability, ability to manage and discipline,
personal appearance, qualities of leadership, professional
attitude, and type of school and type of community to
which the teacher is best adapted. The rating of teachers
cannot be adequately done through hurried inspectional
visits, but must be accomplished through adequate super-
vision and scientific measurements.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Give ten illustrations, from your experience, of practical evidences of
intellectual ability.

2. Make a list of the subjects that would make the best general back-
ground for all elementary-school teaching.

8. Make a list of the special subjects, including the professional training,
that would adequately prepare elementary-school teachers.

4. Make a list of the subjects that would make the best general back-
ground for junior or senior high-school teachers.

6. Make a list of special subjects, including the professional training,
that would adequately prepare junior or senior high school teachers.

6. Give two cases, from experience, in which the teacher failed to make
himself understood on account of failure to employ a vocabulary
adapted to his pupils.

7. Give two cases, from experience, in which the teacher's fluency or lack
of fluency of language contributed to or hindered the readiness of
comprehension on the part of the pupils.

8. Give two concrete caaea to illustrate how the quality and control of

230 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

the teacher's voice materially aided or interfered with making his
thoughts readily understood.

9. Give two examples of actual teaching performances that showed the
mastery of the principles of method involved. Give two examples
that showed the lack of such mastery.

10. Give two examples of actual teaching performances that showed mas-
tery over the employment of devices. Give two cases that showed
the hick of such mastery.

11. Give two cases of actual teaching that exhibited good technique.
Give two cases that exhibited much poor technique.

12. Give concrete illustrations of reactions of pupils that demonstrate
properly-motivated interest in the subject.

13. Devise a set of standards that you would employ in measuring the
teacher's ability to test and examine pupils.

14. Give ten concrete disciplinary cases of the kind you would take as
evidence of the teacher's ability in disciplining.

15. Give two cases to illustrate how dress may affect the teacher's effi-
ciency.

16. Give six concrete illustrations of the sort of leadership that is desira-
ble in teachers.

17. Give five illustrations of unprofessional attitude on the part of teach-
ers.

18. Construct a score card that can be used over a long enough period of
time to accumulate accurate measurements of all the items you would
include in your standards for grading the teacher's efficiency. Com-
pare this card with those that have been devised for use on inspectional
visits.

CHAPTER XVI
ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION

The need of evaluating supervision. Supervision has
come into the public schools and into training schools in re-
sponse to a pressing demand for the improvement of teach-
ers during then* period of service and for the better training
of teachers before they enter the teaching ranks. It has
come in, however, as most things have come into the educa-
tional field, on broad general ideas and theories. Gradually
the work of supervision has become more and more specific
and less and less general, until to-day it is recognized as a
definite educational science distinctly set off from the job of
teaching, on the one hand, and from the job of administra-
tion, on the other hand. The growth and development of
this relatively new science will be determined by the wortli-
whileness of the contribution that it makes to the training of
teachers and to the improvement of the work of the public
schools. Moreover, the value of the contribution that is
made to education by supervision can be determined only
by definitely and accurately measuring the results of the
various supervising activities. The results of the supervis-
ing activities cannot be adequately measured without the
employment of a set of standards that are based upon objec-
tive data. Therefore the chief purpose of this closing chap-
ter is to set forth what seem to be the fundamental prin-
ciples that should underlie any program of procedure in
attempting to measure the work of supervision adequately.

Taking stock as to supervisory efficiency. One of the
first facts that must be recognized is that just as poor and
inefficient teachers have come into the profession, and con-

232 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

tinue In the profession, just so have poor and inefficient su-
pervisors got into the profession and continue hi it to the
detriment of both the science of teaching and the science of
supervision. Hence, when the results of supervision begin
to be accurately and adequately measured, the natural out-
come will be the disclosure of very glaring deficiencies. This
was exactly the case when the work of teachers was submitted
to anything like a critical test and measured objectively in-
stead of taking mere subjective impressions as the criterion.
The schools were not closed, however, and the teachers were
not discarded as unprofitable means of promoting the edu-
cation of the rising generations. Quite the contrary.

The very fact that the teaching activities could be objec-
tively measured disclosed the possibility of overcoming the
deficiencies and of removing them through training. The
same result can be expected with regard to supervision;
namely, that the very fact that supervision can and will be
measured objectively will disclose the possibility and the
opportunity for improving the science of supervision.
Therefore the more thoroughly and in detail the work of
supervision is measured, the sooner these weaknesses will be
eliminated through training. Another fact which is supple-
mentary to the fact that has just been discussed needs to be
kept in mind. This is the fact that just as poor teaching
may make the work of poor pupils still poorer and interfere
with the progress of the better pupils, just so may poor su-
pervision make poor teaching poorer and interfere with the
progress of the better teachers. The true worth of the
teacher as a means to the education of pupils, however,
came to be recognized beyond the shadow of a doubt
through the excellent work of individual teachers. These
good teachers, scattered here and there throughout the pro-
fession, have been the leaven that has saved the whole pro-
fessional lump from falling flat. What has been true of the

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 233

teaching ranks can be predicted with full assurance of the
supervisory ranks. Despite the presence in the field of
many poorly prepared and ineffective supervisors, the work
of the ever-increasing number of excellent supervisors will
save the day and secure the establishment of supervision as
an absolutely essential part of the educational machinery.
This fact is another reason why supervisors and administra-
tive officers should be vitally interested in the development
of a definite set of standards for measuring the work of su-
pervision, and all should be concerned with making the find-
ings of such objective measurements known to the educa-
tional public.

Two steps involved in measuring supervisory efficiency.
The problem of measuring supervisory efficiency resolves
itself primarily into two definite steps or divisions; namely,
the setting-up of a set of fundamental principles and the
organizing of a program of procedure based on these princi-
ples. The principles involved in the measurement of super-
vision must necessarily be the same for all cases and for all
educational situations hi which supervisory activities are
carried on. On the other hand, programs of procedure that
may be employed in applying these principles to the meas-
urement of supervisory work will vary according to the con-
ditions prevailing in the various school situations. The
establishment of a set of general principles requires common
agreement, while the organization of a program of procedure
must be largely a matter of individual judgment. The first
objective, then, in this discussion is to set forth a body of
principles or fundamental considerations that may very
well be accepted as a guide in establishing programs of pro-
cedure in measuring supervisory efficiency. The second ob-
jective is to suggest programs of procedure that may be
helpful in measuring the work of supervision in different
types of educational situations.

834 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

I. THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN MEASURING
SUPERVISORY EFFICIENCY

The fundamental considerations that should guide all
administrators and supervisors in measuring the work of
supervision carried on in their schools are necessarily few in
number. They will be stated as concisely as possible and will
be discussed somewhat briefly. The ultimate interpreta-
tion of each principle must necessarily rest with the individ-
ual superintendent, principal, supervisor, and director who
works out the application of these principles in the form of a
program of procedure that is practicable in his particular
school situation.

Principle One: Set up definite attainable goals or out-
comes that are to be realized by means of the supervisory
activities. This principle seems quite obvious from the
mere statement of the point. It involves more, however,
than appears at first thought. The setting-up of definite
outcomes that are to be realized through supervisory activi-
ties requires a definite recognition of the status of these out-
comes at the outset of the undertaking. For example, sup-
pose that the superintendent desires to improve the work in
penmanship in his schools and secures a special supervisor for
that purpose. The superintendent needs to have some defi-
nite evidences as to the status of handwriting in his schools
when the supervisor takes charge of the work. He must
also have a clear idea of what may reasonably be accom-
plished through effective supervision. Then, when he
checks the status of handwriting at the close of the year
against the status at the beginning of the year, he has a
fairly accurate idea as to the extent to which his expecta-
tions have been realized.

Principle Two : Designate definite types of objective data
that may be taken as evidence of supervisory efficiency.

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 9S5

This principle is a very important one, for it aims at getting
away from general impressions and subjective influences.
Then, too, it is highly practical. The work of supervision
ought to secure tangible results that can be expressed in
concrete form. These concrete evidences ought not to be so
difficult to secure as to make the application of this principle
at all impossible or to any extent impracticable.

Principle Three: Secure designated types of objective
data from as many accurate and reliable sources as possible.
The types of objective data and the reliable sources from
which they may be secured will vary according to the con-
ditions prevailing in the various educational situations in
which supervisory work is undertaken. It must be recog-
nized that the extent to which this principle can be applied
in any program of procedure in measuring the results of su-
pervision will be determined largely by the time limitations
forced upon the administrator by his many other adminis-
trative duties. The validity of the principle, however, is
unimpaired by the fact that existing conditions often make
it physically impossible to do much toward embodying it in
a specific program of administration. The important point
is that the administrator should recognize the validity of the
principle and employ the best devices and technique that
are possible and practicable in applying it to his particular
situation. If the administrator recognizes types and sources
of securing objective data that* would in his judgment be
worth while, but which are impossible for him to secure un-
der present conditions, he may find it possible to make his
school board realize the situation and thus secure such pro-
visions for administrative assistance that he would be able
more effectively to apply this principle in the measurement
of supervisory efficiency. Very much depends upon the
worth-whileness of the attainable goals set up to be realized
through the supervisory activities. If these outcomes are

236 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

of far-reaching importance in the future growth and devel-
opment of the schools, then the administrator might feel
justified in expending a great amount of time and energy in
securing ample evidences of their realization. If, however,
these outcomes, while highly valuable, do not outrank a
number of other outcomes that must be secured by other
means, then, to be sure, they can claim only a due portion of
the administrator's time, and excessive provision cannot be
made for demonstrating their realization. Considering all
these points, it becomes clear that the interpretation of the
word " possible " must rest with each administrator who
undertakes to inaugurate a specific program of procedure
for the measurement of supervisory efficiency.

Principle Four: Study the supervisory performances
themselves as evidence of the efficiency of supervision.
The application of this principle involves, first, a quantita-
tive study of the duties performed by the supervisor, and,
second, a qualitative study of supervisory performances.
The quantitative phase of this study is most readily accom-
plished and is one that the administrator is not likely to
neglect. He depends upon it to a great extent as the means
of determining whether or not the supervisor has faithfully
attempted to accomplish the outcomes for which he was
employed in the schools. Take the example of the writing
supervisor given above as an illustration. The adminis-
trator wants to know what instructions have been worked
out by the supervisor and put in permanent form for the
teachers; what details of instruction have been given
through a series of conferences with groups of teachers; how
much time the supervisor has spent in each classroom either
teaching the class or directing the work of the teacher; etc.
In other words, he wants to know as fully as possible all the
duties performed by the supervisor and the extent to which
each duty has been performed. If in his judgment these

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 237

various performances are worth while, he has some basis for
believing that the improvement in writing that may be ap-
parent at the close of the year has been largely due to the
work of supervision. Moreover, he has some basis for be-
lieving that particular cases that show little or no improve-
ment may be accounted for on some other ground than that
of inefficient supervision. The very quantity, then, of su-
pervisory performances may be taken as one of the valid
evidences of the efficiency of supervision.

The qualitative study of supervisory performances is not
so readily accomplished and is dependent largely upon the
time limitations and geographical conditions under which
the administrator works. The qualitative study can be
made only by actually observing the supervisor at work
with the teachers and in the schools. If the administrator
has several supervisors in his schools, the possibility of ob-
serving the work of each is necessarily very limited. This
fact, however, does not invalidate the principle. Every
administrator will no doubt agree that to judge adequately
the quality of supervisory performance one must have suffi-
cient opportunity to study the actual performances. The
fact must be recognized, however, that no matter how im-
portant the administrator may consider the qualitative
study of supervisory activities, he is often so limited by
time and distance that he cannot apply this principle to any
great extent in a specific program for measuring the effi-
ciency of supervision. The important point is for the ad-
ministrator to determine the importance of this study as
compared with the other principles and to make whatever
provision is possible for its application, and finally to make
its application just as effective as conditions permit.

The consideration of principles gives psychological per-
spective. The value of psychological perspective is in gen-
eral recognized as meeting one of the essential needs in

238 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

establishing good practice. The above body of principles
furnishes such a perspective to the administrator who is un-
dertaking to establish a constructive and progressive pro-
gram of procedure in measuring the efficiency of supervision.
These principles present a coherent scheme, a definite back-
ground against which any particular supervisory situation
may be projected to determine the limitations of the pro-
gram or plan of measurement that is practicable in that
particular situation. The projection of particular situa-
tions against such a background of principles insures that
whatever is undertaken in the plan of measuring supervisory
efficiency will be psychologically sound. This will be just as
true of a brief program as of the most detailed and exten-
sive program. In other words, the difference between
measurement programs will be that of extent and detail and
not a difference in content or principle of procedure. Fur-
thermore, if programs of procedure in measurement of su-
pervisory efficiency are constructed on such a body of prin-
ciples, they may be expanded and developed without change
of basis as changing conditions in school situations make
possible the development of more adequate facilities for
conducting the work of the supervision of instruction.

II. PROGRAMS FOR MEASURING SUPERVISORY EFFICIENCY

The fact has already been stated that the ultimate inter-
pretation of the above body of principles will rest with the
individual administrator who undertakes to measure the
work of supervision systematically and definitely . Each
administrator will necessarily be limited in his formulation
of a plan by the conditions prevailing in his particular school
system. This fact makes it impossible for any program to
be outlined that would exactly fit any situation other than
the one upon which it is based. The only helpful thing that
seems feasible to do is to outline programs that have proved

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 239

effective in the various types of supervisory situations and
to suggest possible modifications according to the conditions
prevailing in the particular system hi which any of these
plans are adopted.

Measuring the supervisory activities of the superintend-
ent. There are many school systems in which the only pro-
vision yet made for the supervision of instruction is that
afforded by allowing the superintendent part time for the
visitation of classroom work. The superintendent in such
situations usually teaches part time in the high school and
divides the remainder of his time between the necessary ad-
ministrative duties for which he is responsible and the visi-
tation of teachers at work. As a rule the superintendent
desires under such conditions to give all of his time to ad-
ministrative and supervisory duties. This conception of
the superintendent's function is growing, not only in the
minds of superintendents, but also in the minds of school
boards; hence the tendency to-day is for superintendents to
seek more and more relief from clerical and other routine
administrative duties, on the one hand, and entire relief
from teaching, on the other, and to give more and more
time to the supervision of instruction as the best means of
developing the work of the public schools. In order to se-
cure the maximum of opportunity for doing supervisory
work, the superintendent must convince his board that the
supervision of instruction is of more importance than cer-
tain administrative details that might very well be taken
care of by competent clerical assistance or by board com-
mittees. The most convincing evidence that can be pre-
sented to any board is that of tangible improvement in the
work of the schools that is due directly to efficient supervision.
Therefore the superintendent in this type of situation needs to
formulate a plan that will enable him to measure the results of
his supervisory activities and to present them to his board.

240 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

Points to be kept in mind. The first point that the super-
intendent should keep in mind is the wisdom of limiting his
supervisory undertakings to very definite and tangible goals
that are sure of attainment. For example, the superintend-
ent may realize that his schools are below the standard of
other schools in the teaching of arithmetic. A survey of the
status of the case may convince him that this condition is
due to a poorly constructed course of study and to inferior
teaching. He can now proceed with some assurance to
formulate a plan for measuring the supervisory activities
that he plans to carry on as the means of bringing about the
desired improvement.

The following plan is suggestive of what might well be
undertaken in such a case and will prove economical as well
as satisfactory:

A. Goals or outcomes to be attained.

a. A course of study adapted to the needs of the schools
and in keeping with the modern aims of public school
education.
6. A higher standard of scholarship or efficiency in the

learning of arithmetic.

c. A higher standard of efficiency in the teaching of arith-
metic.

The status of each of these goals should be definitely es-
tablished before the work of supervision begins. A survey
of the course of study will readily disclose how many pages
of material there are that are obsolete or poorly adapted to
each grade, and how many pages of really worth-while usa-
ble material the course contains. These results can be
tabulated grade by grade on a chart and graphically pre-
sented to the attention of the board and the corps of teach-
ers. The chart should be so constructed that the status of
the course of study at the close of the school year can be
tabulated on the same chart in contrast to the status at the
beginning of the year.

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 241

The status of the second goal can be shown readily by
plotting the monthly averages in arithmetic grade by grade
for one or two preceding years. Standard tests in arith-
metic may also be given and the grade averages plotted on a
single graph. All this tabular work can be done by clerical
help or by the aid of the teachers, so that the data can be
economically and yet accurately compiled. Here, again,
the charts used should be so constructed as to enable the
tabulations of similar data at the close of the year to be re-
corded on the same charts in contrast with the first data.

The status of the third goal cannot be so readily estab-
lished at the outset, and in the end it is necessarily bound
up with the second outcome. Nevertheless, it will be well
worth while to set up some basis of contrast other than that
afforded by the standing of the pupils. The most feasible
basis, perhaps, is that of the teachers' general success grades
or ranking marks. If arithmetic is one of the most poorly
taught subjects, then no doubt the general success grades or
ranking marks are a fair measure of the teachers' success in
teaching arithmetic, for it seems fair to assume that the suc-
cess of the teachers in teaching arithmetic must have had a
good deal to do with determining their success grades or
ranking marks. One of the purposes of the supervision of
instruction should be to improve the teaching to the extent
that ultimately all the teachers will be in the highest rank.
It is not only possible but desirable to have wide ranges of
individual differences in a group of E teachers. A general
plot of the preceding year's success grades or ranking marks
of the whole corps of teachers may be made at the outset
and a contrasting plot made upon the same chart at the
close of the year when the new success grades or ranking
marks have been issued.

Types of data that will be accepted as proof of supervisory
efficiency. In this case practically all the essential forms of

242 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

data have been designated in establishing the status of the
objectives at the beginning of the school year and in provid-
ing for the contrasting data showing the status at the close
of the year. Other types of data might be employed, but
the general results would not be materially changed by their
use; therefore the use of such data would consume time and
energy that would be largely lost.

Sources from which valid data may be secured. Here,
again, the establishment of the status of the goals at the be-
ginning of the year and the provision for the tabulation of
the contrasting status of these goals at the close of the year
have practically determined the sources from which all the
necessary data will be secured. Nothing worth while will
be added to the general results by securing more detailed
data from various other sources, such as individual records
of pupils, etc. Moreover, the securing of data from other
sources would likely require too much time and energy to be
of practical value in the whole undertaking.

Consideration of the supervisory activities. This is an
especially important point in the case of the superintendent
who is seeking to secure the maximum of opportunity for
doing supervisory work. He cannot very well present an
estimate of the quality of his supervisory performances, but
he can give a very accurate account of the actual duties per-
formed and the time spent in doing them. Such an account
will hi a considerable degree be an indication of the efficiency
with which the work has been done. The account should be
a graphic one and largely mathematical, since it is a quanti-
tative measurement. The account should include the fol-
lowing items:

a. Number of teachers' meetings held for the purpose of dis-
cussing the course of study and the teaching of arithmetic, and
the amount of time spent in such meetings. A very good plan
would be to divide the teachers into two or three groups and

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 248

meet each for an hour every two weeks. This could be done
by meeting the primary group (first-, second-, and third-
grade teachers) on Wednesday, the intermediate grade
teachers (fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-) on Thursday, and the
upper-grade or junior high school teachers on Friday. If
these meetings are held systematically throughout the year,
the time spent would be fifty-four hours. Each group
would constitute a committee on the course of study for
their grades with the superintendent as chairman and leader.
He would present to each group a tentative outline of ma-
terials covering the course for the following two weeks. The
group would discuss the outline and suggest modifications.
Agreement would be reached as to the exact body of mate-
rials to be used, and then the superintendent would lead the
discussion on the teaching of the particular subject-matter
of the course that had been decided upon for the following
two weeks.

A second item that should go along with this one is that
of a mathematical estimate of the number of hours spent in
the preparing of these course of study outlines that are pre-
sented at these group meetings. A conservative estimate
would be two to three hours spent in preparation of the ma-
terial for each group meeting. This would mean one hun-
dred eight to one hundred sixty-two hours of individual
work on the part of the superintendent.

b. The number of hours spent in individual conferences
with teachers to discuss the actual teaching observed by the su-
perintendent. These conferences will likely be short and
more or less spontaneous as the character of the work seems
to demand. The superintendent need not necessarily keep
an exact mathematical record of these conferences, but he
should make a fairly accurate estimate at least each week of
the amount of time so spent. These amounts could then
easily be totaled for the year and recorded in hours. It

244 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

would be a good plan to give, in addition to the total time
spent in individual conferences with teachers, the average
amount of time each week per teacher spent in such confer-
ences.

c. The number of hours spent in actual classroom visita-
tions. This is a very important item and should be accu-
rately and graphically recorded. The superintendent
should keep a daily record of this time and should show the
final record by weeks; the average number of hours per day;
and the average number of hours per teacher each week. A
grand total may also be given, but the significant picture
for the school board will be the graphic representation of
the time spent each week per teacher and the average time
spent daily in such supervisory capacity. The actual record
of how the superintendent has spent his time will be rather
tangible and convincing evidence of his efficiency as a su-
pervisor.

The above items practically cover the ground of super-
vising activities that are worth while recording and present-
ing as a measure of the efficiency of the work. They are
only suggestive of a rational plan that might well be fol-
lowed in realizing the goals set up. The superintendent
who successfully carries out such an undertaking will un-
doubtedly convince his board that supervision is worth
while and that he should be given more time and opportu-
nity for such duties. He could follow up this piece of work
with similar goals in regard to other subjects. Reading or
language, for example, might be undertaken next and dealt
with in much the same manner as has been suggested for
arithmetic. A general improvement in the teaching of all
subjects might be the undertaking. The training and devel-
opment of beginning teachers might well be the chief task
to be accomplished through supervision. The exact under-
taking in each case should be determined by the particular

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 245

conditions and the most urgent needs of the schools. The
main point is that the undertaking should be limited to a
possible program. Then some such plan as has been sug-
gested above will enable the administrator to present ob-
jective evidences of the results of his supervisory activities.
Measuring the supervisory work of the assistant superin-
tendent, the supervising principal, and the building principal.
The supervisory activities carried on by the assistant super-
intendent, the supervising principal, and the building prin-
cipal are similar in character to those carried on by the
superintendent under the conditions just described above.
These school officials may be employed to give practically
all their time to the supervision of instruction. As a rule,
however, they are held responsible for certain administra-
tive duties, hence they do not give quite all their time to
supervision. The conditions under which they work are so
similar to those under which the superintendent works, in
such a system as has just been described, that the same sort
of program will prove adequate and practical to meet their
needs in measuring the efficiency of their supervisory per-
formances. Just as the superintendent can account to his
board for his supervisory endeavors, so can the assistant
superintendent, the supervising principal, and the building
principal account to the administrative officer or officers, as
the case may be, under whose direction he is working, and to
whom he is accountable for the success of his work. The
important point in any case is that the supervisor shall be
responsible for a sufficiently limited district or area to en-
able him to set up definite attainable goals. These goals
may and should vary according to the needs of the schools.
The program for measuring the efficiency with which the
goals have been attained can be relatively simple, as the plan
set forth above indicates. The superior administrative offi-
cer may, if he so desires, devise other means for checking

246 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

up the efficiency of the supervisory work carried on by the
assistant superintendent, supervising principal, and build-
ing principal, but as a rule he is so occupied with important
administrative duties that he cannot afford to take the time
for devising and administering a detailed scheme for check-
ing the work of supervision. Furthermore, the objective
evidences presented by the plan suggested above are relia-
ble enough and detailed enough to establish the worth and
efficiency of the supervisory activities.

Measuring the supervisory activities of special super-
visors. This type of supervision was one of the first to be
introduced into the public schools and it is one of the com-
monest now in practice. Most school systems of any size
have special supervisors of music, writing, drawing, etc.,
while the larger school systems have multiples of such spe-
cial supervisors according to the number of times their
school areas duplicate the smaller school system areas. That
is to say, when the supervision of instruction is undertaken
seriously in a large school system, it must be divided into
districts similar in size to that of a smaller system in which
the entire corps of teachers can be adequately supervised in
a special line of work by a single supervisor. This being the
case, a program of procedure that will prove adequate for
measuring the efficiency of supervision in one system will
prove just as satisfactory in any other system in which such
special supervision is carried on. The following plan is
relatively simple and yet sufficiently detailed and objec-
tive as thoroughly to establish the worth of the supervisory
activities:

Definite goals set up for the special supervisor to attain.
These goals will usually be the organization of a course of
study in the special subject that will be adapted to the needs
of the particular school system and to the development of
the teaching of the subject. If the line of work is just being

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 247

introduced, there will be no previous course of study with
which to compare the one worked out by the supervisor. In
this event, the course may be compared with well-estab-
lished courses in the same subject that are offered in other
similar school systems. If this does not seem practicable,
the course can be judged quite accurately on its own merits.
If the course is to be judged on its own merits alone, it should
consist of what has actually been done throughout the year,
and should not be the theoretical course that may be pro-
posed by the supervisor, but not actually accomplished.

The problem of developing the teaching of the special sub-
ject ordinarily resolves itself into two phases, especially
when the line of work is new to the system. These two
phases are : the training of the teachers in actual knowledge
of the subject-matter of the subject, and the training of
the teachers in method, devices, and technique of teaching
the subject. The status of the teachers in knowledge of the
subject and in teaching skill in the particular subject may
not be on record; hence, in respect to these two items, the
status of the teachers at the close of the school year will be
the chief evidence upon which to judge the efficiency of the
supervisor's work in securing good teaching.

Types of evidence that indicate the efficiency of the spe-
cial supervisor's work. These have for the most part been
set forth in determining the status of the goals that are to be
attained. Another type of evidence, however, that should
be considered is the scholastic attainments of the pupils to
whom the special subject is taught. If there are scholastic
records of the standing of the pupils for the year or two just
preceding, these should be plotted showing the average
monthly standing by grades. Then the monthly averages
for the current year can be compared with these to show the
relative efficiency of the work done under the special super-
visor.

248 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

Teacher's judgment on course of study. Another type of
evidence that should be considered in reference to the course
of study is that of the judgment of the teachers as to the
quantity and fitness of the material outlined by the super-
visor and assigned to the teachers to be taught. This evi-
dence can readily be secured by a simple questionnaire form
that can be filled out easily and accurately by the teachers,
and which can be easily checked up by the administrative
officer. The following form might be used very effectively:

INFORMATION CONCERNING THE COURSE OF STUDY

In , for the year

Teacher Grade Building

1. Was the amount of subject-matter assigned to be taught too
great or too small for the length of the recitation periods?

2. If the amount was too great, how much extra time did it take
or would it have taken to cover the ground?

3. If the amount was too small, how much more could have been
done in the allotted time?

4. Was the subject-matter assigned to be taught too difficult or
too easy for the pupils in your grade?

5. State the chief grounds or evidences upon which the answers
to the above questions are based.

The chief reason for securing such data from the teachers
is that special supervisors are often well trained in the
knowledge of the subject, but have had little or no experi-
ence in teaching the subject to the various grades of pupils.
The regular teachers very often know the limitations of the
pupils much more accurately than does the supervisor, and
with even a limited knowledge of the special subject, they
may be better judges of the quantity of material that can
well be covered and also better judges as to the relative
difficulty of the material for their respective grades. At
any rate, their judgments are worth checking against the
course of study that is proposed and many times insisted

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 249

upon by the supervisor regardless of the protests of experi-
enced teachers.

Sources from which valid evidence should be secured for
measuring the efficiency of the special supervisor's work.
The sources have already been indicated with the exception
of those that will be given under the next item in the pro-
gram, namely, the supervisor's record of the quantity of
supervisory activities carried on, and the qualitative study
made of these performances by the administrative officer.
Summed up briefly, the sources from which objective evi-
dence of supervisory efficiency may be secured are : teachers'
records of scholastic attainments of pupils; administrative
records of success grades or ranking marks of teachers;
printed form of course of study actually taught; judgments
of the teachers on course of study; supervisor's record of
quantity of supervisory performances; and administrative
records of the quality of the supervisory activities.

Consideration of the supervisory performances in them-
selves as a measure of their efficiency. The first considera-
tion should be the mathematical measure of the actual time
spent in carrying on the various activities. The chief items
that should be included are as follows :

a. Number of hours spent in group conferences with teachers for
the purpose of teaching the subject-matter of the course and
for the purpose of instructing them in the method, devices,
and technique of teaching the course to the pupils.

9. Number of hours per week spent in individual conferences
with teachers, and the average amount of time per week given
to each teacher in such conferences.

c. Number of hours per day spent in classroom visitations, and
the average time per week spent with each teacher in such
visitations.

d. Number of hours per week spent in preparation of subject-
matter for the course of study.

The special supervisor can easily keep an accurate record

250 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

of these items and submit a graphic presentation of them to
the administrative officer. They are certainly one type of
objective evidence of the efficiency with which the special
supervisory work is being carried on.

Quality of special supervisory activities. The second
consideration is that of the quality of the special supervisory
activities. The quantity of such activities may be sufficient
to stand for a high degree of efficiency, provided the quality
of the performances is of a high or even fair standard. The
only way the administrative officer can determine this point
with any assurance is by actually visiting the supervisor at
work and by observing keenly the things that the supervisor
does. No rule can be laid down as to how many times the
administrator needs to see each kind of supervisory activity
performed in order to satisfy his mind as to the degree to
which the supervisor is using sound method, employing good
devices, and practicing proper technique in the performance
of the various supervisory duties. A regular blank contain-
ing these items or such items as the administrator desires to
check will enable this study of the quality of supervision to
be carried on systematically and economically. The main
point is that the administrator should base his estimates on
concrete data even though he does not attempt to record
such data in any detail on the blank. The measurement
cannot be objective unless it gets away from mere subjective
impressions and personal reactions that may be unduly in-
fluenced by accidental conditions.

Measuring the efficiency of supervisory activities carried
on by the supervisor in a training school. This type of
situation calls for a much more detailed program of measure-
ment in order to demonstrate objectively the worth-while-
ness of the detailed attack that the training-school super-
visor should make upon the problem of training teachers.
The following program is one that can be thoroughly prac-

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 251

ticed and is one that will contribute vitally to the develop-
ment of the science of supervision. In other words, it is a
program that provides for the measurement of a genuinely
professional performance of the supervisory functions:

A. Goals or outcomes to be attained through supervision.

a. The development of teaching skill in applying the prin-
ciples of method, employing good devices, and practic-
ing appropriate technique in the teaching of a particular
subject or subjects.

6. The maintenance of a high scholastic attainment on the
part of the pupils taught by the teachers being trained.

c. Organization of a well-balanced course of study.

Other goals might be set up in addition to these, but these
three call for a thoroughgoing program of measurement.
This is especially true of the first goal if it is undertaken in
any serious fashion. It is the focal point of the supervisory
functions in the training-school situation, and it should be
attacked in a thoroughly analytical and scientific manner.

B. Types of evidence of supervisory efficiency under the training-
school conditions.

a. Lesson plans of teachers, which show the development
of ability to apply the principles of method to the or-
ganization of subject-matter, the selection of good de-
vices for its presentation, and the formulation of a pro-
gram of technique that seems suitable to the particular
situation.

6. Skill in actual teaching as shown by the last two or
three weeks of the practice teaching of each student
teacher.

c. Final grades given teachers on their practice teaching.

d. Judgments of teachers as shown by a questionnaire
score card indicating the items in which they have been
materially helped by supervision.

e. Scholastic records of pupils being taught by the student
teachers under supervision.

/. Quantitative record of the supervisory activities carried
on by the training-school supervisor. This should in*

252 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

elude all kinds of outlines issued to teachers and the
course-of-study materials formulated by the supervisor.
g. Qualitative study of the supervisory performances as
made through personal contact of the administrator
with the supervisory situation. This type of evidence
should be given in detail and each item should be based
on concrete data. Especial attention should be given to
the technique of the supervisor in visiting teachers at
work, in making constructive criticisms, etc.
C. Sources from which the types of evidence should be secured.
These have already been indicated in stating the types them-
selves. Briefly restated, however, they are student teachers,
supervisor, school records of pupils' grades, records of teach-
ers' practice teaching grades, and the administrator or direc-
tor of the school. The matter of securing the objective data
from all these sources should be carefully worked out so that
the data will be compiled systematically and in sufficient
quantity to afford a reliable basis for determining the degree
of efficiency with which the supervisor has performed his re-
spective duties. The use of such devices as are suggested be-
low will facilitate the accumulation of the necessary data.

Devices for securing objective data. A detailed daily-
lesson-plan form, such as has been presented in a previous
discussion in this book, and a weekly-lesson-plan form simi-
lar to that heretofore described, will enable the director to
secure very definite evidence as to the development of the
teacher's professional knowledge and his skill in applying
this knowledge to teaching problems. The teacher can
readily furnish such lesson plans as are desired by the super-
visor and director by using carbon sheets, so that no extra
work need be involved in meeting this particular part of the
administrative program.

The data on skill in actual teaching can be secured only
through visiting the teachers at work a sufficient number of
times to accumulate an adequate body of facts upon which
to base a valid judgment. The director may secure such
data economically by using a detailed blank which contains

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION £53

the items suggested in the chapter on the measuring of teach-
ing efficiency. If he so desires, he may use fewer items, or
he may extend the number of points to suit his particular
point of view and present purposes. The main point is that
some definite form of observation notes should be taken and
the estimate of the teachers' efficiency based upon them.

The final grades of the teachers and the standing of the
pupils can be secured from the usual school records that are
kept for this purpose. These may be charted for conven-
ience in making comparisons from term to term, and practi-
cally all of this tabular work can be done by clerical help.
The graphic representation of such data is so common that
no special form need be suggested here. The simpler the
form the better as long as it shows up the essential items.

The questionnaire for securing the judgments of teachers
needs to be prepared with care and it should contain the main
items of teacher training that are supposed to be contrib-
uted to through the work of the supervisor. A score-card
form is very convenient and can be easily varied to include
as many or as few items as the situation seems to warrant.
The form should be different for elementary- and secondary-
training schools on account of the difference in the number
of subjects supervised by each supervisor. The accom-
panying form (see page 254) is suggestive of what might be
used to advantage in an elementary-training school.

Use of the score card. The student teachers should be
carefully instructed in the use of this score card. A score of
from one to five should be entered in each square of the en-
tire card, and the averages entered for each teacher-training
item and for each subject. The director can accumulate
these cards during the year and have the summation aver-
ages of all the data recorded graphically by subjects and by
teacher-training items. The tabular work can be handled
by clerical assistance so that the administrator needs only to

254

TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

TEACHER'S RATING OF SUPERVISORY AID RENDERED BY
SUPERVISOR. . . .IN MASTERING:

t»

«rm. — Enter

'•*.

i score of 1-
5 in each
square

Arithmeti

t»

£
I

Language

Grammar

Geograph

*OD
>»

Drawing

Domestic

Nature sti

rposes in

;eaching

Common

•ganization

sthod

Good habits

Bad habits

Teacher.

» See Chapters IV, VI.

study the final tabulations to determine the value of the
evidence.

The score card that would be adapted to rating the super-
visors in a secondary-training institution would be much
simpler in form. It might well contain the same teacher-
training items as are given in the above form, but these
would refer to only one or possibly two subjects, since each
student teacher usually teaches only one subject in his prac-
tice period.

The administrator should be careful in evaluating these
scores so as not to give them too great weight in judging the
efficiency of the work of a supervisor. This source of evi-
dence, however, should receive a fair amount of considera-

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 255

tion. The person who takes the treatment is in a position
to pass judgment on the results from an angle to which
no other person has access. The practice of going to the
recipients of education courses to get testimony as to their
practical value is becoming more and more common to-day
in the educational world. The results of such an inquiry at
least serves as a balancing check against the evidences pre-
sented from other sources on the efficiency of the supervisory
performances.

Supplementing the questionnaire. Another type of evi-
dence that the teacher can furnish in the program for meas-
uring the worth of supervision is that of giving a descriptive
account of ways in which the supervisor has contributed to
his training. The teacher, knowing his difficulties in at least
a general way, and realizing when and how he has been actu-
ally helped, can very readily render an accurate descriptive
account of the help given. The teacher must be consistent
in recording such descriptive data in order to be of real serv-
ice in measuring the efficiency of the supervisory activities.

Examples of supervisory helpfulness. The teacher may
be handicapped in his work on account of lack of certain
lines of general training, which he might readily overcome
by individual study under wise direction. If the supervisor
discovers this source of the teacher's difficulty, points out
the remedy, and directs the teacher in removing the defect,
the teacher knows quite definitely and in what degree the
supervisor has rendered valuable service to him. A brief,
concise statement of the amount of time spent by the super-
visor, and the kinds of suggestions, discussions, and helpful
acts performed in rendering the service, should be set down
in the proper place in the record. Every time this sort of
assistance is given the teacher an accurate record should be
made.

Another general handicap that the teacher very fre-

256 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

quently works under is that of having a very vague concep-
tion of the aims of education and the specific purposes for
which the various subjects are taught. This defect usually
involves a lack of knowledge of the psychological and physi-
ological natures of the pupils in the particular type of school
in which the teacher is working. This handicap may be
largely overcome in many cases through the work of the su-
pervisor. He may put literature into the teacher's hands,
and through discussions and suggestions greatly aid the
teacher in interpreting the points of view and principles thus
presented. The result will be a greatly changed teacher,
and the teacher can be fully aware of the advantage that
has come to him through this change. Therefore he should
keep a faithful record of the important acts performed by
the supervisor in this connection.

The problems of general management of the classroom
and the problems of discipline are some of the hardest diffi-
culties for a teacher, as a rule, to overcome. These prob-
lems are very definite and concrete. They arise in such a
way that the teacher realizes quite fully his lack of ability
to cope with the situation. Therefore he realizes just what
advice and suggestions from the supervisor have enabled
him to deal with his problems more successfully than he
could possibly have done on his own responsibility. The
concrete cases should be recorded in complete enough form
to show the essential ways in which the direction of the su-
pervisor was highly valuable. The essential help may have
been the clarifying of the teacher's understanding of the
principles underlying the particular piece of pupil conduct.
It may have been the suggesting of a device or some point of
technique in dealing with the case. Whatever it may have
been, the essential point or points can always be set down in
definite form.

Starting the teacher along right lines. The one aspect

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 257

of the teacher's work in which he meets many difficulties
and in which he looks most of all to the supervisor for mate-
rial assistance is that of teaching subject-matter in particular
subjects. The teacher may not always realize that the point
of difficulty is one primarily of method, device, or technique,
but he should realize quite fully the difference that the work
of the supervisor has made in his ability to meet the teach-
ing problems successfully. If the supervisor is successful in
rendering constructive service, the teacher will know that it
was a clearing-up of a point in method, or the selection of
better devices, or the forming of correct technique that en-
abled him to improve in his teaching. The teacher may
have some very bad forms of technique that need to be
broken up and replaced by good technique. He may fully
realize that this is the case, and yet be unable to accomplish
the task alone. When this is true he knows thoroughly just
what the supervisor contributes to his success in mastering
the situation. All of these points come out in connection
with concrete teaching situations. Therefore the teacher
can set down accurate data, in brief form, that show the
value of the supervisor's work.

The teacher often lacks initiative and independence. He
needs to have opportunities thrust upon him for acquiring
this much-desired power. If the supervisor succeeds in giv-
ing the teacher such opportunities, and by wise direction en-
ables him to develop initiative, the teacher knows just what
has taken place so far as the essential features of each case
are concerned. The specific situations should be recorded
with enough details to objectify the service that the super-
visor has rendered to the teacher in each case.

Value of objective records. The teacher not only knows
when he has received material help in respect to the various
points that have been set forth above, but he also knows
when he has been hindered rather than helped. Therefore,

258 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

in connection with each of these different types of difficul-
ties, he should make an accurate descriptive record of the
negative effect of the supervisor's work whenever there is
just cause for so doing. The teacher may not understand
just what the reason is for the negative effect, but if he sets
down a reliable account of the supervisor's performance and
the apparent results and submits these data to the adminis-
trator, that officer may be able to analyze the situation thor-
oughly enough to locate the defect. The trouble may be a
failure to apply some principle of method in supervision, a
poor selection of devices, or a matter of faulty technique.
The difficulty may be just a matter of personality or an un-
fortunate temporary attitude and bearing on the part of the
supervisor. Whatever the defect may be, the teacher will
have discharged his responsibility when he has made an ac-
curate, honest record of what actually took place and has
placed the data at the disposal of the administrator.

The keeping of such a record as has been suggested in this
discussion may seem to be too detailed and laborious to be
practical. The actual amount of time and labor involved
in doing the work is not great, provided a good form is used
to systematize the data and reduce the amount of writing to
the minimum, and provided the teacher forms the habit of
checking up on the items periodically and making whatever
records are essential to the success of the scheme. One
thing is certain, and that is that the only way to make relia-
ble scientific measurements of the supervisor's efficiency is
to accumulate worth-while objective data of the sorts that
have been set forth, and the only way to secure such an ac-
cumulation of facts is to invent good devices and practice
proper technique. No measurement should be attempted
at all if it has to be based on mere subjective impressions and
superficial evidence. There would be nothing wrong, to be
sure, in asking a teacher for his impression of the value of

259

the supervisor's work, but such an impression should not be
taken as a substitute for objective evidence. If this is the
only kind of data at hand upon which to make an estimate
of the supervisor's work, then let this fact be stated frankly
and let no pretense be made of giving the supervisor a defi-
nite rating upon such a basis.

Consideration of the supervisory performances in them-
selves as a measure of the efficiency of supervision. The
supervisor should be ready and willing to supply data on his
own activities that can be used in checking up the other data
secured by the administrator. Moreover, he should be in-
terested in accumulating as much objective data as possible
on his performances, in order that he may study them ac*
curately and in perspective. The supervisor who can re-
view his own actual doings in concrete form at the end of a
year, half-year, or any period whatever, is in a much better
position to discover his defects and his strong points than he
can possibly be if he depends upon memory and general im-
pressions. The actual amount of time and labor that would
be consumed in the accumulation of essential data will not
be great when the supervisor has once formed the habit of
doing it systematically. The work of recording some of the
forms of data, as will be shown, can be largely done by
stenographic and clerical help. And, finally, the supervisor
ought, more than any other person connected with his work,
to be interested in having his efficiency measured by an
abundance of objective data rather than by brief inspection
and subjective impressions.

One of the important forms of data that the supervisor
should furnish the administrator is that of typewritten or
mimeographed copies of all the kinds of materials that he
puts into the hands of the teachers for their guidance and
direction. These materials should include outlines of sub-
ject-matter, suggestive forms for lesson plans, outlines on

260 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

method, devices, and technique especially adapted to partic-
ular subjects, suggestions on testing and examining pupils
in particular subjects, general instructions on management
and discipline, instructions and suggestions on supervised
study, forms to be used by teachers in taking observation
notes, and general instructions to teachers on handling
make-up work. There may be other printed materials that
the supervisor has worked out for special purposes and
placed in the hands of the teachers. Whatever they may
be, copies of them should be furnished to the administrator.

Plans for supervisory work. A second very vital form of
data that the supervisor should submit to the administrator
is that of definite plans of supervision. These plans should
show how frequently the supervisor expects to visit the work
of each teacher, when these visits are to occur, and how
much time will be spent on each visit. This should, of
course, be flexible, but a definite program of distribution of
time will be helpful to the supervisor and be valuable to the
administrator. The supervisor should plan definite prob-
lems in method, device, technique, etc., as the case may be,
upon which he expects to be working in the direction of each
teacher's work day after day and week after week. These
plans can very well be made for a week at a time without
unduly burdening the supervisor, and without reducing
them to a mere formal task. These plans should be flexible,
but the supervisor will do much more effective work with
each teacher if he has definite points in mind upon which to
work daily until something definite has been accomplished.
The working-out of good forms to be used in making these
various plans will save much time and energy and will be an
indication of the supervisor's efficiency.

Notes on visitation. A third type of data is that of defi-
nite notes, taken during visits to the teacher at work, and
written suggestions given to teachers concerning the specific

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 261

problems upon which the supervisor is working at any par-
ticular time. A good form may be used in taking detailed
notes that will reduce the labor involved to a minimum.
Carbon sheets can be used, and thus readily supply as many
extra copies from one writing as may be desired. These
notes will not only show just what the supervisor is under-
taking to do, but they will enable both administrator and
supervisor to discover the most common defects of teachers
in particular subjects. They will also show quite definitely
the range of differences in the time taken by individual
teachers to overcome this or that particular defect, or to
make some specific adjustment to a problem.

Reports of conferences. A final form of data should be
that of definite statements and information concerning the
conducting of conferences with teachers. This should in-
clude the time spent in individual and group conferences,
and should give in brief, concise form the essential points
concerning the matters discussed, with a statement as to the
apparent results. A well-worked-out blank form for this
purpose will reduce greatly the time and energy consumed
in keeping an accurate record. The accumulation of such
data will be as helpful or even more so to the supervisor than
it will be to the administrator. It will enable him to study
his own performances in conducting such conferences, and
be the means of improving method, devices, and technique
of doing such work. The more the supervisor, as well as the
administrator, gets away from mere memory and subjective
impressions, the more effective he will become. The at-
tempt to secure objective data will mean definiteness in
everything connected with his work, and definiteness all
round will go far toward eliminating waste and bringing
consistent improvement in the supervisory performances.

Qualitative study of supervisory performances. The
second phase of considering the supervisory performances in

262 TECHNIQUE OF SUPERVISION

themselves as a measure of their efficiency is that of de-
termining the quality of these actual performances. This
study cannot be made on any other basis than that of actual
personal contact with the supervisor's work. The adminis-
trator must see the supervisor in the schoolroom, directing
the teacher, in conferences with teachers, teaching demon-
stration lessons, conducting observation groups, testing the
work of the pupils, and measuring the work of the teachers
in order to have any adequate conception of the supervisor's
skill. Moreover, these visits to the supervisor's work must
be more than inspectorial glimpses. They must be frequent
enough and extended enough to enable the administrator to
analyze thoroughly the extent to which the supervisor has
mastered the principles of method in supervision, has exer-
cised good judgment in selecting and adapting devices, and
has acquired effective technique in performing all phases of
the supervising activities. If the administrator does not
have the time or opportunity to make any such thorough-
going study as has been suggested, then he is not in a posi-
tion to pass judgment upon the worth of the supervision
from the standpoint of what the supervisor has actually done
in the way of performance. If this is the case, the justness
with which the work of the supervisor is measured will de-
pend upon how carefully the results as set forth above have
been checked up.

Need for definite plans and systematic work. The ad-
ministrator who undertakes in a serious way to make a
thorough study of the work of his supervisors should have a
definite plan in mind and carry it out systematically. He
must take accurate notes on his observations when visiting
the work, and he must discriminate sharply between princi-
ples of method, devices, and technique of supervision. He
should not rely too much upon the mere appearance of
things, but should have conferences with the supervisors be-

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 263

fore and after his visits in order to get into their thinking on
points of method, devices, and technique. He will in this
way learn whether or not the success of the supervisors at
any time was accidental, and whether seeming failure was
merely a temporary matter that will in all probability come
out right later. He should study the plans that his super-
visors make for their own guidance, and note the extent to
which these plans are realized in their work. Moreover, he
should not only note deficiencies, but should account for
them in terms of failure to apply the principles of method,
lack of good judgment in selecting and adapting devices, or
deficiency in skill of technique.

The work of the administrator in observing supervisory
activities will be greatly facilitated by the use of a regular
blank which includes all the essential items that should be
studied through such observations. Concrete data should
be accumulated under each item and a final rating of effi-
ciency in each item made from these objective data. The
general headings on such a form should be: Method, De-
vices, and Technique. There should be a space for miscel-
laneous notes and comments. The exact form that may
be used is immaterial. The important point is that when
one systematically accumulates data of this sort, he becomes
much more definite and certain in his procedure. This very
habit of getting down to definite, detailed data will insure a
high degree of accuracy in estimating the real worth of su-
pervision.

Chapter summary. The work of supervision must justify
its existence by establishing adequate objective evidences of
its efficiency. These objective evidences may be secured
through first setting up a body of guiding principles, and
then, by formulating a program that will enable the admin-
istrator or supervisor, as the case may be, to apply the prin-
ciples to the measurement of any particular type of super-

264 TECHNIQUE OP SUPERVISION

visory situation. The ultimate interpretation of principles
and the formulation of the measurement program must rest
with the individual administrator. Suggestive programs,
however, based upon definite supervisory situations may be
helpful; hence they are worth studying.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Make a list of goals or outcomes that would be suitable for a superin-
tendent, in a city of 5000, to undertake to realize through his own
supervisory activities.

2. Describe the status of a particular course of study, in either an ele-
mentary- or secondary-school subject, that needs revision.

3. Select some subject that is usually introduced into the schools under a
special supervisor and make a list of appropriate goals that may be
attained by efficient supervision.

4. Select two appropriate goals to be realized through the supervisory
activities of a supervising principal, and designate the types of objec-
tive data that would well establish the efficiency of the supervision.

5. Give a brief descriptive account of three or more ways in which you
have been helped by a supervisor.

6. Give a brief descriptive account of two or more instances in which you
have been handicapped by poor or insufficient supervision.

7. Give three examples of cases in which special supervisors have de-
manded too much of the teachers under their supervision.

8. Make a blank form that the administrator could use to advantage in
securing reliable data on his observations of the actual performances
of supervision.

9. Make a graphic record of the quantity of supervisory duties per-
formed by a particular supervisor whose work you have known.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR SECTION C

Boyce, Arthur C. Fourteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Edu-
cation. Part n, "Methods for Measuring Teachers' Efficiency."
Good presentation of data, and excellent analysis of practical standards.

Elliott, E. C. "A Tentative Scale for the Measuring of Teaching Effi-
ciency"; in the University of Wisconsin, Twelfth Yearbook, part I, p. 68.
Gives 1910 edition of the scale. Cubberley, E. P. State and County
Educational Reorganization, Appendix, gives 1914 edition of the Elliott
Scale, and also two State of Indiana scales.
Good standard to compare with Boyce's scale.

ESTIMATING THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 265

Hall, J. W. Twelfth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Education.
Part i, Appendix, p. 97, "Supervision of Beginning Teachers in Cincin-
nati."

Sets of notes, taken by supervisors during visits to teachers, given in full.

Monroe, Walter S., DeVoss, James C., and Kelly, F. J. Educational Testa
and Measurements.

Comprehensive presentation and discussion of standard tests, and interpretation
of experimental data.

Monroe, Walter S. Seventeenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Edu-
cation. Chapter m, "Existing Tests and Standards."

Gives all tests for elementary and high schools up to 1918.

Morehouse, Frances. Practice Teaching in the School of Education, Uni-
versity of Illinois School of Education, Bulletin No. 7.

Helpful discussions on conferences with teachers, and criticism of teachers' work.
Rugg, Harold Ordway. Teachers' Marks and Marking Systems.

Excellent presentation of both fields.

Seashore, Carl E. Eighteenth Yearbook of the Society for the Study of Educa-
tion. Chapter vi, "The R61e of a Consulting Supervisor in Music."
Helpful suggestion* on technique.

INDEX

Administrator, should be trained in
supervision, 8, 9; the supervisory
job of, 30, 31 ; must plan for meas-
urement of advisory efficiency,
238; must see the supervisor at
work, 261, 262; must have definite
plan, 262, 263.

Adolescence, the beginning stage of,
48, 49; the second stage of, 49;
the third stage of, 49, 50; the su-
preme period of habit formation,
60; religious tendency of, 67, 68.

Adolescents, physiological traits of,
54; psychological traits of, 54, 55;
social status and outlook of, 56;
effects of combined physical con-
ditions on development of, 57, 58;
embarrassments of, 58, 59; effect
upon, of development of sex or-
gans, 59 ; actions of, usually due to
suggestion, not to premeditation,
65, 66. See Pupils.

Algebra, scope of subject-matter of
unit of, 1 19.

Analysis, 76.

Anticipatory teaching, 83, 84; the
value of, 84, 85.

Arithmetic, scope of subject-matter
of unit of, 119; elementary, out-
line of a demonstration lesson in,
140, 141; meetings to discuss the
teaching of, 242, 243.

Assignments, to individual pupils,
134; observation, 143-51; pur-
pose and use of observation, 152,
153; of lessons, should be clear
and definite, 182; recitations
should keep up with, 182, 183.

Assistant superintendent, must
sometimes supervise, 30; measur-
ing the supervisory work of, 245,
246.

Building principal, must sometimes

supervise, 30; measuring super-
visory work of, 245, 246.
Bulletin board, 108, 109.

Capitalization, 132.

Checking up work of pupils, 211.

Childhood, dominant physiological
characteristics of, 41; dominant
psychological characteristics of,
41-43.

Children, social status of, 43.

Circulatory system of adolescents,
57.

Class, amount of time to be devoted
to study outside of, 123, 124.

Class periods, length and number of,
123.

Classroom, the supervisor's manner
of entering, 201, 202; the super-
visor's position in, 202, 203; the
supervisor's manner of leaving,
203, 204; management of, 222;
visitations of, by superintendent,
244.

Comma, use of the, 132.

Conferences, individual study, 185;
group and individual, 186, 209;
points characteristic of, 210, 211;
of superintendent with teachers,
243; reports of, 261.

Conservation of materials in devices,
102. 103.

Constructive and destructive criti-
cism, 195, 196.

Cooperation between supervisor and
teachers, to be aimed at, 23, 24,
35-37 ; importance of, in regard to
conduct of pupil, 66.

Cooperative teaching, laying tho
basis for, 23, 24; particular basis
for, in the elementary' school, 38—
44 ; particular Iwais for, in tho sec-
ondary school, 45-74; hearing
upon, of agreement concerning

268

INDEX

characteristics of pupils, 56, 57;
bearing upon, of knowledge of un-
certainty of behavior of pupils,
61-63; general basis for, in either
elementary or secondary school,
75-82; selection of devices in, 113.

Cost of materials, a phase of econ-
omy, 103.

Courses, selecting and organizing the
subject-matter of, the duty of the
supervisor, 24, 25; detailed state-
ment with regard to the selection
and organization of the subject-
matter of, 117-30; should be
put in hands of teacher in com-
plete form, 117; facts in regard
to subject-matter of, which should
be made known to teacher, 117-
19; unit of credit in, 119-30;
the scope and quantity of, 119,
120; the body of habits that should
result from the study of, 120; the
prerequisites to, 121; other courses
in the same subject to which they
lead, 121; organization of, into
shorter or longer periods, 121-
23; length and number of class
periods necessary for complet-
ing, 123; the class of pupils for
whom they are pitched, 126; the
classes of pupils to whom they are
open for full or fractional credit,
126, 127; the items determining a
pupil's credit in, 127-29; the range
of marks in indicating credit in,
129; quantity of material to be
covered in any fraction of, 129,
130; relative emphasis or impor-
tance of the divisions of, 132. See
Sub j ect-matter.

Credit, the amount of, to be given to
different classes of pupils in the
same course, 126, 127; the items
determining a pupil's, 127-29;
the range of marks in indicating,
129. See Unit of credit.

Critical evaluation of teaching, 143,
146, 147, 153-57.

Criticism, destructive and construc-
tive, 195, 196.

Curriculum, of the elementary

school, 40; of the secondary school,
50, 51; of the secondary school, to
be regarded as a means to an end,
52, 53; introduction of social sub-
jects, such as economics, com-
mercial geography, into, 71; the
socializing of the courses of, 71.
See Courses, Subject-matter.
Curriculum-making. See Courses.

Daily lesson plans. See Lesson plans.

Deduction and induction, 76, 77.

Demonstration and experimentation,
supervisor should teach for pur-
poses of, 25, 26.

Demonstration teaching, purpose of,
138; aim of the lesson should be
seen beforehand, 138, 139; notea
of lesson should be taken, 139;
should be critical discussion after
the lesson, 139, 140; examples of,
140-42; emergency, 157-62.

Demonstrations, 126.

Destructive and constructive criti-
cism, 195, 196.

Details vs. generalities, in training
for supervision, 18.

Devices, denned, 77, 97; and their
use, 77, 78; should be economical,
97; permanency of, important, 97,
103; examples, instructions to
teachers, 98-102; for saving teach-
er's time, 102 ; conservation of ma-
terials in, 102, 103; cost of mate-
rials in, 103; principle of econ-
omy, in, a relative matter, 103,
104; the saving of time the im-
portant matter in, 104; should be
effective, 104, 105; criterions of
effectiveness of, 104, 105; should
be usable, 105, 106; criterions of
usability, 105, 106; should not be
too numerous, 106, 107 ; should not
be too meager, 107; should bear
a logical relation to the end they
are to aid in accomplishing, 107,
108; should be a means, 108, 109;
should be classified, 109-11; classi-
fication of general, 109, 110; ma-
terial, 109, 110; intellectual, 109,
110; material and intellectual, 110,

INDEX

269

111; classification of special, 110,
111; the selection of, 113; outline
for directed teaching, as to, 164-
67; and technique, 199; intelli-
gence and resourcefulness in se-
lecting and adapting, 219, 220;
for securing objective data as to
teacher's efficiency, 252-54.

Directed observation of teaching,
forms of, 142; purposes of, 143;
preliminary observation, 143; ob-
Bervation assignment, 143-51; crit-
ical observation, 143; critical eval-
uation and judgment-forming,
146, 147; purpose and use of ob-
servation assignments, 152, 153;
to evaluate teaching, 153-57.

Directed teaching, a step in learning
to teach by direct teaching, 87, 88;
what it involves, 163; outline for,
164-70; choice of specific habits of
skill, 170; definite detailed lesson
plans, 171; differences between
teachers, 172; weekly and daily
lesson-plans, 172-77; lesson-plans
do not lead to mechanical work,
177, 178; lesson-plans clarify
thinking for the beginner, 178;
time to be given to oral and writ-
ten work and to quizzes, 179; ques-
tions, 179; preparation of lessons,
180.

Discipline, in outline for directed
teaching, 168; the teacher's ability
in the matter of, 222, 223; a phi-
losophy of school, 223-25; a mod-
ern point of view of, 224, 225.

Discussions, 110.

Double periods, 184.

Drill, 120, 132, 133, 183.

Economy, saving of time for the su-
pervisor, a phase of, 97; saving of
time for the teacher, a phase of,
102; conservation of materials a
form of, 102, 103; cost of materials
a form of, 103; a relative matter,
103, 104; as result of technique of
supervision, 196, 197.

Education, modern, a weakness of,
132, 133.

Educational situations, 113, 114.

Efficiency, training conduces to, 13,
14; supervision to develop, 194;
supervisory, see Supervision; of
teacher, see Rating.

Elementary schools, composition of
the teaching force of, 3, 4; particu-
lar basis for cooperative teaching
in, 38-44; the purpose of, 38; the
place of, 38-40; curriculum of, 40;
pupils of, 41-43; general basis
for cooperative teaching in, 75-
82.

Embarrassments, adolescent, 58, 59.

Emergency demonstration teaching,
157-62; use and purpose of, 157;
examples of, 158-60; situations
that justify, 160, 161.

English, the socializing of, 72; flu-
ency and correctness in, necessary
for teacher, 218.

Evaluation, critical, of teaching, 143,
146, 147, 153-57; observation
outline, 154.

Examinations, 222.

Experiences, mental maturing
through, 61-63.

Experimentation and demonstra-
tion, supervisor should teach for
purposes of, 25, 26, 138.

Experiments, to be performed by the
pupil, 125; to be performed by the
teacher, 125, 126.

Finding out things for and by one's
self, 90, 91.

Formal stage, in all training, 12, 13;
meaning of, 14, 15.

Formalism, definition of, 10.

Formality of technique, the, 9-11;
training school and public school
as regards, 14, 15; eliminated by
mastery, 16.

Forms, for lesson plans, 108, 109,
173-76; concerning educational
situation, 115; for observation
assignment, 146, 148, 150; for
supervisor's notes of teachers'
classroom work, 206-09; for in-
formation concerning course of
study of teacher, 248.

270

INDEX

Generalities vs. details, in training
for supervision, 18.

Geometry, plane, outline of a dem-
onstration lesson in, 141, 142
example of emergency demonstra-
tion teaching in, 158, 159.

Goals, the habit of having worth-
while, 177; superintendent should
have definite, 240, 241; set up for
the special supervisor to attain,
246, 247; of supervision, 251.

Grades and marks, assigning of, 211,
212.

Grading and promoting, value of
tests in, 188.

Graphs, 110.

Group conferences, 186.

Group study, 185.

Habits, transforming technique into,
11 ; adolescence the supreme period
of formation of, 60; practice to
form right, in teachers, 88; of
teaching, should become auto-
matic, 88, 89; of teaching, break-
ing up incorrect, 89-92; the body
of, that should result from the
study of a course, 120; of studying
intensively, 124; of skill, specific,
for different subjects, 170; of
study, 186.

Hectographing, 103.

High schools, unprofessional charac-
ter of teaching in, 6.

Imitation, teaching learned by, 86,
87.

Independence in the teacher, 93; su-
pervision to develop, 194.

Individual conferences, 185, 186.

Induction and deduction, 76, 77.

Initiative, 89, 93; supervision to de-
velop, 194, 195.

Instincts of adolescents, importance
of knowledge of, 60, 61.

Instruction. See Courses.

Instructions to teachers, printed, a
good device, 97; examples of, 98-
102; a time-saving device, 102;
compared with oral instructions,
103; compared with hectographed

or mimeographed instructions;
103; effectiveness of, 104, 105;
usability of, 105, 106; no con-
fusion due to use of, 107; a gen-
eral device of the material sort,
109.

Intellectual devices, 109, 110.

Intelligence tests for teachers, 216.

Interests of pupils should be caught
at their crest, 68, 69.

Judgment-forming, 146, 147.

Kansas, University of, weekly lesson

plan of, 174, 175.
Kindergarten, the, 39.

Laboratory and recitation work,
amount of time to be devoted to
each, 124, 125.

Language texts, supplementary ma-
terial needed with, 133.

Latin, example of emergency dem-
onstration teaching in, 159, 160.

Lectures, 110; outline for directed
teaching, as to, 166, 167.

Lesson assignment should be clear
and definite, 182.

Lesson-plans, daily, 108, 109, 173,
176; form for, 108, 109; weekly,
172-75; should be given by super-
visor and followed by teacher, 171,
172; value of daily, 176, 177; do
not lead to mechanical work, 177,
178; clarify thinking for the be-
ginner, 178; should be definitenesa
in, 220; for records of teacher's
efficiency, 252.

Lessons, time to be devoted to prep«
aration of, 123, 124, 180.

Make-up work, 186.

Management of classroom and o!
pupils, 222, 223.

Manual arts, 40.

Manual training courses, have some-
times been too theoretical, 69.

Marks, the range of, 129; assigning,
211, 212.

Material, conservation of, in devices,
102; supplementary, 133, 134;

INDEX

271

notebooks, 134. See Subject-
matter.

Material devices, 109, 110.

Mathematics, how it may be social-
ized, 71; much supplementary drill
material needed in, 133.

Meetings, teachers', 242, 243.

Memorization, 184.

Mental development to be aimed at,
53; through experiences, 61-63.

Method, first principle of, super-
visor and teachers must have
common knowledge and hold com-
mon points of view, 35-37; de-
nned, 76; principles of, defined,
76; problems in, 76, 77; second
principle of) that one learns to
teach by teaching, 83-89; third
principle of, incorrect habits of
teaching can be broken up under
supervision, 89-92; fourth prin-
ciple of, teacher must be given op-
portunity to do regular work, 93;
outline for directed teaching, as
to, 164; mastery of principles of,
219.

Mimeographing, 103.

Nervous system of adolescents, 57.

Notebooks, 134.

Notes, should be taken to estimate
teacher's efficiency, 204, 205, 253,
260, 261; outline for, for super-
visor, 206-09.

Observation, of teaching, 85, 86;

of demonstration lessons, 138-42;

directed, of teaching, 142-53, see

Directed observation; to evaluate

teaching, 153-57.
Oral and written work, relative time

to be given to, in recitation, 179.
Oread Training School, example of

general instructions to senior

teachers in, 98-100.

Periods, shorter or longer, organiza-
tion of subjects into, 121-23; class,
length and number of, 123; super-
vised study, 184; double, 184.

Permanency of devices, 97, 103.

Physiological characteristics, of
childhood, 41 ; of secondary-school
pupils, 54.

Physiological disturbances of ado-
lescents, 57-59.

Plans for lessons. See Lesson-plans.

Plans for supervisory work, 260.

Preparation of lessons, time to be
devoted to, 123, 124, 180.

Presentation and drill, relative time
to be devoted to, 132, 133.

Primary school, 39.

Principles, definite, have been lack-
ing in training of supervision, 17,
18.

Printed forms, instructions. See
Forms, Instructions.

Problems in teaching and method,
76, 77.

Professional training, lack of, 4, 5.

Promoting, value of tests in, 188.

Psychological approach to subject-
matter, 51, 52.

Psychological characteristics, of
childhood, 41, 42; of secondary-
school pupils, 54, 55; of adoles-
cents, ways of capitalizing knowl-
edge of, 60, 61.

Public school, and training school,
compared as regards formality of
organization, 14, 15; curriculum-
making in, 24, 25.

Pupils, of the elementary school, 41—
43; dominant physiological char-
acteristics of, 41; dominant psy-
chological characteristics of, 41,
42; relation of characteristics to
schoolroom procedure, 42; social
status of, 43.

Of the secondary school, 54-73;
importance of knowledge of traita
and tendencies of, 54; physiologi-
cal characteristics of, 54; psycho-
logical characteristics of, 54, 55;
proper attitude of school toward
erratic behavior in, 63-66; should
be allowed to choose freely erratic
conduct, 63, 64; door of opportun-
ity not to be closed to, 64, 65; im-
portance of frank dealings with,
66, 67; religious and emotional

272

INDEX

tendency of, 67, 68; interests of,
should be caught at the crest, 68,
69; social status and outlook of, 56;
effects of combined physical con-
ditions on development of, 57, 58;
embarrassments of, 58, 59; effect
upon, of development of sex or-
gans, 59 ; are in the supreme period
of habit formation, 60; instinctive
backgrounds of, 60, 61; to be re-
garded more than the subjects of
instruction, 69, 70.

The class of, for whom the course
is pitched, 126; the classes of, to
whom the course is open for full or
fractional credit, 126, 127; the
items that determine their record
and credit in a course, 127-29;
management of, 222, 223.

Questionnaire, for securing judg-
ment of teacher, 253.

Questions, outline for directed teach-
ing, as to, 165, 166; on quiz pa-
pers, 179.

Quiz papers, uniformity in, 134; pro-
cedure in grading, 179.

Quizzes, time for, 179; number and
character of questions in, 179.

Bating of teachers, should be sub-
ject to definite standards, 215;
suggested outline for, 216-30; in-
tellectual ability, 216; general
scholarship, 216, 217; special
scholarship, 217; ability to express
thoughts, 218; voice, 218; teach-
ing ability, 218-22; master of the
principles of method, 219; intelli-
gence and resourcefulness in se-
lecting and adapting devices, 210,
220; definiteness in lesson plan-
ning and skill in following the
plan, 220; skill and reliability of
technique, 220, 221; ability to se-
cure desired results, 221, 222; abil-
ity to test and grade definitely
and accurately the work of the
pupils, 222 ; ability to manage and
discipline, 222, 223; a philosophy
of school discipline, 223-25; per-

sonal appearance, 225; qualities of
leadership, 226; professional atti-
tude, 227 ; type of school and com-
munity in which the teacher will
be most efficient, 227, 228; the
critical point, 228.

Reading tests, 187.

Recitations, socialized, 70, 71; co-
operation necessary for proper
arranging of, 75; the device of a
plan for daily, 105, 106; and out-
side study, relation between times
devoted to, 124; and laboratory
work, amount of time to be de-
voted to each, 124, 125; amount of
work to be assigned to, 129; and
the use of textbooks in, 131, 132;
taken up and conducted in part by
supervisor, 157; relative time to
be given to oral and to written
work in, 179; means of direc*-
ing study of the pupil, 182-84;
should deal with the subject-mat-
ter assigned and in the way indi-
cated, 182; should keep up with
assignments, 182, 183; study dur-
ing, 183, 184.

Records should be based on definite
evidence, 258, 259.

Reference works, 170.

Relationships, proper teaching, of
teacher and supervisor to pupils,
80, 81.

Religious tendency of adolescence,
67, 68.

Reports by pupils, 134.

Reviews, 183.

Rural schools, composition of the
teaching force of, 4; in some
states, attacking problem of su-
pervision, 6.

Scales and tests, training in use of
standard, 187, 188.

Scholarship, general, of teachers,
216, 217; special, of teachers, 217.

Schools. ' See Elementary, Rural,
Secondary; Training.

Sciences, little supplementary ma-
terial needed in, 133.

Score card. See Form.

INDEX

273

Secondary education, to define sub-
jects in curriculum in terms of
definitely recognized values, 50;
one of the problems of, to replace
spontaneous behavior with be-
havior based upon meditation,
65; has been too theoretical and
not sufficiently practical, 68, 69.

Secondary schools, composition of
the teaching force of, 3, 4; particu-
lar basis for cooperative teaching
in, 45-74; the purpose of, 45-47;
the place of, 47, 48; the curriculum
of, 50, 51 ; the curriculum, to be re-
garded as a means to an end, 52,
53; the student, not the subject-
matter, in, the important thing,
53; the pupils of, 54-73, see Pupils;
should be stable, though flexible,
62, 63; proper attitude of, toward
erratic behavior of pupils, 63-66;
should provide social opportuni-
ties, 70, 71; general basis for co-
operative teaching in, 75-82.

Silent-reading tests, 187.

Skills standardized, and standard-
ized tests, 188, 189.

Social opportunities, should be pro-
vided by school, 70, 71.

Social status, of children, 43; of sec-
ondary-school pupils, 56.

Socialized recitations, 70, 71.

Socializing subject-matter, 71-73.

Standard tests and scales, training in
use of, 187, 188; and unstandard-
ized, 188; knowledge of their use
is necessary, 189, 190; uses to
which they can be put, 189.

Standards, teaching, should be un-
derstanding between supervisor
and teacher as to, 80; necessary for
measuring supervisory efficiency,
231, 233.

Student, thinking in terms of the, 53.

Studies of secondary school, purpose
of, 52, 53.

Study, outside, amount of time to be
devoted to, 123, 124; supervised,
181-90, see Supervised study ; dur-
ing the recitation, 183, 184; su-
pervised period of, 184; group, 185;

conferences, individual, 185; lit-
erature on, should be put in hands
of pupils, 186.

Subject-matter, the psychological
approach to, 51, 52; though not
sacred, should be stable, 62; the
pupil not to be sacrificed to, 69,
70; the socializing of, 71-73; of
courses, should be put in perma-
nent printed form by the super-
visor, 117; teacher should know
why it was organized and is being
taught, 117, 118; statement should
be made of changes going on in,
118, 119; unit of credit in, 119-30,
173; the problem of scope of, 119;
the relative amount of each type
of, 119, 120, 132, 133; content, and
formal, 120, 132, 133; the funda-
mental content, 120; to be learned
temporarily and to be learned per-
manently, 184. See Courses.

Success of teacher, considerations in
estimating, 214, 215. See Teachers.

Superintendent, principles by which
he can measure supervisory effi-
ciency, 234-38; supervisory activ-
ities of, 239; should have definite
goals, 240; should give account of
duties done and time spent in do-
ing them, 242; consideration of the
supervisory activities of, 242-45.

Supervised study, 181-90; what is
meant by, 181; the lesson assign-
ment, 182 ; the recitation demands,
182, 183; study during the recita-
tion, 183, 184; supervised study
periods, 184; group study, 185;
make-up work, 186; literature on
study, 186; conferences, 186;
training in use of standard tests
and scales, 187, 188; value of tests
in grading and promoting, 188;
standardized tests and standard-
ized skills, 188, 189; some knowl-
edge of the uses of standard tests is
necessary, 189, 190.

Supervising principal, must some-
times do supervisory work, 30;
measuring supervisory work of,
245, 246.

274

INDEX

Supervision, administrators should
be trained in, 8, 9; for the training
school, needed, 14; the greatest
weakness of, 17; training for, de-
tails vs. generalities in, 18; super-
visors measure the efficiency of,
29, 30; the goal of, 29, 30; plans of,
for administrator, 30, 31; the pur-
pose of, 81, 82; must begin before
the teacher enters the classroom,
163; the purpose of, 193, 194; to de-
velop independence and efficiency,
194, 195; the technique of, should
be constructive, 195, 196; the
technique of, should be capable of
modification, 196; the technique
of, should be economical, 196, 197;
rate of procedure in, 209 ; the need
of evaluating, 231; efficiency of,
taking stock as to, 231-33; two
steps involved in measuring effi-
ciency of, 233 ; principles involved
in measuring efficiency of, 234-38;
programs for measuring efficiency
of, 238-63; exercised by super-
intendent, 239 ; superintendent
should have definite goals, 240,
241; types of data that will be
accepted as proof of efficiency
of, for superintendent, 241, 242;
sources from which valid data may
be secured, for superintendent,
242; considerations of activities of
superintendent, 242-45; measuring
work of assistant superintendent,
supervising principal, and build-
ing principal in, 245, 246; measur-
ing work of special supervisors in,
246; special supervisor should
have definite goals, 246, 247 ; types
of evidence that indicate efficiency
of special supervisor, 247; sources
of evidence for efficiency of special
superintendent, 249; time spent
by special supervisor in, 249 ; qual-
ity of work of special supervisor in,
249; of supervisor in training-
school, 250-52; devices for secur-
ing objective data concerning,
252-55; examples of helpfulness
in, 255-57; may sometimes hinder,

267, 258; definite plans of, should
be furnished by supervisor, 260;
qualitative study of, 261, 262.
Supervisors, trained, reasons for
need of, 3-7; need of training
schools for, 7, 8; must master
technique, 15, 16; two questions
involved in the problem of train-
ing, 16, 17; should aim to bring
about cooperation between them-
selves and the teachers, 23, 24;
have the duty of selecting and or-
ganizing the subject-matter of
courses, 24, 25; should teach for
purposes of experimentation and
demonstration, 25, 26; direct sys-
tematic observation of expert and
inexpert teaching performances,
26, 27; direct teaching activities,
28; check up pupils' progress, 28;
measure progress and efficiency of
teachers, 28, 29; measure the effi-
ciency of supervision, 29, 30;
should work out list of utilizations
of traits and tendencies, 43; and
teachers, should agree on definite
types of social situations offered
by the school, 43; work in deter-
mining the place of the secondary
school, 48; and teachers, should be
in harmony as regards conduct of
pupils, 66; should be in harmony
with teachers as regards lessons
and recitations, 75; should agree
with teachers as to teaching pro-
cedure and teaching standards,
also as to teaching relationships,
79-81; direct teaching in imagina-
tion according to their standards of
correct teaching, 84 ; as directors of
teaching, 87, 88; work of, in keep-
ing teacher from incorrect acts,
91; work of, in breaking bad hab-
its, 92; work of, as sympathetic
visitors, 93 ; should put in printed
form their views of educational sit-
uation, 114, 115; should put in per-
manent printed form the subject-
matter of courses, 117; should
give instructions concerning text-
books, 130; must consider the

INDEX

three factors involved in teaching,
163; exist for the sake of teachers
and pupils, 193, 194; should en-
deavor to make teachers inde-
pendent and efficient, 194; must
vi»t the teacher at his work, 199;
the question of when they should
begin visiting, 199-201 ; manner of
their entering the classroom, 201,
202 ; their position in the classroom,
202, 203; their manner of leaving
the classroom, 203, 204; should
make notes on the recitation, 204-
06; manner in which they should
deliver the written notes, 205;
should always do their visiting
openly, 205, 206; outline for notes
of, 206-09; special, measuring su-
pervisory activities of, 246; defin-
ite goals set up for them to attain,
246, 247; types of evidence that
indicate their efficiency, 247;
sources of evidence for efficiency
of, 249; time spent by, 249; qual-
ity of work of, 250; in training-
school, measuring supervisory ac-
tivities of, 250-52; ways in which
teacher may be helped by, 255-57 ;
may sometimes hinder, 257, 258;
should themselves furnish data to
administrator, 259, 260 ; should fur-
nish definite plans of supervision,
260; notes on visitation to be made
by, 260, 261; reports of confer-
ences to be furnished by, 261;
must be seen at work to be judged
properly, 261, 262.

Supplementary materials to text-
book, 133, 134.

Synthesis, 76.

Tact, 61.

Teachers, need of training schools
for, 7, 8; trained, should trans-
form technique into habits, 11;
why they fail in using technique,
11, 12; must pass through stages
of habit formation, 12, 13; cooper-
ation between supervisor and,
necessary, 23, 24; progress and
efficiency of, measured by super-

visor, 28, 29; not to be worried
over erratic interpretations of their
behavior [toward pupils, 64, 65;
and supervisor.'should be in har-
mony as regards conduct of pupils,
66; should be frank with pupils,
66, 67; should not try to play upon
the credulity of pupils, 67; should
be in harmony with supervisor as
regards lessons and recitations,
75; should agree with supervisor
as to teaching procedure, and
teaching standards, also as to
teaching relationships, 79-81 ; and
supervisor, unite on anticipatory
teaching, 83, 84; supervision valid
for keeping them from incorrect
acts, 91; general instructions to
senior, 98-100; instructions to
regular, 100-02; saving the time
of, a device for, 102 ; should have
statement in printed form of sub-
ject-matter of courses, 117; should
know why subject-matter was or-
ganized and is being taught, 117.
118; differences between, 172;
should seek service of supervisor,
194; visited by supervisor in class-
room, 199-206; work of, criticized
by supervisor, 206-09; considera-
tions in estimating success of, 214,
215; the rating of, should be sub-
ject to definite standards, 215;
suggested outline for rating of,
216-30; intellectual ability, 216;
general scholarship, 216, 217; spe-
cial scholarship, 217; ability to
express thoughts, 218; quality of
voice, 218; teaching ability, 218-
22; mastery of the principles of
method, 219; intelligence and re-
sourcefulness in selecting and
adapting devices, 219, 220; defin-
iteness of lesson planning and skill
in following the plan, 220; skill
and reliability of technique, 220,
221; ability to secure desired re-
sults, 221, 222; ability to test and
grade definitely and accurately
the work of the pupils, 222; ability
to manage and discipline, 222, 223;

376

INDEX

a philosophy of school discipline,
223-25; personal appearance, 225;
qualities of leadership, 226; pro-
fessional attitude, 227; type of
school and community in which
they will be most efficient, 227,
228; the critical point, 228; judg-
ment of, concerning course of
study, 248; devices for securing
objective data as to efficiency of,
252-54; form of questionnaire for
securing judgment of, 253, 254;
ways in which supervisor may
help, 255-57; may be hindered by
supervisor, 257, 258; meetings,
242, 243.

Teaching, cooperative, laying the
basis for, 23, 24 ; a cooperative en-
terprise, 35-37; problems in, 76,
77; to be learned by teaching, 83;
anticipatory, 83, 84; anticipatory,
the value of, 84, 85; observation
of, 85, 86, 142-53; learned by imi-
tation, 86, 87; directed, 87, 163-
81; teachers should endeavor to
form right habits of, 88 ; habits of,
should become automatic, 88, 89;
breaking up incorrect habits of,
89, 90; initiative and independ-
ence in, 89, 93; demonstration,
138-42; observation to evaluate,
153-57 ; emergency demonstra-
tion, 157-62; three fundamental
factors involved in, 163; lack of
definiteness one of chief causes of
poor, 177. See Cooperative teach-
ing.

Teaching force of schools, composi-
tion of, 3, 4; lack of professional
training in, 4-6.

Teaching procedure, agreements as
to, by supervisor and teacher, 79.

Teaching relationships, proper, of
supervisor and teachers to pupils,
80, 81.

Teaching standards, 80.

Teaching technique, 78, 79.

Technique, the formality of, 9-11;
transforming, into habits, 11; why
teachers fail in using, 11, 12; su-
pervisors must master, 15, 16;

teaching, 78, 79; principles by
which the determination of, should
be guided, 79; one purpose of
demonstration teaching to show
good, 138, 139; in demonstration
lesson in elementary arithmetic,
141; in demonstration lesson in
plane geometry, 142 ; in evaluation
observation outline, 154; in out-
line for directed teaching, 164,
165, 167-70; of supervision, should
develop proper kind of initiative
and independence in teachers, 195;
of supervision, should be construc-
tive, capable of modification, and
economical, 195-97; selected forms
of, 199-213; and devices, 199; vis-
iting the teacher at his work, 199-
206; criticizing the work of the
teacher, 206-09; conferences and
checking up work, 209-12; skill
and reliability of, 220, 221.

Tests and scales, training in use of
standard,*! 87, 188; standard and
unstandardized, value of, in grad-
ing and promoting, 188; standard-
ized, and standardized skills, 188,
189; knowledge of their use is
necessary, 189, 190; uses to which
they can be put, 189 ; intelligence,
for teacher rating, 216; teaching
ability evidenced by devising fair
tests, 222.

Textbooks, instructions should be
given regarding, 130; standards for
judging the usability of, 131; in-
structions as to the use of, 131,
132; use of, in recitations, 131, 132;
character of, determines in some
measure amount of supplemen-
tary material needed, 133; outline
for directed teaching, as to, 169,
170.

Time, of the supervisor, saving the,
97; of the teacher, saving the,
102; required in study preparation
outside of class, 123, 124; to be
given to oral and to written work
in recitation, 179; for quizzes. 179.

Training, in supervision for admin-
istrators, 8, 9; there is a formal

INDEX

277

stage in, 12, 13; conduces to effi-
ciency, 13, 14; of supervisors, two
problems involved in, 16, 17; for
supervision, details vs. generalities
in, 18; in use of standard tests and
scales, 187, 188.

Training schools, for teachers and
supervisors, 7, 8; criticized for be-
ing too formal, 9-11; and public
schools, compared as regards for-
mality of organization, 14, 15; cur-
riculum-making in, 24, 25; justi-
fied agencies in educating teachers,
91 ; comparison of city schools with,
in the matter of bad habits, 92;
example of set of instructions for,
98-100; measuring activities of
supervisor in, 250-52.

Unit of credit, consideration of, 119-

30; scope of subject-matter of,
1 19 ; relative amount of each type
of subject-matter of, 119, 120; the
fundamental content subject-mat-
ter of, 120; the habits its subject-
matter should form, 120; value of
weekly lesson plans in determin-
ing, 173.

Visitation, notes on, 260, 261.
Visiting the teacher at his work, 199-

206.
Voice, good quality of, necessary for

teacher, 218.

Weekly lesson plans. See Lesson

plans.
Written and oral work, relative time

to be given to, in recitation,

179.

RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS
IN EDUCATION

Edited by ELL WOOD P. CUBBERLEY, Dean of the Department of Edu
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History •/ Educatitn

CUBBEKLEY : The History of Education
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