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THE SYMBOLISM OF CHURCHES

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SYMBOLISM

OR EXPOSITION OF THE

DOCTRINAL DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN

CATHOLICS AND PROTESTANTS

As evidenced by their Symbolical Writings

By JOHN ADAM MOEHLER, D.D.

Hours with the Mystics

By the late ROBERT ALFRED VAUGHAN, B.A.

' There is not a page nor a paragraph in these " Hours " in which there
is not something worth recollecting, and often reflections very wise and
very weighty indeed. No one can rise from the perusal of the book with-
out finding himself, if not a better, at least a more thoughtful man, and
perhaps a humbler one also, as he learns how many more struggles and
doubts, discoveries, soitows, and joys the human race has passed through
than are contained in his own private experience.' — Ch.vrles Kingsley.

THE SYMBOLIST^

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Cburcbes anb Cbuvcb ©rnanients

A TRANSLATION OF THE FIRST BOOK OF THE

IRationale 3)ivinorum ©fficiorum

WRITTEN BY

WILLIAM DURANDUS

SOMETIME BISHOP OF MENDE

WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY AND NOTES

BY
THE REV. JOHN MASON NEALE, B.A.

AND

THE REV. BENJAMIN WEBB, B.A.

OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

743 AND 745 BROADWAY
1893

DEDICATED
TO

THE CAMBRIDGE CAMDEN SOCIETY

TWO OF ITS FOUNDERS

PREFACE

The interest which has lately been displayed, as on
all subjects connected with Ecclesiology, so more
especially on the symbolical bearing of Church Archi-
tecture, has led us to imagine that a translation of the
most valuable work on Symbolism which the middle
ages can furnish, might not, at the present time, be
unacceptable to churchmen.

Written, however, at a period when Christian Archi-
tecture had not attained its full glory, it necessarily
leaves untouched many arrangements of similar
tendency, subsequently adopted ; addressed to those
who had not yet learnt to doubt everything not formally
proved, it assumes many points which may now seem
to require confirmation : and composed for the use of
a clergy habituated to a most figurative ritual, it
passes over much as well known, which is now forgotten
or neglected. On these accounts we have considered
it necessary to prefix an Essay on the subject ; in
which we have endeavoured to prove that Catholic
Architecture must necessarily be symbolical ; to answer
the more common objections to the system ; and to
elucidate it by reference to actual examples, and notices
of the figurative arrangements of our own churches.
We have also added notes, where any obscurity seemed

viii . Preface

to require explanation ; and we have, both in them and
in the Appendix, thrown together such passages from
Martene, Beleth, S. Isidore of Seville, Hugo de S.
Victore, and other writers, as tended to explain and
to enforce the remarks of Durandus.

With reference to the author himself, but little is
known ; and that little has been told before.

William Durandus was born at Puy-moisson, in Pro-
vence, about the year 1220. A legend of his native
country is told in the present work.* He became the
pupil of Henry de Luza, afterwards Cardinal of Ostia ;
and taught canon law at Modena. On this subject
he composed a most learned work, the Speculum Juris;
from which he obtained the title of Speculator : as also
another treatise called Repertorium Juris : and a Bre-
viarium Glossarum in Textuni Juris Canonici. His high
attainments marked him t out for the office of Chaplain
to Pope Clement IV. He was afterwards Auditor of
the Sacred Palace ; and Legate to Pope Gregory X at
the Council of Lyons. He was then made Captain of
the Papal forces ; in which post he assisted at the
reduction of several rebellious cities, and behaved with
great courage. He finally became Bishop of Mende
in 1286. While in this post, and resident at Rome
(for he did not personally visit his diocese till 1291,
the administration of the diocese being perhaps left
to a nephew of the same name, who succeeded him),
he finished the work, of the first book of which a
translation is presented to the reader. But it probably

* See p. 126
■j- Mutataforhina^ says Board : to what this refers, we know not.

Preface ix

was commenced before ; for we find from a passage
in its latter half, that so far had been written during
the course of this same year 1286. And there is no
difficulty in the title, Episcopus Miniatensis, which he
gives himself in the Proeme, as this could easily have
been added afterwards. But it was certainly published,
as Martene observes, before 1295 ; because Durandus
speaks of the Feasts of the Holy Apostles as semi-
doubles, whereas in that year, by a constitution of Pope
Urban, they were commanded to be observed as doubles.
The time at which the treatise was written more
especially demands our attention ; because, did we
imagine it only a few years later than it really was,
we might well be astonished at finding no reference
to the Symbolism of the Decorated Style. The in-
terruptions amidst which the Rationale was written
are feelingly alluded to by its author, in the Epilogue
(p. 161). He also wrote a treatise De Modo Concilii
Generalis habendi, probably either suggested by, or
preparatory to, that of Lyons. He afterwards went
on an embassy from the Pope to the Sultan ; and is
by some said to have ended this life at Nicosia in
Cyprus. But the fact is not so : for having governed
his diocese ten years, and having refused the proffered
Archbishopric of Ravenna, he departed at Rome on the
Feast of All Saints, 1296, being buried in the Church of
Sancta Maria super Minervam, where his monument
is yet to be seen, with the following inscription : —

Hie jacet egregius doctor proesul Mimatensis,
Nomine Duranti Guillelmus regula morum :
Splendor honestatis et casti candor amoris

Preface

Altum consiliis spatiosum mente serenum
Hunc insignibat immotum turbine mentis.
Mente pius, sermone gravis, gressuque modestus,
Extitit infestus super hostes more leonis :
Indomitos domuit populos, ferroque rebelles,
Impulit, Ecclesiag victor servire coegit.
Comprobat officiis, paruit Romania sceptro
Belligeri comitis Martini tempore quarti :
Edidit in Jure librum, quo jus reperitur :
Et Speculum Juris, et patrum Pontificale :
Et Rationale Divinorum patefecit:
Instruxit clerum scriptis, monuitque statutis :
Gregorii deni, Nicolai scita perenni
Glossa diffudit populis, sensusque profundos :
Jure dedit mentes et corpus luce studentum :
Quern memori laude genuit Provincia dignum :
Et dedit a Podio Missone disecesis ilium :
Inde Biterrensis, prsesignis curia Papae :
Dum foret ecclesiae Mimatensis sede quietus,
Hunc vocat octavus Bonifacius; altius ilium
Promovet; hie renuit Ravennae prsesul haberi.
Fit comes invictus simul hinc et marchio tandem,
Et Romam rediit : Domini sub mille trecentis
(Quatuor amotis) annis : tumulante Minerva.
Surripit hunc festiva dies, & prima Novembris. '
Guadia cum Sanctis tenet Omnibus inde sacerdos :
Pro quo perpetuo datur haec celebrare capella.

The Rationale was the first work, from the pen of an
uninspired writer, ever printed. The editio princeps
appeared at the press of Fust in 1459 ; being preceded
only by the Psalters of 1457 and 1459. It is, of course,
of the most extreme rarity : the beauty of the typo-
graphy has seldom been exceeded. Chalmers mentions,
besides this, thirteen editions in the fifteenth, and
thirteen in the sixteenth century : all of them are very
rare.

The editions with which we are acquainted, are those
of Rome 1473; Lyons 1503,1512, 1534, 1584; Antwerp

Preface xi

1570; Venice 1599, 1609. The translation has been
made from the editions of 1473 and 1599. The former
is a magnificent specimen of typography : the words are
excessively contracted ; and there are double columns
to each page. Our copy is partially illuminated ; and
the binding is ornamented with a border of the Evan-
gelistic Symbols. The latter contains also the first
edition of the work of Beleth, and is a reprint of Board's
Lyons edition of 1565. Board dedicated it to his
brother, Bishop of Marseilles ; and prefixed a Preface,
in which he bestows a well-merited eulogium on
Burandus, and mentions the care taken in correcting
and revising the work. He also added some notes,
of little worth. The Venice reprint is so vicious a
specimen of typography, that from it alone the sense
could in many places hardly be explained. Our copy
belonged to Bishop White Kennett, who appears to
have studied it diligently.

We must now say a few words as on our own share
in the work. With respect to the Introduction, fully
convinced as we are of the truth and importance of the
general principle maintained in it, we do not wish to
press, as matter of certainty, all or any of the minor
details into which that theory is carried. We believe,
indeed, that the more the subject has been studied, the
more truthful our views will appear to be : but we wish
the reader to bear in mind, that the weakness of any
portion of them is no argument against their reception,
as a whole. At the same time, none can be more aware
than ourselves how much more ably such views might
have been advocated : we have not, however, spared

xii Preface

time or pains in the study of the subject ; ' and if we
have done meanly, it is that we could attain unto.'

In the Translation, we have endeavoured, too often
unsuccessfully, to retain the beautiful simplicity of the
original. In the obscure passages, of which there are
not a few, we have mentioned the difficulty in the notes,
lest the reader, by our mistake, should be led into error
himself

The quotations from Holy Scripture are given in the
authorised version, except where, to bring out the
author's full meaning, it was necessary to have recourse
to the Vulgate ; and we have then translated literally
from that.

We have felt no small pleasure in thus enabling this
excellent prelate, though at so far distant a land from
his own, and after a silence of nearly six hundred years,
being dead, yet to speak : and if the following pages
are at all useful in pointing out the sacramental character
of Catholic art, we shall be abundantly rewarded, as
being fellow-workers with him in the setting forth of
one, now too much forgotten. Church principle.

J. M. N.
B. W.

Michaelmas^ 1842.

INTRODUCTORY ESSAY

SACRAAIENTALITY : A PRINCIPLE OF
ECCLESIASTICAL DESIGN

ANALYSIS OF THE INTRODUCTORY ESSAY

INTRODUCTION.

1. Spread of the study of Church Architecture.

2. Obvious, but indefinable, difference between old and new

churches.
Wherein this consists.
Not in association,
Nor in correctness of details,
Nor in the Picturesque,
Nor in the Mechanical advantages,
But in Reality

considered, in an enlarged view, as Sacramentality.

3. This probable,

from examples, and

promises in Holy Scripture.
Catholic consent,
examples to the contrary,
philosophical reasons.

4. Enunciation of the subject.

5. Writers on the subject,

Pugin, Poole, Lewis, Coddington, the writers of the
Cambridge Camden Society.

A. ARGUMENTS FOR SYMBOLISM.

1. A PRIORI.

Symbolising spirit of Catholic Antiquity,

in (a) Interpretation of Holy Scriptures.

(b) Analogy of the Jewish Ceremonies.

(d) Emblems in Catacombs, etc.

(e) Symbolical interpretation of Heathen writers.
II. Analogical.

i. Examples of other nations.

(a) Jews.

(i) Temple rites.

(2) Legal observances.

(3) Sacred books.

(b) Turks.

(i) Hindu and Egyptian Mytholog}^
(2) Persian Poetry.

(d) Heretics.

xvi , A nalysis

ii. From Nature.

(a) Trinity.

(b) Resurrection.

(a) Sculpture,

(b) Painting.

(d) Language of Flowers.
iv. Parabolical teaching.

III. Philosophical.

Objective answering to Subjective.

All effect sacramental of the efficient.

Sacramentality of all Religion.

Ritualism peculiarly and necessarily sacramental.

Church Architecture, a condition of Ritualism.

Necessities induce accidents : and these material expressions.

Example :

Necessities of Ritualism, and their expressions in earlier

and later ages.
Hence Symbolism.

Essential.

Intended.

Conventional, which again becomes intended.

IV. Analytical.

1. Cruciformity.

2. Ascent to Altar.

3. Orientation.

4. Verticality.

V. Inductive.

Express and continuous testimony.

(a) Apostolical Constitutions.

(b) Eusebius.

VI. Recapitulation.

B. EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM.
I. Doctrines.

(a) The Holy Trinity, set forth in

i. Nave and Two Aisles.
ii. Chancel, Nave and Apse,
iii. Clerestory, Triforium, and Pier Arches,
iv. Triple windows.
v. Altar steps.
vi. Triplicity of mouldings,
vii. Minor details.

(b) Regeneration.

i. The octagonal form of Fonts,
ii. „ „ „ Piers,

iii. Fishes.

Analysis xvii

i. Cruciformity.
ii. Deviation of Orientation.
iii. Double Cross,
iv. The threat Rood.
V. Details.

(d) Communion of Saints.

II. Details.

(a) Windows : a series of examples.

(b) Doors.

i. Norman tympana.
ii. Double doors in Early Eng-Jish.
(a) These explained in two ways,

(i) Christ's entrance into the world.
(2) Our entrance into the kingdom of heaven.
{b) Difference between mouldings of Chancel arches and doors.

(d) Chancel Arch and Rood Screen.

(e) Monuments.

(a) Difference of ancient and modern symbolism in these,
(i) Sceptical character of the present age.

(2) Paganism of modern design.

(3) Reality of ancient design.
((5) Historical details of Monuments.

(f) Gurgoyles and Poppyheads.

(g) Flowers used in architecture.

C. OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.

1. Inequality of type and antitype.

2. Difference of Symbolism in the same arrangement.

3. Mechanical origin.

D. HISTORY OF SYMBOLISM.

1. Norman; as symbolising facts.

2. Early English ; as symbolising doctrines.

3. Decorated ; as symbolising the connection of doctrines.

4. Perpendicular ; as symbolising the progress of Erastianism.

5. Flamboyant, etc.

6. Post Reformation Symbolism.

E. CONCLUSION.

Contrast between a modern and ancient Church.

il^aiis Beo

INTRODUCTORY ESSAY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

The study of Church Architecture has within the last
few years become so general, and a love for it so widely
diffused, that whereas, in a former generation it was a
task to excite either, in the present it is rather an object
to direct both. An age of church-building, such as this,
ought to produce good architects, not only from the great
encouragement given to their professional efforts, but from
the increasing appreciation of the principles and powers
of their art. And yet it cannot be denied, however we
may account for the fact, that (at least among those for
whom we write, the members of our own communion),
no architect has as yet arisen, who appears destined to
be the reviver of Christian art. It is not that the rules
of the science have not been studied, that the examples
bequeathed to us have not been imitated, that the details
are not understood. We have (though they are but (ew)
modern buildings of the most perfect proportions, of the
most faultless details, and reared with lavish expense.
It is that there is an undefined — perhaps almost unde-
finable — difference between a true ' old church,' and the
most perfect of modern temples. In the former, at least
till late in the Perpendicular era, we feel that, however

XX Introductory Essay

strange the proportions, or extraordinary the details, the
effect is church-like. In the latter, we may not be able
to blame ; but from a certain feeling of unsatisfactoriness,
we cannot praise.

The solution of the problem, — What is it that causes
this difference? has been often attempted, sometimes
with partial, but never with complete, success. That
most commonly given is the following : — The effect of
association in old buildings, — the mellowing power of
time, — the evident antiquity of surrounding objects, —
the natural beauties of foliage, moss, and ivy, that require
centuries to reach perfection ; — as on the other hand, the
bareness, the newness, nay even the sharpness and vigour
of new work ; these, it is said, are sufficient to stamp a
different character on each. There is doubtless something
in this ; but that it is not the whole cause is evident from
the fact, that give a modern church all the above men-
tioned advantages on paper, and an experienced eye
will soon detect it to be modern.

Those writers who, as Grose, Milner, and Carter, lived
before the details of Christian art were understood, seem
to have placed its perfection in a thorough knowledge
of these : experience has proved them wrong. Others,
as Mr Petit,"^ have made a kind of ideal picturesque ;
and, having exalted the phantasm into an idol, have
fallen down and worshipped it. Others, again, have
sought for an explanation of the difficulty in mathema-
tical contrivance and mechanical ingenuity ; and the
result has been little more than the discovery of curious
eave-drains, and wonderful cast-iron roof-work. Lastly,
Mr Pugin {cum talis sis, utinain noster esses /) has placed
the thing required in Reality. That is, to quote his own
words, in making these the two great rules of design : —

* See the review of his work in the Eccksiologist, vol. i, pp. 91-105.

Introductory xxi

* I. That there should be no features about a building
which are not necessary for convenience, construction,
or propriety : 2. That all ornament should consist of
enrichment of the essential construction of a building.'*
And we may add, as a corollary, still quoting the same
writer : — ' The smallest detail should have a meaning or
serve a purpose : the construction itself should vary with
the material employed : and the designs should be
adapted to the material in which they are to be executed.'
Still, most true and most important as are these remarks,
we must insist on one more axiom, otherwise Christian
art will but mock us, and not show us wherein its great
strength lieth.

A Catholic architect must be a Catholic in heart.
Simple knowledge will no more enable a man to build
up God's material, than His spiritual temples. In
ancient times, the finest buildings were designed by the
holiest bishops. Wykeham and Poore will occur to
every churchman. And we have every reason to believe,
from God's Word, from Catholic consent, and even from
philosophical principles, that such must always be the
case.

Holy Scripture, in mentioning the selection of Bezaleel
and Aholiab, as architects of the Tabernacle, expressly
asserts them to have been filled ' with the Spirit of God
in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and
in all manner of workmanship, to devise cunning works,
to work in gold, and in silver and in brass, and in cutting
of stones to set them, and in carving of timber, to work
in all manner of workmanship.' And this indeed is
only a part of the blessing of the pure in heart : they
see God, the Fountain of Beauty, even in this life ; as
they shall see Him, the Fountain of Holiness, in the

* Pugin's ' True Principles,' p. i.

xxii Introductory Essay

next From Catholic consent we may learn the same
truth. Why else was Ecclesiastical Architecture made
a part of the profession of Clerks, than because it was
considered that the purity and holiness of that profession
fitted them best for so great a work ? ^

Nay, we have remarkable proofs that feeling without
knowledge will do more than knowledge without feeling.
There are instances of buildings — Lisbon cathedral
and S. Peter's College chapel, Cambridge, are cases in
point — which, with Debased or Italian details, have
nevertheless Christian effect. And we have several
similar cases, more particularly in the way of towers.

Now, allowing the respectability, which attaches itself
to the profession of a modern architect, and the high
character of many in that profession, none would assert
that they, as a body, make it a matter of devotion and
prayer ; that they work for the Church alone regardless
of themselves ; that they build in faith, and to the glory
of God.

In truth, architecture has become too much a profes-
sion : it is made the means of gaining a livelihood, and
is viewed as a path to honourable distinction, instead of
being the study of the devout ecclesiastic, who matures
his noble conceptions with the advantage of that pro-
found meditation only attainable in the contemplative
life, who, without thought of recompense or fame, has
no end in view but the raising a temple, worthy of its
high end, and emblematical of the faith which is to be
maintained within its walls. It is clear that modern
architects are in a very different position from their pre-
decessors, with respect to these advantages. We are
not prepared to say that none but monks ought to de-
sign churches, or that it is impossible for a professional

* Compare the general drift of the Address to Paulinus. Eiisehius.
H. E. X. 4.

Inti^oductory xxiii

architect to build with the devotion and faith of an
earher time. But we do protest against the merely
business-like spirit of the modern profession, and de-
mand from them a more elevated and directly religious
habit of mind. We surely ought to look at least for
church-membership from one who ventures to design a
church. There cannot be a more painful idea than that
a separatist should be allowed to build a House of God,
when he himself knows nothing of the ritual and worship
of the Church from which he has strayed ; to prepare
both font and altar, when perchance he knows nothing
of either Sacrament but that he has always despised
them. Or, again, to think that any churchman should
allow himself to build a conventicle, and even sometimes
to prostitute the speaking architecture of the Church to
the service of Her bitterest enemies ! What idea can
such a person have formed of the reality of church
architecture ? Conceive a churchman designing a triple
window, admitted emblem of the Most Holy Trinity, for
a congregation of Socinians ! We wish to vindicate the
dignity of this noble science against the treason of its
own professors. If architecture is anything more than a
mere trade ; if it is indeed a liberal, intellectual art, a
true branch of poesy, let us prize its reality and mean-
ing and truthfulness, and at least not expose ourselves
by giving to two contraries one and the same material
expression.

It is objected that architects have a right to the same
professional conscience that is claimed, for instance, by
a barrister. To which we can only reply, that it must
be a strange morality which will justify a pleader in
violating truth ; and how much worse for an architect to
violate truth in things immediately connected with the
House and worship of God ? It may be asked, Do we
mean to imply then that a church architect ought never

xxiv , Introductory Essay

to undertake any secular building ? Perhaps, as things
are, we cannot expect so much as this now : but we can
never believe that the man who engages to design union-
houses, or prisons, or assembly-rooms, and gives the
dregs of his time to church-building, is likely to produce
a good church, or, in short, can expect to be filled from
above with the Spirit of Wisdom. The church archi-
tect must, we are persuaded, make very great sacrifices :
he must forego all lucrative undertakings, if they may
not be carried through upon those principles which he
believes necessary for every good building ; and particu-
larly if the end to be answered, or the wants to be pro-
vided for, are in themselves unjustifiable or mischievous.
Even in church-building itself, he must see many an un-
worthy rival preferred to him, who will condescend to
pander to the whims and comfort of a church-committee,
will suit his design to any standard of ritualism which
may be suggested by his own ignorance, or others'
private judgment, who will consent to defile a building
meant for God's worship with pews and galleries and
prayer-pulpits and commodious vestries. But hard as
the trial may be, a church architect must submit to it,
rather than recede from the principles which he knows
to be the very foundation of his art. We would go
further even, and deny the possibility of any architect's
success in all the different styles of Pointed architecture,
not to mention the orders of Greece and Rome, Vitruvian,
Palladian, Cinque Cento, Wrennian, nay even Chinese,
Swiss, Hindoo, and Egyptian at once. We have not
even now exhausted the list of styles in which a modern
architect is supposed to be able to design. It is even
more absurd than if every modern painter were ex-
pected, and should profess, to paint equally well in the
styles of Perugino, Francia, Raphael, Holbein, Claude,
the Poussins, Salvator Rosa, Correggio, Van Eyck,

Introductory xxv

Teniers, Rubens, Murillo, Reynolds, West, Gainsborough,
Overbeck, and Copley Fielding all at once ! An archi-
tect ought indeed to be acquainted, and the more the
better, with all styles of building : but if architecture, as
we said before, is a branch of poesy, if the poet's mind is
to have any individuality, he must design in one style,
and one style only. For the Anglican architect, it will
be necessary to know enough of the earlier styles to be
able to restore the deeply interesting churches, which
they have left us as precious heirlooms ; enough of the
Debased styles, to take warning from their decline : but
for his own style, he should choose the glorious archi-
tecture of the fourteenth century ; and, just as no man
has more than one hand-writing, so in this one language
alone will he express his architectural ideas.

We cannot leave this topic without refernng to what
the Cambridge Camden Society has said with respect to
architectural competition.* It is a fact that at this time
many competing designs are manufactured in an archi-
tect's office, by some of his clerks, as if by machinery : if
a given plan is chosen, the architect is summoned, and
sees his (I) design for the first time, when he is introduced
to the smiling committee-men. It is another fact that
there is at this time in London a small body of persons,
with no other qualification than that of having been
draughtsmen in an architect's office, who get tip a set of
competing designs for any aspirant who chooses to give
them a few instructions, and to pay them for their
trouble. How much it is to be wished that there were
some examination of an architect's qualifications, before
he should be allowed to assume the name ! It seems
strange that the more able members of the profession do
not themselves feel some esprit de corps, and do not at

* See Ecclesiologist, vol. i, pp. 69, 85.

xxvi Inti'oductory Essay

least endeavour to claim for their art its full dignity and
importance. We fear however that very few, as yet,
take that religions view of their profession, which we
have shown to be seemly, even if not essential. If, how-
ever, we succeed in proving that religion enters very
largely into the principles of church architecture, a
religious ethos, we repeat, is essential to a church archi-
tect. At all events, in an investigation into the differ-
ences between ancient and modern church architecture,
the contrast between the ancient and modern builders
could not be overlooked : and it is not too much to hope
that some, at least, may be struck by the fact, that the
deeply religious habits of the builders of old, the hours,
the cloister, the discipline, the obedience, resulted in their
matchless works ; while the worldliness, vanity, dissipa-
tion, and patronage of our own architects issue in un-
varying and hopeless failure.

We said that there were philosophical reasons for the
belief that we must have architects — before we can
have buildings — like those of old. If it be true that an
esoteric signification, or, as we shall call it, Sacj^a-
mentality,'^ ran through all the arrangements and details
of Christian architecture, emblematical of Christian
discipline, and suggested by Christian devotion ; then
must the discipline have been practised, and the devotion
felt, before a Christian temple can be reared. That this

* It may be proper to distinguish between five terms, too generally
vaguely employed in common, and which we shall often have occasion to
use : we mean, allegorical^ symbolical^ typical^ figurative, and sacramental.

'Allegory employs fictitious things and personages to shadow out the
truth : Symbolism uses real personages and real actions (and real things)
as symbols of the truth : ' British Critic^ No. Ixv. p. 121. Sacramentality
is symbolism applied to the truth hoct t^ox-n^, the teaching of the Church,
by the hands of the teacher : a Type is a symbol intended from the first :
a Figure is a symbol not discovered till after the thing figurative has had a
being.

Introductory xxvii

esoteric meaning, or symbolism, does exist, we are now
to endeavour to prove.

We assert, then, that Sacrai mentality is that character-
istic which so strikingly distinguishes ancient ecclesi-
astical architecture from our own. By this word we
mean to convey the idea that, by the outward and visible
form, is signified something inward and spiritual : that
the material fabric symbolises, embodies, figures, repre-
sents, expresses, answers to, some abstract meaning.
Consequently, unless this ideal be itself true, or be
rightly understood, he who seeks to build a Christian
church may embody a false or incomplete or mistaken
ideal, but will not develope the true one. Hence, while
the Parthenon, or a conventicle, or a modern church,
may be conceived to have, on the one hand, so much
truthfulness, as to symbolise respectively the graceful,
but pagan, worship of Athene — the private judgment of
the dissenter — and the warped or ill-understood or
puritanised religious ethos of the modern churchman ;
and, on the other hand, to have so much 7'eality as to
carry out most satisfactorily Mr Pugin's canons ; yet,
inasmuch as in neither case was the builder's ideal the
true one, so in neither case is his architecture in any
way adapted to, or an embodiment of, the ideal of the
Church. Reality, then, is not of itself sufficient. What
can be more real than a pyramid, yet what less
Christian ? It must be Christian reality, the true ex-
pression of a true ideal, which makes Catholic archi-
tecture what it is. This Christian reality, we would call
Sacranientality ; investing that symbolical truthfulness,
which it has in common with every true expression,
with a greater force and holiness, both from the greater
purity of the perfect truth which it embodies, and from
the association which this name will give it with those
adorable and consummate examples of the same prin-

xxviii Introductory Essay

ciple, infinitely more developed, and infinitely more holy
in the spiritual grace which they signify and convey, —
the Blessed Sacraments of the Church.

The modern writers who have treated on Symbolism
seem to have taken respectively very partial views of
the subject. Mr Pugin does not seem in his books to
recognise the particular principle which we have enun-
ciated. We have shown that his law about Reality is
true so far as it goes, but that it does not go far enough.
He himself, for example, is now contemplating a work
on the reality of domestic, as before of ecclesiastical,
architecture. Now, nothing can be more true, nothing
more useful, than this. Yet even he does not seem to
have discerned that as contact with the Church endues
with a new sanctity, and elevates every form and every
principle of art : so in a peculiar sense the sacred end to
which church architecture is subservient, elevates and
sanctifies that reality which must be a condition of its
goodness in common with all good architecture ; in
short, raises this principle of Reality into one of Sacra-
mentality. We should be sorry to assert that Mr Pugin
does not feel this, though we are not aware that he has
expressed it in his writings : but in his most lasting
writings, his churches namely, it is clear that the prin-
ciple, if not intentionally even, and if only incompletely,
has not been without a great influence on that master
mind. Yet even in these we could point to details, and
in some of his earlier works to something more than
details, which shew that there is something wanting ;
that in the bold expedients and fearless licence which his
genius has led him to employ, he has occasionally gone
wrong ; not from the fact of his departure from strict
precedent, and his vindication of a certain architectural
freedom, but because in these escapements from
authority, he has not invariably kept in view the

Introductory xxix

principle now advocated. However the author of the
' True Principles ' might point to his churches, to prove
that a reverent and religious mind, employed in
administering to the material wants of the Church, (even
though that reverence be misapplied, and that Church
in a schismatical position), cannot fail to succeed, at
least in some degree, in stamping upon his work the
impress of his own faith and zeal, and in making it,
at least to some extent, a living development and
expression of the true ideal.

Mr Poole, the author of the ' Appropriate Character
of Church Architecture,' would appear to believe the
symbolism of details rather than any general principle.
He was the first, we think, to reassert that the octagonal
form of fonts was figurative of Regeneration. In the
latter edition of his Book he has adopted several of the
symbolical interpretations advanced by the writers of
the Cambridge Camden Society.

Mr Lewis, in his illustrations of Kilpeck church (in
an appendix to which he has printed a translation of
some part of the ' Rationale ' of our author), has given a
treatise on symbolism generally, and has applied his
principles to the explanation of the plan and details of
that particular church. His book excited some attention
at the time of publication, and was met by considerable
ridicule in many quarters. To this we think it was
fairly open, since the author did not seem to have
grasped the true view of the subject. He appears to
believe that, from the very first, all church architecture
was intentionally symbolical. Now this is an unlikely
supposition, inasmuch as till church architecture was
fully developed, we do not think that its real significancy
was understood to its full extent by those who used it.
That it was, in its imperfect state, symbolical, we should
be the last to deny ; but it seems more in accordance

XXX Introductory Essay

with probability, and more in analogy with the progress
of other arts, to believe that at first certain given wants
induced and compelled certain adaptations to those
wants : which then did symbolise the wants themselves ;
and which afterwards became intentionally symbolical.
Now such a view as this will explain satisfactorily how
a Christian church might be progressively developed
from a Basilican model. Mr Hope, in his essay on
Architecture, carries us back to the very earliest expedient
likely to be adopted by a savage to protect him from
weather, and from this derives every subsequent expansion
of the art. Which may be true, and probably is true, so
far at least as this : that, however first acquired, the
elementary knowledge of any method of building would
be, like all other knowledge, continually receiving addi-
tions and improvements, till from the first bower of
branches sprang the Parthenon, and from that again
Cologne or Westminster. But then it is clearly necessary
to show some moral reason for so strange a development,
so complete a change of form and style. Now the
theory that the ethos of Catholic architects working
upon the materials made to hand, namely, the ancient
orders of pagan architecture and (say) the Basilican
plan, gradually impressed itself upon these unpromising
elements, and progressively developed from them a
transcript of that ethos in Christian architecture, is in-
telligible at least, and presents no such difficulty as Mr
Lewis's supposition that ancient architects (he does not
say when, or how long — but take Kilpeck church and
say Norman architects) designed intentionally on sym-
bolical principles. We want in this case to be informed
when the change took place, from what period architects
began to symbolise intentionally, at what time they
forgot the traditions of church-building, which they must
have had, and commenced to carry new principles into

In troductory x x x i

practice. Nor, on this supposition, do we see why there
should have been any progressive development, why
the Basilican and Debased-Pagan trammels were not
cast away at once ; nor why, if the ideal of the Norman
architect was true and perfect (that is if he were a true
Catholic), its expression should not have been so too :
nor why any Norman symbolism, thus originated, should
ever have been discarded (as it has been in later styles),
instead of remaining an integral and essential part of
the material expression of the Church's mind. Now
our view appears to be open to no such objection. On
the one hand there are given materials to work upon,
and on the other a given spirit which is to mould and
inform the mass. The contest goes on : mind gradually
subdues matter, until in the complete development of
Christian architecture we see the projection of the mind
of the Church. It is quite in analogy with the history
and nature of the Church, and with the workings of
God's providence with respect to it, that there should be
this gradual expansion and development of truth. We
foresee the objection that will be raised against fixing on
any period as that of the full ripeness of Christian art,
and are prepared for many sneers at our advocacy of the
perfection of the Edwardian architecture. But we are
assured that, if there is any truth (not to say in what is
advanced in this essay, but) in what has ever been
proposed by any who have appreciated the genius of
Pointed Architecture — to confine ourselves to our own
subject — no other period can be chosen at which all
conditions of beauty, of detail, of general effect, of truth-
fulness, of reality are so fully answered as in this. x-\nd
from this spring two important considerations. Firstly,
the decline of Christian art — which may be traced from
this very period, if architecture be tried by any of the
conditions which have been laid down — was confessedly

xxxii Introductory Essay

coincident with, and (if what we have said is true) was
really symbolical of, those corruptions, which ended in
the great rending of the Latin Church ; the effects of,
and penalties for, which remain to this day in full opera-
tion in the whole of Western Christendom. Secondly,
the Decorated style may be indeed the finest develop-
ment of Christian architecture which the world has yet
seen ; but it does not follow that it is the greatest
perfection which shall ever be arrived at. No : we too
look forward, if it may be, to the time when even a new
style of church architecture shall be given us, so glorious
and beautiful and true, that Cologne will sink into a fine
example of a transitional period, when the zeal and
faith and love of the reunited Church shall find their
just expression in the sacramental forms of Catholic
art.

But besides the above objection to Mr Lewis's theory
we may mention the arbitrary way in which he deter-
mines on things which are to be symbolised, and then
violently endeavours to find their expected types. This
is quite at variance with the practice of any sober sym-
bolist ; and more especially (as we shall hereafter have
occasion to point out) with that of Durandus. This
forced sort of symbolism naturally leads to a disregard
of precedent and authority : and accordingly we re-
member to have heard of a design by this gentleman
for the arrangement of a chancel which professed to
symbolise certain facts and doctrines ; but which, what-
ever might be the ingenuity of the symbolism, was no
less opposed to the constant rule of arrangement in
ancient churches, than it was practically absurd and
inconvenient for the purpose which it was meant to
answer. Indeed, while Mr Lewis insists strongly on the
symbolising of facts, he does not succeed in grasping
any general principle, any more than he sees the diffi-

Introductory xxxiii

culty there is in the way of our receiving his supposition
of an intention to symbohse from the first. No architect
ever sat down with an analysed scheme of doctrines
which he resolved to embody in his future building : in
this, as in any other department of poesy, the result is
harmonious, significant, and complete, and may be re-
solved into its elements, though these elements might
never have been laid by the poet as the foundation upon
which to raise his superstructure. That were like De
La Harpe's theory that an epic poet should first deter-
mine on his moral, and then draw out such a plan for
his poem as may enable him to illustrate that moral."*^

The writers of the Cambridge Camden Society have
carried out the system more fully and consistently than
any others. It has evidently grown upon them, during
the process of their inquiries : yet in their earliest publi-
cations, we trace, though more obscurely, the same thing.
Their 'Few Words to Church-Builders' acknowledged the
principle to a far greater length ; and the Ecclesiologist
has always acted upon it, even when not expressly re-
ferring to it. As a necessary consequence, they were
the first who dwelt on the absolute necessity of a distinct
and spacious chancel ; the first who recommended, and

* It is with pain that we have spoken of Mr Lewis at all, because every
Ecclesiologist owes him a debt for his great boldness in turning the public
attention to the subject of symbolism. Yet we believe that a prejudice
has been excited by him against that subject which it will be hard to get
over ; for we are constrained to say, that greater absurdities were never
printed than some which have appeared in his book. His explanations of
the west end of Kilpeck church — his cool assumption when any bracket
appears more puzzling than usual that it is of later work, and therefore not
explainable — his random perversions of Scripture — his puerile conceits
about the door — deserve this criticism. This same south door he extols
as a perfect mine of ecclesiastical information, while he confesses himself
unable to explain the symbols wrought on the two orders of the arch — that
is about two-thirds of the whole ! h is strange, too, that in his restoration
of the church, he should have forgotten all about the bells — and have
violated a fundamental canon of symbolism, by terminating his western
gable in a plain Cross.

xxxiv Introductory Essay

where they could, insisted on, the re-introduction of the
rood-screen ; and the first to condemn the use of western
triplets. The position and shape of the font, the neces-
sity of orientation, and some few details, they have, but
only in common with others, urged.

The Oxford Architectural Society have never recog-
nised any given principles : and in consequence Little-
more is proposed by them as a model — a church either
without, or else all, chancel ; and either way a solecism.

As might have been expected from a separatist,
Rickman, in his treatise, gives not a single line to the
principle for which we contend. Mr Bloxam, in his
excellent little work, though often referring to it — more
especially in the later editions which have appeared
since the labours of the Cambridge Camden Society —
yet hardly gives it that prominence which we might
have expected from one who possesses so just an idea
of mediaeval arrangements and art.

Among the chief opposers of the system we may
mention Mr Coddington of Ware, who sees perfection
in the clumsiness of Basilican arrangements, and schism
in the developed art of the middle ages. This writer, as
it has been observed in the Ecclesiologist, contends for
two things : — I. That one great object of Romanism
was to abolish the distinction between the clergy and
laity : 2 That another great object of the same Church,
acting by its monks, (or, as he calls them, schismatical
communities) was to exalt the clergy unduly above the
laity. The former assertion he does not attempt to
prove : the latter he supports by pointing to the arrange-
ment of the rood-screen, which, therefore, like the
French Ambonoclasts, he wishes to pull down both in
cathedrals and churches.

This brief review of the principal writers who have
treated on the Symbolism of Churches and Church

Introductory xxxv

Ornaments, concludes our first chapter. In it we have
endeavoured to point out an acknowledged desideratum ;
to shew what suppositions have been advanced on the
subject ; to set forth wherein, and for what reason, they
fail of being satisfactory ; to enunciate the principle of
SacraiJientality as essential for the full appreciation and
successful imitation of ancient church architecture ; and
finally, in referring to the works of some later symbolists,
to shew why their hypotheses are incomplete or untenable.
We have also brought under review the glaring contrasts
between the methods of life of an ancient and modern
architect ; and, if we may so say, between the machinery
of designing and the habit of mind in the two cases.
We shall now proceed to examine those arguments
which may lead us to suspect that some such principle
as Sacramentality really exists.

CHAPTER II

THE ARGUMENT A PRIORI

It will first be proper to consider whether, regarding the
subject a p7'iori, that is, looking at the habits and
manners of those among whom the symbolical system
originated, if it originated anywhere, we have reason to
think them at all likely to induce that system. Now, as
matter of fact, we know that the train of thought, the
every-day observances, above all, the religious rites of
the early Christians, were in the highest degree figurative.
The rite of Baptism gave the most forcible of all sanctions
to such a system ; and while it sanctioned, it also sug-
gested, some of the earliest specimens of Christian
symbolism. Hence, when that rite was found to be, so
to speak, connected with the word formed by the initial
letters of our Blessed Saviour's name and titles, arose
the Mystic Fish : hence, as we shall see, the octagonal
baptistery and font. Indeed, almost every great doctrine
had been symbolised at a very early period of Christi-
anity. The Resurrection was set forth in the Phoenix,
rising immortal from its ashes : the meritorious Passion
of our Saviour, by the Pelican, feeding its young with its
own blood : the Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, by
grapes and wheatears, or again by the blood flowing
from the heart and feet of the Wounded Lamb into a
chalice beneath : the Christian's renewal of strength

The Arzuine?it a Priori xxxvii

thereby in the Eagle, which descending grey and aged
into the ocean, rises thence with renewed strength and
vigour : the Church, by the Ark, and the vessel* in which
our Lord slept : the Christian's purity and innocence by
the Dove : f again, by the same symbol the souls \ of
those who suffered for the Truth : again, though perhaps
not so early, the Holy Spirit : the Apostles were also set
forth as twelve Doves : || the Ascension of our Saviour
by the Flying Bird ; concerning which S. Gregory §
teaches, ' rightly is our Redeemer called a Bird, Whose
Body ascended freely into heaven ' : Martyrs also by
birds let loose ; for so Tertullian,1T ' There is one kind of
flesh of fishes, that is of those who be regenerate by
Holy Baptism ; but another of birds, that is of martyrs.'
The caged bird is symbolical of the contrary ; this has
been found upon the phial containing the blood of a
martyr. Of this, Boldetti says, ' It is represented on the
mosaic of the ancient Tribune of S. Mary beyond Tiber ;

* Naviculum quippe ecclesiam cogitate, — turbulentum mare hoc seculum.
— ^. Aug. de Verb Dom.

t Quaeque super signum resident coeleste Columbse,
Simplicibus produnt regna patere Dei.

S. Paulin. ep. 12, ad Sever.

\ Cum nollet idolis sacrificare (sc. S. Reparata) ecce, gladio percutitur :
cujus anima in Columbae specie de corpore egredi, coelumque conscendere
visa est. — Martyrol. Rom. viii. Id. Oct.

Emicat inde Columba repens,
Martyris os nive candidior
\^isa relinquere, et astra sequi :
Spiritus hie erat Eulalios
Lacteolus, celer, innocuus.

Prude n. Peris t. Hymn. g.

Compare also the Passion of S. Potitus, — Act. SS. Bollandi, 13 Jan. So,
in the cemetery of S. Calistus, a piece of glass was found by Boldetti, on
which S. Agnes was represented between two doves, the symbols of her
V'^irginity and Martyrdom.

II Crucem corona lucido cingit globo
Cui coronas sunt corona Apostoli,
Quorum figura est in columbarum choro.
(S. Paulin. Epp.)

§ In Evang. 29. ^ De Resurrect. 52.

xxxviii Introductojy Essay

one being seen at the side of Isaiah the Prophet, the
other at that of the Prophet Jeremiah.' In the same
way, partridges and peacocks, each with its own mean-
ing are represented. So, again, Hons, tigers, horses,
oxen, strange fishes, and marine monsters, represent the
fearful martyrdoms to which God's servants were exposed :
a point which the reader will do well to bear in mind,
because in treating of Norman mouldings we shall have
occasion again to refer to this matter. So, again, the
extended hand symbolised Providence. We have also
the seven stars, the moon, and many other symbols of a
similar kind. Nor must we forget the Agmis Dei, by
which our Blessed Lord Himself was represented ; nor
the Pastoj' Bonus, in which His own parable was still
fur.ther parabolised. The Christian gems found in the
Catacombs are all charged with some symbolical device.
Upon these is the ship for the Church, the palm for the
martyr, and the instrument of torture : as well as the
sacred monogram expressing our Saviour's name. The
same symbol blazed on the labarinn of the first Christian
Emperor ; and the very coins symbolically showed that
the Church had subdued the kingdoms of this world.
That fearful heresy, Gnosticism, which arose from an
over-symbolising, shows, nevertheless how deeply the
principle, within due limits, belonged to the Church.
The Gnostic gems exhibit the most monstrous perver-
sions of symbolical representations : the medals of
Dioclesian bear a lying symbol of a crushed and expir-
ing Christianity. Later still, new symbols were adopted :
mosaics, illuminations, ornaments, all bore some holy
emblems. The monogram i h 0 is found in every church
in Western Christendom : the corresponding symbol
stamps the Eucharistic wafers of the East."^

* See on this subject the Cambridg^e Camden Society's ' Argument for
the Greek Origin of the Monogram IHS.'

The Arguuioit a Priori xxxix

The symbols of the Evangehsts were also of very early
date, though not, in all cases, appropriated as now : for
the angel and the lion fluctuated between S. Matthew
and S. Mark. Numbers, too, were fruitful of allegorical
meaning ; and the most ingenious combinations were
used to elicit an esoteric meaning from them. By one,
the Unity of the Deity was understood : by two, the
divine and human Natures of the Saviour : by tJiree, of
course, the doctrine of the Most Holy Trinity : hy four,
the doctrine of the Four Evangelists : by six, the Attri-
butes of the Deity : seven represented the sevenfold
graces of the Holy Spirit : eight (for a reason hereafter
to be noticed), Regeneration : twelve, the glorious
company, the Apostles, and, tropologically, the whole
Church. And when a straightforward reference to any
of these failed, they were added or combitied, till the
required meaning was obtained. A single instance
may suffice : — S. Augustine, writing on that passage of
S. Paul's, 'What? know ye not that the saints shall
judge the world ? ' after explaining {Expos, super Psalm.
Ixxxvi) the twelve thrones, which our Saviour mentions,
of the whole Church, as founded by and represented in
the Apostles, finds a further meaning. ' The parts of
the world be four ; the east, the west, the north, and the
south : ' and (adds the Father) ' they are constantly
named in Holy Writ. From these four winds, saith the
Lord in the Gospel, shall the elect be gathered together :
whence the Church is called from these four parts.
Called, and how? By the Trinity. It is not called,
except by Baptism, in the name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. So four, multiplied
by three, make twelve.' In accidental numbers, too, a
meaning was often found. No wonder that some beheld,
in the three hundred and eighteen trained servants where-
with Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, routed the

xl Intj'odiLctory Essay

combined kings, a type of the three hundred and
eighteen Fathers of Nicsea, by whom the Faithful rose
triumphant over the Arian heresy.

Again, types and emblems without number were seen
in the language of the Psalmist, occurring so continu-
ously in the services of the Church. ' His faithfulness
shall be thy buckler,' gives rise to a fine allegory of S.
Bernard's, drawn from the triangular shape of the
buckler used at the time when that Father wrote ; even
as we still see it, in the effigies of early knights. It
protects the upper part of the body completely : the
feet are less completely shielded. And so, remarks the
saint, does God's providence guard His people from
spiritual dangers, imaged by those weapons which attack
the upper, or more vital parts of the body : but from
temporal adversities He hath neither promised, nor will
give so complete protection.

To mention the symbolism which attached itself to the
worship of the early Church, would be to go through
all its rites. Confirmation and Matrimony, and, above
all, Baptism, were attended by ceremonies in the highest
degree symbolical. But it is needless to dwell on them ;
enough has been said to prove the attachment which the
Catholic Church has ever evinced to symbolism.

But the Sign of the Cross is that which gave the
greatest scope to symbolism. — Our readers will probably
remember the passage of Tertullian in which he says,
' we cross ourselves when we go out, and when we come
in ; when we lie down, and when we rise up,' etc. Indeed,
as in everything they used, so in everything they saw,
the Sign of the Cross. The following lines from Donne
are much to the purpose :

Since Christ embraced the Cross itself, dare I
His Image, th' Image of His Cross, deny ?
Would I have profit by the Sacrifice,

The Argument a Priori xli

And dare the chosen Altar to despise ?
It bore all other sins, but is it fit
That it should bear the sin of scorning it ?
Who from the picture would avert his eye,
How should he fly His pains, Who there did die ?
From me no pulpit, nor misgrounded law.
Nor scandal taken, shall this Cross withdraw :
It shall not — nor it cannot — for the loss
Of this Cross were to me another Cross :
Better were worse : for no affliction.
No cross were so extreme, as to have none.
Who can blot out the Cross, which th' instrument
Of God dewed on him in the Sacrament ?
Who can deny me power and liberty
'To stretch mine arms, and mine own Cross to be ?
Swim — and at every stroke thou art thy Cross :
The mast and yard are theirs whom seas do toss.
Look down, thou seest our crosses in small things,
Look up, thou seest birds fly on crossed wings.

We will mention but one symbolical feature more in
the trains of thought which were common among the
early Christians. We refer to the esoteric meaning
which was supposed to exist in the writings of heathen
authors : as for example, when the Pollio of Virgil was
imagined to point to the Saviour, and the Fortunate Isles
of Pindar to Paradise. It were easy but needless to
dwell on this subject. The few instances we have given
are already amply sufficient to prove to some, to remind
others, how symbolical was the religion of the early
Church, and (we think) to establish our case a priori.

CHAPTER III

THE ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY

Having dealt with the argument a priori^ we now pro-
ceed to show that, from analogy, it is highly probable
that the teaching of the Church, as in other things, so in
her material buildings, would be symbolical.

Firstly, let us look at other nations, and other religions.
It need not be said that the symbolism of the Jews was
one of the most striking features of their religion. It
would be unnecessary to go through their tabernacle and
temple rites, their sacrificial observances, and their legal
ceremonies. The Passover, the cleansing of the leper,
the scape goat, the feast of tabernacles, the morning and
evening sacrifice, the Sabbatical year, the Jubilee, were
all in the highest degree figurative. The very stones in
the breastplate have each, according to the Rabbis,
their mystical signification. And, as if still further to
teach them the sacramentality, not only of things, but of
events, it pleased God to make all their most famous
ancestors, chiefs, and leaders, e.g. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,
Joseph, Moses, Joshua, David, most remarkable types of
the Messiah : nay, from the beginning the principal
doctrines of Christianity were, in some form or other, set
forth. Regeneration and the Church, in the Flood and
the Ark : the Bread and Wine in the Manna and the
Stricken Rock : the two dispensations in Sarah and

The Argument from Analogy xliii

Hagar. Indeed the immense extent of symbolism in
the Old Testament was the mine of the Fathers. Every
day they brought to light some new wealth ; and, if we
press the symbolism of the Church further than it was
actually intended, we are only treading in the steps of
her bishops and doctors. For while, of course, in
commenting on and explaining the sacrifice of Isaac, the
covenant of circumcision, the captivity and exaltation of
Joseph, they were only developing the real meaning
which God seems to have intended should be set forth by
those events, there are, — as we have already hinted, —
many instances where their piety found an interpretation
which was perhaps never intended. Thus, because Job,
while all else that belonged to him was restored double,
had only the same number of children which he had
lost — they have argued, that thus the separate existence
of souls was represented, as the Patriarch could not be
said to have lost those who were in another state of
existence.

And if in the Old Testament we find authority for the
principle of symbolism, much more do we in the New.
We shall presently have occasion to allude to the rise
and progress of the sacramentality of Baptism : we may
now refer more particularly to the frequency with which
S. Paul symbolises the enactments of the law ; as in the
case of the ox forbidden, while treading out the corn, to
be muzzled. So again, the Revelation is nothing but
one continued symbolical poem. The parabolic teaching
of our Lord we shall presently notice.

To this we may add, the exoteric and esoteric signifi-
cation of certain books, eg.^ the Song of Solomon : the
double interpretation of many of the prophecies, prima-
rily of the earthly, principally of the heavenly Jerusalem :
we may refer to the symbolical meaning attached, under
the Christian dispensation, to certain previously estab-

xliv Introductory Essay

lished rites, as, for instance. Holy Matrimony. With
symbolical writings, enactments, events, personages,
observances, buildings, vestments, for her guides and
models, how could the Church Catholic fail of following
symbolism, as a principle and a passion ?

But not only is Christianity symbolical : every de-
velopment of religion is, and must necessarily be so.
On the Grecian mythology, we shall have occasion to
say something more presently. The symbolism of
Plato, and still further development by Proclus and the
later philosophers of his school, will occur to every one.
If it be asserted that the more it was touched and acted
on by Christianity, the more symbolical did it become,
— we only reply, So much the more to the purpose of
our argument. But not only in Roman and Grecian
Paganism is this the case. The Hindoo religion has
much of symbolism; and some of its most striking fables,
derived from whatever source — whether from unwritten
tradition, or from contact with the Jews — possess this
character wonderfully. Take, for instance, the example
of Krishna suffering, and Krishna triumphant ; repre-
sented, in the one case, by the figure of a man enveloped
in the coils of a serpent, which fastens its teeth in his
heel ; in the other, by the same man setting his foot on,
and crushing the head of the monster. Now here, it is
true, the doctrine symbolised has long been forgotten
among those with whom the legend is sacred : we, on
the contrary, have a very plain reference to the promise
concerning the Seed of the Woman and the serpent's
head. This is an instance of the fact, that Truth will
live in a symbolical, long after it has perished in every
other form : and doubtless, when the time for the con-
version of India shall have arrived, thousands will receive
the truth the more willingly, in that they have had a
representation of it, distorted it is true, but not de-

TJie A^'giiment from Analogy xlv

stroyed, set, for so many centuries, before their eyes.
Some truths, accidentally impressed on a symbolical
observance, may still live, that otherwise must have
perished : just as the only memory of some of the beings
that existed before the flood, is to be found in the
petrified clay on which they accidentally happened to
set their feet.

The Mahometan religion has also, though in an
inferior degree, its symbolism ; and the reason of its
inferiority in this respect is plain — because, namely, it is
a religion of sense. Now Catholicity, which teaches
men constantly to live above their senses, to mortify
their passions, and to deny themselves ; — nay even
Hindooism, which, so far as it approximates to the
truth, preaches the same doctrine, must constantly lead
men by the seen to look on to the unseen. If every-
thing material were not made sacramental of that which
is immaterial, so, as it were, bearing its own corrective
with its own temptation, man could hardly fail of
walking by sight, rather than by faith. But now, the
Church, not content with warning us that we are in an
enemy's country, boldly seizes on the enemy's goods,
converting them to her own use. Symbolism is thus
the true Sign of the Cross, hallowing the unholy, and
making safe the dangerous : the true salt which, being
cast in, purified the unhealthy spring : the true meal
which removed death from the Prophet's provision.
Others may amuse themselves by asserting that the
Church in all that she does and enacts, is not sym-
bolical : — we bless God for the knowledge that she is.

We need not dwell on the symbolism of heretics,
insomuch as we shall have occasion to refer to it in
other parts of this essay. We will rather notice, that
those to whom we have been but now referring, heathens
and Mahomedans, have a way of discovering a subtle

xlvi Intjvductory Essay

symbolism in things which in themselves were not
intended to have any deeper meaning. We may men-
tion the odes of Hafiz — the Anacreon, or rather perhaps,
the Stesichorus, of Persia. These poems, speaking to
the casual reader of nothing but love, and wine, and
garlands, and rosebuds, are seriously affirmed, by Persian
critics, to contain a deep esoteric reference to the com-
munion of the soul with God; just as it has been wildly
supposed, that under the name of Laura, Petrarch in fact
only expressed that Immortal Beauty after which the
soul of the Christian is constantly striving, and to which
it is constantly advancing. So in Dante, Beatrice is not
only the poet's earthly love, but, as it has been well
shown by M. Ozanam, the representative of Catholic
theology.

To dwell on the symbolism of Nature would lead us
too far from our point. But we must constantly bear in
mind that Nature and the Church answer to each other
as implicit and explicit revelations of God. Therefore,
whatever system is seen to run through the one, in all
probability runs through the other. Now, that the
teaching of Nature is symbolical, none, we think, can
deny. Shall we then wonder that the Catholic Church
is in all her art and splendour sacramental of the
Blessed Trinity, when Nature herself is so ? Shall God
have denied this symbolism to the latter, while He has
bestowed it on the former ? Shall there be a trinity of
effect in every picture, a trinity of tone in every note, a
trinity of power in every mind, a trinity of essence in
every substance, — and shall not there be a trinity in
the arrangements and details of church art ? It were
strange if the servant could teach what the mistress
must be silent upon : that Natural Religion should be
endued with capabilities not granted to Revealed Truth.

Is not, again, the doctrine of the Resurrection wonder-

The Argument from Analogy xlvii

fully set forth by Nature ? This symbolism is the more
remarkable, in that to the ancients the rising of the sun
and the bursting forth of the leaf must have appeared
false symbolism, although they knew too well that of
which autumn and evening were typical. So, to quote
only one other example, the law of self-sacrifice is beauti-
fully shadowed out by the grain that ' unless it die,
abideth alone ; but if it die, bringeth forth much fruit'
We may argue next from the analogy of all art.
Sculpture, perhaps, has least to offer in our support.
But in painting we may refer to the conventional colours
appropriated to various personages ; and the mechanical
symbolism of poetry is known to all. Nor must we
forget the conventional use of language. ArchaismiS,
studied inversions, quaint phrases, and the like, have al-
ways been affected by those who were treating of high
and holy subjects. None has employed these with
happier effect than Spenser, whose language, it need
not be said, never was and never could have been really
used. The solemnising effect of a judicious employ-
ment of this artifice is nowhere more strongly felt than
in works of Divinity. Compare for example the English
language, where the conventional Thou is always ad-
dressed to the Deity, and where a stern simplicit}' runs
through the whole of our Divine Offices, with the French
which can only employ Vons in prayer, and with the
Portuguese, where, in the authorised translation of the
Holy Scriptures, Apostles, and Prophets — nay, our
Blessed Lord Himself, speak in the polite phrases of
conversational elegance.*

* It is on grounds similar to these, that, in our translation of Durandus,
we have adopted that conventional style which has been objected to by
some recent critics : — not that anyone ever naturally conversed or wrote
in it, but for the sake of producing the effect which the subject seems to re-
quire. The brilliancy of a summer's day is beautiful in its place : admitted
into a cathedral, it would be totally out of character.

xlviii Introductory Essay

Music, however, has the strongest claims to our notice.
We know, for example, that each instrument symbolises
some particular colour. So, according to Haydn, the
trombone is deep red — the trumpet, scarlet — the
clarionet, orange — the" oboe, yellow — the bassoon, deep
yellow — the flute, sky blue — the diapason, deep blue —
the double diapason, purple — the horn, violet : — while
the violin is pink — the viola, rose — the violoncello,
red — and the double-bass, crimson. This by many
would be called fanciful : — therefore let us turn to a
passage of Haydn's works, and see if it will hold. Let
us examine the sun-rise in the ' Creation.' At the com-
mencement, as it has been well observed, our attention
is attracted by a soft-streaming sound from the violins,
scarcely audible, till the pink rays of the second violin
diverge into the chord of the second, to which is gradu-
ally imparted a greater fulness of colour, as the rose
violas and red violoncellos steal in with expanding
beauty, while the azure of the flute tempers the mount-
ing rays of the violin : as the notes continue ascending
to the highest point of brightness, the orange of the
clarionet, the scarlet of the trumpet, the purple of the
double diapason, unite in increasing splendour — till the
sun appears at length in all the refulgence of harmony.

This may serve as a specimen of the manner in which
the expressions of one art may be translated into that
of another, because they each and all symbolise the
same abstraction.

Again, the language of flowers is a case much in point.
This is a species of symbolism which has prevailed
among all nations, and which our devout ancestors were
not slow in stamping with the impress of religion.
Witness, for example, the Herb Trinity^ now generally
called Heartsease^ the Passion Flower, and the Laciima
Christi. And in the present day, who knows not that

The Argument from Ajialogy xlix

the rose is for beauty — the violet for modesty — the sun-
flower for faithfulness — the forget-me-not for remem-
brance— the pansy for thought — the cypress for woe —
the yew for trueheartedness — the everlasting for im-
mortality? The flowers introduced into the ornament
of churches we shall consider presently.

Furthermore, whatever was the character of our Lord's
teaching — such is likely to be that of His Church. If
the former were plain, unadorned, .setting forth naked
truths in the fewest and simplest words ; then we allow
that there is 2. pi'imd facie argument against the system
which we are endeavouring to support But if it were
parabolic, figurative, descriptive, allegorical — why should
not the Church imitate her Master ? His parables are
at once the surest defence, and the most probable origin-
ators, of her symbolism.

We shall have occasion in another place to draw from
a consideration of the nature of our Lord's parables an
argument in behalf of symbolism against one of the
most formidable objections that has been raised against
the system. It w^ould here be sufficient for our purpose
to notice the figurative character of our Lord's general
teaching. But we have His own authority for much
more than a general adoption of such a principle. Tra-
dition hands down that He was within sight of the Temple
when he pointed towards it, and uttered those gracious
words, / am the Door. Be this as it may, w^e have from
it a sufficient precedent to justify us in seeking for an
emblematical meaning in the external world, and more
particularly in the material sanctuary. S. Paul, on the
same principle, allegorises the Jewish Temple, detail by
detail : — the Holy of Holies was heaven ; the High
Priest, Christ ; the veil, even his flesh. It is inconceiv-
able that the Temple should be so symbolical, and so
holy that our Lord Himself cleansed it from its defiling

1 Introductory Essay

money-changers : and yet that a Christian church, where-
in the Great Sacrifice is commemorated and our Lord is
peculiarly present, should be less symbolical — particu-
larly when its arrangement is in exact conformity to
that of the temple,* — or should be less holy. At any
rate the Door must be significant : at any rate the Altar,
which S. Paul claims for the Christian Church, in opposi-
tion to those who ' serve the tabernacle.'

Again, the holy Sacraments of the Church are
examples, in the highest degree, of this principle of
figurative or symbolical teaching. They, indeed, are
not only signs of unseen things, but the channels and
instruments of grace. The latter quality we do not
claim for the speaking symbolism of a material church :
but architecture is an emblem of the invisible abstract,
no less than Holy Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Be-
sides the two Sacraments Kar' e^ox'7^> our Church recog-
nises other offices, such as Marriage, Confirmation, and
the like, as Sacramentals. In short the whole Church
system is figurative from first to last : not indeed there-
fore the less real, actual, visible, and practical ; but
rather the more real and practical, because its teaching
and discipline are not merely material and temporary,
but anticipative of the heavenly and eternal. This
quality then of symbolism cannot be denied to one, and
a most important, expression of the teaching of the
Church, namely its architecture. The cathedral (to
repeat the general in the particular) is not the less
material, the less solid, the less real, because we see in it
the figurative exhibition of the peculiarities of our
religion and the articles of our creed.

* See Appendix A.

CHAPTER IV

PHILOSOPHICAL REASONS FOR BELIEVING
IN SYMBOLISM

We now propose to offer a few remarks on the philoso-
phical reasons there seem to be for concluding that
Ecclesiastical Architecture has some esoteric meaninc".
some figurative adaptation, more than can be appreciated,
or even discerned, by the casual observer, to the uses
which produced it, and which have always regulated it.
We venture to approach this consideration, however,
rather from a feeling that our Essay would be incom-
plete without some reference to this kind of argument,
than from any idea of our own abihty to treat on subjects
so abstract and infinite ; and fearing that we may not be
able clearly to express or dissect those thoughts which,
nevertheless, appear to our own minds both true and
very important.

It is little better than a truism to assert that there is
an intimate correspondence and relation between cause
and effect : yet this thought opens the way to a very
wide field of speculation. Mind qannot act upon matter
without the material result being closely related to
the mental intention which originated it : the fact
that anything exists adapted to a certain end or use
is alone enough to presuppose the end or use, who can
see a 7roir;/>ta, without distinguishing its relation to the

Hi Introductory Essay

want or necessity which brought about -olt^o-ls? In
short, the ipyov, whatever it may be, not only answers
to that which called it forth, but, in some sort, re-
presents materially, or symbolises, the abstract voli-
tion or operation of the mind which originated it.
Show us a pitcher, a skewer, or any of the simplest
utensils designed for the most obvious purposes: do
not the cavity of the one, and the piercing point of
the other, at once set forth and symbolise the reyos which
was answered in their production ? Now, from this
thought, we might proceed to trace out the truthfulness
and reality of every -nron^fxa considered in relation to the
TO TTOiovv ; for even a deceptive thing is true and real in
its relation to the mental intention of deceiving : but we
intend merely to consider the way in which the abstract
movements or o/oejet? of mind are symbolised by the
material operations or results which they have produced.
In other words, we would allege that everything material
Is symbolical of some mental process, of which it is
Indeed only the development : that we may see in every-
thing outward and visible some Inward and spiritual
meaning. It is this which makes ' books In everything' :
finding in everything objective the material exhibition
of the subjective and unseen ; not claiming for the
abstract mind an Independence of matter, but acknow-
ledging Its union with It ; and thus learning from the
speculations of reason, to perceive the fitness for our
nature of that system of sacramentallty in which God
has placed us, and to bless Him more and more for the
Church, a sacramental institution, and for the Sacraments
K(xr ^^oxn^, which it conveys. This method of viewing
the subject will be our excuse for attempting on the one
hand to learn by analysis from a material church itself,
considered objectively, the symbolism which may be
supposed to have directed its design ; and on the other

PhilosopJiical Reasons for Believing in Syvibolisni liii

hand to show from the abstract necessities of the case
that a material church might have been expected to be
symboHcally designed. But if this theory of symboHsm
gives Hght and meaning and connection to the acknow-
ledged facts, whether abstract or material, with which
we have to do ; while no other view will explain all the
phenomena ; — it certainly recommends itself by its
simplicity and harmony to a general reception. Con-
sidered in this light, the whole group of separate facts
become linked together and adjusted, and so resolve
themselves into a great fabric of truth, which (like the
Pyramid of Cheops) is consistent and real and intelligible,
when seen from any point, under any circumstances, or
in any light.

But if it be granted that there is this mutual connection
between the abstract and its material exhibit:on in every
case, it will be readily admitted that a principle of
sacramentality must be especially a condition of all
religious acts. If we were merely spirits, without bodies
or any necessary connection with matter, it would be
possible perhaps for us to worship the Great Spirit in an
abstract way by a sort of volition of devotion ; but not
being so, our souls cannot engage in adoration without
the company of their material home. Hence every
effort of devotion is attended by some bodily act.
Whether we lift our eyes or hands to heaven, or kneel in
prayer, we show forth this necessity of our being : our
body has sinned, has been redeemed, will be punished
or glorified, no less than the soul : it must therefore
worship with the soul. Now the symbolism of the
bodily acts of devotion is understood by all. We have
even personated Prayer by a prostrate figure with uplifted
hands.* It has been felt not only right but necessary, in

* The necessity which the body seems to feel for this symbolism may be
seen in the constantly occurring fact, that in making signs, whether of in-

liv Introductory Essay

all ages and places, to accompany the inward feeling of
devotion with some outward manifestation of it. In other
words, all religious actions are from their nature sym-
bolical and figurative. But if the most obvious corporeal
accompaniments to spiritual worship show this clearly,
how much more evidently must all ritual systems appear
to be symbolical? A system of worship, whether heathen,
Christian, or heretical, is only the development and
methodising of the simplest figurative acts of devotion ;
the whole affected by the peculiar relation between the
object of adoration and the worshippers which in each
particular system may have been pre-supposed. Why
does the Mussulman take off his shoes, kneel on his
carpet towards Mecca, and perform his stated ablutions ?
Is not each act in itself figurative and full of meaning ?
How could such a system, or any other system, have
been originated, but with some intended typification of
certain given facts or doctrines or feelings ? Why does
the heartless Quaker go with covered head into his bare
conventicle, and sit in enforced silence? He will answer,
to express his independence of idle forms, the spirituality
of his worship, his repudiation of any media in his inter-
course with the Divine Being. We thank him for his
admission of a symbolical purpose, but we read the
symbolism differently. We perceive it to express clearly
enough the presumptuous pride and vanity of his sect,
his rejection of all Sacraments, and his practical dis-
belief in the Communion of Saints. Again, is the pulpit
of the Brownist symbolical ; and shall not our font and
altar be so at least as much? The Catholic ritual is
indeed symbolical from first to last. Without the clue
to its figurative meaning, we should never have under-
stood its pregnant truthfulness and force. No one, in

quiry or adieu, to a person at a distance, we naturally speak the words,
though inaudible to him, which the gestures we use express.

PJiilosophical Reasons for Believing i)i Syvibolisni Iv

short, ever ventured to regard the ancient ritual as an}--
thing but highly figurative : this was claimed as its
highest excellence by its observers and commentators,
this was ridiculed and despised by the enemies of the
Church ; but was confessed by all. The more anyone
meditates on the ancient ritual of the Church, the more
this will be found not only the most prominent charac-
teristic, but the only satisfactory explanation of many
otherwise unintelligible requirements. This is not the
place to go at any length into the consideration of the
whole symbolism of the ritual system : it will be enough
if it is granted that some prescribed ritual, however
meagre, must be a necessary part of all religion ; and
that every such system is in some degree figurative or
symbolical. Now to apply this to church architecture.
No one will deny that, in a general point of view, the
form of our churches is adapted to certain wants, and
was chosen for this very adaptation. Indeed this is
allowed by modern writers and builders : who defend a
church which has no more than an altar-recess, on this
very ground, that there is no longer any want of a deep
chancel. ' I object to aisles,' says a modern architect,
' because the great end of a church is to be an auditorium.'
' The cross form,' says another, ' I always adopt, because
then everyone can see the preacher if I place the pulpit
in the middle.' But why not take a circle or octagon at
once, or the form which is always adopted for the lecture-
rooms at Mechanics' Institutes ? For these plans are
obviously most convenient for hearing and seeing. But
then, everyone knows that these are not church forms.
The modern builder then, trammelled, at least in this
respect, by rule and precedent, chooses the cruciform
plan, not (perhaps) for its true symbolism; but, by a
wrong arrangement of this plan, still further symbolises
(for example) his own undue estimation of the ordinance

Ivi Introductory Essay

of preaching. So true it is that those who would most
object to symboUsm, as a rule of design, are themselves
(did they but know it) symbolising, in every church they
build, their own arbitrary and presumptuous ideas on the
subject. It is not our intention to prove here, (what has
been pointed out, however, many times), the duty in-
cumbent upon us of following in our modern churches
the ancient principles of design : we are not writing with
the immediate practical end of improving modern church
architecture ; but are endeavouring to illustrate the
symbolical principles of ancient design. We shall, how-
ever, before finishing this chapter, choose an example,
which will apply to us, as well as to any other branch of
the Church, to show how essentially church architecture
in that respect at least is a part of the Ritual system.
And if Catholic worship is expressed and represented by
Catholic ritual, and if church architecture is a part of
this ritual, then is church architecture itself an expres-
sion and exponent of Catholic worship. A conclusion
this which will well warrant the very strong language in
which the Cambridge Camden Society have always
asserted the great importance of this art, and have
exacted from its professors such qualifications of personal
holiness and liturgical knowledge as are no less above
the attainment than the aspirations of the modern
school.

It may not be clear to some how in any sense archi-
tecture can be called symbolical, or the outward sign of
something invisible: or rather what the process is by
which a given arrangement, suggested perhaps by some
necessity, becomes in turn suggestive and figurative of
the very purpose for which it was planned. But let us
take the case of a theatre. Here it is clearly necessary
that there shall be a stage or orchestra, accommodation
for spectators, and means of easy exit. Accordingly

Philosophical Reasons for Believing in Symbolism Ivii

every theatre displays all these requisites. And does
not the building then in turn emblem the purpose for
which it was planned ? The ruins of Roman theatres
are not uncommon : do we fail to be recalled by them to
the idea of the Roman stage ? are not the several parts
of the material building highly figurative and suggestive
of the rules and orders of the abstract drama ?

With respect to churches : let us suppose the institu-
tion and ritual of the Church to be what we know it
was ; and that we have to adapt some architectural ar-
rangement to the performance of this ritual. Is there
anything which will dictate any general form rather
than another ? Surely there is. We will not speak now
of the propriety of setting aside a place for the celebra-
tion of the Holy Eucharist, or of the propriety of retain-
ing the plan of the typical Temple; but we are consider-
ing simply what is required by practical necessity. The
worshippers who are to assemble in our church are not
all on an equality. There are some who are endowed
with high privileges as being those consecrated to the
immediate service of the sanctuary. In early times so
real a thing was the distinction between the clergy and
the laity, that the Church being divided into these two
classes, the material edifice displayed a like division :
and the nave and chancel preach to posterity the
sacredness of Holy Orders, and the mutual duties aris-
ing from the relation in which the flock stand to their
shepherds. But in early ages the laity were not all
classed ett masse as with us now. Among them were
the Faithful, the Catechumens, who had not yet been
admitted to Holy Baptism, and the Penitents or those
who had lapsed. True to itself, church architecture pro-
vided then a separate place for each of these divisions.
Does not the ground plan of such a church symbolise
minutely the then state of church discipline and the

Iviii Introductory Essay

conditions of church worship ? The reahty and mean-
ing of such an arrangement may be shown thus also.
After the Reformation the great distinction between
clergy and laity became lost or undervalued : accord-
ingly the chancel-screens in many places disappeared,
as symbolical in their absence as in their existence.
But still there was a necessity for some material arrange-
ment to protect the Altar from insult : and so altar
rails came in, manifest symbols of that spirit which
made their introduction allowable, if indeed not neces-
sary :* still these very rails, and the penned up reading-
pew, teach that the clergy, at least when performing a
function, are divided from the laity.

Now it is of no consequence whatever, whether the
early builders of churches intended this particular
arrangement to be symbolical. The arrangement being
adopted becomes necessarily, even if unintentionally,
symbolical, by the process we have endeavoured to trace,
and so things essentially symbolical give rise to intended
symbolism : for it is a simple historical fact that the
weathercock, whatever practical utility may have first
suggested its use and peculiar form, has been for many
centuries placed on the church spire for its intentional
synibolisni.'\ And the process is repeated : for suppose
one only of the conventional symbolical meanings of the
weathercock had been discovered : the thoughtful mind

* In the correspondence of the Rev. W. Humphrey, whose atrocious
treatment by the Church Missionary Society has so lately excited the in-
dignation of all true churchmen, it appears that one of the noble designs
of this zealous priest was to restore for the peculiar congregation over
which he was appointed, consisting of Faithful, Catechumens, and Un-
believers, the distinct arrangement of the ancient Church : the modern
plan of having but one area for the lay worshippers being found incon-
venient and injurious. That is to say, our modern church arrangement
may suit and does symbolise the present state of the Church with us, but
does not suit and does not symbolise the state of the missionary Church of
India.

f See Rationale, p. 27.

PJiilosophical Reaso7is for Believing in Symbolism lix

goes on to find out other figurative senses in which its
use is appropriate, and these conventional meanings
become in their turn intentionally symbolised by future
church builders. This may be illustrated also in the
following way : The Jews, in the rite of Baptism, had
probably no other idea than a reference to ' the mystical
washing away of sins.' But when S. Paul had once
given to that rite the new idea of a burial with Christ in
the Baptismal water, and a rising again with Him, this
typical meaning became an example of intended sym-
bolism to all those who should hereafter use it.

As we began this part of our subject with hesitation,
so we finish it with some degree of apprehension. To
some what has been said may seem more than ordinarily
visionary and ridiculous : yet others, we hope, will feel
that, however feebly and inadequately expressed, there
is some truth in what has been advanced concerning the
relation between the material and immaterial : that the
latter welding and moulding the former into an expres-
sion of itself, makes it in turn a type of that which it
expresses. So that if on the one hand, to take our
particular branch of the subject, the theoretical ritual
and ordinances of religion imply and require certain
peculiar adaptations of the material building in which
they are to be celebrated ; then in turn the circumstances
of the material fabric suggest and symbolise the peculiar
conditions of ritual which induced them. In short we
have endeavoured to prove that from our very nature
every outward thing is symbolical of something inward
and spiritual : but, above all things, outward religious
actions are sacramental ; and particularly any prescribed
ritual, of which the first characteristic is that it is figura-
tive : that the Catholic ritual is eminently symbolical,
and from its nature very strikingly influences all its
material appliances : that church architecture is the

Ix Introductory Essay

eldest daughter of Ritual : that the process, according to
which architecture was influenced by the requirements
of Ritualism was at first as simple as that by which
the form of a theatre sprang from the conditions which
were to be fulfilled by its builder : that thus a church
(built in the fully developed style of Christian architec-
ture) even if not built with any intention of symbolising^
(though it is an historical fact that the symbolism of
each part was known and received before the erection of
any church of this style,) became nevertheless essentially
a ' petrifaction of our religion ' : a fact which, once
admitted and realised, becomes to succeeding church
builders, whether they will or not, a rule and precedent
for intentional symbolical design.

CHAPTER V

THE ANALYTICAL ARGUMENT

We must arrive at the same conclusion, if we consider
the subject in an analytical way. For example : suppose
a person, hitherto unacquainted not only with the general
peculiarities of Christian churches, but also with Chris-
tianity itself, were to enter a cathedral ; or (which will
be a fairer case) were to visit a Catholic country, and
examine its churches as a whole, would he not, if
possessed of only ordinary intelligence, observe that the
cross form, for example, was of most common occurrence,
and, in the case of the larger buildings, was perhaps the
only plan adopted ? And would he not then naturally
inquire why there should be this marked preference for
a form, in itself inconvenient for purposes of hearing or
seeing,* and open to great mechanical objections, such
as the almost resistless pressure of the four arms on the
piers which stand 'at the angles of intersection ? But if
he learnt that the religion for which these temples were
designed was that of the Cross, he would at once see
the propriety of this ground plan, and would confidently
and truly conclude that this form was chosen in order
to bring the Cross, by this symbolism, vividly and
constantly before the eyes of the worshippers. To deny
intended symbolism, in the case of such a person, would

* That is, a Catholic arrangement of the church being presumed.

Ixii Introductoiy Essay

clearly be atsurd : shall it be less obvious to us ? Our
traveller would probably, being satisfied on this point,
examine these buildings more closely. He would find
an altar raised conspicuously above the surrounding
level ; and for this he might discover a practical reason ;
but why in so many cases (so many as well nigh to
make a rule) are the steps either three or some multiple
of three? Surely the fundamental doctrine of the Holy
Trinity would, if explained to him, sufficiently account
for this all but universal arrangement. Why, again, in
every case does a screen separate one part of the church
from the other ? When our inquirer learns the principle
of the separation of laity and clergy, this arrangement
also will be at once intelligible and figurative. How
unreasonable would the position of the font by the door
appear to him, till he learnt the symbolical reason for its
being placed there ! And we may here remark that the
practice of the last generation in removing old fonts, or
using basins for substitutes, or in placing new fonts,
near the altar, shows clearly enough that convenience
and utility would have pointed out a very different place
for the font from what is assigned by the canon, on
symbolical grounds ; grounds adduced in this case, as it
would seem, to give weight to a decision so clearly op-
posed to all merely practical and obvious reasons.
Again, the marked deviation of the orientation of the
chancel from that of the nave, would be quite inexpli-
cable till the beautiful and affecting symbolism of the
arrangement were pointed out.

Again, it has not been left merely to the meditative
ecclesiologist to observe that Christian architecture has
as decided a characteristic of verticality, as Pagan
architecture had of horizontalism. A mere artist could
not fail of marking the contrast between Beauvais and
the temples of Paestum. The contrast must then be ad-

TJie Analytical Argument Ixiii

mitted : but how must we explain it ? Surely no
accident could have developed the grovelling Pagan
into the aspiring Gothic. What mechanical reasons
could produce Westminster from even the Parthenon ?
But is not the phenomenon explained when we see in
towering pier, spire, and pinnacle, the symbolical exhi-
bition of that religion which alone aspires to things
above, nay more, the figurative commemoration of that
Resurrection itself, which alone originates, and only
justifies, the same heavenward tendency. But if this be
true ; if these acknowledged peculiarities in Christian
architecture be utterly unintelligible on any other sup-
position than this of a symbolical meaning, surely it is
not unreasonable to receive so ready a solution of the
difficulty : and, the principle admitted, why may not
reasons of the same figurative nature be .issigned for
other arrangements, in themselves on any other interpre-
tation not only meaningless but obviously useless or
absurd ?

CHAPTER VI

THE INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

We have next to show, by a process of induction, that
some principles of symboHsm have always been ob-
served in designing churches : that is to say, that
without any actual acquaintance with the plan, details
or arrangement of existing churches, we might gather
from other sources, not only the probability, but the
fact, that there was some reason (not merely mechanical
or accidental) for the selection and universal observation
of particular forms and ornaments, and peculiar rules of
distribution.

First, we shall refer to the celebrated passage of S.
Clement of Rome,"^ about performing the Divine Offices
decently and in order, as to time, and place, and circum-
stance. 'Where and by whom God willeth these to
be performed He hath Himself defined by His most
supreme will.' ' But where,' says Mede,t (discussing the
passage with the view of establishing a particular point,
namely, bowing towards the altar) ' hath the Lord
defined these things, unless He hath left us to the
analogy of the Old Testament?' This indeed is ob-
viously S. Clement's meaning : and not to go at any

* S. Clem. Rom., ad Corinth, i, 40.
f Mede, in Epist. Iviii Folio, Lib. iv.

TJie Inductive Argument Ixv

length into the consideration of all the particular forms
or ceremonies of the Old dispensation which were per-
petuated in the New — as the threefold Ministry deduced
by S. Jerome, from the High Priest, Priests, and Levites ;
the Canonical Hours ; the Gospel anciently laid on the
altar, answering to the Two Tables, and the like — it
will be sufficient to refer once more to the remarkable
parallel between a Christian church and the Jewish
Temple."^ There can be little doubt that Mede proved
his point of the propriety of genuflexion towards the
altar. We are contending for a much simpler thing :
for no more indeed than the concession of a probability
that in the earliest Christian churches there was at least
this resemblance to the Temple ; that there should be in
both a Holy of Holies and an outer-court. Supposing
this distinction to have been only made by a curtain,
our point is nevertheless gained ; and we would rest
here on this one particular of resemblance only (though
others might be insisted on) ; because, any one designed
parallel being granted, the inference for others is easy.
And here it will be enough to observe that the almost
constant practice in ancient writers of applying to some
one part of a Christian church a name or names derived
directly from the Holy of Holies is a strong argument in
our favour : though the passages are often too incidental
to be adduced as evidence of an intended symbolism.f
But, we repeat, the fact that a particular part of a
church — (if we were now arguing for rood screens, we

* See this carried out by Durandus. Appendix A.

t Compare, amongst others, S. Cyprian, Ep. 55 ; Euseb. x, 4. to clyiov
ayiuv &vaia.(i~rtftov ; Id. vii, 18. to a.yia.(rfjt.a, (the word used in the Ixx for the
Sanctuary')'. S. Dionys. Areop., Ep. 8, ad Demoph. ; S. Athanas.. Edit.
Commel. Tom. ii, p. 255 ; Theod. H. E. iv, 17, v, 18 ; Concil. Tours.
(A. D. 557). can. 4; S. Germ. Constant. In Theor. rer. Eccles.; Card.
Bona. Rer Litiirg. i, xxv, 11 ; Dionys. Hierarch. cap. 2 ; S. Chrysost.
Lib vi, De Sacerdotio.

Ixvi Introductory Essay

should show that any such distinction of parts made a
screen of some sort necessary, even if we did not know
what sort of screens really existed) — the fact that a
particular part of a church was distinguished by names
directly carrying us back to the exactly corresponding
particular part in the Temple, shows that in the arrange-
ment at least, if not in the building, of the earliest
churches there was, at least in this one point, an inten-
tion to produce an antitype to the typical Tabernacle.
It is observed in a note to Neander's history * that if the
interpretation of Michaelis be received there is evidence
of a Christian church being built at Edessa, A.D. 202,
with three parts, expressly after the model of the
Temple.

Whatever may be the authority allowed to the Apo-
stolical Constitutions, the fact that they touch at some
length upon the form of churches is enough for our
purpose. ' The church,'f they say, ' must be oblong in
form, and pointing to the East' The oblong form was
meant to symbolise a ship,j the ark which was to save us
from the stormy world. It would be perfectly unneces-
sary to support this obvious piece of symbolism by
citations. The orientation is an equally valuable
example of intended symbolism. We gain an addi-
tional testimony to this from the well-known passage
of Tertullian,§ (a.d. 200,) about ' The house of our
Dove.' Whether this corrupt extract be interpreted
with Mede or Bingham, there can be no doubt that its

* Rose's Neander, i, 246. f Apost. Const, 2, 57, (61.)

\ See also what is said on this point by Buscemi, in his Notizie della
Basilica di San Pietro, ch. iii, p. 7. The church of SS. Vincenzo and
Anastatio at Rome, near S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane, built by Honorius I,
(A.D. 630) has its wall curved like the ribs of a ship. The constitution
itself refers to the resemblance of this oblong form to a ship. See also S.
Clem. Alex., Paedag, iii, 246.

§ Tertull. advers. Valent., cap. 2.

TJie Inductive Argument Ixvii

in lucein means that the church should face the East or
dayspring. The praying towards the East was the
almost invariable custom in the Early Churches, and as
symbolical as their standing in prayer upon the Festivals
of the Resurrection."*^ So common was orientation in
the most ancient churches, that Socratesf mentions
particularly the church at Antioch as having its ' position
reversed ; for the altar does not look to the east but to
the west.' This rule appears to have been more
scrupulously followed in the East than in the West ;
though even in Europe examples to the contrary are
exceptions.

The Apostolical Constitution in its other directions
about the position of the bishop, priests, and deacons,
and the separate stations for the sexes, shows (as Father
Thiers I has remarked) that there was even then a
marked distinction between the clergy and laity
though the method of division is not described. At any
rate, what has been here adduced — compiled from notes
taken some time since for another object, and without
access (from accidental circumstances) to a library —
seems enough to show that in the earliest notices of
Christian churches there is distinct intimation of at least
three particulars of intended symbolism.

The circular form given to the church of the Holy
Sepulchre w^as of course appropriate enough in that
particular case, where the sepulchre would naturally
become the centre. The circular churches of Europe
were again imitated from this. The Cross form would
appear to have made its first appearance in Constan-
tinople : that is, in the city which was the first to take a

* See Origen, Horn. 5, in Numer. cap, 4. Tertull. Apol. cap. 16, and Ad
Nation, i, 13. S. Clem. Alex. Strom, vii, ante med. quoted by Mede.

\ Hist. Eccles. Lib. v, cap. xjS'.

\ Thiers, Dissert, de la Cloture dji Chceiir des Eglises. cap. 2.

Ixviii Introductory Essay

completely Christian character. For example, the church
of the Apostles built by Constantine was cruciform : and
the symbolism of this is pointed out by S. Gregory
Nazianzen in his poem, ' the Dream of Anastasia,' quoted
by Bingham.* So Evagrius describes the church of S.
Simon Stylites, as cited by Buscemi,t who also mentions
a Cross church founded by King Childebert, about the
year 550. The cathedral of Clermont, mentioned by
S. Gregory of Tours, and the church of SS. Nazarius
and Celsus at Ravenna, both founded about 450, were
cruciform. More than this, we have examples of an
oblong church being intentionally made cruciform by the
addition of apsides, as at Blachernce by Justin Junior,
instanced by Bingham out of Cedrenus and Zonaras.
This has been remarked also in the case of some Italian
churches : though the early churches of the West seemed
to have retained the oblong form, even when the details
and general arrangement were Byzantine, as in the
Capella Regia at Messina ; the more remarkable from
the peculiar influence of Constantinople in the island of
Sicily. But in either case there was a symbolising in-
tention on the part of the founders of churches.

There is mention also of octagonal churches, as at
Antioch and Nazianzum : but these seem to have been
mere exceptions ; and perhaps from being coupled with
fonts in the inscription quoted by Mr Poole from Gruter,
may have been intended to symbolise Regeneration.
The first two lines are as follows : —

Octachorum sanctos templum surrexit in usus :
Octagonus fons est munere dignus eo.

Bingham mentions that the oblong form was sometimes
called 5/Do/xtKov which he explains as intimating that they

* Carm. ix, torn ii, p. 79.
f Notizie etc. Note al Lib. 1, capo terzo. Nota 10 p. 15.

The Inductive Arz^nnent Ixix

had void spaces for deambulation."**" It seems however
more Hkely that the name was derived from the re-
semblance between this form of church and a stadium ;
the apsidal end answering to the curve round the
goal.

Some objection may be raised to our theory because
Bingham, from whom of course almost all the existing
passages in ancient writers about the form of churches
might be gathered, does not recognise any such
principles, and rather seems on the other hand to believe
that there was at first no rule or law on these points.
But it is not detracting from his fame for almost con-
summate learning to question whether his practical
knowledge of church architecture, ancient or modern,
was very deep. It might be shown indeed to be far
otherwise. But at any rate the principle no\^' contended
for never entered his mind, or he would have seen that
some of the very passages he adduces to show that the
form of ancient churches was accidental, because (for
example) they were often made out of Basilicae or even
heathen temples, really tell against such a supposition.
He quotes from Socrates t a description of the conver-
sion of a Pagan island to Christianity, about 380, and
the turning the heathen temple into a church. But the
words of the original, given in our note, are very re-
markable : ' The guise of the temple they transformed
unto the type (or pattern) of a church.' We want to
prove nothing more than that there was some type of a
church. It was not a mere ejection of idols that was
required to make a temple into a church : but some
change of form and arrangement. So also in a passage
from Sozomen (vii, 15), ' The temple of Dionysus which

* Book viii, 3, following Leo AUatius and Suicer.

\ Socrates iv, 24, to "hi (r^^yj/Lca toZ vaoZ ui IxKXriff'ta; tv-ptov
fJt,lTu.TorAf(tVTl?.

Ixx hitroductory Essay

they had, was changed in fittings (fxerea-Kevdcrdr]) into a
church.' Again, a very interesting passage about the
conversion of Iberia by means of a female captive in the
time of Constantine is cited from Theodoret,* to show
that churches did exist at that date. But we find a
particular form of building clearly alluded to in the
original : and, more than this, ' He Who filled Bezaleel
with a wise spirit for building, judged this captive also
worthy of grace, so as to design the divine temple. And
so she designed, and they built' And this passage
brings us at once to the famous panegyric on Paulinus,
Bishop of Tyre, and builder of the church there pre-
served by Eusebius. In this speech the prelate is
throughout supposed to have been inspired for his work,
and is compared to Bezaleel, Solomon and Zerubbabel,
the builders of the Tabernacle, and the First and Second
Temples. And not only is the general spirit assumed
to be a directly religious one : but the details are
described as having a symbolical meaning.

In the comparison between the material temple and
the 'living temple' the Spiritual Church, there are
several points worthy of observation. The symbolical
explanation of the corner stone as our Lord, of the
foundation as the Apostles and Prophets, of the stones
as the members of the Church, are of course taken
directly from Holy Scripture. It is scarcely necessary
to remark the great authority for considering the fabric of
the church as symbolical which these passages convey.
Many of our readers will remember how S. Hermas
carries out into considerable detail the same idea. But
the Panegyrist in Eusebius distinctly refers to ' the most

* Theodoret I. xxiv. T'^v a^/a^ao-rov ixtiv'/iv xa,Ta.Xa,(huv '^opia.Xurov,
aoip'tcci \fji,'rX'A(roc; ica.) Tocvrm Ti^'tuxri ^apiros, u; tov 6uov oiaypxypxi viuv KOit

Yi filv ^liypCC^iV, ol Ti upVTTOV TS 71U.) c!!i}iOOOfJt,OVV.

TJie Inductive Argument Ixxi

inward recesses [of that spiritual temple] which are
unseen of the many, and are essentially holy and holy
of holies ' ;* that is, of course, to a Sanctuary ; which he
goes on to describe as having ' sacred inclosures,' and as
being accessible to the priest alone ; with a distinct re-
ference to S. Paul's t illustration taken from the Jewish
Temple. Again he proceeds to compare the Bishop
Paulinus with the ' great High Priest,' not only in being
permitted to enter the holy of holies, but in doing what
Christ has done, just as the Son did what He saw the
Father do. ' Thus he, looking with the pure eyes of his
mind unto the Great Teacher, whatsoever he seeth Him
doing, as if making use of archetypal patterns, has, by
building {^jxiovpyQiv) as much like them as possible,
wrought out images of them as closely as can be ;
having in no respect fallen short of Bezaleel, whom God
Himself, having filled him with the Spirit of wisdom
and knowledge and other skilful and scientific lore,
called to be the builder of the material expression of the
heavenly types in the symbols of the temple. In this
way then Paulinus also, carrying wholly like a graven
image in his soul Christ Himself, the Word, the Wisdom

the Light has constructed this magnificial temple

of the most High God, resembhng in its nature the
pattern of the better (temple) as a visible (emblem) of
that which is invisible.'l This remarkable passage ap-
pears to assert (i) the inspiration of the architect, (ii) the
fact of this heavenly type, which (iii) material churches
ought to follow ; and (iv) the general symbolism of the
Spiritual Church by the visible fabric. We must pass
over a great deal of this oration, with a general request
that such as are interested in this discussion will read

* Euseb. H. E., x, 4, 21. f Hebrews, ix, 6, 7.

X Euseb. X, iv, 24, 25.

Ixxii Introductory Essay

the whole in the original for the sake of seeing its
general spirit and bearing. The description of the
details is of great interest. The arrangement of the
porticoes, etc., is of course quite adapted to the wants of
the Church in that age : it is fair to own that the chief
entrance appears to have faced the East in this church.
Mention is made also of seats in order for the bishops
and presbyters, and of the altar in the midst : the whole
being encompassed with wooden network, exquisitely
worked, in order to be made inaccessible to the multi-
tude.* Further onf we read that Paulinus rebuilt his
church, ' such as he had been taught from the delinea-
tion of the holy oracles.' And again, ' More wonderful
than wonders are the archetypes, and the intelligent
and godlike prototypes and patterns (of earthly church
building) : namely, I say, the renewing of the divine
and reasonable building in the soul ' ; \ assuming that
material churches are but copies from some heavenly
type. Again, a passage, in which the ruined fabric and
the persecuted Church are mixed up, speaks of the
Church as ' having been made after the image of God,'§
and more to the same effect. The symbolical prophecy
of the ' fair edification ' of the Gentile Church || is quoted
as being almost literally fulfilled in the Tyrian church,
and is still further symbolised by the Panegyrist.lf The
four-square atrium is said to set forth the four Gospels of
the scripture.^"^ The whole arrangement of the church
is symbolised at much length, as setting forth the
different divisions of the laity and the states of the faith-
ful with respect to advance in holiness. The great
portico symbolised God the Father : the side porticoes
the other Two Persons of the Most Holy Trinity. The
seats represented the souls of the faithful, upon which,
* Euseb. H. E., X, 43 f Ibid 53. % Ibid 54. § Ibid 57.

II Isaiah liv, 11. f Euseb. X. iv, 60. ** Ibid 61.

The Inductive Argument Ixxiii

as on the Day of Pentecost, the cloven tongues would
descend and sit upon each of them. ' The revered and
great and only altar, what could this be but the spotless-
ness of soul and holiness of holies of the common Priest
of us all ? '* Once more, the parallel between the
spiritual and the material Churches being continued, the
Word, the Great Demiurgus of all things, is said to have
Himself made upon earth a copy of the heavenly pattern
which is the Church of the Firstborn written in heaven,
Jerusalem that is above, Sion the Mount of God, and the
city of the living God.

It appears then that throughout this description a
symbolical meaning is found attached to the material
church : and this not far-fetched or now first fancifully
imagined ; but appealing, as it seems, to what the
auditors would be prepared to grant, and admitted by
the historian without a comment, as one specimen of a
class.

We have before remarked that every notice of the
particular distribution of a church for the reception of
the different classes of Christians, may be taken as an
argument on our side : for if it can be shown that the
form of churches was not arbitrary, but was adapted to
certain peculiar wants, it must be granted that there was
some particular law of design, and that law connected
with Ritual : and then, as before pointed out, this ar-
rangement becomes itself symbolical, and that intention-
ally. We shall only refer here to a passage quoted by
Bingham,t in which S. Gregory Thaumaturgus describes
the places in church assigned respectively to the five
degrees of Penitents. Mede :|: argues for the existence of
churches in the first three centuries, from the universal
custom of praying towards the East, the necessity of

* Euseb. H. E., x, 65. t Greg. Nyssen, iii, 567.

% Discourse of Churches, Folio Edn., p. 333.

Ixxiv Introductory Essay

providing distinct places for the Penitents, Hearers,
Catechumens, and Faithful, and from the patterns of the
]Q,yN\-^\\ proseuchce and synagogues. But all these argu-
ments seem to tell as much for some particular form of
churches as for their existence : that is they prove that
the earliest churches were designed on rules which, even
if not intentionally symbolical (though we have shown
that many were so), became by a natural process inten-
tional among later church-builders.

So also with respect to the great division into nave and
sanctuary by a screen of some sort : concerning which
the passages that might be cited from ancient writers
would be innumerable. We shall only give one quoted
by Father Thiers from a Poem of S. Gregory of
Nazianzum, in which the balustrade or rood-screen is said
to be ' between two worlds, the one immovable, the other
changeful ; the one of gods (or heaven) the other of
mortals (or earth) ; that is to say between the choir and
the nave, between the clergy and the laity.'

We have attempted to prove then that the earliest
Christian churches were designed, or described, symboli-
cally : by showing that there was a reason for their
shape, whether oblong, cruciform, or circular ; for their
main division into choir and nave, and their sub-
division for the penitents : for their orientation ; and
even to some extent for their minor internal arrange-
ments : and that some type or pattern of a church was
universally recognised.* It would require more reading
than we can boast of to give a catena of writers who
have asserted the symbolism of churches. But if the

* Much stress is laid by some on the acknowledged Bascilican origin of
churches as an argument against the principle here contended for. But
we find a great authority on the Antiquities of Christian Rome deciding
differently : ' There seems to be in the building of churches, as in the
mosaics, and other works of art of the old Christian times in Rome one
constant type in which the art of building could show little freedom or
variety. — Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. BasTliken. vol, i, p. 430.

TJie Inductive Argument Ixxv

point has been in any way proved for the first four
centuries, enough will have been done : since from that
period we can trace from existing edifices the gradual
relinquishment of the peculiar Basilican plan, and
general adoption of the Latin Cross, or oblong, in the
West, while the East consistently retained the Greek
Cross. We observe it stated "^ that Mr E. Sharpe, in a
paper read before the Cambridge Camden Society,
described the gradual ' typical additions ' to the Basili-
can ground plan. Indeed symbolism, to any extent,
once made known, must have become a rule and pre-
cedent to later church architects.

S. Isidore, of Seville, incidentally mentions many
symbolical arrangements : they will be found in the
notes to the text of the Rationale. Many pieces of
symbolism are to be found incidentally in the Decretum
of Gratian.

In mentioning Durandus himself, it seems proper to
anticipate an objection which may occur to some
readers. The authority, it may be said, of that writer
must be very small who can give such absurd derivations
as cejneteriuin from ciine^ alt are from alt a res, allegory
from allon and gore. But it must be remembered,
firstly, that in the thirteenth century, Greek was a
language almost unknown in Europe : next, that our
author nowhere professes an acquaintance with it :
further, that the science of derivation was hardly under-
stood till within the last few years : and lastly, that
Cicero's authority led Durandus into some errors ;
for instance, his derivation of teinpluni from tectum
amplum.

One proof of the reality of Durandus's principles we
must not fail to notice. It is the express allusion which
he makes to, and the graphical description which he

* Ecclesiologist, vol. i, p. 120.

Ixxvi Introductory Essay

gives of, that' which we know to have been the style of
architecture employed in his time. The tie beams, the
deeply splayed windows, the interior shafts, all prove
that we are engaged with a writer of Early English
date.

It is very remarkable, that Durandus, S. Isidore,
Beleth, and the rest, seem to quote from some canons
of church symbolism now unknown to us. Their words
are often, even where they are not very connected nor
intelligible, the same. One example may suffice. * In
that this rod,' says Hugh of S. Victor, ' is placed above
the Cross, it is shown that the words of Scripture be con-
summated and confirmed by the Cross : whence our
Lord said in His Passion, " It is Finished." And His
Title was indelibly written over Him ' (p. 200). ' In that
the iron rod,' says Durandus, ' is placed above the Cross,
on the summit of the church, it signifieth that Holy
Scripture is now consummated and confirmed. Whence
saith our Lord in his Passion, " It is Finished," and that
Title is written indelibly over Hivi (p. 28). The follow-
ing, by way of another instance, is the symbolical *
description of a church, written on a fly-leaf, at the
beginning of a MS. ' Psalterium Glossatum,' in the
public library at Boulogne, though formerly in that of
S. Bertin's Abbey, at S. Omer.

The text is either of the tenth or eleventh century ;
but it will be seen that the words of Durandus, writing
at so great a distance of time and place, are nearly the
same in some passages.

Fundamentum ipsius Cameros est Fides.
Altitude ejus est Spes.
Latitude ejus est Caritas.
Longitude ejus est Perseverantia.
Latera ejus sunt Concordia et Pax.

* British Magazine^ 1843, P- 393-

The Inductive Ars^ujjient Ixxvii

<!>

Fronles ipsius sunt Justicia & V^eritas.

Pulchritudo ejus est exemplum bonorum operura.

Fenestrse ejus sunt dicta sanctorum.

Pavimentum ejus est humilitas cordis.

Camera est conversatio coelestis.

Pilastri ejus sunt spiritales virtues.

Columnce ejus sunt boni pontifices & sacerdotes.

Interlegatio ejus est vinculum pacis.

Tectum ejus est fidelis dispensator,

* isces ejus sunt mediatio celestis.

Mensa Christi est in camera bona conversatio.

Ministerium Christi in camera sua est bona memoria.

Facinus Christi est bona voluntas.

Canterellus Christi est nitor conscientioe.

Cathedra Christi est serenitas mentis.

Sponsa Christi est sancta anima.

Camerariae Christi spiritales virtutes sunt :

Prima Sancta Caritas dicta est ; ilia Christi regit cameram.

Secunda est Sancta Humilitas ; ilia est thesauraria in camera Christi

Tertia est Sancta Patientia ; ilia facit luminaria in camera Christi.

Quarta Sancta Puritas ; ilia scopat cameram Christi.

But besides, and in our opinion stronger than this
express and continuous testimony to the fact that
CathoHc architecture is symboHcal, we have the testi-
mony of all other branches of Catholic art, which none
ever did, or could deny to be figurative and sacramental.
Let us take merely the rites which accompany the close
of Easter week. We enter a darkened church, illumin-
ated only by the lighted ' Sepulchre ' : we hear the history
of the Passion chaunted by three voices in three recita-
tives : we have the most mournfully pathetic strain for
the ' Reproaches ' which perhaps the human mind ever
imagined : — we pray for Pagans — and we kneel ; we
pray for Turks — and we kneel ; we pray for the Jews,
and we kneel not ; in abhorrence of the mockery that
bowed the knee to the King of the Jews. We enter
that church again, now perfectly darkened, except for
the one lamp that renders the lectern and the books

Ixxviii Introductory Essay

thereon just visible : the solemn litanies seem in that
obscurity, and amidst the silent crowd of worshippers,
more solemn than usual There is a short pause : then
in one second, priests and people, voices and instru-
ments, burst forth with the Easter Alleluia : light pours
in from every window of the cathedral : showers of rose
leaves fall from the roof: bells — silent for three long
days, peal from every church tower : guns fire and
banners wave : Dominus resurrexit vere^ Alleluia^ et
apparuit Sinioni Alleluia.

Now, without being concerned to defend, or the con-
trary, any or all of these ceremonies, we ask : — Is it
possible to conceive that the Church which invented so
deeply symbolical a system of worship — should have
rested content with an unsymbolical building for its
practice ? This consideration, perhaps, belongs to the
analogical branch of our essay : yet it may also find
a place here, as one of the strongest parts of the
inductive argument

Seeing then that there are strong reasons a priori for
believing that the ritual and architecture of the Church
would partake of a decidedly symbolical character : that
by the analogy of the practice amongst all religionists,
of the operations of God in nature, of the conditions of
Art, and especially of the whole sacramental system of
the Church, it is likely that church architecture itself
would be sacramental : that from the nature of things
everything material is in some sort sacramental, and
a material fabric essentially figurative of the purpose for
which it was designed : that an actual Christian church
(taken as we find it) has such accidents as can be ex-
plained on no other than a symbolical supposition, and
might be analysed into just those elements from which,
by induction, we first constructed an hypothetical
Christian church : and lastly, that from express and

The Inductive Ars^iiiJient Ixxix

«b

continuous historical testimony without any actual
acquaintance with existing fabrics we might have
deduced that the material church would be itself, to
some extent, a figurative expression of the religion for
the celebration of which it was constructed : it does not
seem too much to assert that Christian architecture owes
its distinctive peculiarities to its sacramental character,
and that consequently we can neither appreciate ancient
examples nor hope to rival them, at least in their per-
fection, without taking into account this principle of
their design. In other words, the cause of that indefin-
able difference between an ancient and modern church
which we were led to discover at the beginning of this
treatise, is neither association of ideas nor correctness
of detail, nor picturesqueness, nor of a mechanical nature,
but (in the most general point of view) is the sacrament-
ality, the religious symbolism, which distinguished and
sanctified this as every other branch of mediaeval art.

CHAPTER VII

EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM

In endeavouring shortly to develop the practice of
symbolism, according to our view of the subject, we are
fully aware that to those who have never yet bestowed
a thought upon it, we shall appear mere visionaries or
enthusiasts. It has been the fashion of late to smile at
the whole theory, as amusing and perhaps beautiful :
but quite unpractical and indeed impracticable. We
cannot hope to convince by aesthetics those who are
deaf to more direct arguments, and who refuse to view
everything, as churchmen ought to do, through the
medium of the Church. But those who agree with us
in the latter duty, will perhaps suffer themselves to think
twice on what will be advanced before they condemn it.

We shall consider the practice of symbolism as con-
nected with, I. The Holy Trinity ; 2. Regeneration ;
3. The Atonement ; 4. The Communion of Saints ; and
then we shall notice several parts of a church, such as
windows, doors, etc., with their specific symbolical
meaning.

The doctrine of the Holy Trinity has left, as might
be expected, deeper traces in the structure of our churches
than any other principles of our faith. We have already
noticed that possibly the Basilican arrangement might
be providentially ordered with reference to this. In

Exa))iples of Symbolism Ixxxi

Saxon times we find the idea carried out, not only by
the Nave and two Aisles, but also by the triple division
in length, into Nave, Chancel, and Sanctum Sanctorum.
This triple division is most frequently given in Norman
buildings, by a central tower; with chancel and nave:
we also find in this style a triple chancel arch, an
arrangement never occurring at a later epoch. Thus
length and breadth were made significant of this Mystery;
nor was height less so. The clerestory, the triforium,
and the piers cannot fail to suggest it. Indeed, where a
triforium was not needed, there is often, as at Exeter
and Wells, an arrangement of arcading in niches to
resemble it, made that the triplicity might be retained.
It is only in late Perpendicular, such as the nave of
Canterbury cathedral, that the arrangement is omitted :
there the eye is at once dissatisfied. Again, the triple
orders of moulding, which are so much more frequent
than any other number, may be supposed to refer to the
same thing. The altar steps, three, or some multiple of
three, certainly do. So do the three fingers with which
Episcopal Benediction is given. And this is a very
early symbolism. It occurs in illuminated MS. We
may mention one (Harl. 5540) of the thirteenth century,
where it forms a part of the first letter of S. John's
gospel. So, as we shall presently see, are Eastern
triplets. And reference is constantly made to the same
doctrine in bosses : we may mention as a remarkable
instance one that occurs in Stamford, S. Mary's, a figure
with an equilateral triangle in its mouth : thereby setting
forth the duty of the preacher to proclaim the doctrine
of the Trinity. In large churches, the three towers
undoubtedly proclaim the same doctrine. We shall
hereafter show that neither in nave and aisles, in triplets,
or any thing else, is the inequality any thing else than
what might have been expected.

Ixxxii Introductory Essay

II. The Doctrine of Regeneration

We know, as a fact, that from the earliest times,
baptisteries and fonts were octagonal. We know also
that the reason assigned, if not by S. Ambrose himself
at least by one of his contemporaries, for this form was,
that the number eight was symbolical of Regeneration.
For as the old Creation was complete in seven days, so
the number next ensuing may well be significative of
the new.

Now none can deny that very much the greater
number of fonts are in this shape. To prove this we
will refer to those selected by the Cambridge Camden
Society in the appendix to the second edition of their
' Few Words to Church-Builders.' There we find.

Octagonal.

all other shapes

n Norman

. 15 .

• 43

Early English

. 19 .

• 30

Decorated .

. 24 .

Perpendicular

• 57 .

Total 115 76

Now, it is to be remembered, that the superior conveni-
ence of a cylindrical or circular form, together with the
wont of Norman architects rather to symbolise facts
than doctrine, accounts for the comparatively small
number of octagonal fonts in that style : in later ages
their preponderance is overwhelming.

The symbolism sculptured on the sides of the font
hardly falls under our consideration in this place. And
besides, it has been fully detailed in the publications of
the Cambridge Camden Society, and of Mr Poole.
Whether the general octagonal uses of piers may not
arise from a similar design, we do not pretend to decide.

One of the most apposite illustrations in corbels^

Examples of Symbolism Ixxxiii

consists in three fishes intertwined in an equilateral
triangle ; and thus typifying our regeneration in the
Three Persons of the Ever-Blessed Trinity. For it need
not be said, that the fish is the emblem of the Christian,
as being born again of water. The mystical vesica
piscis of this form () wherein the Divinity, and (more
rarely) the Blessed Virgin are represented has no
reference, except in its name to a fish ; but represents
the almond, the symbol of virginity, and self-production.

III. The Atonement

We will notice in the third place, the symbolical
representation of the great doctrine of the Atonement, in
the ground lines and general arrangement of our
churches.

As soon as ever Christianity possessed temples of
her own, the cruciform shape was, we have seen,
sometimes adopted. And so, as we all know, has it
continued down to the present day. England, perhaps,
has fewer examples of cross churches than any other
country : the proportion of those which bear this shape
being not so much as one in ten. In France, on the
contrary_, the ratio would probably be inverted. Into
the reason of this remarkable difference we shall not
now inquire : but will merely remark, that many
churches which do not, in an exterior view, appear cruci-
form, are nevertheless, from their internal arrangements,
really so. The transepts do not project beyond the
aisles : but have distinct transept arches, and a window
of much larger dimensions than those in the aisles. This
principally occurs in city churches, or where the founders
were confined for want of room. And this is the case as
well in churches which have aisles to the chancel, as in
Godalming, Surrey, as where the nave alone has them,

Ixxxiv Introductory Essay

as in Holy Rood, Southampton. They will be distin-
guished readily on the outside by the northern and
southern gable. In some cathedral churches, there is a
double cross : in York, this perhaps signifies the metro-
political dignity of that church ; in other cases, it was
probably merely a method of imparting greater dignity
to the building. Some churches — though they are not
frequent — are in the form of a Greek Cross : that is, the
four arms are all of equal length. Darlington, Durham,
is an example : in this case there is a central tower. In
some, as at Westminster, Gloucester, and S. Albans, the
choir runs westward of the transept ; in Seville, almost
the whole of the choir is locally in the nave ; in others,
as Ely, it does not extend westward so far. These
peculiarities, curious in themselves, do not affect the
symbolism : and probably no modification of meaning is
to be attached to them.

Mr Lewis has asserted, that in early churches, a cross
was marked on the pavement, the upper part running
into the chancel, the arms extending into the transepts,
and the body occupying the nave. And some such
arrangement, or rather the traces of it, we have ourselves
perhaps noticed. The reason it was given up, was
probably the anathema pronounced by the second
CEcumenical Council, on those who should tread on that
holy symbol.

Thus, in the ground plan, the Cross of Christ was
preached. It is often said, that the adjacent chapels,
more especially the Lady Chapel, obscured the sym-
bolism. But it must be remembered that a ground plan
can only be judged of in two methods : either from a
height above, for example, the tower of the church ; or
when marked out on paper. It is surprising, in either of
these cases, how easily the most complex cathedral
resolves itself to the spectator's eyes into a cross.

Examples of Syvibolisvi lxxx\'

In looking at the details of churches, the Cross is
marked on the Dos-d'anes and plain coffin lids of the
earliest times : it commences the later inscriptions on
brass : it surmounts pinnacle, and gable, and porch ; it
is often imprinted on the jambs of the principal entrance,
showing the exact spot touched in the consecration with
chrism,"^ and possibly having reference to the blood
sprinkled at the Passover on the Door Post : and finally,
in a more august form, is erected in the churchyard.
And here we may notice another curious and beautiful
expression of Catholic feeling.t It is very uncommon
to find a plain cross surmounting a church : the whole
force of Christian art has sometimes been expended in
wreathing and embellishing the instrument of redemp-
tion : flowers, and figures, and foliage are lavished upon
it. And why ? Because that which was once the by-
word of Pagans, the instrument of scorn and of suffering,
has become the symbol of Hope and of Glory, of Joy,
and of Eternal Felicity ; and its material expression has

* It is proper to distinguish between Dedication Crosses, which are
generally of considerable size, examples of which may be seen in
Moorlinch, Somersetshire, and those small crosses in door jambs, as in
Preston, Sussex, the use of which is not ver}' clear, but which were perhaps
intended to remind the entering worshipper to cross himself. At Yatton,
Somersetshire, inside the northern door, and towards the east, is a large
quatrefoil-fashioned cross : this perhaps pointed out a now destroyed
benatura.

f That there are some plain crosses, cannot be denied — more especiall}'
that on which the weathercock is placed. A little consideration will,
perhaps, clear up this difficulty. The cross may be viewed in two distinct
lights. It may either set forth that on which our Redeemer suffered —
in which case it is the symbol of glory : or it may image that Cross which
every true Christian is to take up — in which case it may still be called the
Symbol of Shame. In the latter signification, it may well be quite plain.
But, inasmuch as our ancestors looked more to the Passion of Christ than
to their own unworthiness, the former symbol is that which generally
occurs. Yet not always on the church spire, perhaps for this reason : —
the spire urges us, by its upward tendenc)'', to press on towards our
heavenly home — a home which can only be reached by the cheerful
bearing of that cross b)' means of which (as it were) it points. The cross
therefore is here, with propriety, plain.

Ixxxvi Introductory Essay

altered proportionately. In that the arms frequently
end in leaves and flowers, they signify the flourishing
and continual increase of that Church which was planted
on Mount Calvary. The Crown of Thorns is sometimes
wreathed around them : but so, that it should rather
resemble a Crown of Glory. The instruments of the
Passion are, as every one knows, of the most ordinary
occurrence. The commonest of these are — the Cross,
the Crown of Thorns, the Spear, the Scourge, the Nails,
and the Sponge on the pole. But in the Suffolk and
Somersetshire churches many others are added. Their
position is various : sometimes, as in Stogumber, Somer-
setshire, they appear amidst the foliage of a perpendicular
capital : sometimes, as in the Suffolk churches, they are
found in the open seats : often in bosses, often in brasses,
often in stained glass; and sometimes the angel that
supports a bracket holds them portrayed on a shield.
The Five Wounds are also often found. These are
represented by a heart, between two hands and two feet,
each pierced ; or by a heart pierced with five wounds, as
in a brass at King's College chapel, Cambridge. The
instruments of the Passion may sometimes be seen
amongst the volutes of the stem of the churchyard
cross : examples occur at Belleville, near Havre, in
Normandy, and Santa Cruz, in Madeira.

Again, the very position of our blessed Saviour on the
Cross as represented in the great rood and in stained
glass, is not without a meaning. In modern paintings,
the arms are high above the head, the whole weight of
the body seeming to rest upon them. And this, besides
its literal truth, gives occasion to that miserable display
of anatomical knowledge in which such pictures so much
abound. The Catholic representation pictures the arms
as extended horizontally : thereby signifying how the
Saviour, when extended on the Cross, embraced the

Exajtiples of Synibolisin Ixxxvii

whole world."* Thus, as it ever ought to be, is physical
sacrificed to moral truth. Perhaps for a similar reason
S. Longinus is represented as piercing the Right Side,
instead of the Left : and in a representation of the Five
Wounds, it is the right side of the breast that is pierced
(as in a brass at Southfleet, Kent) ; that being the side
of the greatest strength, and thereby typifying the
strength of that love wherewith our Redeemer loved us.
[But this may be doubted. For it appears pretty clear
that the ancient Church considered the Right Side to
have been that whi(!h was really pierced. According to
modern ideas, the effusion of the water was not a miracle.
S. John undoubtedly considered it not only a miracle, but
one of the most extraordinary which he had to relate,
seeming to stop the mouth of the objector by insisting
on the fact, that he himself was an eye-w^'tness.] In
some old roods, a still further departure was made from
literal truth : the Saviour was represented on the Cross,
as a crowned king, arrayed in royal apparel.t And
his figure was constantly represented as larger than that
of His attendants, His Blessed Mother, and S. John,
thereby signifying his immeasurable superiority over the
highest of human beings.

Another reference to the Atonement will be found in
the deviation which the line of the chancel often presents
from that of the nave. It is sometimes to the north,
but more frequently to the south. There are many

* However, in late stained glass, the modern position is sometimes
found ; as in a Crucifixion represented in the east window of the north
aisle, in Wiscombe church, Somersetshire.

f To this we may add the conventional representation of Royal Saints,
such as S. Edmund, wearing^ their kingly crowns during their passion.
That such conventional symbolism is natural to us may be shown by
alluding (without irreverence in this connection) to the way in which
kings are alwa)'s figured with crown and orb in popular prints : and even,
as in a sign-post at Leighterton, Gloucestershire, King Charles II, hiding
himself in the Royal Oak, is arrayed in all the insignia of majesty.

Ixxxviii Introductory Essay

more churches in which it occurs than those who have
not examined the subject would believe : perhaps it is
not too much to say that it may be noticed in a quarter
of those in England. Of our cathedrals, it is most
strongly marked in York and Lichfield : among the parish
churches in which we have observed it, none have it so
strongly as Eastbourne and Bosham, in Sussex, and S.
Michael's at Coventry : in all of which the most casual
glance could not but detect the peculiarity of appearance
it occasions. This arrangement represents the inclination
of our Saviour's Head on the Cross. In roods the Head
generally inclines to the left

Mr Poole, after noticing the fact in York minster,
seems inclined to attribute it to a desire of evading the
old foundation lines of that church, which induced the
builders to deviate a little from the straight line, rather
than encounter the difficulty of removing this obstacle.
But in the first place, however much modern church
builders might bethink themselves of such an expedient,
it is not at all in the character of the church architects
of other days : and in the second, the explanation is
applicable to York alone, one only out of many hundred
churches so distinguished.

IV. The Communion of Saints

Next, we will notice the effect which the Doctrine of
the Communion of Saints has exercised in the designs
of churches.

In the ground plan of small churches there is little
which seems to bear on this subject. The principal
references to departed saints occur in the stained glass,
in the rood screen, in niches, in the canopies of monu-
ments, and in brasses. Monuments, in particular, often
afford some beautiful ideas, among which we may notice

Examples of Symbolism Ixxxix

the angels which often are seated at the head of the
effigy, supporting the helmet or pillow, and seeming to
point out the care of angels for the saints. In
cathedrals, however, the chapels have a very considerable
effect upon the ground plan : though we cannot agree
with Mr Poole that such a modification of the principal
lines of the building for the reception of these shrines
and oratories, is necessarily uncatholic. He principally
objects to the position of the Lady Chapel at the east
end, above, as he expresses it, the High Altar. Now
we believe the Lady Chapel to have occupied that place
merely on grounds of convenience : not from any design
— which it is shocking to imagine — of exalting the
Blessed Virgin to any participation in the honours of
the Deity. Sometimes, as at Durham, this chapel is at
the west end : in country churches, it generally occupied
the east end of the north or south aisle : and some-
times is placed over the chancel, as in Compton, Surrey,
Compton Martin, Somerset, and Darenth, Kent ; or over
the porch, as at Fordham, Cambridgeshire. At Bristol
cathedral it is on the north side of the choir. That
the position of the Lady Chapel at the east end adds
greatly to the beauty of the building wall hardly be
denied on a comparison of York, or Lincoln, or Peter-
boroucfh with Lichfield, as it now is.

CHAPTER VIII

EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLISM CONTINUED

We come now, according to the plan we laid down, to
speak of the symbolism of some particular features of a
church, which do not fall so well under any of the four
heads which we have been considering. And firstly, of
windows.

The primary idea shadowed forth in every one of the
styles, is the saying of our Lord to His disciples, ye
are the light of the world. More simply set forth at
first, this notion acquired, in the course of time, various
methods of expression, and was subjected to different
modifications ; but we must retain it as the ground work
or we shall be in danger of mistaking the true meaning
of ancient church architects.

In Norman, then, and early English, the single lights
north and south, set forth the Apostles and Doctors
who have shined forth in their time as the lights of the
Church : and the rich pattern of flowerwork wherewith
the stained glass in them was decked, represented the
variety of graces in each. But to have symbolised the
servants without the Master, the members without the
Head, had been at variance with all the Catholic Church
has ever practised. Looking therefore to the east end,
we behold that well-known feature, the Triplet : setting

Examples of Symbolism xci

forth the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity.^ Nor is
this all : to denote that all the Church has, and all She
is, is from above, the string course, springing from the
eastern triplet, runs round the whole church (often both
within and without,) binding it, as it were, in and
connecting every other light, with those at the east.
Again, the Western Door, as we shall see, symbolised
Christ : and two lights, typical of His two natures, are
therefore generally placed over it. There are, un-
doubtedly, instances of western triplets : though we
think that the Camden Society has well explained these.

In some cases, there is a series of couplets on each
side of the church : and, taking the hint from Durandus,
we may interpret this arrangement of the mission of the
Apostles two and two.

A series of triplets as in Salisbury cathedral, and the
Lady Chapel of Bristol, is very rare : and, of course, not
objectionable on any other grounds than that of the too
cheap use of a most beautiful feature.

So far all is simple : but as we approach the decorated
style, the symbolism becomes excessively complicated.
The principal doctrines of the Catholic Church are set
forth in each window : and to unravel the whole of these
is often a task of no small difficulty. We shall proceed
to give a few examples, with the explanation which
appears to us probable : entreating the reader to
remember, that if in any instance our conjectures should
appear unfounded, the failure of probability in one case
throws no discredit on the others, and still less does it
invalidate the system. Durandus's silence on the
language of tracery is easily explained by the considera-
tion, that assign as late a date as we will to the

» We read, in the legend of S. Barbara, that, being confined by her
father in a room where were two windows only, she added a third, by way
of setting forth this Mystery.

xcii Introductory Essay

publication of his work, it came forth while the Early
English style was yet in existence : and his silence on
triplets only proves, what is well known to ecclesio-
logists, that they are far less common in foreign than in
our own architecture.

In Norman windows the wheel window is conspicuous.
This, whether formed with the radii like those of Bar-
freston, or of the Temple church, represent (as we shall
presently observe that Norman symbolism usually does
represent) an historical fact: namely, the martyrdom of
S. Catherine. The celebrity of this Virgin Martyr may
tend to explain why she should be so far honoured : a
celebrity which has descended to our own day in the
common sign of the Cat and Wheel : as well as the fire-
work so denominated.

Of Norman triplets there are not many to which we
can refer. The tower of Winchester, however, present-
ing one on each face, is a noble example. The south-
eastern transept of Rochester, though later, is equally in
point : it contains two triplets, far apart, and one disposed
above the other. The west front of S. Etienne at Caen
is a well-known instance.

The earliest symbolism of Early English triplets re-
presented the Trinity alone; the Trinity in Unity was
reserved for a somewhat later period. And this was
typified by the hood moulding thrown across the three
lights. At other times a quatre-foiled, or cinque-foiled,
circle was placed at some little distance above the
triplet : thus typifying the Crown which befits the
Majesty of the King of Kings. And the same Crown is
often exhibited above the western couplet. But, for as
much as we are ' compelled by the Christian verity to
acknowledge every person by Himself to be God and
Lord,' a crown is sometimes represented over each light
of the triplet, as in Wimborne minster.

Examples of Symbolism xciii

Another method of representing the same doctrine
was by a simple equilateral triangle for a window :
whether plain, of which there are many examples, or
with the toothed ornament, as in the famous example at
York minster.

S. Giles's at Oxford has windows, the tracery of
which will serve as an example of many : it has tJiree
/"/'^-foiled lights, with tJiree quatre-foiled circles, arranged
triangle-wise in the head.

This type is a little varied in S. Mary Magdalene's
church, in the same city, by the introduction of the ogee
form.

Berkeley church has a wheel window containing three
quatre-foils : the three spaces left between them and the
line being /'/r-foiled.

The east windows of Dunchurch and Fen Stanton
have been explained in the publications of the Cam-
bridge Camden Society : the former in their ' Few Words
to Church-Builders,' the latter in their illustrations of
monumental brasses. Part iv.

The south transept of Chichester cathedral is a
glorious specimen of decorated symbolism. In the
gable is a Marygold, containing two intersecting equila-
teral ^'rZ-angles : the six apices of^ these are j-^,t'-foiled :
the interior Jiex-2.^on is beautifully worked in six leaves.
The lower window seven lights : in the head is an
equilateral spherical ^'rZ-angle, containing a large tre-
foil, intersected by a smaller tre-ioW. Here we have the
Holy Trinity, the Divine Attributes, the perfection of
the Deity.

A window in Merton College chapel has three lights :
with a circle in the head containing six j-^,i'-foils.

Broughton, Oxon, has in the head of one of its windows
a circle, containing two intersecting equilateral triangles,
the six apices, and six spaces around, being /r^-foiled.

xciv Introductory Essay

The east jend of Lincoln, though far inferior to the
south transept of Chichester, is nevertheless highly sym-
bolical. The east window of each of the aisles has
three lights, with three foliated circles, disposed triangle-
wise in the head. The great east window has eight
lights in two divisions, each whereof has three foliated
circles in the head : and in the apex of the window is a
circle containing seven foliations. The upper window
has a circle of eight foliations in the head : and in the
apex of the gable is an equilateral trefoil.

The next element introduced was the consideration of
the Six Attributes of the Deity. One of the simplest
examples was to be found in the west window of the
north aisle of S. Nicholas, at Guildford : a plain circle,
containing six /r^-foils : these are arranged in two tri-
angles, each containing three /r^-foils, and the two sets
are varied.

The clerestory of Lichfield cathedral (circ. 1300), is
a series of spherical /^/-angles, each containing three
/r^-foils.

A similar clerestory occurs in the north-west transept
of Hereford cathedral, and the same idea is repeated in
its triforium : a series of three //^-foiled lights, with tJiree
circles in the head.

The east end of Lichfield symbolises most strikingly
the same glorious doctrine. The apse is /r/'-gonal : the
windows of each side are the same : each is of tJiree
lights, with six tre-foils (emblematical of the six attri-
butes) disposed above in the form of an equilateral
/r/"-angle.

The east end of Chichester is rather earlier, but intro-
duces yet another element. Here we have a triplet :
and at some height above it, a wheel-window of seven
circles : symbolising therefore eternity and perfection.

The triforium and clerestory of Carlisle are singular

Examples of Syvibolisni xcv

symbols of the doctrine of the Trinit}-. The former has
in each bay three adjacent equal lancets. The latter is
a series of triplets ; the central window in each being
composed of three lights. We may observe, by the
way, that three adjacent equal lancets are hardly ever
found, whatever the reason may be. We know but of
three examples : in the churches of Bosham, Sussex,
Godalming, Surrey, and S. Mary-le-Crypt, Gloucester :
and in all these cases they occupy the same position,
the south east end of the chancel, or chancel aisle.

Dorchester church, Oxfordshire, has for one of its
windows an equilateral spherical triangle with three
heads, or knops, one at each angle.

We are now in a purely decorated age. And as one
of its earliest windows we may mention that in the
Bishop of Winchester's Palace at Southwark. It was a
wheel, and contained two intersecting equilateral tri-
angles : around them were six j^x-foiled triangles the
hexagon in the centre containing a star of six greater
and six smaller rays. Here, of course, the Blessed
Trinity and the divine and human natures were set
forth.*

* We may perhaps be allowed to say a few words here on the subject of
those singular windows which the Cambridge Camden Society has called
Lychnoscopes.

It appears, that in Early English churches, the westernmost window
on the south side of the chancel is both lower than, and in other ways
(particularly by a transom) distinguished from the rest. It is sometimes
merely a square aperture, as in some churches in the Weald of Sussex :
sometimes a small ogee-headed light, as in old Shoreham : sometimes,
where the south side of the chancel is lighted by a series of lancets, the
westernmost, as in Chiddingfold, Sussex, is transomed, where the others
end, and carried down lower; sometimes the lower part appears to have
been originally blocked, as in Kemerton, Gloucestershire, and Kingstone
next Lewes, Sussex : sometimes there are remains of clamps, as at Buck-
land, Kent, sometimes of shutters. Again, sometimes there are two, one
north, the other south of the chancel : sometimes the same arrangement
is found S.E. of the nave. On the other hand, it is never found in any
but a parish church : never in late work : seldom is it ornamented. We
will give a few remarkable instances. I. Ditider^ Somersetshire. Here
there is a double Ijxhnoscope, north and south : the date is late Early

xcvi Introductory Essay

The symbolism of the more comphcated decorated
windows it is next to impossible to explain. Carlisle
and York have doubtless their appropriate meaning ;
but who will now pretend to expound it ?

One exception we may make : — the east window of
Bristol cathedral. It is of seven lights, but so much

English, and the specimen is unique from there being a rude moulding in
the window arch. 2. Othery^ Somersetshire. The lychnoscope itself is
here blocked : it is square-headed, and of two lights : date probably Early
Decorated. The church is cruciform, and a central perpendicular tower
was subsequently erected. One of the diagonal buttresses is thrown out
at a distance of some three feet from the window, so as to hide it : and an
oblique square hole has been cut through the masonry of the buttress.
This is the more remarkable, because there are stalls in the chancel, of
perpendicular work, which would seem to render any window in that
position useless. 3. Cliriston^ Somersetshire. Here, almost close to the
ground^ is a horizontal slit which appears never to have been glazed. This
is an early Norman church. So at Albury, Surrey, at the S.E. end of the
south aisle. 4. S. Appolline^ Guernsey. This church is of the same date
as, or may be earlier than, the last. The windows are rude and square-
headed slits : the lychnoscope is transomed. 5. Preston^ Sussex. There
are three windows in the south of the chancel, which rise one above the
other, like sedilia, to the east. 6. Loxton^ Somersetshire. This is an
Early English church with a south western tower serving as porch.
From the eastern side of this a long slit is carried through the nave wall,
a distance of some twenty feet, and exactly commanding a view of the
altar. It is grated at the west end, not glazed : the eastern end has long
been blocked up. Way is made for it by a bulge of the wall in the angle
formed towards the east by the tower and nave. This seems to form a
kind of connecting link between the hagioscope and the lychnoscope.

With these windows we will -venture to connect those extremely rare
ones, three adjacent, unconnected, equal, lancets, as occurring of the same
date at the same position. There is again another kind of lychnoscope
only found where the chancel has aisles. A panel of the parclose, or
wooden screen, behind the longitudinal stalls, is sometimes found pierced
with a small quatrefoil, at the S.W. part of the chancel. This is vulgarly
called a confessional. It seems, however, clearly connected with the
lychnoscope. Examples are found at Erith, Kent, and Sundridge in the
same county. Perhaps also the curious slit in the south wall of the
chancel of S. Michael's church, Cambridge, communicating with a south
chantry chapel is another variety.

From the above facts we deduce the following remarks : i. That the
necessity for a lychnoscope must in some cases have been very urgent : as
may be proved by the example, at Othery, where a buttress is much injured
to form one. 2. But yet this need was not universal, because there are
many churches in which the arrangement does not occur. 3. That it ap-
pears, strictly speaking, a parochial arrangement, not being found in
cathedral or collegiate churches. 4. That smaller buildings rather than
larger are marked with it : it seldom occurs where there are aisles to the

Examples of Syinbolisin xcvii

prominence is given to the three central ones, as
strongly to set forth the Most Holy Trinity : over thena
is a crown of six leaves and by the numerous winged
foliations around them, the Heavenly Hierarchy may,
very probably, be understood.

chancel. 5. That, where eniplo)'ed, lychnoscopes were only used occa-
sionally ; else the shutters which have evidently sometimes existed, would
have been useless. 6, That they are very seldom ornamented, and never
have stained o^lass. 7- That in the Perpendicular era they c^enerally,
though not universally, ceased to be used. 8. That, a large sill seems to
have been a requisite to them. 9. That, where the upper part is glazed,
the lower part often was not, as in the Decorated lychnoscope at Beckford,
Gloucestershire. The principal hypotheses to explain the use of this
arrangement are : i. Dr Rock's. That it was a contrivance by which
lepers might see the Elevation of the Host. But the structure of the
greater part of these windows forbids this idea : many instances occur in
which it is splayed away from the Altar, none (except that at Loxton, and
a doubtful case at VVinscombe, Somersetshire, where a perpendicular addi-
tion has been made) in which it is splayed towards it. 2. That of the
Cambridge Camden Society, that it was for watching the Paschal light.
But this, besides being a priori improbable is refuted by that at Othery.
Here the eye has to look through two apertures at some distance from each
other, and therefore can command only a very small field on exactly the
opposite side of the chancel. 3. It has been imagined bj some that it was
for confession. The idea of confession near an altar sufficiently refutes
itself ; but furthermore, some of these openings are so very low down that
the thing would be impossible. Two solitary facts more, though they
throw no light on the subject, may yet be mentioned. I. In the church of
S. Amaro, near Funchal, in Madeira, is a grating at the west-end like that
at Loxton. Its use is now said to be to cool the church, though in that
case one should have expected to meet it elsewhere. 2. In Sennen church
by the Land's End, there is said to have been a lychnoscope (now no
longer existing) used to take in the tithe-milk. We may gather on the
whole, I. that lychnoscopes could not have been used to look into a church
2. Nor to hand anything in or out. Both these are sufficiently disproved
b}' Othery, 3. Nor to speak through. But one can hardly imagine any
other use, except it were to look out of the church. We are inclined to
think that it was in some way connected with the ringing of the bells, or of
the sancte bell. Where the tower is central, we very often find it : as at
Old Shoreham and Alfriston, Sussex : at Loxton it is evidently for some
purpose connected with the tower. So in Beckford, which has a central
tower ; and Uflfington, Berks, a cross church. And the place where the
sancte bell was rung is exactly between a double lychnoscope. But what the
particular use might have been we will not pretend to guess. We will con-
clude this long note by a question as to the authority for calling the small
chancel door, the Priesfs Door. It is never (originally) furnished with a
lock, but always with an interior bar, thus showing that it could only have
been used from the inside. So the priest could never have entered the
church by this way, unless the door were previously opened for him.

xcviii Introductory Essay

IL Doors

Durandus has given us a clue to the symbolical
meaning which these generally present, by directing our
attention to that saying of our Lord's, / am the door.
And this, uttered as tradition reports it to have been, in
reference to the Gate of the Temple, on which the
Saviour's eyes were then fixed, gives additional force to
the allusion.

In small churches, doors are seldom the subject of
much symbolical ornament, except in the Norman style ;
but in cathedrals, some of the most strikingly figurative
arrangements are often thrown into them. The Person,
the Miracles, or the Doctrines of our Lord are here
frequently set forth. He is sometimes, especially in the
tympanum of Norman doors, as at Egleton in Rutland,
represented as described in the Apocalyptic vision ; with
a sword in His mouth. More frequently, however, with
His Blessed Mother ; in order, perhaps, to connect His
entrance into the world with ours into the Church, which
He thereby gathered together. This in the south
entrance of Lincoln minster, is enclosed in a quatre-foil :
because the birth of Christ is announced by the four
evangelists ; and angels are represented around it in
attitudes of adoration. A singular, and indeed irre-
verent symbol, is to be seen in a door of Lisieux church:
the Holy Ghost descending on the Blessed Virgin, and
the infant Saviour following Him. In the entrance to
the cloisters of Norwich cathedral, the door arch is filled
by nine niches, the central one being occupied by the
Saviour, the others by saints. But this arrangement is
much more common in French churches : where two, or
even three rows of saints in the architrave are not
uncommon : witness the south and west doors of S.
Germain, at Amiens, and a west door of S. Etienne, at

Examples of SyjJibolisiii xcix

Beauvais. This is sometimes, in late Flamboyant work,
carried to an absurd extent : in a south door of Gisors,
two niches actually hang down out of the soffit. Early
English doors are generally double, thereby representing
the Two Natures of our Saviour : but embraced by one
arch, to set forth His One Person. So the celebrated
door in Southwell minster : the west door in the Galilee
of Ely cathedral : the entrance to the chapter House, at
Salisbury ; the west door of the same : so the decorated
west door of York ; so the door to the Chapter House
there, of which the inscription truly says : Ut Rosa Phlos
phlorum^ sic est dojnus ista Domorum : so the west door
and entrance to the Chapter House of Wells. The west
door of Higham Ferrars has the Saviour's triumphal
entrance into Jerusalem, over the double western doors.
And this is the case in one of the doors of Seville
cathedral. Both these connect the ideas of His entrance
into the temporal, with that of ours into the spiritual,
Jerusalem. In these symbolical doorways, we have one
proof of the immeasurable superiority of English over
French architecture : compare any of the above named
with the celebrated west door of Amiens, with its twenty-
two sovereigns in its soffit. Again, by way of contrast
to the second Adam, by whom we enter into Heaven,
we sometimes, especially in Norman churches, have the
Forbidden Tree, with Adam and Eve in the tympanum :
setting forth the one man by whom sin entered into the
world.

The Crucifixion seldom occurs over doors : while over
porches a crucifix is very common. The cause of the
difference is explained by a consideration that the
former are shut, the latter open : and ' when Thou hadst
overcome the sharpness of Death, Thou didst open the
kingdom of heaven to all believers.' Indeed it may
almost be asserted that a crucifix is never seen over a

c Introductory Essay

closed door, 'except where it forms a part of the usual
representation of the Trinity. For the Trinity is also,
in Norman churches, there represented : and that not
inappropriately : inasmuch as the Trinity is the begin-
ning of all things. A Holy Lamb is sometimes found
in Norman tympana : as saith the Saviour, / am the
door of the sheep. A hasty glance at Durandus"^ might
lead us to imagine that we should find the Apostles
set forth under the similitude of doors : but he there
probably refers to the well - known passage in the
Apocalypse. Apoc. xxi, 14.

This however leads us to another, and that a totally
different, meaning attached to doors. We have already
noticed the fact, that many Norman and Early English
mouldings refer to various kinds of martyrdom : those
which do so occur more frequently on doors than any-
where else ; for it is written, ' We must through much
tribulation enter into the kingdom of God.' And here
we may observe a very curious aud beautiful progression
in symbolism. In the early ages of Christianity, it was
a matter requiring no small courage to make an open
profession of Christianity, to join one's self to the Church
Militant : — and this fact has left its impress in the
various representations of martyrdom surrounding the
nave-doors of Norman and the first stage of Early
English churches : as well as in the frightful forms
which seem to deter those who would enter. But in
process of time, as the world became evangelised, to be
a member of the visible Church was an easy matter : the
difficulty was transferred from an entrance into tJiat, to
the so living, as to have part in the Communion of
Saints : — in other words, to an entrance into the Church
Triumphant. And therefore in late Early English, and
Decorated, the symbols which had occupied the nave-

* Durand. i, 26.

Examples of Symbolism ci

doors in the former period, are now transferred to the
chancel arch.

The different agricultural operations, the signs of the
zodiac, and occupations of various kinds, sometimes
found on the outside of Norman doors, signify that we
must turn our backs on, and leave behind us, all worldly
cares and employments, if we would enter into the
Kingdom of God. In later porches, true love knots are
sometimes found on the bosses : because part of the
service of Holy Matrimony was performed there. The
serpent, in which the handle is so universally fashioned,
has probably reference to that text, ' They shall lay their
hands upon serpents,' to signify that God's arm will
protect us, when engaging, or about to engage in, His
service. For the serpent with his tail in his mouth is
not a Christian, and indeed by no means a desirable,
emblem of eternity, and therefore the door handle
cannot be so interpreted.

The doors are of course placed near the west end :
for it is only by way of the Church Militant that we
can hope to enter the Church Triumphant. One door,
indeed, the priest's door, conducts at once into the
chancel. Durandus is probably right in interpreting
this of Christ's coming into the world ; though it involves
a little confusion of symbolism, inasmuch as the chancel,
properly speaking, denotes the blessed place which He
left : not the abode to which he came. It is to be noted
as an instance of the decline of symbolism in the Per-
pendicular age, that in churches which have aisles to
the chancel of that date, we sometimes, as at Bitton,
Gloucestershire, Godalming, Surrey, and Wivelsfield and
Isfield, Sussex, find an entrance at the east end of the
south aisle. Though used as a priest's door, this is
entirely to be blamed : what shall we say then of modern
churches, which have two doors at the east end, one on

cii Inti'odiictory Essay

each side of the altar, as Christchurch, Brighton? In
Seville cathedral, a late, although fine flamboyant build-
ing, there are large doors at the east end of each choir
aisle.

Porches are usually on the south side. For as the
east was considered in an especial manner connected
with the Kingdom of Heaven, so was the north imagined
to be under the Prince of the Power of the Air. It is
curious how diametrically opposed in both these ideas
were Christianity and Paganism. For as by the latter
the west was known as ' the better country, where lay
the Isles of the Blest in their abundant peace,' so in the
north dwelt the deathless and ageless Hyperboreans :
whose state was the model of good government and
secure happiness. That the belief of our ancestors is not
yet extinct, a very slight knowledge of our country
churchyards will prove : the north side of the church-
yard has generally not more than one or two graves.
To be buried there is, in the language of our eastern
counties, to be buried out of Sanctuary : and the spot is
appropriated to suicides, unbaptised persons, and excom-
municates. A particular portion is, in some churchyards
of Devonshire, separated for the second class and called
the chrisomer. Where the contrary is the case, it may
be worth inquiring how far it does not arise from the
accidental position of the Churchyard Cross on the
north side. There the spell seems broken : and the
villagers' graves cluster around it, as if the presence of
that sacred symbol were a sufficient protection to the
sleeping dust. A remarkable instance of this occurs at
Belleville, between Dieppe and Abbeville, in Normandy.

The doors in the transepts are, ' in small churches,
almost invariably east or west : much more frequently
the latter. This, however, is probably not symbolical :
but an arrangement adopted to prevent any resemblance

Examples of Symbolism ciii

in the porches and transepts : — and it is a rule which
needs to be much impressed on modern church builders.

The rule as to the western position of the doors,
seems to apply generally to the churchyard.

It is worthy of remark that in the matter of doors,
Protestantism presents us, as is so frequently the case,
with a very unintended piece of symbolism. When we
see, as in the beautiful church of Bisley, Gloucestershire,
thirteen different openings, with external staircases, made
into the church, through windows and elsewhere, can we
forbear thinking of him who cometh not by the doors
into the sheepfold, but climbeth up some other way ?

III. Chancel Arch and Rood Screen

We come now to speak of the chancel arch and the
rood screen, two of the most important features in a
church. These, as separating the choir from the nave,
denote literally the separation of the clergy from the
laity : but symbolically the division between the Militant
and Triumphant Churches : that is to say, the Death
of the Faithful. The first grea*- symbol which sets this
forth, is the Triumphal Cross : the Image of Him* who
by His Death had overcome Death, and has gone before
His people through the valley of its shadow. The images
of Saints and Martyrs appear in the lower panelling, as
examples of faith and patience to us. The colours of
the rood screen itself represent their passion and
victory : the crimson sets forth the one, the gold the
other. The curious tracery of net-work typifies the
obscure manner in which heavenly things are set forth,
while we look at them from the Church Militant. And
for as much as the Blessed Martyrs passed from this

* ' Let us consider Him,' says Bishop Hall, 'now, after a weary conflict
with the Devil, looking down from the Triumphal Chariot of the Cross on
His Church.'

civ Introductory Essay

world to the next through sore torments, the mouldings
of the chancel arch represent the various kinds of
sufferings through which they went. Faith was their
support, and must be ours : and Faith is set forth either
in the abstract, by the limpet moulding on the chancel
arch ; or on the screen, as in Bishop's Hull, Somerset-
shire, by the Creed in raised gilt letters : or is represented
by some notable action of which it was the source : so
in Cleeve, Somersetshire, the destruction of a dragon
runs along, not only the rood screen, but the north
parclose also. But in that the power of evil spirits may
be exercised against us till we have left this world, but
not after, horrible forms are sometimes sculptured in the
west side of the chancel arch. The foregoing remarks
may perhaps explain what has been felt by some
ecclesiologists as a difficulty : how it happens, since the
chancel is more highly ornamented than the nave, that
it is the western, or nave side, not the eastern or
chancel side, of the chancel arch which invariably
receives the greatest share of ornament. The straitness
of the entrance to the Kingdom of Heaven is set forth
by the excessive narrowness of Norman chancel arches.
And the final separation of the Church Triumphant from
everything that defileth was almost invariably repre-
sented by the Great Doom painted in fresco over the
rood screen : of which there are still several examples,
as the celebrated one in Trinity church, Coventry : and
many more might be found, if the whitewash in that
place were scraped off. And not only is the judgment
of the world, but that of individuals here set forth : on
the south side of the chancel wall of Preston church,
Sussex, is a fresco of S. Michael weighing the souls :
the Devil stands by, eager to secure his prize, but by
the intervention of the Blessed Virgin, the scale prepon-
derates in favour of the sinner. There might probably

Examples of SynibolisDi cv

be an altar to the Blessed Virgin under this picture.
Also deeds of faith are represented in similar positions :
— so in the same church on the north chancel wall, is
the fresco of the Martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canterbury.
We have already noticed the triplicity, in some instances,
of Norman chancel arches. A very curious triple
chancel arch is to be seen at Capel-le-Ferne, Kent. We
may also refer to those singular double ones, Wells and
Finedon, and in anothermanner, Darlington, in Durham,
and Barton, in Cumberland. It may be well, finally, to
note the entire absence in the ground plans of our
churches of any reference to Purgatory. The only
instance in which chancel and nave are separated by
any intervening object, is the chantry of Bishop Arundell
in Chichester cathedral. Of the triple division of the
church by two (so to speak) chancel arches, we have
already spoken.

IV. Monuments

We now proceed to Monuviental Symbolism. But it
will be proper first to consider a very curious subject :
namely the reason of the difference between the person-
ages with which the effigies of the departed were of old
time, and are now, surrounded. In the former case they
were always real : Our Lady, S. John, S. Pancras, S.
Agatha, and so on. In the latter, they are always alle-
gorical : Faith, Virtue, Courage, Eloquence and the like.
Nay, in the very ground which is common to the two —
the representations of angels — we may observe a great
difference : in modern monuments any angel is repre-
sented : in those of ancient date the particular one is
often named : S. Gabriel, S. Raphael, etc. Now there
are, we think, three good reasons to be assigned for this.

I. The enlightened^ or in plainer terms, the sceptical
character of the present age. Unaccustomed to view

cvi Introductory Essay

any great examples of heroic devotion and self-sacrifice
now, we naturally, though scarcely allowing it to our-
selves, begin to doubt whether there ever were any such.
In thinking of Patience, our forefathers would naturally
have had S. Vincent presented to their mind : but we,
who, some of us have scarcely heard of his name, and
some, are totally ignorant of his character, have of course
no such ideas suggested. So again, where our ancestors
would have represented S. Lawrence, we content our-
selves with a representation of Fidelity. And it is in
accordance with this easy and self-indulgent age, rather
to personify a thing, which as having never had real
existence, cannot be brought into comparison with
ourselves, than by representing a really existing person,
to run the risk of a contrast between his virtues and
our own.

2. This allegorising spirit is more in accordance with
the general paganism of our architectural designs :
though, be it observed, a feature of the very worst and
most corrupt state of Paganism. It is worth noting
that in heathen countries, evil qualities have always
been personified before good. Paganism like every
other false system, became worst at its close. In the
early times of Grecian mythology the attributes of
purity, and truth, and mercy, were so strongly felt to
reside in the gods, that a separate personification of
them was needless: whereas strife, and violence and
fury, qualities which had no place in heaven, demanded,
and obtained a separate existence. But in process of
time, when the divinities themselves became invested
with the attributes of sinful humanity, the qualities of
goodness which were no longer supposed theirs, found
separate embodiments and expressions.

3. We may assign as a reason for the difference we
have noticed the far greater reality with which our

Examples of Syinbolisui cvii

ancestors looked on the connections subsisting between
ourselves and the other world. Thus, tempests and
hurricanes, which we coldly explain on philosophical
principles, they considered as directly proceeding from
the violence of evil spirits :* — earthquakes and volcanoes
they regarded as outbreaks, so to speak, of that place of
punishment, which they believed locally situated within
the earth : — diseases and pestilences they held to be the
immediate work of the devil : madness and lunacy were,
in their view, synonymous with possession. Whether
theirs, as it certainly was the most pious, were not also
the most philosophical view, has been so ably discussed
in the ' Church of the Fathers ' under the chapter S.
AntJiony in Conflict^ that we need here only allude to it.
But the same spirit led them to adopt the effigies of
those saints who had been members of the same Church
Militant with themselves, and who now were members of
that Triumphant Church which they hoped hereafter to
join : and its contrary leads us to adopt the cold, vague,
dreamy unsubstantialities of allegorism.

The earliest kind of monumental symbolism is that
which represents the trade or profession of the person
commemorated. And these principally occur on Lom-
bardic slabs and Dos d'Anes. The distaff represents

* A Master of Philosophy travelling with others on the way, when a
fearful thunderstorm arose, checked the fear of his fellows, and discoursed
to them of the natural reasons of that uproar in the clouds, and those
sudden flashes wherewith they seemed (out of the ignorance of causes) to
be too much affrighted ; in the midst of his philosophical discourse, he was
struck dead with that dreadful eruption which he slighted. What could
this be but the finger of that God Who will have His works rather
entertained with wonder and trembling than with curious scanning ?
Neither is it to be otherwise in those violent hurricanes, devouring earth-
quakes, and more than ordinary tempests, and fiery apparitions which we
have seen and heard of ; for however there be natural causes given of the
usual events of this kind, yet nothing hinders but the Almighty, for the
manifestations of His power and justice, may set spirits, whether good or
evil, on work, to do the same things sometimes in more state and magni
ficence of horror. — Bishop Hall, ' The Invisible World,' sect. vi.

cviii Introductory Essay

the mother of a family : ^ a pair of gloves a glover : 2 so
we have a pair of shears : and the like. But the Cross
constantly appears ; and in a highly floriated form :
sometimes at its foot are three steps representing the
Mount: sometimes a Holy Lamb.^ And so ecclesi-
astical personages have their appropriate symbols : so
the chalice or the ring* represents a priest : — another
type is the hand raised in benediction^ over a chalice :
brasses abound in symbolical imagery. The animal at
the feet varies with the varying circumstances of the
deceased : a married lady has the dog, the emblem of
fidelity : with which we may compare the speech of
Clytemnestra, of her absent Lord/

yVVOUKOt. 'TTtaTYlM 5' Iv 'h'ofJt.Oli lliflOt [ji.o'kuv

oUv vif ovv 'sXn-TTi AOMATflN KTNA.

There are, doubtless, instances (there is one in Bristol, S.
Peter's) where the unmarried are so represented : but
they are very rare, and quite in the decline of the art.
The knight again has, generally, a terrier at his feet, as
the emblem of courage : sometimes the greyhound,'^ the
symbol of speed. Lord Beaumont^ has an elephant : it
is a bearing in his coat-armour.

Early priests have a lion ^ also at their feet ; but this
typified their trampling on the devil : as servants of
Him concerning whom it is written, ' And the Devil
shall go forth before 10 His feet' They have also a
dragon for the same reason. And this position doubt-
less also has reference to the verse, ' Thou shalt tread
upon the lion ^^ and adder : the young lion and the

^ See on this subject an interesting article in the Church of England
Quarterly^ for September, 1841. ^As in Fletching-, Sussex. ^ As in
Lolworth, Cambridgeshire. * As in S. Mary, Castlegate, York. * As
in Hedon, Yorkshire. *^ Agamemnon, 606. (Ed. Dindorf.) ^ As in Sir
Grey de Groby, S. Alban's. ^ Engraved in the 5th number of the Cam-
bridge Camden Society's Illustrations of Monumental Brasses. " As in
Watton, Herts, and Cottingham, Yorkshire. '" Habaccuc III. v, Et
egredietur diabolus ante pedes ejus. " Psalm xc. Qui habitat.

Examples of Symbolism cix

dragon shalt thou trample under feet.' In the decHne of
the art, effigies have the crest of the departed at their feet.
Whether those knights who are represented with
crossed legs are to be considered as crusaders, or at
least as having taken the vow, is a question which has
been much discussed. The general belief seems now to
be in the negative : — and Mr Bloxam in his work on
Monumental Architecture gives it as his opinion that
this posture was chosen by the artist, for the more
graceful arrangement of the surcoat. And it is to be
remarked that some illuminations, as in the Life of S.
Edward the Confessor, in the Cambridge University
Library, represent the knights as sitting cross legged.
For our own part we must confess that we incline to
the old belief: — as better supported by tradition, and
more in accordance with the general principles of
Catholic artists. The knight's hand is sometimes repre-
sented as resting on the hilt of his sword : — or as it is
called drawing it. We are astonished that a writer in
the Quarterly Review should fall into this popular error:
especially when the idea was completely opposed to the
whole course of his argument. There can be no doubt
that this typifies the accomplishment of the vow, the
taking which was set forth by the crossed legs. The
contrary — an act of war in the House of Peace — is not
for a moment to be thought of As emblematical of
deep humility, some effigies are represented naked : some
in shrouds : some, as emaciated corpse : and sometimes,
still more strikingly, the tomb will be divided into two
partitions : and while the departed appears in rich vests,
and with a gorgeous canopy above — below there is a
skeleton, or a worm eaten figure. There is a remarkable
instance at Tewkesbury, in the cenotaph of the last
Lord Abbot : and we may refer to the monument of
William Ashton, in S. John's College chapel, Cambridge.

Qx Introductory Essay

The symbolism of ecclesiastics, lying principally in
their vestments, does not so much fall within the scope
of this essay. The same may be said of the allusion to the
Holy Trinity in the benedictory attitude of the bishop :
and the distinction between the mitred abbot and the
bishop in the former holding his pastoral staff with the
crook inwards, as signifying his dominion to be i7itei'nal,
i.e. within his own house ; — the latter outwards, to set
forth his external dominion over his diocese.

The reception of the soul of the departed into
Abraham's bosom is often represented. Sometimes
angels are bearing it, in the likeness of a newborn child,
(a figure symbolical of its having now returned into its
baptismal state of purity) and presenting it before the
throne. The founders or rebuilders of churches are
known by the building which they hold in their hands.

The carving of the open seats is one of those parts of
ecclesiastical symbolism, which it is very hard to
explain. The monsters which constantly occur on them
may be perhaps regarded as typical of the evil thoughts
and bad passions which a life of ease and rest
encourages, and it will be observed, that in the choir, a
gentler class of ideas often is suggested : we have here
flowers and fruit, and birds making their nests, and
flocks feeding. There, are however, certain other types
to be found here, and also in string courses, and corbel
heads, of which we shall presently speak in terms of
disapprobation.

Nothing, with this exception, shows the exuberance
and beauty of ideas which distinguished the architects of
the ages of Faith — and the depth and variety of the
scriptural knowledge we are pleased to deny them — than
their wood carvings.* There is perhaps hardly a scrip-

* The astonishing scriptural knowledge of Durandus may be judged of
from the Index at the end of the volume of texts quoted by him.

Examples of Symbolism cxi

tural subject which they have not handled : and it
requires no small degree of ecclesiastical knowledge to
be able at all to comprehend many of their allusions :
while probably many more are lost to us. The Annuncia-
tion is one of the most favourite topics. The almond
tree blossoming in the flower pot — the bud terminating
in a cross or crucifix — the prayer desk at which the
Blessed Virgin kneels — the temple seen in the distance
— the Holy Dove descending on a ray of light — these
are its general accompaniments. The descent of our
Saviour into hell — the delivery of souls —

'Mao^naque ; de magna prseda petita domo :'

the visions of the Apocalypse : the final doom : the
passions and triumphs of martyrs — all here find their
expression.

V. Corbels, Gurgoyles, Poppy Heads, etc.

The corbels which occur in the interior of churches
generally represent the Heavenly Host — often with
various instruments of music, as if taking a share in the
devotions of the worshippers. This idea is most fully
and beautifully carried out in late perpendicular roofs :
where the various orders of the heavenly hierarchy hover,
with outstretched wings, over the sacred building — an
idea evidently derived from the cherubim that spread
their wings over the ark, and the apostle's explanation,
' which things the angels desire to look into.' Often,
however, benefactors to the Church are here portrayed.
The gurgoyles, on the contrary, represent evil spirits as
flying from the holy walls : the hideousness of the
figures, so often, by modern connoisseurs, ridiculed or
blamed, is therefore not without its appropriate meaning.

We must now say a few words on the least pleasing

cxii Introductory Essay

part of the study of symbolism : we mean the satirical
representations which record the feuds between the
secular and the regular clergy. Thus, in the churches
of the former, we have, principally as stallwork, figures of
a fox preaching to geese : in those of the latter an ass's
head under a cowl : or, which is very frequent, both in
woodwork and as a gurgoyle, the cowled double face.
As a specimen of these designs, we may mention the
stalls * in East Brent, Somersetshire. A fox hung by a
goose, with two cubs yelping at the foot of the gallows,
a monkey at prayers, with an owl perched over his head :
another monkey holding a halbert : a fox with mitre
and staff, a young fox in chains, a bag of money in his
right paw, and geese and cranes on each side. To these
objectionable devices we may add those which to us
appear simply profane or indecent if such as the baptism
of a dog in one of the Stamford churches, and others in
Northampton, S. Peter's, of Norman date. One of the
grossest which we have ever seen is to be found on the
north side of the chancel arch of Nailsea, Somersetshire.
On the towers of some Norman churches, the evange-
listic symbols are represented. So in Stow church,
Lincolnshire. Tiles ought not to have the cross on
them : for though Christ is indeed the foundation of the
Church, yet these holy symbols should not be exposed
to be trodden under foot. Heraldic devices are here
more proper, to signify the worthlessness of worldly
honours in the sight of God.

* Rutter's Delineations^ p. 89.

f It is fair to observe that our designating them so may be the effect
of our own ignorance.

CHAPTER IX

SOME OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED

Several objections to the symbolical system have been
noticed and answered in the course of this treatise. We
shall, however, devote a greater space to the considera-
tion of one difficulty which has often been raised by
opponents, and has often been felt even by such as have
adopted the theory. It is said, for example, that to
assert the nave and two aisles, or a triplet of lancets, to
be symbolical of the Most Holy Trinity, is both false
and profane, when, as is almost always the case, the
aisles are much less broad than the nave, and the three
lancets are unequal both in height and breadth : whereas
in the Trinity none is afore or after other, none is greater
or less than another. But the difficulty seems only to
arise from carrying the similitude too far : the point of
resemblance is in these cases a single one : the mere
trinity of the arrangement is the only particular which
gives rise to the symbol. ' Three mystic lines approach
the shrine,' sings the poet of the Christian year for
Trinity Sunday. The number alone is answerable for
the emblem. We do not deny that an equilateral tri-
angle is a more perfect symbol of the Blessed Trinity :
but even here a captious man might object to the
emblem, because the angles gain greater or less pro-
minence according to the position in which the triangle

cxiv Introductory Essay

is placed. The Catholic monogram of the Trinity, for
example, assigns to the Father and the Son the upper
angles of a triangle standing on the third point. On the
other hand the modern triangle, generally charged with
the Hebrew word Jehovah, has the third angle upper-
most. We can quite conceive these differences being
thought objectionable. The case is not so strong indeed
as when the three members are unequal, but still it is the
same in kind and in reality.

It is a condition of emblems that the points of
similitude must not be pressed too far. The material
Sun indeed typifies the Sun of Righteousness : but in
what particulars ? in its being created, in its rising on the
dark world eve^y day, in its being matter ? Surely not :
but in this one point, that it brings light and heat to
the earth. / am the Door, said our Lord. In what
particulars, we may again ask? It would be profane
to show by examples that it is only in this point : that a
door is for entrance into a material house just as we
enter into the Church through Christ. The ark, our
Church teaches us, was an emblem of the Church : not
in its human building, nor in its final perishing ; but in
that it saved souls by water. Did the Paschal Lamb
typify the Immaculate Victim in any thing more than
its comparative purity and its bloody death ? We need
not multiply such examples.

But there is another consideration to be adduced.
Our Lord's own parables must not be pressed too far.
The history of the five wise and five foolish virgins, must
not be adduced to prove that the number of the lost will
equal that of the saved. This may be dangerous ground,
but the assertion is true. Every parable is figurative to
a certain point, and no further. Not that there is much
danger of persons not knowing where the line is to be
drawn : any more than there would be in the case of

Some Objections Considered cxv

one of a reverent mind, who was told that the triplicity
of aisles and windows typified a great doctrine. The
British Critic made a very just observation on this point,
that it argued a great blindness of spiritual vision to
deny such an emblem, because the similitude was not
complete in all points. Indeed if all points answered so
closely and exactly to each other, it is not clear how a
similitude would differ from a fac-simile. The very
notion of a thing being like another involves the fact
that the two are not identical. Nothing more is found
or expected, than a similarity, an analogy, in certain
qualities. For in all symbolism it is quality and not
essence in which resemblance is sought.

Which leads us to consider another objection some-
times urged to the effect that if a thing mean one thing
it cannot mean another. For example, if the nave and
aisles represent the Holy Trinity, they cannot also re-
present the Church Militant here on earth, or in another
point of view the true fold. Again, if the piers and
arches set forth the foundation of the apostles and
prophets, they must not bear a part in the representation
of the Trinity together with the cleristory and triforium.
But this difficulty vanishes if we remember that the
resemblance, for the most part, is derived from grouping
independent things together and viewing them in a
particular light. We do not deny the real essential
symbolism of a material result : but this its particular
significancy need not obtrude itself at all times : the
thing itself in other combinations, and viewed under
other aspects, may acquire an additional and occasional
meaning. For example, it is the union of the rose,
thistle, and shamrock, which is the emblem of our
United Empire : they have each their own figurative
sense ; in combination they acquire a new meaning.
The harp is not less the emblem of Ireland, because it

cxvi Introductory Essay

must primarily represent music. Leaven was of old the
symbol of wickedness : our Lord spake of the leaven of
the Scribes and Pharisees : yet we hear from His own
lips, The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven."^

Another objection is as follows : If this theory be
true, how will you account for churches with nothing
but a nave, or with only one aisle ; how for churches
with neither cleristory nor triforio ; or, on the other
hand, for those with double triforia, or with four or five
aisles ? Now we never asserted that it was necessary
that all, or indeed any, given things should be intention-
ally symbolised. We have pointed out that some things
are essentially symbolical ; others accidentally and
occasionally. We might attempt to classify what must
be symbolised in church building, and what uiay be.
But we decline to do so because we do not think that
the principles of symbolism are yet sufficiently investi-
gated or apprehended. However, in a general way, every
building must, from the nature of things, have some
accidents, as of material, of parts, of plan ; every particu-
lar building must have particular accidents, as of use and
purpose. These accidents i?iust be symbolical, from their
nature, in a general way : they may derive, from purpose
added to their nature, a further or modified symbolism
in a particular way. With the first sort it is that Duran-
dus chiefly concerns himself A building must have
walls, must have roof, piers, windows, corners, and floor.
For each then he finds a meaning. He does not quite

* We have the highest authority for believing that one type can symbol-
ise two things quite independent of each other, in that the Jewish Sabbath,
commanded from Sinai to be observed in commemoration of the Rest
after the Creation, is enforced in Deuteronomy as the representation of the
rest of the children of Israel from Egyptian bondage. ' Remember,' says
Moses, ' that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the Lord
thy God brought thee out thence through a mighty hand and by a stretched
out arm : therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the Sabbath
day.'— Deut. -v, 1$.

Some Objections Considered cxvii

neglect the second sort. Early English windows must
have a splay : the spire may have a weathercock : for
these then there is an appropriate signification. So we
do not mean to insist that certain things shall be sym-
bolised, we say they may be symbolised. Perhaps when
more is known, we shall be able to criticise ancient
buildings, to show their faults or their shortcomings in
this particular. As it is, we have framed a sort of beau
ideal of a church, fully formed and developed, which we
should propose as a perfect model. We are not quali-
fied as yet to blame the ancient churches which do not
come up to this ideal, but we cannot be wrong in praise-
ing such as do.

In discussing Mr Lewis's illustrations of Kilpeck
church, we touched upon the Basilican origin of churches
considered as an argument against the reception of the
symbolical theory. Our last remarks will apply to the
same question. It has been thought quite sufficient
ground for turning into ridicule the whole principle, that
the Roman justice halls had three or more aisles, or that
a barn or banquetting room may have three longitu-
dinal divisions. But what if mechanical convenience
suggested the arrangement? (though we do not grant
this). It is clear that many churches, many barns, and
many refectories have never had a triple arrangement.
It has never been asserted that every church shall have
nave and aisles : but if a church has nave and aisles it
will be symbolical of a great doctrine ; and for this
reason it is better for a church to have nave and aisles.
Why do not such writers argue that the cross form is
not symbolical, because many barns are cruciform ?
Now it is instructive to observe that there is a great and
obvious utilitarian advantage in this shape for a barn :
but not in the case of churches as anciently arranged ;
in which the transepts were utterly useless for the

cxviii Introductory Essay

accommodation of worshippers ; and in which there is a
mechanical evil (as before mentioned) from the lateral
pressure on the lantern piers. Yet it is undeniable that
the cross form was chosen for its symbolical meaning :
and this in spite of mechanical disadvantages. A
mechanical reason fails here, as in the former case, in
accounting for the fact. How will they account for the
cross form ? Their own argument tells against them.
We may still further remark that in modern times we
have had some curious practical lessons upon this cross
form. Messrs Britton and Hosking, in their atrocious
plan for rearranging S. Mary Redcliffe church, un-
wittingly testified to the inconvenience, and want of any
utilitarian end, of this plan by placing the pulpit under
the lantern, and ranging the congregation in the four
arms so as to face it. On the other hand, some modern
architects confessedly employ the cross form because it
allows of people arranged as in the last case, all seeing
the preacher. But why do they not look deeper into
things ? Why have the cross at all ? Why not have an
amphitheatre, an octagon, an accoustically designed
Mechanic's Institute Lecture Room ? Then all could
hear, all could see much better, and the building would
not cost half so much. They may think that they are
designing on utilitarian principles. In truth they are
unknowingly, unwillingly, symbolising the Cross.

CHAPTER X

DEVELOPMENT OF SYMBOLISM

It is now our intention to attempt a brief sketch of the
history of symbohsm, confining ourselves to its rise, pro-
gress, and decHne in England. For of its earlier devel-
opment we have already had occasion to speak, both in
the first and in the eighth chapter, when we referred to
its use among the primitive Christians, and to such par-
ticulars of information as could be gained concerning it
from the later fathers, and from mediaeval authors.

Among all nations the facts of Christianity have been
received before its doctrines. The inhabitants of a
heathen country are first called on to believe, as matter
of history, that our Blessed Lord was conceived by the
Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under
Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried, before
any attempt is made to set before them the doctrine of
the Atonement, the mystery of the Trinity, or the com-
patibility of God's foreknowledge with man's free action.
And it is in the infancy of individuals, as in that of
nations. We may therefore, from all analogy, conclude,
that the things set forth in the earlier development of
church art would be facts rather than doctrines.

Now, if we look to Norman buildings, we shall find
this to be the case. Excepting the doctrine of the Holy
Trinity (which, after all, perhaps rather ranks, through

cxx Introductory Essay

all the stages of Christian art, under the head of essential,
than under that of intended symbolism), we shall find an
almost exclusive reference to history, in arrangements
and details. That God was the Creator of heaven and
earth, is set forth in door mouldings, and capitals, some-
times by the heavenly constellations or signs of the
zodiac, sometimes by the animals brought to Adam to
be named, sometimes by the references to agriculture,
which, as we have before seen, often occur. The Incar-
nation of our Saviour is set forth, as it has been already
hinted, by representations so physical and earthly, as to
be to our eyes almost profane. The Fall of Man, which
appears on the sides of fonts, well reminds us of that
stain which must be washed away in Holy Baptism. A
great many of the events of our Lord's life are sculp-
tured in various positions : above all, of course, His
Passion. Again, duties are symbolically represented, so
in the chancel arch of Egleton, Rutland, we have the
figure of a deacon ringing a bell ; doubtless to remind
the worshippers of the duty of attending God's house.
And a still more practical method of representing the
evil consequences attending the breach of duty, and one
which speaks much of the rudeness of the age, is where
some local event well-known at the time of the erection
of the church, finds a- commemoration in it. Thus
(though at a later epoch) among the capitals of the south
transept of Wells cathedral, the architect has represented
a theft, which doubtless, at the time, had made a con-
siderable noise in that place. In the first group, a man
is seen stealing apples ; then follows the struggle and
apprehension : finally, his trial and condemnation. And
such practical admonitions might not have been without
their use. Sometimes they are refined and exalted into
such an one as may be seen in the northern apse of S.
Mary's, at Guildford, where heavenly and earthly judg-

Development of Syinbolisin cxxi

ment are portrayed. Victory over the devil is singu-
larly enough symbolised in Oxford, S. Peter's, by the
piers which rest on, and crush, a monster. We have be-
fore noticed that Norman architecture, true to its love of
facts, delighted in the representation of instruments of
martyrdom, or the deeds of faith, as the victory of S.
George. The final doom was also a favourite subject ;
so was the descent of Christ into hell. In fact, its whole
character, whether in string courses, tympana, capitals,
or chancel arches, was graphicalness, and that obtained
sometimes at the expense of grace, sometimes almost at
that of decorum, but probably well adapted to the par-
ticular development which the minds of the people had
then reached. One point we must remark, to the
eternal honour of the Anglo-Norman, and indeed also of
the Saxon Church, deadly as was the hatred existing be-
tween the two peoples, for at least a hundred and fifty
years after the conquest, it has left no symbolical trace,
either in the churches of the vanquishers, or of the van-
quished. Much as the one had suffered, and much as
the other despised the conquered nation, this feeling
vanished in the house of God.

In advancing to Early English, we still find strong
traces of the historicalism of ornaments, both in some of
the mouldings, as in the toothed, and in the capitals,
though the latter begin now to assume a more allegorical
form. Indeed, the observation seems worth making,
that this style is the only one which appears to have
dealt much in allegory, we mean in that sense which we
have already attached to the word. That is, it employs
fictitious representations to set forth real truths ; as in
Wells cathedral, the fall of the barren tree forms a
beautiful corbel. We do, however, find some traces of
this in Norman work, as the fable of the crow and the
fox may occasionally be discovered in it. The works of

cxxii hitroductory Essay

the creation were often set forth, rather with reference to
their beauty than from any other reasons. Such as the
birds making their nests in the thick fohage, flowers, and
fruit Yet, on the whole, facts such as those which
principally occupied the attention of Norman architects,
began rather to find expression among the details, than
to usurp any important part in church arrangement
We are in possession of too little wood work of this date
— and in that many references of this kind were probably
to be found — to be able to speak with so much certainty
as we can in the later styles : but that this was the tend-
ency of the progress of architecture, it requires but little
knowledge to discover. Impressed, but evidently, now,
not only essentially but intentionally, on every building,
was the doctrine of the Ever Blessed Trinity : for triplets
were so common at the east end as to form the rule of
Early English design. Fonts, instead of bearing a repre-
sentation of the Fall of Man, and thereby implying our
need of regeneration, began to be octagonal, thereby
setting forth the doctrine itself, a strong confirmation of
our previous observation respecting facts and doctrines.
The shape of piers is also to be noticed. For there
appears to have been almost a rule, either that the
octagonal and circular shape should alternate ; or that
one aisle should present the one kind, the other the
other. This we can hardly, in our present state of know-
ledge, profess to explain. Durandus's observations about
windows, their splay and shafts, are very curious : and
again, he evidently recognises in the tiebeams, the knit-
ting together of the elect in one communion and fellow-
ship : a strong argument, this, that we are justified in
regarding arrangements, which arise from mechanical
necessity, as nevertheless truly and really symbolical.
In the bases of piers we now often find flowers, which
indeed, sometimes, as in Rochester cathedral, occur in

Development of Symbolism cxxiii

transition work ; principally the fleur de lys, which we
may interpret to signify that humility is the foundation
of all Christian graces.

On the whole, however, we conclude that in this style,
while churches taken as a whole became more sym-
bolical, their details, as details, became less so.

In proceeding to the next development of Catholic
art, we are almost afraid of expressing a belief, that
Decorated, in its early dawn, gave promise of a brighter
day than it ever reached. It had not shown its wonderful
resources and capabilities in windows and flying but-
tresses, before the boldness of its capitals and bases
began to decline. We can imagine that, had it so been
ordered. Christian architecture might, about the year
1300, have taken a different direction, and attained to a
glory, inconceivable to us — perhaps attainable only when
the whole Catholic Church shall be at unity. As it is,
we cannot but consider, that about that period, or a few
years later, it took a wrong turn, and being hurried in a
short space through the hectic of a rare flush of beauty,
declined thenceforward slowly but surely. Now, if we
ask, why was this? it will lead us to look at Church
history as connected with the development of church
architecture. Contemporary with the change from Saxon
to Norman (for we are none of those who hold that the
former extended till Oct. 14, 1065, and the latter began
the next day), was finally the victory of the Anglican
Church over Paganism in the conversion and civilisation
of the Danes. Contemporary with the appearance of
Early English, was the great victory of the Church over
Erastianism, by the martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canter-
bury, and the abrogation of the constitutions of Clarendon.
But, hardly had Early English finished its course of
splendour, when while traces of rare glory were developing
daily, the statute of Mortmain began to tell upon the

cxxiv Introductory Essay

Church : and though the impulse already given yet
continued for some time to act, the end was near. No
magnificent cathedral was built after the full effects —
not so much of that act, as of the Erastianism which
contrived and allowed it — were felt. The nave of
Winchester can hardly be called a solitary exception ;
because, in truth, it may be doubted whether the pious
exertions of William of Wykeham were not, so far as
concerns the actual beauty of his cathedral, misplaced.
Thenceforward, the State interfered more and more with
the Church ; and not allowed to carry out her own
designs, it is no wonder if the latter quickly began to
forget her own symbolical language. After, for the
first few years of the fourteenth century, using it with
precision and elegance before unattainable, she thence-
forward began to disuse it. We need not give examples
of decorated symbolism, because all that was new in it
lay in its windows : and these we have already discussed
at considerable length. And having sufficiently explained
why there should be a decline, we have only now to
examine why that decline should have been so different
in England, France, and Italy. In England, from the
time that Edward IV directed the execution of Arch-
bishop Scrope, when the State interfered, it was with a
strong arm, cramping and confining, obliging the Church
to confine herself to ritual observances, and forbidding
her to expatiate in the grand objects for which she was
ordained. Now could there be a more fitting expression
of this than the Perpendicular style? Does not its
stiffness, its failure in harmony, its want of power and
adaptation, its continual introduction of heraldry, its
monotony, its breaking up by hard continued lines, its
shallowness, its meretriciousness, its display — set forth
what we know to have been the character of the contem-
porary Church ? Above all, do not the reintroduction

Development of Symbolism cxxv

of Horizontality, the Tudor arch, the depressed pier,
speak of her want of spirituahty ? Everything teaches
us that there was no want of power in her architects ;
considered merely as specimens of art, King's College,
and Henry the Seventh's chapels, are matchless. And
here and there we may trace some tokens of vastness
and holiness of conception worthy of a better age ; such
as the Suffolk roofs, which, as it has been well said,
never attained their full development. It must be borne
in mind, that Perpendicular * was the first style, which
in its full development was used first for a secular building.
Far be it from us, however, to depreciate the excessive
magnificence it assumes in shrines and chapels : indeed,
this is one of the features which Decorated has not, and
the absence of which in that style renders it possible to
believe that a still more magnificent may be in store
for us. Perpendicular introduced no new element of
symbolism.

But if this were the state of the Anglican Church, the
Galilean, though not better off, was acted on in a very
different manner. The State gradually interfered with
it, embraced it with its dangerous friendship, made its
observances meaningless, while sustaining their splendour;
secularised its abbeys, by appropriating them to political
ends ; made statesmen of its bishops, gave it outside
show, while eating out its heart. Does not Flamboyant
express this ? A vast collection of elegant forms, mean-
inglessly strung together : richness of ornament, actually
weakening construction : vagaries of tracery, as if the
hand possessed of church art were suddenly deprived
of church feelings : nothing plain, simple, intelligible,
holy : parts neglected, parts ostentatious : the west

* We deeply regret that the Oxford Architectural Society should ever
have allowed itself to put on paper the opinions expressed by one of its
members, that Perpendicular windows are those best suited to the spirit of
Christian architecture.

cxxvi Introductojy Essay

front of Abbeville to a choir that would disgrace a
hamlet.

In Spain, again, where Christianity unfolded itself
later, so also was church art later in its development.
San Miguel, at Seville, which was actually built in 1305,
would, in England, be set down to the date of about
1 1 80.

In Italy, where there was no State to interfere with
the Church, Paganism, which had always been more or
less at work, sprang up at once, at the time of the Great
Schism, and has ever since prevailed.

But to return to England. Perpendicular, unable to
express any idea by its ornaments, soon began to imitate
those of earlier styles: first Early English, in the wretched
banded capitals of the western counties, and then Deco-
rated in its windows. While, however, the Church was
yet united with the rest of Christendom, Paganism inter-
fered but in a very slight degree : the Italian example of
Henry the Seventh's tomb was not followed. Even
after the Dissolution, there were some good churches
built: the symbolism which lingered longest was that
of the chancel and nave. Nor was this destroyed
summarily: the importance of the chancel had been
gradually, all through the Perpendicular era, weakened
by chancel aisles, and the omission of the chancel
arch : it was but to omit the rood screen and parclose,
and (as at Hawkshead, Lancashire, circ. 1564) the
mystical division vanished.

The symbolisms which Protestantism introduced were
few and easily understood.

The removal, and material, of the altar, the change of
vestments, the gradual introduction of close pews, the
innovation of a reading pew, were all figurative enough.
Something like a return to church art was made just
before the great Rebellion : chancels became elongated,

Development of Syvibolisni cxxvii

altars resumed their old position, copes reappeared, and
the like. Details began to improve : and (which we
could hardly have expected) intentional symbolism is
sometimes to be discovered in them. So, in Baltonsburgh,
Somersetshire, a stone pulpit of the date of 162 1, has
among other devices, an equilateral triangle, containing,
and surrounded by, a tre-ioW : and evidently setting
forth the Holy Trinity. After the Rebellion, but still
more after the Revolution, those faint traces of symbolism
died away into that ne plus ultra of wretchedness, the
Georgian style.

CHAPTER XI

GENERAL CONCLUSION

It is very remarkable, as has been already observed,
that the buildings of those who most strongly object to
the principle of symbolism, do in effect contain as striking
an exemplification of it as it would be possible to find.

Let us look at a Protestant place of worship. It is
choked up and concealed by surrounding shops and
houses, for religion, nowadays, must give way to
business and pleasure : it stands north and south, for all
idea of fellow-feeling with the Church Catholic is looked
on as mere trifling, or worse : the front which faces the
High Street is of stone, because the uniformity of the
street so required it : or (which is more likely) of stucco,
which answers as well, and is cheaper: the sides, how-
ever, are of brick, because no one can see them : there is
at the entrance a large vestibule, to allow people to
stand while their carriages are being called up, and to
enter into conversation on the news of the day, or the
merits of the preacher : it also serves the purpose of
making the church warmer, and contains the doors and
staircases to the galleries. On entering, the pulpit
occupies the central position, and towards it every seat
is directed : for preaching is the great object of the
Christian ministry : galleries run all round the building,
because hearing is the great object of a Christian con-

Gefieral Conclusion cxxix

gregation : the altar stands under the organ gallery, as
being of no use, except once a month : there are a few
free seats in out-of-the-way places, where no one could
hear, and no pews would be hired, and therefore no
money is lost by making the places free : and whether
the few poor people who occupy them can hear or not,
what matters it ? The font, a cast-iron vase on a marble
pillar, stands within the altar rails ; because it there takes
up no room : the reading pew is under the pulpit, and
faces the congregation ; because the prayers are to be
read to them and not addressed to God. Look at this
place on Sunday or Thursday evening. Carriages crash
up through the cast-iron gates, and, amidst the wrangling
and oaths of rival coachmen, deposit their loads at the
portico : people come, dressed out in the full fashion of
the day, to occupy their luxurious pew, to lay their
smelling-bottles and prayer - books on its desk, and
reclining on its soft cushions, to confess themselves — if
they are in time — miserable sinners : to see the poor and
infirm standing in the narrow passages, and close their
pew doors against them, lest themselves should be con-
taminated, or their cushions spoilt, at the same time
beseeching God to give their fellow-creatures the comfort
which they refuse to bestow : the Royal Arms occupy a
conspicuous position ; for it is a chapel of the Establish-
ment : there are neat cast-iron pillars to hold up the
galleries, and still neater pillars in the galleries to hold
up the roof ; thereby typifying that the whole existence
of the building depends on the good-will of the congre-
gation : the roof is flat, with an elegant cornice, and serves
principally to support a gas-lighted chandelier : and the
administration of this chapel is carried on by clerk,
organist, beadle, and certain bonnetless pew-openers.

We need not point out how strongly all this symbolises
the spiritual pride, the luxury, the self-sufficiency, the

cxxx Introductojy Essay

bigotry of the' congregations of too many a pew-rented
Episcopal cliapel.

In contrast to this, let us close with a general view of
the symbolism of a Catholic church.

Far away, and long ere we catch our first view of the
city itself, the three spires of its cathedral, rising high
above its din and turmoil, preach to us of the Most
Holy and Undivided Trinity. As we approach, the
transepts, striking out cross-wise, tell of the Atonement :
the Communion of Saints is set forth by the chapels
clustering round choir and nave : the mystical weather-
cock bids us to watch and pray and endure hardness :
the hideous forms that seem hurrying from the eaves
speak the misery of those who are cast out of the Church :
spire, pinnacle, and finial, the upward curl of the sculp-
tured foliage, the upward spring of the flying buttress,
the sharp rise of the window arch, the high-thrown pitch
of the roof, all these, overpowering the horizontal
tendency of string course and parapet, teach us, that
vanquishing earthly desires, we also should ascend in
heart and mind. Lessons of holy wisdom are written in
the delicate tracery of the windows : the unity of many
members is shadowed forth by the multiplex arcade :
the duty of letting our light shine before men, by the
pierced and flowered parapet that crowns the whole.

We enter. The triple breadth of nave and aisles, the
triple height of pier arch, triforium, and clerestory, the
triple length of choir, transepts, and nave, again set forth
the Holy Trinity. And what besides is there that does
not tell of our Blessed Saviour ? that does not point out
' Him first ' in the two-fold western door: ' Him last '
in the distant altar : ' Him midst ' in the great rood :
' Him without end ' in the monogram carved on boss
and corbal, in the Holy Lamb, in the Lion of the tribe
of Judah, in the Mystic Fish ? Close by us is the font ;

Genej'al Conclusion cxxxi

for by regeneration we enter the Church : it is deep and
capacious ; for we are buried in baptism with Christ : it is
of stone ; for He is the Rock : and its spiry cover teaches
us, if we be indeed risen from its waters with Him, to
seek those things that are above. Before us, in long
drawn vista, are the massy piers, which are the Apostles
and Prophets : they are each of many members, for
many are the graces in every saint : there is delicate
foliage round the head of all ; for all were plentiful in
good works. Beneath our feet are the badges of worldly
pomp and glory, the charges of kings and nobles and
knights : all in the presence of God as dross and worth-
lessness. Over us swells the vast ' valley ' of the high-
pitched roof: from the crossing and interlacing of its
curious rafters hang fadeless flowers and fruits which are
not of earth : from its hammer-beams project wreaths
and stars, such as adorn heavenly beings : in its centre
stands the Lamb as it had been slain : from around
Him the Celestial Host, cherubim and seraphim, thrones,
principalities, and powers, look down peacefully on the
worshippers below. Harpers there are among them
harping with their harps : for one is the song of the
Church in earth and in heaven. Through the walls
wind the narrow cloister galleries : emblems of the path
by which holy hermits and anchorites, whose conflicts
were known only to their God, have reached their
home. And we are compassed about with a mighty
cloud of witnesses : the rich deep glass of the windows
teems with saintly formis, each in its own fair niche, all
invested with the same holy repose : there is the glori-
ous company of the apostles : the goodly fellowship of
the prophets : the noble army of martyrs : the shining
band of the confessors : the jubilant chorus of the
virgins : there are kings who have long since changed
an earthly for an heavenly crown : and bishops who have

cxxxii Introductory Essay

given in a gkd account to the Shepherd and Bishop of
souls. But on none of these things do we rest ; piers,
arch behind arch, windows, light behind light, arcades,
shaft behind shaft, the roof, bay behind bay, the saints
around us, the heavenly hierarchy above with dignity
of pre-eminence still increasing eastward, each and all,
lead on eye and soul and thought to the image of the
crucified Saviour as displayed in the great east window.
Gazing steadfastly on that, we pass up the nave, that is
through the Church Militant, till we reach the rood
screen, the barrier between it and the Church Triumph-
ant, and therein shadowing forth the death of the faith-
ful. High above it hangs, on His triumphal cross, the
image of Him Who by His death hath overcome death ;
on it are portrayed saints and martyrs, His warriors,
who fighting under their Lord have entered into rest and
inherit a tearless eternity. They are to be our examples,
and the seven lamps above them typify those graces of
the Spirit, by Whom alone we can tread in their steps.
The screen itself glows with gold and crimson : with
gold, for they have on their heads golden crowns : with
crimson, for they passed the Red Sea of martyrdom to
obtain them. And through the delicate net-work, and
the unfolding holy doors, we catch faint glimpses of the
chancel beyond. There are the massy stalls ; for in
heaven is everlasting rest : there are the sedilia, emblems
of the seats of the elders round the throne : there is the
piscina ; for they have washed their robes and made
them white : and there, heart and soul and life of all, the
altar with its unquenched lights, and golden carvings,
and mystic steps, and sparkling jewels : even Christ
Himself, by Whose only merits we find admission to our
heavenly inheritance. Verily, as we think on the one-
ness of its design, we may say : Jerusalem edificatur ut
civitas ciijus participatio ejus in idipsmn.

POSTSCRIPTUM

On concluding their work, which from circumstances
that need not be specified has been a year in the press,
the writers must apologise for the numerous typo-
graphical errors which have been allowed to remain.
Their separation from each other, and distance from the
printer, must plead in excuse.

They take this opportunity of expressing their thanks
to the Reverend Dr Mill, Christian i\dvocate of the
University of Cambridge, and to F. A. Paley, Esq., M.A.,
of S. John's College, Cambridge, Honorary Secretary of
the Cambridge Camden Society, for their advice and
assistance.

It remains to say that some doubt has been felt by
persons who have read the Introductory Essay in proofs,
whether the writers have given Mr Pugin sufficient credit
for several passages in his works which seem to involve
the principle now contended for. We had thought that
no misapprehension could be feared on this head. It
was enough to know that the principle in question, even
though felt (as we indeed allowed) by this architect, had
not been expressed in terms. In short, we took this fact
for our ground : that whereas Mr Pugin's book professed
to assert the true principles of Christian architecture, yet
reality, according to his definition, was not at least so
accurately a ' true principle ' as sacramentality. The
principles themselves, as enunciated by Mr Pugin, apply
as well to any secular building as to a church : they are
true for construction, but not adequate in themselves to
form a rule for ecclesiastical design.

Kemerton, August i6, 1843.

cxxxiv Introductory Essay

The following very curious passage ought to have
come in at page Ixxvii of the Introductory Essay, but
was not accessible at the time. It is an extract from
the ' Fardle of Facions/ printed A.D. 1555.

FROM THE 'FARDLE OF FACIONS,' PRINTED 1 555

Oratories, temples, or places of praier (whiche we calle
churches) might not to be built without the good will of
the bishoppe of the diocese. And when the timbre was
redy to be framed, and the foundacion digged, it behoved
them to sende for the bishoppe, to hallowe the firste
corner stone of the foundacion, and to make the signe
of the Crosse thereupon, and to laie it, and directe it
juste easte and west. And then might the masons sette
upon the stone, but not afore. This churche did they
use to builde after the facion of a crosse, and not unlike
the shape of a manne. The channcelle (in the whiche is
conteined the highe altare and the quiere) directe fulle
in the easte, representeth the heade, and therefore ought
to be somewhat rounde, and muche shorter than the
body of the churche. i\nd yet upon respect that the
heade is the place for the eyes, it ought to be of more
lighte, and to bee seperate with a particion, in the steade
of a necke, from the bodye of the churche. This
particion the Latine calleth cancelli, and out of that
Cometh our terme channcelle. On eche side of this
channcelle peradventure (for so fitteth it beste) should
stand a turret ; as it were for two ears, and in these the
belles to be hanged, to calle the people to service, by
daie and by night. Undre one of these turretts is there
commonly a vaulte, whose doore openeth into the quiere,
and in this are laid up the hallowed vesselles and orna-
mentes, and other utensils of the churche. We call
it a vestrie. The other parte oughte to be fitted, that

Postscriptu ni c x x x v

having as it were on eche side an arme, the reste maye
resemble the bodye with the fete stretched in breadthe,
and in lengthe. On eche side of the bodye the pillers
to stande, upon whose coronettes or heades the vaulte
or rophe of the churche maye reste. And to the foote
beneth aulters to be joyned. Those aulters to be
orderly alway covered with two aulter clothes, and
garnished with the crosse of Christe, or some little
cofre of reliques. At eche ende a candelsticke, and
a booke towarde the middes. The walls to be painted
without and within, and diversely paineted. That they
also should have in every parishe a faire round stone,
made hoUowe and fitte to holde water, in the whiche
the water consecrate for baptisme maye be kept for
the christening of children. Upon the right hand of
the highe aulter that ther should be an almorie, either
cutte into the walle, or framed upon it, in the whiche
they woulde have the sacrament of the Lorde's bodye,
the holy oyle for the sicke, and chrismatorie, alwaie to
be locked. Furthermore they would that ther should
be a pullpite in the middes of the churche, wherein
the prieste maye stonde upon Sondaies and holidays
to teache the people those things that it behoveth them
to knowe. The channcelle to serve only for the priests
and clerks ; the rest of the temporalle multitude to
be in the bodye of the churche, seperate notwithstand-
ing, the men on the righte side, and the women on
the left.

He7x beginneth the First Book of Gulielmus
DuRANDUs his Rationale of the Divine
. Offices.

THE PROEME

Importance and Difficulty of the Stud)' of Symbolism — Necessity of its
Cultivation by Priests — Consideration of Unlearned Priests — Mystical
and Moral Meaning of the Law — Four-fold Sense of Scripture : the
Historical, the Allegoric, the Tropologic, the Anagcgic — Different
Ceremonies used by Different Churches — Name of Rationale, whence
derived — Division of the Work.

I. All things, as many as pertain to offices and matters
ecclesiastical, be full of divine significations and mys-
teries, and overflow with a celestial sweetness ; if so
be that a man be diligent in his study of them, and
know how to draw ' honey from the rock, and oil from
the hardest stone.' ^ But who ' knoweth the ordinances
of heaven, or can fix the reasons thereof upon the
earth ? ' - For he that prieth into their majesty, is over-
whelmed by the glory of them. Of a truth ' the well is
deep, and I have nothing to draw with ' : ^ unless He
giveth it unto me Who ' giveth to all men liberally, and
upbraideth not' :* so that 'while I journey through the
mountains '^ I may ' draw water with joy out of the wells

' Deut. xxxii, 13. - Job xxxviii, 33 ' S. John iv, 11.

* S. James i, $. '" Psalm ciii. Vulgate.

2 The Symbolism of Churches

of salvation.'^ Wherefore, albeit of the things handed
down from our forefathers, capable we are not to explain
all, yet if among them there be anything which is done
without reason, it should forthwith be put away. ' Where-
fore I, William, by the alone tender mercy of God, Bishop
of the Holy Church which is in Mende,'^ will knock dili-
gently at the door, if so be that ' the key of David ' ^ will
open unto me : that the King may ' bring me in to His
treasury,' ^ and show unto me the heavenly pattern which
was showed unto Moses in the Mount : so that I may
learn those things which pertain to rites ecclesiastical,
whereof they teach and what they signify : and that I
may be able plainly to reveal and make manifest the
reasons of them, by His help, 'Who hath ordained
strength out of the mouth of babes and sucklings ' : ^^
'Whose spirit bloweth where it listeth,' ^^ dividing to
'each severally as it will'^^ to the praise and glory
of the Trinity.

2. Sacraments we have received to be signs or figures,
not in themselves virtues, but the significations of virtues,
by which men are taught as by letters. Now of signs
there be that are natural, and there be that are positive :
concerning which, and also of the nature of a Sacrament,
we shall speak hereafter.

3. Therefore the priests and the bishops to whom ' it is
given to know the mysteries of the kingdom of God,' ^^

^ Isaiah xii, 3.
'' ' A city of France, and capital of the department of Lozere, situated on
an eminence near the Lot : before the Revolution, the See of a Bishop.
The number of inhabitants is about 5000.' — Cruttwell's Gazetteer^ s.v.
** Apocalypse iii, 7. ^ Cant, ii, 4.

"* Psalm viii, 2. See also Wisdom x, 21. " S. John iii, 8.

'■^ I Cor. xii, II. '^ S. Luke viii, lO.

Proevie 3

as He saith in Luke, and who be the stewards and dis-
pensers of sacred things, ought both to understand the
sacred mysteries, and to shine in the virtues which they
signify : so that by their Hght others may be illuminated :
otherwise 'they be blind leaders of the blind." ^^ As saith
the Prophet, ' Let their eyes be darkened, that they see
not' ^^ But, woe therefore is me ! in these days they
apprehend but little of those things which day by day
they handle and perform, what they signify, and where-
fore they were instituted : so that the saying of the
Prophet seemeth to be fulfilled, ' As is the people, so is
the priest' ^^ For when they bear the bread of Pro-
thesis ^'' to the Lord's Table and the Mysteries, they
understand not its signification more than brute beasts
which carry bread for the use of others. Of which
ignorance they shall give account in the day of vengeance
and wrath. * When the cedars of Paradise shall tremble,
what shall the bush of the desert do } ' ^^ For to them
is that saying of the Prophet, ' They have not known My
ways : so I swear in my wrath, if they shall enter into
My rest' ^^

4. Now the professors of the arts liberal, and of all
other arts, seek how they may clothe, support, and adorn
with causes and hidden reasons those things which be
nakedly and without ornament therein set forth ; painters
moreover, and mechanics and handicraftsmen of what

" S. Matthew xv, 14. '^ Psalm Ixix, 23. '® Isaiah xxiv, 2.

*^ Here is a distinct reference to the Prothesis : the more valuable be-
cause in writers of the Middle Ages it does not hold so prominent a place as
we might have expected : and the table of Prothesis appears not to have
occupied a certainly defined situation in Catholic churches. There is also
a reference to Lev. xxi, 8, and the showbread.

*^ S. Luke xxii, 3. ^^ Psalm xcv, 11.

4 . TJie Symbolism of Churches

sort soever, study in every variety of their works to
render and to have at hand probable reasons thereof.
So, also, unseemly is it to the magistrate to be ignorant
of this world's laws ; and to the pleader to know nothing
of the law, wherein he is exercised.

5. But although learning be necessary unto priests for
the sake of doctrine: yet must not scholastics think slight-
ingly of unlettered priests ; according to that saying in
Exodus, 'Thou shalt not revile the gods.'^^ Whence,
saith S. Augustine, they shall not deride if they hear
the priests and ministers of the Church, either in-
voking God with barbarisms and solecisms, or not
understanding and misdividing the words which they
pronounce. Not but that such things are to be
corrected ; but they must firstly be tolerated of the
more learned. But that which priests ought to learn,
shall be said below.

6. Furthermore, the symbolism which existeth in
things and offices ecclesiastical, is often not seen, both
because figures have departed, and now it is the time of
truth ; and also because we ought not to judaise. But,
albeit those types of which the truth is made manifest
have departed, yet even to this time manifold truth is
concealed, which we see not ; wherefore the Church useth
figures. For so by white vestments we understand the
beauty in which our souls shall be arrayed, 'or the glory
of our immortality, which we cannot manifestly behold :
and in the Mass, by the oblation on the altar,-^ the

20 Exodus xxii, 28.
21 The prayer of oblation is as follows — 'Suscipe, Sancta Trinitas,
hanc oblationem quam Tibi offerimus ob memoriam Fassionis, resurrec-
tionis et ascensionis Jesu Christi Domini nostri,'etc.

Proeme 5

Passion of Christ is represented, that it be held in the
memory more faithfully and more firmly.

7. Furthermore, of the things which be commanded in
the law, some be moral, and others mystical. They be
moral which inform the morals, and are to be understood
in the simple tenour of the words : ' Love God : honour
thy father : thou shalt do no murder,' and such like.
Mystical be such as are typical : where something is set
forth beyond the literal meaning. Of these, some be
sacramental, and some ceremonial. Sacramental be
such as may be accounted for, why thus they were
ordered : such as circumcision, and the observance of
the Sabbath, and the like. Ceremonial be they for
which no reason can be given. Such be, ' Thou shalt
not plough with an ox and an ass together :'"' Thou
shalt not wear a garment of linen and woollen mixed.'^^

8. Now in things that are moral commands, the law
hath received no change : but in things sacramental
and ceremonial its outward form is altered : yet not one
of the mystical significations is done away : for the law
is not done away. Though the ' priesthood being
changed, there is made of necessity a change likewise
of the law. '24

9. Now, in Holy Scriptures there be divers senses : as
historic, allegoric, tropologic, and anagogic. Whence,
according to Boethius, all divine authority ariseth from
a sense either historical or allegorical or from both.
And according to S. Hierom, we ought to study Holy
Scriptures in three ways : — firstly, according to the
letter ; secondly, after the allegory, that is, the spiritual

" Deut. xxii, 10. ^ Deut. xxii, 11. -^ Hebrews vii, 12.

6 The Symbolism of Churches

meaning ; thirdly, according to the blessedness of the
future.

History is tilings signified by words : as when a plain
relation is made how certain events took place : as when
the children of Israel, after their deliverance from Egypt,
made a tabernacle to the Lord. And history is derived
from la-ropdv, which is to gesticulate : ^^ whence gesticu-
lators (that is, players) are called histriones.

10. Allegory is when one thing is said and another
meant : as when by one deed another is intended : which
other thing, if it be visible, the whole is simply an
allegory, if invisible and heavenly, an anagoge. Also an
allegory is when one state of things is described by
another : as when the patience of Christ, and the sac-
raments of the Church are set forth by mystical words
or deeds. As in that place : ' There shall come forth
a rod of the stem of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out
of his roots : ' ^^ which is in plain language. The Virgin
Mary shall be born of the family of David, who was the
son of Jesse. [This is an example of mysticism in
words.] Truth is also set forth by mystic deeds : as the
children of Israel's freedom from Egyptian slavery,
wrought by the blood of a lamb, signifieth that the
Church is freed by the Passion of Christ from demonia-
cal servitude."^ The word allegory is derived from the
Greek allo7i, which means foreign, and gore, which is
sense; that is, a foreign sense.

11. Tropology is an injunction unto morality: or a
moral speech, either with a symbolical or an obvious

-^ Here is a notable instance of Durandus's misderivations, of which we
have spoken in the Introduction. ^ Isaiah xi, i. * See Appendix I.

Proeine 7

bearing, devised to evince and instruct our behaviour.
Symbolical; as where he saith, 'Let thy garments be
ahvays white : and let the oil of thy head never fail.' ^^
That is, let all thy works be pure, and charity never fail
from thy mind. And again. It is fit that David should
slay the Goliath within us : that is, that humbleness
may subdue our pride. Obvious as in that saying, ' Deal
thy bread to the hungry.' -^ And in that text : ' Let us
not love in word, neither in tongue : but in deed and
truth.' ^^ Now tropology hath his name from tropos^ a
turning, and logos, which is a discourse.

12. Anagoge is so called from ana, which is upwards,
and goge, a leading : as it were an upward leading.
Whence the anagogic sense is that which leadeth from
the visible to the invisible : as light, made the first day,
signifieth a thing invisible, namely the angelic nature
which was made in the beginning. Anagoge, therefore,
is that sense which leadeth the mind upwards to
heavenly things : that is to the Trinity and the orders of
angels, and speaketh concerning future rewards, and the
future life which is in the heaven : and it useth both
obvious and mystical expressions ; obvious, as in that
saying, ' Blessed are the pure in heart : for they shall see
God : ' ^^ mystical, as that, ' Blessed are they that have
made white their robes : that they may have right unto
the tree of life, and enter in through the gate into the
city.' ^^ Which signifieth. Blessed are they who make
pure their thoughts, that they may have a right to see
' God, who is the way, the truth, and the life : ' ^- and after

-' Ecclesiastes ix, 8. '^ Isaiah Iviii, 7. -" i S. John iii, 18.

^ S. Matthew v, 8. =^' Apocalypse vii, 14. *■' S. John xiv, 6.

8 The Symbolism of Churches

the example of the fathers, enter into the kingdom of
heaven.

In like manner, Jerusalem is understood historically
of that earthly city whither pilgrims journey ; allegoric-
ally, of the Church Militant ; tropologically, of every
faithful soul ; anagogically, of the celestial Jerusalem,
which is our country.^^ Of these things, more examples
may be seen in the lessons for Holy Saturday.^^ But
in this work many senses are applied : and speedy
changes are made from one to another, as the diligent
reader will perceive.

13. For as none is prohibited from using divers
grounds of exception and manners of defence, so neither
are they forbidden to employ divers expositions in the
praise of God, so that faith be not injured.

14. Notice must also be taken of the variety of rites
used in the divine worship. For nearly every Church
hath her own observances, and attacheth to them a full
meaning of her own : neither is it thought blameworthy
or absurd to worship with various chants, or modula-
tions of the voice, nor yet with different observances :
when the Church Triumphant herself is surrounded,^^
according to the Prophet, with the like diversity, and in
the administration of the sacraments themselves a variety
of customs is tolerated, and that rightly.

15. Whence, according to Austin of ecclesiastical

^^ How beautifully, observes a writer in the British Critic^ do old
ecclesiastical writers use p atria and domus of our celestial country, and our
everlasting home !

^' Reference is here apparently made to the fifth chapter of the book, of
Lamentations, which appears as the 3rd lesson at Matins,

^^ The author appears to refer here to the XLV Psalm, 'Eructavit cor
meum.'

Proeine g

institutions in the divine office, some we have received
from Holy Scriptures : some from the traditions or
writings of the apostles, being confirmed by their
successors : some, moreover, of which, however, the
institution is unknown, are confirmed by custom and
approved by use : and to them equal observance is due
as to the others.

1 6. Let not, then, the reader be angry if he perchance
read in this work of observances which he never saw in
his own church : or does not read of some that are there
in use. For we endeavour not to go through the
particular rites of particular places, but those which be
more common and usual : because we labour to set forth
that doctrine which is of universal, and not that which is
of particular bearing, nor would it be possible for us to
examine the particular rites of every church. Therefore
we have determined, for the health of our soul and the
benefit of the readers, to set forth and to arrange the
secret mysteries of divine offices in a clear state, to the
best of our power and to inculcate and thoroughly to
explain that which appears necessary for ecclesiastics,
towards the understanding of the daily service : even as
it is well known that, when in a different condition of
life, we did faithfully in our Mirror of Magistrates do
the like for the use of those who were emplo}'ed in
secular courts.

17. But it must diligently be noted that in the divine
offices themselves ^^ many ceremonies there be of usual

*^ This passage is worth noting, as showing that our Author does not
proceed with the determination of making a meaning where he could not
find one : but that he is willing to leave much, explained only in the prin-
ciples of necessity, or convenience, or reverence.

lO The Syvibolisvi of Churches

employment which have, from their institution, respect
neither to a moral nor mystical signification. Of these,
some are known to have arisen of necessity : some of
congruity : some of the difference of the Old and New
Testament ; some of convenience ; and some for the
mere honour and reverence of the offices themselves :
whence saith blessed Austin, so many things are varied
by the different customs of divers place, that seldom or
never can those causes be discovered which men followed
in constituting them.

1 8. This work is described as a Rationale. For as in
the ' breastplate of judgment ' ^' which the Jewish high
priest wore was written manifestation and truth, so here
the reasons of the variations in divine offices and their
truths are set forth and manifested : which the prelates
and priests of churches ought faithfully to preserve in
the shrine of their breasts : and as in the breastplate
there was a stone by the splendour of which the children
of Israel knew that God was well pleased with them : so
also the pious reader who hath been taught the mysteries
of the divine offices from the clearness of this work will
know that God is favourably disposed towards us, unless
we rashly incur His indignation by our offence and fault.
The breastplate was woven of four colours and of gold :
and here, as we said before, the principles on which are
founded the variations in ecclesiastical offices, take the
hues of four senses, the historic, the allegoric, the tropo-
logic, and the anagogic, with faith as the^^ ground-
work.

^^ Vulg. In Rationali Judicii. Exodus xxviii, 3.
3s Such appears the meaning of this beautiful comparison. The words
are rather obscure, quatuor sensibus fide media colorantur.

ProejJie 1 1

19. It is divided into eight parts: which we shall go
through, by the Lord's favour, in order. The first
treateth of churches, and ecclesiastical places and orna-
ments : and of consecrations and sacraments. The
second of the members of the Church, and their duties :
the third of sacerdotal and other vestments : the fourth
of the Mass, and of the things therein performed :
the fifth of the other divine offices : the sixth of the
Sundays and holydays, and feasts specially pertaining
to our Lord : the seventh of Saints' days, and the feast
of the dedication of a church, and the office of the dead ;
the eighth of the method of computing time, and the
calendar.

Tradatus Gulielmi Durandi de ecclesia et
ecclesiasticis locis et sacramentis et oima^nentis
et de consecrationibus incipit feliciter.

CHAPTER I

OF A CHURCH AND ITS PARTS

Two-fold Meaning of the Word — Different Synonyms for the Terra — Form
of a Church — Of the Tabernacle — The Foundation, how to be laid —
To Point East, and Why — The Spiritual Church, how Built up — Of
Cement — What Arms the Spiritual Church Employeth — Of the
Materials of the Tabernacle — Of Shittim Wood — Analogy of a Church
with the Human Body — Of what the Spiritual Church consisteth — Of
its Foundations— Of the Walls— Of the Choir— Of Apses— Of the
Cloister Court— Of the Towers— Of the Cock— Of the Pinnacles— Of
the Windows — Of the Lattice Work — Of the Doors— Of the Piers —
Of the Beams— Of the Roof— Of the Stalls— Of the Pulpit— Of the
Rood Loft — Of the Hours— Of the Sanctuary— Of the Sacristy— Of
the Roof Tiles— Of the Lights— Of the Crosses— Of the Cloister— Of
the Bishop's Throne — Why we go together to Church — Of the Separa-
tion of the Women from the Men — Of the Covering of Women's
Heads — Of Speech in Church — Of Immunity for Malefactors — Why
Churches may be rebuilt in other Places.

I. First of all, let us consider a church ^ and its parts.
The word church hath two meanings : the one, a material
building, wherein the divine offices are celebrated : the
other, a spiritual fabric, which is the collection of the
faithful. The Church, that is the people forming it, is
assembled by its ministers, and collected together into

• It has been found advisable to print the word church in the following
pages with a great or a small initial letter, according as ' The Blessed
Company of all Faithful People,' or the material building, were intended.

Of a Church and its Parts 1 3

one place by ' Him who maketh men to be of one mind
in an house.'- For as the material church is constructed
from the joining together of various stones, so is the
spiritual Church by that of various men.

2. The Greek ecclesia is in Latin translated by con-
vocation because it calleth men to itself: the which title
doth better befit the spiritual than the material church.

The material typifieth the spiritual Church : as shall
be explained when we treat of its consecration.^ Again,
the Church is called Catholic, that is universal, because
it hath been set up in, or spread over, all the world, be-
cause the whole multitude of the faithful ought to be in
one congregation, or because in the Church is laid up the
doctrine necessary for the instruction of all.

3. It is also called in Greek synagoga, in Latin congre-
gatio, which was the name chosen by the Jews for their
places of worship : for to them the term synagogue more
appropriately belongeth, though it be also applied to a
church. But the Apostles never call a church by this
title, perhaps for the sake of distinction.

4. The Church Militant is also called Sion : because,
amidst its wanderings, it expecteth the promise of a
heavenly rest : for Sion signifieth expectation. But the
Church Triumphant, our future home, the land of peace,
is called Jerusalem : for Jerusalem signifieth the vision of
peace.^ Also, the church is called the House of God :
also, sometimes, KvptaKri, that is, the Lord's House. At
others basilica (in Latin, a royal palace), for the abodes
of earthly kings are thus termed : and how much more
fittingly our houses of prayer, the dwelling-places of the
King of Kings ! Again, it is called temple, from tectum

- Psalm Ixviii (Fxsurgai Dens), 6. ^ See below, chapter vi.

* So the hymn in the Parisian Breviary, for the dedication of a
church :

Urbs beata, vera pacis
Visio, Jerusalem.

14 The Symbolism of Churches

amplum, where sacrifices are offered to God : and some-
times the tabernacle of God, because this present Hfe is a
journey, and a progress to a lasting country : and a
tabernacle is an hostelrie:^ as will be explained when
we speak of the dedication^ of a church. And why it is
called the Ark of the Testimony, we shall say in the en-
suing chapter, under the title Altars. Sometimes it is
called Martyrium, when raised in honour of any martyr ;
sometimes capella'^ (chapel), (see under the head Priest
in the second part) ; sometimes ccenobium, at others
sacrificium ; sometimes sacellum ; sometimes the house
of prayer : sometimes monastery : sometimes oratory.
Generally, however, any place set apart for prayers is
called an oratory. Again, the church is called the Body
(?/'Christ : sometimes a virgin, as the Apostle saith, ' that I
may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ ' : ^ some-
times a bride, because Christ hath betrothed her to Him-
self, as saith the Gospel : ' he that hath the bride is the
bridegroom ' : ^ sometimes a mother, for daily in baptism
she beareth sons to God : sometimes a daughter, accord-
ing to that saying of the Prophet, ' Instead of thy fathers
thou shalt have children ' : ^^ sometimes a widow, because
' she sitteth solitary through her afflictions, and, like
Rachel, will not be comforted.' Sometimes she is set
forth under the emblem of an harlot, because she is

^Compare Cicero de Senect. xxiii. Et ex vita ita discedo tanquam ex
hospitio, non tanquam ex domo : commorandi enim Natura diversorium
nobis, non habitandi dedit.

^ Chapter vi, sect. 5, ad fin.

^ Durandus, II. 10. 8. 'In man}' places, priests be called chaplains.
For of old the Kings of France, when they went forth to war, carried with
them the Cope of Blessed Martin, which was kept in a certain tent
(where Mass was said"), and from the cope (cappa) the tent was called
chapel (capella).'

We may observe that chapel was used in former times with much greater
latitude than now. An additional aisle or chantry was so called. So in
riaddenham, Cambridgeshire, on a brass in the north aisle, Orate pro
Aniniabus fundatoruni hujiis Capellce : that is, the aisle itself.

^ 2 Cor. xi, 2. ^ S. John iii, 29. *" Psalm xlv (^Eructavit cor mauni), 16.

Of a Church and its Parts 1 5

called out of many nations, and because she closeth not
her bosom against any that return to her. Sometimes
she is called a city, because of the communion of her
holy citizens, being defended by the munitions of the
Scriptures, whereby heretics are kept off: having stones
and beams of divers kinds, because the merits of the
saints are of divers kinds also, as shall be said below.
Whatever the Jewish Church received by the law, that
doth the Christian Church receive, and with large increase
by grace, from Christ whose bride she is. The setting
up of an oratory, or church, is not new. For the Lord
commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, that he should make
a tabernacle of curiously wrought materials. This was
divided by a veil into two parts : the outer, called the
holy place, where the people attended the sacrifices : the
inner, the holy of holies, where the priests and Levites
ministered before the Lord (see the Preface to the Fourth
Book and also Appendix A).

5. This tabernacle having decayed through age, the
Lord commanded that a temple should be built, which
Solomon accomplished with wonderful skill : this also
had two parts, like the tabernacle. From both of these,
namely, from the tabernacle and the temple, doth our
material church take its form. In its outer portion, the
laity offer their prayers, and hear the Word. In the
sanctuary, the clergy pray, preach, offer praises and
prayers.

6. The tabernacle, built as it was amidst the journey-
ings of the Israelites, is sometimes taken as a type of
the world which ' passeth away, and the lust thereof ^^
Whence it was formed with curtains of four colours, as
the world is composed of four elements. ' God,' said the
Prophet, ' is in His tabernacle ' : ^^ God is in this world, as
in a temple dyed scarlet by the blood of Christ. The

" S. John ii, 17. '- Psalm xi (/;/ Domino confido\ 4.

1 6 The Syvibolisni of Churches

tabernacle is/however, more especially symbolical of the
Church Militant, which hath 'here no continuing city,
but seeketh one to come.' ^^ Therefore is it called a
tabernacle, for tabernacles or tents belong to soldiers:
and this saying, God is in his tabernacle, meaneth, God
is among the faithful collected together in His name.
The outer part of the tabernacle, where the people sacri-
ficed, is the active life, wherein men give themselves up
to the love of their neighbour : the interior, wherein the
Levites ministered, is the contemplative life, where a
band of religious men devote themselves to the love and
contemplation of God. The tabernacle gave place to the
temple : because after the warfare cometh the triumph.

7. Now a church is to be built on this fashion : The
foundation being prepared, according to that saying, ' It
fell not, for it was founded upon a rock,'^* the bishop,
or a priest ^^ as the bishop's deputy, must sprinkle it with
holy water, to banish the foul forms of evil spirits, and
lay the first stone, whereon a cross must be engraved.^^

8. The foundation must be so contrived, as that the
head of the church may point due east (see Appen-
dix B) ; that is, to that point of the heavens, wherein
the sun ariseth at the equinoxes ; to signify, that the
Church Militant must ^^ behave herself with moderation,

'^ Hebrews xiii, 14.

" S. Matthew vii, 25. In general illustration of the foregoing sections
the reader is referred to the first chapter of the eighth book of Bingham's
' Antiquities.'

'^ In the account of the dedication of S. Michael the Archangel, in the
Isle of Guernsey, preserved in the ' Black Book of the Bishop of Coutances,'
it appears that the ceremony was performed by a priest : though it is be-
lieved that such has seldom been the case in the Anglican Church. But
see chapter vi, section 2.

'*^ A cross was not only inscribed on the foundation stone, but a cross
was placed where the church was to be : and this in the Eastern Church ;
where the Staiiropegia was a ceremony of much importance.

•' This passage is valuable as proving that in the country of our Bishop
nothing was known of a practice undoubtedly prevalent in England ; the
direction of a church to that part of the sk)' in which the sun arose on the
Feast of the Patron Saint.

Of a Chicrck and its Parts 17

both in prosperity and adversity : and not towards that
point where the sun ariseth at the solstices, which is the
practice of some. But if the walls of Jerusalem, ' which
is built as a city that is at unity with itself,' ^"^ were, by
the Prophet's command, raised by the Jews, with how
much greater zeal should we raise the walls of our
churches ! For the material church, wherein the people
assemble to set forth God's holy praise, symboliseth that
Holy Church which is built in heaven of living stones^

9. This is that House of the Lord, built with all
strength, ' upon the foundations of the apostles and
prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-
stone.^^ Her 2^ foundations are in the holy mountains.'
The walls built upon these are the Jews and Gentiles ;
who come from the four parts of the world unto Christ,
and who have believed, believe, or shall believe on Him.

The faithful predestinated to eternal life, are the
stones in the structure of this wall which shall continually
be built up unto the world's end. And one stone is added
to another, when masters in the Church teach and con-
firm and strengthen those who are put under them : and
whosoever in Holy Church undertaketh painful labours
from brotherly love, he as it w^ere beareth up the weight
of stones which have been placed above him. Those
stones which are of larger size, and polished, or squared,
and placed on the outside and at the angles of the
building, are men of holier life than others, who by their
merits and prayers retain weaker brethren in Holy
Church.

10. The cement, without which there can be no
stability of the walls, is made of lime, sand, and water.
The lime is fervent charity, which joineth to itself the
sand, that is, undertakings for the temporal welfare of

''^ Psalm cxxii (^Lcetahis sum), 3. '^ Eph. ii, 20.

-" Psalm Ixxxvii (^Fundamenta ejus), I.

1 8 The Symbolism of Churches

our brethren: because true charity taketh care of the
widow and the aged, and the infant, and the infirm : and
they who have it study to work with their hands, that
they may possess wherewith to benefit them. Now the
lime and the sand are bound together in the wall by an
admixture of water. But water is an emblem of the
Spirit. And as without cement the stones cannot cohere,
so neither can men be built up in the heavenly Jerusalem
without charity, which the Holy Ghost worketh in them.
All the stones are polished and squared — that is, holy
and pure, and are built by the hands of the Great
Workman into an abiding place in the Church : whereof
some are borne, and bear nothing, as the weaker
members : some are both borne and bear, as those of
moderate strength : and some bear, and are borne of
none save Christ, the corner-stone, as they that are
perfect. All are bound together by one spirit of charity,
as though fastened with cement ; and those living stones
are knit together in the bond of peace. Christ was our
wall in His conversation : and our outer wall in His
Passion.

II. When the Jews were rebuilding the walls of Jeru-
salem, their enemies strove hard to let the works : so
that ' they built with one hand, and held their weapons
of war in the other.' And round us too do enemies
gather, while we are building the walls of our Church :
our own sins, or ungodly men, willing to hinder our
success. Whence, while we build our walls, that is, while
we add virtue to virtue, we must fight with the enemy,
and grasp our weapons firmly : we must ' take the
helmet of salvation, the shield of faith, the breastplate of
righteousness : and for our sword the word of God,' ^^
that we may defend ourselves against them : and God's

"1 Eph. vi, i6, 17,

Of a Church and its Parts 1 9

priest shall be unto us in Christ's stead, to teach us by
his lessons, and defend us by his prayers.

12. Furthermore, of what the tabernacle was made the
Lord hath told us, saying unto Moses, ' Take the first
fruits,' — that is, the most precious gifts — ' of the children
of Israel : but from him alone who willingly offereth gold,
and silver, and brass, and precious stones, and purple
and linen twice dyed ' ; namely cloth of the colours of
blue, purple, and scarlet : and of biss, which is a kind of
Egyptian linen white and soft : ' and goat's hair, and
rams' skins dyed red,' which we call Parthian, because
the Parthians first dyed them thus, ' and purple skins
and shittim wood ' (shittim is the name of a mountain,
and also of a tree : its leaves are like the white thorn,
and to be injured neither by fire nor by decay) : ' and oil
for the lights, frankincense, and ointment of a sweet
savour, onyx stones, and sard-onyxes, and jewels: and
let them make Me a house, that I may dwell in the
midst of them : and that they may not weary them-
selves in returning to this mountain.' ^^

14. The arrangement of a material church resembleth
that of the human body : the chancel, or place where the
altar is, representeth the head : the transepts, the hands
and arms, and the remainder — towards the west — the
rest of the body. The sacrifice of the altar denoteth the
vows of the heart. Furthermore, according to Richard
de Sancto Victore, the arrangement of a church typifieth
the three states in the Church : of virgins, of the
continent, of the married. The sanctuary ^^ is smaller

" Exodus XXV, 2.
'^ The sanctuary of course means that eastermost division in churches
consistino^ of three parts, which still remains in many Norman buildings,
and of which Kilpeck, in Herefordshire, may be taken as a type. These
churches are generally apsidal : but there are instances to the contrary, as
Bishopstone, in Sussex. A view of the sanctum sanctorum and chancel
arches in this church is given in the Cambridge Camden Society's 'Illus-
trations of Monumental Brasses,' part iv.

20 TJie Symbolisin of Churches

than the chancel, and this than the nave : because the
virgins are fewer in number ^'^ than the continent, and
these than the married. And the sanctuary is more
holy than the chancel : and the chancel than the nave :
because the order of virgins is more worthy than that of
the continent, and the continent more worthy than the
married.

15. Furthermore, the church consisteth of four walls,
that is, is built on the doctrine of the Four Evangelists ;
and hath length, breadth, and height : the height repre-
senteth courage, the length fortitude, which patiently
endureth till it attaineth its heavenly home ; the breadth
is charity, which, with long suffering, loveth its friends
in God, and its foes for God ; and again, its height is the
hope of future retribution, which despiseth prosperity
and adversity, hoping ' to see the goodness of the Lord
in the land of the living.' ^^

16. Again, in the temple of God, the foundation is
faith, which is conversant with unseen things : the roof,
charity, 'which covereth a multitude of sins.' ^^ The door,
obedience, of which the Lord saith, ' If thou wilt enter
into life, keep the commandments.'^' The pavement,
humility, of which the Psalmist saith, ' My soul cleaveth
to the pavement.' ^^

17. The four side -walls, the four cardinal virtues,
justice, fortitude, temperance, prudence. Hence the
Apocalypse saith, 'The city lieth four-square.'^^ The
windows are hospitality with cheerfulness, and tender-
ness with charity. Concerning this house saith the
Lord, 'We will come unto him, and make our abode

■-•» This passage is somewhat obscure ; but the difference between the
virgins and the continent appears to be this : by the former are meant
those who have taken vows of celibacy ; by the latter, those who practise
it, without, however, having bound themselves to it by vow.

25 Psalm xxvii (^Dominus il/uminatio), 13. "^^ I S. Peter iv, 8.

"'' S. Matthew xix, 17. -^ Psalm cxix (^Adhcesit pavimento)^ 25.

-" Rev. xxi, 16.

Of a Church and its Paris 21

with him.' ^'^ But some churches are built in the shape
of a cross, to signify, that we are crucified to the world,
and should tread in the steps of the Crucified, according
to that saying, ' If any man will come after Me, let him
deny himself and take up his cross, and follow Me.' ^^
Some also are built in the form of a circle : ^^ to signify
that the Church hath been extended throughout the
circle of the world, as saith the Psalmist : ' And their
words unto the end of the world.' ^^ Or because from
the circle of this world, we reach forth to that crown of
eternity which shall encircle our brows.

1 8. The choir is so called from the harmony of the
clergy in their chanting, or from the multitude collected
at the divine offices. The word chorus is derived from
chorea, or from corona. For in early times they stood
like a crown round the altar, and thus sung the Psalms
in one body : but Flavianus and Theodorus taught the
antiphonal method of chanting, having received it from
S. Ignatius, who himself learnt it by inspiration. The
two choirs then typify the angels, and the spirits of just
men, while they cheerfully and mutually excite each
other in this holy exercise. Others derive chorus from
concord, which consisteth of charity ; because he who
hath not charity, cannot sing with the spirit. But what
this choir signifieth, and why the greatest in it sit last,
shall be explained in the fourth book.^* And observe,
that when one sings, it is called in Greek a monody, in

3" S. John xiv, 23. ^i g. Matthew xvi, 18.

^- This of course refers to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the proto-
type of these buildings. There are four, as it is well known, in England
yet standing, and two in ruins — namely. Temple Aslackby, in Lincoln-
shire, and the church in Ludlow Castle.

^ Psalm xix {Ccrli enarrayit')^ 4.

3' We may observe that Prynne perverts the fact, that the westernmost
seats in the choir are the most honourable, to a depreciation of the
Catholic custom of the position of the altar. See his ' Pacific Examina-
tion,' s.v.

22 The Syvibolisni of Churches

Latin tyciniiLin. When two sing, it is called biciniuni;
when many, a chorus.

19. The exedra is an apsis, separated a little from a
temple or palace ; so called because it projecteth a little
from the wall (in Greek l^eSpa), and signifieth the lay
portion of the faithful joined to Christ and the Church.
The crypts, or subterranean caves, which we find in
some churches, are hermits who are devoted to a
solitary life.

20. The open court signifieth Christ, by Whom an
entrance is administered into the heavenly Jerusalem :
this is also called porch, ixovc\. porta^ a gate, or because it
is aperia, open.

21. The towers are the preachers and prelates of the
Church, which are her bulwark and defence. Whence
the bridegroom in the Canticles saith to the bride, ' Thy
neck is like the tower of David builded for an armoury.' ^^
The pinnacles of the towers signify the life or the mind
of a prelate which aspireth heavenwards.

22. The cock at the summit of the church is a type of
preachers. For the cock, ever watchful even in the
depth of night, giveth notice how the hours pass, waken-
eth the sleepers, predicteth the approach of day, but first
exciteth himself to crow by striking his sides with his
wings. There is a mystery conveyed in each of these
particulars. The night is this world : the sleepers are
the children of this world who are asleep in their sins.
The cock is the preacher, who preacheth boldly, and
exciteth the sleepers to cast away the works of darkness,
exclaiming, 'Woe to them that sleep ! Awake thou that
sleepest ! ' ^^ And these foretell the approach of day
when they speak of the Day of Judgment, and the
glory that shall be revealed : and like prudent mes-

^^ Canticles iv, 4, ^ Eph. v, 14.

Of a Church and its Parts 23

sengers, before they teach others, arouse themselves
from the sleep of sin by mortifying their bodies. Whence
the Apostle, 'I keep under my body.' ^^ And as the
weathercock faceth the wind, they turn themselves
boldly to meet the rebellious by threats and arguments :
lest they should be guilty, ' when the wolf cometh, of
leaving the sheep and fleeing.' ^^ The iron rod, whereon
the cock sitteth, representeth the discourse of the preacher,
that he speaketh not of man but of God : according to
that saying, ' If any man speak, let him speak as the
oracles of God.' ^^ But in that the iron rod is placed
above the cross, on the summit of the church, it signi-
fieth that Holy Scripture is now consummated and con-
firmed. Whence saith our Lord in His Passion, ' It is
finished ' : and that title is written indelibly over Him.

23. The cone, that is the summit of the church, of
great height, and of round shape, signifieth how perfectly
and inviolably the Catholic faith must be held : which
faith except a man do keep whole and undefiled, with-
out doubt he shall perish everlastingly.

24. The glass windows in a church are Holy Scrip-
tures, which expel the wind and the rain, that is all
things hurtful, but transmit the light of the true Sun,
that is, God, into the hearts of the faithful. These are
wider ^^ within than without, because the mystical sense
is the more ample, and precedeth the literal meaning.
Also, by the windows the senses of the body are signi-
fied : which ought to be shut to the vanities of this world,
and open to receive with all freedom spiritual gifts.

25. By the lattice work* of the windows, we understand
the prophets or other obscure teachers of the Church
Militant : in which windows there are often two shafts,

37 1 Cor. ix, 27. 3s s. John x, 12. ^9 j g Pe^gj- iv, n.

^^ This passage is particularly to be observed, for the reason given in
the Introduction. * See Appendix I.

24 TJie Symbolism of Churches

signifying the two precepts of charity, or because the
apostles were sent out to preach two and two.

26. The door of the church is Christ: according to
that saying in the Gospel, * I am the door.' ^^ The
apostles are also called doors.

27. The piers of the church are bishops and doctors :
who specially sustain the Church of God by their doctrine.
These, from the majesty and clearness of their divine
message, are called silver, according to that in the Song
of Songs, ' He made silver columns.' ^^ Whence also
Moses at the entering in of the tabernacle, placed five
columns, and four before the oracle, that is, the holy of
holies. Although the piers are more in number than
seven, yet they are called seven, according to that say-
ing, 'Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out
her seven pillars ' : ^^ because bishops ought to be filled
with the sevenfold influences of the Holy Ghost : ** and
SS. James and John, as the Apostle testifieth, ' seemed
to be pillars.' ^^' The bases of the columns are the
apostolic bishops,^*^ who support the frame of the
whole church. The capitals of the piers are the opinions
of the bishops and doctors. For as the members are
directed and moved by the head, so are our words and
works governed by their mind. The ornaments of the
capitals are the words of Sacred Scripture, to the medi-
tation and observance of which we are bound.

28. The pavement of the church is the foundation of
our faith. But in the spiritual Church, the pavement is
the poor, of Christ : the poor in spirit, who humble them-
selves in all things : wherefore on account of their

•*' S. John X, 9. ••- Canticles viii, 9. ^^ Prov. viii, I.

■" Compare the Veni Creator :

Thou the anointing Spirit art,
Who dost Thy sevenfold gifts impart.
^^ Gal ii, 9,

^^ That is, it may be supposed, bishops of those sees which were founded
by the apostles themselves, e.g. Rome, Crete, Ephesus.

Of a Church and its Parts 25

humility they are Hkened to the pavement. Again, the
pavement, which is trodden under foot, representeth the
multitude, by whose labours the Church is sustained.

29. The beams '^'^ which join together the church are the
princes of this world or the preachers who defend the unity
of the Church, the one by deed, the other by argument.

30. The stalls in the church signify the contemplative,
in whom God dwelleth without hindrance, who, from
their high dignity and the glory of eternal life, are com-
pared to gold. Whence He saith in the Canticles, * He
made a golden seat' *

31. The beams in the church are preachers, who
spiritually sustain it. The vaulting also, or ceiling, re-
presenteth preachers, who adorn and strengthen it, con-
cerning whom, seeing that they are not corruptible
through vice, the bridegroom glorieth in the same
Canticles, saying ' the beams of our house are cedar, and
its ceiling, fir.' For God hath built His Church of living
stones, and imperishable wood, according to that saying,
'Solomon made himself a Htter of cedar wood ;' ^^ that is,

*'' Beams. That is, probably, tie-beams : here is another reference to
the architectural arrangements of Early English date.

^^ It is very difficult to find the right meaning of the v^ord ferculimi here.
The English version gives the passage from the Canticles, ' King Solomon
made himself a chariot (marg. reading, bed) of the wood of Lebanon. In
the extremely beautiful treatise of Hugo de S. Victore, De NuMiis SMHtti-
alibus (cap. iii), the fercida nuptialia appear to mean the marriage feast,
which is to perform its part in the general Sensinim refectio, by its sweet
savours ; as the bed or chariot of Solomon is noted for the odour of its
cedar wood. However, the same writer devotes five Tituli of his Eriidit.
Theolog. Ex Miscellan. namely, lix — Ixii of the first book, and cxxi of the
second, to the consideration of this Ferculum Solomonis : which he de-
cides to be a lectica sen vehiaihcm, a litter or sedan (such as is now used
in Sicily under the name of lettigd), differing from the lectidiis or bed
(Cant, i, 16), inasmuch as this denotes the repose of the contemplative
life, while the ferculum tj'pifies the laborious exercise of the active life ;
and differing again from the airnis or chariot (the only other vehicle
mentioned in Holy Scripture), since the latter is drawn on the earth with
a grating noise, and represents a depraved heart clinging to earthly things,
but the former is borne smoothly and quietly above the ground, an image
of the righteous soul despising earthly and seeking heavenly things.
Lastly, Xh.Q ferculum, or litter, typifies the Church, from carrying, aferendo,
as doth the Church her children unto Heavenly Rest.
* See Appendix I.

26 The Symbolism of Churches

Christ, of His saints who wear the white robe of chastity.
The chancel, that is, the head of the church, being
lower "^^ than its body, signifieth how great humility
there should be in the clergy, or in prelates, according to
that saying, ' And the more thou art exalted, humble
thyself in all things.' The rail, by which the altar ^^ is
divided from the choir, teacheth the separation of things
celestial from things terrestrial.

32. The seats in the choir admonish us that the body
must sometimes be refreshed : because that which hath
not alternate rest wanteth durability.

33. The pulpit in the church is the life of the perfect :
and is so called from being public, or placed in a public
place. For we read, ' Solomon made a brazen scaffold,
and set it in the midst of the temple, and stood upon it,
and stretching forth his hands spake to the people of
God.' Esdras also made a wooden scaffold for speaking:
in which when he stood, he was higher than the rest of
the people.^^

34. The analogium (rood-loft) is so called because in
it the Word of God is read and delivered. Which also
is called ambo, from ambire^'^ to surround, because it
surroundeth him that entereth in.

*^ The fact that in many unaltered and unmutilated churches the
chancel is lower than the nave, appears to have been unnoticed by
ecclesiologists. Wherever it occurs, William Dowsing, or some of his
puritanical coadjutors, have been supposed agents in the matter. But
there exist chancels, which, whether from the height of the piscina and
sedilia, or on other accounts, cannot have been lowered, to which never-
theless there is a descent from the nave. Such an one is that of S. Giles's
at Cambridge : and the arrangement is very common in the little churches
of the south-west part of Sussex.

^ This is another very remarkable passage : and one which proves that
the injunction of Abp. Laud for the erection of altar rails was not a
novelty. And though their abolition is much to be wished, as well from
the ugliness of all existing specimens, as from the irreverence which they
seem to pre-suppose, the Church in England can scarcely be charged with
the adoption of an innovation in giving her sanction to them.

^1 3 Kings vi, 13.

^2 This is, of course, a false derivation. The important subject of Rood-
lofts has been treated with admirable learning by Father Thiers, in his
treatise ' Sur les jubes,' to which the reader is referred. See also Appendix C.

Of a Church and its Parts 27

35. The horologium, by means of which the hours are
read, teacheth the dihgence that should be in priests to
observe at the proper times the canonical hours : as he
saith, 'Seven times a day do I praise thee.' ^^

36. The tiles ^^ of the roof which keep off the rain are
the soldiers, who preserve the Church from paynim, and
from enemies.

37. The circular staircases, which are imitated from
Solomon's temple, are passages which wind among the
walls, and point out the hidden knowledge which they
only have who ascend to celestial things. Concerning
the steps, by which ascent is made to the altar, hereafter.

38. The sacristy, or place where the holy vessels are
deposited, or where the priest putteth on his robes, is the
womb of the Blessed Mary, where Christ put on his
robes of humanity. The priest, having robed himself,
cometh forth into the public view, because Christ, having
come from the womb of the Virgin, proceeded forth into
the world.

The bishop's throne in the church is higher than the
rest.

39. Near to the altar, which signifieth Christ, is placed
the piscina, or lavacrum, that is, the pity of Christ, in
which the priest washeth his hands, thereby denoting
that by baptism and penitence we are purged from the
filth of sin : which is drawn from the Old Testament.
For he saith in Exodus, * And Moses made a laver of
brass, with his basin, in the which Aaron the priest and
his sons should wash, before they went up to the altar,
that they might offer an offering. ^^

40. The lamp in the church is Christ : as He saith, ' I
am the light of the world ' ; ^^ and again, ' That w^as the

^ Psalm (cxix), Beatiimmaculaii, 164.
^' This passage deserves to be noticed, as proving that lead was not the
only roofing employed in the Norman churches.

^ Exodus xxxviii, 8. ^ S. John viii, 12.

28 The Symbolism of Churches

true light.' ^'' ' Or the hght in a church may denote the
apostles and other doctors, by whose doctrine the Church
is enlightened, as the sun and moon : concerning whom
saith the Lord, ' Ye are the light of the world ' : ^^ that is,
an example of good works. Wherefore He saith to them
in His admonitions, ' Let your light shine before
men.' ^^ But the Church is enlightened by the precepts
of the Lord ; wherefore it saith in the before-quoted
place, ' Speak unto the sons of Aaron that they offer
oil-olive most pure, that the lamp may burn continually
in the tabernacle of the testimony.' ^° Moses made also
seven lights, which are the seven gifts of the Holy
Ghost : for they in the darkness of this world shine forth
with brightness : and they rest in candlesticks, because
in Christ rested 'the spirit of wisdom and knowledge,
the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of learning and
piety, the spirit of the fear of the Lord, by which He
preached wisdom to the captives.' ^^ The number of
lights showeth the number of graces in the faithful.

41. In many places a triumphal cross is placed in the
midst of the church ; to teach us, that from the midst of
our hearts we must love the Redeemer : who, after
Solomon's pattern, ' paved the midst of his litter
{ferculum) with love for the daughters of Jerusalem : ' ^^
and that all, seeing the sign of victory, might exclaim.
Hail, thou Salvation of the whole world, Tree of our
Redemption : and that we should never forget the love of
God, who, to redeem His servants, gave His only son,
that we might imitate Him crucified. But the cross is
exalted on high, to signify the victory of Christ. Why
a church is ornamented within and not without, shall be
said hereafter.

s'' S. John i, 6. ^ S. Matthew v, 14. ^^ S. Matthew v, 16.

^ Lev. xxiv, 2. *^' Isaiah Ixi, i. *" Cantic. iii, 10.

Of a CJiurcJi and its Parts 29

42. The cloisters, as Richard, Bishop of Cremona,
testifieth, had their rise either in the watchings of the
Levites around the tabernacle, or from the chambers of
the priests, or from the porch of Solomon's temple.
* For the Lord commanded Moses, that he should not
number the Levites with the rest of the children
of Israel ; but should set them over the tabernacle
of the testimony to carry it and to keep it' ^^ On
account of which divine commandment, while the Holy
Mysteries are in celebration, the clergy should in the
church stand apart from the laity. Whence the Council
of Mayence ordained that the part which is separated
with rails from the altar should be appropriated alto-
gether to the priests choral. Furthermore, as the church
signifieth the Church Triumphant, so the cloister signifieth
the celestial Paradise, where there will be one and the
same heart in fulfilling the commands of God and loving
Him : where all things will be possessed in common,
because that of which one hath less, he will rejoice to
see more abounding in another, for ' God shall be all in
all.' ^^ Therefore the regular clergy who live in the
cloisters, and are of one mind, rising to the service of
God and leaving worldly things, lead their lives in
common. The various offices in the cloister signify the
different mansions, and the difference of rewards in the
Kingdom : for ' In My Father's House are many man-
sions,'^^ saith our Lord. But in a moral sense the
cloister is the contemplative state, into which the soul
betaking itself, is separated from the crowd of carnal
thoughts, and meditateth on celestial things only. In
this cloister there are four sides : denoting, namely,
contempt of self, contempt of the world, love of
God, love of our neighbour. Each side hath his

•^ Numbers i, 47 ; xviii, 6.
•^i r Corinth, xv, 28. «^ S. John xv, 2.

30 The Symbolism of Churches

own row of Columns. Contempt of self hath humilia-
tion of soul, mortification of the flesh, humility of
speech, and the like. The base of all the columns is
patience.

43. In this cloister the diversity of office-chambers is
the diversity of virtues. The chapter-house is the secret
of the heart : concerning this, however, we shall speak
differently hereafter. The refectory is the love of holy
meditation. The cellar, Holy Scripture. The dormi-
tory, a clean conscience. The oratory, a spotless life.
The garden of trees and herbs, the collection of virtues.
The well, the dew of God's heavenly gifts ; which in this
world mitigateth our thirst, and hereafter will quench
it

44. The Episcopal throne, which according to the in-
junctions of Saint Peter has been of old consecrated in
each city (as shall be said below), the piety of our fore-
fathers dedicated, not in memory of confessors, but to
the honour of apostles and martyrs, and especially of
the Blessed Virgin Mary.

45. But we therefore go to church, that we may there
ask for the pardon of our sins, and assist in the divine
praises : as shall be said in the proeme of the fifth book,
and that there we may hear God's proceedings ^° with
the good and the ill, and learn and receive the know-
ledge of God, and that we may there feed on the Lord's
body.

46. In church, men and women sit apart: which,
according to Bede, we have received from the custom of
the ancients : and thence it was that Joseph and Mary
lost the Child Jesus ; since the one who did not behold
Him in his own company, thought Him to be with the
other. . . . But the men remain on the southern, the

^ Such is probably the meaning of the passage. The original is ?// Hi
bona sive mala jiidicia audianms.

Of a Church and its Parts 3 1

women on the northern side : " to signify that the saints
who be most advanced in hoHness should stand against
the greater temptations of this world : and they who be
less advanced, against the less ; or that the bolder and
the stronger sex should take their place in the position
fittest for action : because the Apostle saith, ' God is
faithful, Who will not suffer you to be tempted above
that ye are able.' ^^ To this also pertaineth the vision
of S. John, who ' beheld a mighty angel placing his right
foot in the sea.' ^^ For the stronger members are
opposed to the greater dangers. But, according to others,
the men are to be in the fore part \i.e. eastward], the
women behind : because ' the husband is the head of
the wife,' '"^ and therefore should go before her.

47. A woman must cover her head in the church,
because she is not the image of God, and because by
woman sin began. And therefore in the church, out of
respect for the priest, who is the vicar of Christ, in his
presence, as before a judge, she hath her head covered,
and not at liberty : and on account of the same reverence
she hath not the power of speaking in the church before
him. Of old time, men and women wearing long hair
stood in church with uncovered heads glorying in their
locks : which was a disgrace unto them.

48. But what should be our conversation in church
the Apostle teacheth, saying, ' Speaking to yourselves in
psalms and hymns and spiritual songs.' ''^ Whence we
must, when we be there, abstain from superfluous words :

*^^ This is the practice in some parts of England even to this day : more
especially in Somersetshire. Bp. Montague in his ' Visitation Articles ' (^re-
printed Camb. 1841) asks (p. 17), 'Do men and women sit together in
those seats indifferently and promiscuously ? or (as the fashion was of old),
do men sit together upon one side of the church, and women upon the
other?' And, indeed, of old there was a still further separation on each
side, into the married and unmarried. The restoration of the practice re-
commended by Bp. Montague is much to be wished.

•''' 1 Corinth, x, 13. ^ Apocalypse x, 7.

'" Eph. V, 23, "' Coloss. iii, 16.

32 TJie Symbolisin of Churches

according to 'that saying of S. Chiysostome, When thou
goest into a king's palace, set in order thy conversation
and thy habit. For the angels of the Lord are there :
and the House of God is full of incorporeal virtues.'^
And the Lord saith to Moses, and so doth the angel to
Joshua, ' Put off thy shoes from off thy feet : for the place
where thou standest is holy ground.' ^^

49. In the last place, a consecrated church defendeth
murderers who take sanctuary in it from losing life or
limb, provided that they have not offended in it, or
against it. Whence it is written that ' Joab fled to the
tabernacle, and laid hold on the horns of the altar.' ^^
The same privilege is possessed also by an unconse-
crated church, if the divine offices be therein celebrated.

50. But the body of Christ received by such persons,
doth not defend them nor those who fly to it : partly
because the privilege is granted to a church as a church :
and therefore not to be misbestowed on other things :
partly because that food is the support of the soul, and
not of the body : whence it freeth the soul and not the
body.

51. Churches are moved from one place to another on
three accounts. First, on account of the necessity aris-
ing from persecutors : secondly, on account of the
difficulty of access or habitation, such as the unwholesome-
ness of air : thirdly, when they are oppressed with the
society of evil men : and then with the consent of the
Pope or the bishop. Wherefore he that entereth into a
church fortifieth himself with the sign of the cross, shall
be said in the proeme of the fifth book.'^

" The passage referred to is as follows : — ' Regiam quidem ingrediens, et
habitu et aspectu et incessu et omnibus aliis te ornas et componis : Hie
au*:em vera est Regia et plane hie talia qualia cselestia : — et rides? Atque
scio quidem quod tu non vides. Audi autem quod ubique adsunt angeli,
et maxima in Domo Dei adsistunt Regis, et omnia sunt impleta incorporeis
illus Potestatibus.

^^ Exod. iii, 5. Josh, v, r5. ^'2 Kings i, 28. "^ See Appendix.

CHAPTER II

OF THE ALTAR

The First Builders of Altars — The Difference between Altare and Ara —
Various Significations of Various Kinds of Altars — The Ark of the Testi-
mony— It is preserved in the Lateran Church — What a Man needeth
that he may be the Temple of God — What the Table Signifieth — Of
the Candlestick— Of the Ark— Of the Altar— Of the Altar Cloths- Of
Steps to the Altar.

I. The altar hath a place in the church <^n three ac-
counts, as shall be said in speaking of its dedication.
We are to know that Noe i first, then Isaac 2 and Abra-
ham 2 and Jacob made, as we read, altars : which is
only to be understood of stones set upright, on which
they offered and slew the victims and burnt them with
fire laid beneath them. Also Moses made an altar"* of
shittim wood : and the same was made as an altar of
incense, and covered with pure gold : as we read in the
xxvth chapter of Exodus, where also the form of the
altar is described. From these of the ancient fathers,
the altars of the moderns have their origin, being erected
with four horns at the corners. Of which some are of
one stone, and some are put together of many.

2. And sometimes the words altare and ara are
used in the same sense. Yet is there a difference. For
altare, derived from alta res, or alta ara, is that on which

' Gen. viii, 20. - Gen. xxvi, 25. xxxiii, 20. ■' Gen. xiii, 18.

^ Exodus xxvii, i.

34 The Symbolism of Chzi?rhes

the priests burnt incense. But ara, which is derived
from area, or from ardeo, is that on which sacrifices were
burnt*

3. And note, that many kinds of altars are found in
Scripture : as a higher, a lower, an inner, an outer ; of
which each hath both a plain and a symbolical significa-
tion. The higher altar is God the Trinity : of which it
is written, ' Thou shalt not go up by steps to my altar. '^
And it also signifieth the Church Triumphant : of which
it is said, ' Then shall they offer bullocks upon mine altar.'^
But the lower altar is the Church Militant, of which it is
said, ' If thou wilt make an altar of stone, thou shalt not
make it of hewn stone.' ^ Also it is the table of the
temple. Of which he saith, ' Appoint a solemn day for
your assembly even unto the horns of the altar.' ^ And
in the Third of Kings, it is said that Solomon made a
golden altar.9 But the interior altar is a clean heart, as
shall be said below. It is also a type of faith in the
incarnation, of which in Exodus, 'An altar of earth ye
shall make Me.'^*^ And an interior altar is the altar of
the cross. This is the altar on which they offered the
evening sacrifice. Whence in the Canon of the Mass it
is sdiid,Jube hoc in sublime Altare Tuum perferri}^ More-
over the external altar representeth the sacraments of the
Church : of which it is said, ' Even thine altars, O Lord of
hosts, my King, and my God.'^^ Again, the altar is our

* The true ecclesiastical distinction between altare and ara is that the
former means the altar of the true God, and is therefore alone used in the
Vulgate, answering to the Greek &v(riot.a'rnfiot, as opposed to ara {^i;huiJi.oi), an
altar with an image above it. See Mede. Folio 386.

^ Exodus XX, 26. « Psalm li [^Miserere met), 19.

^ Exodus XX, 25. 8 Psalm cxviii (^Confitemini , 27.

" III Kings vi. 22. ^o Exodus xx 26.

" This prayer, which immediately precedes the Commemoration of the
Dead, runs thus : Supplices Te rogamus, omnipotens Deus, jube hoc
perferri per manus Sancti Angeli Tui, in conspectu Divine Majestatis
Tuae : ut quotquot ex hac Altaris participatione sacrosanctum Filii Tui
Corpus et Sanguinem sumpserimus, omni benedictione caelesti et gratia
repleamur. Per. 1-' Psalm Ixxxiv (^Quam dilecta), 4.

Of the Altar 35

mortification in our heart, in which carnal motions are
consumed by the fervour of the Holy Spirit.

4. Secondly, it also signifieth the Spiritual Church :
and its four horns teach how she hath been extended into
the four quarters of the world. Thirdly, it signifieth
Christ, without whom no gift is offered acceptable to
the Father. Whence also the Church addresseth her
prayers to the Father through Christ alone. Fourthly,
it signifieth the body of Christ, as shall be explained in
the fifth book. Fifthly, it signifieth the table at which
Christ did feast with His disciples.

5. It is written in Exodus, that in the Ark of the
Testament or of the Testimony the witness was laid up :^^
that is, the tables on which the law was written : and it
is said that the Testimony was ther'e laid up, because it
was a bearing witness that the law imprinted on our
hearts by nature God had reimprinted by writing.
Also, there was laid up the golden pot full of manna, for
a testimony that He had given the children of Israel
bread from heaven. And the rod of Aaron, for a
testimony that all power is from God. And the second
tables of the law, in testimony of the covenant in which
they had said, ' All that the Lord hath spoken we will
do.' ^* And on these accounts it is called the Ark of
the Testimony or Testament ; and also the tabernacle of
the testimony thence deriveth its title. But over the
ark was made a mercy seat : of which we shall speak in
the proeme of the fourth book. In imitation whereof
some churches have over the altar an ark or tabernacle,
in which the body of the Lord and relics are preserved.
The Lord also commanded that a candlestick should be
made of beaten pure gold. It is written in the third book
of Kings, that in the Ark of the Covenant was nothing else
than the two tables of stone which Moses put therein

" Exodus XXV, 16, " Exodus xix, 8.

36 TJie Symbolism of ChurcJies

in Horeb : when the Lord made a covenant with the
children of Israel in the day that they came out of the
land of Egypt.

6. And note that in the time of S. Silvester, Pope,^^
Constantine the Emperor built the Lateran church, in
which he placed the Ark of the Testament, which the
Emperor Titus had brought from Jerusalem, and the
golden candlestick with his seven branches. In which
ark are these things : the rings and the staves of gold :
the tables of the testimony : the rod of Aaron : manna :
barley loaves : the golden pot : the seamless garment :
the reed : a garment of S. John Baptist, and the scissors
with which the hair of S. John the Evangelist was shorn.

7. Man, if he hath an altar, a table, a candlestick, and
an ark, he is the temple of God. He must have an
altar, whereon rightly to offer and rightly to distribute.
The altar is our heart, on which we ought to offer.

'^ It is very remarkable that no notice whatever is taken of these relics
by Ciampini in his very minute description of the Lateran Basilica : al-
though in his account both of this, and of all the other Basilican churches
built by Constantine, he copies verbatim the list of the donations of the
Emperor which is given in the life of Pope S. Sylvester, compiled by an
unknown librarian of the Vatican. It is clear that either Durandus was
misinformed, or that the present passage is corrupt. Again, it is not
likely that the vest of S. John Baptist, or the scissors of S. John Evangelist
would have been kept in the ark besides its proper contents. Yet
Durandus had obviously some facts to go upon, since the Lateran Church,
having been originally dedicated to the Saviour, was now under the Invoca-
tion of the two SS. John ; and the sufferings of both these saints were de-
picted in a very ancient mosaic, those of the Evangelist having over them
the following inscription, which we give as describing a Confession of this
Martyr in will, now little known.

Martyrii calicem bibit hie Athleta Johannes
Principium Verbi cernere qui meruit.

Verberat hunc fuste Proconsul, y^r/^'t^ tondet,
Quem fervens oleum lasdere non valuit.

Conditus hie oleum, dolium, cruor, atque capilli,
Quae consecrantur libera Roma tibi.
To return, we may be satisfied that these Jewish memorials did not exist,
since Ciampini, while composing his account, consulted the former writers
upon the Lateran Basilica ; viz. the poet Prudentius, an unedited MS. of
Panvinius, Severanus De Septem Urbis Ecclesiis, and the work of Caesar
Cardinal Rasponus.

Of the Altar 37

Whence the Lord commandeth in Exodus : ' Thou shalt
offer burnt offerings on mine altar.'^^' Since from the
heart words, set on fire of charity, ought to proceed.
Holocaust is derived from Jiolos, wJiole, and cauina^ a
bur?iing : therein signifying a thing wholly burnt. On
this altar we must rightly offer, and we must rightly
divide. We offer rightly when we bring any good
thought to perfection. But we do not rightly divide if
we do it not discreetly. For a man often thinketh to
do good, and doeth ill : and sometimes with one hand he
doeth good and with the other ill ; and thus himself
buildeth, and himself knocketh down. But we then
rightly divide when the good which we do we attribute,
not to ourselves, but to God alone.

8. It behoveth also man to have a table, whence he
may take the bread of the Word of God. By the table
we understand Holy Scripture, concerning which the
Psalm, ' Thou preparest a table before me in the
presence of mine enemies.' ^'^ That is. Thou hast given
me Scripture against the temptations of the devil.
This table then we must have, that is, must lay up in
our minds, that thence we may take the Word of God.
Of the deficiency of this bread saith Jeremiah : ' The
little ones sought bread, and there was none to break
it unto them.^^ It behoveth man likewise to have a
candlestick, that he may shine with good works.

9. A candlestick that giveth light without is a good
work, which by its good example inflameth others. Of
which it is said, ' No man lighteth a candle and putteth
it under a bushel, but in a candlestick.' ^^ This candle,
according to the Word of the Lord, is a good intention :
of which He saith Himself: 'Thine eye is a light.' ^"^
But the eye is the intention. Therefore we ought not

"^ Exodus ix, 2. '^ Psalm xxiii (^Dominus regit tne), 5.

'"* Jeremiah xvi, 7. '^ S. Matthew v, 15. -0 S. Matthew vi, 22.

38 The Symbolism of Churches

to put the candle under a bushel, but in a candlestick.
Because, if we have a good intention, we ought not to
hide it : but to manifest our good deeds to others, for a
light and an example.

10. Man must also have an ark. Now area is derived
from arcendo: discipline, therefore, and regular life may
be called the ark ; by which crimes are driven away
{arcentur) from us. Now in the ark were the rod, the
tables, and the manna : because in the regular life there
must be the rod of correction, that the flesh may be
chastised ; and the table of love, that God may be loved.
For in the tables of the law were written the commands
which pertain to the love of God. Therein must also be
the manna of divine sweetness : that we may ' taste and
see how gracious the Lord is : for it is good to have
to do with Him.'^^ According to that proverb of the
prudent woman, * She tasted and saw that it was good.'^^
Therefore, that we may be the temple of God, let us
have in ourselves an altar of oblation, lest we appear
empty in His presence, according to that saying, ' Thou
shalt iiot appear empty before the presence of thy
God ' : ^^ let us have a table for refection lest we faint,
through hunger, in the way : as saith the Evangelist, ' If
I send them away empty, they will faint in the way,' ^^
a candlestick by good works that we be not idle, as he
saith in Ecclesiasticus, ' Idleness hath taught much mis-
chief,'^^ let us have an ark, that we be not as sons of
Belial, that is, undisciplined, and without the yoke : for
discipline is necessary, as the Psalmist teacheth, saying,
' Be instructed, lest He be angry.' ^^ Concerning which,
and other ornaments, we shall speak in the following
chapter.

-* Psalm xxxiv (^Benedicam Dominuni)^ 8.
22 Prov. xxxi, 18. Marg. reading. -' Exodus xxiii, 15,

-^ S. Mark viii, 3. -^ Ecclesiasticus xxii, 2.

'-' Psalm ii {^Qtiare frevmermit)^ 12.

Of the Altar 39

11. He buildeth this altar who adorneth his heart
with true humility and other virtues. Whence Gregory:
He who gathereth together virtues without humility, is
as he who scattereth dust to the wind. For by the altar
he understandeth our heart, as it shall be said when we
treat of the dedication of the altar : it is in the middle
of the body, as the altar is in the middle of the church."*

12. Concerning which altar the Lord commandeth in
Leviticus : ' The fire shall always be burning upon Mine
altar.' ^' The fire is charity. The altar is a clean
heart. The fire shall always burn on the altar, because
charity should always burn in our hearts. Whence
Solomon in the Canticles : ' Many waters cannot ex-
tingiiish charity,' ^^ for that which ever burneth cannot
be extinguished. Do thou, therefore, as the prophet
commandeth, keep holy day and a solemn assembly,
even to the horns of the altar : because the rest of thy
thoughts will keep holy day. Concerning this the
Apostle showeth ' unto us a more excellent way.' ^^
He calleth charity a more excellent way, because she is
above all virtues : and whoever possesseth her possesseth
all virtues. This is the short word that the Lord
speaketh over the earth : which is so short that it only
saith, ' Have charity, and do whatsoever thou wilt. For
from these two commandments hang all the law and
the prophets.' ^^

13. Or by the altar we understand the soul of every
man, which is by the Lord built up of various living
stones, which are various and different virtues.

14. Furthermore, the white cloths wherewith the altar
is covered signify the flesh of the Saviour, that is. His
humanity : because it was made white with many toils,
as also the flesh of Christ born of earth, that is, of Mary,

-" Lev. vi, 9. -"* Canticles viii, 7.

-" I Corinth xii, 31. ** S. Matthew xxii, 40. * See Appendix I.

40 TJie Syvibolisni of CJiurches

which attained through many tribulations to the glory
of the Resurrection, and the purity and joy of immor-
tality. [Concerning which the Son exulteth, saying to
the Father, 'Thou hast girded me with gladness, and
exalted Me on every side.'^^ When, therefore, the
altar is covered, it signifieth the joining of the soul to
an immortal and incorruptible body.^^] Again, the
altar is covered with white and clean cloths, because
the pure heart is adorned with good works. Whence
the Apocalypse : ' And put on white garments, that the
shame of thy nakedness do not appear.'^^ And Solomon :
' Let thy garments be always white,' ^^ that is, let thy
works be clean. [But it little profiteth him that ap-
proacheth to the altar to have high dignity, and a life
sunk low in sins. Whence Benedict : It is a monstrous
thing, exalted faith, and abandoned life. The highest
step and the lowest state, is mighty authority joined
with instability of soul.^^] The silken coverings placed
over the altar are the ornaments of divers virtues where-
with the soul is adorned. The hanging wherewith the
altar is beautified setteth forth the saints, as below shall
be said. [The beginning and the end of the Mass take
place at the right side of the altar : the middle portion
at the left : as shall be said when we treat of the changes
of the priest. The ancients made their altars concave ;
as it is written in Ezekiel, that in the altar of God was
a trench. And this, according to Gregory, lest the wind
should scatter the sacrifices laid upon it. Also he saith
in Ezekiel that the inner part of the altar was bent
downwards in all its circumference.^^

15. But the steps to the altar [spiritually set forth the

^' Psalm Ixxi (^ Juste, Domine), 21.
^'- This passage does not appear in the edition of Durandus published at
Venice, in 1609.

^^ Apocalypse iii, 18. ^^ Ecclesiastes ix, 8.

^^ This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.

Of the Altar 41

apostles and martyrs of Christ, who for His love poured
out their blood. The bride in the Canticles of Love
calleth it a purple ascent. Also, the fifteen virtues are
set forth by them : which were also typified by the
fifteen steps by which they went up to the temple of
Solomon : ^''J and by the prophet in fifteen Psalms of
degrees, therein setting forth that he is blest who maketh
ascents in his heart. This was the ladder that Jacob
beheld : ' And his top reached to the heavens.' By these
steps the ascent of virtues is sufficiently made mani-
fest, by which we go up to the altar, that is, to Christ :
according to that saying of the Psalmist, ' They go from
virtue to virtue.' ^^ And Job, ' I will seek him through
all my steps.' Yet it is said in Exodus, ' Neither shalt
thou go up by steps to my altar, that thy nakedness be
not discovered thereon.' ^^ For perhaps the ancients
did not as yet use trousers. In the Council of Toledo, it
is decreed that the priest, who for the sake of grief at
the misfortune of another, strippeth the altar or any
image of its garments, [or girdeth himself with a
mourning vest, or with thorns,"^*^] or extinguisheth the
lights of the church, shall be deposed. But if his church
be undeservedly spoiled, he is allowed to do this for
grief: or, according to some, he may on the day of the
Passion of our Lord make bare the altars as a sign of
grief Which is, however, reprobated by the Council of
Lyons. Lastly, altars which have been built at the
instigation of dreams, or the empty revelations of men,
are altogether reprobated.

^^ This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.
** Psalm Ixxxiv (^Quat)i dilecta)^ 7. ** Exodus xx, 26.

^" This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.

CHAPTER III

OF PICTURES, AND IMAGES, AND CURTAINS, AND THE
ORNAMENTS OF CHURCHES

Use of Pictures and Curtains — Objections against the Use, answered —
Place of Pictures — The Saviour, how Represented — The Angels —
The Evangelists — The Apostles — The Patriarchs — S. John Baptist —
MartjTS — Confessors — Institution of Pictures— Of Crowns — Of
Paradise — Of the General Ornament of Churches — Of Pyxes — Of
Relicaries— Of Candlesticks— Of Cups— Of the Cross— Of Altar
Cloths and Veils — The Treasures of the Church, when Displayed, and
why — Of Ostrich Eggs — Of Vessels for the Holy Mysteries — Of
Chalices — General Observations on the Respect due to Church
Ornaments.

I. Pictures and ornaments in churches are the lessons
and the Scriptures of the laity. Whence Gregory : It
is one thing to adore a picture, and another by means
of a picture historically to learn what should be adored.
For what writing supplieth to him which can read, that
doth a picture supply to him which is unlearned, and
can only look. Because they who are uninstructed thus
see what they ought to follow : and things are read,
though letters be unknown. True is it that the Chal-
deans, which worship fire, compel others to do the same,
and burn other idols. But Paynim adore images, as
icons, and idols ; which Saracens do not, who neither
will possess nor look on images, grounding themselves
on that saying, ' Thou shalt not make to thyself any
graven image, nor the likeness of anything that is in
heaven above, nor in the earth beneath, nor in the waters

Of Pictures and Images 43

under the earth,' ' and on other the Hke authorities :
these they follow incontinently, casting the same in our
teeth. But we worship not images, nor account them
to be gods, nor put any hope of salvation in them : for
that were idolatry. Yet we adore them for the memory
and remembrance of things done long agone.^ Whence
the verse,^

What time thou passest by the rood, bow humbly evermore ;
Yet" not the rood, but Him which there was crucified, adore.

And again : ^

That thing, which hath his being given, 'tis fond for God to own :
A form material, carved out by cunning hands, in stone.

And again : ^

The form is neither God nor man, which here thou dost behold :
He very God and Man, of whom thou by that form art told.

2. The Greeks, moreover, employ painted representa-
tions, painting, it is said, only from the navel upwards,
that all occasion of vain thoughts may be removed.
But they make no carved image, as it is written, ' Thou
shalt not make a graven image.' ^ And again: 'Thou
shalt not make an idol, nor a graven image.' ' And
again, ' Lest ye be deceived, and make a graven image.'^
And again : ' Ye shall not make unto you gods of

' Exodus XX, 4.
- Veneramiir. — We here use the word adore in the sense given to it by
the great and good Bishop Montague, in his 'Just Treatise of Invocation ' :
where he says, speaking of the Saints, ' I do admire, reverence, adore them
in their kind.'

^ Effigiem Christi, quum transis, pronus honora :
Non tamen effigiem, sed quem designat, adora.
•* Esse Deum, ratione caret, cui consulit esse :

Materiale lapis, effigale manus.
'" Nee Deus est, nee homo, quam prcesens cernis imago;
Sed Deus est et Homo, quem sacra figurat imago.
The later editions add —

Nam Deus est, quod imago docet, sed non Deus ipse ;
Hunc videas, sed mente colas, quod noscis in ipsa.
^ Deut. V, 8. ^ Lev. xxvi. i. ^ Deut. iv, 16.

44 1^^^^ Symbolisin of Churches

silver : ^ neither shall ye make with Me gods of gold.'
So also the Prophet, * Their idols are silver and gold,
the work of man's hand. They that make them are
like unto them : and so are all they that put their trust
in them.' ^*^' And again : ' Confounded be all they that
worship graven images : and that put their glory in
their idols.' ^^

3. Also, Moses saith to the children of Israel, * Lest
perchance thou shouldest be deceived, and shouldest
worship that which the Lord thy God hath created.' ^^
Hence also was it that Hezekiah King of Judah brake
in pieces the brazen serpent which Moses set up :
because the people, contrary to the precepts of the law,
burnt incense to it.

4. From these forementioned and other authorities,
the excessive use of images is forbidden. The Apostle
saith also to the Corinthians, ' We know that an idol
is nothing in the world : and there is no god but One.' ^^
For they who are simple and infirm may easily by an
excessive and indiscreet use of images, be perverted to
idolatry. Whence he saith in Wisdom, ' There shall
be no respect of the idols of the nations, which have
made the creatures of God hateful, and temptations
for the souls of men, and snares for the feet of the
unwise.' ^^ ^^ But blame there is none in a moderate
use of pictures, to teach how ill is to be avoided, and
good followed. Whence saith the Lord to Ezekiel, ' Go
in, and behold the abominations which these men do.
And he went in, and saw the likeness of reptiles and
beasts, and the abominations, and all the idols of the

" Exodus XX, 20. '•* Psalm cxv, 4. '• Psalm xcvii, 7.

1- Deut. iv, 19. '^ I Corinth, viii, 4. " Wisdom xiv, ii.

'^ A more solemn protest against the sin of idolatry can hardly be
found than the above passage : and they who brand every return to, and
every wish for the restoration of, Catholic practices, by so hateful a name,
would do well to bear it in mind.

Of Pictures and Images 45

house of Israel portrayed on the wall.'^" Whence
saith Pope Gregory in his Pastorale, When the forms of
external objects are drawn into the heart, they are as it
were painted there, because the thoughts of them are
their images. Again, He saith to the same Ezekiel,
' Take a tile, and lay it before thee, and describe in it
the city Jerusalem.' ^'' But that which is said above,
that pictures are the letters of the laity explaineth that
saying in the Gospel, ' He saith. They have Moses and
the prophets : let them hear them.' ^'- Of this, more
hereafter. The Agathensian ^^ Council forbids pictures
in churches : and also that that which is worshipped and
adored should be painted on the walls. But Gregory
saith, that pictures are not to be put away because they
are not to be worshipped : for paintings appear to move
the mind more than descriptions ; for deeds are placed
before the eyes in paintings, and so appear to be actually
carrying on. But in description, the deed is done as it
were by hearsay : which affecteth the mind less when
recalled to memory. Hence, also, is it that in churches
we pay less reverence to books than to images and
pictures.

5. Of pictures and images some are above the church,
as the cock and the eagle : some without the church,
namely, in the air in front of the church, as the ox and
the cow : others within, as images, and statues, and
various kinds of painting and sculpture : and these be
represented either in garments, or on walls, or in stained
glass. Concerning some of which we have spoken in
treating of the church : and how they are taken from
the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon.
For Moses made carved work, and Solomon made
carved work, and pictures, and adorned the walls with
paintings and frescoes.

"* Ezekiel viii, 10. " Ezekiel iv, i. "^ S. Luke xvi, 29. '" A.D. 605

46 The Syinholisin of Churches

6. The image of the Saviour is more commonly repre-
sented in churches three ways : as sitting on ^^ His
throne, or hanging on His cross, or lying on the bosom
of His Mother. And because John Baptist pointed to
Him, saying, ' Behold the Lamb of God,' ^^ therefore some
represented Christ under the form of a lamb. But be-
cause the light passeth away, and because Christ is very
man, therefore, saith Adrian, Pope, He must be repre-
sented in the form of a man. A holy lamb must not be

-" Durandus had doubtless in his mind the ancient mosaic over the
apsides of the earliest churches in Rome. The extremely beautiful one in
San Clemente represents our Lord as crucified. The frescoes with which
the walls of our own churches were anciently adorned, seem usually to
have represented the Saviour as seated on the Throne of His Majesty. In
the chancel of Widford, Herts, is, or was till lately, a fresco of the Saviour
seated on a rainbow, a sword proceeding from His mouth, His feet and
His hands pierced. In Alfriston, Sussex, there was, we believe, before it
was whitewashed over by Bishop Buckner's order, a painting- of a similar
kind. There is a singular, and, we believe, undescribed painting over the
altar in Llandanwg church, Merion. The Saviour is seated in judg-
ment, as before : at His side is His Blessed Mother in a kneeling posture :
around Him are angels blowing trumpets, and S. Peter in eucharistical
vestments. There is a representation of the souls under the altar. Below
are devils torturing souls in cauldrons of brimstone. The evangelistic
symbols are also represented.

In a fresco at Beverstone, Gloucestershire, our Saviour is represented on
the Cross, with blood flowing from His side into a chalice. (See App. I.)
There are remains also of a crucifixion in fresco, in the exquisite, but
desecrated chapel of Prior Crauden, in the Deanery, Kiy. On the Iconostasis
of the Greco-Russian Church, all the three positions are to be found.

In stained glass, the Crucifixion generally supplies the place of any
other representation of the Saviour. Brasses occasionally, as a very curi-
ous one in Cobham, Surrey, represent His nativity or epiphany : but
most commonly the Crucifixion, or a Trinity.

There can be no doubt, that many of the most graphic pictures in our
old poets owed their origin to the then undestroyed fresco paintings of
churches. Some painting, like that above described, of hell, very pro-
bably suggested the noble lines of Spenser (i. ix. 50. 6) :
He showed him painted in a table plaine.
The damned ghosts that doe in torments waile.
And thousand feends that doe them endless paine
With fire and brimstone, which for ever shall remaine.
Who can estimate the effect of such pictorial representations on the minds
of our ancestors ? or the good which might be the result, if our churches were
again frescoed with similar subjects, wrought with the genius and Catholic
feeling of an Overbeck or Cornelius ?

-' S. John i, 29.

Of Pictures and Images 47

depicted on the cross, as a principal object : but there is
no let when Christ hath been represented as a man, to
paint a lamb in a lower or less prominent part of the
picture : since He is the true Lamb which ' taketh away
the sins of the world.' In these and divers other
manners is the image of the Saviour painted, on account
of diversity of significations.

7. Represented in the cradle, the artist commemora-
teth His nativity : on the bosom of His Mother, His
childhood : the painting or carving His cross signifieth
His Passion (and sometimes the sun and moon are re-
presented on the cross itself, as suffering an eclipse) :
when depicted on a flight of steps. His ascension is
signified : when on a state or lofty throne, we be taught
His present power : as if He said, ' All things are given
to Me in heaven and in earth : ' -^ according to that say-
ing, ' I saw the Lord sitting upon His throne : ' ^^ that is,
reisfnincr over the angels : as the text, ' Which sitteth
upon the cherubim.' ^"^ Sometimes He is represented as
He was seen of Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, on
the mountain : when ' under His feet was as it were a
paved work of sapphire stones, and as the body of heaven
in His clearness : ' -^ and as ' they shall see,' as saith S.
Luke, ' the Son of Man coming in the clouds with power
and great glory. -^ Wherefore sometimes He is repre-
sented surrounded by the seven angels that serve Him,
and stand by His throne, each being portrayed with
six wings, according to the vision of Isaiah, ' And by it
stood the seraphim : each one had six wings : with
twain he covered his face, and with twain he covered his
feet, and with twain he did fly.' -^

8. The angels are also represented as in the flower of

" S. Matt, xxviii, 18. '^ Isaiah vi, I.

-* Psalm Ixxx, i. -^ Exodus xxiv, 10.

-^ S. Matthew xxiv, 30. -^ Isaiah vi, 2.

48 TJie Syinbolisin of Cliurches

youthful age: for they never grow old.^^ Sometimes
S. Michael is represented trampling the dragon, accord-
ing to that of John, ' There was war in heaven : Michael
fought with the dragon.' Which was to represent the
dissensions of the angels : the confirmation of them that
were good, and the ruin of them that were bad : or the
persecution of the faithful in the Church Militant.
Sometimes the twenty-four elders are painted around
the Saviour, according to the vision of the said John,
with ' white garments, and they have on their heads
crowns of gold.' ^^ By which are signified the doctors
of the Old and New Testament ; which are twelve, on
account of faith in the Holy Trinity preached through the
four quarters of the world : or twenty-four, on account
of good works, and the keeping of the gospels. ^^ If
the seven lamps be added, the gifts of the Holy Spirit
are represented : if the sea of glass, baptism.^^

9. Sometimes also representation is made of the four
living creatures spoken of in the visions of Ezekiel and
the aforesaid John : the face of a man and the face of a

^ Many of our readers will call to mind the peculiar expression always
^iven to the countenances of angels in Catholic illuminations or paintings,
a conventional propriety uniformly neglected by modern artists. The
same character was beautifully given in the relieved figures of angels upon
the shrine of S. Henry lately exhibiting in London.

'^^ Apocalypse xii, 7. ^" Apocalypse iv, 4.

^' This very obscure passage is an instance of the symbolism in the com-
bination of numbers. It seems to mean that faith in the Holy Trinity
preached through the four quarters of the world, may be represented by
three multiplied into four or twelve : and again, this symbolical fact multi-
plied by general good works and keeping of the Gospels, may be set forth
in twenty-four. It is to be remarked that the princeps edition alone gives
Evangeliorimx : the later have Evangelist arum, which with observantia is
scarcely intelligible. Compare S. August, Expos, in Psalm Ixxxvi.
Non solum ergo illi duodecim (sc. Apostoli) et Apostolus Paulus, sed
quotquot judicaturi sunt, propter significationem universitatis ad sedes
duodenas pertinent . . . partes enim mundi quatuor sunt, Oriens, Occidens,
Aquilo, et Meridies. Istse quatuor partes assidue inveniuntur in
Scripturis. Ab istis quatuor ventus, sicut dixit Dominus in Evangelio
vocatur Ecclesia. Quomodo vocatur ? Undique in Trinitate vocatur.
Quatuor ergo terducta duodecim inveniuntur. See also S. Isidore, Alleg.
in S. S. folio 353, C. D.

Of Pictures and Images 49

lion on the right, — the face of an ox on the left, and the
face of an eagle above the four. These be the Four
Evangelists. Whence they be painted with books by
their feet, because by their words and writings they
have instructed the minds of the faithful, and accom-
plished their own works. Matthew hath the figure of a
man, Mark of a lion. These be painted on the right
hand : because the nativity and the resurrection of
Christ were the general joy of all : whence in the Psalms :
' And gladness at the morning.' ^^ But Luke is the ox :
because he beginneth from Zachary the priest, and
treateth more specially of the Passion and Sacrifice of
Christ : now the ox is an animal fitted for sacrifice. He
is also compared to the ox, because of the two horns, —
as containing the two testaments ; and the four hoofs, as
having the sentences of the four Evangelists.^^ By this
also Christ is figured, who was the sacrifice for us : and
therefore the ox is painted on the left side, because the
death of Christ was the trouble of the apostles. Con-
cerning this, and how blessed Mark ^^ is depicted, in the
seventh part. But John hath the figure of the eagle :
because, soaring to the utmost height, he saith, ' In the
beginning was the word.' ^^ This also representeth

^- Psalm XXX {Exaltabo TV), 5. These symbols, however, were not at
first definitely settled, and as we are informed by S. Austin, the lion was
sometimes given to S. Matthew and the angel and or man, to S. Mark.
The reasons of the appropriation of the various symbols are beautifull}'
expressed in a hymn quoted in the Camden's Society's ' Illustrations of
Monumental Brasses,' Part I, p. 30.

^ This passage is very obscure. Durandus's words are, qnasi qtiatuor
evatigelistoritm sententias. We cannot but think that the two sentences
have been misplaced. The sense is then plain. Christ is also signified
by the ox— as containing in Himself the Law and the Gospel — and
accomplishing that which is written of Him by the four Evangelists, e.g.
His promises of the descent of the Holy Ghost, of being always with
His Church, etc. S. Peter Chrysologus, Sermo v. de Christo, Hie est
Vitiihis, qui in Epulam nostram quotidie, et jugiter immolatur.

^' S. Mark is painted with a contracted brow, a large nose, fair eyes,
bald, a long beard, fair complexion, of middle age, with a few grey hairs.
Durand. vii, 44, 4.

^ S. John i, I.

50 TJie Syiiibolisni of Churches

Christ, ' Whose youth is renewed like the eagle's ' : ^^
because, rising from the dead, He ascendeth into heaven.
Here, however, it is not portrayed as by the side, but
as above, since it denoteth the ascension, and the word
pronounced of God. But how, since each of the living
creatures hath four faces and four wings, they can be de-
picted, shall be said hereafter.^'^

lo. Sometimes there are painted around, or rather
beneath, the Apostles ; who were His witnesses by deed
and word to the ends of the earth : and they are por-
trayed with long hair, as Nazarenes, that is, holy persons.
For the law of the Nazarenes was this : from the time of
their separation from the ordinary life of man, no razor
passed upon their heads. They are also sometimes
painted under the form of twelve sheep : because they
were slain like sheep for the Lord's sake : and some-
times the twelve tribes of Israel are so represented.
When, however, more or less sheep than twelve are
painted, then another thing is signified, according to
that saying of Matthew, 'When the Son of Man shall
come in His glory — then shall He sit on the throne of
His glory : and before Him shall be gathered all nations,
and He shall separate them one from the other, as a

^ Psalm ciii (^Benedic^ anvna jiien), 5.
3^ Durandus, book vii, 44, ' S. Matthew is signified by a man, because
his Gospel is principally occupied concerning the humanity of Christ :
whence his history beginneth from his human pedigree. S. Mark by a
lion, which roareth in the desert : for he chiefly describeth the Resurrec-
tion : whence his Gospel is read on Easter day. But the lion is said to
rouse his whelps on the third day after their birth. His Gospel beginneth,
'The voice of one crying in the wilderness.' S. Luke by the ox, an animal
fit for sacrifice : because he dwelleth on the Passion of Christ. S. John by
the eagle, because he soareth to the Divinity of Christ, while the others
walk with their Lord on earth. The Evangelists be likewise set forth by
the four rivers of Paradise : John by Pison ; Matthew by Gihon ; Luke by
Euphrates ; Mark by Tigris : — as is clearly proved by Innocent III, in a
certain sermon on the Evangelists.' — We may add, that the finest represent-
ation of the evangelistic symbols with which we are acquainted in this
countr}', occurs in the chancel of Oxted church, Surrey.

Of Pictures and linages 5 1

shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats.' ^^ How
the Apostles Bartholomew and Andrew are to be painted,
shall be said hereafter/^'*

11. And note that the patriarchs and prophets arc
painted with wheels in their hands. Some of the
apostles with books and some with wheels : namely,
because before the advent of Christ the faith was set forth
under figures, and many things were not yet made clear ;
to represent this, the patriarchs and prophets are painted
with wheels, to signify that imperfect knowledge. But
because the apostles were perfectly taught of Christ,
therefore the books, which are the emblems of this perfect
knowledge, are open. But because some of them re-
duced their knowledge in writing, to the instruction of
others, therefore fittingly they are represented with
books in their hands like doctors. So Paul, and the
Evangelists, Peter, James, and Jude. But others, who
wrote nothing which has lasted, or been received into
the canon by the Church, are not portrayed with books
but with w^heels, as a type of their preaching. Whence
the Apostle to the Ephesians, ' And he gave some apostles,
and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some
pastors and teachers for the work of the ministry.' ^^

12. But the Divine Majesty is also portrayed with a
closed book in the hands : ' which no man was found
worthy to open but the Lion of the tribe of Juda.' ^^
And sometimes with an open book : that in it every
one may read that ' He is the Light of the world ' : ^-

** S. Matthew xxv, >i.

*' S. Bartholomew is represented with black and grizzled hair, fair
complexion, large eyes, straight nose, long beard, few grey hairs, moderate
height, with a high white neck, clothed in purple, with a white pall, having
purple gems at each angle. Durand. vii, 25, 2.

S. Andrew had a dark complexion, long beard, moderate height. This
is therefore said, that ye may know how he ought to be painted : which
should be known of the other apostles and saints. Durand. vii, 38, i.

^" Ephes. iv, 11. ^' Apocalypse v, 2. ^- S. John viii, 12.

52 TJie Symbolism of Churches

• and the Way, the Truth, and the Life ' : ^^ and the
Book of Life [is also portrayed]. But why Paul is
represented at the right, and Peter at the left of the
Saviour, we shall show hereafter.

13. John Baptist is painted as a hermit.

14. Martyrs with the instruments of their torture : as
S. Laurence with the gridiron : S. Stephen with stones :
and sometimes with palms, which signify victory, accord-
ing to that saying, 'The righteous shall flourish like a
palm-tree : ^^ as a palm-tree ^^ flourishes, so his memory
is preserved. Hence is it that palmers, they who come
from Jerusalem, bear palms in their hands in token that
they have been the soldiers of that King Who was
gloriously received in the earthly Jerusalem with palms :
and Who afterwards, having in the same city subdued
the devil in battle, entered the palace of heaven in
triumph with His angels, where the just shall flourish
like a palm-tree, and shall shine like stars.

15. Confessors are painted with their insignia, as
bishops with their mitres, abbots with their hoods : and
some with lilies,^*^ which denote chastity. Doctors with
books in their hands : virgins, according to the Gospel,'^'
with lamps.

16. Paul with a book and a sword : with a book, as a
doctor, or with reference to his conversion : with a
sword as ^^ a soldier. Whence the verse :

*=* S. John xiv, 6. " Psalm xcii, 12.

■*^ This explanation differs from that usually received : namely, that the
righteous flourishes best in adversity : as the palm-tree grows fasteth when
loaded with weights.

^^ So in the beautiful hymn at Lauds in the commemoration of a virgin
martyr, of the Parisian Breviary :

Liliis Sponsus recubat, rosisque ;
Tu, tuo semper bene fida Sponso
Et rosas Martyr, simul et dedisti
Lilia Virgo.
^' S. Matthew xxv, i.

^^ This is undoubtedly a mistake : the sword represents in this case, as
in others, the instrument of martyrdom.

Of Pictures and Images 53

The sword denotes the ire of Saul,
The book, the power converting^ Paul.

17. Generally the effigies of the holy fathers are por-
trayed on the walls of the church, or on the back panels
of the altar, or on vestments, or in other various places,
so that we may meditate perpetually, not indiscreetly or
uselessly, on their holiness. Whence in Exodus it is
commanded by the divine law, that in the breast of
Aaron, the breastplate of judgment should be bound ^'^
with strings : because fleeting thoughts should not
occupy the mind of a priest, which should be girt by
reason alone. In this breastplate also, according to
Gregory, the names of the twelve patriarchs are com-
manded to be carefully inscribed.

18. To bear the fathers thus imprinted on the breast,
is to meditate on the lives of ancient saints without
intermission. But then doth the priest wall: blamelessly
when he gazeth continually on the example of the
fathers which have gone before, when he considereth
without ceasing the footsteps of the saints, and re-
presseth unholy thoughts, lest he wander beyond the
limits of right reason.

19. It is to be noted that the Saviour is always repre-
sented as crowned, as if he said, ' Come forth, children
of Jerusalem, and behold King Solomon in the diadem
with which his mother crowned him.' ^^ But Christ was
triply crowned. First by His Mother on the day of His
conception, with crown of pity : which was a double
crown : on account of what He had by nature, and what
was given Him : therefore also it is called a diadem,
which is a double crown. Secondly, by His step-mother
in the day of His Passion, with the crown of misery.
Thirdl}', by His Father in the day of His Resurrection,
with the crown of glory : whence it is written, ' O Lord,

^•' Exodus xxviii, 22. ^' Canticles iii, 1 1.

54 The Symbolism of Churches

Thou hast crowned Him with glory and honour.' ^^
Lastly, He shall be crowned by His whole family, in the
last day of Revelation, with the crown of power. For
He shall come with the judges of the earth to judge the
world in righteousness. So also all saints are portrayed
as crowned, as if they said : Ye children of Jerusalem,
behold the martyrs with the golden crowns wherewith
the Lord hath crowned them. And in the book of
Wisdom : * The just shall receive a kingdom of glory,
and a beautiful diadem from the hand of their
God.' 52

20. But their crown is made in the fashion of a round
shield : because the saints enjoy the divine protection.
Whence they sing with joy : ' Lord, Thou hast crowned
us with the shield of Thy favour.' ^^ But the crown of
Christ is represented under the figure of a cross : * and is
thereby distinguished from that of the saints : because
by the banner of His cross He gained for Himself the
glorification of His humanity, and for us freedom from
our captivity, and the enjoyment of everlasting life.
But when any living ^^ prelate or saint is portrayed,
the glory is not fashioned in the shape of a shield, but
four-square : that he may be shown to flourish in the
four cardinal virtues : as it is contained in ^^ the legend
of blessed Gregory.

21. Again, sometimes Paradise is painted in churches,
that it may attract the beholders to a following after its

*' Psalm viii (^Domine Dominus)^ 5.

•'•- Wisdom V, 16. ^ Psalm v (^Verha juea), 12. * See Appendix I.

^* This does not appear to have prevailed in England. The nearest
contemporary effigy of a saint which we have observed in stained glass, is
that of S. Thomas, of Hereford, in the church of Cothelstone, Somerset-
shire. Here the glory is, as usual, of the circular form. As also in the
fresco of the martyrdom of S. Thomas of Canterbury, in Preston church.
Sussex, which is nearly contemporarj-. (See Appendix 1.)

^ This refers to the account given by Paulus Diaconus of the visible
effulgence which surrounded the head of this great doctor when he was
dictating his works.

Of Pictures and Images 55

rewards : sometimes hell, that it may terrify them by the
fear of punishment.'^'' Sometimes flowers ^^ are por-
trayed, and trees : to represent the fruits of good works
springing from the roots of virtues.

22. Now the variety of pictures denoteth the diver-
sity of virtues. For ' to one is given by the Spirit the
word of wisdom : to another the word of knowledge,'
etc.^^ But virtues are represented under the forms of
women : because they soothe and nourish. Again, by
the ceilings or vaultings, which are for the beauty of the
house, the more unlearned servants of Christ are set
forth, who adorn the Church, not by their learning, but
by their virtues alone.

The carved images which project from the walls, ap-
pear as it were to be coming out of it : because when by
reiterated custom virtues so pertain to the faithful, that
they seem naturally implanted in them, tliey are exer-
cised in all their various operations. How a synagogue
is depicted, shall be said hereafter : as also how the pall
of the Roman Pontiff: and the year^'^ and the zodiacal
signs and its months. But the diverse histories of the

^ 'A monk named Constantine set before the prince those judgments
of God which are in all the world, and the retribution of the life to come :
his discourse powerfully affected the heathen monarch (XHadimir, after-
wards S. Vladimir) ; and this was particularly the case when the monk
pointed out to him on an icon, which represented the Last Judgment, the
different lot of the good and the wicked. " Good to those on the right
hand— woe to those on the left,'' exclaimed Vladimir, deeply affected.' —
MouraviefPs ' Hist, of the Russian Church,' p. 11, On which his translator,
the Rev. R. W. Blackmore, sensibly remarks, ' Whatever may be the
right view of the abstract question respecting icons, and the showing
outward respect to them, the Russians at least cannot reasonably be
blamed for revering a usage which was made the means, in part at least, of
so blessed a result as the conversion of the great Prince Vladimir, the
Constantine of their church and nation '

*'' This flower work is excessively common in Norman churches : that
of S. Sepulchre's, at Cambridge, was a notable example of it.

5« 1 Corinth, xii, 8.

'•'^ These are often to be found round Norman doors : as in that of S.
Laurence, at York, and Egleton, Rutland.

56 The Syvibolisni of Churches

Old and New-Testaments may be represented after the
fancy of the painter. For

Pictoribus atque poetis
Quod libet "" addendi semper fuit seque potestas.

23. Furthermore, the ornaments of the church con-
sist of three things : — the ornaments of the nave,^^ the
choir, and the altar. The ornaments of the nave consist
in dorsals, tapestry, mattings, and cushions of silk, purple,
and the like. The ornaments of the choir consist in
dorsals, tapestry, carpets, and cushions. Dorsals are
hangings of cloth at the back of the clergy. Mattings,
for their feet. Tapestry is likewise strewed under the
feet, particularly under the feet of bishops, who ought to
trample worldly things under their feet. Cushions are
placed on the seats or benches of the choir.

24. But the ornament of the altar consists in portfolios,
altar cloths, relicaries, candlesticks, crosses, an orfray,
banners, missals, coverings, and curtains.

25. And notice, that the portfolio in which the conse-
crated host is kept, signifieth the frame of the blessed
Virgin, concerning which it is said in the Psalms, 'Arise,
O Lord into Thy resting place.' ^^ Which sometimes
is of wood : sometimes of white ivory : sometimes
of silver : sometimes of gold : sometimes of crystal :
and according to the different substances of which
it is made, designateth the various dignities of the
body of Christ. Again, the pyx which containeth
the host, whether consecrated or not consecrated,
typifieth the human memory. For a man ought to
hold in remembrance continually the benefits of God, as
well temporal, which are represented by the unconse-

^ A false reading, of course ; yet not without its appropriate sense—
the power of adding any ornamental circumstance to the main subject.

^^ Ecclesice : here undoubtedly the nave : as often clmrch is so used
in our prayer-book. ^2 Psalm cxxxii [Domine^ msmento\ 8.

Of Pictures and Images 57

crated, as spiritual, which are set forth by the conse-
crated host. Which was also set forth by the urn in
which God commanded that the manna should be
deposited : which, albeit it was temporal, prefigured
nevertheless this our spiritual sacrifice, when the Lord
commanded that it should be laid up for an everlasting
memorial unto future generations. But the pyx, being
placed on the altar, which is Christ, signifieth apostles
and martyrs. And the altar cloths and coverings are
confessors and virgins, or all saints : of whom saith the
Prophet to the Lord, ' Thou shalt be clothed with them
as with a garment' And of these we have spoken
above.

26. Now there is a difference between pJiylacteriiun
diwd phylacten'a. PJiylacteriuni is a scroll on which the
ten commandments were written : and this kind of
scroll the Pharisees used to wear on the front part of
their garments, as a sign of devotion. Whence in the
Gospel, ' They make broad their phylacteries.' ^^ And
the word is derived from philare, which is to keep^ and
teras, which is law. But phylacteria (a relicary) is
a vessel of silver or gold, or crystal, or ivory, or some
substance of the same kind, in which the ashes and
relics of the saints are kept. For when Vigilantius
called the faithful Cinericii!^'^ because the}^ preserved
the ashes themselves, to testify contempt of his decision,
it was ordered by the Church that they should be
honourably preserved in precious vessels. And the
name is derived from pJiilare, which is to p?'eserve, and
teron, which is an extremity, because in them some

^ S. Matthew xxiii, 5.
*" Ais, Vigilantium, qui kcct uvTl^ppaffiv hoc vocatur nomine (nam
Dormitantius rectius diceretur), os foetidum rursum aperire, et putorem
spurcissimum contra sanctorum martyrum proferre relliquias, et nos, qui
eas suscepimus, appellare cinerarios. — S. Hieron, in Epp. See also the
' Church of the Fathers,' 2nd ed. chapter xv.

58 TJie SyjJibolisrn of Churches

portion of the. extremities of the bodies of saints is pre-
served : such as a tooth or a finger, or somewhat of the
like kind. Over the altar in some churches also is
placed a shrine : of which we have spoken in our section
on the Altar.

27. At the horns of the altar "^^ two candlesticks are
placed to signify the joy of Jews and Gentiles at the
nativity of Christ: which candlesticks, by means of a
flint, have their wicks lighted. For the angel saith to
the shepherds, ' I bring you good tidings of great joy,
which shall be to all people : for to you is born this
day the Saviour of the world.^^ He is the true Isaac^'^
which being interpreted, is laughter. Now the light of
the candlestick is the faith of the people. For to the
Jewish people, saith the Prophet, ' Arise, shine, for thy
light is come : and the glory of the Lord is risen upon
thee.' ^^ But to the Gentiles the Apostle saith, ' Ye were
sometimes darkness, but are now light in the Lord.' ^^
For before the birth of Christ a new star appeared to
the wise men, according to the prophecy of Balaam.
' There shall rise,' saith he, ' a star out of Jacob, and a
sceptre out of Israel.' '^ Concerning this we have also
spoken in our section of the Altar.

28. The snuffers or scissors for trimming the lamps
are the divine words by which men amputate the legal
titles of the law, and reveal the shining spirit, according
to that saying, 'Ye shall eat old store, and bring forth the
old because of the new.'^^ The vessels in the which
the wicks, when snuffed, are extinguished, are the hearts
of the faithful, which admit the legal observance to the
letter.

^^ This use of two candlesticks is very remarkable : as giving- fresh
authority to the custom of the English Church.

«*>■ S. Luke ii, 10. •^'Genesis xvii, 17, 19. ''^Isaiah Ix, i.

"" Ephes. V, 8. ""Numbers xxiv, 7. "' Leviticus xxvi, 10.

Of Pictures and Images 59

29. Again, the tongs, by the double tooth of which the
fire is arranged, are preachers ; who instruct us by the
accordant pages of both Testaments, and by their be-
haviour setting us right, inflame us to the practice of
charity.

30. But the scuta, that is cups, of equal size at top and
bottom, made for warming water, are those doctors who
do not conceal the treasure of their hearts : but ' bring
forth out of it things new and old':'^ as a 'candle which
is not put under a bushel, but in a candlestick,' ~'-' that
they who are in the house of the Lord may receive the
light and the heat of the Holy Ghost.

31. The cross also is to be placed on the altar that the
cross-bearers may thence raise it : in which action we
commemorate how Simon the Cyrenian took the cross
from the shoulders of Christ and bore it. Between the
two candlesticks the cross is placed on the cltar : because
Christ standeth in the church, the Mediator between two
peoples. For He is the Corner-stone, ' Who hath made
both one ' : '^ to Whom the shepherds came from Judsea,
and the wise men from the East. Concerning this we
shall hereafter speak in another sense, when treating of
the priest's approach to the altar.

32. Again, the front of the altar is ornamented with
an orfray. As it is written : ' Thou shalt make Me an
altar, and shalt make a crown in a circle about it of four
fingers' breadth.' '^^ The altar, ye know, sometimes
signifieth the heart : in which the sacrifice of true faith
must be offered by contrition : and then the orfray
signifieth the taking in hand of a good occupation :
wherewith we ought to adorn our foreheads, that we
may give light to others. Sometimes the altar signifieth
Christ : and then by the orfray the ornament of charity

" S. Matthew xiii, 52. "^ S. Matthew v, 15. •' Ephesians ii, 14.

''" Exodus xxvii, 4.

6o TJie Syinbolisin of CJiurches

is fitly represented. For as gold hath the superiority
over all metals, so hath charity over other virtues.
Whence the Apostle, in the first to the Corinthians : ' But
the greatest of these is charity.' '^ For our faith ought
to be adorned with the orfray of charity, that we may be
ready to lay down our lives for Christ's sake. Banners
are also suspended above the altars : that in the church
that triumph of Christ may evermore be held in mind,
by which we also hope to triumph over our enemy.

33. The book of the Gospel is fixed on the altar,
because the Gospel hath Christ for its author, and
beareth witness, to Him. Which book is therefore
adorned on his outside, for the cause that we shall
make mention of hereafter. Next, the vessels and
utensils in the house of the Lord had their origin from
Moses and Solomon : which in the Old Testament were
many and diverse, as it is written in Exodus, and having
divers significations, concerning which, for the sake of
brevity, we will not in this place treat.

34. Now all things which pertain to the ornament of a
church, must be removed or covered over in the season
of Lent : which according to some taketh place on
Passion Sunday, because after that time the Divinity of
Christ was hidden and concealed in Him. For He gave
Himself up to be betrayed and scourged, as if He were
only man, and had not in Him the virtue of divinity :
whence in the Gospel of this day it is written, ' But
Jesus hid Himself, and went out of the temple.' ^"
Then therefore the crosses are covered, that is, the
virtue of His divinity is hidden. Others do this from
the first Sunday of Lent : because after that time the
Church beginneth to treat of His Passion. Whence in
that time the cross must not be borne in procession

^« I Corinth, xiii, 13. " S. John viii, 59.

Of Pictu7'es and Images 6 1

from the church, except it be covered ; and, according
to the use of some places, two coverings or curtains are
then only retained : of which the one is hung all round
the choir, the other is suspended between the altar and
the choir : that those things which be within the Holy
of Holies may not appear. In that the Sanctuary and
Cross are then veiled, we be taught the letter of the Law,
that is, its carnal observance, or that the understanding
of Holy Scriptures before the Passion of Christ was
veiled, hidden, and obscure : and that in that time there
was a veil : that is, men had an obscurity before their
eyes. It signifieth also the sword which was set before
the gate of Paradise : because the carnal observance we
have spoken of, and this obscurity, and the sword at the
gate of Paradise, were removed by the Passion of Christ.
Therefore the curtains and veils of this kind are removed
on Good Friday. But in that in the Old Testament,
there were beasts that chewed the cud, and cleft the
hoof, as oxen used in ploughing, that is discerning and
spiritually perceiving the mysteries of Scripture : there-
fore in Lent only a few priests, to whom ' it is given to
know the mysteries of the Kingdom of God ' '^ go
behind the veil.

35. Concerning this it is to be noted that there be
three kinds of veils which be hung in churches : that
which concealeth the mysteries : that which divideth the
sanctuary from the clergy : that which divideth the
clergy from the laity. The first denoteth the law : the
second denoteth our unworthiness, in that we are un-
worthy, nay unable to behold things celestial. The
third is the coercion of our carnal pleasures. The first,
namely, the curtain that is hung from each side of the
altar, when the priest goeth into the holy place, is typi-
fied by that which is written in Exodus. * Moses put a

'** St. Matthew xiii, 11.

62 The Symbolism of Churches

veil over his face, for the children of Israel could not
sustain the brightness of His countenance.' ^^ And as
the Apostle saith, ' Even to this day is this veil over the
hearts of the Jews.^^ The second, namely the curtain
that in the office of the Mass during Lent is suspended
before the altar, was set forth by the veil which was
hung up in the tabernacle, and divided the Holy of Holies
from the holy place, as shall be declared in the proeme
to the fourth part : by which the ark was concealed from
the people : and it was wrought cunningly, and adorned
with a fair variety of devices. This was it that was rent
in the Passion of the Lord : and after its pattern, the
curtains at this day are cunningly wrought with divers
patterns. Concerning the aforesaid veil, and of what
sort the curtains ought to be, it is written in Exodus.
The third kind of veil deriveth its origin from thence,
that th.& peribolus in the primitive Church, or wall which
encompasseth the choir, was only raised as far as the
elevation of the choir ; ^^ which even to this day is ob-
served in some churches : which was done that the people

™ Exodus xxxiv, 33. ^^ 2 Corinth, iii, 15.

^^ There is much difficulty in this passage. We conceive that Durandus
while writing it had in his mind's eye the arrangement of many of the
Basilican churches, in which the choir was raised over the crypt (called
Confessio, or Martyrium), in which the ashes of the saints were laid, and
was detached from the nave by two flights of steps, one on each side of the
descent to this undercroft. In this case the appodiatio would mean the
elevation of the choir, itself considered as a sufficient distinction from the
nave. The usual representations of Basilican churches, however, always
show some rails, or cancelli, besides this appodiation. The learned Father
Thiers devotes the third section of his ' Dissertation sur la Cloture du
Choeur des Eglises' to the consideration of this passage. 'Guillaume
Durand, Eveque de Mande, assure que dans la Primitive Eglise, le choeur
etait separe de la Nef par une miiraille d'appui., afin que le peuple voiant la
Clerge chanter les louanges de Dieu en fut edifie. Mais comme il parle
d'un fait beaucoup eloigne de son tems, et qui n'est attache par aucun
ancien auteur, je ne pense pas que I'on doive faire grande fonds sur son
temoignage.' We suspect that Thiers is wrong in construing appodiatio by
muraille d''appiii : the latter would well express the real Basilican arrange-
ment, with which the translator was probably acquainted. Durandus,
therefore, is wrong in his fart ; and Thiers wrong in his understanding of
Durandus, as Vv^ell as in the theory stated in the next section, that ' Depuis

Of Pictures and Images 63

seeing the clergy singing psalms, might follow their good
example. But at this time as it were a veil or wall is
suspended or interposed between the clergy and the
laity, that they may not be able to behold each other :
as if to say, in very deed, ' turn away mine eyes, lest
they behold vanity.' ^^

36. But on Holy Saturday all the curtains are taken
away, because on the Passion of the Lord the veil of
the temple was rent: and by that thing the spiritual
intelligence of the Law was revealed unto us, which till
that time lay hid, as is said afore : and the door of the
kingdom of heaven is opened, and power was given unto
us, that we cannot be overcome of our carnal concupi-
scence, unless we ourselves do yield. But the veil which
separateth the sanctuary from the choir, is drawn or
lifted up at vespers on every Saturday of Lent : when
the office of the Sunday is begun, that the clergy may be
able to look into the sanctuary : because the Sunday
commemorateth the Resurrection.

37. This therefore is done on the six Sundays of Lent :
because there was no age in which joy, and that joy
eternal, was not made in some sort manifest, that joy
which is concealed in heaven, as is signified by that veil.
Thence is it that we fast not on the Sundays, and this on
account of the glory of the Resurrection. For the first
Sunday signifieth the joy which our parents enjoyed in
the Paradise before the fall. The second Sunday signi-

Constantin le choeur de quelques Eglises etoit distingue de la Nef par des
tapisseries ou des voiles.' For he grounds this chiefly on the next asser-
tion of Durandus about the use curtains, 'hoc tempore, vers la fin du 13
siecle.' If we did not know fiom facts that before this time roodscreens
were in ordinary use, the words of Durandus veliun ant murus would show
us that he means the vcall to be taken metaphorically for a veil. And ?u
Thiers may have seen, since he concludes his section thus — ' Mais ptut
etre que Theodoret parle des tapisseries et Durand des voiles qui convroient
la Cloture du Choeur par le dedans, et que sous ces tapisseries et ces voiles
il y avoit une veritable cloture de balustres, ou de muraillcs pleines.'
*" Psalm cxix (^Beati immaculati), 37,

64 TJie Syinbolisni of CJmrcJies

fieth the joy of the few who were preserved in the ark of
Noah, when all else were drowned in the deluge. The
third, the gladness of the children of Israel, when in the
time of Joseph others were afflicted with famine. The
fourth, their joy when they lived with all peace under
Solomon. ^^ The fifth, their gladness when returning
from the Babylonian captivity. The sixth, that of the
disciples from the Resurrection to the Ascension : when
the bridegroom was with them in presence.

'^'^. In feasts likewise of nine lessons,^^ when they
occur in Lent, the before-mentioned veil is raised and
lifted up. But this is not of the institution of the
earliest times, because then no feast was celebrated in
Lent. But then on whatever day a feast occurred, com-
memoration was made of it on the Saturday and Sun-
day following, according to the canon of Pope Martin;
and so in the xiiith book of Burchardus.^^ And all this
on account of the sadness of that time. Afterwards
the contrary use prevailed: that feasts of nine lessons
occurring in Lent should be solemnly observed, and a
fast nevertheless kept.

39. Again, on festivals curtains are hung up in
churches, for the sake of the ornament they give ; and
that by visible, we may be led to invisible beauty.
These curtains are sometimes tinctured with various
hues, as is said afore : so that by the diversity of the
colours themselves we may be taught that man, who is
the temple of God, should be ordained by the variety
and diversity of virtues. A white curtain signifieth

^^ 3 Kings iv, 20.

** For an explanation of the whole Catholic system of feasts, double,
semi-double, and simple, the reader is referred to the Tracts for the Tinies^
vol. iii.

^^ S. Burchardus of Worms flourished in 1025 : and is not to be con-
founded with John Burchardus, who wrote an explanation of the Mass for
the use of the Venetian Church, which was published in 1559.

Of Pictures and Images 65

pureness of living : a red, charity : a green, contempla-
tion : a black, mortification of the flesh : a livid-coloured,
tribulation. Besides this, over white curtains are some-
times suspended hangings of various colours : to signify
that our hearts ought to be purged from vices : and that
in them should be the curtains of virtues, and the hang-
ings of good works.

40. Moreover, on the Feast of the Nativity of the
Lord some churches exhibit no hangings : some poor,
and some good. Those which have none, signify our
shame ; for even if we are filled with the greatest joy at
the birth of a Saviour,^'^ we ought not, however, to be
without shame that such was our sin that the ' Son of
God emptied Himself on our account, and took upon
Him the form of a servant' ^'' And on that account also
we solemnise His Passion not with joy, but with a severe
fast ; whereas when we celebrate the passion of other
saints we do it with gladness, and indulge ourselves
somewhat in meat and drink, as shall be said in the
sixth book. But our Lord's Passion is a source of
shame to us on account of our sins. The saints, on the
other hand, died not for our sins, but suffered for Christ.
Those churches which on the Nativity suspend curtains
of poor texture thereby typify that Christ did then

' take upon Himself the form of a servant,^^ and
was clothed in miserable rags. Those which employ
richer hangings, set forth by them the gladness arising
from the Birth of a King : and teach what manner of per-
sons we ought to be in our reception of so great a Guest.

41. In some churches the altar at Easter -tide is
decked with precious hangings, and veils of three
colours are placed over it : red, pale, and black, which

** In accordance with this feeling, the first Psalm at the second vespers
of the nativity in the Benedictine Breviary is the De profundis.
**' Philip, ii, 7. ^^ Philip, ii, 7.

66 The Symbolism of Churches

denote three seasons. When the first lesson and its
response are finished, the black veil is removed ; which
signifieth the time before the Law. When the second
lesson and its response are finished, the pale veil is
removed : which signifieth the time of the Law. The
third being finished, the red is removed, which setteth
forth the time of Grace : that is, that by the Passion
of Christ an entrance is administered unto us to the
Holy of Holies and to eternal glory. But concerning
the coverings and cloths of the altars we have spoken in
our sections on the same.

42. On high feasts, the treasures of the church are
brought forth on three accounts. Firstly, by way of
safeguard : that it may be made manifest that he who
hath them in charge hath been careful in his care of
them. Secondly, for the more reverence of the solemnity.
Thirdly, for the memory of their oblation ; namely, for
the commemoration of them that bestowed them on the
church.

But in that the church is gloriously adorned within
and not without, it is thereby signified that ' all its
glory is from within.' ^^ For although its outward
appearance be despicable, the soul which is the seat of
God is illuminated from within : according to that
saying, ' I am black but comely.'^" And the Lord saith
to the Prophet : ' I have a goodly heritage.'^^ Which
the Prophet considering in his mind, saith, ' Lord, I have
loved the beauty of Thine house ' : ^^ which is spiritually
adorned by Faith, Hope, and Charity. Sometimes the
church, both material and spiritual, hath need to be
cleansed : concerning which in the seventh book.

In some churches two eggs of ostriches and other

^^ Psalm xlv {Eructavit), 6. "" Cantic. i, $.

"^ The bishop probably refers to Psalm xvi {Conserva me)^ 6. The
words in reality spoken by David are understood by him as if spoken by
the Almighty. ^- Psalm xxvi (^Judica me)^ 8.

Of Pictures and Images 6y

things which cause admiration, and which are rarely seen,
are accustomed to be suspended : that by their means
the people may be drawn to church, and have their
minds the more affected.

43. Again, some say that the ostrich, as being a for-
getful bird, ' leaveth her eggs in the dust ' : ^^ and at
length, when she beholdeth a certain star, returneth unto
them, and cheereth them by her presence. Therefore the
eggs '^* of ostriches are hung in churches to signify that
man, being left of God on account of his sins, if at length
he be illuminated by the Divine Light, remembereth his
faults and returneth to Him, Who by looking on him
with His Mercy cherisheth him. As it is written in Luke
that after Peter had denied Christ, the ' Lord turned and
looked upon Peter.' '^^ Therefore be the aforesaid eggs
suspended in churches, this signifying, that man easily
forgetteth God, unless being illuminated by a star, that
is, by the Influence of the Holy Spirit, he is reminded to
return to Him by good works.

44. Now in the Primitive Church, the sacrifice was

^^ Job xxxix, 14.
"* Perhaps this custom was introduced by the Crusaders. ' As the
ostrich is good for food, so, it seems, are its eggs : to say nothing of their
being objects of attention, as being used much in the East by way of
ornament ; for they are hung up in their places of public worship, along
with many lamps.' Harmer's ' Observations,' vol. iv, p. 336, who refers to
Pococke's 'Travels,' vol. i, p. 31, and imagines that Dr Chandler, in his
travels in Asia Minor, was mistaken when he supposed that the Turkish
Mosque of Magnesia was ornamented with lamps pendent from the ceiling
intermixed with balls of polished ivory, p. 267. (Ostrich eggs might easily
be mistaken for ivory balls. The following passage from De Moleon is
curious : ' At the conclusion of matins,' he says, speaking of the rites of
S. Maurice at Angers on Easter Day, 'two chaplains take their place
behind the altar curtains. Two corheWers (Cuiicu/ares) in dalmatics, amices,
and mitelhr^ with gloves on their hands, present themselves before the altar.
The chaplains chant. Quern (jiiccritis ? The corbeliers representing the
Maries, reply, Jesum Nazarenum Crucifixum. The others answer,
Resurrexit, fion est hie. The corbeliers take from the altar Hvo ostrich
eggs wrapped in silk, and go forth, chanting, Alleluia resuf^exit Dominus,
resurrexit Leo Fortis, Christus, Filiiis Dei.' — Voyag. Lit. p. 98.
"^ S. Luke xxii, 61.'

68 The Symbolisvi of Churches

offered in vessels of wood, and common vests : for then
were ' chalices of wood, and priests of gold ' : whereof
the contrary is now. But Severinus, Pope, decreed that
it should be offered in glass : ^^ but because such vessels
were easily broken, therefore, Urban, Pope, and the
Council ^' of Rheims decreed that gold or silver vessels
should be used : or on account of poverty, tin, which
rusteth not : but not in wood nor in brass. Therefore it
might not be in glass on account of the danger of
effusion : nor of wood since being porous and spongy,
it absorbeth the blood : nor of brass nor of bronze, the
rust of which is unseemly.

45. And note that the name of chalice is derived from
the Old Testament : whence Jeremiah, ' Babylon is a
golden chalice that maketh drunk the nations.' ^^ And
David : ' In the hand of the Lord is a chalice, and the
wine thereof is red ' : ^^ and in another place, ' I will re-
ceive the chalice of salvation, and will call on the name
of the Lord.' ^^^ Again, in the Gospel : ' Are ye able to
drink the chalice that I shall drink ? ' '^^^ And again,
' When He had taken the chalice He gave thanks.' ^^^ A
golden chalice signifieth the 'treasures of wisdom that
be hid in Christ' ^^^ A silver chalice denoteth purity
from sin. A chalice of tin denoteth the similitude of
sin and punishment. For tin is as it were halfway be-
tween silver and lead : and the Humanity of Christ,
albeit it were not lead, that is, sinful, yet was it like to
sinful flesh. And therefore not silver : and although im-
passible for His own sin, passible He was for ours : since
' He thus took our infirmities, and bare our sicknesses.' ^^*

■"^ See Martene, Tom. IV, ii, 9 ; the Ducretum, fol. 395.
9^ ' A.D. 874, Vid. Concil. Coll. Reg. Tom. I. p. 288.' See also P.
Tunoc. iv, Ep. ad Otton. Carel. xiii Hardouin vii, 365.

"^ Jeremiah li, 7. ^ Psalm Ixxv {Confitebiimir')^ 8.

lo** Psalm cxvi (^Dilexi), 13.
101 S. Matthew x, 22. '"- S. Matthew xxvi, 27. '"^ Coloss. ii, 3.
"*^ S. Matthew viii, 17.

Of Pictures and Images 69

Concerning the Chalice and the Paten we shall speak
hereafter.

46. But if anyone, through cause of his little religion,
should say that the Lord commanded Moses to make all
the vessels of the Tabernacle for every use and ceremony
whatever, of brass, as it is written in the eight and twen-
tieth chapter of Exodus, and that precious vessels of
this sort, ' could be sold for much, and given to the
poor,' ^"^ he is like Judas, and acteth contrarywise to the
woman which brought the alabaster box uf ointment.
This we reply to him : not that God is better pleased
with gold than brazen ornaments : but that when men
offer to God that which they value, by the worship of
the Almighty they vanquish their own avarice. Moreover,
these offices of divine piety be moral, and significative of
future glory. Whence also under the old law the priest's
garments were to be made of gold, and jacinth, and
purple, and scarlet twice dyed, and woven linen, and
other precious things : that thereby might be made mani-
fest with how great diversity of virtues the priest ought
to shine : and it was also commanded that the altar, and
the mercy-seat, and the candlestick, and the other vessels
and ornaments of the altar should be made of gold and
silver. The Tabernacle also was to be made of divers
precious materials, as is said in our section concerning
the Church. Also the high priest under the Law used
divers precious ornaments, as we have both noted, and
shall hereafter note.

47. Moreover, it was forbidden in the Council of
Orleans,^*^^ that the divine ornaments should be used for
the adorning of nuptials, lest they should be polluted by
the touch of the wicked, or by the pomp of secular luxury.
By this doubtless it is shown that a chasuble, or any

'"^ S. Matthew xxvi, 9.
""^ A.D. 535. Decret. viii. See also the Council of Tribur. A. D. 1036.

70 TJie SymbolisDi of ChurcJies

other ornament intended for the divine mysteries, must
not be made out of a common person's vest.

48. Stephen, Pope, moreover, forbade that anyone
should have the use of the vests of a church, or of those
things which be touched by reHgious men alone, for
other purposes : lest that vengeance come upon these
transgressors which befel Belshazzar the King.^^'^

49. Also Clement, Pope, forbade that the dead should be
buried or wrapped or covered, they or their bones, with
the altar cloth, or covering for the chalice, or napkin where-
with the priest washeth his hands before consecrating.

50. But when the palls, that is the corporals, and the
veils, that is the ornaments of the altar, or the curtains
hanging over it shall have become unclean, the deacons
with their ministers shall wash them within the sanctuary,
and not without. But when the veils, used in the service
of the altar, be washed, let there be a new basin. And
let the palls, that is the corporals, be washed in another
basin. And let the veils for doors, that is, the curtains
which are hung up in churches at high feasts, and in
Lent, be washed in another. This is it that was decreed
of the Council of Lerida : ^^"^ that for washing the corporal,
and the altar palls certain vessels be appropriated and
kept within the church : in which nothing else ought to
be washed. But according to the afore-mentioned
Clement, if the altar pall or covering, or the covering of
the seat where the priest sitteth, in his holy vests, or of
the candlestick, or the veil, that is the cloth or curtains
hanging over the altar be consumed by old age, let them
be burnt ; and their ashes cast in the baptistery, or on
the wall, or in the drains, where there is no treading of
passers by. And note that ecclesiastical ornaments be
consecrated : as shall be said under the section of Con-
secrations and Unctions.

"*^ Daniel v, i. "» 'A.D. 524, Concil. Coll. Reg. Tom XI, p. 24.'

CHAPTER IV

OF BELLS

Beils, what and where first used— Why Blessed— /Analogy between
Bells and Trumpets— Mystical Signification— Of the Bell-Frame—
Of the Bell-Ropes— Use of Bells at the Canonical Hours— Six kinds
of Bells— Bells when Silent— Of the Passing Bell— Of the Prayer Bell
—Of the Storm Bell.

I. Bells are brazen vessels, and were first invented in
Nola, a city of Campania : wherefore the larger bells are
called CaiiipancE^ from Campania the district, and the
smaller Nohv, from Nola the town.

2. The reason for consecrating and ringing bells is
this : that by their sound the faithful may be mutually
cheered on towards their reward ; that the devotion of
faith may be increased in them ; that their fruits of the
field, their minds and their bodies may be defended ;
that the hostile legions and all the snares of the Enemy
may be repulsed ; that the rattling hail, the whirlwinds,
and the violence of tempests and lightning may be
restrained ; the deadly thunder and blasts of wind held
off; the spirits of the storm and the powers of the air
overthrown ; and that such as hear them may flee for
refuge to the bosom of our holy Mother the Church,
bending every knee before the standard of the sacred
rood. These several reasons are given in the office for
the blessing of bells. ^

' See the account of the consecration of several churches in the island of

72 TJie Syvibolisvi of Churches

3. You must know that bells, by the sound of which
the people assembleth together to the church to hear,
and the clergy to preach, ' in the morning the mercy of
God and His power by night,- do signify the silver
trumpets, by which under the Old Law the people were
called together unto sacrifice. (Of these trumpets we
shall speak in our sixth book.) For just as the watch-
men in a camp rouse one another by trumpets, so do the
ministers of the Church excite each other by the sound
of bells to watch the livelong night against the plots of
the devil. Wherefore our brazen bells are more sonorous
than the trumpets of the Old Law, because then God
was known in Judea only, but now in the whole earth.
They be also more durable : for they signify that the
preaching of the New Testament will be more lasting
than the trumpets and sacrifices of the Old Law, namely,
even unto the end of the world.

4. Again bells do signify preachers, who ought after
the likeness of a bell to exhort the faithful unto faith :
the which was typified in that the Lord commanded
Moses to make a vestment for the high priest, having
seventy-two bells to sound when the high priest entered
into the Holy of Holies.^ Also the cavity of the bell
denoteth the mouth of the preacher, according to the
saying of the Apostle, ' I am become as sounding brass
or a tinkling cymbal' *

5. The hardness of the metal signifieth fortitude in the
mind of the preacher : whence saith the Lord, ' Behold
I have made thy face strong against their faces.' ^ The
clapper or iron, which by striking on either side maketh
the sound, doth denote the tongue of the teacher, the

Guernsey, taken from the Black Book of the Diocese of Contances, in a

paper by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, B.A., Trinity College, published in the

First Part of the Transactions of the Cambridge Camden Society.

- Psalm xcii (^Bonimt est confiteri)^ 2

^ Exodus xxviii, 35. ^ i Cor. xiii, I. ^ Ezekiel iii, 8.

Of Bells 73

which with the adornment of learning doth cause both
Testaments to resound.

6. Wherefore a prelate which hath not the skill of
preaching will be like unto a bell without a clapper :
according to that saying of Gregory, ' l\ priest, if he
knoweth not how to preach nor what voice of exhortation
he can deliver, is a dumb preacher, and also as a dumb
dog which cannot bark.' The striking the bell denoteth
that a preacher ought first of all to strike at the vices in
himself for correction, and then advance to blame those
of others : lest indeed, contrary to the teaching of the
Apostle, ' when he hath preached to others, he himself
should be a castaway.'" Which also the Psalm doth
testify, 'But unto the ungodly, saith God: why dost thou
preach my laws, and takest my covenant in thy mouth?' '
Because truly by the example of his own suffering he
often gaineth access to those whom by the learning of
his discourse he cannot move. The link by which the
clapper is joined or bound unto the bell is moderation :
by which, namely, by the authority of Scripture, the
tongue of the preacher who wisheth to draw men's hearts
is ruled.^

7. The wood of the frame upon which the bell hangeth,
doth signify the wood of our Lord's Cross : which is on
this account suspended on high, because the Cross is
preached by the ancient Fathers. The pegs by which
the wooden frame is joined together or fastened, are the
Oracles of the Prophets. The iron cramps by which the
bell is joined with the frame, denote charity, by which
the preacher being joined indissolubly unto the Cross,
doth boast and say, ' God forbid that I should glory save
in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ."-^ The hammer

" I Corinthians ix, 27. ' Psalm I {Deus deoriim)^ 16.

>* The passage is very unintelligible in the original, and is probabi}'
corrupted or transposed.

■• Gal. vi, 14. Cavilla is thus explained by Belethus. Expl. Divin.

74 The Syinbolism of Churches

affixed to the frame by which the bell is struck, signifieth
the right mind of the preacher, by which he himself,
holding fast to the Divine commands, doth by frequent
striking inculcate the same on the ears of the faithful.

8. The rope hanging from this, by which the bell is
struck, is humility, or the life of the preacher : the same
rope also showeth the measure of our own life. Besides
these, since the rope hath its beginning from the wood
upon which the bell hangeth, by which is understood our
Lord's Cross, it doth thus rightly typify Holy Scripture
which doth flow down from the wood of the Holy Cross.
As also the rope is composed of three strands, so doth
the Scripture consist of a Trinity : namely, of history,
allegory, and morality. Whence, the rope coming down
from the wooden frame into the hand of the priest is
Scripture descending from the mystery of the Cross into
the mouth of the preacher. Again, the rope reacheth
unto the hands by which it is grasped, because Scripture
ought to proceed unto good works. Also the raising and
the lowering of the rope in ringing doth denote that
Holy Scripture speaketh sometimes of high matters,
sometimes of low : or that the preacher speaketh some-
times lofty things for the sake of some, and sometimes
condescendeth for the sake of others : according to that
saying of the Apostle: 'Whether we exalt ourselves it is
for God, or whether we humble ourselves it is for you.'*
Again, the priest draweth the rope downwards, when he
descendeth from contemplation unto active life : but
is himself drawn upward when under the teaching of
Scripture he is raised in contemplation. Also he draweth
it downwards when he understandeth the Scripture
according to the ' letter which killeth ' ; he is drawn up-

Off. xxiv. Cavilla, sic enim ferrum illud pensile vocat, quod Grseci rectius
poTxXov nominant, cujus pulsu campana sonum reddit.

* This appeals to be a reference to 2 Cor. v, 13.

Of Bells 75

wards when he expoundeth the same according to the
Spirit. Again, according to Gregory, he is drawn down-
wards and upwards when he measureth himself in Scrip-
ture, namely, how much he still lieth in the depths and
how much he advanceth in doing good.

Furthermore, when the bell doth sound from the
pulling of its rope, the people are gathered in one for the
exposition of Holy Scripture, the preacher is heard, and
the people are united in the bond of faith and charity.
Therefore when a priest acknowledgeth unto himself
that he is a debtor unto preaching, he must not withdraw
himself from calling men together by his bells, just as
also the sons of Aaron did sound their silver trumpets.
He therefore moveth the ropes who doth of his office
call his brethren or the people together.

The ring (or pully) in the length of the rope, through
which in many places the rope is drawn, is Lhe crown of
reward, or perseverance unto the end, or else is Holy
Scripture itself Moreover, Savinianus, Pope, hath
commanded that the hours of the day should be struck
in churches.

9. And note that bells are commonly rung for the
Divine Offices ^^ twelve times during the twelve hours of

^" The reader will scarcely need reminding that the day is canonically
divided into two parts of twelve hours each, beginning' at six o'clock
respectively. Prime therefore is at our six a.m., tierce at nine, sexts at
twelve, nones at three p.m., vespers at six p.m., and compline at bedtime.

Haec sunt septenis propter quae psallimus horis.
Matutina ligat Christum, qui crimina purgat :
Prima replet sputis ; causam dat Tertia ^Nlortis :
Sexta Cruci nectit : latus Ejus Nona bipertit :
Vesper a deponit : tumulo Completa reponit.

Which may thus be translated ;

At matins bound : 3.1 prime revil'd : condemn'd to death at tierce:
Nail'd to the cross at sexts : at nones His blessed side the)'' pierce :
They take him down at vesper-XxdQ ; in grave at compline lay
Who thenceforth bids His Church to keep her sevenfold hours alway.

The twelve hours of the nig-ht are divided into three nocturns, which

J 6 The Syuibolisin of Churches

the day : namely, once at prime, and in like manner once
at the last hour, because all things come from one God,
and God is One, All in All. At tierce they are rung
three times, for the second, third, and fourth hours which
are then chanted. In like manner three times at sexts,
for the fifth, sixth, and seventh hours. Also three times
at nones for the three hours. But at vespers, which is
the twelfth hour, not one only but many times are they
rung, because in the time of grace the preaching of the
Apostles was multiplied. Also in the night for matins
they are rung often, because we ought often to call out,
' Wake, thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead.' ^^

lO. Commonly also they be rung three times at noc-
turns. First with a squilla ^^ or hand-bell, which by its

may be supposed to be said at twelve, two, and four, and are immediately
followed by lauds at five. Nocturns and lauds (together called matins),
with the six hours above-mentioned, make the seven canonical hours. On
this subject we can but refer our readers to the extremely beautiful fifth
book of Durandus, and particularly his first chapter, in which all the preg-
nant symbolism of the canonical hours is set forth. Hugo de Sancto
Victore has briefly touched upon the same in the third chapter of the In
Speculum Ecclesios, but nearly the whole of his account is contained in
Durandus. See also S. Isidore ' De Eccles. Offic' lib, I, cap. xix —
xxiii ; and Belethus whose account is valuable for its conciseness. ' Ex-
plic. Divin. Offic' Caps, xxi — xxix.

The twelve ringings mentioned in the text as being in ' the twelve hours
of the day^ are thus to be made out. At prime, one ; at tierce, three ; at
sexts, three ; at nones, three ; at vespers, one (the ringing ' many times '
being only thus accounted) ; and at the last hour, one ; in whole twelve,
Hugo de S. Victor has a passage almost identical with this. 'The bells
be also rung twelve times. At prime, once, and again at the last hour
once ; because all things be from One God, and the Same will be All in
All. But at tierce, three times for the second, third, and fourth hours ;
and so at sexts, for three hours, namely, the seventh, eighth, and ninth ;
but at vespers many times, because in the time of grace the preaching of
the Apostles was multiplied. Also at matins oftentimes, because we
should often exclaim, 'Arise, thou that sleepest.' It will be observed that
this passage is corrupt, nones being omitted, and its three hours given to
sexts. Matins also, as in the text, are belonging to the twelve hours of the
mght.

" Eph, V, 14.

1'- Squilla is properly a sea onion. We conceive that the sort of a bell
here meant is a kind of hand-bell, formed out of a hollow ball of metal,
furnished with a slit for the sound, and with a loose pellet inside. This
answers to the squilla in shape and utters a very shrill sound. We find

Of Bells yy

sharp sound signifieth Paul preaching acutely. The
second ringing signifieth Barnabus joined to his company.
The third intimateth that, when the 'Jews put from them
the word of God, the Apostles turned themselves to the
Gentiles,' whom also they instructed in the faith of the
Trinity by the doctrine of the four Evangelists. Whence
also some do use, four peals.

1 1. And note that there be six kinds of bells which be
used in the church ; namely, the squilla, the cynibaluin,
the nola, the noliila (or double canipana), the signinn
[and the cainpand]. The squilla is rung in the triclinium,
that is, in the refectory ; the cymbalum in the cloister ;
the nola in the choir ; the nolula or double campana in
the clock, the campana in the campanile, the signum in
the tower. Either of these, however, may be called
generally a bell. And these be known by diverse names,
because the preachers signified thereby be necessary for
diverse ends.

12. During the whole Septuagesima, in the which
Quadragesima [or Lent] is contained, on common days
the bells be not chanted, nor chimed, but tolled, that is
rung singly, at the hours of the day, or at matins.^^ In
well-ordered churches, they be struck twice at prime ;
first to call unto prayer, secondly to begin : three times
at tierce, according to the number of hours then struck,

below that it was used chiefly in the refectory. So in a note to Martener
vol iv, p. 32, we read 'ad gratiarum actionem Sacrista sciliam (the other
form of squillam) pulsabat. Cons. S. Benigni, cap. 9. Fratribus exeunti-
bus de prandio sive de coena sciliam pulsare non negligat Hebdomadarius
Sacrista.'

'^ It is to be remarked that throughout this chapter there is no allusion
to ringing the bells by raising them and causing them to revolve on axes
as practised in England. This and the beautiful science of bell-ringing
consequent on it are peculiar to ourselves. The method of sounding the
bells here understood is by a hammer acting on the rim, or by pulling tl;e
c'apper, as is used with us for chimes, and where the bell frame is weak.
This accounts for the much larger bells which are found abroad, and which
were never meant to be poised and swung. Owing to the above differ-
ence between the Continental and English methods of bell-ringing, ii is

y^ The Syuibolisui of Churches

as was said above ; once to call to prayer, twice to
assemble them together, thrice to begin. In like manner
it is done at sexts and nones. But for matins the same
bells are rung and in the same order. For a mass or for
vespers only two bells be rung. But in smaller churches
they simply ring the bells as aforesaid, and this on the
common days. But on Sundays and holy days, they
chime them, as at other times. For because preachers
who be figured by bells, do the more abound in a season
of grace, and ' are instant in season,' therefore on
festivals which pertain to grace, the bells do sound more
pressingly and are rung for a longer time, to arouse those
' that sleep and be drunken,' lest they sleep beyond
measure. But what is signified by the ringing of bells
when the Te Deum is chanted we shall speak hereafter.^*
13. Moreover, the bells ought to be rung when anyone

not easy to express the difference between simpidsare^ compulsare^ and
depiilsare.

Depukaye is to ring by tying a rope to the clapper of a bell, and pulling
the rope to and fro : we have accordingly translated it, to chant a bell.

Sivipuhare is to ring by tying a rope to the hammer, and pulling it back ;
this we have translated to toll. Tolling is of course performed by swinging
the bell round : but as there is no English word which ex'pr ess&s simpulsare,
we thought it better to use an old term in a new sense, than to coin a new
one.

Compulsare is to do to several bells what depulsare is to do to one : and
we have translated it to chime.

Ptdsare we have translated to ring.

It may be worthy of remark, how completely the ringing of the bells is
here considered a part of the priest's office.

^^ In Book V, chapter iii, '•of Nocturns^'' Durandus says, 'When
the nocturns be finished, the bells be rung and the Te De7im laudamits is
chanted with uplift voice, to denote that the Church doth openly and
wonderfully laud God in the time of grace, and to show that if by good
works we answer rightly to holy doctrine, we shall attain to singing heavenly
praises in concert with the angels. The chant also is then made with a
loud voice, to signify the joy of the woman at finding the lost 'piece of
silver.' And the versicle Day by day we magnify Thee^ and the following,
be chanted still more loudly to set forth the gratulations of the neighbours
over the finding of the piece of silver : and the ringing of the bells
representeth the calling together of the neighbours. In some churches also
the candles be lighted, because the woman also ' lighted a candle and
sought diligently till she found it.' This also signifieth that the Church
Catholic is drawn by Christ out of hell. And the hymn itself representeth

Of Bells 79

dying, that the people hearing this may pray for him

For a woman indeed they ring twice, because she first
caused the bitterness of death : for she first ahenated
mankind from God ; wherefore the second day had no
benediction.^*^ But for a man they ring three times, be-
cause the Trinity was first shown in man. For Adam was
first formed from the earth, then the woman from Adam,
afterwards was man created from both, and so there is
therein a trinity. But if the dying man be an ecclesiastic,
they toll so man}^ times as he hath received orders.
And at the last time they ought to chime, that so the

the future joy and gladness, which the Church resting from her labours
shall attain in the day of judgment.' Hugo de S. Victore, and Belethus
agree as to this ringing of the bells at matins : a practice of which perhaps
we ma)'^ find the shadow in our own use in many places of ringing the bells
at eight o'clock on Sunday mornings, to which day our services are
now chiefly confined.

'^ For an account of the ' passing-bell,* and the authority for its right
use among ourselves, the reader is referred to Bp. Montague's 'Articles of
Inquiry.' Camb. 1841, pp. 76, 116. It is to be observed that the bells
are here said to be rung, not tolled^ as is generally the case now. Many
will remember a beautiful passage upon this custom in one of the Rev. F.
E. Paget's ' Tales of the Village.' The practice of their distinguishing the
sex of the dying person is still in most places retained.

^^ ' Wherefore the second day had no benediction.^ It will be observed that
of this day only it is not said expressly that 'God saw that it was good.'
We give a chapter of Hugo S. Victore upon this question

' But it is admirable wherefore God did not see the works of the second
day that they were good : since in each other day He is said to have seen
them, and that they were good. For either it was not His work, and so not
good ; or if it were His work, it was good. But if it was good, it was also
His work : and then He saw it was good, Who could not be ignorant what
it was, whether good or bad. Wherefore then is it not said here as else-
where " God saw that it was good " ? For if this be said elsewhere only
because the work was made, why ought it not also to be said here since it was
made ? Perhaps because dual'is the sign of division ; since it first recedeth
from unity : and so here we perceive some sacrament. Thus the works of
the second day be not praised, not because they were not good, but
because they were signs of evil. For God made His first works "and
behold they were all very good : " in the which neither was corruption
present, nor perfection absent. But afterwards cometh the devil and man,
and they also made their works : and these second works came after the
first ; the evil after the good : and God was unwilling to behold these works
because they were evil ; but beholding them by His wisdom, He dis-
approved them by his judgment.' ' De Sacramentis,' Lib. i, Pars I, cap. xx.
S. Isodore (Sentent. I, xx de Mundo) does not allude to this, nor S.
Augustin upon Genesis.

8o The Symbolism of CJiuixJies

people may know for whom they have to pray. The bells
ought also to be chimed when the corpse is brought to the
church, and when carried out from the church to the grave.

14. Also bells be rung at processions, that the evil
spirits may hear them and flee, as shall be said here-
after.^^ For they do fear when the trumpets of the
Church Militant, that is the bells, be heard, like as a
tyrant doth fear when he heareth on his own land the
trumpets of any potent king his foe.

15. And this is the reason also why the Church, when
she seeth a tempest to arise, doth ring the bells; namely,
that the devils hearing the trumpets of the Eternal
King, which be the bells, may flee away through fear
and cease from raising the storm; and that the faithful
also may be admonished at the ringing of the bells and
be provoked to be urgent in prayer for the instant danger.^^

But for three days before Easter the bells be silent, as
shall be said hereafter.^^ Also the bells be silent in
time of an interdict, because often for the fault of those
put under them the tongue of the preachers is hindered;
according to that of the Prophet, 'I will make thy tongue
cleave to the roof of thy mouth, for they are a rebellious
house '; ^° that is, for the people are disobedient.

The Church also hath organs, of which we shall speak
hereafter.^^

'^ ' The bells be rung- in processions. For as an earthly monarch hath
in his army royal insig^nia, namely trumpets and banners ; so Christ the
Eternal King hath in His Church Militant bells for trumpets, and crosses
for banners. Thus the ringing of the bells doth signify the prophets, who
foretold the advent of Christ.' Durandus, book iv, chapter 6, ' Of the
priest's approach to the altars,' ^ec. 19. The same idea is applied by
Belethus to the matin bells in his 24th chapter.

'** See note i to this chapter. '■' See Appendix. -" Ezekiel iii, 26.

"' Durandus, in his fourth book, chapter xxxiv, ' Of the Sanctus^' says,
' Moreover in this conceit of angels and men, the organs do from time to
time add their harmony: the which was introduced by David and Solomon,
who did cause hymns to be sung at the sacrifice of the Lord, with the
concert of organs and other instruments of music, and the people also to
join in chorus.'

CHAPTER V

OF CEMETERIES AND OTHER PLACES, SACRED AND
RELIGIOUS

Holiness of Places ; its Origin — Difference between Sacred, Holy, and
Religious — Different Names for Cemetery — First use of Cemeteries —
Who are not to be Buried in the Church — Ancient Method of Burial
— Who are to be Buried in a Cemetery.

I. Now we will Speak of cemeteries and other sacred and
religious places. Of consecrated places, some be appro-
priated to human necessity, others to prayers. Those of
the first sort be a xenodocJiiicm or xenostoriuni, which is
the same : a vasocJioniuni, a gerontocouiiiiin, an oi'phanoti-o-
phiiLin, a brephotrophiuin. For holy fathers and religious
princes have founded places of this kind, where the poor,
the pilgrims, old men, orphans, infants, men past work,
the halt, the weak, and the wounded should be received
and attended. And note that geronta in Greek is the
same as senex in Latin.

But of places appropriated to prayer, there be that are
sacred, there be that are Jioly, and there be that are
religious.

2. Sacred be they which by the hands of the bishop
have duly been sanctified and set apart to the Lord, and
which be called by various names, as hath been said in
the section on Churches. Holy be they which have

82 The Symbolism of Churches

immunity or privilege : and be set apart for the servitors
or ministers of the Church, concerning which, under threat
of condign punishment, either by the canon law or by
special privilege, it is ordained that no man shall presume
to violate them. Such be the courts of churches, and in
some places the cloisters, within which be the houses of
the canons. To which when criminals of whatever kind
betake themselves they have safety. And so according
to the statutes of the civil law be the gates and theatres
of cities.

3. Religious places be they where the entire body of a
man, or at least the head is buried : because no man can
have two sepulchres. But the body or any member
without the head doth not make the place wherein it is
buried religious. But according to the civil law the corpse
of a Jew, or paynim, or unbaptised infant maketh the
place of its sepulchre religious : yet by the Christian
religion and the canonical doctrine the body of a
Christian alone maketh it so. And note that whatever
is sacred is religious ; but the contrary holdeth not.
But the afore-named religious place hath divers appel-
lations : such be cemetery, polyandrum, or andropolis
(which is the same thing), sepulchrum, mausoleum
(which is also the same), dormitorium, tumulus,
monumentum, ergastulum, pyramid, sarcophagus, bustum,
urna, spelunca.

4. Cemetery hath its name from cimen which is sweet,
and sterion, which is a station : for there the bones of the
departed rest sweetly, and expect the advent of their
Saviour. Or because there be therein cimices, that is
reptiles of intolerable odour.

5. Poliantrum, from pollutum antrum, on account of
the carcases of men therein buried. Ox poliantrum signi-
fieth a multitude of men, from polus, which is a plurality,
and andros, which is a man ; and therefore a cemetery is

Of Cemeteries, Sacred and Religious 83

so called on account of the number of men therein
buried.' 1

11. Cemeteries are said to have their beginnin<^ from
Abraham, who bought a field from Hebron : in which
was a double cave,^ where he and Sarah were buried :
there also Isaac and Jacob were buried : there also
Adam and Eve.^ Therefore there was a double cave
there : since they who buried therein were placed side
by side, every man and his wife ; or the men in the one,
and their wives in the other : or because everyone there
interred had a double cave, after the fashion of a chair.
Whence saith Hierome, Three patriarchs are buried in the
city Hebron, with their three wives. But they were
buried as it were in a sitting posture : the upper part of
the cave held the trunk from the loins : the lower the
thighs and legs.

12. But all men ought not to be buried promiscuously

^ It has been thought right to give a few of the bishop's derivations,
lest his translators should be accused of concealing a circumstance which
may weaken, with some, his testimony on other points (though, as we have
before shown, most unjustly) : it has not, however, been thought necessary
to follow him through all his names of a cemetery : since to do so would be
a mere waste of the reader's time.

- Genesis xxiii, 9 : ' We take this word Machpelah for a proper name,
as many others do : but the Talmudists generally think it to have been a
double cave, as the Ixx also, with the vulgar Latin, understand it. Yet
they cannot agree in what sense it was so : whether they went through one
cave into another, or there was one above the other.' — Bishop Patrick, s.l.

3 One might almost have thought that this is a false reading for Leah
and Rebecca. For the common tradition was that Adam and Eve were
buried in Mount Calvary : so that where the first Adam fell before death,
the second Adam triumphed over death. And the bishop speaks below of
three patriarchs, and their three wives buried in Machpelah : which is at
variance with the text as it stands : but would agree with the proposed
emendation.

Yet S. Isidore says, ' De morte Abrahae,' fol. 295 : ' Sepultusque est in
spelunca duplici; in cujus interiore parte Adam esse positum traditio
Hebrseorum testatur.' S. Victor upon Spelunca duplex : ' Domus qucedam
fuit subterranea, in qua erat solarium, et multi fuerant sepulti, in ea et
diversis foveis et subter et supra ; ' and in another place, 'Spelunca in qua
est sepulta spiritualem designat vitam, quae est occulta : quae recte duplex
vocatur ; propter bonam actionem et contemplationem.'

84 The Syjiibolisni of Churches

in the church :' for it seemeth that that place of sepulchre
profiteth not. Lucifer was thrown down from Heaven,
and Adam cast out of Paradise; and what places be
better than these ? Also Joab was slain in the Taber-
nacle, and Job triumphed in the dunghill. Nay rather,
it is to his hurt if a man unworthy or a sinner be buried
in a church. We read in the ' Dialogues ' of Blessed
Gregory, book the fourth, chapter the fifty-sixth, that
when a certain man of notorious wickedness ^ had been
buried in the church of S. Faustinus at Brescia, in the
same night Blessed Faustinus appeared to the warden
of the church, saying, Speak unto the bishop that he cast
out the body; otherwise he shall die in thirty days.
Now the warden feared to tell the thing to the bishop :
and the bishop on the thirtieth day suddenly departed
out of this life. It is also written in the same book,
chapter the fifty-seventh, that another wicked man was
buried in a church, and that afterwards his body was
found outside the church, the cerecloths remaining in
their own place. And Austin says, they who are guilty
of notorious sins, if they be buried in the church by their
own desire, shall be judged for their presumption ; for
the sacredness of the place doth not free those whom the
accusation of temerity condemns.

No body, therefore, ought to be buried in a church, or
near an altar, where the Body and Blood of our Lord are
made, except the bodies of holy fathers, who be called
patrons, that is defenders, who defend the whole country
with their merits, and bishops, and abbots, and worthy
presbyters, and laymen of eminent sanctity. But all
ought to be buried about the church, or in the court of
the cloisters, or in the porch : or in the exedroe and

^ A similar story has been parodied in the ' Ingoldsby Legends ' : a
work which for irreverence and profanity has hardly an equal. Disgraceful
as it would be to any author, it is trebly so, if (as it is said) that author is
a clergyman.

Of Cemeteries, Sacred and Religious 85

apses which are joined to the church, or in the cemetery.
Some also say that a space of thirty feet round the
church ought to be set apart for that purpose. But
others say that the space enclosed by the circuit which
the bishop makes around the church must suffice for
this. S. Augustine saith in his book ' On the Care of the
Dead,' towards the end, that to be buried near the tombs
of martyrs advantageth the dead in this, that by com-
mending him to the guardianship of the martyrs, the
earnestness of our supplication for him may be increased.

13. Of old time men were buried in their own houses :
but on account of the stench thereby engendered, it was
decreed that they should be buried without the city, and
certain places should be set apart by sanctification for that
purpose. But noblemen were buried in mountains, both
in the middle of them and at the foot : and also under
mounds raised of their own expense.^ Buc if anyone
be slain in besieging a town, where there is no cemetery,
let him be buried where he can. But if a merchantman
or pilgrim die by sea, and any inhabited land be near, let
him be buried in it : but if no port be near, let him be
buried in some island. If, however, land cannot be seen,
let a little house of timbers (if they can be had) be
made for him, and let him be cast into the sea.

14. In a Christian cemetery none may be buried but a
baptised Christian : nor yet every such an one neither :
one, namely, slain in the act of sin, if it be mortal sin,
as if he were slain in adultery, or theft, or some forbidden
amusement. And also where a man is found dead, there
let him be buried, on account of the doubtful cause of
his death. But if anyone dieth suddenly in games
accustomably used, as the game of ball, he may be buried

^ Sub propriis podiis. For some account of the curious word podium^
whence peiu or pue is derived, see the Cambridge Camden Society's
' History of Pews ' (or the ' Supplement,' pp. 6, 7).

86 - The Syinbolism of Churches

in the cemetery, because it was not his desire to injure
anyone : but because he was occupied in worldly
matters, some say that he ought to be buried without
psalms and the other obsequies of the dead. But if any-
one attacking another in a strife or tumult dieth
impenitent, and hath not sought the priest, he ought
not, as some say, to be buried in the cemetery : nor yet
he who hath committed suicide. But if anyone dieth,
not from any manifest cause, but from the visitation of
God alone, he can be buried in a cemetery. For the
just man, in what hour soever he dieth, is saved. The
rather if he were following some lawful occupation.
To defenders of justice and those who are engaged in
a pious fight, the cemetery and the office of burial are
freely conceded : yet they who come to a violent death
are not borne into the church, lest the pavement be
polluted with blood. But if anyone returning from any
place of fornication be slain in the way, or be slain
anywhere, where by unforeseen case, he hath tarried, he
is not to be buried in the common cemetery ; and this if
it can be proved, by evidence sufficient for a court of law,
that he had not confessed after the act of fornication nor
was contrite : otherwise he ought to be buried.

15. Again, a woman who dieth in child-birth ought
not to be carried into the church, as some say, but her
obsequies must be said without the church, to which I
agree not : otherwise it would be as if she died in fault.
Whence she may allowably be borne into the church.

16. But stillborn and unbaptised children are to be
buried without the cemetery. Some say, however, that
they should be buried with the mother as being a part of
her body.

17. A man and wife are to be buried in the same
sepulchre, after the example of Abraham and Sarah
(unless a wish be specially expressed to the contrary).

Of Cemeteries, Saa-ed and Religious 87

Whence also Tobias commanded his son, that when his
mother had accompHshed her days, he should bury her
in the same grave with himself.^ Also everyone is to be
buried in the sepulchre of his fathers, unless from a
principle of devotion he hath chosen another sepulchre.
But it was decreed in the Moguntine Council, that they
who have paid the extreme penalty for their crimes, if
they have confessed, or have desired to confess and
have communicated, may be buried in the cemetery, and
the Mass and oblations may be offered for them. How
the human body is to be buried, shall be said under the
section of the Office for the Dead.

'■ Tobit xiv, 10

CHAPTER VI

OF THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH

Rise of the Dedication of Ciiurches — By whom Performed — Particulars of
Consecration — The Twelve Crosses — Banners — Dedication — Re-con-
secration Considered — Reconciliation — In what Cases — Of Scandals
— Reconciliation of Cemeteries.

I. Twice in the former part of this treatise we have
described the material church and the altar; it followeth
that we must add something about their dedication :
stating,

I. Whence the consecration of churches hath its
origin.
II. At whose hands a church is consecrated.

III. For what reason.

IV. In what form ; and what is signified, as well by
the dedication itself, as by each of the ceremonies
observed therein.

Of the offices for the festival of the dedication of a
church we shall speak in the seventh book.^

2. We have first to state whence the dedication of
churches hath had its rise. Upon which, note that under
the teaching of the Lord, Moses made the tabernacle,
and consecrated it together with its table of show-bread,
and altar, and brazen vessels, and utensils for performing

' Appendix H.

Of the Dedication of a Church 89

the divine worship. And these he not only consecrated
with prayers to God, but also anointed, at the command
of the Lord, with sacred oil. For^ we read that the
Lord taught Moses to prepare a chrism, with which to
anoint the tabernacle and the ark of the testimony at the
time of their dedication. Solomon also the son of David,
at the command of the Lord, completed the temple and
its altar, and consecrated what was still necessary for the
performance of the divine worship ; as it is written in the
third book of Kings.^ Nebuchadnezzar the king also
summoned all his satraps, chief men, and governors to
the dedication of the golden image which he had made."*
The Jews therefore, as we read in Burchardus,^ used to
have the places in which they sacrificed to the Lord
consecrated by divine petitions, nor used they to offer
gifts to God in any places but such as were dedicated
unto Him. If then they who were in bondage to the
shadow of the Law used to do this, how much the more
ought we, to whom the truth hath been made manifest —
' grace and truth came by Jesus Christ ' ^ — to build
temples to the Lord, and adorn them as best we may,
and devoutly and solemnly consecrate (according to the
institution of Pope Felix III)' by divine prayers and
holy unctions both them and their altars and vessels,
and vestments also, and other utensils for fulfilling the
divine service ?

Again, when once in Syria, in the city of Baruth, the
Jews had trampled underfoot an image of the Crucified,

- Exodus XXX, 23-34. ^ I Kings iii, 6. ^ Daniel iii, 2.

^ Book iii, ch. i. ^ S. John i, 17.

' ' The solemnities of the consecration of churches and of priests ought
to be celebrated year by year, after the example of our Lord Himself, Who
at the feast of the Dedication of the Temple did set us a pattern of this in
that He celebrated this festival with the rest of the people ; as it is written
in S. John, "And it was at Jerusalem the feast of the Dedication, and it
was winter, and Jesus walked in the Temple in Solomon's porch." Felix
Papa in ' Epist. ad Episc. per divers, provincias,' cap. i.

go TJie Symbolism of Churches

and had pierced its side, there soon came forth therefrom
blood and water. But the Jews marvelled at this spec-
tacle, and their sick when anointed with this blood were
freed from all their infirmities : by reason of which all,
having received the faith of Christ, were baptised, and
proceeded to consecrate their synagogues into churches.
And hence hath grown the custom that churches should
be consecrated, whereas before this altars alone used to
be consecrated. On account of this miracle also the
Church ordained that a memorial of the Lord's Passion
should be made on the fifth day before the Calends of
December : and for the same reason the church was
consecrated to the honour of the Saviour, in which a
vessel containing some of the blood is preserved, and a
solemn festival is celebrated on that day.^

3. Secondly, it is to be noted that a bishop alone can
dedicate churches and altars : since he beareth the image
and figure of the Chief Bishop, Christ, dedicating spiri-
tually, without Whom we can do nothing stable in the
Church : whence He hath Himself said, ' Without Me ye
can do nothing ' ; ^ and the Psalm saith, ' Unless the
Lord build the house their labour is but lost that build
it : ^^ hence the Council of Carthage prohibiteth a priest
from doing this, nor can this office be deputed to any-
one of an inferior order.

4. Further, as the Sacred Canons instruct us, a church
must not be dedicated, unless it be first endowed, and
that from goods lawfully acquired. For we read how
when a certain bishop was consecrating a church built
out of the fruits of usury and pillage, he saw behind the
altar the devil in a pontifical vestment, standing in the
bishop's throne : who said unto the bishop. Cease from

** The editors have not been able to find any other account of this
legend.

^ 5. John xvii, 5. '" Psalm cxxvii {Nisi Dotninus), I.

Of the Dedication of a CJiiirck 91

consecrating the church : for it pertaineth to my juris-
diction, since it is built from the fruits of usuries and
robberies. Then the bishop and the clergy having fled
thence in fear, immediately the devil destroyed that
church, with a great noise.

5. Again, a church which hath been erected from the
profit of avarice must not be consecrated ; nor one for
which a sufficient endowment hath not been assigned;
nor one in which a paynim or an infidel hath been
buried, until he shall have been cast forth thence, and
the church reconciled, the walls and timbers having been
first scraped. The case is the same also with respect to
an excommunicate person. But if a woman with child
be buried there, though she be not removed, the church
may be consecrated, even if the child hath not been
baptised.

Although certain learned authors have written other-
wise the church may also be consecrated on ordinary
days as well as on Sundays : and more bishops than one
and more altars than one may be consecrated at the
same time by the same person in one church.

6. Thirdly, we have to say for what reason a church
is dedicated : and indeed there be five reasons. First,
that the devil and his power may be entirely expelled
from it. Gregory relateth in a dialogue, in his third
book, that when a certain church of the Arians having
been restored to the Orthodox was beinor conse-
crated, and relics of S. Sebastian and the Blessed
Agatha had been conveyed thither, the people there
assembled of a sudden perceived a swine to be
running to and fro among their feet ; the which
regaining the doors of the church could be seen of
none, and moved all to marvel. Which sign the
Lord showed for this cau.se, that it might be manifest
to all that the unclean inhabitant had gone forth from

92 The Syinholisin of Churches

that place. But in the following night a great noise was
made on the roof of the same church, as if someone
were running confusedly about upon it. The second
night the uproar was much greater. On the third night
also so vast a noise was heard as if the whole church had
been overthrown from its foundations : but it immedi-
ately ceased and no further inquietude of the old enemy
hath appeared in it. Secondly, that those who fly for
refuge to it may be saved, as we read in the Canons of
Gregory. And with this view Joab fled into the
tabernacle and laid hold of the horns of the altar.
Thirdly, that prayers may be heard there. Whence in
the prayer of the Mass of Dedication it is said, ' Grant
that all who shall meet together here to pray may
obtain, whatsoever be their trials, the benefits of the
consolation.' Thus also Solomon prayed at the dedica-
tion of the Temple, as we read in the eighth chapter of
the third book of Kings." Fourthly, that praises may
there be offered to God, as has been already mentioned
under the head of the Church. Fifthly, that there the
sacraments of the Church may be administered. From
which the church itself is called a tabernacle, as it were
the hostelrie of God, in which the divine sacraments be
contained and adminstered.^^

7. Fourthly, we have to speak of the manner in which
a church is consecrated. All being excluded from the
church, a single deacon remaining shut up within, the
bishop with his clergy before the doors of the church
proceedeth to bless water mixed with salt. In the
meanwhile within the building twelve lamps be burning
before twelve crosses which be depicted on the walls of
the church. Next, the bishop, the clergy and people
following him and performing the circuit of the church,
sprinkleth from a rod of hyssop the external walls with

" I Kings viii, 30. '- See chapter i, 4.

Of the Dedicatioti of a CJud'cIi 93

holy water ; and as he arriveth each time at the door of
the church he striketh the threshold with his pastoral
staff, saying, ' Lift up your heads, O ye gates,' etc. The
deacon from within answereth, * Who is the King of
Glory ? ' To whom the Pontiff, ' The Lord of Hosts,'
etc. But the third time, the door being thrown open,
the bishop entereth the church with a few of his
attendants, the clergy and people remaining without, and
saith, ' Peace be to this house ' ; and then the Litanies.
Next on the pavement of the church, let a cross be made
of ashes and sand ; upon which the whole alphabet is
described in Greek and Latin characters.^^ And then he
sanctifieth more water with salt and ashes and wine, and
consecrateth the altar. Lastly, he anointeth with chrism
the twelve crosses depicted on the wall.

8. In good truth whatsoever things be here done
visibly, God by His invisible power worketh the same in
the soul which is the temple of the true God : in which
Faith layeth the foundation, Hope buildeth up, and
Charity perfecteth. For the Catholic Church herself,
made one out of many living stones, is the Temple of
God, because many temples make one temple, of which
the true God is one, and the Faith one. The house,
therefore, must be dedicated ; the soul sanctified.

9. And it is to be observed that consecration effecteth
two things ; for it appropriateth the material church
itself to God, and doth insinuate our own betrothal, as
well namely of the church as of the faithful soul. For a
house not consecrated is as a damsel designed for some
man, but not furnished with dowry or united in the
commerce of wedlock. But in consecration it is
endowed, and passeth into the proper spouse of Jesus
Christ, which further to violate is sacrilege. For it
ceaseth to be the resort of demons, as is evident in the

'■* See the Appendix on the ' Dedication of a Church '

94 The Symbolism of Churches

consecration -of that temple, which used formerly to be
called the Pantheon, or place of all demons.^^

10. First, however, we have to speak of the benediction
of water, concerning which the Lord saith, ' Unless a
man be born again of water and of the Spirit, he cannot
enter the Kingdom of Heaven.^^ For water which is
designed for washing the body, hath merited to receive
from God so great a virtue, that as it washeth the body
from impurities, so also it should cleanse the soul from
sins. It is manifest indeed that this water, by the
aspersion of which a church is consecrated, signifieth
baptism, because in some sort the church itself is
baptised ; and the church itself assuredly denoteth that
Church which is contained in it, namely, the multitude of
the faithful. Whence also it is called a church because
it contains the Church ; the thing containing, namely,
for the thing contained.

11. But we must inquire wherefore salt is to be mixed
with this water, since our Saviour, speaking of baptism,
made no mention of salt. For He saith not ' unless a
man be born again of salt water or water mixed with
salt,' or anything of this sort : but He said ' unless a
man be born again of water and of the Holy Spirit,' etc.
And the very same inquiry may be made concerning oil
and chrism. But we must note that salt in the divine
language is often put for wisdom ; according to that say-
ing, ' Let your speech be savoured with salt' And the
Lord saith to His disciples, ' Have salt in yourselves and
have peace one with another.'^^ And again, ' Ye are the
salt of the earth ; but if the salt have lost its savour
wherewithal shall it be salted ? '^' Hence also it is that

" ' Pope Boniface the Fourth did consecrate to the most Blessed Virgin
and All Saints the famous monument of Agrippa, the Patitheon^ having
purified it from the base herd of vain gods.' Ciampini IV, vi, $5. This
is now called Santa Maria Rotonda. Board.

>^ S. John iii, 5. '« S. Mark ix, 50. '' S. Mark v, 13.

Of tJie Dedication of a Cliurcli 95

according to the law no victim was offered without salt,
but salt was a part of every sacrifice. From all which
passages it is clearly shown that salt is put for wisdom.
And wisdom indeed is the seasoning of all virtues, as salt
is of all meats. Hence therefore it is that no one is
baptised before he hath tasted salt ; and in order that
even infants may have by the symbolical meaning of the
sacrament that which they cannot have in fact, the water
is not blessed without a mixture of salt. Of the second
benediction of water we shall speak in the following
treatise.

12. Again, the trine aspersion within and without with
hyssop and holy water signifieth the threefold immersion
in baptism. And it is done for three reasons. First, to
drive away evil spirits. For holy water availeth from
its own proper virtue to drive away demons. Whence in
the Office for Exorcising the Water we say- -' that this
water may become exorcised in order to put to flight
all the power of the enemy, and may avail to eradicate
the enemy himself,' etc. Secondly, for the cleansing and
expiation of the church itself For all earthly things be
corrupted and defiled by reason of sin. Hence it is also
that in the Law almost everything was cleansed by water.
Thirdly, to remove all malediction, and to bring in a
blessing instead. For the earth from the beginning
received the curse with all its fruits, because that the
great deceit was made out of its fruit. But water hath
not been under any curse. Hence it is that our Lord ate
fish, but we do not read expressly that he ate flesh,
unless of the Paschal Lamb ; and this on account of the
precept of the Law, as an example, namely, sometimes
to abstain from lawful things, sometimes to eat the same.
Again, the aspersion in going the circuit signifieth that
the Lord having a care of His own, sendeth His angel
round about them that fear Him.

g6 The Symbolism of Churches

1 3. But the three responses which be chanted in the
meantime testify the joy of the three ages of men re-
ceiving the faith, namely, Noah, Daniel, and Job. And
since at this invocation the grace of Faith, Hope, and
Charity, is poured out as the sprinkling is directed to
the foot and middle part, as well as to the upper part of
the walls. We will now also speak of the interior asper-
sion. (Of the virtue of the hyssop, we will speak under
the next head.)

14. But the trine circuit, which the bishop maketh
while sprinkling, denoteth the thrice-repeated circuit
which Christ made for the sanctification of the Church.
The first was that by which He came down from heaven
to the world : the second in which He descended into
hell from the world : the third in which returning from
hell and rising again He ascended into heaven. The
trine circuit also showeth that that church is dedicated
to the honour of the Trinity. It showeth also the three
states of such as shall be saved in the Church, which be
the virgins, the continent, the married : which also the
arrangement of the material church itself showeth, as
hath been said under the head of the Church.

15. Moreover, the trine striking on the lintel of the
door signifieth the threefold right which Christ hath in
His Church why it ought to be opened unto Him. For
it hath from Him Creation, Redemption, and promise of
Glorification. For the bishop representeth Christ, and
the rod His power. Again, by the triple striking of the
door with the pastoral staff, the preaching of the Gospel
is understood. For what else is the pastoral rod than
the divine Word ? According to that of Esaias, ' He
shall smite the earth with the rod,' i.e. the word, ' of His
mouth,' etc.^^ Wherefore to strike the door with the
rod is to strike the ears of the hearers by the word of

^^ Isaiah xi, 4.

Of the Dedication of a Church 97

preaching. For the ears are the gates by which we
bring in the words of holy preachings to the hearts of
the hearers. Whence in the Psalm, ' Who liftest me up
from the gates of death that I may show all Thy praises
within the ports of the daughter of Sion.' ^'^ For what
are the gates of the daughter of Sion but the ears and
hearing of the faithful ? Thirdly, the trine striking with
the staff, and the opening of the gates, signifieth that by
the preaching of the pastors the unbelieving shall come
to the agreement of the Faith. For by it the gates
of justice be opened, and they that enter therein do con-
fess the faith. Whence the Psalm, ' Open unto me the
gates of righteousness : I will go into them and I will
praise the Lord : this is the gate of the Lord, the
righteous shall enter into it.'^^ Wherefore the bishop
striketh the lintel, namely, of reason, saying, ' Lift up
your heads, ye princes,' that is, ye evil spirits : or rather,
' Lift up, ye men,' that is, remove the gates, that is, your
ignorances, namely, from your hearts.^^

16. Again, the question of the deacon shut up within
answering in the character of the people, ' Who is the
King of glory ? ' is the ignorance of the people which
knoweth not Who He is Who ought to enter.

17. The opening of the doors is the ejection of sin.
Rightly, therefore, doth the bishop strike three times,
because that number is most known and most sacred ;
and in any consecration the bishop ought to smite the
doors three times, because without the invocation of the
Trinity, there can be no sacrament in the Church.

18. The threefold proclamation, ' Lift up your heads,'
etc., signifieth the threefold power of Christ, that, namely,
which He hath in heaven, and in the earth, and in hell.
Whence it is said in the hymn for the Ascension, * That

'^ Ps. ix [Confitebor tibi\ 13, 14. -" Ps. cxviii {Confitemini Domino)^ ig, 20.
21 Ps. xxiv (^Domini est terra)^ ' AttolHte portas principes vestras.'

98 The Syinbolism of Chtcrches

the threefold frame of things, whether heavenly, earthly,
or infernal, may bow the head, having been subdued.^^

19. Next the bishop entereth by the open door to
denote that if he duly exercise his office, nothing can
resist him ; according to that saying, ' Lord, who shall
resist Thy power ? ' And he entereth, accompanied by
two or three, that in the mouth of two or three witnesses
every word of the consecration may stand sure. Or else
because the Lord in His Transfiguration, in the presence
of a few, prayed for the Church, And the bishop as he
entereth saith, ' Peace be to this house and to all them
that dwell therein ' ; because Christ entering the world
made peace between God and man ; for He came that
He might reconcile us to God the Father.

20. After this while the Litany is being said the
bishop prostrateth himself and prayeth for the sanctifica-
tion of the house. For Christ also humbling Himself
before His Passion prayed for His disciples and ' them
that should believe through His word,' saying, * Father,
sanctify them in Thy name.' ^^ But after he hath risen
up he prayeth without benediction, since he saith not
' The Lord be with you ' ; because the Church is not yet
as it were baptised, and because Catechumens only are
not worthy that this mark of approval should be given
to them, since they are not yet sanctified : but neverthe-
less prayer is to be made for them.

21. The clergy praying and chanting the Litany
representeth the Apostles who intercede with God for the
sanctification of the Church and of souls.

The alphabet is written on the pavement of the church
in this manner. A cross made with ashes and sand is
described athwart the church, upon which cross of dust

-^ This hymn, by S. Gregory, is used in the office of matins in the
Roman Breviary.

-^ S. John xvii.

Of the Dedication of a Chiwcli 99

the alphabet is written in the shape of a cross in letters
of Greek and Latin, but not of Hebrew, because the
Jews have departed from the faith ; and it is written
with the pastoral staff

22. This alphabet written upon the cross representeth
three things. First, the writing made in Greek and
Latin characters in the shape of a cross representeth the
conjunction or union in faith of both people, namely,
the Jews and the Greeks, which is made through the
Cross of Christ : according to the saying that Jacob
blessed his sons with his hands crossed. But the cross
itself or the legend that is described in a direction
athwart the church, namely, the one arm from the left
corner of the east to the right of the west, and the other
from the right of the east to the left of the west,-"* signi-
fieth that that people, which was before on the right is
now made on the left, and that which wab first is now
made last, and the converse : and this owincf to the
power of the Cross. For Christ passing from the east,
left the Jews on His left hand, because they were un-
believing, and came to the Gentiles, to whom, though
they had been in the west. He grants to be on the right
hand : and at length returning from the Gentiles, who are
situated at the right hand of the east, He visited the
Jews in the left corner of the west ; who it is evident are
worse than He before found the Gentiles. But on this
account the characters are written obliquely and in the
shape of a cross, and not in a straight line, because such
an one as doth not receive the mystery of the Cross and
doth not believe that he must be saved by the Passion of
Christ, is not able to attain to this holy wisdom. Wisdom
will not enter into the evil-disposed mind, and where

-* We understand this to mean that the cross described in the church is
a saltire, or S. Andrew's Cross, and not a plain one. Upon this again
consult the Appendix.

lOO The Symbolism of Ckuirhes

Christ is not 'the foundation, no edifice can be built
upon it.

23. Secondly, the writing of the alphabet representeth
the page of both Testaments, because they be fulfilled by
the Cross of Christ. For the veil of the temple was
rent asunder at His Passion, because then the Scriptures
were opened, and the Holy of Holies revealed. Whence
He Himself said when dying, ' It IS FINISHED.' In
these few letters also all knowledge is contained ; and
the alphabet is written crosswise, because one Testament
is contained in the other. For there was a wheel within
a wheel.

24. Thirdly, it representeth the articles of faith ; for
the pavement of the church is the foundation of our
faith. The elements written thereon, are the articles of
faith, in which ignorant men and neophytes from both
peoples be instructed in the Church ; who indeed ought
to esteem themselves dust and ashes. Just as Abraham
saith in the xviii chapter of Genesis, ' Shall I speak to
my Lord, who am but dust and ashes ? ' Wherefore the
writing of the alphabet on the pavement is the simple
teaching of faith in the human heart.

25. The sainbuca or staff, with which the alphabet is
written, showeth the doctrine of the apostles, or the
mystery of the teachers, by which the conversion of the
Gentiles hath been effected, and the perfidy of the Jews.
Afterwards approaching the altar the bishop standeth,
and beginneth by saying, ' O God, make speed to save
us ; ' because he is then beginning the principal part of
office. And the versicle, ' Glory be to the Father,' etc., is
then said.

26. Because this benediction is used to set forth the
glory of the Trinity, Alleluia is not then uttered, as will
be set forth in the next chapter. Then the bishop con-
secrateth the altar, for which he blesseth other water, as

Of the Dedication of a CJiurcJi lOi

shall also be declared in the next chapter. With which
water also, after that the altar hath been sprinkled seven
times, the whole interior of the church is sprinkled three
times, as at first without any distinction between greater
and smaller stones, since ' there is no respect of persons
with God.' For this reason is the interior sprinkled, to
signify that an external ablution profiteth nothing
without an internal charity. And for this reason three
times, because, as hath been premised, that aspersion
signifieth the aspersion and cleansing of baptism, which
is conferred through the invocation of the Trinity,
according to the saying, ' Go ye and teach all nations,
baptising them in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost : ' ^^ for since a church
cannot be immersed in water as a man in baptism is
immersed, it is on this account sprinkled three times
with water, as if in the place of a threefold immersion.

27. Again, the bishop performeth the aspersion pro-
ceeding from the east to the west and once through the
middle in the form of the cross ; because Christ gave
instructions to baptise the whole of Judea and all nations
in the name of the Trinity, to which baptism He gave
efficacy in the ministry of His Passion, beginning from
the Jews, from whom He had His birth. And what
remains of the water is poured away at the foot of the
altar, as shall be mentioned in the next chapter. Some,
however, do not bless any fresh water, but perform the
whole office with that which was blessed at first. In the
meanwhile, however, the choir is chanting the Psalm
Exsiirgat Deus (' let God arise and let His enemies be
scattered,' etc.), and the Qui Jiabitat (' whoso dwelleth,'
etc.), in which mention is made of the church and its
consecration, as is plain in that verse, ' He is the God

■^ S. Matt, xxviii, 19.

I02 TJie Syinbolisin of CJiurcJies

that maketh 'men to be of one mind in an house.'^*^ But
the bishop saith, ' My house shall be called an house of
prayer,' because it is his duty to cause that the church
should be a house of God, not of merchandise.

28. Next, when the altar hath been anointed with
chrism, the twelve crosses painted on the walls of the
church are also anointed. But the crosses themselves
be painted ; first, as a terror to evil spirits, that they,
having been driven forth thence, may be terrified when
they see the sign of the cross, and may not presume to
enter therein again ; secondly, as a mark of triumph.
For crosses be the banners of Christ, and the signs of his
triumph.^' Crosses therefore are with reason painted
there that it may be made manifest that that place hath
been subdued to the dominion of Christ.

29. For even in the pomp of an earthly sovereign it is
customary when any city hath been yielded, for the
imperial standard to be set up within it. And to repre-
sent the same thing, Jacob is said to have set up the
stone, which he had placed under his head, as a historical,
traditional, and triumphal monument.^^

30. Thirdly, that such as look on them may call to
mind the Passion of Christ, by which he hath consecrated
His Church, and their belief in His Passion. Whence it
is said in the Canticles, ' place me as a signet upon thy
arm,' etc.^^ The twelve lights placed before these crosses
signify the twelve Apostles who have illumined the
whole world by the faith of the Crucified, and whose
teaching hath dispersed the darkness : whence Bernard
saith, ' All prophecy is verified in the faith of the crucified
One ; ' and the Apostle, ' I determined not to know any-
thing among you except Jesus Christ and Him cruci-

-'* Psalm Ixviii {Exsurgat Dens), v, 5.
-" Compare the hymn, Vexilla Regis prodeunt. -^ Genesis xxviii.
^'^ Cant, viii, 6.

Of the Dedication of a Cliurrh 1 03

fied.' ^^ Wherefore the crosses on the four walls of the
church are Hghted up and anointed with chrism, because
the apostles preaching the mystery of the cross have by
the faith of Christ illumined the four quarters of the
earth unto knowledge, have lighted them up unto love,
have anointed them unto purity of conscience — which
is signified by the oil ; and unto the savour of a good
reputation — which is signified by the balsam. In addi-
tion to this, after the anointing of the altar, the altar it-
self and the church are ornamented; the lamps lighted
up ; a Mass is said, in which the priest useth different
vestments from those which he hath used in the asper-
sion, as shall be explained in the sequel.

31. Lastly, it is to be noted that a church is said to be
consecrated in the blood of someone ; whence, according
to Pelagius and Pope Nicholas, the Roman Church was
consecrated in the martyrdom of the Apostles, Peter
and Paul.^^ A church therefore is consecrated in the
way just described ; and an altar, as will be set forth
in the next chapter ; and a cemetery and other things, as
is declared under the head of its consecration. And
although we read in the Old Testament that the Temple
was consecrated three times : first, in the month of Sep-
tember ; secondly, in March under Darius ; thirdly, in
December by Judas Maccab^eus.

32. Yet a church once consecrated, is not to be con-
secrated again unless it shall have been profaned, which
happeneth in three ways. First, if it hath been burnt
so as that all the walls or the greater part of them be
destroyed. But if only the roof or some part of it hath
been burnt, the walls remaining entire, or at least only

3" I Cor, ii, 2.
^' This passage is obscure. A confession or martyrium was built over
the place of S. Peter's martyrdom in the earliest times^ and is now covered
by the Vatican. See Ciampini de \^aticana Basilica. The expression
probably means, in honour of the martyrdom.

I04 TJie Syinbolisni of Churches

partially destroyed, it need not be reconsecrated.
Secondly, if the whole church or the greater part of
it hath fallen to the ground at the same time, and hath
been repaired entirely or not with the original stones.
For the consecration of a church consisteth mainly in
the exterior anointings, and in the conjunction and
arrangement of the stones. If, however, all the walls
shall have fallen in, not at the same time, but in succes-
sion, and shall have been repaired, the church is to be
considered the same. And so it need not be reconse-
crated, but only exorcised with water and reconciled by
the solemnisation of a Mass : however, some learned
authors have said that it ought to be reconsecrated.
Thirdly, a church must be reconsecrated, if it be
doubtful whether it ever hath been consecrated, should
there remain no writing or painting or inscription
to that effect, nor even a single eye-witness, nor
yet an ear-witness, who (as some say) would be
sufficient.

33. An altar also which hath been once consecrated
must not be consecrated again unless it should happen
that it become profaned. Which taketh place first if the
table, that is the upper surface on which the principal
part of the consecration is bestowed, be moved or changed
in its form, or broken beyond measure, for instance above
a half However, a disproportion of this sort may rightly
be referred to the decision of the bishop. The same also
is especially the case, if the whole structure of the altar
hath been moved and repaired. Nevertheless, the church
is not to be reconsecrated on account of either the move-
ment or the breaking of the structure of the altar :
because the consecration of an altar and of a church be
two different things. So conversely if when the church
is entirely destroyed the altar be not injured, the church
only is to be repaired, and the altar not reconsecrated :

Of the Dedication of a CJnirch 105

although in such case it is fitting that it be washed with
exorcised water.

34. Further, when the chief altar hath been consecrated
the inferior altars are not the less to be consecrated : al-
though some have said that it is sufficient for the rest to
be pointed out with the finger while the former is under
consecration.

35. If, however, the altar hath suffered a trifling injur}-,
it is not on this account to be reconsecrated.

Secondly, an altar is reconsecrated, if the seal of the
altar — that is the little stone by which the sepulchre or
cavity in which the relics be deposited is closed or
sealed — be moved or broken. And the cavity itself is
made sometimes on the top part of the block, and some-
times no other seal is put over it, but the table, being
placed over it, is considered as the seal. But sometimes
it is placed in the hinder part, and sometimes in the
front : and in the same cavity the bishop's letters of
consecration be generally carefully deposited in testimony
of the consecration : containing his own name and that
of the other bishops present at the consecration : and
declaring in honour of what saint the altar is consecrated,
and also the church itself, when both be consecrated at
the same time, and the year also and day of conse-
cration.

Thirdly, an altar is reconsecrated, if the junction of
the seal to the cavity, or of the table to the block, where
there is no other seal than this slab, be disturbed ; or
if any of the stones of the junction or the block, which
toucheth either the table or the seal, be either disturbed
or broken. For in the conjunction of the seal and cavity,
and of the table and block or inferior structure, the con-
secration is most especially perceived.

Fourthly, an altar is reconsecrated, if to it or to the
conjunction of the table with the under structure so

io6 TJie Syinbolism of Churches

great an enlargement be made as that it loseth its
original form, since the form giveth the existence to the
thing. Yet it doth not become profaned on account of
a trifling enlargement : but in that case the sacred part
draweth over to itself the part not sanctified : so long as
the conjunction of the top slab and under structure be
not greatly changed.

Fifthly, an altar, just as a church, is reconsecrated in
cases of doubt.

Sixthly, a travelling altar, if the stone be removed
from the wood in which it is inserted, which in some sort
representeth its seal, and be replaced again in the same
or in other wood, some think should be reconsecrated,
but others only reconciled. But although it be often by
the command of the bishop transferred from place to
place, and carried on a journey (on which account it is
called a portable or a travelling altar) yet it is not recon-
secrated in consequence of this, nor yet reconciled.

36. But if a consecrated chalice be regilt, is it therefore
to be reconsecrated ? It seemeth so, since it appeareth
to become a new chalice. For he who doth renew the
old fashion of a work seemeth to make a new work : and
he doth remake, who doth mend a thing already made.
And assuredly consecration doth pertain to the outer
surface. And hence it is that I have said above that a
church, if its walls be stripped of their outer coat, must
be reconsecrated.

37. The converse is nevertheless true, that neither on
account of whitewashing or painting the walls, nor of
any small addition to them, is a church to be reconse-
crated ; as I have already said. Wherefore, if the shape
of the chalice be not changed, it remaineth the same
chalice, and is not to be reconsecrated ; just as also a
church being repaired, since it remaineth the same
church, is not to be reconsecrated, as aforesaid. But if

Of the Dedication of a Church 107

the former shape be changed, the case were otherwise,
since, as I have said, the shape giveth existence to the
thing. Nevertheless, it is decent, as well by reason of
its contact with unclean hands as also of the increment
of unconsecrated matter, that a chalice, being regilded,
should be washed with exorcised water before that the
most Holy Body and Blood of the Lord be sacrificed
therein. Let us now say something about Reconciliation.

38. Upon this head it is to be noted that the spiritual
temple, which is man, is ofttimes polluted. Whence we do
read in the twentieth of Leviticus what men be polluted,
and how they may not enter the church until they be
washed with water and cleansed : as also in the nine-
teenth of Numbers, ' He that toucheth the dead body of
a man shall be unclean .... wherefore he shall purify
himself and wash his clothes and bathe himself in water
and shall be clean.' And the Prophet saith, ' Thou shalt
purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean. '^-

39. The material temple also, which as Pope Gregory
doth testify, is the church, is sometimes polluted, as we do
read in Leviticus.^^ Whence saith the Prophet, ' Thy
holy temple have they defiled and made Jerusalem
an heap of stones.'f^ And the material temple is also
washed with water in order to be reconciled. ^^ Recon-
ciliation is also effected by the celebration of a Mass, and
the aspersion of water duly consecrated with salt, wine,
and ashes. For by the salt, is signified discretion; by the
water, the people ; by the wine, the Divinity ; by the
ashes, the remembrance of the Passion of Christ ; by the
wine mixed with water, the union of Godhead and Man-
hood. These things, therefore, be put together to denote

^- Psalm li {Misej-ere met), 7. ^3 Levit. xv, 31.

^' Psalm Ixxix (^Deus^ venerunf)^ I.
^ Some of our readers may not know that reconciliation is the technical
term for the restoring a desecrated church to a state fit for the performance
of the divine offices.

io8 The Symbolism of Churches

that the people, being cleansed by a discerning remem-
brance of the Passion of Christ, are made one with Him-
Also if the church hath once been consecrated, the recon-
ciliation can be made by a bishop only. And albeit he
might devolve upon a fellow-bishop the whole office,
namely, both the blessing of the water and the reconcili-
ation ; or the benediction of the water only; or even the
reconciliation alone with water blessed beforehand by
himself; yet can neither be devolved upon a mere priest,
unless perchance this be competent to him by a special
privilege. But if the church hath not been consecrated,
it ought, according to the Constitution of Gregory, to be
washed forthwith with exorcised water: the which wash-
ing some do affirm may be done by a mere priest, though
at the bidding of the bishop : since it hath to be done by
exorcised water, which every priest may use. Yet some
skilful men of the highest authority have written that it
is safer for this also to be done by none but a bishop,
and that this may not be devolved by him to a priest ;
for certain canons do call exorcised water that which is
solemnly blessed with wine and ashes : — and this is true
indeed in regard of a church which although not conse-
crated hath been dedicated unto God. For it is other-
wise with a mere oratory, which is neither a holy nor a
religious place, inasmuch as any man doth order it at his
will — at least for prayers, albeit perchance not for
celebration without the license of the diocesan — and at
his will assigneth the same place to another use.

40. A church then is to be reconsecrated in the aforesaid
case : and also if any uncleanness be committed therein,
whether by clerk, layman, heretic, or paynim. But albeit
some wise men have thought otherwise, we opine that the
case is different in regard of unintentional pollution.^^

^'* The editors have ventured to make a few omissions in this and some
of the following sections.

Of the Dedication of a Church 109

41. A church also must be reconciled on account of
any homicide, in any way intentionally committed therein,
whether with or without the shedding of blood : and also,
besides homicide, for any violence or injurious shedding
of human blood, whether from a wound or not, or from
the nose or the mouth. For we read in the Old Testament,
in the fourteenth and fifteenth of Leviticus, how that an\-
man shedding blood, or polluted in divers ways, may not
enter the temple. If, however, without violence or injury
blood should flow in any natural way whatsoever within
the church ; or if any animal should be slain therein, or
if anyone should die suddenly, or be killed by a falling
stone or timber, or by lightning ; for these and the like
occasions the church is not reconciled. Nor again, if an}'-
one, having been wounded elsewhere, should flee to a
church and die there even with great effusion of blood :
since then the homicide is not committed in the church.
But conversely, if anyone having been wounded in a
church dieth without, or even if blood flow from the
wound away from the church, the case is otherwise, even
if the blood did not flow at all within the church : since
the law regardeth the blow which causeth the wound.
But and if blood be shed or other pollutions be caused
on the roof of a church, no reconciliation is made, because
the deed is committed without the church.

42. But if theft and rapine be committed in a church,
it is reconciled by the custom which usually obtaineth in
such matters. And some do aflirm that the same ought
to be done in any case of violence committed therein
without the shedding of blood ; for example, if anyone
having taken refuge therein should be drawn forth with
violence. Also if anyone should break into the church
or any quarrel should be tumultuously carried on, though
without shedding of blood : or if anyone should be
(grievously beaten therein, so as his bones should be

I lo The Syinbolisin of CJiurcJies

broken, or he be covered with weals and bruises, though
without blood ; or again, if anyone, being condemned
while present in a church either to death or mutilation,
be led forth to go to the place of execution. But since
these cases be not expressed in the law, it is not necessary
for the church to be solemnly reconciled by the bishop.
Yet we think it is decent for it to be washed by the
priest with exorcised water at the command of the bishop :
and the same is to be said, if the church being a long-
time without roof or doors, should have been open to all
impurities, to animals and the natural use of men, as if
a common inn : nor perchance would it be amiss for it
in such case to be solemnly reconciled by the bishop.
Again, if anyone, slain without the church, be shortly
borne into the church, and there the murderer or anyone
else thinking he will not die should inflict on his yet
warm body a blow causing blood to flow, then the church
must be reconciled, as well by reason of the horror and
abomination, as of the violence and intention of sinning :
for though a dead man be not a man, yet is his human
blood shed there by violence ; and to the corpse itself is
violence, horror, and injury offered. But the case is other-
wise if anyone, having died a natural death, be, through
respect of, and honour to his body, dismembered in the
church or disembowelled, that perhaps one part may be
buried in one place, and another in another.

43. A church must also be reconciled, in which an
infidel, or one publicly excommunicated be buried ; and
then the walls are to be scraped.

In the aforesaid cases, however, in which a church is
to be reconciled, it is requisite that the fact causing the
reconciliation should be known at least by report.

44. For this is a scandal to the church, the horror and
abomination of baseness and sin and violence committed
in a sacred place, or in a church : wherein the pardon for

Of the Dedication of a Church 1 1 1

offences is besought, wherein there ought to be a refuge
of defence, wherein is offered the saving sacrifice for sins,
wherein also those that flee for refuge be saved, and
praises be rendered unto God. Furthermore, the inten-
tion and design of sinning mortally therein do cause a
church to be reconciled. But if this design be hidden,
reconciliation is not necessary, since the church itself,
being holy, cannot be polluted ; nay, the holiness of the
place itself doth do away with the infamy : albeit some
do think the contrary of this, as that it ought to be re-
conciled at least privately, so that the delinquents be not
exposed.

45. For reconciliation is performed for an example and
warning, that all who behold the church, which hath in
no wise sinned, washed and purified for the delict of
another, may reflect how they themselves must work out
the expiation of their own sins.

46. Also a cemetery, in which a paynim, or an infidel
or one excommunicate be buried, is to be reconciled ; the
bones, however, of the paynim, if they can be dis-
tinguished from those of the faithful, being interred
elsewhere. A cemetery also is reconciled in the above-
mentioned cases, in which a church is to be reconciled :
for a cemetery enjoyeth the same privileges as doth a
church, as we shall say in the chapter of Sacred Unctions ;
for it is a holy place from the time of its benediction ;
and it is reconciled by the bishop, just as a church, by
the aspersion of water, blessed with wine and ashes.

47. But this is to be noted, that in whatsoever part of
the church or the cemetery the violence or pollution be
committed, both the church and the cemetery, and also
the several parts of either, by reason of their contiguity,
are understood to be violated. This first hath of late
been set straight by Pope Boniface. For albeit the con-
secrations of the church, the altar, and the cemetery be

1 1 2 The Symbolism of CJiurdies

diverse, yet is the immunity of them one and the same
and is not to be restricted to any one of them separately?
nor to any individual part of either. This indeed is true
if the church and cemetery be adjacent : but if the one
be at a distance from the other, one may well be violated
without the other. If therefore when one is violated or
polluted, the other be also violated and polluted ; by the
like reason, if one only be reconciled the other is also
taken to be reconciled : since nothing is more natural
than that everything should be loosed in the same
method as it is bound, and that the relation of binding
and loosing should be the same. Wherefore when the
cemetery is violated or polluted, it sufficeth that the church
be reconciled. There be nevertheless some who do affirm
simply that by the pollution of the one, the other is in
no wise polluted, and by consequence that each should
be reconciled separately. Yet these doth the authority
of the Pontifical oppose, in which is found a special form
for the reconciliation of a cemetery. Lastly, if a church
or a cemetery, or any such thing, be consecrated or
blessed by a bishop under excommunication, these, some
affirm, do not require reconciliation, since sacraments
administered by such in the form of the Church be valid.
But since (as aforesaid) one or more excommunicate
persons do profane a cemetery or church, much more
indeed do the external sacraments and benedictions,
which proceed from the hands and mouth of an excom-
municate person, appear so far as pertaineth to their own
merits to be contaminated and to stink before God.
Wherefore it is decent that we should reconcile them
before the faithful use these sacraments ; as in truth the
reading of the sacred canons doth evidently teach.
For the Lord saith by the Prophet, ' I will curse your
blessings.' ^~'

3^ Malachi ii. 2.

CHAPTER VII

OF THE CONSECRATION OF AN ALTAR

Rise of the Consecration of Altars — Manner of the Same — The Benediction
of Water — The Aspersions — The Hyssop — Consideration of Relics —
The Altar must be of Stone — The Incense — The Benediction of
Church Ornaments.

I. Not only is a church consecrated, but al=o the altar :
and this for three reasons. First, with regard to the
sacrament thereon to be offered to God. Noah ^ built
an altar to the Lord, and offered a sacrifice upon it, tak-
ing some of all clean birds and beasts. But this sacra-
ment is the Body and Blood of Christ which is sacrificed
in remembrance of the Lord's Passion, according to the
command, ' This do in commemoration of Me.' -

2. Secondly, with regard to the invocation in that
place of the name of God : whence ^ Abraham built an
altar to God who appeared unto him, and called there
upon the name of the Lord. But this invocation, which
takes place over the altar, is properly called the Mass.

3. Thirdly, with regard to chanting : ' He gave him
patience against his enemies, and caused singers also to
stand before the altar, that by their voices they might
make sweet melody.' ^

4. The consecration of an altar is performed in this

> Genesis viii. - S. Luke xxii, 19. ^ Genesis xii. ^ Eccles. xlvii, 9.

1 1 4 The Syinbolisin of Churches

method and order. The bishop beginneth, ' O God,
make speed to save us.' Afterwards he blesseth the
water, and then at the four horns ^ of the altar he de-
scribeth four crosses with the consecrated water. Next,
he goeth round the altar seven times, and sprinkleth the
table ^ of the altar seven times with holy water, by means
of an aspersory of hyssop. The church also is again
sprinkled, and the remainder of the water is poured at
the foot of the altar : and then four crosses be made with
chrism at the four corners of the sepulchre in which the
relics are to be deposited ; and the relics themselves
be placed in a case, together with three grains of frankin-
cense, and so be buried in the sepulchre. Then is placed
upon the sepulchre its cover,' strengthened in the middle
by the sign of the cross : afterwards the stone, which is
called the table, is fitted to the top of the altar, and when
fitted is anointed with oil in five places, and in the same
way is further anointed afterwards with chrism, as hath
been said when speaking about oil. The altar also is
confirmed in front by the chrism applied in the form of
the cross, and incense is burnt upon it in the five places.
After this the altar is covered up, and is spread with
clean cloths, and then at length the sacrifice is celebrated
upon it. Now let us follow out each of the above-
mentioned ceremonies in succession.

5. First, then, it is to be noted, that an altar is conse-
crated by the unction of chrism and act of blessing inter-
vening, and that it is only and entirely of stone. The

^ The word horn appears to be used simply for corner^ evidently with
reference to the altar of the temple, which had raised projections, or horns
at its angles.

** We shall use the word table to denote the mensa or upper surface of the
altar, on which the chief part of the ceremonies of consecration were
performed.

^ This passage is obscure, and receives no light from other ritualists
who have not spoken much on the consecration of altars. From the 25 of
the chapter we apprehend that this slab, or cover of the sepulchre, was
marked with a cross of chrism before it was fitted on to the cavit}'.

Of the Consecration of an Altar 115

bishop standing up beginneth, ' O God, make speed to
save us,' because the Lord Himself saith, ' Without Me
ye can do nothing.' ^

6. And because this dedication signifieth that those
must be baptised, who, after receiving the faith, are
preparing themselves to fight, and who are still situated
amongst the sighs and struggles of this world ; on this
account the Alleluia is omitted, since those who be not
baptised be not worthy to join in the praises of angels :
whence it is written in Tobit, ' And all her streets shall
say Alleluia.' '•' But after that the consecration of the
church or of the altar is completed, the Alleluia is
chanted, because the delusions of devils having been
expelled, God shall be praised thereupon. For Christ
even when approaching to the altar of the cross in order
to manifest the glory of His Eternity, paid the penalty
of death : not until after His resurrection sang He
Alleluia.

7. Secondly, with respect to the blessing of water, it is
to be noted that this kind of exorcising water is
performed in order to expel the enemy from it. In
which blessing four things be necessary ; namely, water,
wine, salt, and ashes. And this for three reasons.

8. (i) Because there be four things which expel the
enemy. The first is the outpouring of tears, which is
denoted by the water : the second is the exultation of
the soul, which is denoted by the wine : the third is
natural discretion, which by the salt ; the fourth, a
profound humility, which is signified by the ashes.
Wherefore the water is penitence, the wine exaltation of
mind, the salt wisdom (as was shown in the preceding
chapter), the ashes the humility of penitence. Whence
it is said of the Ninevites that their * king rose up from
his throne, and clothed himself with sackcloth, and satin

' S. John XV, 5. 9 Tobit xiii, 18.

Ii6 The Synibolisin of Churches

ashes.'^^ Henrce also David saith, ' For I have eaten
ashes as it were bread.' ^^ Hence also Abraham saith,
' Shall I speak to my Lord, who am but dust and
ashes ? ' ^^

9. (ii) In a second sense water is the people or mankind,
because many waters are many peoples ; wine is the Deity ;
salt, the teaching of the divine law which is the salt of
the covenant ; ashes, that which preserveth the remem-
brance of the Lord's Passion. Wine mixed with water,
is Christ, God and Man. For by means of faith in the
Lord's Passion {ashes), which is had through the teaching
of the Divine Law {salt), the people, denoted by the
water, is joined through the union of faith, to its Head,
God and Man.

10. (iii) In a third method we may say also that this
consecrated water signifieth the Holy Spirit, without
Whose influence nothing ever is sanctified, and without
Whose erace there is no remission of sins. That the
Holy Spirit is called water, truth itself showeth when He
saith, ' Whosoever believeth in Me, out of his belly shall
flow rivers of living water ' : ^^ which the Evangelist
explaining saith, ' This He spake of the Holy Ghost
which they should receive who believed upon Him.'

11. And note the order of the sacrament ; the church
is consecrated outwardly by water, inwardly by the
Spirit. For this is what the Lord saith, ' Unless a man
shall be born again of water and of the Holy Ghost,'
etc.^^ Here is the water : here the Holy Spirit. For
in the sacrament of baptism, neither is the water without
the Spirit, nor the Spirit without the water : which
element indeed the Spirit Himself did sanctify, when in
the first creation of the world ' He moved upon the face

>" Jonah iii, 6. '' Psalm cii {Domine exaiidi\ 9.

^'^ Genesis xviii, 27. >=* S. John vii, 38, 39.

1^ S. John iii, 5.

Of the Consecration of an Altar 117

of the vvaters.'^^ With this water therefore, both the altar
itself and the whole interior of the church is sprinkled,
when both it and the altar are dedicated on the same
occasion.

12. Although therefore the Spirit and water would
suffice for the perfect operation of baptism and the conse-
cration of a church, yet the holy fathers who have made
this constitution, wished to satisfy us not only in those
particulars which pertain to the efficacy of the sacraments,
but in those also which relate to its greater sanctification :
and on this account they have added salt, wine, oil, ashes,
and chrism. (For Philip, when he baptised the eunuch,
had neither oil nor chrism.) Therefore not one of these
ingredients ought to be wanting ; and they ought all to
be mixed together, because the people of God, which is
the Church, is neither sanctified nor released from sins
without the union of these qualities. On this I shall treat
also in the chapter upon consecrations. With respect to
water indeed the case is evident, because 'unless a man
be born again,' etc.

13. With respect to the salt also ; because without the
seasoning of faith, which is typified by the salt, no one
shall ever be saved, albeit he be sprinkled by the water of
baptism. Also with respect to wine, by means of which
the spiritual intelligence of the divine law is denoted.
Whence the Lord at the marriage in Cana turned the
water into wine. But if anyone shall not have been
sprinkled with this, that is, shall not have drunk of this
or have believed those who offered it to him to drink, he
shall not attain to the blessedness of eternal life. The
aspersion of ashes also, hy which the humility of penitence
is understood, is so necessary, that without it there is no
remission of sins in adults ; for through it they come to
baptism, and it is the sole refuge for such as have sinned

'^ Genesis i, 2.

1 1 8 TJie Symbolism of Churches

after baptism. Whence not without reason is baptism
called from it: the Lord speaking in the gospel concern-
ing John Baptist * that he came into the whole region of
Galilee, preaching the baptism of repentance for the
remission of sins.'^^ Note also that there be four kinds
of consecrated water, of which we shall speak in the
fourth book, and at the head of ' The aspersion of holy
water. '^^

14. When all these ingredients have been mixed, the
bishop maketh four crosses with this water at the four
horns of the altar, and one in the middle ;^^ the four
crosses represent the fourfold charity which they ought
to have who approach the altar, viz., love for God, them-
selves, their friends, and their enemies. Of which four
corners of charity it is said in Genesis, ' Thou shalt
spread into the east, and the west, and the north, and
the south ' : and for this reason be the four crosses made
at the four corners to show that Christ, by His Cross,
hath saved the four quarters of the world. Secondly,
they be made to point out that we ought to bear the cross
of the Lord in four ways ; namely, in our heart by
meditation, in our mouth by confession, in our body by
mortification of the flesh, in our face by constant impres-
sion. The cross in the middle of the altar signifieth the
Passion which Christ underwent in the middle of the
earth, by which He worked out salvation in the middle
of the earth ; that is, in Jerusalem.

•« S. Mark i, 4.

'^ There be four kinds of holy water, one, by the which is made the
judgment of expurgation, which is no longer used ; a second, which doth
sanctify in the consecration of a church or an altar ; a third, with which
aspersions be made in the church ; and a fourth, the water of baptism.* —
Durandus, Lib. IV, iv, 10.

'^ The tables^ or upper slabs of the altar, were inscribed with five crosses,
one at each corner and one in the middle : as are also the altar stones which
are found in the middle of the frightful wooden altars abroad at this day.
See an interesting list of altar slabs in the ' Few Hints' of the Cambridge
Camden Society.

Of the Consecration of an Altar II9

15. Next, the bishop goeth seven times round the
altar, (i) Firstly, to signify that he ought to exercise
care for all, and to keep himself vigilant, which is
denoted by the act of going round. Whence at that
time they chant, ' The watchmen that went about the
city found me.'^^ For a bishop ought to watch anxiously
over the flocks committed to him : for as Gilbert saith,
' A ridiculous thing it is, a blind watchman, a lame
leader, a negligent prelate, an untaught teacher, and a
dumb preacher.'

16. (ii) Secondly, the seven circuits of the altar do
signify the seven meditations which we ought to enter-
tain respecting the sevenfold virtue of the humility of
Christ, and of which we ought to make frequent circuits
in our minds. The first virtue is, that from being rich
He became poor ; the second, that He was laid in a
manger : the third, that he was subject to His parents ;
the fourth, that He bowed His Head under the hand of
a slave ; the fifth, that He bore w^ith a thief and a
betrayer as a disciple ; the sixth, that He stood gentle
before an unrighteous judge ; the seventh, that He
mercifully prayed for them that crucified Him.

17. (iii) Thirdly, by the seven circuits be indicated the
seven journeys of Christ. The first was from heaven to
the Virgin's womb ; the second, thence into the manger ;
the third, from the manger into the world ; the fourth,
from the world to the cross ; the fifth, from the cross to
the sepulchre ; the sixth, from the sepulchre to the place
of spirits ; the seventh, from the place of spirits to
heaven.

18. After this, the bishop sprinkleth the altar. But
what the altar signifieth in a temple, the Apostle telleth
us : ' For the Temple of God is holy, which temple ye
are.'^^ Wherefore, if we be the Temple of God, 'we

'" Cant. V, 7. -•" 2 Cor. vi, 16.

I20 The Symbolism of Churches

have an altar.'' ^^ Our altar is our heart : for the heart is
in a man what the altar is in a temple. On this altar is
made the sacrifice of praise and joy, according to the
saying of the Psalmist : ' The sacrifices of God are a
broken spirit,' etc.^^ On this altar is made the com-
memoration of the Body and Blood of Christ. From it
do prayers rise to heaven, because God looketh to the
heart. This altar, therefore, is sprinkled with water when
the hearts of men, by means of the preaching of the
gospel, are cleansed from sin. For preaching is water,
according to that saying : ' All ye that thirst, come to
the waters.' ^^ By this water, therefore, that is, by the
preaching of the gospel and the sanctification of the
Holy Ghost, both the altar of the heart and the whole
man are cleansed and sanctified. For the altar of the
heart is consecrated by the conception of fear, inviting to
good, and by the affection of love, confirming to the better.
' For the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.'^*

19. But the altar is sprinkled seven times with water
to notify that in baptism the seven gifts of the Holy
Spirit be conferred. By this also it is set forth that we
ought to have a remembrance of the Lord's Passion.
For the seven aspersions of water be the seven out-
pourings of the Blood of Christ. The first whereof was
at circumcision ; the second in prayer, when His sweat
was as drops of blood ; the third, at the scourging ; the
fourth, from the crown of thorns ; the fifth, from His
pierced hands ; the sixth, when His feet were nailed to
the cross ; the seventh, when His side was opened.
Some, however, sprinkle three times, because we baptise
in the name of the Holy Trinity ; or because the church
is cleansed from sins of thought, word, and deed ;
whence also at that time the Miserei^e mei is said,

-^ Heb. xiii, 10. -- Ps. li (^Miserere mei Deus)^ 17.

-^ Isaiah Iv, l. -^ Ps. cxi (jConfitebor tibi\ 10.

Of the Consecratioji of an Altar 12 i

20. Moreover, these aspersions be made with an asper-
sory made of hyssop, by which herb, because it is lowly,
the lowliness of Christ is conveniently represented : since
the above-mentioned effusions of blood were accompanied
by the hyssop, of the humility and inextinguishable love
of Christ by which the Catholic Church being sprinkled
is purified. This herb also groweth naturally upon rock :
and lowliness of disposition hath grown upon Christ the
rock. For according to the Apostle, ' That rock was
Christ' ^^ It is also of a warm nature ; and the humility
of Christ inflameth cold hearts to the practice of works of
love. Its roots also penetrate the rocks ; and humility
breaketh through the hardest of obstinacy. It availeth
for diseases of the breast and against swelling : so doth
humilit}^ heal the swelling of pride. The former also is
born from, and rooted in, the earth : whence by it the
whole multitude of the faithful may be understood ; and
those especially be figured by the hyssop, who, rooted
and grounded in Christ, cannot be plucked up or separ-
ated from His love. By whom what can we understand
better than the bishops and presbyters, because the more
dignity they obtain in the Church, the more firmly ought
they to cleave to the faith of Christ. By these assuredly
is the water aspersed ; by and through these be the faith-
ful of Christ baptised ; to these is it given to perfect the
sacrament of baptism.

21. But whilst the altar is being sprinkled with water
the bishop chanteth, ' My house shall be called an house
of Prayer,' etc.,-*^ and again, ' I will tell out thy name to
my brethren.' -'' And because without God no work is
perfectly consummated, he prayeth that those who enter
therein to seek for blessings may be heard.

Afterwards, when the church and altar are consecrated

-■^ I Corinthians x, 4. -'' S. Matthew xxi, 1 3.

'-" Psalm xxii (^Deus Deus mens), 22.

122 TJie Synibolisvi of Churches

at the same time, the whole church is sprinkled with that
water, as was discussed in the preceding chapter, which
being done, the bishop approacheth the altar repeating
Psalms, and what remains of the water is poured away
at the foot of the altar, as in the old Testament^^ what
remained of the blood was poured away at the bottom
of the altar ; by which it is signified that the remainder
in so great a sacrament, which is beyond human power,
is given over unto God, Who is the Chief High Priest,
Whose part it is to supply the defect of other priests.
But the sepulchre or cavity in which relics ought to be
deposited, signifieth the golden pot full of manna, which
was placed in the ark of the testimony, as hath been
explained under the head of the Altar.

22. A sepulchre of this sort, which by some is termed
a confession^ is our heart ; and it is consecrated by four
crosses made with chrism, because there be four virtues
described in the book of wisdom — namely. Prudence,
Fortitude, Temperance, and Justice — with w^hich our
heart is, as it were, anointed, when it is prepared by the
gift of the Holy Spirit to receive the mysteries of the
heavenly secrets. But this sepulchre is made sometimes
at the upper part of the altar, sometimes in the front
side of it.

23. Without the relics of saints, or, where they
cannot be had, without the body of Christ,^^ there is no
consecration of a fixed altar : but there may be of a
travelling or portable one. Relics in truth are, after
the example of both Testaments, evidences of the suffer-
ing of martyrs and lives of confessors ; which things be
left to us as examples. These we enclose in a case, be-
cause we retain them, in order to imitate them in our
heart : but if we hear and understand and do no works,

-** Exodus xxix, 12. "'■• See chapter ii.

Of the Consecration of an Altar 123

it tendeth rather to damnation than to salvation ; because
' not the hearers of the law are just before God, but the
doers only' ; ^" whence the Apostle saith, ' Be ye imitators
of me as I am also of Christ' ^^

24. But the solemn carrying of relics is in imitation
of what is read in the xxv chapter of Exodus. In the
ark of the testament there were two golden rings, going
through the whole thickness of the wood, and through
these were put the staves of shittim wood overlaid with
gold, by which the ark was borne. /Vnd before the
bishop entereth the church he goeth round it with the
relics in order that they may be protectors of that church.
We read also in the viii chapter of the third book of
Kings that at the dedication of the temple ' there were
assembled together all the elders of Israel, with the
chiefs of the tribes, and the heads of families to King
Solomon in Jerusalem, to carry the ark of the covenant
of the Lord ; and there came all the elders of Israel, and
the priests brought in the ark of the covenant of the
Lord into his place, into the oracle of the house, to the
most holy place, even under the wings of the cherubims.
For the cherubims spread forth their two wings over the
place of the ark, and the cherubims covered the ark and
the staves thereof above. And King Solomon, and all
the congregation of Israel that were assembled untohim^
marched with him before the ark.' ^^ In remembrance of
this event, the prelates, great men, and people * of the
province meet together, even at this day, for the dedica-
tion of churches, and follow in procession him that con-
secrateth : and relics are solemnly carried by priests
under a pavilion or canopy. Afterwards the bishop,
before he entereth the church with these, addresseth the
people. For Solomon also, after the ark had been

*^ Romans ii, 13. ^' I Corinthians xi, I. *■' I Kings viii, 2, b, 7.
* The Venice edition of 1609 reads Apostoli h.tre.

124 J^Ji^ Syinbolisni of Churches

carried, ' turned his face about, and blessed all the con-
gregation of Israel,' and prayed for such as should pray
in the church. ' For all the congregation of Israel stood,
and Solomon said. Blessed be the Lord God of Israel,'
etc., as is read in the same place.^"

25. But the relics of saints are enclosed in a case
together with three grains of frankincense, because we
ought to retain in our recollection the examples of the
saints, together with faith in the Trinity, that is, in the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. For we ought to be-
lieve one God, one faith, one baptism, because ' the
just liveth by faith,' ^^ without which, as the Apostle
hath said, ' It is impossible to please God.' ^^ There
is placed upon and fitted to the sepulchre itself a certain
board fortified by the sign of the cross made with chrism.^"
For by chrism is understood the gift of the Holy Spirit,
with which this board, that is charity, is anointed ;
because our heart is fortified by the grace of the Holy
Spirit to observance of the heavenly mysteries. The
board therefore fortified by this sign is placed over the
relics, because by the example of the saints is inflamed
charity, ' which covereth a multitude of sins,' ^' just as
also the board covereth the relics. Whence saith the
Apostle, ' The love of God is spread abroad in our
hearts by the Holy Spirit which is given unto us.' ^^
But this slab or stone containeth, or is called, the seal of
the sepulchre ; as saith Pope Alexander III.

After this, however, the stone, which is called the table
of the altar, is fitted to the top of the altar ; by which
we may understand the perfection and solidity of the
knowledge of God ; and it ought to be of stone, not
because of the hardness, but the solidity of faith. Just

^ I Kings, viii. ^4 Romans i, 17. ^ Hebrews xi 6.

^** See above, section 4, note 7. ^^ i S. Peter iv, 8.

'** Romans v, 5.

Of the Cojisecration of an Altar 125

as the Lord said unto Peter, ' Thou art Peter, and upon
this rock ' — that is, upon this firmness of faith — ' I will
build My Church.' ^^

26. For as this table is the completion and finishing of
the altar, so is the knowledge of God the confirmation
and perfection of all good gifts. Whence in the book of
Wisdom it is said unto the Lord, ' For to know Thee is
perfect wisdom, and to know Thy justice and Thy virtue
is the root of immortality.'^'^ The Lord saith by
Jeremiah, ' Let him that glorieth glory in this, that he
understandeth and knoweth Me.'"*'

27. Or, again, by this stone itself is understood Christ.
of Whom the Apostle saith, ' Jesus Christ Himself being
the chief corner-stone.'"*- By the stone indeed the
humanity of Christ is denoted. Concerning which we
read in Daniel that a stone was cut out of the rock
without hands — because Christ was born of the Blessed
Virgin (who for the excellency of her virtues is called a
Mountain), without human agenc\- — and, becoming a
huge mountain, filled the whole earth. Concerning
which it is said also by the Psalmist, ' The stone which
the builders refused hath become the head stone of the
corner : ' "^^ since Christ — Whom the builders, that is the
Jews, refused, saying, ' We will not have this man to
reign over us ' "*"* — hath been made the head of the corner.
Because as saith the Apostle, ' God hath exalted Him,
and given Him,'"*^ etc. Or else by this stone, which
ought to be great and wide, charity is understood, as was
stated before ; since the command of charity is wide,
extending even unto our enemies ; according to that
precept of our Lord, ' Love your enemies.' ^*^

28. Altars therefore, unless they be of stone, are not

*• S Matthew xvi, 18. '" Wisdom xv, 3. ^' Jeremiah ix, 24.

^■- Ephesians ii, 20. '^ Vh?i\x^ cy^;\\\ [Confitemini Domuio)^ 22.

" S. Luke xix, 14. ^^ Philippians ii. 10. ^'^ S. Matthew v, 44.

126 The Symbolism of Churches

anointed, because Christ signified by the altar is the
Stone growing into a mountain : as it is said, The
mountain itself is fat, ' being anointed with the oil of
gladness, above his fellows.' ^^ Nevertheless we read in
Exodus that the Lord ordered the altars to be made of
shittim wood, which does not decay ^^ ; and the Latern
altar is of wood. Solomon also made an altar of gold,
as we read in the eighth chapter of the third book of
Kings : but these things were done for a type.^ And in
the county of Province, in the castle of S. Mary by the
Sea, there is also an altar of earth, which Mary Magdalene,
and Martha and Mary the mother of James, and Mary
the mother of Salome, made there.^^ After this, the
altar having been sprinkled and baptised with water, it
remaineth for it to be anointed with oil and chrism. The
bishop then poureth over it oil and chrism, and chanteth,
* Jacob set up the stone for a memorial, and poured oil
upon it.'^^ For that church hath been the memorial of
other churches ; ' For the law hath gone out from Sion,
and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.' ^^

29. But first he maketh upon it the five crosses, with
the oil of the sick, according to the Roman order ; but
according to the use of some other Churches, with both
sorts of oil ; one cross in the middle, and four at the

*'' Psalm xlv (^Eritctavit cor memn)^ 8. ^** Exodus xxvii, I, etc.

* The same examples are briefly adduced in the notes to the Decretal.
Ciampini describes the wooden altar of the Lateran, and mentions its
numerous escapes from fire. It was made of firewood, because 'abies non
cedit vermibus unquam, nee putret facile.' See also Stephen Durantus, De
Rit. Ecc. Cathol. Lib. I, xxv, 3, quoting from De Turrecremata, about the
Lateran altar, and generally about the subject of this chapter,

■"* According to the Golden Legend, S. Mary Magdalene, with other
saints, amongst whom was S. Lazarus, were placed by the Jews in a ship
which was borne by the sea to Marseilles. The country was converted, and
S. Lazarus became the first bishop. The people of Vezelay, in Burgundy,
also claimed the honour of possessing the relics of S. Mary Magdalene.
Durandus, a native of Provence, gives it to the latter country. This curious
passage of our author seems to have been overlooked by some who have
attempted to adjust the dispute.

^ Genesis xxviii, 18. ^' Isaiah ii, 3.

Of the Consecration of an Altar 127

corners : afterwards, he maketh the same number of
crosses in the same way with chrism. By the oil
assuredly is understood the grace of the Holy Ghost, of
which saith Esaias the Prophet, ' The yoke shall be
destro}'ed because of the anointing.'*'^- For as the
bishop poureth oil upon the altar, so Christ, who is the
Chief High Priest, poureth His grace upon our altar,
which is our heart: for He is the distributor of all graces
through the Holy Ghost, as saith the Apostle, ' To one is
given the word of wisdom, to another the word of know-
ledge, to another faith, to another the gift of healing,'
etc.^^ And just as the bishop, by means of oil, cleanseth
the table of the altar, so also cloth the Holy Ghost purify
our heart from all vices and sins.

30. Christ also was anointed with oil, not with visible
oil indeed, but with invisible ; that is with the grace of
the Holy Ghost. Whence David, ' The Lord thy God
hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy
fellows ' ; ^^ that is above all the saints who have been
partakers of His Grace, that is, Christ. Whence unction
more expressedly agreeth with Christ (the Anointed One)
than with others, because God hath anointed Him above
all others to have the fulness of good things, and there-
fore his name is interpreted ' The Anointed.' Unction
also with oil signifieth mercy, according to that saying of
the Evangelist, ' Anoint thy head with oil, and wash thy
face':^^ because as oil is among fluids, so is mercy superior
among good w^orks. For whatever liquid you pour upon
oil, yet it always swimmeth at the top. Of mercy it is
written, ' The Lord is loving unto every man, and His
mercy is over all His works,'^^ and ' Merc}- rejoiceth
against judgment.'"'^ With this oil, therefore, is the

'"'- Isaiah x, 27. ^ I Corinthians xii, 8.

^' Psalm xlv (^Erttctavit cor rneiini)^ 8. " S. Matthew vi, 17.

^ Psalm cxlv {Exaliaho te Dens'), 9. * S. James ii, 13.

128 The Symbolism of Churches

altar of our 'heart anointed, that being always mindful
of mercy, we may never lose the effect of the aspersion
of water, and of regeneration and of baptism.

31. The five crosses made with the oil signify that we
ought always to have a remembrance of the five wounds
of Christ, which He suffered for our sakes upon the
Cross. For He suffered five wounds ; namely, in His
hands, His feet, and in His side.

32. They denote further the five feelings of pity which
be necessary for us. For it is necessary for a man to
pity Christ, by sympathising in His Passion : whence
Job, in the person of Christ, saith, ' Pity me, pity me,'
etc. ^^ A man must also pity his neighbours whose
calamities he seeth ; whence in Ecclesiasticus, ' The pity
of a man towards his neighbour.' ^^ And a man must
pity himself : and this in three ways ; namely, for the
sins of commission, by bewailing them ; whence Jeremiah,
' There is no one who hath penitence for his sin, saying,
What have I done ? ' ^^ — for his sins of omission : whence
Isaiah, ' Woe is me, for I have held my peace,' ^^ that is,
for I have not spoken ; as if he should say, For I have
omitted the good that I might have done: — and for
good deeds done for less pure motives ; whence S. Luke
saith, ' When we have done all good deeds, we must say
that we are unprofitable servants,' etc. ; ^^ as if we should
say, W^e have done good, but not well, not purely, and
therefore we have done it unprofitably ; just as anyone
giving alms for vain glory cloth good indeed, but not
well and not purely. Of this threefold compassion it is
said in Ecclesiasticus, ' Have pity on thy soul and please
God ; ' ^^ because true compassion of mind ought to co-
exist with the exhibition of good works. Wherefore the

^^ Job xix, 21. ^ Eccles. xviii, 12— Vulgate. ^^ Jeremiah viii, 6.

™ Isaiah vi, 5 — Vulgate. " S. Luke xvii, 10.

"^ Eccles. XXX, 24 — Vulgate.

Of the Consecration of an Altar 129

crosses be twice made ; the first time of oil, the second
of chrism : whence the Psalm, ' A good man is merciful
and lendeth' ;"^ that is, pitieth in mind, and lendeth in
deed. And since it sufficeth not to have compassion in
mind together with the exhibition of good deeds, with-
out the savour of a good report, according to that saying
of the gospel, ' Let your light so shine before men that
they may glorify God ' ; ^^ therefore the crosses be made
with chrism, which consisteth of balsam and oil.

33. Balsam indeed, on account of its good odour, signi-
fieth good report ; oil, on account of its brightness, signi-
fieth the clearness of conscience which we ought to have :
according to the saying of the Apostle, ' Our rejoicing is
this, the testimony of our conscience.' "^ Again, balsam
is properly conjoined with oil, because good report is
added to mercifulness.

34. Again, by the five crosses made of oil and of
chrism the five senses of our body be understood, which
are doubled and made into ten, because by properly
using the senses of our body, we both keep ourselves, and
confirm others by our example and teaching in well-
doing. Whence that good trader boasted, saying, ' Be-
hold I have gained five more talents.' ^*^ But whilst
these anointings are going on, they chant, ' The Lord
thy God hath anointed thee,' ^'' which was said of Christ.

The altar therefore is anointed three times ; twice
with oil, and once with chrism ; because the Church is
marked by Faith, Hope, and Charity, which last is greater
than the others. And while the chrism is used they
chant, ' See the smell of my son is as the smell of a field.' ^^
This field is the Church, which is verdant with flowers,
which shineth in virtues, which is fragrant with good

^ Psalm cxii {Beatus vir\ 5. «• S. Matthew v. 16.

•^ 2 Corinthians i, 12. ** S. Matthew xxv, 20.

^' Hebrews i, 9. ''"^ Genesis xxvii, 27.

130 TJie Symbolism of CJiwxJies

works ; and wherein be the roses of martyrs, the Hlies of
virgins, the violets of confessors, and the verdure of
beg-inners in the faith. After the unction there is incense
burnt, which signifieth the devotion of prayer. For he
that hath the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost, and is made
like unto God, is able to offer unto Him devout prayer,
of which he hath this similitude.

35. It is burnt in five places, namely, at the four
corners and in the middle, because we ought so to
exercise the five senses of the body that the report of
our good works may extend to our neighbours. Of
which saith the Apostle, ' We are the sweet savour of
Christ in every place.' ^'^ And in the Gospel, ' Let your
light so shine before men,' etc. Besides this, the frequent
use of incense is the continual mediation of Christ the
Priest, and our High Priest, for us unto God the Father.

36. To describe a cross with the incense, is to exhibit
His Passion to the Father and Him interceding for us.
The burning incense plenteously in the middle and at
the corners is to multiply prayers through Jerusalem and
in the Catholic Church.

37. Next to this the bishop confirmeth the altar with
the sign of the cross, saying, ' Confirm this altar, O
Lord,' etc. And this confirmation performed by the
bishop with chrism on the front of the stone, signifieth
the confirmation which is performed daily by the Holy
Spirit, through charity, upon the altar of the heart, so
that no tribulation should avail to separate our heart
from the love of God : whence saith the Apostle, ' Who
shall separate us from the love of Christ ? shall tribula-
tion ? ' etc.'*^ Then there is added the Gloria Patri in
praise of the Trinity.

38. The last benediction of the altar signifieth that
final benediction when it shall be said, ' Come, ye blessed

''^ 2 Corinthians, ii, 15. ™ Romans viii, 35.

Of the Consec7'ation of an Altar 131

of my Father,' etc. "^ Afterwards the altar is wiped
over with a white Hnen cloth, to notify that we ought
to cleanse our heart by chastity of life. Then the
vessels, vestments, and linen cloths, devoted to the
divine worship are blessed. For Moses also during the
forty days was instructed by the Lord to provide
linen cloths and the ornaments necessary for the
Temple.

39. Assuredly, thus to bless the utensils is to refer all
our works unto the Lord. After this, the altar is
covered with white and clean cloths : concerning which
ceremony we have spoken under the head of the Altar.
Lastly, the church is ornamented and the lamps are
lighted : for then shall the works of the just shine forth,
' Then shall the just shine, as sparks run swiftly among
the stubble.' '- And then upon the altar, consecrated
after this order, the Mass is celebrated and the sacrifice
offered unto the Most Highest : that sacrifice, namely, of
which the Prophet speaketh, ' The sacrifices of God are a
broken spirit ; a broken and a contrite heart, O God,
Thou wilt not despise ' : '^ as shall be declared in the
introduction to the fourth book.^'* For consecration
ought not to be performed without a Mass, according to
Pope Gelasius,"^ because then there is revealed a sacra-

" S. Matthew xx, 34. "'- Wisdom iii, 7.

'^ Psalm li {Miserere viei Dejis\ 17.
'' The blessed Bernard saith, My brethren, let us in sacrificing; add
the sacrifice of praise unto our words, let us add sense to sense, affection
unto affection, exaltation unto exaltation, maturity unto maturity, and
humility unto humility. Wherefore, he that is about to celebrate must
offer unto the Highest that sacrifice of which the Psalmist speaketh, 'The
sacrifices of God are a troubled spirit.' And again, ' Offer unto God the
sacrifice of thanksgiving.' And the Apostle, ' Present your bodies a living
sacrifice holy acceptable unto God which is your reasonable service .
mortifying upon the altar of your heart your members which are upon the
earth ; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil concupiscence,
and covetousness, which is idolatry ' ; in order to sacrifice yourselves with
a pure heart and chaste body unto God. — Proem, lib. iv, 17.

* Quoted also in the Decretal De Consecrat. Distinct. I.

132 The Symbolisni of Churches

ment, which 'hath been hidden from the angels even
from the beginning.

And observe, that in the aspersion of the church the
bishop useth only the linen and inferior vestments : but
at the Mass he is adorned with pontifical and precious
vestments, because the high priest in the law used to
expiate the sanctuary in a linen ephod, and afterwards
used to offer the ram for the burnt offering being washed
and arrayed in the high priest's vestments. But because
he used to send forth the scapegoat after the expiation
being clothed in the same linen ephod, on this account
some, in the consecration of fonts and immersion of the
catechumens where their sins are transferred, do use the
simple linen vestments.

CHAPTER VIII

OF CONSECRATIONS AND UNCTIONS

Of Chrism — Of the name Christ, and of Christians — The Heresy of the
Arnaldistse — The Anointing of Priests — Of Bishops — Of Kings — Of
the Consecration of Chalices and Patens — Of Extreme Unction — Of
the Benediction of Church Ornaments.

I. We read that the Lord commanded Mol'cs^ to make
a chrism, with which unguent to anoint the tabernacle at
the time of the dedication, and the ark of the testimony,
and the table, together with the vessels ; and with which
also the priests and kings should be anointed. Yet
Moses himself is not said to have been anointed, except
with a spiritual unction, as also was Christ.

2. Christ hath willed that we should be anointed with
a material unction in order that we may by it obtain the
spiritual unction : and on this account our loving Mother,
the Church, provideth different sorts of unction. Upon
which let us here touch lightly, Saying —

I. What unctions of this sort signify.
II. Of what they be made.

III. Of the unction before baptism.

IV. Of the unction after baptism, which is performed

by the bishop on the forehead.
V. Of the unction in ordination.

' Exodus XXX, 22.

134 ^^'-^ Syinbolisni of Churches

VI. Of the unction in consecrating bishops and princes.
VII. Of the unction of a church, altar, chaHce, and
other ecclesiastical instruments.
VIII. Of extreme unction.

IX. Of the consecration and benediction of a cemetery,

vestments, and other ecclesiastical ornaments.
X. Of the consecration and benediction of virgins.

3. Firstly ; with respect to the first, then, it is to be
noted that there be two kinds of unction : an external,
which is material or corporeal, and visible ; and an
internal, which is spiritual and invisible. The body is
anointed visibly with the external unction ; the heart
invisibly by the internal. Of the first, the Apostle S.
James saith, ' Is any sick among you ? Let him call for
the elders of the Church ; and let them pray over him,
anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord ; and the
prayer of faith shall save the sick.' ^ Of the second the
Apostle S. John saith, ' But the anointing which ye have
received of Him abideth in you, and ye need not that
any man teach you : but the same anointing teacheth
you of all things.' ^ The external unction is a sign of
the internal. But the internal is not only a sign, that is
a thing signified, but a sacrament also ; because if it be
worthily received, it either effecteth, or without doubt
increaseth, that which it doth signify — for instance,
healing : according to the saying, ' They shall lay their
hands upon the sick, and they shall be healed.' ^

Secondly ; with respect to the second point, you must
know that in making use of the external and visible
unction, two sorts of oil are consecrated : namely, holy
oil, or the oil of the catechumens, with which catechumens
are anointed ; and the oil of the sick, with which the sick
are anointed. Of which kind of unction the authority of

- S. James v, 14. * i S. John ii, 27. ' See Acts xxviii, 8.

Of Consecrations and Unctions 135

S. James quoted above doth speak, ' Is any sick among
you,' etc.

But in what way the benediction of these two sorts of
oil and of chrism is performed will be declared in the
sixth book in the chapter upon the Fifth Day of the
Holy Week.-^

4. But is it asked why the sick and the catechumens
are anointed with oil ? I answer, in order that the invi-
sible benefits may be more easily received through the
visible signs : for as oil by expelling weakness refresheth
the wearied limbs, and as it from its own natural qualities
affordeth light, so it is to be believed that unction with
consecrated oil, the which is a type of faith expelling
sin, doth impart health to the soul and doth afford it
light. Herein the visible oil is in the outward sign, the
invisible oil in the inward sacrament ; and the spiritual
oil is within. For the oil of the sick we have received
authority from the apostles ; for the oil of the catechu-
mens from apostolical men.

5. And although God can grant the spiritual oil without
the material, yet because the apostles have used this rite
in the case of the sick, and apostolical men in the case of
catechumens, this practice which their authority hath
consecrated cannot be omitted without sin (as hath been
said in the chapter upon the x^ltar) : just as anciently the
just pleased God without circumcision ; but after it had
been enjoined them to be circumcised, such as omitted
this rite were subjected to sin.

Thirdly ; we have to speak of the unction before baptism.
And indeed in the New Testament not only kings and
priests be anointed, as hath been already said, but also —
(because Christ by His Blood hath made us kings and
priests, that is, royal priests, unto our God, as the

^ It has not been thought necessary to translate the passages referred to.

136 The Symbolism of Chiirches

Apostle S. Peter saith,^ ' Ye are a chosen generation,'
that is, chosen out from the tribes of men, ' a royal priest-
hood,' that is, governing yourselves well) — also, I say,
all Christians be anointed twice before their baptism
with consecrated oil — first, on the breast : secondly, be-
tween the shoulders : and twice after their baptism, with
holy chrism — first, on the crown of the head ; and
secondly, by the bishop on the forehead.

6. And, according to Augustine, the first three unctions
have been introduced rather by use than by any written
authority. The candidate for baptism is anointed with
oil — first, on the breast, in which is the locality of the
heart ; first, in order that by the gift of the Holy Ghost
he may cast away error and ignorance and embrace a
right faith ; because ' the just liveth by faith,' ' and
' with the heart we believe unto justification.' ^ But
he is anointed between the shoulders, in order that he
may, by the grace of the Holy Ghost, shake off indif-
ference and sloth, and practise good works (because ' faith
without works is dead '),'^ so that by means of sacra-
ments of faith there may result a purity of thoughts.
On the breast, again, that by the practising of good
works there may arise a boldness of labour : between
the shoulders, to the end that ' faith (according to the
Apostle) may work by love.' ^^ The oil therefore is
carried over from the heart to the shoulders, since faith,
which is conceived in the mind, is perfected in works
(because, that is, faith consisteth in making our deeds like
our words)* But the person after baptism is anointed
by the priest on the head with chrism, that ' he may be
ready always to give an answer to every man that asketh
him a reason for the faith that is in him,' ^^ because by

® I S. Peter ii, 9. '^ Habakkuk ii, 4. ^ Romans x, 10. ^ S. James ii, 26.
*" Gal. V, 6. *■ This clause does not occur in the Princeps Edition.

" I S. Peter iii, 15.

Of Consecrations and Utictions 137

the head is understood the mind : as it is written, ' The
eyes/ that is the understanding, ' of the wise are in his
head/ '^ that is, his mind ; of which mind, the superior
part is reason and the inferior sensuahty. Hence, by the
crown, which is the upper part of the head, is well
represented reason, which is the superior part of the mind.
Of this we shall speak in the sixth book also, under the
head of Easter Eve, in which confirmation is treated of ^"^
But this is the reason that before baptism one is
anointed with consecrated oil, and after baptism with
holy chrism ; because chrism is competent to a Christian
alone.

7. For Christ is so named from chrism, or rather
chrism is so called from Christ, not according to the form
of the name only, but according to the rational order of
faith. For Christians are called from Christ, as the
anointed \\ou\d be derived from the Anointed One, namely,
Christ; so that all may unite in the odour of that
unguent, namely, Christ, Whose name is as oil poured
out : but according to the power of the word, Christians
are called so from clirism, according to Isidorus.^"* This
subject is treated in the introduction to the second book.'^

'- Ecclesiasticus ii, 14.

'^ The passage referred to speaks of the diverse graces conferred by the
several unctions, and does not illustrate our more particular object.

" ' For Christ is named of chrism, and meaneth the Anointed One. For
it was commanded the Jews to make a holy unguent for such as were
called unto the priesthood or the kingdom : and as now the vestment of
purple is unto kings the mark of kingly power, so upon these did the
unction with sacred unguent bestow the name and kingly power : and
hence were they called Christi, from chrism, which is unction. For chrisma in
Greek is inictio in Latin. And this unction did aptly give this name unto
our Lord, because He was anointed of the Father by the Spirit, as is said in
the Acts of the Apostles, " Against Thy Holy Child Jesus, Whom Thou
hast anointed, were they gathered together " : not, that is, with visible oil,
but with the gift of grace, which is denoted by the visible oil.' S. Isidore
of Seville, Orig. vii, 2. See also Orig. vii, 4, and De Off. Ecc. i, i.

'* ' Christians be named from Christ, and Christ from chrism, being
anointed. For He was anointed by God from the beginning " with the oil
of gladness above His fellows." In the Old Testament priests and kings
be called Christs (or Anointed), because they were anointed with a tem-

138 TJie Symbolism of Churches

8. Again, according to Augustine, the first unction
with oil showeth us to be prepared fully to hear the faith,
and called to the sweet odour of Christ, and warned to
renounce the devil. The second unction, according to
Rabanus, is upon the breast and between the shoulders,
that we may be fortified on both sides by faith, and con-
firmed by the grace of God for the performance of good
works. For by the breast is rightly understood the
virtue of faith : but by the shoulders — upon which any
burden is borne — the strength and working of a man:
according to that saying, ' They bind heavy burdens and
lay them on the shoulders of men,' etc.^*^ A man is
anointed therefore on the breast and between the shoulders,
that both in thought and deed he may relinquish the
works of the devil, and become capable of understanding
the Word of God, and strong enough to bear its yoke
and the burden of the law.

9. But the unction upon the crown, that is the top part
of the head over the brain, is performed according to the
same authority in order that he who is so anointed may
become a partaker of the heavenly kingdom : and because
the soul of the baptised person is espoused unto the
Head, that is Christ, therefore this unction is made with
chrism, compounded of oil and balsam, in order that we
may know that the Holy Ghost, Who worketh invisibly,
is given unto him : for oil, as we said above, cherisheth
the wearied limbs and afifordeth light But balsam giveth

poral unction. As it is written, " Touch not my Christs '' (j.e. mine anointed).
Wherefore, Christ is not a peculiar name of our Saviour, but is a common
appellation of dignity. But the name Jesus is peculiar to the person of
our Saviour alone, and was given Him, as the Evangelist doth testify by the
angel, Gabriel, at the Conception, and by men at His Circumcision.' —
Durand. loco cit. This will explain the reason, to many persons so
puzzling, why it is only to the name of Jesus that our Church, after the
Apostle, commands due obeisance to be made : and will reprove the
erroneous, though pious, zeal which makes so many of the poor even now
bow at the other names of our Blessed Lord.

"^ S. Matthew xxiii, 4.

Of Consecrations and Unctions 139

it a sweet odour. If so be the limbs of the soul be
wearied, when it repenteth of having acted in opposition
to God, the Holy Ghost cometh to it, giving light to its
understanding and showing it that its sins are, or may be,
forgiven, and bestowing on it good works which breathe
out a sweet odour amongst others : all which is denoted
by the fragrant balsam. Also because the seat of high-
mindedness, which according to the name is always seek-
ing higher things, appears to exist in the head, therefore
the unction on this part is rightly performed in the form
of the cross and in token of humility.

10. Pope Sylvester appointed that this unction might
be administered by priests upon occasion of death :
whence it is likely that before his time^'' the anointing
both of the crown of the head and of the forehead was
reserved for the bishop. For when the bosom of the
Church was extended, and bishops could no longer be at
hand for each individual in confirmation, he then ordered,
lest any should perish without the unction of chrism,
that all should be anointed on the crown of the head
over the brain, which is the seat of wisdom, at the hands
of a priest, for the increasing of strength and grace.
Whence if afterwards they should have died, saith
Richard (of Cremona), they shall receive an increase of
grace and glory.

11. Yet nevertheless we believe that a man may be
saved by baptism alone even without the unction, and
that the Holy Ghost is given without the laying on of
hands to such as God may will, as we read in the Acts of
the Apostles.

12. Yet the faithless heretics, the xArnaldistae,^^ assert

'^ S. Sylvester was the contemporary of Constantine. Circa x.v. 325.

'^ Our author mentions another heresy of the Arnaldistce in the 19th
section of the proem of book iv. These heretics were the followers of
Arnakius de Brixio (of Bresse), a disciple of Abelard. His opinions were
condemned in the second General Lateran Council, 1 139. — Barofi. Suh.
Anno. tom. xviii. See also S. Bernard, Epist. 195.

140 TJie Syinbolisjji of Churches

that men never receive the Holy Ghost through the bap-
tism of water ; and that Samaritans who were baptised
did not receive Him until they received the laying on of
hands. Both these unctions are administered, according
to Rabanus, in the form of the cross, that the devil,
whose vessel the person is, recognising the sign of his own
discomfiture, the sign of the Holy Cross, may know that
from that moment the vessel is Another's, being alienated
from him.

13. According to the same writer the unction on the
breast is afterwards administered with invocation of the
Trinity, in order that no remains of the hidden enemy
may abide therein, but the mind be comforted in the faith
of the Holy Trinity, and receive and understand the
commandments of God. Therefore each of the faithful
is anointed first twice with oil, next in like manner twice
with chrism. First in baptism on the crown of the
head : secondly after baptism, namely at confirmation,
on his forehead : because to the apostles also was the
Holy Ghost twice given, as will be set forth in the sixth
book on Holy Saturday.^^

Fourthly ; in the fourth place we were to speak of the
unction which is administered by the bishop on the fore-
head of such as have been baptised : but of this we shall
speak in the same place. ^"

14. Fifthly ; in the fifth place, with respect to the
unction of ordination, it is to be noted that the hands of
the priest are anointed by the bishop, that he may know
that he in this sacrament doth receive by the Holy
Ghost the power and grace of consecrating. Whence
the bishop, whilst anointing them, saith : ' Deign, O Lord,
by means of this unction and our benediction to conse-
crate and sanctify these hands, that whatsoever they con-

'" -" It has not been judged necessary to translate the passages referred
to, for the same reason as stated above in note 13.

Of Consecrations and Unctions 141

secrate may be consecrated, and whatsoever they bless
may be blessed in the name of the Lord.' And for this
cause devout men kiss the hands of priests immediately
after their ordination, believing by this to become
partakers of their prayers and blessings. And the anoint-
ing is with holy oil, because they ought to work with
their hands the works of mercy with all their might to-
wards all men : for the works are denoted by the hands ;
mercy by the oil. Whence the good Samaritan coming
near to the wounded man poured wine and oil into his
wounds. The hands are anointed with oil also that they
may be supple for offering the host unto God for the
sins of men, and that they may be open to all acts of
piety and not be kept dry and clenched. For both these
things, namely the grace of healing and the charity of
loving, are denoted by the oil. Wherefore further the
laying on of hands, together with oil upon the heads of
such as be ordained, is done because by the hands the
operation, by the fingers the gifts, of the Holy Ghost,
and by the head the mind, be understood. The hand
then is laid on because it is sent forth imbued with the
gifts of the Holy Ghost to perform the works of Christ.

15. Sixthly, with respect to the unction of bishops and
of temporal princes, it is to be known that the former
hath derived its origin from the Old Testament. For in
the 2 I.St chapter of Leviticus the high priest is said to be
he ' upon whose head the anointing oil is poured,' ^^ and
whose hands were consecrated in priesthood. A bishop,
however, is anointed with chrism, which (as we said be-
fore) is composed of oil and balsam ; and he is anointed
therewith both outwardly, and inwardly in his heart, in
order that b}^ the inward oil he have a clear conscience
towards God, and by the outward oil may have the
odour of good report towards his neighbour : which is
-' Leviticus xxi, 10.

142 The Symbolisni of Churches

denoted by the balsam. The Apostle saith of a clear
conscience, ' For our rejoicing is this the testimony of our
conscience.' ^^ * For the king's daughter is all glorious
within,' ^^ that is, her glory proceedeth from within. Con-
cerning the odour of a good report the same Apostle
saith, ' For in every place we are unto God a sweet
savour of Christ,' that is, an example and imitation, and,
' to some we are the savour of life unto life,' etc.,^^ as if
he had said, we are an example of love and a good
opinion leading unto eternal life, ' and to others a savour
of death unto death,' that is, of hatred and evil opinion
leading unto eternal death.

16. For a bishop ought to have in himself 'a good
report ' both of them which are within and ' them which
are without ' ; ^^ so that one curtain, that is, the faithful,
may draw on the other curtain, that is, the unbeliever,
namely, unto belief; ^^ and 'he that heareth,' namely, by
learning and believing, ' say, come,' ^^ namely, by
preaching and teaching. With this unguent be the head
and hands of a bishop consecrated : for by the head is
understood the mind, as the gospel saith, ' anoint,' ^^
that is, humble, 'thy head, and wash thy face,' that is, thy
conscience, namely, with tears : by the hands be denoted
good works, as is said in the Canticles, ' my hands,' that
is, my good works, ' dropped with myrrh,' that is, gave to
others a good example. ^^

17. The head, therefore, is anointed with the balsam
of charity, (i) That the bishop may love God with his
whole heart and with his whole mind and whole soul,
and also, after the example of Christ, ' love his neighbours
as,' that is, as much as, ' himself.' For according to

" 2 Corinthians i, 12. -^ Psalm xlv [Eriictavit cor meiim)^ 14.

^^ 2 Corinthians ii, 15. ^^ i Timothy iii, 7.

^^ There appears to be here some mystical reference to the coupling of
the curtains of the tabernacle. See Exod. xxvi ,

-^ Apocalypse xxii, 17. '^^ S. Matthew vi, 17. -" Canticles v, 5.

Of Consecrations and Unctions 143

Gregory, oil on the head is charity in the soul,
(ii) Secondly, the head is anointed by reason of
authority and dignity ; since not only bishops but also
kings are consecrated. (iii) Thirdly, to show that a
bishop representeth the person of Christ, as being his
vicar, of whom it is said by the Prophet, ' it is like the
precious ointment upon the head.' ^^ For the head of
man is Christ, the head of Christ is God : Who saith of
Himself, ' the Spirit of the Lord is upon Me, because He
hath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor.' ^^
For Christ, our Head, was anointed with the invisible
oil He intercedeth for the Church Universal, a bishop
for that Church committed unto him.

18. But his Jiands also are anointed, on account of
his mystery and office ; and for the anointing of these,
which do signify works, is employed oil, that is, the
chrism of piety and mercy, (i) First, in order that the
bishop may 'do good unto all men, and especially unto
them that are of the household of faith,' ^^ his hands
should be closed to none, but be open to all ; according
to the saying, ' He hath opened his hands to the poor,
and extended his arm to the destitute.' ^^ A hand that
is dried up, that is avaricious, that is tenaciously held
clenched, cannot be opened : therefore his hands are
anointed, in order that they may be healed and opened,
and may bestow alms on the indigent. . (ii) Secondly, to
show that he hath received the power of blessing and
consecrating. Whence the consecrating bishop, when he
anointeth them, saith, ' Deign, O Lord, to consecrate and
sanctify these hands,' and so forth, as we quoted above.
(iii) That they may be clean for offering sacrifices for sins.
And note, that although a bishop's hands were anointed
with oil beforehand when he was ordained a priest, yet

*• Psalm cxxxiii {Ecce qiiani bonutn\ 2. ■" Isaiah Ixi, I.

*- Galatians vi, 10. ^ Proverbs xxxi, 20.

144 The Symbolisin of Churches

they be again anointed with chrism when he is conse-
crated a bishop. Herein by the hands are typified good
works ; by the oil, the abundance of the Holy Ghost of
grace ; by the balsam, which is mixed with the oil in
making the chrism, the savour of good report ; as in Eccles-
iasticus, ' My sweet odour is as myrrh unmixed.' ^^ Where-
fore because in the works of bishops and other superiors
there ought to appear more than in their inferiors the gifts
of the Holy Ghost and the savour of good report ;
according to that saying, ' For we are unto God a sweet
savour of Christ ' ; ^^ for even in the heavenly hierarchy
the superior angels excel the inferior in blessings and
grace ; hence, therefore, at their consecration as bishops
their hands, already anointed with oil, are with reason
again anointed with chrism.

19. The thumb also is fortified with chrism, that the
laying on of the thumb may profit all men for salvation.

20. Further, in the Old Testament, not only was a
priest anointed, but also a king and prophet : as we find
in the books of Kings. Whence the Lord enjoined
Elias, ' Go return on thy way to the wilderness of
Damascus : and when thou comest, anoint Hazael to be
king over Syria ; and Jehu the son of Nimshi shalt thou
anoint to be king over Israel ; and Elisha the son of
Shaphat of Abel-Meholah shalt thou anoint to be
prophet in thy room.' ^" Samuel also anointed David to
be king. But after that Jesus of Nazareth, 'Whom (as
we read in the Acts of the Apostles) God anointed with
the Holy Ghost, was anointed with oil above his fellows,'^'
Who is (according to the /\postle) ' the Head of the
Church, which is also His body ' ; ^^ after this the anoint-
ing of a sovereign was transferred from the head to the
arm : whence princes since the time of Christ are not

^' Ecclesiasticus xxiv, 15. ^^ 2 Corinthians ii, 15. ^" I Kings xix, 15.
^' See Acts iv, 27, and Hebrews i, 9. '^^ Ephesians v, 23.

Of Consecrations and Unctions 145

anointed on the head but on the arm, or on the shoulder ;
by which parts of the body kingly power is aptly repre-
sented, as we read, * and the government was laid upon
his shoulder ' : ^^ to signify the same, Samuel caused the
shoulder to be laid before Saul, when he placed him at
the head of the table before those who had been bidden. ""'
But in the case of a bishop the sacramental anointing is
applied to the Jiead, because in his episcopal office he
representeth the Head of the Church, that is, Christ.

21. There is this difference, then, between the anoint-
ing of a bishop and a prince, that the head of the bishop
is consecrated with chrism, while the arm of the prince
is anointed with oil : to show, namely, how great a
difference there is between the authority of a bishop and
the power of a prince. And observe that, as we read in
the gospel,^^ a certain man called his servants and gave
unto them ten talents. Herein the calling of a servant
is the canonical election of a bishop, which taketh place
according to the calling of the Lord Who called Aaron.
A talent is given to him, when he who hath laid his
hands upon him giveth him the text of the gospel,
saying, ' Go and preach.' And the bishop himself,
according to the use of some churches, when first he
entereth his see, carrieth the gospels in his bosom,
showing his talent as if to trade with it. In some
churches also when the archbishop giveth the bishop his
pastoral staff, he saith, ' Go and preach,' and he immedi-
ately blesseth the people : by which is represented that
Moses was sent into Egypt with a rod.

22. Furthermore, bishops on the day of their consecra-
tion have been wont to ride on horses covered with white
robes ; to represent that which we read in the Apocalypse,
' The armies which are in heaven follow him riding on

** Isaiah ix, 6. ^" i Samuel x, 24. " S. Matthew xxv.

146 The Symbolisni of Churches

white horses.' ^^ The armies which are in heaven are
good and just men and prelates, who as these heavenly
riders do daily follow God in all good works : who
for this reason are said to be in heaven, because they
love and seek after heavenly things alone ; whence the
Apostle saith, ' Our conversation is in heaven.' ^^ These
armies, that is good and just men and prelates, follow
Jesus, whensoever they vanquish vices in themselves by
discipline, in their neighbours by admonition. Whence
S. James saith, ' He which converteth the sinner from
the error of his way shall save a soul from death, and
shall hide a multitude of sins.'^"^ These armies have
white horses and chaste bodies.

23. The bodies of good men are also called horses,
because, just as horses are governed by the will of the
rider, so are the bodies of the just ruled according to the
will of Christ. These horses ought to be white, or
covered with white trappings : that is, the bodies of just
men and prelates ought to be chaste and pure. For if
they be not pure they cannot follow Christ. And S.
Peter saith, ' Christ also suffered for us, leaving us an
example that we should follow His steps, who did not
sin, neither was guile found in his mouth.' ^^ Further, the
clergy of the holy Roman Church, by the grant of the
Emperor Constantine, do ride upon horses adorned with
trappings of the most snowy white. On what day a
bishop ought to be consecrated, and why a copy of the
gospels is put upon his shoulders in consecration, shall
be declared in the second book, under the chapter upon
Bishops. ^° Seventhly, we have to speak of the unction

•'■■^ Apocalypse xix, 14. "'^ Philippians iii, 20.

^* S. James v, 20. ^^ i S. Peter ii, 21.

•"* The consecration of a bishop, in the which the Holy Ghost is present
unto such as receive it worthily, is administered always on the Lord's day,
and at the third hour. For bishops do obtain the office of apostles, unto
whom the Holy Ghost was given on the Day of Pentecost and at the third

Of Consecrations and Unctions 147

of altars, chalices, and other instruments of the church ;
which according to the rule are anointed at their dedica-
tion ; and this not only from the command of the divine
law, but also because Moses ' sprinkled with blood the
tabernacle and all the vessels of the ministry, and almost
all things are by the law cleansed with blood ; ' '^^ and
also again after the example of S. Sylvester, who when
he consecrated an altar used to anoint it with chrism.
For the Lord commanded Moses to make oil of unction
with which to anoint the tabernacle of the testimony,
the table, the ark of the covenant, the candlestick, and
other furniture as aforesaid. Which unctions are
performed on things that have not been anointed, to
show greater reverence to them and to bestow more
grace upon them. Arid of these unctions we have
spoken and shall again speak in their right places. But
the sacrament of unction hath indeed some further effect
and meaning both in the Old and New Testament :
whence the Church doth not Judaize, when she observeth
the unctions in her sacraments, as some old writers, who
know neither the Scripture nor the power of God, do
falsely say. Of the unctions of the church and altar we
have spoken under their own heads.

24. Further the paten is consecrated and anointed for
the administration of the body of Christ, who willed to
be sacrificed upon the altar of the cross for the salvation

hour. When a bishop is to be ordained, the suffragans of the province
should assemble with their metropolitan, and two bishops place and hold a
volume of the orospels above his head and neck, or upon his shoulders, one
shedding the benediction over him, and the rest, such as are present,
touching his head with their hands. This book is held above his head ;
first, that the Lord may confirm the gospel in his heart ; secondly, that he
may understand by this, unto what burthen and labour he is subjected :
because everyone that is pre-eminent, that is, a prelate, is more troubled
with griefs than rejoiced with honours; thirdl)', to denote that he ought
not to be backward to carry with him everywhere the burthen of the
preaching of the gospel ; fourthly, to admonish him to submit himself more
than ever to the yoke, and to obey the gospel. — Rationale^ Book II, c. xi, 6.
" Hebrews ix, 2.

14^ The Symbolism of Churches

of all men. 'Almighty God also did order the flour to
be brought to His Altar scattered on golden and silver
patens. The chalice also is consecrated and anointed,
that by the grace of the Holy Ghost it may be made a
new sepulchre of the body and blood of Christ, and then
He, Himself, may deign to make it overflow with his
virtue, as He made the cup of Melchizedech, His servant,
to flow over.

25. Eighthly ; in the eighth place we have to speak of
extreme unction, which from the institution of Pope
Felix the Fourth, and from the command of the Apostle
S. James, is administered unto such as are at the point to
die. Concerning which some say that it is not so
properly a sacrament as the anointing of the forehead
or any other part with chrism, because (as they assert)
it may be repeated and since there is offered a prayer
over the man ; a circumstance which is not a condition
of a sacrament. This unction also may be administered
by a single priest if more cannot be present : and by it
venial sins are remitted, according to S. James, ' If any
rich among you,' etc., as before, ' and if he have com-
mitted sins they shall be forgiven him.' ^^ And this unction
is applied to divers parts of the body or the limbs,
for reasons which may be gathered from the prayers
then used; and especially on those parts in which the
five senses chiefly reside, that whatever sins the rich man
may have committed by means of these may be
abolished by virtue of this unction. Concerning some
other rules we ordinarily read, that the party to be
anointed must be at the least eighteen years of age,
and that he ought to be anointed in sickness once only
during a year, though he may be sick many times, and
that no one must be anointed, unless, being in his senses,
he shall have first demanded it either by words or signs : —

•*^ S. James v, 24,

Of Consecrations and Unctions 149

and besides this, that the shoulders ought not to be
anointed, because they were anointed in baptism, and
that a confirmed person ought not to be anointed on his
forehead but on his temples, and a priest's hands ought
to be anointed on the backs and not inside, because they
were anointed on the inside at his ordination : — and
that one who hath been once anointed by a bishop ought
not in respect to him to be further anointed by a priest : —
and that if a sick man who hath been anointed should
recover, the anointed places should be washed, and the
water used be thrown into the fire; but should he depart,
his body ought not to be washed because of the recent
unction. But if the sick man be at the point of death,
he should be immediately anointed lest he die without
the unction. Besides this, some penitents, and dying
men, put on sackcloth and lay themselves down on ashes
as we shall explain in the sixth book, when we speak
of Ash Wednesday.'^^

26. Ninthly, a cemetery, which enjoyeth the same
privileges as a church, is also consecrated and blessed ;
just as the Lord blessed by the hands of his servants
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the land bought for a burial

^'^ * On this day also ashes are blessed, and scattered over the head in
token of humiliation. "Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return,"
was said unto Adam (Gen. iv). And Job "repented in dust and ashes"
(Jobxlii, 6). And the Lord saith, "In the house of Aphrah (marg. read
dust) roll thyself in the dust" (Mic. i 10). Also in Judith we read, " The
children of Israel humbled themselves in fasting, and dust on their heads"
(Chronicles iv). And Abraham saith, " Shall I speak unto the Lord, who
am but dust and ashes.'" (Gen. 18). And " Mordecai put on sackcloth
with ashes" (Esther iv, i). And "the daughters of Zion have cast ashes
on their heads" (Samuel iii). Hence, we read in the Pontifical, penitents
and the dying, in token of repentance and humility and that they are dust
and ashes, do prostrate themselves in ashes and put on sackcloth — an use
drawn from the Old Testament. For we read in Isaiah the fifty-eighth,
that penitents do lie in sackcloth and ashes. And Hieremiah saith the
same in the twenty-fifth chapter, "Wallow yourselves in the ashes, for the
days are acccomplished." Also in the third of Jonah, "The king of
Ninevah put on sackcloth and sat in ashes." Also in the Lamentations,
" The virgins of Jerusalem are clothed in sackcloth." ' — Rationale vi, 28, 18,

1 50 The Symbolism of Churches

ground from 'the sons of Ephron. It is blessed also in
order that it may cease from that time forward to be the
abode of unclean spirits, and that the bodies of the faith-
ful may therein rest in peace until the day of judgment ;
unless the bodies of paynims or infidels, or even of
excommunicate persons should be buried there, until
they shall be cast out thence.

27. This also is to be noted, that the palls of the altar,
the priestly vestments, and ecclesiastical ornaments of
this kind are to be blessed. For we have already read
that Moses, by command of the Lord, consecrated the
tabernacle with divine prayers, together with the table
and altar, and vessels and utensils for performing the
divine worship. If therefore the Jews, who served the
' shadow of the Law and of good things to come,'^*^ did
this, how much the more ought we to do it to whom the
truth hath been made known by Christ ! Whence we
read in the last chapter but one of Exodus, • Moses
blessed all the vessels of the ministry.' ^^ And should
an additional piece or a fringe be attached to it, it is
proved by the testimony of right that the blessing need
not on this account be repeated. But the reason why
these things and other like things are consecrated is
evidently gathered from the forms of blessing them. Of
the sacred vestments we shall speak in the introduction
to the third book.^^ And observe : That the blessing or
consecration of a church, and of vestments, and of
ecclesiastical ornaments is not performed as if they were
capable of receiving grace, for they are inanimate : but
this practice is introduced, because as men are, so also
are these things, by the act of blessing and consecration
rendered suitable and fit for divine worship, and are

^ Hebrews x, i. ^' Exodus xxxix.

^- The history, use, and symbolism of the sacred vestments would them-
selves require a volume to be fully illustrated.

Of Co7isecratiotis afid Unctions 151

made of greater holiness. Whereas on persons greater
grace is bestowed by unction and benediction. But some
in the benediction of ornaments, let fall their hands, of
which we shall speak in the second book under the head
of the Deacon. ^^

Tenthly, we were to speak of the consecration of
Virgins, but of this we shall treat in the preface to the
second book.^"*

^ ' Observe that when a person in confirmation is blessed on the forehead,
and when salt, and water, and palls, and vestments, and the like be conse-
crated, the hands are held over them, because there is a certain virtue in
consecrated hands, which is as it were stirred up when benediction is
poured out over anything with the hands suspended in this way. Whence
the Apostle admonishing his disciple Timothy, saith, " I put thee in
remembrance that thou stir up the gift of God, which is in thee, by the lay-
ing on of my hands." So that devotion may be stirred up in the body by
the suspension of hands, just as in the heart by the effect. For virtue
existeth not only in animate things, but also in inanimate. Whence some
do affirm that by the virtue of a church, if anyone entereth therein from
devotion, his venial sins be forgiven. Again, the hands are thus held in
cases of exorcism especially, as if the priest by the bodily act would put to
flight and threaten the devil by the virtue of the consecration of his hands.'
— Durandus ii, 9, 16.

"^ This point is not sufficiently connected with our subject to need
illustration.

CHAPTER IX

OF THE SACRAMENTS OF THE CHURCH

Difference between a Sacrament and a Mystery — Distinction of Sacraments
— Of Matrimony — Of the Ring — Of Second Marriages — Why Sacra-
ments were Instituted.

I. With respect to the sacraments of the Church, it is
to be noted that, according to Gregory, there is a sacra-
ment in any celebration when an outward act is so
performed as that we receive inwardly some degree of
the thing signified ; the which is to be received holily
and worthily. Also a mystery is that which the Holy
Ghost worketh secretly, and invisibly, so as to sanctify
by His operation, and bless by His sanctification. A
mystery is said to exist in sacraments ; a ministry only
in ornaments.

2. But, according to Augustine, a sacrament is a
visible sign of an invisible grace. Again, a sacrifice is
visible ; a sacrament invisible. Again, the same sign is
a thing which bringeth under cognisance some thing
different from itself over and above the outward appear-
ance which it presenteth to the senses.

3. A sacrament is said also to be a sign of a sacred
thing, or a sacred concealment of a thing. Of this
we shall further speak in the fourth book, under the
seventh part of the Canon of the Mass, upon the word

Of the SacraDients of the Cliurcli 153

' the mystery of faith,' and under the head of the
Oblation.^

4. Some of the sacraments be of necessity only ; some
of dignity and necessity ; some of order and necessity ;
some of dignity and choice ; and some of choice only.
The sacrament of necessity only is baptism, which when
administered by anyone, so it be in the form of the
Church, in the greatest extremity profiteth unto salva-
tion. And it is said to be ' of necessity,' because with-
out it no one can be saved, if it be neglected through
contempt. Of this sacrament we shall speak in the
sixth book, under the head of Holy Saturday.^ The
sacrament of dignity and necessity is confirmation : of
dignity, because it is conferred by the bishop alone ; of
necessity, because he who neglecteth it through contempt
of it, cannot be saved. Of this also we shall speak under
the head just specified.

5. The sacraments of order and dignity are Penance,
the Eucharist, and Extreme Unction. Of order ; because
they ought only to be administered by such as are rightly
ordained according to the Church's power of the keys ;
except in necessity, in which one may confess even unto
a layman : of necessity ; since such as neglect them
through contempt of them cannot be saved. About
penance, see the sixth book, upon the fifth day of Holy
Week, the Co^na Domini v' about the Eucharist, we shall

' The seventh part of the Canon of the Mass is, ' Likewise after supper
He took the cup into His holy and venerated hands ; and when He had
^iven thanks, He blessed it and gave it to His disciples, saying. Take and
drink ye all of this ; for this is the chalice of My blood, of the New and
Everlasting Testament, the mystery of faith, which is shed for you and for
many for the remission of sins : Do this as oft as ye shall drink it in re-
membrance of me.' — See Rationale iv. 42, 20.

- The chapter referred to treats of holy baptism doctrinally, and does not
therefore fall within the province of this volume.

^ What we call Maiinday Thursday, from Mandatum noviun (* A new
commandment I give unto you,' etc.), which the Church of England
retains as a Lesson for the day, is more properly called llie Cftna Domini,

154 The Symbolism of Churches

speak in the fourth book, upon the Canon ; ^ about
Extreme Unction we have spoken in the preceding
chapter.

6. But the sacrament of dignity and choice is Orders :
of dignity ; because conferred by bishops alone, and
because no one is admitted thereunto save a worthy
person and in a worthy way : of choice ; because any-
one may be saved without it. Of this we shall speak in
the preface to the second book.^

7. The sacrament of choice only is matrimony ; and
it is said to be of choice, because anyone may be
saved without it. Indeed a man seeking to marry is not
inclined to tend towards the kingdom of heaven.

With respect to this it is to be remarked that, accord-
ing to the canons, the solemnity of marriage ought not
to be celebrated from Septuagesima Sunday, because it
is a season of sorrow, until the octave of Easter, nor in
the three weeks before the Feast of S. John.*^ But accord-
ing to the custom of the Catholic Church, marriages may
be solemnised in the church from the morrow of Low
Sunday, namely, from the octave of Easter, until the
first Rogation Day. And from the morning of the first
Rogation Day this rite is prohibited until the octave of
Whitsuntide inclusively : and so saith Pope Clement in
his Decretal. Again, marriages ought not to be celebrated

or Lord's Supper^ in remembrance (as Bishop Andrewes says) of the mighty
mystery of 7 hy holy body and precious bloody instituted on the evening of this
day. — See S. Isidore, De Offic. Eccles. i, 28. The chapter referred to (73
of the sixth book), shows that penitents were restored to communion on
this day, and with what ceremonies.

■^ ^ These, besides their great length, are not required for the explication
of our more immediate subject.

" Bp. Cosins says that marriages are not to be solemnised from Advent
Sunday, until eight days after (or the octave of) the Epiphany; from Sep-
tuagesima Sunday until eight days after Easter ; and from Rogation Sunday
until Trinity Sunday. Some of these being times of solemn fasting and
abstinence, some of holy festivity and joy, both fit to be spent in such holy
exercises, without other avocations. See his ' Devotions,' republished by
Messrs Rivington.

Of the Sacraments of the CJiurch 155

from the First Sunday in Advent until the Epiphany :
nor would they have been allowed until the octave of the
Epiphany had not the Lord honoured a marriage with
His presence, and even with a miracle/ Whence they
then chant, ' To-day the Church is united to her Heavenly
Spouse.' Some, however, say that it is more holy to ex-
tend this prohibition unto the octave of the Epiphany.

In the aforesaid times, therefore, marriages are not to
be contracted ; because these seasons are set apart for
prayer.

8.^ But although the solemnising of marriages is pro-
hibited in these intervals, }^et a contract of marriage
holds good at whatever time it may have been duly
made. But in that it is ordered by the canons that
weddings should not be celebrated in the three weeks
before the Festival of S. John Baptist, the rule was made
that men might be more at leisure for prayer. For the
Church had formerly appointed two periods of forty days,
besides the great one of Lent : — the one preceding the
nativity, usually called S. Martin's, and lasting from his
day to the nativity ; ^ the other, forty days before the
Feast of S. John Baptist : — in which men should give
especial heed unto prayers, alms, and fastings. But in
regard of the frailty of man, these two seasons have been

^ We are accustomed to celebrate only the manifestation of Christ to the
Gentiles, on the Epiphany. But S. Isidore {De Off. Ecc. i, 26) gives two
other objects of commemoration upon this day : viz. the baptism of our
Lord, and his first miracle at the marriage in Cana. And so the hymn in
the Breviary :

Ibant Magi, quam viderant, Stellam sequentes prceviam ;

Lumen requirunt lumine, Deum fatentur munere.

Lavacra puri gurgitis Ccelestis Agnus attigit ;

Peccata quae non detulit, Nos abluendo sustulit.

Novum genus potentice ! Aquce rubescunt hydride,

\''inumque jussa fundere Nutavit unda originem.

Our own Church, however, retains the old Gospel for the second Sunday
after the Epiphany.

•* A few passages have been omitted in the course of this chapter.
" Martinmas is the nth November. The forty days are not exactly
made out between this and the Nativity.

156 TJie Synibolisni of CJiurcJies

reduced to one, and that one again divided into the three
weeks of advent, and three before the nativity of S.
John : at which times men ought to fast and abstain from
marriage.

9. According to S. Isidore (of Seville), women wear
veils, when they are married, so that they may know
that they must always be subject to their husbands : and
because Rebecca, when she saw Isaac, veiled herself
The same saith also that married persons after the bene-
diction are coupled by a fillet, to show that they must not
break the tie, that is the fidelity, of conjugal unity. And
the same fillet is both white and purple mixed; because
the white signifieth purity of life, and purple their lawful
raising of offspring : so that by this symbol, their con-
tinuance and mutual ' defrauding one another for a time
is signified, as well as their coming together again'^^ and
return afterwards to conjugal duties.

10. Also in that at the beginning of the ceremony the
husband giveth a ring to the bride, this is done as a sign
of mutual love, or rather in order that their hearts may
be united by the same pledge. And the same ring is put
on the fourth finger, because (as some say) a certain vein
runneth through it which reacheth to the heart. Also
one Protheus is said to have first made a ring of iron as
a pledge of love, and to have enclosed an adamant
therein : and from this he founded the custom of betroth-
ing brides, because as iron subdueth all things, so doth
love conquer all things, since nothing is more violent than
its ardour.

1 1. And as an adamant cannot be broken, so love can-

'" See S. Paul i Corinthians vii, 5. The whole of this passage is quoted
from S. Isidore, who is, however, more circumstantial than Durandus, and
much more elegant and intelligible in his language. The extreme corrup-
tion of the printed copies of our author may be exemplified by referring the
reader to the original in S. Isidore. — De Off. Eccles. ii, 19. See also Hugo
de S. Victore, Exercit. Theol. Suuiin. Setit., Tract vii.

Of tJie Sacraments of the CJiurcJi 157

not be overcome : for love is as strong as death. There-
fore also he founded the custom of putting the ring on
the ring-finger through which a vein passeth to the heart.
Afterwards, however, golden rings were substituted for
iron, and were set with gems, instead of adamant, because
as gold excelleth other metals, so doth love excel all
other blessings. And as gold is set off by the gems, so is
conjugal love by other virtues. But the word nuptials
(marriage) is so called according to Ambrose, a nubendo
(from covering the head). For brides are wont to veil
the head and abstain from speaking. Whence also
Rebecca, when she saw Isaac to whom she was about to
be espoused, began to veil her face. For bashfulness
ought to precede marriage, inasmuch as bashfulness
more highly commendeth wedlock itself: and the bride
should appear rather to be sought by the husband, than
herself to have sought after him. . . .

12. We have further to note that a threefold spiritual
sacrament is signified by the consummation of marriage.
The first sacrament is the spiritual union of the soul to
God, through faith, love, and charity ; or the union of
will, namely charity which consisteth in the spirit, between
God and a just soul. Whence saith the Apostle, ' but he
that is joined unto the Lord is one spirit.' ^^ This
sacrament is signified by the union of soul which takes
place at the first betrothal in carnal matrimony. The
second is the union of the human nature with the divine,
which took place in the incarnation of the Word of God;
or the conformity of nature, which existeth in the flesh,
between Christ and His Holy Church. To which that
saying referreth, ' The Word was made flesh, and dwelt
among us.' i- The third sacrament is the unity of the
Church, gathered out of all nations and subjected to one
spouse, namely Christ. This sacrament is typified in

" I Corinthians vi, 17. '- S. John i, 14.

158 TJie Symbolism of Churches

the case of such as, having had one wife and her a virgin,
have afterwards been admitted into holy orders.

13. But when anyone yieldeth to a second marriage,
he giveth up this unity, and the signification of this third
sacrament does not hold in his case : wherefore marriage
should not advance beyond one, because such advance
cannot signify unity. Besides, by a second marriage he
departeth from the union of his former marriage : but
the Church ever since she hath united herself to Christ,
hath never departed from Him, neither hath Christ ever
departed from her. Wherefore one who hath twice
married cannot signify such an unity. Whence also
deservedly from the defect of this sacramental signification
marriage cannot be repeated.

14. Note also this, that according to the statute of the
Council of Carthage the bridegroom and bride are to be
presented by the parents or bridesmen unto the priest in
order to be blessed. And having received the blessing,
out of reverence to it, they do not consummate the
marriage till the next day.

15. Again by the appointment of Pope Evaristus
marriages are to be blessed by the priest not without
prayers and offerings. However, a man and woman who
contract a second marriage must not be blessed by the
priest, since, they having been already blessed, the
ceremony may not be repeated. Nor ought marriages
to be blessed unless both parties are still unmarried, for
the reason given in the preface to the second book.^^

'^ It is laid down that a widow on taking the vows is not veiled by the
bishop, as is the case with a virgin. 'A priest,' Durandus continues, 'is
prohibited from taking a part in second marriages and from giving the
benediction to such as are twice married. But a widow taking the vows is
married as it were twice, first to her late husband, and secondly unto Christ
in her profession, wherefore the veil of consecration, or even of profession,
is not given unto her, but she herself takes it from the altar. . . . Yet in
the Pontifical, according to the Roman Order, we find the benediction of a
widow professing continence, and also of her veil. For the Lord also com-

Of the Sacraments of the Church 1 59

And any priest who shall have given the blessing in such
a second marriage is to be suspended from his office and
benefice and to be sent to the apostolical see ; a custom
this, introduced as an incitement to continence. Ac-
cording to the custom of some places, if anyone contracts
a second marriage with an unmarried woman the bene-
diction is repeated : but this does not avail unless our
Lord the Pope know of it and approve it. Some also
say that if any unmarried persons were not blessed when
they contracted marriages, they may when marrying a
second time receive the benediction ; but if they were
blessed at first, it cannot be repeated at a second
marriage even though the first were never consummated.
Of the benediction of virgins we shall speak in the
preface and the second book.^"*

1 6. But it is to be noted thai one sacrament may
be more worthy than another in four ways : namely, in
efficacy, as baptism ; in sanctity, as the eucharist ; in
significancy, as marriage (though some do not admit this
way); in the dignity of the adminstrator, as confirmation
and orders.

17. But is it asked why sacraments are appointed, when
without them God could have given eternal life and His
Grace unto mankind ? I answer, for three reasons.
First, for our humiliation ; in order that when man rever-
ently humbleth himself by the command of God unto
insensible and inferior things, he may from this obed-
ience become more acceptable unto Him. Secondly, for
our instruction ; that by that which is seen objectively
in a visible form, our mind may be instructed in that
invisible virtue, which is to be perceived within. Thirdly,

forted the widow of Serepta by the hand of Elias the prophet. And I have
myself seen in the city (Rome, of course) the [Cardinal] Bishop of Osiia
bless two widows among the virgins who took the vows ' (Proem. II, c. 47).

" See chap, viii, note 57.

i6o TJie Syinbolism of Churches

for our exercising : in order that, since man ought not
to be idle, there may be set before him a useful and
healthy exercise in the sacraments ; so that he may
avoid vain and hurtful occupation. According to that
saying, 'Always be doing some good work, that the devil
may find you occupied.' Wherefore, as we said in the
foregoing chapter, they must never be neglected.

END OF THE FIRST BOOK

EPILOGUE TO THE WHOLE WORK=^

Let none imagine that in the foregoing work the divine
offices be sufficiently set forth, lest by extolling that which
is human, he rashly depreciate that which is divine. For
in the divine offices of the Mass, so many and so great be
the mysteries involved, that none, unless he be taught of
the spirit, is sufficient to explain them. ' For who
knoweth the ordinances of heaven, or can explain
the reasons of them upon earth ? ^ For he that prieth
into their Majesty is overwhelmed by their glory.
But I, who cannot from the weakness of mine eyes
behold the sun in his brightness, have looked on these
mysteries, as through a glass, darkly : and, not penetrat-
ing into the interior of the palace, but sitting at the door,
have done diligently, as I could, not sufficiently, as I
would. For on account of the innumerable and inevitable
business of the Apostolic See,^ pressing on me daily,
like a flood, and holding down the mind of him that
would diligently rise to a contemplation of heavenly
things: I, perplexed as it were, and entangled in the knots
of various employments, could not have the leisure that I
wished for, and could scarcely either dictate what I had
composed, or compose what I had conceived. For the

'Job xxxviii, 31. See the Proeme towards the beginning,
■•^See the Preface, * Book viii, chap. 14.

1 62 TJie Syvibolisvi of Churches

mind that is divided in several trains of thought hath less
power in each. Wherefore I not only ask pardon of the
courteous reader, but implore the assistance of a friendly
corrector. For I cannot deny that many things are
inserted in this book which may be blamed, and that
justly and without temerity. But if anything worthy be
found in it, let the praise thereof be ascribed entirely to
Divine Grace : for * every good gift, and every perfect
gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of
Light' ^ But let that which is unworthy, be set down to
human insufficiency, ' for the corruptible body presseth
down the soul, and the earthly tabernacle weigheth down
the mind that museth upon many things.'^ That which
is worthy hath been taken from the sayings of others,
whose words I have introduced, rather by way of recital ^
after than of approval. I have collected from diverse
books, the manner of the honey making bee, not without
profit, of those things which divine grace hath held forth
to me : and this doctrine, flowing with sweetness like the
honeycomb, I offer, trusting in God's help, to those who
desire to meditate on the divine offices : expecting this
reward alone of my great toil among men, that they will
pray earnestly to the merciful Judge for the pardon of
my transgressions.

GULIELMI DURANDI, Epi Mimatensis Libej^ de ecclesiis
et ornanientis ecclesiasticis explicit feliciter.

^S. James i, 17. ''Wisdom ix, 17.

^ The passage seems corrupt : but the sense appears to be, ' reciting them,
as testimonies in my favour, and not presuming to add my testimony to
their worth.

SUPPLEMENT

[Forthe avoiding continual reference, for the extreme beauty of the treatise
itself, for its value as an older document than the ' Rationale,' and for the
advantage of comparison with the latter in subject, sentiment, style, and
often language, the Editors have subjoined a translation of the first and
second chapters of the 'Mystical Mirror of the Church' of Hugo de
Sancto Victore.]

{Folio Editiojt, 237 E)

A Prologue to the ' Mystical Mirror of the Church,'
made by Master Hugh of S. Victor.

Your love hath asked of me to treat of the sacraments
of the Church, and to set forth unto you their mystical
sweetness. But since with the more willingness, because
with the more ease and boldness I do evolve (after m\-
custom) points of logic rather than of theology ; I began
to doubt whether to withstand your admonition or the
rather to write. But when I presently remembered how
that every good thing when shared with others becometh
more bright and beautiful when it is shared, I incontin-
ently betook myself to my pen, having invoked the aid
of ' Him Who openeth and no man shutteth, and shutteth
and no man openeth.' ^ Wherefore I have put into the
lips of your understanding the tractate which you did
desire, flowing within with nectar like the honeycomb :

' if^pocalypse iii, 7.

164 The Symbolism of Churches

and the same, because therein ye may see as in a mirror
what every thing in the church doth mystically denote,
I have called ' The Mystical Mirror of a Church.'

CHAPTER I

OF A CHURCH

The material church in which the people cometh to-
gether to praise God, signifieth the Holy Catholic Church,
which is builded in the heavens of living stones. This
is the Lord's house which is firmly builded. The ' chief
corner-stone is Christ' Upon this, not besides this,
is the ' foundation of the apostles and prophets ' ; as
it is written, ' Her foundations are upon the holy hills.' 2
The walls builded thereon, be the Jews and Gentiles
coming from the four quarters of the world unto
Christ. All the stones be polished and squared ; that is,
all the saints be pure and firm : the which also be placed
so as to last for ever by the hands of the Chief Workman.
Of these some be borne and do not bear, as the more
simple folk in the Church ; some be borne and do also
bear, as the middling sort ; others do only bear, and be
not borne, save by Christ alone. Who is the single Corner-
stone. And in this house by how much anyone doth
differ from and excel others, by so much being the more
humble doth he hold up more of the building. One
charity doth join all together after the fashion of cement :
and the living stones be bound together by the bond of
peace. The towers be the preachers and the prelates
of the Church : who are her wards and defence. Whence
saith the bridegroom unto his spouse in the Song of

-Psalm Ixxx {Futidamenta ejiis)^ I.

Supplement 165

Songs : 'Thy neck is like the tower of David builded for
an armoury.' ^ The cock which is placed thereon repre-
senteth preachers. For the cock in the deep watches of
the night divideth the hours thereof with his song : he
arouseth the sleepers ; he foretelleth the approach of
day ; but first he stirreth up himself to crow by the
striking of his wings. Behold ye these things mystic-
ally : for not one is there without meaning. The sleepers
be the children of this world, lying in sins. The
cock is the company of preachers, which do preach
sharply, do stir up the sleepers to cast away the works of
darkness, crying, ' Woe to the sleepers : awake thou that
sleepest'; which also do foretell the coming of the light,
when they preach of the day of judgment and future
glory. But wisely before they preach unto others do
they rouse themselves by virtues from the sleep of sin,
and do chasten their bodies. Whence saith the Apostle,
' I keep under my body and bring it into subjection.*
The same also do turn themselves to meet the wind
when they bravely do contend against and resist the
rebellious by admonition and argument, lest they should
seem to flee when the wolf cometh. The iron rod upon
which the cock sitteth, showeth the straightforward
speech of the preacher ; that he doth not speak from the
spirit of man, but according to the scriptures of God :
as it is said, ' If any man speak, let him speak as the
oracles of God.'^ In that this rod is placed above the
cross, it is shown that the words of Scripture be con-
summated and confirmed by the cross : whence our Lord
said in His Passion, * It is finished.' ^ And His title
was indelibly written over Him. The ball {tJiolus) upon
which the cross is placed doth signify perfection by its
roundness : since the Catholic faith is to be preached and

^ C.mt. iv, 4. ' I Corinthians ix, 27. ^ i S. Peter iv, 2.

^ S. John xix.

1 66 The Symbolism of Churches

held perfectry and inviolably : ' Which faith, except a
man do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he
shall perish everlastingly.' Or else the ball doth signify
the world redeemed by the price of the Cross : on which
account the cross is placed over it. The cock being set
over the cross signifieth that the preacher ought to make
sure this point, that Christ redeemed the world by His
Cross. The pinnacle and turret show the mind or life
of a prelate who tendeth unto things above. The bells,
by the voice of which the people are called together unto
the church, typify also preachers : the which being neces-
sary for many uses, are called by many names. The
clapper, which causeth the sound from the two sides of
the bell, is the tongue of the preacher which causeth both
Testaments to resound. The wooden frame, whence
the bell hangeth, signifieth the Cross ; the cramps,
charity ; by which charity the preacher, being fast bound
to the Cross, boasteth, saying, ' God forbid that I should
glory save in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ' ^ The
rope is the life and humility of the preacher. Whence
the Apostle saith, ' He condescendeth towards others.
Whether we exalt ourselves it is for God ; whether we
abase ourselves it is for you.' ^ The rings on the rope
are perseverance and the crown of reward. The glazed
windows of the church be the Holy Scriptures, which do
ward off the wind and the rain, that is, do repel all hurt-
ful things ; and when they do transmit the brightness of
the True Sun by day into the church, they do give
light to them that be therein. These be wider within
than without, because the sense mystical is more ample
and more pre-eminent than the sense literal. These be
frequented of preachers, ' who do fly as a cloud and as
the doves to the windows.' ^ Also by the windows the

^ Galatians vi, 14. ^ 2 Corinthians v, 13. Vulgate. " Isaiah Ix, 8.

S uppleineti t 1 67

five senses of the body be signified : which ought to be
narrow without, lest they should take in vanities, but
should be wide within to receive spiritual good. The
door is Christ : whence the Lord saith in the Evangele,
' I am the door.' ^'^ The pillars be doctors ; who do hold
up spiritually the temple of God by their doctrine, as do
the evangelists also the throne of God. These, for the
harmony of divine eloquence, be called silver columns :
according to that of the Song of Songs, ' He made the
pillars thereof of silver.' ^^ The stalls do denote the con-
templative : in whom God doth rest without offence.
These, for that they do contemplate the highest divinity
and glory of the eternal life, be compared unto gold :
whence in the aforesaid Song of Songs it is said, ' He
made a golden bed.' ^^ The beams be such as spiritually
sustain the Church : the ceilings such as adorn it and
strengthen it ; of the w^hich (because they be not cor-
rupted by vices) the bride glorieth in the same Canticles,
saying, ' The beams of our house are cedar and our
rafters of fir.' ^^ For God hath built His Church of living
stones and imperishable wood : according to that,
* Solomon made himself a litter of the wood of
Lebanon ; ^^ that is Christ of His saints made white by
chastity. The chancel, when lower than the body of the
church, showeth mystically how great humility ought to
be in the clergy : according to the saying, ' The greater
thou art the more humble thyself ^^ The altar signifieth
Christ, without Whom no acceptable gift is offered unto
the Father. Whence the Church uttereth her prayers
unto the Father through Christ. The vestments with
which the altar is adorned be the saints of whom the
Prophet speaketh unto God, saying, ' Thou shalt surely
clothe Thee with them all as with an ornament.' ^^ The

'" S. John X. " Cant, iii, lo. '- Cam. iii, 10. ^^ Cant, i, 17.
'* Cant, iii, 9. '^ Eccles. iii, iS. '" Isaiah xlix, 18.

1 68 The Symbolisin of Churches

steps by which we ascend unto the altar do spiritually
denote the apostles and martyrs of Christ who have
shed their blood for the love of Him. The bride in the
Canticles saith, ' The ascent unto it is purple, the midst
thereof being paved with love.' ^^ Furthermore, the
fifteen virtues be expressed by the fifteen steps with
which they went up unto the temple of Solomon : and
the same be shown by the prophet in the fifteen
continuous Psalms, which the righteous man hath dis-
posed as steps or degrees in his heart.^^ This is the
ladder which Jacob saw, the top of which touched the
heavens. The lights of the church be they by whose
doctrine the Church shineth as the sun and the moon ;
unto whom it is said by our Lord's voice,^^ ' Ye are the
light of the world.' They be also the examples of good
works : whence He saith in His admonitions, ' Let
your light so shine before men.' ^^ In that the
church is adorned joyfully within but not without, is
shown morally that its ' Glory is all from within.' ^i
For although it be contemptible externally, yet doth it
shine within in the soul, which is the abode of God :
whence the Church saith, ' I am black but comely.' 22
And again, ' Yea, I have a goodly heritage.' ^^ Which
the Prophet considering, saith, ' Lord, I have loved the
habitation of Thy house : and the place where Thine
honour dwelleth,' ^^ which place also Faith, Hope, and
Charity do spiritually adorn. The cross of triumph is
placed in the middle of the church, because the Church

•^ Cant, iii, lo. Vulg^ate.
1*^ The fifteen Psalms, cxx-cxxxiv of our version, are called Songs of
Degrees.

i« S. Matthew V. 20 jbid.

-1 Here is an allusion to Psalm xlv (^Eructavit cor meuni)^ 14.
" Cant, i, 5.
^^ Psalm xvi {Conserva me Domine)^ 7.
^^ Psalm xxvi [fudica me Domhie)^ 8.

Supplement 1 69

loveth her Redeemer in the middle of her heart, and
' the midst thereof is paved with love for the daughters
of Jerusalem.' ^^ The which as a sign of victory, let
all who see say one and all, ' Hail, salvation of the
whole world : hail, life-giving Tree ! ' Wherefore, lest
we should ever forget the love of God for us, ' Who gave
his only-begotten Son ' to redeem us His servants, the
Church armeth herself in her bosom and forehead with
this sign, signifying that the mystery of the cross
must always be believed by us in our heart, and confessed
openly with our mouth. The figure of which went be-
fore her in Egypt. But when we cross ourselves from
the forehead downwards, and then from the left to the
right, we do set forth this mystery, that God ' bowed the
heavens and came down,' to teach us to prefer things
eternal unto things temporal. But by this sign the
army of the devil is overthrown ; the Church triumpheth,
' terrible as an army with banners.'^" ' How dreadful is
this place : this is none other but the house of God.' -^
And the Hymn saith, ' The banners of the King come
forth : the Cross unfolds its mystery.' "^ Round this do
the heavenly legions rally. Of this it is written, ' I saw
the holy city. New Jerusalem, coming down from God
out of heaven.' ^^

For the Church is militant here ; in her home she doth
reign : a part is in pilgrimage, a part in glory. That
which is in pilgrimage coming up from her exile through
the desert, doth sigh for her home, from the 'waters of
Babylon for the heavenly Jerusalem;' while the other
part,continually seeing peace, doth hold perpetual festival.
Thus the heavenly city of Jerusalem is called the 'vision
of peace.' ^^ How glorious is her kingdom, ' glorious things

-^ Cant, iii, 10. '^ Cant, vi, 10. -^ Genesis xxviii, 17.

-"* The hymn, Vexilla Regis, occurs in the office for Passion Sunda)-.
■-"•• Apoc. xxi, 2. ^ See note 4 on the Rationale, I. i, p. 13.

I/O The SymholisuL of ChurcJies

are spoken of thee, thou city of God.' ^^ Her guardians
be the citizens of heaven, the legions of angels with the
glorious company of the apostles, the prophets, and the
patriarchs, the armies of martyrs robed in purple, the
flowers of virgins, the verdant choir of confessors, com-
passed about with the universal assembly of all the saints,
chaste and glorified ! And this wondrous court of heaven
is yet more wondrously adorned by that one incomparable
jewel, the Virgin Mother, ' whose like there ne'er hath
been, whose like there ne'er shall be.' But how great is
the admiration of all in beholding the King Himself, and
how harmonious be the songs in praise of Him ; this is
known to those alone, who have deserved to stand amongst
the happy throng, and to behold the mystery of the
Trinity and the glory of Christ : Who is encircled by
the angelic choirs; upon Whom the angels desire continu-
ally to gaze. To behold this the Immortal King face to
face, the Church below is preparing herself: and while
she keepeth here her feasts of time, she is remembering
the festivals of her home and of eternity ; in which the
bridegroom is hymned by angelical instruments. And all
the saints continually celebrating the day of great
festivity ' which the Lord hath made,' cease not in their
nuptial songs to laud the eternal bridegroom, the beauti-
ful in form above the sons of men ; Him who hath chosen
the Church for Himself of His free mercy. Of whom, as
He had seen her from eternity, He saith, ' I will get Me
to the mountain of myrrh, and to the hill of frankincense
and will speak unto my spouse.' ^^ For whom ' He
came forth as a bridegroom out of His chamber, and
rejoiced as a giant to run his course ' ; ^^ when He went
forth from His Father, and returned unto His Father —
went forth indeed even unto Hades, returned unto the

^' Psalm Ixxxvii {Fund amenta ejus)^ 2.
^ Cant, iv, 6. ^ Psalm xix {Cceli enarrant^^ 5.

Supplement 1 7 1

Throne of God — to make all His elect, from the beerin-
ning even unto the end of the world, one kingdom in
the vision of the Supreme Trinity : in which is glorified
' one God world without end.'

CHAPTER H

OF TPIE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH

With what carefulness and love Christ doth adorn the
bride for Himself and prepare her for her heavenly dedi-
cation, is in part signified by the consecration of the
material church. The bishop compasseth the church to
be dedicated three times, sprinkling it with holy water,
the clergy and people following him.

239 A. In the meanwhile without and within there be
burning twelve lamps. So often as he cometh to the
door (which for a mystical reason is shut), the bishop
smiteth the lintel with his pastoral staff, saying ' Lift up
your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye everlasting
doors, and the King of Glory shall come in.' ^ The
deacon answereth, ' Who is the King of Glory?' To
whom the bishop, ' The Lord of Hosts : He is the King
of Glory.' At the third time, the door being thrown
open, he entereth with the clergy and people, saying,
' Peace be to this house.' Then he performeth the
other ceremonies which pertain to dedication. But
whatever things be here done visibly, the same doth God
work by His invisible power in the soul, which is the
true Temple of God : wherein Faith layeth the founda-
tion, Hope raiseth the buildings, and Charity finisheth
it. Also the Church Catholic herself, being made one out

' Psalm xxiv {^Domini est terra).

1/2 The Syinbolisin of Churches

of many stones, is the temple of God ; because many-
temples make one temple, of which there is one Lord
and one Faith. Wherefore the house must be dedicated ;
the soul sanctified. Water is penitence : salt, wisdom ;
the threefold aspersion, the threefold immersion in bap-
tism ; the twelve lights, the twelve apostles, preaching
the mystery of the Cross ; the bishop, Christ ; his staff,
Christ's power ; the three strokes on the door, Christ's
dominion over all things in heaven, earth, and hell : ' that
all the threefold frame of things may bow the knee to Him,
their Lord.' Again, the question of the deacon within is
the ignorance of the people ; the opening of the door, the
ejection of sin. The bishop entering, prayeth for peace
on the house, and Christ entering the world maketh peace
between God and men. Then prostrate he prayeth unto
the Lord for its sanctification : and so Christ, humbled
in His Passion, prayed for His disciples and them that
should believe, saying, ' Father, sanctify them in Thy
truth.' ^ Arising he does not give the salutation but only
prayeth : because they who be not yet sanctified must
not be blessed but only prayed for. The writing the
alphabet upon the pavement is the simple teaching of
faith in the heart of man. The line drawn from the left
corner of the east unto the right corner of the west, and
the other line from the right of the east unto the left of
the west, do express the Cross, and also the gathering in
of both peoples : according as Jacob blessed the chil-
dren of Joseph with his hands crossed.^ For although
Christ passing from the east did leave the Jews, because
they would not believe, on His left hand, and did come
unto the Gentiles ; to whom, though they had been in
the west. He granteth to be on the right hand : yet will
he again, passing from the Gentiles who be placed in the

2 S. John xvii. ^ Genesis xxviii

Supplement 173

right of the east, visit the Jews in the left hand corner :
who, it is evident, be worse than He first found the
Gentiles. The staff with which the alphabet is described
typifieth the ministry of teachers, by which the conver-
sion of the Gentiles is effected and that of Jews perfected.
In that afterwards the bishop standing before the altar
saith, ' O God, make speed to save us ' ; he doth signify
those who having received the faith are preparing them-
selves to fight And because they be still in conflict, and
as it were amongst sighs, the Alleluia is not yet added.
After this the water is blessed with salt and ashes ; wine
mixed with water being also added. The water is the
people ; the salt, doctrine ; the ashes, the remembrance
of the Passion of Christ. The wine mixed with water is
Christ, God and Man ; the wdne His Godhead, the water
His Manhood. Thus the people is sanctified by the
doctrines of faith and remembrance of the Passion, being
united wnth its Head both God and Man. Whence the
altar and the church be sprinkled within ; to show that
within, as without, the spiritual Church must be sancti-
fied. The aspersory, made of hyssop, denoteth humility ;
with which grace the Catholic Church being sprinkled is
purified. The bishop compasseth the church in lustration
and as if bestowing his care upon all. In the meanw^hile
is chanted the Psalm, ' Let God arise and his enemies be
scattered,' with its proper response and antiphon, which
is followed by another, ' Whoso dwelleth under the de-
fence of the most high.' Then the bishop chanteth, ' My
House shall be called an House of Prayer,' and also, ' I
will tell out thy name among my brethren.' And be-
cause no work can prosper w^ithout God, he prayeth in
conclusion that they may be heard who shall enter therein
to pray for blessings. After this he approacheth unto
the altar, saying, ' I will go up unto the altar of the Lord,'
with the whole Psalm : and what remains of the water

174 The Symbolism of Chiwches

he poureth away at the base of the altar, committing unto
God that which surpasseth human abiHties in so great a
sacrament. After this the altar is wiped with a linen
cloth. The altar is Christ, the cloth is his flesh, brought
by the beating of His Passion unto the whiteness and
glory of immortality. Next the bishop offereth upon
the altar frankincense, which is burnt in the shape of a
cross in the middle thereof ; and at its four corners he
maketh crosses with sanctified oil. Then upon each of
the four walls of the church there be made three crosses
with the same oil : and the consecration being thus
finished, the altar is covered with a white veil. Incense,
prayers, and oil do denote the grace of the Holy Ghost.
Whose fulness — ' like the precious ointment upon the
head that ran down unto the beard : even unto Aaron's
beard,' ^ — came down upon the apostles and their
disciples : who preached the mystery of the Cross
through the four quarters of the world, the Lord work-
ing with them. The white covering doth typify the joy
of immortality : concerning which the Son exulteth,
saying unto the Father, ' Thou hast put off my sackcloth,
and girded me with gladness.' ^

■• Psalm cxxxiii (^Ecce qiiam botiuni), 2.
^ Psalm XXX {Exalfaho te Domine)^ 12.

APPENDIX A

CHANCELS

' The temple of old was divided into two parts by a veil
hung in the middle thereof. The first part was called
the Holy Place, but the inner part the Holy of Holies.
Whatever part then of the office of the Mass cometh
before the secret ^ is performed as it were in the outer
place : but the secret itself within the Holy of Holies.
There were in the Holy of Holies the altar of incense,
the ark of the testimony, the mercy-seat above the ark,
and over this two cherubims of glory with their faces
looking towards ^z^'^ nfher. Herein the high priest
entered alone once in the year, having the names of the
patriarchs written upon the breastplate of judgment and
the shoulderplates, and bearing a censer of burning coals
and blood, and incense, which with prayer he placed in
the thurible until the cloud of incense covered him.-

' After the Sancius, which, as we shall find, was performed with the full
choir and the accompaniment of organs, came the secret^ which embraced
the whole Canon of the .Uass, performed by the celebrant alone, and the
celebration of the Holy Eucharist. ' It is called the secret because these
things be hidden from us, since the nature of man can in no wise fully com-
prehend so great a mystery : for the denoting of which it is rightly per-
formed secretly. To signify the same also, the priest when entering upon
the secret is veiled as it were with the side curtains.' See other mystical
reasons adduced in the remainder of this passage, Book IV, Chapter 35,
and in Chapter 39 an account of the side curtains. Upon the use of these
see also the Dublm Review^ vol. x, p. 339.

- See Leviticus xvi ; Exodus xxviii, xxxix, and xl.

176 The Symbolisin of Churches

Afterwards he sprinkled the mercy-seat and the altar
with blood, and then he went out to the people, and
washed his vestments in the evening. These were types
of old, but they have ceased since the things signified
thereby have come. But thus the former temple doth
denote the present church ; the Holy of Holies, heaven ;
the high priest, Christ ; the blood, His Passion ; the
coals, His love ; the thurible. His flesh ; the burning
incense, prayers of sweet savour ; the altar, the hosts of
heaven ; the ark, Christ in His humanity ; the mercy-
seat, God the Father ; the two cherubims, the twain
Testaments, the which do look towards each other because
the two do agree ; the vestments which be washed,
mankind. Wherefore consider what things were done
of old, and what things Christ hath done, and then see
how the minister of the Church doth represent the same
in the office of the Mass. By the ark also is signified
the humility of Christ, from which through his mercy all
good hath come unto us ' (Durandus, Book IV, Preface

In the next section the same subject is further illus-
trated, though without reference to the immediate
subject of this appendix, the necessity of the division of
every church into a chancel and nave.

The reader may consult a most interesting series of
chapters in Hugo de Sancto Victore (Tituli ii-viii, Ex.
Misc. II, Lib. IV) upon this subject : the passages are
far too long for insertion here.

The absolute necessity of this twofold division is a point
which it is more than painful at this time to have to
prove. It is only within the last two centuries that our
own or any branch of the Church Catholic has dared to
depart from an usage which, if any, has universality,
antiquity, and consent on its side, and of whose authority
was never any doubt in the Church. For some of the

Appendix 177

arguments which have been adduced in the present con-
troversy we must refer to the publications of the Cam-
bridge Camden Society, and particularly the Ecclesiolo-
gist. There is nothing more wanted than a careful
treatise on the subject which shall in a compendious
form put this and several points depending upon it, such
as orientation itself, and praying towards the east, in a
clear light.

APPENDIX B

ORIENTATION

' Furthermore albeit God is everywhere, yet ought the
priest at the altar and in the offices to pray towards the
east : according to the constitutions of Vigilius, Pope.
Whence in churches which have the doors at the west, he
that celebrateth turneth in the salutations to the people :
but in churches which have the entrance at the east,^ as
at Rome, there is no need in the salutations for turning
round, because the priest always turneth to the people.
The temple also of Solomon, and the tabernacle of Moses
had their entrance from the east. Pray we therefore
towards the east, being mindful, firstly, that He, Who is
the splendour of eternal light, hath illuminated ' them ^
that sit in darkness and the shadow of death, rising
with healing in his wings ' : ^ of whom it is said,
' Behold the man, whose name is the East.' ^ For the
which cause he saith in the book of Wisdom,^ ' We

' S. John Lateran is an instance. We may observe that the reascms for
the orientation of churches must have been very strong to have caused an
universal disregard of an example thus set at the centre of Western Chris-
tendom.

- S. Luke i, 79. ' Malachi iv, 2. ' Zechariah vi, 12. ^ Wisdom xvi, 28

178 TJie Syvibolisin of Churches

ought to pray eastward, where the hght ariseth.' Not
because the Divine Majesty is locally in the east : which
is potentially and essentially in all places ; as it is written,
' Do not I fill ^ heaven and earth ' ; and in like manner
speaketh the Prophet, " ' If I ascend into heaven. Thou
art there : if I go down to hell, Thou art there also ' :
but because to those ' who fear His name shall ^ the sun
of righteousness arise,' ' which lighteth every man that
Cometh into the world.' ^

Secondly, that our souls be thereby taught to turn
themselves to the things that are more desirable.

Thirdly, because they who praise God ought not to
turn their backs on Him.

Fourthly, according to Joannes Damascenus (who
giveth also the three following reasons),^^ to show that
we seek our country.

Fifthly, that we may look upon Christ crucified, who
is the True East.

Sixthly, that we may prove that we expect Him to
come to be our Judge. For Damascenus saith in that
place, 'God planted a garden eastward ';" whence man's
sin made him an exile, and instead of Paradise made
him to dwell in the west : therefore, looking to our
ancient home, we pray towards the east.

Seventhly, because our Lord, at His Crucifixion,
looked towards the east: and also when he ascended into
heaven. He ascended towards the east : and thus the
apostles adored Him : and thus ' He shall come again in
like manner as they saw Him go into heaven.' ^^

Eighthly, Daniel likewise in the Jewish captivity
prayed towards the temple.

Yet Augustine saith that 'no Scripture hath taught us

^ Jeremiah xxiii, 24. "^ Psalm cxxxix (^Domine probastt)^ 7. ^ Malachi iv, 2.
® S. John i, 9. '" Quatuor orationes. We should probably read, rationes.
" Genesis ii, 8. ^' Acts i, 11.

Appendix 179

to pray towards the east' [He, however, says also,
' Though I find not a thing on record in Scripture, yet I
receive it as proceeding from the apostles if the Universal
Church embrace it '] ^^ (Durandus V, ii, 57).

S. Isidore has a curious passage about orientation. A
place, he says, designed so as to face the east was called
templuni, from contemplating. Of which there were four
parts ; the front facing the east, the back the west, the
right hand the south, and the left hand the north : whence
also when they builded temples, they took their east at
the equinox, so that lines drawn from east to west would
make the sections of the sky on the right and left hands
equal, in order that he who prayed might look at the
direct east (Orig. XV, iv).

APPENDIX C

ON THE DESIGN OF THE ANALOGIUM, AMBO OR
ROOD LOFT, AND THE READING OF THE GOSPEL
FROM IT

I. We have noted afore, that the priest, in the celebra-
tion of Mass, when it is not High Mass, himself readeth
the gospel. But when a bishop or priest celebrateth
High Mass with the highest solemnity, then, in some
churches, as at Rome, the deacon having kissed the

'^ This section is in several places corrupt : for example — from Damas-
cenus the quotation in the sixth head belongs properly to the seventh.

Our readers may perhaps be reminded of the anecdote of the good Earl
of Derby (who, if the Reformed Church in England should ever have a
calendar of her own, will assuredly be one of its martyrs), when on the
scaffold. The church of Bolton was in sight : and the Earl requested that
he might be allowed to kneel on the western side of the block, so that the
last object on which his eyes were fixed might be God's house. His
executioners showed their poor malice to the last, by denying him this
wish.

i8o The Syinbolisin of Churches

right hand of the bishop, taketh the book of the gospel
from the altar, and giveth it to the sub-deacon to bear,
and asketh and receiveth the bishop's or priest's blessing.
But in other churches, he first asketh for the blessing
before he taketh the book. The benediction having
been bestowed, the deacon proceedeth along the south
side ^ of the choir to the rood loft, and before him goeth
the sub-deacon with the volume of the gospel, and be-
fore him the incense-bearer with incense ; and before
him the torch-bearer with lighted tapers, and before him
in some churches the banner of the cross : and thus they
ascend the rood loft. And the deacon readeth the
gospel : the which being finished, they return to the
priest or bishop together. Which things we will more
particularly go through. It is also to be noted, that in
some churches, the deacon, when about to go to the rood
loft, beginneth the antiphon which followeth benedictus
in the nocturns, and while he is going thither, it is taken
up, and finished by the chorus, to set forth charity : and
it is sung without instruments, to denote that God com-
mandeth us to have love alone. And now is the figure
changed : for the deacon, who before represented S.
John Baptist, now setteth forth S. John Evangelist : be-
cause ' the law and the prophets were until John : ^ and
after him the kingdom of heaven is preached.'

2. And the word evangelimn meaneth good tidings ;
from eu, well, and dyyeAos, a messenger. For the preach-
ing of Christ and His apostles is indeed a gospel, as pro-
claiming Life after death, Rest after labour, a Kingdom
after slavery.

3. And ye are to wit, that as the head hath pre-
eminence over the other members of the body, and as

^ As is well known, double staircases to rood lofts appear to have been
almost as common in England as single ones : and there are sometimes,
especially in Norfolk churches, two corresponding rood turrets.
2 S. Luke xvi, 16.

Appendix i8i

the other members obey it : so the gospel is the principal
thing of all that are said in the office of the Mass, and
hath the pre-eminence, and whatever things be there
read, or sung, they consent to it, as may well be per-
ceived.

4. The deacon therefore first kisseth the hand of the
bishop in silence, because the preacher must proclaim
the gospel for the sake of eternal glory, as saith the
spouse in the Canticles, ' His right hand shall embrace
me.' ^ Also because the angel which came to announce
the glory of Christ's Resurrection did sit on the right
hand, clothed in white.^ In other churches, however, he
doth not kiss, but only bowing asketh for a blessing.
But the sub-deacon or deacon doth not kiss the hands,
but the feet, of the Roman Pontiff, that he may exhibit
the greatest reverence to the greatest bishop, and show
that he is His Vicar, Whose feet the woman that was a
sinner kissed.^ For his footstool is to be adored because
it is holy. Whose feet also, when He had risen from the
dead, the woman held and adored. Generally, none
ought to kiss the hand of the Roman Pontiff, unless
when he receiveth something from his hands, or giveth
something to them : to show that we ought on both
accounts to give thanks unto Him, Who giveth to all of
His own, and receiveth from none.

5. The deacon incontinently thereafter taketh the
book of the gospel from the altar, because the ' Law
shall go forth out of Sion, and the Word of the Lord
from Jerusalem ' : ^ not the Mosaic Law which went
forth of Sinai, but the Gospel Law, of which the Prophet
saith, ' Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that I
will make a new covenant with the house of Jacob and
with the house of Israel' '' The book is also taken from

^ Canticles ii, 6. * S. Mark xvi, 5.

^ S. Luke vii, 37. ^ Alicah iv, 2. " Jeremiah xxxi, 31.

1 82 The Symbolisin of Churches

the altar, because the apostles received the gospel from
the altar, when they went about preaching the Passion
of Christ Or the altar in this place signifieth the Jews,
from whom the kingdom of God is taken, and given
unto a nation that will do its fruits : and from this, that
the gospel is taken from the altar, we learn, that it is the
Word of God, which is signified by the altar, according
to that saying, ' An altar of earth shall ye make unto
me.'^

6. But he taketh it, according to some, from the right
side of the altar : because the Church of the Jews, whence
our Church springeth, was situate in the east : and
placeth it on the left, as it is written, ' His left hand is
under my head, and his right hand doth embrace me ' : ^
and that for a threefold cause. Firstly, the gospel
teacheth that things celestial, which be signified by the
right, be preferred to things terrestrial, which the left
hand setteth forth. Secondly, the book is inclined on
the left shoulder, to signify that the preaching of Christ
shall pass from the Gentiles, as it is written : ' In those
days Israel shall be saved.' ^^ Thirdly, because in
temporal life, which is set forth by that side, needful is it
that Christ should be preached : and the book of the
gospel is in some churches adorned on the outside with
gold and gems. But the book remaineth on the altar,
from the time that the priest goeth there, till the gospel
be read, because it, in this respect, signifieth Jerusalem :
since the gospel was first preached in Jerusalem, and
remained there from the advent of the Lord till it was
published to the Gentiles. As he saith, ' From Sion
shall go forth the laws.' ^^ For Jerusalem was the place
of the Passion, which is also set forth by the altar.

7. Thereafter he seeketh the benediction : because

** Exodus XX, 24. " Canticles ii, 6. '" Romans xi, 26.

" Micah iv, 2.

Appendix 183

none must preach unless he be sent. According to that
saying, ' How shall they preach, except they be sent ? ' ^^
And the Lord saith to His disciples, ' Pray ye therefore
the Lord of the harvest that He may send forth labourers
into His harvest' ^^ But Esaias, when he had heard the
voice of the Lord, saying, * Whom shall I send, and who
will go for us ? ' ^-^ made answer and said, ' Here am I,
send me.' And the Lord said, ' Go and tell this people,'
etc.

8. Again, Moses prefigured this kind of blessing : who,
when he had ascended unto the mountain, received the
tables of the law and the blessing, and gave the com-
mandment to the people. And the Lord also Himself
blessed the order of deacons, and gave it the Holy Spirit
and sent it to preach through the whole world. The
bishop therefore, or the priest, visibly blesseth the deacon
who is about to read the gospel, which he did not do to
the sub-deacon when about to read the epistle, because
Christ sent the law and the prophets, which be signified
by the epistle, while he remained hidden from the world :
but after that he had visited it, and conversed with men
He sent forth His apostles and evangelists, and taught
them, saying, ' Go and teach, saying, the kingdom of
heaven is at hand.' ^^ ' And they went through the
villages, evangelising, and doing cures everywhere.' And
he sendeth him to read the gospel, to note that Christ
sent the apostles to preach the kingdom of God.

9. But the deacon, laying up in his heart the things
which were said in the benediction, must study to show
himself pure in heart, clean in words, chaste in deed, that
he may be able to set forth the gospel worthily, because
the fountain of living waters, that is, the gospel, doth not
flow freely, except from Libanus, that is, from a chaste

'•- Romans x, 15. ^^ S. Matt, ix, 38. '^ Isaiah vi, 8, 9.
'5 S. Matthew x, 7.

184 The Symbolisin of Churches

heart, and a pure mouth. For praise is not seemly in the
mouth of a sinner ; nay rather of the sinner saith God,
' What hast thou to do to set forth My ordinances, and
take My covenant into thy mouth.' ^^ And therefore
he is fortified by the sign of the cross, and then
having received Hcense and benediction, as is aforesaid,
and having made the sign of the cross, that he may
walk in safety, proceedeth to the rood loft in silence,
with his eyes fixed on the ground : bearing, according
to the custom of some churches, nothing in his hand, as
the Lord commanded the apostles whom He sent to
preach the kingdom of God. ' Take,' saith He, ' nothing
for the journey, and salute no one.' ^'^ But in other
churches the deacon beareth a book, as shall be said
hereafter. But when he cometh to the rood loft, he
saluteth it, as entering into a house to which he offereth
peace, and passeth from the right side of the choir to the
left, as he had before transferred the book from the right
to the left side. For when the Jews had refused the
Word of God, it was preached to the Gentiles, who are
understood by the left side.

10. In the Roman Church, and in certain others, the
sub-deacon ascendeth the rood loft one way,^^ and the
deacon another : because the one proceedeth to an in-
crease of knowledge by teaching, the other by learning :
and because the minister by the merit of his works, and
the preacher by the merit of his words, proceedeth to an
increase of righteousness. Whence the Psalmist : ' Thy
rig-hteousness standeth like the mountains of God':^^
but they both return to the bishop by the same way,
because by final perseverance they attain their reward,

i*^ Psalm 1 (^Deiis Deorwn) 16. i' S. Matthew x, 10.

1** Per dextram partem. We are to imag^ine, in the whole of this descrip-
tion, the spectators supposed to face the altar. So in the fifteenth chapter
of this book, the epistle is said to be read in dextera parte.
'" Psalm xxxvi {dixit injustns)^ 6.

Appendix 185

as the Lord testifieth, saying : ' He that endureth to the
end, the same shall be saved.' '^^ And that preaching
sufficeth not without good deeds. For ' Jesus began
both to do and to teach.' ^^ Therefore the preacher
returneth by the same way by the which the minister
had gone up. Moreover, he that is about to read the
gospel goeth and ascendeth by one way, and returneth
by another, according to that saying, ' They returned
into their own country another way ' : 2- because the
apostles did first preach to the Jews and then to the
Gentiles : as it is written, ' Since ye have cast from you
the Word of God,' ^^ and the rest.

II. The sub-deacon precedeth the deacon (because
John and his preaching preceded Christ and His preach-
ing), carrying in some churches a cushion ; which he
may place under the book. By the cushion, on which
the book resteth, be set forth the temporal things of life,
as it is written : ' If we have sown spiritual things, is it
a great matter if we reap your temporal things ? ' ^"^
For according to the Apostle, ' They which serve the
altar, eat of the altar.' ^^ For ' the labourer is worthy of
his hire.' ^^ And the Lord taught us the law, ' Thou
shalt not muzzle the ox when it treadeth out the corn.' ^^
Again, a cushion is placed under the book to denote that
which the Lord saith, ' My yoke is easy, and My burden
light.' 2^ Austin saith, ' To this yoke whosoever is sub-
ject, hath all things subject to him.'

The cushion therefore denoteth the sweetness and
pleasure that ariseth from the commands of God. Whence
the Prophet, 'Thou, O God, hast of Thy goodness prepared
for the poor.' -'^ And again, ' O how sweet are Thy words

-^ S. Matthew x, 22. -' Acts i, i

^- S. Matthew ii, 12. -^ Acts xiii, 46. -» i Corinth, ix, 1 1.

" I Corinth, ix, 13. '-** S. Luke x, 7. '-" Deuteron. xxv, 4.

^ S. Matthew xi, 30. -"-' Psalm Ixviii {Exur^at Deus), 10.

1 86 The Syinbolisni of C/mrches

unto my tast6/ ^^ Yet in the Roman Church, the deacon
goeth first, as the teacher : sub-deacon followeth as the
learner : the one precedeth, that he may preach, the
other followeth, that he may minister. But after the
reading of the Gospel, the sub-deacon, as being now
sufficiently instructed, -returneth first, having in his hand
the gospel, as bringing back the gospel as the fruit of
his ministrations : according to that which the Lord
promised : ' He that receiveth a prophet in the name of
a prophet shall receive a prophet's reward.' ^^ Whom
therefore the deacon sendeth aforehand to the bishop,
to show that he is bringing back the fruit of his preach-
ing : concerning which the Lord commanded, ' I have
called you that ye should go and bring forth fruit, and
that your fruit should remain.' ^^ Moreover, the deacon,
bearing back the cushion and gospel, signifieth that
the preacher ought, by his good works, to offer his life
to God. Whence the Apostle, ' Whatsoever ye do in
word and deed, do all in the name of our Lord Jesus
Christ' 2^

12. The deacon also sendeth aforehand the thurible
with incense, because the works of Christ preceded His
doctrine. As it is written, ' Jesus began to do, and to
teach.' But the thurible with incense signifieth prayer
with devotion, which the faithful then chiefly ought to
employ when they hear the word of God. Again, he
doth it, because the preacher must send forth the sweet
odour of good works : according to that saying of the
Apostle : ' We are a sweet savour of Christ in every
place.' ^^ He whose life is despised needs is it that His
preaching also is contemned.

The cross precedeth the gospel in token that the

^ Psalm cxix iBeatiinimaculati\ 103. ^' S. Matthew x. 4I.

3- S. John XV, 16. "^ Colos. iii 17. ^^ 2 Corinth, ii, 15.

Appendix 187

preacher must follow the Crucified. Whence the Lord
saith to Peter, 'Follow Me.' After this, the deacon
ascendeth the anibo [the rood loft].

17. Now ambo meaneth the pulpit, whence the gospel
is read, so called from ambio [to surround] because that
place is surrounded with steps. In some churches also
there be two ascents, one left, namely towards the east,
where the deacon ascendeth ; one to the right, namely
towards the west, where he descendeth.

18. He ascendeth that he may read the gospel with a
loud and clear voice : as that which is to be heard of all,
according to that saying of the Prophet, ' O thou that
evangelisest to Sion, get thee up into the high moun-
tain.' 2^

Also that we may imitate our Lord, Who w^ent up into
a mountain,^^ that He might preach the gospel. The
gospel is also read in a lofty and eminent place, because
it hath been preached throughout all the world : as it is
written : ' Their sound is gone out unto all lands.' ^'' But
the epistle is read in a lower place, as typifying the law,
which was confined to Judea alone, as it is written : ' In
Jewry is God known.' ^^

19. But in a Mass of requiem the gospel is not read
in that exalted place, but at the altar, to signify that
preaching profiteth not the departed.

20. Also the gospel is read from an eagle, according
to that saying, ' He came flying upon the wings of the
winds.' ^^ And the eagle itself is covered with a covering

'* Isaiah xi, 9. ^ S. Matthew v, i.

" Psalm xix {Ccelt enarrant), 4. ** Psalm Ixxv (Ab/«J in Judea), I.

^ Psalm xviii (^Diligam 7>), 10

1 88 TJie Symbolism of Churches

of cloth or ^ilk, on certain feasts, to signify the softness
of the heart : as he saith, ' I will take away the stony
heart out of your flesh, and will give you a heart of
flesh.' -^^

21. But he that readeth the gospel passeth to the left
side : and setteth his face to the north, that the saying
may be fulfilled, which is written, ' I will say to the
north give up, and to the south keep not back ' ^^ (Dur-
andus, Book IV, chap. xxiv).

APPENDIX D

ON THE SIGN OF THE CROSS

In the second chapter of his fifth book Durandus
enters at great length into this subject. The reason for
making the sign is to drive away evil spirits, who, as S.
Chrysostome says, ' always flee when they see the sign
of the cross, as fearing that staff by which they have
been wounded.' The pole on which the brazen serpent
was raised, the crossing of Jacob's hands when blessing
Joseph's children, the mark tau (Ezekiel ix, 4) on the
forehead, and the seal on the forehead in the Apocalypse,
are some of the representations of the cross here alleged.
The cross is to be made with three fingers, that is, the
thumb and two fingers, in honour of the Trinity. The
Jacobites and Eutychians use only one finger. Next the
different methods of crossing are discussed. The sign
ought to be made at the end of the gospel, the creeds,
the Lord's Prayer, the Gloria in excelsis, the Sanctus^ the
Agnus Dei, the Benedictus, MagJtificat, Nzmc dimittis, at
*'* Ezekiel xi, 19. ^' Isaiah xliii, 6.

Appendix 189

the beginning of the hours, the end of the Mass, when
the priest gives the benediction, and whenever mention
is made of the Cross of the Crucified. See also our
author in his sixth book Dc die Parasceu.

APPENDIX E

ON THE FOUR COLOURS USED IN CHURCH
HANGINGS, ETC.

1. There be four principal colours, by which, according
to the diversity of days, the Church distinguisheth her
vestments : to wit, white, red, black, and green. For we
read that in the garments of the law there were four
colours, fine linen, purple, jacinth, scarlet. The Roman
Church also useth violet and saffron, as shall be said
below.

2. White vestments be used in the festivals of holy
confessors, and virgins which be not martyrs, on account
of their integrity and innocence. For it is written, ' Her
Nazarites were whiter than snow.' 1 And again : ' They
shall walk with Me in white : - for they are virgins : and
follow the Lamb whithersoever He goeth.' On account
of the same thing white is used on the festivals of angels ;
concerning whom the Lord saith to Lucifer : ^ ' Where

' Lamentations iv, 7.
- The bishop here confuses two passages, Apocal. iii, 4, and xiv, 4. Of
the same subject Lagvinus Torrentius says beautifully in his hymn on the
Holy Innocents :

Ergo supremi parte coeli, lactea qua lucidum fulget via,
Qua pictadulci stillat uva nectare, et nectar exhalant rosoe,
Lceti coronis luditis, et insignium mixti puellarum choris
Sacrum canentes itis agnum candido quacunque proccedat pede.
=* A misquotation of the bishop's. The words are addressed to Job.
Job xxxviii, 7.

190 The Symbolism of Churches

wast thou .... when the morning stars sang together?'
Also in all the festivals of the Holy Mother of God. In
the feast of All Saints : yet some then use red. In the
principal festival of S. John Evangelist.^ In the con-
version of S. Paul. In the cathedra of S. Peter.^ Also
from the vigil of the nativity of our Lord to the octave
of the Epiphany : both inclusive ; excepting the festivals
of the martyrs included in that period.*^ In the nativity
of our Lord, and also of His Forerunner, because each
was born pure. ' For the Lord rode upon a light cloud,' '
that is, took unto Himself sinless humanity, * and entered
Egypt,' that is, came into the world : as saith the angel
to the virgin, ' The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee,
and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee.' ^
But John, although he were born in sin, was sanctified
from the womb : according to that saying, ' Before thou
earnest forth from the womb I sanctified thee.' ^ And
the angel saith to Zecharias, ' He shall be filled with the
Holy Ghost from his mother's womb.' ^^ Also white is
used in the Epiphany, on account of the splendour of that
star which led the wise men, as saith the Prophet, ' and
the Gentiles shall come to thy light,^^ and kings to
the brightness of thy rising.' In the purification also,
on account of the purity of the Virgin Mary : which,
according to Simeon, gave birth to ' a light to lighten
the Gentiles, and the glory of Thy people Israel.' ^^ On
Maundy Thursday, to set forth the anointing, which is
consecrated to the purification of the soul. For the

■• That is, on the 27th of December, the day of his ' deposition ' : the
other feast, kept in memory of his deliverance from the boiling oil, before
the Latin gate, and therefore called S.Joannes ante Portam Latinam^ is the
(j*:h of May. ^ The 22nd of F"ebruary.

^ Which are S. Stephen, the Holy Innocents, S. Thomas of Canterbury.

' Jsaiah xix, 3. ^ S. Luke i; 35. ^ Jeremiah i, 3.

1° S. Luke i, 15. " Isaiah Ix, 3.

'2 A very harsh construction : but surely preferable to that by which
the Blessed Virgin herself is spoken of as the promised light.

Appendix 1 91

gospel on that day principally setteth forth purity ; ' He
that is washed needeth not save to wash his feet, but is
clean every whit ' : and again, ' If I wash thee not, thou
hast no part with me.' ^^ It is also used with the office
of the Mass from Easter Eve until the octave of the
Ascension inclusive : except on the rogation days and
intervening festivals of martyrs. On Easter Day, on
account of the angel who brought the tidings of the
Resurrection, who appeared in white garments : concern-
ing whom Matthew testifieth, saying, ' His countenance
was as lightning, and his garment white as snow ' : ^^ and
also because children, when baptised, are clothed in
white. So also on the Ascension, because of the bright
cloud in which Christ ascended. ' For two men stood by
them in white garments, which also said. Ye men of
Galilee,' ^^ etc.

3. And this is to be noted, that albeit in the consecra-
tion of bishops, the vestments be of the colour suitable
for the day, at the dedication of a church they be ever
white, on what day soever the ceremony be celebrated :
since in the consecration of a bishop the Mass of the day
is sung, but in the dedication of a church, the Mass of
dedication is sung. For the Church is called by the
title of a virgin : according to that saying of the Apostle,
' For I have betrothed you to one man, that I may
present you as a chaste virgin to Christ.' ^*^ Concerning
which saith the bridegroom in the Canticles : ' Thou art
altogether fair, my love, and there is no spot in thee.' ^'
But this vestment ought to be white, to signify that her
garments must at all times be pure, that is, her life must
be spotless. Also in the octaves of those of the afore-
said feasts which have octaves, the white colour is used.
4. Scarlet vestments are used on the festivals of

'^ S. John xiii, 10. '* S. Matthew xxviii, 3. '^ Acts i, il.

'* 2 Corinthians ii, ii. " Canticles i, 13.

192 The Syniholisni of Churches

the apostles, evangelists, and martyrs, on account of the
blood of their passion, which they poured out for Christ.
For ' these be they which came out of great tribulation.'^^
Except on the feast of the innocents, as shall be said
below. Also on the feast of the Cross, because Christ on
the cross poured out His blood for us. Whence the
Prophet, ' Wherefore is thine apparel red, as one that
treadeth out the wine vat ? ' ^^ But according to others,
we then use white vestments : because it is not the feast
of the passion, but of the invention, or exaltations.^^
Also from the vigil of Pentecost to Trinity Sunday
inclusively : and this on account of the fervour of the
Holy Ghost, which appeared in fiery tongues on the
apostles. ' For there appeared unto them divers tongues
as of fire.' ^^ Whence the Prophet : ' He sent a fire in
their bones.' Although in the martyrdom of SS. Peter
and Paul both red and white be used : and in the nativity
of S. John Baptist, white : but in his decollation, red.

5. But when her festivity is celebrated, who was both
a virgin and martyr, the martyrdom taketh precedence
of the virginity ; because it is a sign of the most perfect
love : according as the Truth saith, ' Greater love hath
no man than this, that a man lay down his life for
his friends.' ^^ Wherefore on the commemoration of
All Saints, some use scarlet : but others, and among
them the Roman Church, white : at which time the
Church saith, ' They shall walk in the sight of the Lamb
with white garments : and palms in their hands.' ^^
Whence the spouse saith in the Canticles : ' My beloved
is white and ruddy : white in His confessors and virgins,

>** Apocalypse vii, 14. ''* Isaiah Ixiii, 2.

-" Both retained by our Church. The former (May 3) instituted in
commemoration of the discovery of the True Cross, by S. Helena : the
otlier (Sept. 14), which regulates the ember days in that month, in honour
of its recapture from Chosroes by the Emperor Heraclius.

^' Acts i, I. -- S. John xv, 13. -^ Apocalypse vii, g.

Appendix 193

ruddy in His apostles and martyrs.' For these are the
flowers of roses, and the hlies of the valley. A^^ain they
who use scarlet on the feast of All Saints, do it with that
intent because that feast was first instituted in honour of
All Martyrs.-* But answer may be made that it was
also in honour of the blessed Virgin : and that at the
present time, after the decree of S. Gregory VII, the
Church keepeth that day holy to the memory of con-
fessors and virgins. Also, the octaves of these days
follow the colour of the feasts themselves.

6. Black is used on Good Friday : and on days of
abstinence and affliction : and also in rogations. More-
over, in those processions which the Roman Pontiff
maketh with bare feet : and in Masses of requiem, and
Septuagesima to Easter Eve. For the spouse saith in
the Canticles, ' I am black but comely,' -^ etc. But on
the feast of the Innocents, some use black on account of
sadness, some scarlet. The former allege the text, ' In
Rama was a voice heard,' '-^ etc. xAnd for the same cause
canticles of joy are omitted : and the mitre is brought witli-
out the orfrey, on account of the martyrdoms to which
the Church hath principally an eye, when she saith, ' I
saw beneath the throne the souls,' -' etc.

(So also on Sunday, Laitare -^ Jerusalem, the Roman
Pontiff beareth a mitre, beautified with the orfrey, on

■■" This alludes to the histor}' of the feast of All Saints. Pope Boneface
obtained a grant of the Pantheon from the Emperor Phocas : and dedicated
it in honour of S. Mary and All Martyrs. This was on the nth of May:
and the feast of All Martyrs was kept on that day under the title of S.
Maria ad Martyres. S. John, having confessed before the Latin gate on
the 6th, the feast was subsequently kept on that day. But Gregory IV
transferred it to Nov. 1st, because the harvest was then gathered in : and
because the feast of All Apostles being kept on May 1st, the other would
answer to it half-yearly. All Martyrs occurs, in a solitary instance, as an
English dedication : All Apostles^ not to be found in this country, has been
adopted in Germany.

■■^ Canticles i, 5. -" Jeremiah xxxi, 15 ; S. Matthew ii, 18.

-' Apocalypse vi, 9. -"* Palm Sunda}-.

194 The Syvibolisni of Churches

account of the joy which the golden ^^ rose signifieth, but
on account of the time being one of sadness, he weareth
black vestments.) But the Roman Church, when the
festival falleth on a week-day, useth violet, but on the
octave, red.

7. In fine, on common days green vestments be em-
ployed : because green is the middle colour between
black, white, and red ; and specially between the octave
of Epiphany and Septuagesima : and between Pentecost
and Advent, in the Sunday office, this colour is used.

8. As he saith, ' Cypress with nard, nard and crocus.' ^*^
To these four colours be the others referred ; to wit, the
scarlet to the red,^^ the violet to the black, the fine linen to
the white, the saffron to the green. But some refer the
roses to martyrs, the saffron to confessors, the lilies to
virgins.

9. It is not unmeet to use the violet on those days for
which black is appointed. Whence the Roman Church
useth it from the first Sunday in Advent, to the Mass of
the vigil of the nativity, inclusive : and from Septua-
gesima to Easter Eve exclusive. But on the feasts of
Saints on Septuagesima and Advent, violet or black is
not to be used. And note that on Easter Eve in the
whole office before Mass violet is used, except that the
deacon who blesseth the taper, and the sub-deacon who
ministereth, wear a white dalmatic and tunic, respectively :
because that benediction pertaineth to the Resurrection,
as doth also the Mass. But the benediction being finished,
the deacon putteth off the dalmatic, and putteth on a violet
chesible : the sub-deacon, however, changeth not his vest-

■■^ This refers to the celebrated golden rose blessed by the Roman Pontiff
on that day : and sent in token of approval to some Catholic prince. Some
of our readers may remember that which was lately exhibited along with
the golden altars of Basle.

^ Canticles iii, 6. But the quotation is not exact.
^' This passage seems very corrupt.

Appendix 195

ments. Some also use white in the procession on Pahii
Sunday : and in the blessing of the boughs, and while the
hymn Gloria, laics, et lioiior, is sung, on account of the joy
of that festivity. But the Roman Church useth violet : as
it doth also in the procession on Candlemas Day ;
because that office treateth of the anxious expectation of
Simeon, and savoureth of the Old Testament.

10. It also useth that colour in the September ember
days, and on the vigils of saints, when the Mass is of the
vigil : and on the rogation days, and in Mass on S. Mark's
Day.^2 For when we fast, then we bring under our flesh,
that it may be conformed to that of Christ, ' By the
lividness of whose stripes we be healed.' '^'^

The which to express we use violet, which is a pale,
and as it were, a livid colour (Durandus, Book III, 18).

APPENDIX F

OF BELLS BEING NOT RUNG FOR THREE DAYS
BEFORE EASTER

' On these three days the bells be silent, because the
apostles and preachers and others who be understood by
bells were then silenced. For the sound of bells doth
signify the sound of preaching : of which it is said,
" Their sound hath gone out into all lands." For at that
time they no longer went round the towns and villages
preaching the gospel, but " after they had sung an hymn
they went out with Jesus to the Mount of Olives." To
whom when the Lord had said, " Behold he is at hand

^- ' Whether there be any superstitious fasting on S. Mark's Day ? ' is a
question which sometimes occurs in the Visitation Articles of Archbp.
Parker and his comtemporarie?.

^ Isaiah liii, 5-

196 The Symbolism of Churches

that doth betray Me," they slumbered for sadness, and
ceased from praises. Whence also from compline, or
vespers, when our Lord was betrayed beginneth the
silence of the bells. Others, however, do not sound their
bells beyond prime of this fifth da}' of passion week '
(Durandus, Book VI, 72, 73).

APPENDIX G

The authority for the dedication festival is our Lord's
observing the feast of the dedication of the Temple.
This festival has an octave : as also had the Jewish
feast, though the Passover and feast of Tabernacles had
not.

' But this festival specially denoteth that eternal
dedication, in which that other church, the holy soul,
shall be so dedicated and united to God that it shall
never be transferred to other uses : which will take place
in the octave of the Resurrection.' The Psalms for the
office of the festival are the Domini est terra, Judica me
Domine, Deus noster refugium, Magnus Dominus, Quam
dilecta, Fundamenta ejus, and Do7nine Deus (Durandus,
Book VII, 48).

APPENDIX H

ON THE DEDICATION OF A CHURCH

The following particulars are extracted and condensed
from Martene's invaluable work : and as his account is
not easily accessible, and somewhat long, it has been
thought well to subjoin them here.

Appendix 197

Churches were often, in the primitive ages, dedicated
by more than one bishop. Constantine having com-
pleted a magnificent church at Jerusalem, invited the
prelates, then assembled in council at Tyre, to assist in
its consecration (Euseb. Vit. Const, iv, 43 ; Sozomen. i, 46).

Constantius his son, having finished a church erected
by his father at Antioch, Eusebius of Nicomedia, the
intruding patriarch of Constantinople, summoned a
council under pretence of consecrating the church,
however much in reality to decide against the Catholic
doctrine of Consubstantiality. Ninety-seven bishops
were present (Sozomen. iii, 5).

So it was also in the Western Church. This is proved
by the Preface to the Fourth Council of Aries, holden in
524: which begins, 'When the priests of the Lord had
assembled in the will of God to the dedication of the
church of S. Mary at Aries.'

In the time of S. Louis, Pope Pascal I consecrated the
church of S. Vincent, with the Sacred College of Bishops
and Cardinals. About the year 1015, the crypt of the
monastery of S. Michael was consecrated by S. Bernard
of Hildersheilm and two other bishops ; and three years
afterwards, the church being finished, it was consecrated
by the same S. Bernard with three other bishops ( Vita
S. Bernardi. cap. xxxix, xl).

All these bishops took an actual part in the service.
In the consecration of the church of Mans, in 11 20, the
high altar was consecrated by Gilbert, Archbishop of
Mans: S. Julians by Galfred of Rouen: Hildebert of
Mans consecrated S. Mary's ; Reginald of Anglers that
of the Holy Cross. There is a fine passage to the same
point in Sugerius's book on the dedication of the church
of S. Denis : ' Right early in the morning,' saith he,
' archbishops and bishops, archdeacons . and abbots, and
other venerable persons, who had lived of their proper

198 The Symbolism of Churches

expense, bore themselves right bishopfully ; and took
their places on the platform raised for the consecration
of the water, and placed between the sepulchres of the
holy martyrs and S. Saviour's altar. Then might ye
have seen, and they who stood by saw, and that with
great devotion, such a band of so venerable bishops,
arrayed in their white robes, sparkling in their pontifical
robes and precious orfreys, grasp their pastoral staves,
call on God in holy exorcism, pace around the conse-
crated enclosure, and perform the nuptials of the Great
King with such care, that it seemed as though the cere-
mony were performed by a chorus of angels, not a band
of men. The crowd, in overwhelming magnitude, rolled
around to the door ; and while the aforesaid episcopal
band were sprinkling the walls with hyssop, the king
and his nobles drive them back, repress them, guard the
portals.'

Yet the principal actor on the occasion was the bishop
of the diocese. The thirty-sixth canon of the second
Council of Aries decrees, * If a bishop be minded to
build a church in another diocese, let its dedication be
reserved for the diocesan.' S. Columbanus, being only
a priest, dedicated the church of S. Aurelia (Walfrid.
Strabo. Vita S. Gallo, cap. vi).

The preceding night was spent either in the church or
in neighbouring churches in a solemn vigil. S. Ambrose
testifies that this was done on occasions of the dedication
of the Ambrosian church {^Epist. 22, ad Marcellina). So
S. Gregory of Mans, in his dedication of the church of S.
Julian, removed the relics of that saint into the church of
S. Martin, and there kept vigil {De Glor. Mart, ii, 34).

Relics were considered indispensably necessary : so S.
Paulinus {Epist, xxxii, ad Sever.) This church was
dedicated in the name of Christ, the Saint of saints, the
Martyr of martyrs, the Lord of lords, and was honoured

Appendix 199

with the relics of the blessed apostles. See also the
beautiful epistle of S. Ambrose, translated in * The
Church of the Fathers.' The phrase was, Consecrare
ecclesiaDi de reliquiis Beati n.

Yet some churches were consecrated without relics.
The second Nicene Council decreed that in this case
they should be supplied. Those portions of the conse-
crated elements were placed with these : to which per-
haps that expression of S. Chrysostom is to be referred
— ' What is the altar by nature but a stone ? But it is
made holy, when it hath once received the body of
Christ.'

These relics occupied different positions. In the
church of S. Benedict, consecrated by Pope Alexander II,
there were relics in the chapel-apse of S. John, in the
bases of the piers, in the four angles of the bell tower, in
the cross on the western gable, in the cross of the tower
(^Chron. Cass, iii, 30).

Ashes were sprinkled on the floor, and the bishop with
his pastoral staff wrote on them the alphabet, sometimes
in Latin alone, sometimes in Greek also.

The whole ceremony concluded with the endowment
of the church : or, as it was termed, presenting its
dowry.

By way of setting before our readers as clearly as
possible the ancient form of dedication, we have chosen,
among ten forms preserved by Martene, that of S.
Dunstan.

Here beginnetJi the 07'der of the dedication of a church.
The bishops and other ministers of the church advance
singing the antiphon, ' Zaccheus, make haste and come
down,' etc.

Prevent us, O Lord, in all our, etc.

Theft twelve candles are to be lighted, ajtd placed round

200 The Symbolisni of CJiurches

the church, with the antiphon, three from the east, three
from the west, three from the north, three from the
south.

God, which by the preaching of Thine apostles, didst
open to Thy Church the Kingdom of Heaven, and didst
call them the Lights of the world, grant, we beseech
Thee, that being assisted by their prayers, by whose
teaching we are guided, and splendour illuminated, we
may make these our actions pleasing to Thy Divine
Majesty.

Here followeth the Litany : the priests going thrice
round tJie church, and beginning from that door at which
they be after to enter, namely, the south door.

O Christ, hear us, etc.

Prevent us, O Lord, with Thy tender mercy, and by
the intercession of Thy saints, receive our prayers
graciously.

Let our prayers, O Lord, come up before Thee, and
expel all wickedness from Thy Church.

God, which rulest heaven and earth, graciously give us
the aid of Thy defence.

Then one of the deacons entering the church, and shut-
ting the door standeth before it, the others remaining with-
out : and the bishop striking it with his staff, saith :

Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye
everlasting doors, and the King of Glory shall come in.

The deacon within answereth, and saith : Who is the
King of Glory ?

The Bishop. Lift up, etc.

The Deacon. Who is, etc.

The Bishop. Lift up, etc.

The Deacon. Who is, etc.

Chorus. The Lord of Hosts, He is the King of
Glory.

The bishop again striking the door it is opened: and

Appendix 201

he enteretJi : the chorus singing after Jiini, Lift up your
heads, etc., to the end of the Psalm.

The Bishop. The Lord be with you.

Response. And with thy spirit.

The Bishop. Let us pray :

We beseech Thee, O Lord, of Thy mercy, to enter
Thy house, and to make for Thyself an habitation in the
hearts of the faithful. Through, etc.

Then tJie bishop enteretJi the choir ^ saying :

Peace be to this house, and to all that are in it ; peace
to them that come in, and to them that go out.

Bless, O Lord, this house, which the sons of men have
built for Thee : hear those which shall come up to this
place : hear their prayers in the lofty throne of Thy glor)-.

TJie clej'ks begin the Litany ; the bishop, with certain
priests and deacons, remaining prostrate at the altar.

Lord have mercy upon us, etc.

As soon as Agnus Dei is said, tJie bishop, rising, saith :

Let us pray.

Be Thou exalted. Lord, in Thine own strength, etc.

Then the bishop shall write the alphabet along the pave-
ment} first from east to west, then from north to south, the
chorus saying the Psalm, Fundamenta ejus.

' In the treatise of the Mart. Remigius, De Dedicatione Ecdesice^ we have
the following explanation of this singular custom : 'A thing which might
appear puerile, unless it had been instituted by men, great in dignity,
spiritual in life, apostolical in discipline. In all things of this kind, the
Lord by His example hath gone before us : and what He hath done, re-
maineth unchangeable in his successors. What is understood by the
alphabet save the beginnings and rudiments of sacred doctrine ? Whence
S. Paul, " Ye have need that one teach you again, which be the first prin-
ciples of the oracles of God." Therefore the bishop writeth the alphabet,
to signify that he teacheth the pure doctrine of the gospel. He writeth
the alphabet twice, and that in the figure of a cross, to signify that the
Passion of Christ is set forth by the gospel in its purity. He writeth it
in the angles of the church, because by them be set forth the four corners of
the world. He oeginneth from the east, because the gospel began from
the Jews.'

There is probably some reference to the Saviour's stooping down, and
writing in the sand. We may also compare those singular and rare bells,
in which the only inscription round the crown consists of the letters of the
alphabet.

202 The Symbolisin of ChurcJies

The Bishop. O God, make speed, etc.

Response. O Lord, make haste, etc.

The Bishop. Glory be, etc.

Response. i\s it, etc.

Then followeth the exorcisvi of the salt, and the water,
and the ashes.

Then the hisJwp inaketh the sign of the cross at the
four corners of the altar, with hyssop, going round it seven
times. The chorus sing the Psalm, Miserere mei Deus.
Then the bishop sprinkleth the water th7'ee times round
the church : the chorus singing Deus noster refugium.
Then the bishop sprinkleth the water over the altar : the
chorus singing Qui habitat. Tlien the bishop sprinkleth
the whole church inside with the water thrice : to signify
the ChurcJis inward faith in the Trinity : and once outside,
to signify the one baptism. The chorus sing Fundamenta
ejus ; and while the priests are ascending the turrets,
Jacob beheld a ladder, etc., and the Psalm Deus noster
refugium.

Then the bishop entereth the church : and sprinkleth
water on the pavement in the form of a cross : the chorus
singing Benedicite, omnia opera.

The Bishop. Lift up your hearts.
Response. We lift, etc.

The Bishop. Let us give thanks, etc.
Response. It is meet, etc.

Then the bishop goeth to the altar, and poureth the
remainder of the water at its base.

Then he blesseth the altar-stone, the altar clothes, the
sacerdotal vestments, the corporal, the paten, the chalice, the
thurible.

Here followeth the Mass of Dedication.
The post communion ended, the Bishop saith :
Incline, O Lord, Thine ears unto me, and hear me :
Look down, O Christ, from heaven, on thy flock and thy

Appendix 203

sheep : stretch Thine hand over them : bless their bodies
and their souls : that in the communion of the saints they
may receive celestial benediction, light angelical, the
Holy Ghost, the Paraclete. Amen.

They who be regenerate of water and the Holy Ghost
who be redeemed on earth by Thy precious blood, who
have received Thy sign on their foreheads, grant them to
be Thine on the day of judgment. Amen.

And as Thou didst bless patriarchs and prophets and
apostles, martyrs and confessors, virgins and priests, so
bless this flock, who are assembled to-day in Thy name
in this church. Amen.

And as by Thine angel Thou didst free the three
children from the burning fiery furnace, so free this
flock from everlasting death and the power of the devil,
and from earthly lusts and all manner of weaknesses.
Amen.

Spare their faults, remit their sins, and present them
pure and undefiled in the day of judgment : as Thou
didst receive Enoch and Elias into the kingdom of
heaven. Amen.

God Almighty bless and keep you, and make this
house to shine with the glory of His presence, and open
the eyes of His pity upon it day and night. Amen.

And grant of His mercy, that all, who have assembled
together at this dedication, by the intercession of Blessed
N., and all other saints whose relics rest here, may
obtain the remission of their sins. Amen.

That ye may be made a holy temple in the spirit,
where the Holy Trinity may ever deign to dwell ; and
after this short life ye may attain to everlasting felicity.
Amen.

Which He grant. Who liveth and reigneth, world
without end. Amen.

204 T^^^ Symbolism of Churches

APPENDIX I

ADDENDA

Page 6. — It shows how little Durandus can rightly be charged with
fancifulness, when we find him classing among ceremonial precepts, rites
for which the Rabbis and many modern expositors have given a symbolical
reason.

Page 23. — 'The lattice work of the windows.' Wrongly translated in
Lewis, 'the screens before the windows.'

Page 25. — This passage proves that in the time and country of Durandus
seats or chairs except in the choir were unknown. Though in England
Early English or Early Decorated open seats do occur, as in Clapton-in-
Gordan, Somersetshire, they are very rare, and take up much less of the
church than is the case in later examples. See ' Hist, of Pews,' 3rd ed., pp.
19, 20, 79.

Page 39. — The reader is aware that the words in medio of the early
Christian altars gave rise to the warmest disputes between the Puritans and
the Catholics of the 17th century. The Puritans insisted that they meant
in the body of the church : the Catholics generally, and more particularly that
most able defender of altars, Dr Laurence, insisted that when the fathers
spoke of an alter in medio^ they only meant one so placed as to be where
all might see it. The words undoubtedly may bear this meaning : yet
perhaps it is better to understand them, as they must be understood in this
passage of Durandus, of an altar placed in the chord of the segment of a
circle formed by the apse. See Ecclesiologist^ vol. ii, p. 13.

Page 46, note 2c. — This is a mistake. The fresco alluded to represents
a priest repeating the Pater Noster (which is written in his open book) at
the N. W. angle of an altar. Upon the altar are two candlesticks and a
ciborium : rising out of the latter is the figure of our Blessed Lord. There
can be no doubt of the objectionable nature of such a representation.

Page 54- — The nimbus of the Saviour, it is perhaps needless to observe
in explanation, is alv/ays inlaid, as it were, with a cross : at least the
exceptions are excessively rare.

Page 54- — These 'carved figures ' probably signify the corbels.
Page 54, note 54. — There is a valuable article on the nimbus by M.
Didron from the Revue Generale de V Architecture in the Literary Gazette
for Dec. 1842. An example is there given of the square nimbus in the
case of Pope Nicholas, as represented in a contemporary MS. The whole
is well worth reading.

Page 102. — Dedication crosses. We have seen a valuable example of
these in the church of Moorlinch, Somersetshire. There are four circles
containing crosses pattees on the north and south sides of the chancel ; and
two at the east end, in all ten : the other two have disappeared.

Page 146. — The bodies of good men called horses. The same idea
is worked out at great length in S. Chrysostom's earlier homilies on the
Statues.

Page 170. — But how great is the admiration, etc. Compare S. Hildebert's
hymn, Exrta portam^ towards the conclusion :

Appendix 205

Oauntum tui gratulentur,

(juam festive conviventur

yuis affectus eos stringat,

Et qucc gemma muros pingat,

Ouis chalcedon, quis jacintus,

Norunt isti, (juis sunt intiis !
The last line has the same beautiful turn with the expression of Hugh of
S. Victor.

Page 180. — Most of the following practices are observed to this day in
the Metropolitical Church of Seville. There are twoambones, but no rood
loft : the sub-deacon chants the epistle by himself, in the southern ambo ;
the deacon, preceded by a taper, chants the gospel from the northern.

Page 182. — So S. Bernard in his commentary on that verse of the 90th
Psalm, 'A thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand :tt thy right
hand.'

INDEX

Abbots, how represented, 52

Agathensian, the Council, 45

Agnus Dei, The, 47

Alexander, Pope, 124

Alphabet, inscription of, 98

Allegory, 6

Altar candlesticks, 58

Altar rails, 26

Altars, stripped on Good Friday, 61

Altars, their consecration, 113

Altars, why encircled seven times at

consecration, 119
Altare distinguished from ara, 34
Anagoge, 7

Analogium, see Rood Loft
Angels, how represented, 47
Antioch, Council of, 197
Antiphonal chanting, 21
Apostles, the, how represented, 50
Appodiatio, explained, 62
Ark of Testimony 35

its contents, 36

Aries, Fourth Council of, 197

Arnaldistae, 139

Augustine, S., 49, 84, 85, 136, 152

Basilica, 13

Baruth, legend of, 89

Bell rope, 74

Bells, when first used, 71

what they signify, 72

silent, when, 196

Bernard, S., 131, 139

Beverstone church, 46

Bishop, the consecration of n, 145

Bishopstone, 19

Black, when used, 194

Boneface I\', Pope, 94

Breastplate, how made, 10

Burchardus, S., 64

Burial of heretics in cemeteries. 1 1 r

Cambridge Camden Society, 85

Cambridge, S. Sepulchre, 55

Cambridge, S. Giles, 26

Capella, whence derived, 14

Carrhage, Council of, 158

Cavilla, 74

Cellar, 30

Cement, its symbolism, 17

Cemetery, 82

Ccenobium, 14

Chalices, their materials, 68

Chancels, lower than nave, 26

Chancels, 173

Chancel, more holy than nave, 20

Chrism, 137

Christmas, how churches are to be
adorned at, 65

Chrysologus, S. Peter, 49

Church, its meanings, 12

Churches, when to be moved, 32

Clement, S., of Rome, 46

Cloister, 29

Cobham church, 46

Cothelstone church, 54

Cock, the, 165

Commands, moral, $

Cone, 23

Confessors, how represented, 52

Consecration of a church, 88

Constantine builds a church at Jeru-
salem. 197

Cosins, Bishop, 154

208

TJie Symbolism of Churches

Ciampini, 103, 126

Cross, the sign of the, 188

Cross triumphal, 28

Cross churches, 21

Crosses, the five, that mark an altar,

114
Crypts, 22

Curtains, of the tabernacle, 15
Cymbalum, 77
Dedication crosses, 98
Degrees, songs of, 43
Depulsare distinguished from com-

pulsare, 78
Derby, the Earl of, 179
Divine Majesty, the, how repre-
sented, 53
Division, of the whole work, 11
Door, 24
Dormitory, 30
Dorsals, 56
Dowsing, William, 26
Dunstan, S., his form of dedication,

199
Durandus, his many occupations,

161
Dying, the, lay in sackcloth and

ashes, 149
Egleton church, 55
Epiphany, what events celebrated

thereon, 155
Evangelistic symbols, 48
Evaristus, Pope, 158
Exeter cathedral, 21
Extreme unction, 139, 148
Faustinus, S., his legend, 84
Felix III, Pope, 89
Ferculum, 28, 167
Frescoes, 45
Glass, 23

Gospel, the, fixed on the altar, 60
why not read from the rood

loft in a Mass of requiem, 187
Green, when used, 194
Gregory, S., 54,73, 75, 9i, 152 _
Greeks, the, how they paint saints,

43
Haddenham, 14
Henry, S., his shrine, 48
Holy, distinguished from sacred^ 81
Horologium, 27
Horses, the bodies of good men,

why so called, 146
Hours, the, explained, 75

Hugh of S. Victor, his ' Mystical

Mirror ' 163
Human body, its resemblance to a

church, 19
Hyssop, its virtues, 95
Idolatr)', a protest against, 44
Ingoldsby Legends, their profanity,

84
Isidore, S., 83, 137, 155, 156
Jerusalem, its variety of significa-
tions, 8

rebuilt, 18

John, S., Evangelist, his confessions,

38
Journeys, the Saviour's seven, 119
Kilpeck church, 19
Kyriake, 13
Lateran, S. John, its altar to the

west, 177
Lattice-work, 23
Litter, 34, 167
Llandanwg church, 46
Ludlow church, 21
Lyons, Council of, 41
Machpelah, 83
Mans, dedication of a church there,

198
Marriages, when forbidden, 154

second, 159

Martyrs, how represented, 52

Martyrium, 14

Mary, S., Magdalene, 126

Maundy Thursday, 153

Mende, 2

Mirror of Magistrates, 9

Moleon, De, his ' Voyage Litur-

gique,' 67
Montague, Bishop, 31
Murderers, limits of right of

sanctuary. 32
Mystical, its meaning, 5
Nola, 77
Nolula, 77
Nimbus, the, 54
Orientation, 19, 177, seq.
Orfrey, the, 59
Ornaments of churches not to be

profaned, 69
Ostrich eggs, why hung in churches,

67
Oxted church, 50
Palmers, 52
Paradise, how represented, 54

Index

209

Parthian skins, 19

Patriarchs, how represented, 51

Pavement, 24

Phylacterium, difference between it
and phylacteria, 57

Pictures, their use, 45

Piers, 24

Piscina, 27

Pity, how five-fold, 130

Podium, 85

Portfolio, the, what it represents, 56

Priests, unlettered, 4

allowed to consecrate churches,

Prophets, how represented, 51

Preston church, 54

Prothesis, table of, 3

Prynne, 21

Pyx, the, 56

Pulpit, 26

Rationale, reason of the name, 10

Reconciliation of a church, 107

Reconsecration, when to be prac-
tised, 105

Remigius Monk, 201

Relics required for the consecra-
tion of a church, 198

Richard of Cremona, 139

Ring-, the wedding, 156
Ringing, various kinds of, 77
Rod of weathercock, 23

Rood loft, 26

turrets, two, common in Nor-
folk, 180
Round churches, 21
Sacraments defined, 152

their nature, 2

Sacramental, distinguished from

ceremonial, 5
Sugerius, 197
Sambuca, the, 100
Sanctuary, the, 20
Saviour, our, various representa-
tions of, 46
Savinianus, Pope, 75
Scarlet, when used, 189
Scuta, the, 59
beal, the, of an altar, 105

Second Day. why it had no blessing.

79
Senses of Holy Scripture, 5
Separation of men and women, 30
Signum, 77
Sion, distinguished from Jerusalem,

13
Snuffers, the, 58
Sacristy, 27
Stalls, 25
Squilla, 76
Stephen, Pope, 70
Stones of a church, their symbolism,

Sylvester, S., 139

Synagogue never applied to a
church, 13

Te Deum, method of chanting, 78

Temple, Aslackby church, 21

Thiers, Father, 26

Tie-beams, 25

Tiles, 27

Toledo, Council of, 41

Tongs, the, 59

Torrentius, Lan-inus, 189

Towers, 22

Treasures of the church, why ex-
hibited, 66

Unctions, 134

Variety of rites, 8

Veils, their various kinds, 61
Vigilantius, 57

\'igil, of the dedication of a church,

198
Violet, when used, 193
Virgins, difference between and
continent, 20

how represented, 52

Vladimir, S., his conversion, 55
Walls, why four, 20
Water, Holy, 115, 171
Weathercock, 22

White cloths cover the altar, why, 40
White, when used. 189
Widford church, 46
Women, their heads to be un-
covered, 31
York, S. Lawrence, 55

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