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s
A SYSTEM
OP
GREEK PROSODY AND METRE,
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES;
TOGETHER WITH
THE CHORAL SCANNING
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS OF AESCHYLUS, AND THE
AJAX AND (EDIPUS TYRANNUS OF SOPHOCLES.
TO WHICH ARE APPENDED
REMARKS ON INDO - GERMANIC ANALOGIES.
BY
CHARL'ES ANTHON, LL.D.,
JAY PROFESSOR OP THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLIDE,
NEW-YORK, AND RKCTOR OF THK GRAMMAR-SCHOOL.
NEW-YORK:
HARPER i BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-STREET.
1838.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by
CHARLES ANTHON,
in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New-York.
TO
THE REV. JOSIAH W. GIBBS,
PROFESSOR Of ORIENTAL LANGUAGES IN YALE COLLEGE,
THIS WORK
fa
A3 A MEMORIAL OF FRIENDSHIP,
AND A TOKEN OF HIGH RESPECT FOR ONE WHO IS EQUALLY CON-
SPICUOUS FOR HIS ATTAINMENTS IN ORIENTAL LITER-
ATURE AND COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
PREFACE.
AN accurate acquaintance with the Prosody and Me-
tres of the Greek Language is so necessary an accom-
paniment of true scholarship, that any attempt to advo-
cate its claims to the notice of the student would be en-
tirely superfluous. It must be admitted, however, that,
while all among us are very ready to acknowledge the
importance of this branch of learning, only a small
number, comparatively, have been induced to make it a
subject of careful study ; and the result is, that, in mat-
ters appertaining to Greek Prosody and Metre, many
of those who ought to be better acquainted with these
topics display oftentimes a very lamentable want of ac-
curacy. What renders this the more provoking is, that
they who come among us from transatlantic seminaries
of learning, where metrical studies are much more care-
fully pursued, frequently undertake to sit in judgment
upon our violations of the laws of prosody and metre,
when they themselves are at best but very poor repre-
sentatives of the metrical knowledge which exists in
their own countries.
One great obstacle to the successful cultivation of
VI PREFACE.
prosodiacal studies among us has undoubtedly been the
want of a proper treatise on the subject, which, without
encumbering the student, in the commencement of his
career, with any unusual burden, might, nevertheless, lay
before him such a view of matters connected with the
prosody and metres of the Greek tongue as would en-
able him to pursue his investigations in this department
with satisfaction and advantage. The present treatise
has been prepared with this view. Its object is to give
all the necessary information appertaining to Greek
prosody in a simple garb, and one which may invite
rather than repel. The more intricate questions con-
nected with the subject, and on which the ingenuity of
European scholars loves to exercise itself, are here pur-
posely omitted, and nothing is offered but what may
prove immediately and permanently useful.
The Choral Scanning is intended to initiate the young
scholar into a department of metrical study, which, to
the inexperienced, bears a very formidable name ; but is
in reality, with the exception of a few knotty points that
occasionally present themselves, a very pleasing branch
of investigation, and a very inviting field for the inge-
nuity of the student. Choral Scanning has hitherto
been regarded by many among us as a mere piece of
chance-work, with no certain rules to guide or inform
us when we are correct. It is hoped that the aids af-
forded in the present treatise on this part of the subject
will tend to show that there is even here much of cer-
tainty, and much that may lead to satisfactory results.
PREFACE. Vii
The introduction of remarks on Indo-Germanic Anal-
ogies into a work on Greek Prosody may require some
explanation. The observations in question were intend-
ed to accompany a Greek Grammar recently published,
but were withheld from the fear of making that work too
voluminous and expensive. They are given here, at
the end of the Prosody, partly because no other avenue
may present itself for years by which they can be
brought forward, and partly out of compliment to the
distinguished philologist whose name graces the dedi-
cation of this volume, and who has done more for com-
parative philology than any American scholar. Had
he undertaken to write on this subject, the remarks ap-
pended to the present work would never have appeared.
The Sanscrit Question, as it has been termed, has
never obtained a fair hearing among us. On the part
of its opponents all is mere idle assertion, and the spe-
cious, but most erroneous and unscholarlike, theory of
Dugald Stewart appears to them to have laid the con-
troversy completely at rest. Many of our half-learned
youth, too, have caught the infection ; and believing, of
course, that what is delivered on this subject with orac-
ular gravity, sometimes even from a professor's chair,
must be the result of careful investigation, and in every
point of view deserving of being followed, almost regard
the term Sanscrit as a species of by-word and mockery.
It is hoped that the observations appended to the pres-
ent volume will make the matter in controversy more
clearly understood, until some abler pen shall present
PREFACE.
us with a complete and overpowering view of Indo-
Germanic Analogies. It is mortifying, indeed, to think
that any remarks at all should be now needed to prove
that the Sanscrit is not a mere piece of patchwork from
the Greek. Yet so it is. What in our own country
is still regarded as a most ingenious and conclusive
theory, would, on the continent of Europe, subject the
individual, who might be bold enough to advocate it, to
a direct imputation of lunacy.
Columbia College, Aug. 20, 1838.
PART I
PROSODY.
WWWVfW*WV
GREEK PROSODY.
i.
I. PROSODY (Trpooudid), in its common acceptation at the
present day, treats of the quantity of syllables, or the time
occupied in pronouncing them.
II. The ancient Greek grammarians, however, connected
with the term a much more comprehensive meaning, and
made it refer to everything by which the sound of a syllable
was affected. Hence prosody, with them, included also the
accents and breathings. 1
III. Hence it is clear how the ancients came to speak
of seven proper. prosodies, for they included the threefold
accent, the twofold breathing, and the twofold quantity. 2
IV. To these seven proper prosodies the ancients added
what are called the affections of a word, or the influences
upon it (ndOrj], and denominated these improper prosodies?
V. The three improper prosodies were the apostrophe,
hyphen, and hypodiastole*
VI. Hence prosody, in its strict acceptation, is tenfold, 5
consisting of the seven proper and the three improper kinds.
In the present treatise, however, we will confine ourselves
merely to the consideration of Quantity and Metre.
1. Bckkcr, Anecdot. Grate. 676, 16. 'Opiovrai ovv TTJV
ruf, K. T. A.' Compare Spitzner, Pros. Gr. $ 1.
2. Churobosciu, ap. Bckker, A. G. 703, 24. 'loreov &n rpt^oif A^y-
erat q irpoaydia, K. T. A.
3. Bekkcr, 683, 22. Xprj <5e yivuciteiv 6n ra Tradtj OVK rial
7rpo<r<f><5au, uAAu /caT<m)j/(m/c(Df, K. T. h.
4. Bekker, I. c.
5.. Bekkcr, 674, 1. Hpoa(f)6iat clot delta, b&Za, ftapda,
aaela, -tyOu], dTroarpo^of , ityv, KCU vi
A
2 GENERAL RULE.
II.
I. Every syllable is either long or short ; or, in other
words, requires a longer or shorter time for its pronuncia-
tion.
II. To these two kinds of syllables a third is to be added,
which is called the common or arbitrary. By this is meant
a syllable which may be used as long or short ; as, for ex-
ample, a short vowel which may be short or long before a
mute with a liquid, or a short final syllable which may be
lengthened by crasis or otherwise. 1
III.
GENERAL RULE.
In Greek, the vowels e and o are short by nature, rj and
w are long by nature, and a, i, v, are doubtful.
1. When a vowel is said to be short by nature, the mean-
ing is, that it is short by its natural pronunciation, being
equivalent merely to one short time. On the other hand,
a vowel long by nature is long by its natural pronunciation,
being equal to two short times. Thus rj is equivalent to ee,
and 6) to oo.
2. Hence it follows, that the short vowel e has 77 for its
corresponding long one ; and the short vowel o, in like
manner, has G> for its long. But in the case of a, i, v, there
is no distinct mark or letter by which the eye can tell at
the instant whether these vowels are long or short, and
hence they are called doubtful*
1. It is evident, that, in proper metres, the syllable, in itself arbitrary,
has always the definite quantity of a long or short. Compare the lan-
guage of Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Metr. c. 9, $ 1. " Quum in numrns
tentpora omnia certa ac definita etse dcbeant, facile inteUigitur, in nu-
meria ipsis nihil usquam posse anceps ease ; itoque, si qua inrnnuntur
ancipites syllabct, i. e., qua breves sint, quum longer esse debcant, vel
long*, quum debeant breve* esse, eat, quod ad numentm attinrt, pro id-
ibuM numerari, qualea debeant ttte, etsi turn tint talcs."
2. The doubtful vowels were called by some of the ancient gramma-
rians dixpova, i. e., doublu-timcd ; by others buffolM, i. e., indefinite.
Compare Bckker, An. Gr. 800, 27.
RULES FOR LONG VOWELS. 3
3. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, by
actual usage, every syllable in any particular case always
has a definite quantity, either long or short ; and that, when
we speak of doubtful syllables, we do not mean that they
have anything doubtful in their nature, or wavering between
long and short as regards the same word ; but only that they
have no corresponding long or short marks by which the
eye can detect their quantity at a glance.
IV.
RULES FOR LONG VOWELS.
1. NATURE.
I. Every syllable which has an 77 or w is long by nature ;
as, fjpepa, oyio^, &c.
II. Every diphthong, or double vowel, likewise makes a
syllable naturally long ; as, atpw, avpa, rel%o$, evpog, oko?,
ovdac, [iTjTpvid, ayop, &c.
III. When two vowels are combined by contraction into
one, the syllable becomes naturally long ; as, adw for deidu ;
dpyof for depydf ; lpo$ for tepo$ .
IV. Every circumflexed vowel is long ; as, dpdpa, -rraoa,
Kvloa, pvfta. 1
Exceptions.
1. Every final syllable, which is long by reason of a vowel
or diphthong, can be made short if it stand in the thesis, 2
and the next word begins with a vowel ; and in the epic
writers this shortening amounts almost to a constant rule ; 3
1. This will be again considered under the head of accent.
2. The thesis is that part of the foot on which the stress of the voice
does not fall, and is opposed to the arsis ; thus, in fyevT], the first syl-
lable has the arm, the remaining two are in the thesis.
3. Tht^ principle on which this exception depends is easily explained.
The ;/ in ///'*' t-//, for example, is equivalent to ee, and one of these epsi-
lons beiiiLf supposed to be elided before the initial vowel of the follow-
ing word, the other epsilon remains, of course, short by nature. In other
words, the final vowel of f)fj.evr) loses, as it were, a portion of its natural
length, by the sinking of the voice and by the vowel immediately follow-
4 EXCEPTIONS.
as, rifjievfi tv (3ev8eo(Hv (Horn. II. 1, 358) ;
23) ; dexdal dnoiva (Ib. 57) ; rivdi JJLKV 'Apyvporo? (Ib.
177), <fec.
2. On the contrary, the long vowel retains its natural
measure when it falls in the arsis of the foot. The follow-
ing Homeric verses contain examples of both kinds. 1
'HftTp$ hi olK&, h *Apy, rr\M>Qi Treirp^c. (II. 1, 30.)
Tiff, 6 ph> Krearoi), 6 <f up' Evpvrov 'Axroptuvoc. (II. 2, 621.)
3. Nevertheless, the epic, and, after their example, the
elegiac poets, sometimes permit the long vowel or diph-
thong to retain its quantity even in the thesis of the foot. 2
4. A long vowel or diphthong, with a vowel following, is
sometimes shortened in the middle of a word ; as,
OtO$, Via?, TOIOVTO$, TOVTOW, 3 &C.
ing it. So the u in afi<fxj is equivalent to two omicrons, one of which
it loses before the following vowel, while the other remains short. In
like manner, the diphthongs at in dfxOat, and v in [icv, are supposed
each to lose a vowel.
1. Here, after one of the vowels has been supposed to be elided, and
a single short vowel remains, this latter, being in the arsis of the foot,
receives the stress of the voice, and becomes long again. Thus, in the
foot p vi, the syllable pw is in the arsis, and hence, though one of the
omicrons composing the omega is supposed to be cut off before the ini-
tial vowel of evl, and only a single omicron remains, that omicron
ertheless lengthened by the stress of the voice falling upon it. On the
other hand, in the foot oZ/cu 2v, the omega is in the thesis, and hence,
after this vowel has lost one of its component omicrons before the next
word, there is no stress of the voice upon the other omicron, and there-
fore it remains short.
2. It is not correct to say that this mostly takes place only in words
to which a digamma was originally prefixed. Passages frequently occur
in which these lengthenings are found without the support of the digumma.
3. Hotner only shortens certain forms, of which Ifiircuof and olof are
two instances. With the Attic dramatic poets, the shortening ut" tin-
diphthong at is much more rare than that of oi t and occurs principally
in the words 6eikalo$, yepafoc, Kpvfalof, and that, too, mostly
paestic and dactylic metres. (Compare remarks under the head of Hia-
tus in the iambic trimeter, page 67 of this volume.) The
epic, and epigrammatic poets have proceeded the farthest in this short-
ening of long syllables. Upon the whole, it must be remarked, that the
shortening h to takes place most frequently in the diphthongs
01 and ai t which the grammarians never regarded aa a full long quantity
in the thesis of the tone. Hence the ancients attribute to the article ol,
al, only 1J time. Bekker, An. Or. 821, 29. Sptomer, Or. Pro*, p. 8.
POSITION. >
II. POSITION.
I. A short or doubtful vowel before two consonants or a
double letter (, , ^>) is almost always long; as, areAAw,
dfifia, dvrdyG), rpdne^a, apdt-a, dlipa.
II. These two consonants may belong to the same word
with the vowel ; as, ecmepo$, or one of them may belong
to the same word, and the other to the succeeding word ;
as, r&v dfiodev ye, tied diryarep Atdf , or both may be found
at the beginning of the following word ; as, avdpd dvyrov
lovra.
Exceptions.
1. A short vowel before a mute, followed by a liquid (A,
p,, v, p), remains short, provided the mute and liquid belong
to one and the same syllable. 1
2. This rule, however, of a vowel before a mute and li-
quid, is itself subject to the following limitations :
I. Homer and the oldest Greek poets mostly avoid the
shortening of syllables before a mute and liquid, and
generally permit it only when the form, followed by p
or A, could not otherwise be adapted to the verse.
Hence Homer usually shortens the preceding syllable
only before ftp, dp, dp, up, rrp, rp, <2>p, ;$>, and before
A, TrA, rA, #A.
II. In scanning the dramatic writers, the following cases
must be carefully noted.
(a.) A short vowel before a soft mute (n, K, r), or an
aspirate (</>, #, 6) followed by a liquid, is much
rather left short than lengthened by the Attic poets. 2
(j3.) A short vowel before a middle mute (0, y, (5), fol-
1. The syllable, therefore, always remains long, 1. When the liquid
stands before the mute ; as, AfpKw. 2. In compound words, whether
the liquid precede or follow ; as, K^a/u6dvu. 3. When a word ends
with one of the two consonants, and the next begins with the other ; as,
tpl$ //eyaXj?, Myovolv iruvTe$. 4. When the vowel is lo
yovolv iruvTe$. 4. When the vowel is long by nature ;
as, rrdov, fi/vvrpov.
2. Porson, ad Eurip. Orcst. 64. Erfurdt, ad Soph. Aj. 1109.
A 2
6 RULES FOR SHORT VOWELS.
lowed by p, is short in the comic writers, but in
tragedy is mostly long.
(y.) A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by
any liquid except p, is almost always long. In
Euripides such syllables are always long ; but in
^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they are
sometimes short. 1
(<J.) The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel
short before the two liquids (j,v. 2
III. As the epic writers, according to what has just been
remarked (2, 1), employ this shortening chiefly when
the word cannot in any other manner be adapted to
the measure, this circumstance explains why some-
times even two mutes, as OK, and the double consonant
, neglect length by position, and leave the preceding
vowel short ; as, for example, before Zd/tvv0of, Ze/Uta,
, &c. 8
V.
RULES FOR SHORT VOWELS.
I. A vowel before another vowel or diphthong is, gener-
ally speaking, short. Still, however, there are numerous
exceptions to this rule, which will be mentioned in the
course of the work.
II. Every syllable which has an e or o is short by nature,
unless lengthened by position or crasis ; as, erro^.
1. Parson, ad Eurip. Hec. 298. Elrnsley, ad Eurip. Med. 288.
2. This b opposed by some critics, and among the rest 1>\ Khnslcy
(ad Eurip. Bacch. 1132), but the rule is successfully defended 1
son.
3. To remove these shortenings, Knight (Proleg. ad Horn. 79) writes
Ad/ctn>0of, A&eta, Ka/zavdpof, &c., and refers, in support of this opin-
ion, to the coins of Zancle (Messana) of the seventh century B.C.,
which give the name of the place in the old form, ^ \ N K \ 1 1 I
'//-. $ 146, 8) thinks that this form for the name of X.u..-le may
have ariM-n from il- <l f,-tive orthography of am-in it times. Tins, how-
ever, its very unlikely ; and we may cite, in supjMHt oi R unou,
the ai>xl /zapaydov of Aeclepiadet (Anthol. Pal. vol. ii., p. 001).
LENGTHENING OF SHORT SYLLABLES. 7
Exceptions.
The Greek poets, especially the epic, often avail them-
selves of the aid of the arsis in lengthening a short syllable.
This takes place, I. At the end of words ; II. In the begin-
ning of them ; III. In the middle of compounds.
I. Lengthening of short syllables at the end of words.
1. A short syllable at the end of a word is often length-
ened in this manner, when the next word begins with a li-
quid ; as, Kara kiirdprjv (II 6, 64) ; 6e (ieMqv (II. 20,
322) ; vdarl vifrvres (II. 7, 425) ; and piov (II. 14, 154).
2. A short syllable at the end of a word is also sometimes
lengthened in a similar manner, when the next word begins
with the semivowel a ; as, Kara avfyeoloiv (Od. 10, 238). l
3. The Attics, in iambic trimeter verse, sometimes
lengthen the short syllable before p ; as, rrapd peiOpoioi
(Soph. Antig. 704). In the measures which approach
nearer to the epic dialect, other syllables also occur length*
ened. 2
II. Lengthening of short syllables in the beginning of words.
Not only at the end, but also at the beginning of words,
the epic language lengthens a short or doubtful vowel by
the arsis, especially where two or more shorts follow. And
here the following cases may be distinguished :
1. It happens least frequently that a pure short is made
long; as, Ze<f>vpiri (Od. 7, 119); emrovo? (Ib. 12,
423) ; oi'ec (Ib. 9, 425).
2. The doubtful vowels a, i, v, are far more frequently
1. Such lengthening is observed the most rarely before mutes, and
hast of all before the aspirates ^, ^, 6. The reason is, that the aspi-
rates never admit of being doubled in pronunciation, whereas the liquids
easily are.
:. Hermann, ad Soph. Antig. 1. c.Id. El. Doctr. Metr. 5. Mark-
land, ad Eurip. SuppL Vl.Elmslcy, ad Eurip. Iph. in Taur. p. 199,
Lips. eil.
8 RULES FOR DOUBTFUL VOWELS.
made long in the arsis of a tetrasyllable, or longer
word ; as, for example, in such forms as dOdvaros,
tiKdfiaros, dve^eAof, drrdAafiof, aTroveeoOai, d7ro67o>-
fjMj &c. The same usage occurs in many polysylla-
bles, with i and v; as, AFoyevffc, Ilplaftid^, 'IraMa,
tfvyarepo, vAa/cd^wpot, &c. In proper names, as Pri-
amides, Italia, &c., the Latin poets have followed the
example of the Greeks.
III. Lengthening of short syllables in the middle of verbs.
1 . The epic writers often lengthen by arsis in the middle
of compound words ; namely, when the latter part begins
with a liquid ; as, di&neXe'iaTL (Od. 9, 291) ; Kardvevuv
(Ib. 490) ; KardpiyriU (Ib. 14, 226). 1
2. The tragic writers have occasionally allowed them-
selves lengthenings of this kind, especially in proper names ;
as, 'l7rrTO(jied(i)v, HapOevoTTalog*
3. The lengthening in the middle of the word before other
than liquid letters is quite rare, and occurs mostly only in
polysyllabic words ; as, Au7rereo (//. 16, 174) ; ^.id^avio^
(Anthol. Pal 1, 502, Appollonid. 6, 2) ; dnoepoeie (II. 21,
329).
VI.
RULES FOR DOUBTFUL VOWELS.
I. The chief object of Greek prosody is to reduce to rule
the quantity of the doubtful or arbitrary vowels, a, i, v.
II. This is done in various ways, among which the po-
sition of the accent affords some, though not very extensive
aid, as may be seen by what follows.
1 . Spitzner recommends, that, in the case of short vowels, the con-
Honaut which follows be doubled ; as, MAa6ov, iAXjyxrof (Gr. Pros. p.
15). It is better, however, to write the consonant singly, and suppose
it to be doubled in pronunciation.
2. Compare Hermann, El. Doctr. Metr. p. 28.
3. In cases of this kind, many critics have recourse to the digamma.
(Spittner, dt Vert. Gr. Heroic, p. 86.)
RULES FOR DOUBTFUL VOWELS. 9
Use of accent in determining quantity.
I. Every syllable marked with a circumflex is long by
nature ; and, therefore, when this accent stands upon a
doubtful vowel, it shows this vowel to be long; as, nkvOi,
npdyfia.
II. In like manner, when the acute accent stands upon
tiic penult of a polysyllabic word, the final syllable is long ;
as, ayiog, ayt'a, dytov. So, also, Traideia, prjropeid. 1
III. On the other hand, when a doubtful vowel stands at
the end of a word, and the penult has the circumflex, the
final syllable is short ; as, ickvOi, npdyfid. 2
IV. The final syllable is also short when the acute is on
the antepenult ; as, TixfrOqTi, KepKvpd. 3
V. In dissyllabic and polysyllabic words, when the final
syllable is short and the penult has the acute accent, the
penult also is short ; as, Kpiois (t), hvoi$ (v), TroAAd/af (a). 4
VI. As, however, the length or shortness of a syllable
can be obtained only imperfectly from the accent, it is ne-
cessary to seek for general rules, which may coincide with
the usage of the poets. These we will now proceed to
give.
I.
Of the doubtful vowels in the end of words. *
I. Final a is short ; as, rpdne^d, Ivd, timord, rervcf)d.
1 . A long vowel being equal to two short ones, and the accent which
stood on the antepenult of ayiog being shifted to the penult of d-yia, this
penult becomes, in fact, the antepenult, beyond which the accent cannot
IIP thrown bark ; the final syllable being now equal to two vowels, and
compelling, of course, the acute to be transferred to the i .
2. In this case, when we resolve the word, the acute stands over the
antepenult, and the circumflex is formed from the union of the acute of
the antepenult with the grave of the penult ; as, /uauAAov, //dA/lov. Now
if the last syllable were long here, the acute would fall upon the fourth
syllable from the end, which is contrary to one of the laws of the acute
accent.
3. This follows from what has been said under note 1.
4. for, if the penult were long in this case, it would require to be
marked with the circumflex.
10 EXCEPTIONS.
Exceptions.
1. But a pure is long ; as, 'A07/vad, 0tA/d, oiicvd, ex-
cept verbals in rpi a ; as, ipahrpid, and derivatives from
adjectives in ??c ; as, d^rjOeLd ; and also iepeid, /ca>detd,
fiaoikeid (a queen) ; but (3aoikeid (a kingdom), and /3o-
a/Aetd (adj. fern, royal).
2. The Doric a for 77 is long ; as, (f>dpd, Alveid ; and
also the Doric genitive in a from nominatives in a$
and ?7f ; as, 'Avw6dc, a ; 'Arpetd^f, d.
3. Words ending in da and da have the a long ; as, /3a-
aiAtVdd, Affdd, Zifiaidd, except dicavOd and rjhiQd. 1
4. Words ending in pa not preceded by a diphthong ; f
as, Kapd t TTT/pd, %opd ; except ayt>pd, ye</>vpd, oAvpa,
KepKvpd, and the perfect middle of verbs in pw ; as,
dte</>0opa, nenopd.
5. Words ending in pa with a consonant preceding ; as,
aypd, Trerpd, dnecfrpd ; except a^odpa, anokonevdpd,
Tavdypd.
G. All feminine adjectives from masculines in of ; as,
dinaid ; except dm, Trdrvta, id, and /iid.
7. Duals in a, as fiovod, and vocatives from nouns in a^,
as Alveid, 3 or poetical vocatives of the third declen-
sion, as Aooddftd, IIoAvdd^d.
8. The accusative in ea, from the genitive (third declen-
sion) in ea>f ; as, II^Aed, from HTJ^EUS ; Paoited, from
but in Homeric Greek, II?/^a, 4 from IlTy-
(3aoikf}d, from
1. The length of the final syllable in words ending in da and da, ap-
pears to be derived from their Doric origin. Lobeck. ad Phryn. 438.
2. For ireipa, fielpu, afaipa, &c., have the final syllaMc short. The
word iTaipd retains the long a, as being formed from Jrapoj- , Irdpa, trai-
pa. Again, AWpd and Qatfipa take the long Quantity on account of the
two consonants that intervene between the diphthong and final syllable.
3. But the vocative in a from masculine nouns in W is short.
4. In HOIIHT (//. 1, 205 ; Od. 12, 630) Qqota is to be pronounced,
by synizesis, Oj/aiu. So also Tv66a (77. 7, 222), of which the Homeric
genitive is Tvtfc'of.
6. Even in Attic Greek the a is sometimes shortened. Compare
Porton, ad Eurip. Hec. 870.
FINAL av. 11
9. Nouns in eia, from verbs in evw ; as, npo^qTeid, dov-
II. Final av is short ; as, dv, TrdfiTrav, Atdv,
adv, erv^dv.
Exceptions.
1. Masculines in av are long ; as, Ttrdv, Tcaidv.
2. The neuter adjective mEv ; and hence the Attics ap-
pear to have taken occasion to lengthen Jiere and there
the forms compounded with it ; as, array, errtTrdv, Trap-
aTTdv. But TrduTrdv and npondv are probably every-
where decidedly short. 2
3. Adverbs in av ; as, A/dv, oydv, nepdv. On the con-
trary, ordv and dirordv follow the quantity of the sim-
ple av.
4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nom-
inative ; as, <f>ikidv, from 0tAtd ; Aiveidv, from Alvdd^.
But the accusative in av from a short nominative is
short ; as, norvidv, from Trorvid ; rparre^dv, from rpd-
7red.
5. The Doric genitive plural of the first declension in
dv, as formed by contraction, is likewise always long ;
as, fiekidv, vvfj,(f>dv, for peki&v, vv^tiv. So, also,
the Doric forms derived from those in 77, or produced
by contraction ; as, Trot/idv, Hoaeiddv, 'AAtytdv.
III. Final op is short ; as, ovdp, ve/crdp, {idicdp.
Exceptions.
1. Monosyllables in op are long ; as, icdp, y>dp.
2. The adverb yap is properly short ; but before ol and
similar words it very often occurs long in epic lan-
guage, through the force of the following breathing. 3
1. For more special rules concerning sea, ta, oia, and am, in Attic
Grerk, consult Maltby, Lex. Pros. cc. v. and vii. ; of his Prosody, p.
ix. and Ixv., ed. 2.
2. Blomfidd, ad jEsch. Pers. 42. Buttmann, Gr. Gr. 62, n. 5.
3. D'Orcillc, Vann. Crit. p. 391, seq.
12 FINAL a(?.
IV. Final o^ is long ; as, AJvetdf, mi^, Ipd?, faMd?, TV-
1. Words of the third declension not forming the geni-
tive in avTo$ ; as, /zeAdf, fteydf, A,afnrd$, oekds, epdf,
&c. But rdAdf has the final syllable long.
2. The accusative plural of nouns and participles of the
third declension ; as, Tirdva^, rimrovra^, -noi\iKvat;,
(f>pEva$ , &c. (but (3aaiked$, from (3aoL^sd). The accu-
sative plural of the first declension, on the other hand,
is always long.
3. Adverbs in a$ are short ; as, neAaf, &Tpe[4d$ , dy/ea^.
4. A^ is short in the second person of the different tenses
which terminate therein ; as, erey^df , Teyi-eidg,
5. By a license of the Doric dialect, forms in of , other-
wise long, are occasionally shortened, and that, too,
even in accusatives plural of the first declension ; as,
M.oipd$ (Theocrit. 2, 160) ; avrds (Id. 3, 2) ; vvfi<f>d$
(Id. 4, 29).
II. Of Final i.
I. Final i is short ; as, ty>t, 6rt, /LteAt, rvTrrovat,
Exceptions.
1. But the abridged form /cp (for KpiOr)) is long, together
with the names of letters in t ; as, t, m y &c.
2. The paragogic t, added by the Attic comic poets and
orators to certain pronouns and adverbs, is likewise
long ; as, ovrool, vvvl, ovroxri, &c. So the similar i
in the words 667, ravrl, tievpl, &c.
3. Adverbs ending in , and formed from nouns, have the
i either long or short, but more commonly short ; such
as &iw%Qi, dpaxrjTl, navdrjpt, iravofuM, dTrovrfr( t &c.
FINAL SYLLABLES. 13
But those which refer to nations have the t always
short; as, SKvOiarl, 'Apyokiari, BapQaptari, &c. 1
II. Final iv is short ; as, Tvnrovalv, epiv, ndKiv, nohlv,
TTplV, VIV, O(f)lV.
Exceptions.
1. Final iv, making lvo$ in the genitive, is long ; as, prjy-
filVj IKTIV.
2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ;
as, de^lv (otherwise (JeA</>tf), d/mv, plv, Iv, \iv.
3. The datives plural i\\iiv and vplv, though in several in-
stances Sophocles makes rjfuv and vfuv, and the epic
dialect has also dufjiZv, V\L\LLV.
III. Final i$ is short ; as, 61$, rpl$, TTO/U, rvpawl^ <fcc.
Exceptions.
1. Monosyllabic nouns, and those which have two ter-
minations for the nominative ; as, ?f , A?, pig, Kl$, de^-
2. Dissyllables which make the penult of the genitive
long ; as, d^tf, paMt$, /a?/^, Kv^lg, Kprjmg, opvlg?
&c.
3. Polysyllables with two short syllables before the last ;
as, parpaxl?, /caAa/ztf , itavovlq, -rr^oKa^lg, pacfravlg, &c.
(but
1. Consult Blomfield, ad JEsch. Prom. 216. According to this critic,
the adverbs in question ought always to be written with a simple vowel
in the termination. The MSS. fluctuate between c and EL ; as, afioyrjri
and aunyrjTei, <ivar/ and avarec. On the other hand, Lobeck, ad Soph.
Anti if. 1213, maintains that the diphthong is admissible into the words
derived from adjectives ; but in those from substantives he would make
the formation conform strictly to the radical word. Spitzner, Pros. Gr.
p. 48.
2. "Opwf , however, has the last syllable often short in tragedy, though
always long in comedy (Parson, ad Eur. Hec. 204). In Homeric Greek
the tinal syllable is long. Spitzner thinks that we must assume a double
form, Yipvif, Wo$, Iv, and also opvZbf, Iv. The yet extant plural 6pvei
favours this opinion.
14 FINAL SYLLABLES.
4. Adjectives in 1$, compounded from long forms, are
likewise long in the final syllable ; as, akutpijnl$, 0a-
&C.
III. Of Final v.
1. Final v is short ; as, av, yovv, yhvuv, cfd/epv, &arv.
Exceptions.
1 . The third person singular of the imperfect and second
aorist of verbs in V\LI ; as, edv, e<j>v ; also of the sec-
ond person imperative in one of its forms ; as, deiicvv, 1
dpvv.
2. The names of the letters py, vv ; and fictitious words ;
as, v, ypv, &c.
II. Final w is short ; as, ovv, Trohvv, ppadvv, {evyvvv.
Exceptions.
1. The accusative of nouns which have v$ in the nom-
inative ; as, Ikvv, l%9vv, l<J%vv, 6(f>pvv, fj,vv.
2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ;
as, $6pKW (otherwise 4>opi;c) ; or vvo$ in the geni-
tive ; as, poaovv.
3. The first person singular imperfect and second aorist
of verbs in V\LL ; as, e</>i)i>, edvv, iStiitvvv, i^evyvvv.
4. Nvv, when equivalent to nunc. Nvv, the enclitic,
though short in Homer (who uses also vv), is often long
in tragedy, and always long in comedy. 2
III. Final vp is long ; as, m)p, ftdprvp. Yet, in the ob-
lique cases, these make Trvpof, nvpi ; fidprvpo^, pdprvpi. 3
1 . The third person imperative, deiitvvTo, follows the analogy of Aeitt-
vi'di.
2. Monk, ad Eurip. Akett. 1096. Id. in Mu. Crit vol. i., p. 73.
AM opposite doctrine is maintained, however, by Ell. .: / Soph.
vol. 11., p. 183.
3. The Etym. Mag. 506, 20, considers substantives in t/> as scarcely
Greek, and admits only such as fidprvp, iftifop, &c., but rejects forms
like HtpKvp, 'UAvp, to which Arcadius, de Ace. 19, 17, adds ulso Ai'yvp.
INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 15
IV. Final v$ is short ; as, (3aOv$ , icopvs ,
Exceptions.
I . Nouns in vf, which have vo$ in the genitive ; as,
2. Nouns which have two terminations in the nomina-
tive ; as, 3>6pKv.
3. Monosyllables; as, five;, av$.
4. Terminations of verbs in v\ii ; as, deiKvv$ (second per-
son singular present), deiicvv^ (participle), edeiicvv^, &c.
II.
Of the doubtful vowels in the increment of nouns.
I. A in the increment of nouns is generally short ; as,
arc? ; Kpeag, aro$ ; ve/crap, apo$ ; /zeAav, avof ; av-
/eof ; *Apai/>, a/3oc ; jitd/tap, apo^ ; aAf , a/lo? ; raAac,
<fec.
1. All increments in avo$ are long, except rd
vof ; as, Tirdv, dvo^ ; Ildv, dvo^ ; 'AWav, dvo^ ; Tra-
idv, dvof, &c.
2. All increments in a,KO$, from nominatives in at- pure,
are long ; as, ola%, d/cof ; pva, a;o^ ; ^ata^, d/co^ ;
<pAva, d/co^, &c.
3. A is long in the dative plural of nouns, &c., that have
a long penult in the genitive singular ; as, yt'yo^, av-
rof, dot, ; rvifras, avTO$, dai ; TTO^, avro<;, dot. But
those which are syncopated in the singular have the a
short ; as, dvdpdoi, narpdai.
4. Add the following examples of nouns which have a in
the increment long .
3. But /cAtriJf, Eurip. Hippol. 227, and always so in tragedy. Also
. Monk, ad Eurip. I. c,
16
INCREMENT OF NOUNS.
Kepa?,
</>peap,
<n>fxf>dt;, duo?,
KOp,
II. I is short in the increment of neuter nouns ; as, fis/u t
; and in masculines and feminines which have the
genitive in tog, 160$, or trog ; as,
1. The following, however, have a long penult
&0*C) Idog, KVTjpig, Idog, aQpaytg,
ig, I6og,
icapi?,
2. Add the following :
And other trisyllables which have the two prior syl-
lables short, except (SaaiMs, tdof, and ker/f, 160$ .
III. I is long in the increment of masculine and feminine
nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; as,
detyig or dety>iv, lvo$ ; aicrtf or dicriv, lvo$.
IV. I is also long in the increment of monosyllables ; as,
$iv, "dlvo? ; ?f , Iv6$ ; M?, A?r6f ; i9p/t/>, $pirr6(; ; excepting,
however, rff , rlvof, and A^f,
V. I is also long in nouns in
and ^, t*0f ; as, 6pvi$, 180$ ;
1. Maltliy, Lex. Proa. c. iv., p. lix., 2d cd. (Diasertation on the words
pof, uptas ,
INCREMENT OF VERBS. 17
" a lash ;'" 0om, IKO<;. Homer, however, has
ways short.
VI. But t, is generally short in nouns in n/>, Wo$ ; and t,
; as, %efn>i^, I6og ; aril-, tyo? ; fy>#, rp^o? ; pd<m
" a g um "
VII. T is short in the increment of monosyllables in v$,
vo$ ; as, 6pv$, dpvo? ; pv$ , fivo^.
VIII. T is also short in the increment of neuters in v ;
as, ddicpv, vo$.
IX. T is likewise short in the increment of masculines
and feminines in v<; and vp ; as, VKKV$, vo<; ; lku$, lkvo$ ;
Z^dvc, vof ; fidprvp, vpo$ ; and also in the neuter noun 7ri)p,
irvpo$. But da(5i>, vdo^, and KUfivs, vOo$, must be excepted.
X. T is generally short in the increment of nouns in v%
and w/> ; as, owt;, v%o$ ; XdAi^>, ^605- ; except doidvg, VKO$ ;
; while Be6pf ^ has either VKO^ or
XI. Nouns of two terminations, in v$ or vv, have v long
in the increment ; as, $6pK,v<; or Qopicvv, vvo$.
III.
Of the doubtful vowels in the increment of verbs.
I. The quantity of the penult in the present and imperfect
remains the same through all the voices and moods ; as,
KptVO), EKplVOV, KpiVB, KplvOlftl, KplVG), KplVELV, KplWV, Kpl-
VOfiai, EKplVQfJLTjVj KplVQV, &C.
II. Most tenses have the same quantity in the penult as
those from which they are formed ; as, STVTTOV, TVTTO), irv-
TTT/V, TvnT)oonai, rervTra, erervneiv, &c.
III. Verbs in OG>, t^w, and v^w, increase short in the fu-
ture ; as, apndZu, aaw ; vopifa, lad) ; ^v^a), vow?
1. Mu<m, iyof, "a lash;" but /zowmf, frof, a species of gum.
2. The poets, especially the epic, not unfrequently lengthen the forms
of verbs in > by doubling the sibilant letter, and that not merely in tho
arsis, but also in the thesis. Thus, aixpaf <J' alxjtdnaovai (II. 4, 324) ;
and irot/jtaaaaiaT' 'A.ITJVTJ (Ib. 10, 571), &c.
18 INCREMENT OF VERBS.
IV. Verbs in aw, when CUD is preceded by a vowel, and
all verbs in paw, have the penult of the future long ; as,
dw, aero) ; 6pow, daw ; dpdw, dou. 1
V. Verbs in dw, when preceded by a consonant other
than p, have the penult of the future short ; as, aTrdw, daw ;
ye/law, daw.
VI. Verbs in aaw shorten the penult of the future, drop-
ping one of the sigmas ; as, TrAdaaw, daw ; /jttdaaw, daw.
YII. Liquid verbs, or those ending in Aw, ^w, vw, pw,
shorten the penult of the future, but in the first aorist active
invariably take either a long vowel or a diphthong; as,
i9dAAw, i9dAw, et^Aa ; reAAw, reAw, ereiAa ; tyaivd), 0dvw,
&<f>7jva ; dapOvvu, dapBvvti, eddpOvva ; aTretpw, arrepw, ea-
VIII. Verbs in tw, not proceeding from roots in w, in-
crease long in the future ; as, u/U'w, taw ; /covtw, taw. But
eafltw has the i everywhere short. 3
IX. Dissyllabic verbs in vw are for the most part long in
the future and aorist ; as, <5vw, ovaw, edvaa ; rpvw, rpi5aw,
erpvaa. Except TTTVW, Trrvaw, enrvaa ; /cvw, vaw, eicvaa ;
jSAvw, /3Ai5aw, eflkvaa ; and one or two others.
X. Polysyllabic verbs in vw, on the other hand, are for the
most part long in the penult of the future and aorist ; as,
!o%t;w, laj^vaw, la^vaa ; daupvo), da/cpvaw, eJa^pvaa, &c.
XL But polysyllables in vw are for the most part short ;
as, dvvw, dvvaw ; dpvw, dpvaw ; d^)vw, a<j!>vaw, &c.
XII. Verbs in vw, which have lengthened forms in tyu,
1. Except Kepdu, aou ; andn-epdu, uau, in the transitive sii
for Trepdo), " I pas* over," has the a long. Clarke, ad II. 1, 67.
2. The principle on which the change takes place is this : in the fu-
ture the tone rests on the last syllable, which is coiui.uir.1, an.:
the previous syllable is short. In the aorist, however, the augment in-
creases the number of syllables, and the tone consequently changes and
travels back towards the root.
3. Compare Draco, de Metr. 22, 25 ; 67, T.Etym. Xag. *>'
The apparent contradiction among the ancients, it being el sew lure
(Const. Late. 247, 20. Theod. Gaz. 77) laid down, that, e\c pt in la-
;s fhori m tin si- penults, is ascribed by Sjiit/ner and other* to
corruptions in those passages. 6V. Pros. p. 87.
INCREMENT OF VERBS. 19
for the most part shorten the doubtful vowel ; as,
idEinvvov ; (uyvvu, efiiyvvov. The verbs (j>v(*> and
are not exceptions to this rule, since they do not furnish
complete forms in vpi, but only in the second aorist.
XIII. Polysyllables in vpt have the v everywhere short,
except in the singular number of the present tense, active
voice, and in the third person plural of the same tense and
voice ; as, &vyvv(U, Qvyvvoi ; but ^evyvvfjiev, ^evyvvre,
^evyvvrov, ^evyvvvau, &c.
XIV. On the other hand, dissyllables in vfu have the v
everywhere long ; as, dvdi, dvvai, Mirre, <fcc.
XV. The penult of the second future and second aorist
is always short ; as, da^oj, Aa0a>, Kpvdti, Alrrw, eddpov, eAa-
6ov, eKpvdov, eklnov. With the single exception of the
verb 7rA?/(T(7a), which, in the epic dialect, retains the long
vowel in the penult ; as, eirkrjyov, eTrA-7/y^v. 1
XVI. The third persons plural in aoi, and the feminine
participle in a<ra, are always long ; as, AfiAomEat, KKpv(f)d-
ai, lardai ; Tv^aaa, ypdipdaa, &c. 2
XVII. The augment, which, in verbs beginning with v
or i, consists merely in lengthening this vowel, makes, of
course, the initial syllable of the historical tenses long; as,
t/eerevw, luerevov, iKerevoa.
XVIII. The doubtful vowel in the penult of the perfect
active strictly follows the measure of the root in the pres-
ent ; hence the middle syllable is short in most forms which
have a in the present ; as, ypo</>, yiypdfya ; but fluctuates
1. Clarke, ad. R. 3, 31. The Attic tragedians retain this in the sim-
ple form ( Eurip. Orcst. 487 ; Electr. 1 148) ; but, on the contrary, shorten
the compounds ; as, eicrrfaiyelaa (Med. 8), wrAayevref (Rhcs. 287). In
like mannrr. IHIJTJV in the passive, we have also trp/yT/v and
the like in 1 itrr authors. So in Apollon. Rhod. 4, 1052, O7ror//^yevref.
2. The old form of the third person plural ended in ~VTI ; the r was
afterward changed into a and the v thrown out, the syllable, however,
remaining long ; -is, taAotVavrt, AeAoiTrdvfft, AeAonruffi. So the primi-
tive form of the feminine participle ended in -vaa, having the previous
vo\\rl long, and this afterward dropped the v, but retained the long quan-
tity; as, Tvrfiuvaa,
20 INCREMENT OF VERBS.
in those with i and v ; as, rpZflo), rerp?0a ; but
plfa, ; and again, KVTTTW, KKKvtba ; but KpvTTTG), KeKpi><f>a.
XIX. The perfect middle, with the exception of those
which have a in the root and change it into o (as, rpe^w,
erpdtpov, rsrpo^a), has usually a long vowel in the penult ;
as, ayo) (I break), edya ; avddvw, edda ; pda), KeKpdya ;
ptyea), Ipplya ; rpifa, rirplya ; fypiaaut, TreQplica, &c. But
7re(f)pdda and some others are found short ; and, in old forms,
the- first vowel was shortened by position, after rejecting
the intermediate consonant ; as, fte6da, yeyda, defifa, iretyva.
XX. Perfects, with what is called the Attic reduplication,
have usually, in polysyllabic verbs, a short vowel in the pe-
nult ; as, dAe*06>, (iki\)d$a, ; 6pvaa(*), 6pk)pv%a. Still, how-
ever, in Ionic poets, forms of this kind are occasionally
lengthened; as, elhrjkovOa, vTre^vrjfj,vKS (II. 22, 491).
XXI. When a is inserted in the third person plural of
the perfect or pluperfect, or of the optative, it is always
short ; as, 6pb)pe%dro, KeKMdrai, Tretdoidro, &c.
XXII. The reduplication before the root of verbs in fu is
short ; as, rWrifu, dld^t.
XXIII. In verbs in \ii the a is always short ; as, forarov,
Zardfiev, &c. Except in the third person plural in dot, and
in the masculine and feminine participles ; as, iordoi, lo~
rd$, lardaa.
VII.
Of the Doubtful Vowels in the Penultimate.
I. Of a in the penultimate.
I. Penultimate a is generally short before a vowel or
diphthong, or a single consonant ; as, dyAdo^, dd/f,
II. But penultimate a is long in the following cases :
DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE PENULT.
Before a vowel.
wv,
u/H>, and compounds,
21
1. In
Naff,
, and the like,
f, and derivatives,
f , and derivatives,
Afc.
The adverb del has the a common, 2 while those of its
compounds in which dei stands complete have the a
short ; as, det'pvroc;, de/Aa/lof ; whereas in others it is
long ; as, devao$, oiOoA^ 1
2. In the compounds of aw ; as,
3. In the compounds of ait- ; as,
4. In verbs in dcj, when dw is preceded by an s or by
the letter p ; as, edw, Trepdw, (Jpdw, with their com-
pounds and derivatives. Still, however, there are sev-
eral exceptions ; as, KVKda), rifidu, cpvflpmo), /m&dw,
atydw, aiw-n-do), &c., in which dw is not preceded by
an e or p.
5. In Homeric genitives in do and dwv ; as "AArdo, Bo-
pedo, |LteA,f(7(7dc;v, ddivdw.
Before a consonant.
1. Before y in
edya (but e
1. <tuof, "light" has the first syllable short; 0aea in the plural, in
the sense of " eyes," has the first syllable common. The shorn
also shown by the derivatives ; as, (f>ueo<j>opi7), <j>aeivu.
2. For son, Praf. ad Hec.
3. N/uV ://,/. ^//-. Pros. p. 128.
4. Consult remarks on the increment of verbs, page 20, number XIX.
yv is the second aorist, and short, of course.
22 DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE PENULT.
atdywv,
rdyof,
rdyeo),
Trerrpdya, and the like.
2. Before o* in
d<Jo>, " to satiate"
dduv.
3. Before & in
7rAd0a>, 8 I evyadrft, Dor. for evy?
dvpddev,
4. Before ; in
KVdKVV,
4
5. Before A in
And in /cdAdf , which is long in Homeric Greek, but al-
ways short in Attic. 7
6. Before ^ in
opdjua,
And all other words in pa derived from verbs in d<i>
pure or pao>.
7. Before v in tuaw and its compounds, this verb having
1. The compounds of ayu, "Z kad," and ayw, " I break," are long,
because derived from the perfect middle.
2. The long quantity is derived from Ia6a. So, also, avdudtft.
3. For irefaidu.
A Hence tftt/ctu and danTjfia. Thus, SopA. 0. T. 20, byopatoi duxr!.
6. A proper name. AUKOV, " a Laconian" has the penult short.
Thtocr. Id. 5, 12.
6. The ancients lay down the rule that dissyllabic oxytones in oX6f
are long by nature ; but only a few examples occur.
7. KaXof is long in th- ' MKMIUC poets, according to the previous exam-
ple of Hesiod, Op. 03 ; Th. 585.
DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE PENULT.
23
passed with the long quantity from the epic dialect to
the tragedians. On the contrary, Ki%dv<j} in Homer
and the epic poets, but Ki^dM in the tragic writers.
So <j>0dvu in Homeric Greek is long, but in Attic short. 1
In dissyllables in avo$ ; as, ddvo?, -Bpdvos, Ttdvog, 0<z-
v6$, Kpdvo$, and compounds, 6opvKpdvo$, emitpdvov,
(3ovicpdvo$. And in the following :
vedvi$, TTokvdvtop,
evdvopia,
edvo$ (subtilis),
orvydvup,
, &c.
8. Before TT in
9. Before p in
dpd (preces)*
Kardpa,
vdnv, same as
oivdm.
ridpa,
Adpdf,
<j>dpo?, s
V'^P r>
ddpov,
10. Before (Tin Komdou, opdau, tipdau, and other futures
from verbs in do> pure and
1 . Epic poets not unfremiently shorten verbs in cuvu into avu ; as,
UVEI, Horn. It. 7, 64 ; oldavet, Ib. 9, 554 ; Kvfavet, Ib. 14, 73.
2. But ^cvof, "res^s."
3. Yet Aup<5dvof, 2/c3vof, 'HpteJuvof. Later poets, however, some-
times shorten the long forms for the convenience of the verse ; as, 'lov-
<mav6f, 'OTTTTttivo?. Jacobs, ad Anth. Pal. 396, 582, 955.
4. 'Apa has three meanings : 1. a prayer ; 2. an imprecation ; 3. mis-
fortune, evil, or ruin. When Homer employs it in the first of these sig-
nifications, the penult of the word is always long. When he uses it in
the second si-nso, the penult is common. When it occurs in his poems
with the third moaning, the penult is short. Among the tragic writers,
on the other hand, the penult is everywhere short. Maltby, ad verb.
5. $apof has the penult common in tragedy (Monk, ad Eurip. Hippol.
145. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 337, in notis). On the other hand, in
Homer, the penult is always long.
24 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
In the third person plural in act, and the feminine parti-
ciple in aaa ; as, rervfidai, lardoi, edoi, rvipdoa.
In the dative plural, third declension, where the penult of
the genitive singular is long by position ; as,
In all derivatives from verbs in aw pure and paw ; as,
11. Before r in all derivatives from verbs in dw pure and
pdw ; as, opdrdf , #edrdc, Trepdroc, ldrpo$, /cpdr^p, &c.
So dpdro, " unmixed" from d and Kepdw ; but d/cpd-
rof, " unrestrained" from a and /epdro. In like man-
ner distinguish between the compounds of dpdofjai and
epdfiai. Thus, TroAvdpdrof, " much wished for" but
TroAvT/pdro^, "much loved"
In names of nations and proper names ; as, 'A.oidTTj$,
STroprtdr^f, TeyedrT/^. And also in the feminines
formed from them ; as, 'Aertdrif, Mtdedrtc. Add like-
wise names of rivers, mountains, and islands ; as, Ei>-
^pdTT^, Nt^)dT7/f, AevKdrrfi. But forms of this kind
proceeding from short roots have the short vowel ; as,
In those words which, coming from Ionic forms, received
long a by Dorism, and passed thence into the Attic and
also the common dialect ; as, kndn.
In the following words :
d-ny,
dvdri,
drw,
Trpdrf,
12. Before # in rpd^vf and its compounds.
The forms JO#T/ and laxetv have the penult common in
Attic, but more frequently long than short. 1
1. Elmslcy, ad E*rip. Heracl 752.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 25
II. Of i in the Penultimate.
I. Penultimate i is generally short before a vowel, or
diphthong, or a single consonant ; as, nevla, iov, mQog.
II. But penultimate i is long in the following cases :
Before a vowel.
1. In the following Homeric feminines, which, as the
two columns indicate, have the penult long in Homer
and the epic dialect, but short in Attic. 1
Epic.
Attic.
depylri,
dmarlr],
dpyia.
ddvfild.
dmarld.
dTTdtdla.
drifil^
CLTL^Ud.
eorlrj,
KdKoepylr],
eorld.
KdKovpyla.
6pfj,ia.
TTpoedpli],
TTpoedpld.
ITdVOTTJUd.
TVpdVVLT],
rvpdvvld.
aWpia.
1. The true reason for this lengthening among the epic writers is to
be found, according to Spitzner, in the easily possible protraction of the
doubtful vowel in pronunciation, proofs of which are furnished also by
other vowels ; as, durrjp and dureipa for Sorrjp and doTEipa. The epic
poets would the more readily allow this protraction in pronunciation, as
it enabled them, without difficulty, to adapt a variety of otherwise use-
less forms to the heroic measure. And, on the other hand, it was natu-
ral that the Attic poetry should use these forms short for the iambus,
which was also, indeed, required for the common pronunciation. If this
view of the subject be well founded, it will not be necessary, with Malt-
by, to explain forms like aKOfitaTiT) by contraction from aHO/morier], for
which course no sufficient reason can be discovered in heroic verse.
Neither is it of any avail to write ia for la in this kind of words, as it
contradicts the derivation, and is, indeed, correct in uvaifaiij and some
others, but not in UTV/U;/ and the like. Spitzncr, Gr. Pros. p. 118.
2. Long in Solon, not found in Homer. Short in Aristophanes, Plut.
1129, but long in the Nubcs, 571.
c
6 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
2 'A.vla and icakla are long in both Homeric and Attic
Greek, 1 the Homeric form being dvtrj and KaMij. An-
other term KOVIO, (Horn. KOVLTJ) has the penult common
in Homeric Greek, but in the singular more frequently
long, in the plural always short. Among the Attic
writers, Aristophanes employs it in the lyric passages
with a short penult, but in the dialogue with a long
one. In the tragic writers it occurs thrice, and each
time with the penult short. 2
3. Generally speaking, in alula, ev6lo$, and Atav, though
"klav also occurs, especially in Attic.
4. In proper names in ia)v which shorten the vowel in
the genitive ; as, 'AjLt^twv, Ao^twv, Havdluv, gen.
Hav6iovo$. On the contrary, those remain short
which take the long vowel in the genitive ; as, BOVJCO-
Aieov, 'Hertwv, Oivorrtov, gen. Oivonl(*)vo$. z
5. Comparatives in iuv have the i long in Attic, but short
elsewhere ; as, yAv/awv, Kaiuuv.
6. Verbs in to>, not proceeding from roots in <w, have the
i generally long ; as, (f>dld), %plu, -rrpta>, vAio>, tt-akld),
%A,fo>, &c. But those which had originally a in the
root are short ; as, ariu, fiaarlG), to which add
and dto), though not from such roots. 4
1 . KaAtu stands once with the short penult in Pscudo-Phocyllidts,
v. 79.
2. MaUby, ad verb.Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 340, in noti*.
3. 'Opluv, gen. -Zwvof, is of variable measure in Homer and the epic
poets, but short in the tragedians; as, Eurip. Cycl. 273; Ion. 1153.
And also in Callim. H. to Artcm. 254.
4. Kj7/a has the penult short in Homer, long in tragedy. ( Od. 5, 466 ;
Soph. PhilocL 783.) With regard to the verb pijviu, it may be observed,
that the penult of the present is common, but that of the future an
aon-t long ; thus, (Jirjvlu or p/vaj, future pijvlou, first aorist tfftfvloa. On
the other hand, the second aorist is lurivlov, or, dropping the angment,
uriviov. In the second book of the Iliad, v. 769, we ha\ t
this appears to be the imperfect. Among the tragic writers, Soj
( iu|loys the v-rl live limes, but determines nothing respecting tin- inuin-
tity. In the Rhesus of Euripides, v. 494, we have fujvluv, and in the
llij'l-ulvtus, v 1141, fiaviu. It is safer, however, to lengthen it in tho
tragedians. Maltby, ad verb.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
27
7. Dissyllabic oxytones in 161; have for the most part a
long penult ; as, Kplo$, 16$, " an arrow" and "poison "
but tof, ** one" and tov, " a violet" proparoxytones,
have the i short.
8. I is also long in the following :
Optov,
'!<>,
TTpldJV,
Before a consonant.
1. Before |3 in
epvalfrrj,
rpldv, and compounds.
But all derivatives from the second aorist of rpi6() and
similar verbs are short ; as, rpl6o$,
rpl6ri$. This remark holds good of
similar formations. 1
nepi-
and
2. Before y in
, and com-
pounds,
atyTy, and derivatives,
epplya, 2
KeKplya,
rerplya.
3. Before 6 in
'Ida,
Atdw,
aid?;. 5
1. Person, ad Eurip. Orest. 62. Draco, rfc Metr. 74, 9.
2. Compare remarks on verbs, number XIX.
3. It may be regarded as a general rule, that i is naturally long in di-
minutives in af ; as, #ptvo, /c/U/zaf, afilXa^ &c.
4. Long in Pscudo-Pkocyllides, 200, but elsewhere short, Afcfy.
5. 2Z<ty, "a pomegranate," has the penult long. Nicand. Ther. 72,
28 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
4. Before & in
>, and derivatives,
K plOri,
5. Before K in
<J>OIVIK7J,
(frlKTJ,
6. Before A in
7. Before u in
, and derivatives,
, and compounds,
, or
, and compounds,
, and compounds,
, and compounds,
8. Before v in verbs in tva)j as, Atvw, Kplvu,
dpivb), olv(), &6iv(t>) &c. Except rtvw and <
which are long in Homer, but short in Attic.
870. But ottri, " a water-plant," has the short penult. Th. 887. Yet
the diminutive of the former, otfiov, has the t short (^4m/opA. M/A.
881), and, in like manner, the adjective attoeic. Nicatid. Alex. 276.
Th. 17.
1. It may be laid down as a general rule, that i is long in the termi-
nation tXof, when the word is proparoxytone. So in similar forms, aa
'ACttif, and BO, also, in the like neuter, irtdlXov. Draco at Metr. 76, 28.
2. Yet anOof is also found. Compare Lycophron, 188.
3. The ancients, ae a general rule, give oxytone forms in '/.or as long ;
as, xlM ft VZMf, &c. Draco de Metr. 35, 21 : 101, 3 : 163, 17.
4. Compare page 27, note 3.
6. Mot oxytones in /toj- have the long penult. Draco dt Metr. 63, 10.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 29
In the following words :
yvplvo?,
rplvat;,
g t in Homer, 1
KVfJLlVOV,
oeklvov,
ITVTIVT),
'Apyvpotilvrjs,
ivdlva,
VGfllVT],
Alylva,
Kapdplva,
'Eplvvg.*
And most words in ivo$, ivrj, ivov. But adjectives of
time in ivo$ shorten the penult; as, fieo7][ji6plv6(;; ex-
cept (fowpivof, mentioned above, and 6p6plv6$. 3
9. Before TT in
pltnapa,
ivlnrj,
aiunw,
plmg,
10. Before p in
1 . Consult the remark that immediately follows, respecting adjectives
of time in ivof .
2. Compare Blomfald, ad JEsch. Prom. \. 53.
3. One example of the long penult in f4eaT)fi6pivo occurs in Callima-
chus, L. P. 72. With regard to OTrwpZvoj-, it is to be observed, that fiero-
iruplvov occurs in Hesiod, Op. 415, and birupivov in the same poet, Op.
674, while virupivovf is found in a fragment of Euripides, preserved by
Athensuis, p. 469. Maltby gives no great weight to this last exception
on account of its being a fragment, and on that account open on every
side to corruption. The verses in Hesiod he considers spurious, be-
cause in Homer uniformly, and in the Hymn to Mercury, the penult of
birupivo? is long ; and even in Hesiod himself, in the same poem, v. 677,
the same syllable is lengthened. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 343, in notis.
C2
30 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
11 Before o in
Bploevg, loo$ in Homer, 1
Kvioa,
12. Before r in nouns in m/, m/f, Ins J as > ' J
'AjLt^trptr?/, doytarm?, -rroAm/f, b-nXlr^^ TroAtTif, &c.
Except, however, ptr7/f and other derivatives from
the perfect passive with a short penult. 3
In. the following words :
:, with com-
pounds, 4
Ttrdv,
13. Before <j> in
olcfx*
vldxt), but
14. Before # in t%wp and Tapl%o<;.
HI. O/* u in the penultimate.
1. Penultimate v is generally short before a vowel or diph-
thong, or a single consonant ; as, vo$, nvei, Avyof.
1. The penult of laof is long with Homex, but short with the
dians. The first syllable in iaodeoc, however, is long in tragedy, on
same principle that the a is lengthened in uduvarof, axa/uaror, bir
dpvOos, namely, in order to allow of such forms being introduced into
the verse. Compare Blomfield, ad JEsch. Pers. 81 ; and Burney, ibid.
2. From kgdMvto. Compare Elmsley, ad Eurip. Heracl. 404. The
form foAtC<u would make ^aXtaaf .
3. On the same principle with p?r7?f, verbal adjectives in rof have
the short penult as coming from the third person singular of perfects pas-
<>iv< with short penults in irai or vrai ; thus, uxptrof, from d and
rat ; dAvrof, from A and A^vrtu, <Stc.
4. 'Aolroc occurs in an epigram of Diogenes Laertius (Antkol. Pal.
7, 118, 2), but this is a late innovation.
6. So #revo, Qlrvpa. On the contrary, 6\JTtvo, ^revfta. This dis-
ttnction was made by Brunck, ad Apotl. Rhod. 4, 807 ; Soph. Antig.
64fi. The conflicting paasagM, as Eurip. Alccst. 306, 1147; Opp.
Cyn. 1, 4, are altered in the latest editions, partly with the consent of
M.s.s
DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 31
It. But penultimate v is long in the following cases :
Before a vowel.
1. In
'Evvu,
flVUV,
With regard to verbs in vw, the safest rule is to re-
gard the penult of the present and imperfect as com-
mon. 1 Some, however, occur more frequently with
the long penult ; as, Jo%vw, daKpvG), %VG), $vw, Avw. 2
Others, again, are oftener found with the penult short,
of which the following is a list.
KVb) t
e/Uvw,
dprvw,
And so, likewise, all others besides nhva) and deucvvb),
which have also v/w in the present.
Before a consonant.
1. Before in v(36$.
1. The question is ably discussed by Spitzner, Gr. Pros. p. 91, seq.,
and Mallby, Lex. Pros. c. vi., p. Ixiii., 2d ed.
2. Still it must be borne in mind, that derivatives from the perfect
have the v short ; as, Atfcrif, ADrof, &c. With regard to the
verbs quoted here as having the long penult, it may be observed, that
11. nui T sonu'times makes it tfvu, though generally $vu. In Attic Greek
Brunck considers the penult to be always long. Yet all the derivatives
have short v except tivfjia ; as, iJur^p, &vaia, dvudr]?, dvaipos. So,
again, /U<j sometimes occurs in Homer, but Xvw in Attic. Another
verb, not cited above, KwAiiw, has the penult long in tragedy, but some-
times short in comedy. And yet the future is always /cwAucrw. Sand-
ford, Gr. Pros. p. 346, in noti*.
I DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
2. Before y in
3. Before 6 in
Porpvdov,
4; Before & in
5. Before K in
OVKOV
6. Before A, in
rpvyuv,
, and other com-
pounds of Kvdo$ .
a to putrefy ,-"
corruption ;"
ipvKu, and so
KarepvKaKto,
reOvica, &c.
,&c.
7. Before ju in most verbals in vfia, from verbs in vu ;
1. But ftapfiapvyr) is shortened. CW. 8, 265. ApoU. Rhod. 3, 1397.
7<Z. 4, 173.
2. K<jpi)/cof, the name of a town, is long in Dionys. Perieg. 855. hut
uritain of the same name is short. Horn. H. in ApoU. 39. No**.
9,287.
3. But *YX;, the name of a town, is short in II. 7, S31, and long in
4. The name of a man, H. 6, IS. On the contrary, AfC/lof, and all
other forms from the noun fvfov, are short, the noun fDAov itself alwajrt
having the short penult.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
33
as, dv^a, Kvpa, kvpa, dprvpa, ^rjvvpa, idpvfia, &c.
Except, however, epvpa, Tr/lv/m, pi^a, "a river" 1 &c.,
which are invariably short.
In tfv^df, * animus" and its compounds, dOv[J,o$, pdOv-
/iOf , &c. But dv^o?, '* thymus" has the penult short.
In the first person present indicative active of all verbs
in V\LI ; as, deiKvvpi, fyvyvvpi, &c. But the v is short
in the passive and middle of the same part; as, (5et/c-
vvpai, ^evyvvpat.
In the plural cases of the pronoun av ; as,
vplv, v^df.
In the following words :
dflVfACJV,
Karddpvpa,
8. Before v in the present of verbs in vvo> ; as,
drpvvu, nkvvG), &c. ; but when they terminate in
the v is short ; as, TrAvvew, &c.
In the following words :
rvvr),
Aircrvva,
afivva,
KOpVVT), 3
TOpVVT],
JJ,VV7J,
Btdvvov.
1. But frvfia, " draught," " protection." Herm. Orph. Hymn. 10, 22.
2. But 'Anivdvvos, as a proper name, is shortened. Anth. Pal. xi.,
429.
3. As a general rule, it may be said that trisyllables in wi? have
the long quantity. Yet there are exceptions. Draco himself, who
the general rule, quotes Kopvvy, Tapvvij, and ropvvrj as shorten-
ed in the epic and lengthened in the Attic writers. Kopvvrj, however,
already fluctuates in the epic ; thus, short in Homer, E. 7, 143 ; Apoll.
34 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT.
9. Before TT in AVTTT;, ypvrrof, ravvrrovf, and in the ob-
lique cases of yvij), vnoc, and ypvy>, VTTO$.
10. Before p in all verbs in vpw ; as, (pvpu, avpo), dOvpu,
KvpG), fivpct, &c. ; but when they terminate in ew the
v is short ; as, /cvpew, iiaprvpeu, TropQvpeu.
In the following words :
dyicvpa, 1 Tvp6$ , " cheese" (but
ye<pvpa,
Kivvpa,
hdcpvpa,
7rup6$ , " wAeaJ" (but
, from
Tt)pof, Tyre"),
mrvpov*
1 1 . Before <r it is almost always long ; as,
Xpvoog, "A^pvcro^, Ka^6v(77/f, <fcc. Except verbals
in i)a^f ; as, Aixrjf, avvai, &c.
. 2, 99, 115 ; TAcocrt/. /d. 7, 9 : 9, 23 ; and long in TAom/. 7d.
25, 63 ; Nicand. Alex. 409 ; Leonid. Tarent. Epigr. 34, 3. Notwith-
standing, however, that the long quantity in wrj predominates with the
Attics, it is remarkable, as Draco observes, that Eupolis has always
shortened ropvvrj. But bdvvij, as sprung from a short root, is always
short in the middle syllable, and so its derivatives ; as, iirudvvof, ircpt-
odvvof, &c. Spitzncr, Gr. Pros. p. 122.
1. The rule appears to be, that the proparoxy tones in vpa of the fem-
inine gender have the v long. On the other hand, paroiytones in vpa
are mostly short ; as, Tropyvpa (v), jiMpa (v), &c. Except
(0) mentioned above.
2. Most dissyllables, however, in vpa have the penult short ; as,
dvpa, together with their derivatives ; as, dvpaiof, IvpiKOf, &c.
3. Always long in Homer and the epic writers, but always short among
the Attics. Maltby, ad verb.
4. Neuters in vpov, derived from liquid verbs or other long roots,
have the v long ; but those not so derived have the penult short ; as,
t .
\V r e have Tr^tyuf in Homer, Od. 9, 486, and to, also, Apoll.
Rhod. 4, 1269. But Hlomfu-Ul (Clot*, ad Chuej>lt. 1HO) supposes both
these passages to stand in need of correction, and Knight actually re-
jects the former. Sandjurd, O'r. 1'rvs. p. 3-18. Compare Spitxncr,
Gr. Prog. p. 123.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 35
12. Before r in derivatives in vrrjp, vrrjg, and vri? ; as,
In adjectives in vrog, derived from long verbal roots in
va) ; as, ddaKpvrog, TrokvddKpvroc;, dMrpvros, arpv-
rof, &c.
In trisyllables in vrof, which lengthen the preceding
syllable ; as, BT/pvrdf, ywpvrd^, Kw/cvrdf , &c. But
names derived from adjectives in v$ have the short
penult ; as, AITTVTO^ , Evpvrog.
In the following words :
pvrwp,
pVTTJ, (3pVTOV,
;, and sometimes
Avrwp. 2
13. Before <f> in
ovpap,
14. Before % in verbs in v^w ; as, {3pv%G), rpv^w, and
their compounds ; but v in ftpv^iog is short.
In the following words :
y, being derived from a second aorist, has
its penult short. 4
1. Yet ftvTrjp has the short penult. In like manner, nouns in vrj?f,
from adjectives in vf , eta, v, are short ; as, (3pa6vTjj, bt-vTijc, Ta%vfijf.
2. This long penult in Xurwp is extremely doubtful. The verse quo-
ted in support of it from the Anthology (Leonid. Alex. Ep. 29, 4. An-
thol. Pal. ix., 359) has now frvropa, which also stands in the Palatine
MS. Hence "kvrfjpios, besides the usual hv-riipioc, will also admit of
great doubt. Spitzner, Gr. Pros. p. 161.
3. But upyv^of, Ko<r<n50of, &c., have the v short.
4. Porson, ad Eurip. Orest. 62. On the same principle we have
diarplMi with the short penult, although the verb is diarptdu, because it
is derived from the second aorist
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
VIII.
Of the Doubtful Voioels before the Penultimate.
I. Of a before the penultimate.
I. A before the penult is generally short ; as,
II. But a before the penult is long in the following cases :
A privative.
A privative, though naturally short, may be lengthened
when three short syllables follow ; as, dfldvarof, dd-
;, &C. 1
A before a vowel.
devao$? idopai,
depiog,
1. In
"Aoveg,
flidopai,
, and other deriv-
atives,
ddro^,
avvdopof,
Trpavvcj.
2. The verb do> has the a common. On the other hand,
dioou has the a long in Homer, while in Attic Greek
1. Porson, ad Eurip. Med. 139.
2. But a is short in those compounds of uei where the adverb stands
complete ; as, tmpvrof , uet'AaAof , aeifivijorof.
3. According to Maltby there is no duurof with short penult ; but long
antepenult, " innoxious."
4 . According to the same eminent scholar, it is adrof, " noxious ;"
.r, l.y contraction, drof, " insatiabilis."
' lii Homer, Od. 11, 575, we have tfa/lf, but in ApoUonms Rhodius
3, 1251, od;
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 37
it is generally a dissyllable ; or else, when a trisylla-
ble, has the a short. 1
Before a consonant.
1. Before y in
vavdyed),
vavdywv,
evdyopia,
2. Before d in
avOddia, as in
dddov, from
licerddoKO^,
Kapddoicect).
3. Before # in pddv(j,o$.
4. Before K in
Ao/cew, 8
, from
rpm/covra,
, 3 &c.,
5. Before A in
1. In Euripides, Jfcc. 31, we have d?CT(Ttj where Pierson (ad Moer. p.
301) would read uvaiaau. But consult Parson, ad loc.
2. The participle diaXoKrjoaaa lengthens the third syllable in Aris-
tophanes, Nub. 409. The subjunctive Aa/e^CTflf shortens the first in an-
other comedy of the same author. Pax. 381. (Elmsley, ad Eurip.
Med. 147.)
3. So, also, in the compounds ; as, rpm/covrd^vyof. (Theocrit. Id.
13, 74.) In the hundreds, the only ones with long a are dtunooioi and
Tptunooioi, the others having the syllable short ; as, TeaaapaKoaioi, irev-
roKoffioi, &c. So, also, TEoaepuKovTa. (Horn. II. 2, 524, 534.) The
remaining tens have y ; as, Trevr^/covra, ti-TJKovTa, &c. Later authors,
however, said also rpitkovra, according to the analogy of other numer-
als. Jacobs, ad Anth. Pal. 617, 705, 806. Spitzncr, Gr. Pros. p. 67.
D
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
6. Before u, in
7. Before v in
TiTOWOf,
evdvefiog,
evdvopia,
Kardvofiai,
8. Before TT in
9. Before p in
dpdofjiai,, Homeric,
, vdnela, dTrvw.
dpiorov,
dptardcj,
dedpiov,
10. Before o in
evicpdaia,
KOpdOlOV,
Kdodvdpa,
"Amdo^, 3
trdaaoOai, "possidere," 4
1. According to Maltby, ufidu, in the active voice, and the nouns
derived from this verb, such as a/zj/rj/p, aftrjTrjf , and apijTOf, have the o
long in Homer and Hesiod. On the other hand, apdofiai in the middle
voice, and the compound forms kirapiaaro, narafirjaaro, as well as the
form didfjujae in the active, have the a short. In later epic writers it is
common.
2. But in Attic apdopat, contr. <ip<j/z<n.
:*. So 'AtrmJj/f, with the long initial vowel. We have also 'Aaiof,
" Asian," with the long vowel, and d<ra>f, " slimy," with the a short.
The long quantity, however, in the former, and in .other words of the
kind, cannot be determined with perfect certainty, since the length may
be occasioned by the arsis. Hermann, H. H. in ApoU. 250.
4. But 7rdffaa6ai, " w*et," has the first syllable shoit. Blomficld,
Gloss, ad JEsck. Agam. 1380.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 39
11. Before r in
tfdrepov,
And in words compounded of Adc^, " a stone ;" as,
ropia, hdrofioi, Adrvrrof, &c.
12. Before <f> in oeipd(f)6po^.
13. Before ; in
raf , Doric for
T7?f, &c.
II. O/i 5e/0re the Penultimate.
I. I before the penult is generally short ; as,
eifiEvof, IK,O\LCLI, &c.
II. But i before the penult is long in the following cases :
Before a vowel.
In
ttlM, &C., 1
larpotf
Idofiai,
1 . Maltby, in his remarks on a<t>irjfj.i, says that, in Homer, the antepe-
nult of this word, and of others ending in typi, is doubtful, or, rather,
more frequently short. Among the dramatic poets, on the other hand,
it is always long. On the word awijjfjLi he afterward adds that, among
the Attics, the participle of the active, lei?, has its penult more frequent-
ly short than long, and, moreover, that the compound t~vvii)[j.t is found
three or four times with the i short, and fisOirjfii once.
2. The first syllable, however, is sometimes short, as in Aristophanes,
Ecdes. 64. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 352.
3. 'Ivfa has the first syllable always long in Homer ; but in Sophocles,
Track. 789, it occurs short. This latter word, however, has been sus-
pected by critics. So the form tvyfj has the first short in Sophocles, but
long in Nicander. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 352.
4. The first syllabic in the derivatives of mo/zat is generally long ; but
Euripides (Hippol. 295) and Aristophanes (Plut. 406) have it short in
df, and the Anthology
40
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
And in the compounds of ?o?, " an arrow ;" as, lo
lo%eaipa. But those from lov, " a violet" have it short ;
as, loeidfjs, io<JTe<f>avo$.
Before a consonant.
1. 'Before /3 in KhZ6avo$, Kpl5avo$, and
2. Before y almost always ; as in ptydw, &c.
3. Before 6 in
diKaorripIdtov,
4. Before # in
6pvl6eio<;, from
5. Before in
6. Before A in
ikadov,
1. The verb bviuu generally lengthens the second syllable among the
epic writers, a* also in Sophocles, Antig. 319. The second syllable in
ui'Kifinr is shortened by Euripides and Aristophanes, and lengthened by
Sophocles, Antig. 316. But the third syllable is everywhere long.
Portan, ad Eurip. Phoen. 1334.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
41
7 Before \L in
ipeipu,
filfj,7]fj,a,
TlfUOf,
8. Before v in verbs in tvew, and their derivatives ; as,
In the following :
iviov,
9. Before TT in
Trplvidiov,
tTTOW
Tplvafcpia,
aTrorlvofjLCU
plirifa,
And in AtTrop^, "persevering;" but
has the first syllable short. 8
1. Following the quantity of Ofil^j].
2. And all other derivatives from rififi.
3. Yet K.lvoBio\ia. in ^Eschylus, Prom. v. 124.
4. Consult Blomfield, ad Prom. v. 53.
5. 2w>/zat, " Iinjure" but atvof, "injury." Nicand. Ther. 1, 653.
JJ*cA. ^am. 563. Hence also otvie, " a robber.' 1 Callim. H. ad
Apoll. 95.
6. Following the quantity of Evpnrof . Compare Barnes, Eurip. Vit.
4, and the authorities there cited.
7. Following the quantity of kvlirfi.
8. Compare Markland, ad Eurip. Iph. Aul. 304. Blomfield, ad
D2
42 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
10. Before p almost always ; as, 2eppa/Laf, &c.
11. Before a in
alovubpiov.
And in compounds and derivatives from iao$ ; as, lodv-
12. Before r in
Zre'a, 3
13. Before in
14. Before % in
III. O/" i> &e/brc ^e penultimate.
I. T before the penult is generally short ; as, '
yvpeos, &c.
II. But v before the penult is long in the following cases :
Before a vowel.
JEsch. Prom. v. 629. On the other hand, Afrrof, "fat" though con-
sidered as long by some grammarians, is probably always short.
1. The measure Sfou^of, formerly in Theognis, v. 622, has been al-
tered by Jortin, Dissert, vi., p. 229, and Porson, Advers. p. 313. The
Modena MS., collated by Bekker, verifies the proposed change.
2. Consult note 1, page 30.
3. Hence, also, Zr^vof, Theocrit. Id. 16, 79. But 'Iruv, H. 2, 696,
and 'Iruv/f, a surname of Minerva, Apoll. Rhod. 1, 661, fluctuate.
4. Consult note 6, i)a<_'. tn
6. But the first syllable is sometimes short in Attic Greek. Com-
pare Blomjield, ad JEtch. Pert. 83.
6. Long in Homer, short in the tragic writers. JEtch. Agam. 76.
Soph. Track. 783. Eurip. Hippd. 266.
DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
43
Before a consonant.
1. Before (3 in rj
2. Before y in
<f>pvyavov.
3. Before 6* in (j,v6akeo$, [ivdaivto, and in the compounds
and derivatives of Kv6o$ ; as, Kvdd^tfio^, Kvd^io^^ &c.
4. Before $ in epv6pid(), epvdidb), and napafivOeofiai,
with other compounds of fiv6o^.
5. Before in epva;ea>, and other compounds of epvica).
In the following :
KapvKonoiti,
And other derivatives from Kijpv!-, VKO$.
6. Before A in
7. Before in
fJLVjJ,6(0,
And in compounds and derivatives from
, &c.
; as,
1. Long in Homer, short in Attic. <4mfopA. Pax. 843. 4n/A. Pa/.
vii., 166, 3.
2. In Homer, 77. 5, 749, /zv/cov is the second aorist.
3. But &VMLKLOV seems to have the first syllable sometimes short.
Maltby, ad verb.
44 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT.
8. Before TT in
Avrrew,
9. Before p in
yvpou,
KVpOfldL,
rpvnavov,
JCVTTOW.
fUVVpOfMt,, 1
Mvpcuva,
Kivvpopai,
6dvpo[j,ai,
KOpTVpOfWA,
10. Before a is generally long ; as in (frvadu, and some
compounds of Avw ; as, AvfTtrrovof, hvaipekfyy &c.
In the following :
ppvaiaoro$,
11. Before r in
drpvr^vrj,
ipvraMa,
12. Before in
rpvodwp,
Mvaio$.
0VTOW, but 0VTCVO),
13. Before in
1. And yet /itvvpof, from which it comes, has the v short. In like
manner, we have Ktvvpopai, from /uvfyof. Blomficld, Gloss, ad jEsck.
Ag. 15.
2. The first syllable is long in ^oo//on. /JAod. 1, 500 ; Co//im /f. ^
Dion. 206 ; but short in Callim. H. ad Afott. 72, 93. In like manner,
we have in Nonnus, Dionys. 5, 216, xtipr/vr/f, and, 516,
PART II.
METRE
METRE.
I. METRE, in its general sense, means an arrangement
of syllables and feet in verse, according to certain rules ;
and, in this sense, it applies not only to an entire verse, but
to a part of a verse, or any number of verses.
II. But a metre, in a specific sense, means a combination
of two feet, and sometimes one foot only.
III. There are nine principal metres: 1. Iambic. 2.
Trochaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic.
6. Antispastic. 7. Ionic & Majore. 8. Ionic & Minore.
9. Phonic.
IV. These names are derived from the feet which pre-
vail in them. Each species of verse would seem originally
to have been composed of those feet solely from which it
derives it name ; and other feet, equal in time, were not ad-
mitted until afterward, and then only under certain restric-
tions.
V. It must be carefully noted, that two feet make a metre
in the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic measures, but that
one foot constitutes a metre in all the rest.
VI. When a verse consists of one metre, it is called mo-
nometer; when it has two metres, dimeter ; three metres,
trimeter ; four metres, tetrameter ; five metres, pentameter ;
six metres, hexameter ; seven metres, heptameter, &c.
VII. From what has just been remarked, it follows that,
in iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a monometer con-
sists of two feet ; a dimeter of four ; a trimeter of six, &c. ;
whereas, in all the other kinds of verse, a monometer con-
sists of one foot, a dimeter of two, a trimeter of three, &c.
48 METRE.
VIII. Verses are also denominated Acatalectic^ Catalec-
tic, Brachycatalectic, and Hypercatalectic.
IX. An acatalectic verse is one that is complete in all its
parts, and comes to a full termination ; as the following,
which is iambic trimeter acatalectic : !
X. A catalectic* verse is one that wants a syllable at the
end to complete the measure ; as the following, which is
iambic trimeter catalectic :
XI. A br achy catalectic? verse is one that wants two syl-
lables at the end to complete the measure ; as the follow-
ing, which is iambic trimeter brachycatalectic :
"i--i--|--i~i
XII. A hypercatalectic 4 verse is one that has a syllable at
the end beyond the complete measure ; as the following,
which is iambic trimeter hypercatalectic :
XIII. There is also what is called an Acephalous* verse,
when a syllable is wanting at the beginning ; as the fol-
lowing, which is acephalous iambic trimeter :
XIV. Verses are also denominated Asynartete (aowdp-
when different measures are conjoined into one line
1. Acatalectic, from aKardXrjKTtKOf (u and KaraAr/yw), i. e., not hav-
ing an abrupt termination. Compare Hephastion, c. 4, p. 24, ed. Gais-
ford. 'A/caraAtyKra /tafetrat (ierpa, baa rbv rtfavraiov iroia 6%6i&itpov
2. Htphtzstion, 1. c. KaraAj/rtKu dt, 6oa fifuetufih>ov l% et T ^ TC ~
XwraZov ir6da. The term is derived from /caroXvyw, and denotes verses
that ftop before they reach their full ending.
3. Hepheution, 1. c. B/xz^vxaraAi/xru tie xa/Urroz, 6oa uirb dtiro-
filar kirl r^Xovf 6hf) iroSi ftefitiurat.
4. Hcphattion, 1. c. "fTTtpnara^riKTa cJt-, 6aa irpof rift rtfa'ty irpo-
aila&e ptpof Trodof . Some call it HypcrojcataUctie,
i. e., going beyond acatalectic.
6. AcephtUout, from u and /ce^oA^, i. e., wanting a head.
OF FEET. 49
at the pleasure of the poet ; and they are so called because
the union between the two measures is comparatively
slight, the hiatus and doubtful syllable being admitted ; as
in Horace, Epode 13.
Fervidiora mero* | arcana promorat loco.
Levare duris pectora* J sollicitudinibus.
OF FEET.
I. A foot in metre is composed of two or more syllables,
and is either simple or compound.
II. Of the simple feet, four are of two, and eight of three
syllables. The compound feet are sixteen in number, each
of four syllables.
Simple Feet.
Pyrrhichius
Spondaeus
Iambus **
Trochaeus ~ *-
Tribrachys ^ ~ ^
Molossus
Dactylus ^ ^
Anapaestus ^ ~
Bacchius ^ dvdaoei.
Antibacchius ~ fidvrevfia
Amphibrachys ftdXaaoa.
Amphimacer, or Cretic ^
Compound Feet.
Choriambus ~ ~
Antispastus ^ ^
lonicus d majore Koa^ropa.
lonicus a minore ^ ^
Paeon primus
" secundus ^ ~ ^
50 OF ISOCHRONOUS FEET.
Paeon tertius ~ -- ~
' quartus
Epitritus primus
11 secundus dv6po<f)6vri]^.
" tertius
11 quartus
Proceleusmaticus ~ ^ -' ~
Dispondaeus
Diiambus ^ ^ _ emardT7]$.
Ditrochaeus
III. To these add the Dochmius, which consists of an
antispast and a long syllable (~ -- *" ~) ; so that a simple
dochrniac is the same as an antispastic monometer hyper-
catalectic : tfewv 77 &edv. 1
IV. The conjunction of two feet is termed a dipodia or
syzygy. Most usually, however, the combination of two
dissyllabic feet is called a dipodia, and that of two trisylla-
bic, or a dissyllabic and trisyllabic, a syzygy. The con-
junction of two feet is often likewise termed a base.
OF ISOCHRONOUS FEET.
I. By isochronous feet are meant those which are inter-
changeable in metre.
IL In order to ascertain what feet are thus interchange-
able, recourse must be had to the arsis and thesis.
III. That part of a foot which receives the Ictus, the
stress of the voice, or beat of the time, is called arsis or el'
evation. The rest of the foot is termed thesis, or depres-
sion.
IV. The natural place of the arsis is the long syllable
of the foot, and hence, in the iambus, it falls on the second
syllable, in the trochee on the first, while the spondee and
tribrach leave its place alike uncertain.
1. Etym. Mag. p. 285, 85, 0. v. Ao^to6f. Seidler, de Vert.
Dochm. p. 402, stq.
ISOCHRONOUS FEET. 51
V. The fundamental foot of a verse, however, determines
the arsis lor the other feet ; and hence the spondee, in iam-
bic and anapaestic verse, has the arsis on the second sylla-
ble, but in trochaic and dactylic on the first.
VI. So, again, the tribrach, when it stands for the iam-
bus, is to be pronounced ~ ^ ~, when it stands for the tro-
chee ~ ~ "- .
VII. Now the ancients considered those feet only as iso-
chronous which were capable of being divided into parts
that were equal in time ; so that a long syllable should have
either a correspondent long syllable, or two short ones. 1
VIII. The following scheme will exemplify this more
clearly, the place of the arsis being denoted as above (VI.)
by the acute accent.
Iambus ~
Tribrach ~
Dactyl -
Spondee ~~
Trochee -
Tribrach ~ ~
Anapaest ~ "-'
Spondee ~~
IX. By this we perceive that the iambus and trochee are
each interchangeable with the tribrach ; and that the dac-
tyl, spondee, and anapaest are interchangeable with each
other.
X. In like manner it will appear that the iambus and
trochee are not interchangeable, and that an iambus never
admits a trochee into iambic verse, nor a trochee an iam-
bus into trochaic verse. Thus,
Iambus ^
Trochee
The long syllable of the iambus has neither a corre-
spondent long syllable in the trochee, nor two short ones.
And the case is the same with the long syllable of the tro-
chee. Hence the two feet are not interchangeable or iso-
chronous. 2
1. Daiccs, Miscellanea Critica, p. 62. p. 103, ed. Kidd.
2. For this reason the scholiast on He haestion (p. 76, ed Gaisf.) calls
52
IAMBIC VERSE.
XI. Again, it may be shown, in the same way, that the
spondee and amphibrach are also not interchangeable.
Thus,
Spondee
Amphibrach ~
Here, in whatsoever way the amphibrach be divided,
each division contains either more or less than the corre-
spondent part of the spondee. Hence the two feet are not
isochronous. And, for the same reason, the amphibrach u
not isochronous with the dactyl or anapaest. 1
OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE.
I. Of Iambic Verse.
I. Iambic verse derives its name from the foot which
prevails in it, namely, the iambus.
II. At first the iambus was the only foot allowed to enl
into this measure ; but, by degrees, an intermixture of other
feet was permitted, under certain restrictions.
III When a verse consists entirely of iambi, it is called
a pure iambic verse ; when other feet are introduced and
intermingled with the iambus, it is denominated a mixed
iambic.
IV The reason why other feet besides the iambus were
allowed to enter appears to have been, not only to 1
IAMBIC VERSE.
53
the difficulty of composing, but in order to remove the mo-
notonous and unpleasing effect of a succession of iambi :
and also, as in the case of the tragic trimeter, to impart
more dignity and elevation to the style. 1
V. Iambic measure admits of being constructed in all
varieties of length, from the monometer acatalectic to the
tetrameter hypercatalectic. The scales accompanying each
metre will show the isochronous feet allowed to enter, and
the places to which they are severally restricted.
1. Monometer Acatalectic, or Base.
Scale.
In this measure the iambus is allowed to enter, of course,
into both places ; but the tribrach, spondee, dactyl, and an-
apaest only into the first. The following are examples of
this species of verse :
enea' e \ rreaev.
2. Monometer Hypercatalectic.
|
j
1. Compare remarks under the iambic trimeter. The old iambic
writers, Archilochus, Solon, Simonides, seldom availed themselves of
these licenses ; the tragic writers much more frequently. Porson t
Suppl. ad Praef. ad Hec. p. xix.
E2
54
IAMBIC VERSB.
3. Dimeter Acatalectic.
Scale.
Examples.
ov OKI re TTOVT
Tal$. \\
e Tola
2yo> | 6e
evr
dva
I. In systems of iambic dimeter acatalectics the dactyl is
not often employed, the feet most commonly used being the
tribrach, spondee, and anapaest.
II. Systems of pure dimeters are not found in the tragic
writers, but systems of dimeters very frequently occur in
the lyric and comic poets, into which more or less of license
is introduced. 1
III. The comic poets, for example, in dimeter iambics,
with the exception of the catalectic dipodia, admit ana-
paests into every place, but more frequently into the first
and third than into the second and fourth. With them the
tribrach also occasionally enters into the fourth place.
Thus :
TTOV TO | (JKopodov \\ fiol TO \ yQlolvvv . \ (Arist. Ran. 1018.)
rrov fwl I Todl || rtf TOVT' | e^d6e. || (Id. Ibid. 1010.)
IV. Strictly speaking, indeed, there is no difference in
this measure between the second and fourth feet, since a
system or set of dimeter iambics is nothing more than one
long verse, divided, for convenience of arrangement, into
portions, each containing four feet. 2
1. Gauford, ad Htphctst. p. 243.
2. Elmtley'g Review of Por*on' Hecuba. (Edinb. Rev. No. 87,
Nov. 1811.)
IAMBIC VERSE. 55
V. It must be borne in mind, accordingly, that the final
syllable in dimeter iambics, as well as in dimeter trochaics
and anapaestics, is not common, but that the verses run on
by synapheia until the system is concluded by a catalectic
line. The following, from Aristophanes, will serve to il-
lustrate this point more clearly : !
\\ dnedfj \ 6oK.lv |j
TO rpvfik \ lov \\
TO mpv I alvov || TEOvrjK I epol- ||
TTOV TO \ onopodov \\ fj,ol TO | %6lolvov Q
Tif ri/f | ZXaas || iraperp | aylv ||
rewf | <5'a/3eAr || epw | repot. ||
Tidal \\ Kddfjv \ TO. || 2
Here the last syllables in the first, second, fourth, and
fifth lines, are respectively lengthened by position, through
the influence of the synapheia, and the last line of the sys-
tem is a dimeter catalectic.
4. Dimeter Catalectic.
aJkaGT | opo^ || Tit; ol$ \ v$. \\
5. Dimeter Br achy catalectic.
TKVG)V
6. Dimeter Ifypcrcatalectic.
yvval | KO<; &VT \\ lol
1. Elmsley, 1. c. Brunck, ad Arist. Ran. 984. Dawes, Mite. Crit.
p. 58, ed Gaixf. Dunbar, Gr. Pros. p. 43.
2. Ran. 984, seq.
IAMBIC VERSE.
7. Trimeter Acatalectic, or Senarius.
Scale.
Proper Names.
I. This is also called the tragic trimeter, from its em-
ployment by the Greek tragic writers, and, being the most
important of the Greek metres, will require the most ex-
tended consideration.
II. The laws of the scale, for which we are indebted to
the learning and sagacity of Person,' are as follows :
1. The iambus may enter into any place.
2. The tribrach into any place except the last.
3. The spondee into the uneven places (first, third, and
fifth).
4. The dactyl into the first and third places.
5. The anapaest only into the first. But
6. In the case of a proper name, an anapaest may enter
into any place except the last, provided always that
the anapaest be entirely contained within the proper
name, so that its two short syllables may be enclosed
between two longs in the same word.
III. The following lines will serve to illustrate these
laws :
8 no, ol
1. Pure Iambic Trimeters.
|| 6$ Ol \ dinov$ || naXov \
Irovvr a ical
\\
esov. \\
1. Suypi Prsf. ad Hec. p. w
IAMBIC TRIMETER. 57
2. Tribracks in the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth
places.
d'ev of || KOI$ 77 'v | dypol$ || o Ad | 15$ . Q
<ra d'dye || Aaif /3ov | vofiolg || ro/coZ" | al re. ||
ovv | roO' ov || rdf o ao< | df ov/e || rjvdd \ rode ; |J
fif)rpd$ | ^vyr\v \ al, /cat | ndrepd \\ Kara \ Krdvelv. \\
rl yap \ KdKcJv || dnear \ I ; rov || ndrepd \ Tfdrrjp. \\
3. Spondees in the first, third, and fifth places.
| arevdy || /Lfotf nal \ yooi<; || TrAovrt^ | eral.
4. Dactyls in the first and third places.
dpo | rov av || rolg yr\v \ avl || eval \ rlvd. jj
y'aptar || o
5. Anapaest in the first place.
eyai || /zev Z^v | 05- ol
6. Anapast of proper names in the second, third, fourth, and
fifth places.
rjv I | (friyevsl || dv w | vo\ia^ || If ev | dopol^. \\ (Iph.
A. 416.)
rerdp \ rov Inn \\ dfiedovr' \ dnear \\ elhev | rfdrr]p. jj
((Ed. Col. 1317.)
] a 4>of6 || a) Tet | pealdv, \\ nap' ov \ ri? dv. |j
((Ed. T. 285.)
lv ov |j 6el$ pv \ 60$ Avr || tyov^ | 0iAwv. j| (An-
tig. 11.)
IV. The last syllable in each verse appears to be indif-
ferently short or long ; and even where one line ends with
a short vowel, a vowel is often found in the beginning of
the next ; as in the following instances from the (Edipus
Tyrannus :
riva$ rtoO* edpa$ rdade
^od^ere, )
ievoi ; 5 V ' '
58 IAMBIC TRIMETER.
trap' dyyeAwv, reicva, ) fl .
vrb^ d>d' i^XvOa. \ Y<
tcoveiv,
V. Sometimes, however, one verse, with its final vowel
elided, passes by scansion into the next, but only when a
long syllable precedes ;' as,
aol (paaiv avrbv e$ Xoyovg ikdelv pokovr'
alrelv, anekdelv r' da^aAw^ r^ devp' odov.
((Ed. Col 1164, 5.)
VI. The admissibility of the tribrach into an iambic line
arises from the circumstance of its being an isochronous
foot ; its exclusion from the last place in the trimeter turns
upon a principle of rhythm ; since a tragic trimeter, with
such a concluding cadence, would be anything else but grave
and dignified.
VII. The introduction of the spondee into an iambic line
was owing to the wish of imparting to the verse a greater
degree of weight and dignity,' 2 as well as of interrupting the
monotonous cadence which a succession of iambi would
have produced.
VIII. The admission of the spondee opened the door, of
course, for the other feet that were isochronous with it, and
in this way the dactyl and anapaest were each allowed to
come in.
IX. The reason why the iambus was retained in the
even places appears to have been this : that, by placing the
spondee first and making the iambus to follow, greater em-
phasis was given to the corresponding syllable of each
metre 3 on which the ictus and pause took place, than
1. Parson, ad Med. 510. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Mctr. p. 23, teq.
Tote, Introd. p. 3.
3. Horat. Ep. ad Pit. 255.
3. BY metre is here meant a dipodia or conjunction of two t
which there are three in the trimeter. In reciting iambic verses it ww
usual to make a slight pause at the termination of every second foot,
with an emphasis on its final syllabic. Thus, Terentianus Maurus (de
Metr. 2193, teq., p. 101, ed Lcnncp.), speaking of the trimeter, says,
" Sed terfentur : hinr trimttrus <//
Scandendo binot quod pedet conjungimu* ."
IAMBIC TRIMETER 59
would have been the case had two long syllables stood to-
gether.
X. With regard to the use of the tribrach in the tragic
trimeter, the following particulars must be noted: 1. That,
though admissible into all places of the verse except the
yet it is very rarely found in the fifth place. 2. That
the second syllable of a tribrach (as of a dactyl) must not
be a monosyllable incapable of beginning a verse, or the
last syllable of a word. 3. That the preposition ef must
not form the second syllable of a tribrach. 1
XI. On the use of the dactyl in this same measure the
following must be noted : 1 . The dactyl, though admissible
into both the first and third places, is more common in the
third than the first place of the verse. 2. A dactyl is whol-
ly inadmissible into the fifth place. 2 3. The first syllable
of a dactyl in the third place should be either the last of a
word, or a monosyllable, except in the case of proper
names. 3 4. The second syllable of a dactyl in either
place should not be either a monosyllable incapable of be-
ginning a verse (as &v, yap, 6e, pev, re, &c.), or the last
syllable of a word. 4 5. The preposition e$ must not be the
second syllable of a dactyl in either place.
XII. On the use of the initial anapaest in the tragic trim-
eter, observe as follows : The anapaest admissible into
And again, v. 251, seq.
" Secundo iambum nos necesse est redderc,
Qui sedis hujus jura semper obtinet,
Scandendo et illic ponere assuetam moram,
Quam pollicis sonore, vcl plausu pedis,
Discriminare, qui decent artcm, solent."
The caesural pause, however, in the tragic trimeter, was the control-
ling melody, and the marking of the metres was always made in sub-
servience to this. Compare the remarks of Dawes, Misc. Crit. p. 361,
ed. Ktdd.
1. Sandfortfs Greek Prosody, p. 280, seq.
2. Parson, Preef. ad Hec.
3. Dunbar, Gr. Pros. p. 51.
4. This canon is occasionally violated by the tragic poets, especially
in the first place of the verse. Elmsley, ad Eurip. Bacch. 285.
60 IAMBIC TRIMETER.
the first place is generally included in the same word.
The only exceptions are where the line begins either with
an article, or with a preposition followed immediately by
its case ; as in Philoct. 754, Tov loov %povov. Eur. Orest.
888, 'E?u rojde d'ijyopevov. Jph. A. 502, Hop' ipol. 1
XII. The anapaest in proper names is allowed, in order
to bring into the tragic trimeter certain names of persons
that would otherwise be unable to enter. 2 And, in order to
soften down this license, it is probable that proper names
so introduced were pronounced with a hurried utterance,
so as to carry only ^ to the ear. 3
XIV. A few instances occur where the proper name be-
gins with an anapaest ; as, MeveAaoc, Hpidpov, <fcc. Elm-
sley considers all such cases as corrupt, but Porson's judg-
ment seems to lean the other way. 4
XV. With regard to the use of resolved or trisyllabic
feet, it is to be observed, 1. That more than two should
not be admitted into the same verse. 6 2. That trisyllabic
feet should not concur. 6
XVI. Enclitics, when so used, and other words incapa-
ble of beginning a sentence, are incapable of beginning a
senarian. 7
XVII. The verb fort or tarty is very rarely found in
the beginning of a senarian, except it is the beginning of a
1. Monk, ad Soph. Elcctr. 4. (Mus. Crit. vol. i., p. 63.)
2. Elmsley, in Ed. Rev., Nov., 1811.
3. Tate, Introd., p. 36, seq. Dr. Clarke is entitled to the merit of
having discovered this principle. Long proper names are, from their
very nature, liable to be rapidly spoken, and thus 'Avrtyov/, Nov7ir<5-
Af/tof, 'Ifyiyivtia, &c., might be easily slurred into something like Avr*-
yovjy, Not>7rr'Af//of, 10'yevao, &c. The ear, of course, would find no
cause of offence, and the eye take no cognizance of the matter. ( Clarke^
ad 11. 2, 811. Tote, I.e.)
4. Elmsley, in Ed. Rev. 1. c.Porson, Suppl. Prctf. ad Hee.
5. Clots. Journ. No. 64, p. 309.
6. This rule is sometimes violated by the tragic poets. Consult Sand-
ford, Gr. Pros. p. 282, seq. in rotis.
7. Elmsley, ad Soph. Aj. 985. (Mus. Crit. vol. i.,p. 367.) Id. ad
Soph. (Ed. T. 1084.
IAMBIC TRIMETER. Gl
sentence also, or some pause, at least, in the sense has
preceded. 1
XVIII. Some Doric forms are retained in the tragic dia-
lect ; thus, always, 'A0dva, dapdf, e/eart, Kvvayog, noda-
yog, Ao^aydf, i-evayog, dnadog. To these, mentioned by
Porson, 2 may be added the following, as given by Monk : 3
apape, t9a/cof, and compounds, yarrovof, yaTrerr/f, ydiredov,
ydpopog, ydrrorog, ydropog, Kapavov, and its compounds.
XIX. Forms of Ionic (epic) Greek are also found in the
tragic dialect ; as, t-elvog, povvog, Kelvog, TroAAdf , 4 &c.
XX. The augment is never omitted by the tragic writers
except in the case of %pr)v for e%pr[v. As to avuya, this
preterit has no augment in Attic, although the pluperfect
has. (CEd. Cul. 1598.) In like manner, the tragic writers
do not prefix the augment to KaOe^o^v, KaOrj^v, naOevdov,
though the comic writers sometimes give it. A double
augment is occasionally allowed in tragedy, as in Tj
being likewise found). 5
Of the Cassura in the Tragic Trimeter.*
I. One of the greatest beauties in a tragic trimeter is the
caesura.
II. The tragic trimeter has two principal caesuras, one
on the penthemimeris, or fifth half foot ; as,
Kivdvvos eo%e | dopl ireaelv 'EAAT/vj/cw,
and the other on the hephthemimeris, or seventh half foot ;
as,
IIoA^aJv Aoywv evprjfiaO' \ &are prj davelv.
III. A line is esteemed deficient in harmony, and not
perfect, which is without the caesura. Many lines have
1. Elmslcy, ad Eurip. Herod. 386.
2. Porson, ad Eurip. Orcst. 26.
3. Ad, Eur. Hippol. 1093.
4. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 286, seq.
5. Porson, Suppl. ad Prcef. ad Hec. p. xvi.
C. Porson, Suppl. ad Prcef. ad Ihc. p. xxiv.
62 IAMBIC TRIMETER.
both; but the penthemimeral is more frequent than the
hephthemimeral in the proportion of four to one.
IV. The caesura is allowed to fall on a monosyllable, ei-
ther with or without the elision, as well as on the last syl-
lable of a word. Thus,
Kal vvv ri TOVT' av \ <f>aal iravdrimp ndket.
Kal revf-erai rovd' \ ovd' ddtoprjTos fakcw.
'AAA' bv 7r6ki$ arvyel, av \ Tifj,f]aei$ rd(fx>. j
"Orav yap ev 0pov^, rod' \ ^yT/aei av v&v.
V. A verse, however, is not faulty which has what Por-
son terms the quasi-casura ; that is, when after the third
foot there is an elision of a short vowel, either in the same
word or in such a word as 6e, fie, ae, ye, re, attached to
it; 1 thus,
Kevrelre, fir) <f>eidea6\ \ ya> 'TEKOV Hdpiv.
Tvvai^i 7TOpdevoi,$ r' \ a7r66Ae7rrof pera.
VI. A verse sometimes occurs without either caesura or
quasi-caesura ; but the third and fourth feet are never com-
prehended in the same word. 2
VII. There are two minor divisions of the verse, name-
ly, one which divides the second, and one which divides
the fifth foot ; thus,
1. Elmsley ingeniously defends verses of this formation by a hypoth-
esis that the vowel causing the elision might be treated as appertaining
to the preceding word, and be so pronounced as to produce a kind of
hephthemimeral caesura. Elms, ad Aj. 1100. (Mus. Crit. vol. i., p.
477.) Tale, Introd. p. 6.
2. If the third and fourth feet were comprehended in one and the
same word, a most inelegant and inharmonious division of the line into
three equal parts would unnecessarily be the result. As in the following :
fj Kapf &p' av
Compare the remark of Victorinus (p. 2525), " pcssimus autem versus^
qui singula verba in dipodiis habct,
" Pratentium. \ divinitas \ cttlestium."
Hermann seeks to limit this rule of Person's by making the regulation
not absolute in its nature, but only highly approved of by the tragic wri-
ters. EUm. Doctr. Metr. p. 71, ed. Glasg.
IAMBIC TRIMETER. 63
1. To rrotov | ev ydp TrdAA' av etjevpoi \iaJdzlv.
2. 'Apxfjv (3pa%etav el hdpotpev \ eknidog.
The former of these divisions, though not necessary, is
agreeable ; the latter constitutes what is called the Cretic
termination, 1 and leads to the consideration of the
Porsonian Pause.
I. When the iambic trimeter has, after a word of more
than one syllable, the cretic termination ( - ), 2 either
included in one word ; as
Kpvnrovra xelpa nal npoavnov e^LTrd^lv ;
or consisting of ^ and a syllable ; as,
Kf)6o$ tie Tovfiov Kal obv ovKer' earl dfj.
Xalp', ov yap r\\Civ eari rovro aol ye pjv.
or of a monosyllable and ~ ; as,
KaAw \LZV el-na^ , dvyarep, dAAd rai icafa*).
then the fifth foot must be an iambus. 3
II. Hence the following lines are faulty in metre :
"ArAaf 6 %a%,KKOiGi, v(t)TQi$ ovpavov (Eurip. Ion. 1 ) ;
To fif] pdraiov d' etc jLtercjrrwv aufypovuv (jEsch. Suppl.
206);
and are to be corrected as follows : 4
1. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 290.
2. The cretic is only another name for the amphimacer.
3. This is Person's celebrated canon for the pause in tragic trimeters,
given in the Supplement to his Preface to the Hecuba. Elmsley (Ed-
int>. Rev. No. 37) gives the same rule in other words, but not so clearly.
" The first syllable of the fifth foot must be short, if it ends a word of
two or more syllables." The reason why the tragic poets observed this
rule respecting the fifth foot of a senarius is sought to be explained as
follows by Hermann : " Causa autem quare ista vocabulorum divisio
dispticcrc dcbet, hac cst. Quoniam in fine cujusque versus, ubi, exhaus-
tis jam prupr.nwduiH pulmonibus, lemor pronunciationis decursus desid-
tratur, aspcriora omnia, quo d tjir.il i us pronunc.iantur, eo magis etiam
aures la-dunt : proptcrca sedulo evitatur ilia vocabulorum conditio, qua
ultimum versus ordincm longiore mora a prcecedente disjungit, eaque re.
decursum numrrnrum impcdit ac retartlat."
4. Porson, Suppl. ad Pmf. ad Hoc. p. xxxvi. Elmsley, Edinb. Rn.
No. 37.
64 IAMBIC TRIMETER.
6 VCJTOIS ftaknioiaiv ovpavov.
Td fjt.fi pdraiov 6' in iLeruiroodtypovuv.
III. But when the second syllable of the fifth foot is a
monosyllable incapable of beginning a verse, such as av,
av, yap, de, fiev, ovv, together with all enclitics, used as
such, then the fifth foot may be a spondee ; l as,
2v 6' T\\LIV 7j fiiaovoa, piael^ fiev koya).
Snevdupev, kyuov&iiev' rjyov uol yepov.
IV. The particle av is of most frequent occurrence in
this position ; with respect to which, it must be observed
that it is in this case invariably subjoined to its verb, which
always suffers elision ; as in the following line : 2
E \IQL keyois TTJV oiftiv, eiTTOip' av TOTS.
V. The fifth foot must also be an iambus, although the
cretic termination comes after a monosyllable, when that
monosyllable is incapable of beginning a verse. Hence
the following line is wrong :
Tiva$ hoyovg epovaiv, ev yap roi \iaQelv (CEd. Col. 115) ;
and we should read, with Elmsley, iv <5e rw \iadelv?
VI. Nor should ear', by elision for iarl, form the first
syllable of the fifth foot. 4
VII. Thus it appears that there are only three cases in
which the fifth foot may be a spondee.
1. (By far the most frequent) when both syllables of the
fifth foot are contained in the same word.
1. Person, ibid. p. xxxi. The words in the text, "used as fuck,"
refer to the circumstance of the pronouns <rot, poi, pe, as, &c., being
sometimes emphatic. Sandfonl, dr. Pros. p. 291.
2. Parson, ibid. p. xxxii. Sandford, Cr. Pros. p. 292.
:j. ttlmslty, Edinb. Rev. No. 37. This extension of the Poreonian
canon, though proceeding from Elmsley, has not met with the universal
acquiescence of scholars. Compare Matlhia, ad Eurip. Pharntss. 403
(414), and Scholffield, ad Pars. Eurip. p. 308. (Phn-mss. 111.)
4. Elmsley, ad Eurip. Bacck. 246. " His exceptif, nullum scnarium
apud tragicos cxvstcrc puto, qui, in initio quinti pcdi*, lor 1 vcl tar 1 ha-
bettt."
IAMBIC TRIMETER. 65
2. \Vhen the first syllable of the fifth foot is a monosyl-
lable capable of beginning a verse, and not disjoined
from the following syllable by any pause in the sense.
3. When the second syllable of the fifth foot is a mono-
syllable incapable of beginning a verse. 1
Of Elision and Apharesis in the Iambic Trimeter.
I. In the iambic trimeter the short vowels e, o, and the
doubtful a, i, are elided when the next word begins with a
vowel.
II. But the o of Ttpo is not elided, nor the i of irepi ; in
other words, the Attics never place npo or Trepi before a
word beginning with a vowel. 2 In compounds npo is con-
tracted with e or o, as rcpovKeipeOa, Trpovnrog, &c.
III. The i of the dative plural, third declension, is never
elided by the Attic poets, that of the dative singular very
rarely. 3
IV. The elision of e before the particle av is very rare.
There are ten instances in Attic poetry similar to eypai/>' av,
for eypai/>a av, for one similar to eypai/>' av, for eypaijje av*
1. Elmsley, Edinb. Rev. No. 37. Some apparent exceptions to the
Porsonian canon are not real exceptions : thus, where ovfo/f and pndeif,
so given, ought, in Attic orthography, to be written ov6' tif, and /nrjS'
etf ; and where, in the plays of Sophocles, #/ih>, vptv, are exhibited as
spondees, with the last syllable long, whereas that poet employed these
pronouns thus, rjfj.iv vfj.iv, with the last syllable short. Porson, Suppl.
Pratf. p. xxxv. Elmsley, 1. c. Sandfard, Gr. Pros. p. 293, in notis.
2. Compare Porson, ad Eurip. Med. 284. " Tragici nunt/uam in
senarws, trochaicos, aut, puto, anapastos legilimos, Kepi admiitunt ante
vocalcm, sivc in eadem, sive in diversis vocibus. Into ne in melica qui-
dem verbum vcl substantivum hujusmodi compositionis intrare sinunt ;
raro admodum adjcctivum vel adverbium."
3. " Elmsley," observes Sandford, "denies the legitimacy of the elis-
ion in any instance ; Porson, in the preface to the Hecuba, inclines to
be more lenient. There are, unquestionably, instances of this elision in
Attic verse which all the ingenuity of Elmsley has failed to remove ;
but from its extreme rarity it is inadmissible in modern composition."
Gr. Pros. p. 297, in notis.
4. Ehnslfif, ad Eurip. Mcd. 416. Blomfield, however, limits this
canon of Elmsley's to those cases where confusion might otherwise
arise ; viz., where first aorists and perfects are employed. " Neque
hanc elisioncm poetis Atticis displicuisse credo, pratcrquam in iis vocibus ,
F2
66 IAMBIC TRIMETER.
V. The long vowels 77, G>, and the doubtful v, are never
elided.
VI. A diphthong cannot be elided before a short or doubt-
ful vowel.
VII. The diphthongs of the nominative plural of nouns
are never elided either in Attic or Homeric Greek.
VIII. The diphthong at is never elided by the tragic
writers in the first or third persons of verbs, nor in the in-
finitive. 1
IX. The elision of 01, even in the words /iot, <rot, TO, is
totally denied by some scholars, 2 and allowed by others only
in the case of olpoi before w. 3
X. The short vowel is sometimes, in Attic Greek, cut
off by aphaeresis from the beginning of a word, after a long
vowel or diphthong in the close of the preceding word.*
XL The instances in which the initial a appears to be
so cut off, are, according to Elmsley, better referred to era-
sis. Hence, in his opinion, such forms as prf 'fiadel and
f*7f 'noTLaaadat^ ought to be pronounced \ia\LaJdvi and pdno-
riaaaOat. 5
Of Crasis and Synizesis.
I. The article, followed by a short, always coalesces into
ubi confugio inde oriri posset, i. e., in aoristis primis tt perfecti*."
Blomf. ad jEsch. Choeph. 841.
1. Erfurdt, ad Soph. Aj. 190, where an examination and correction
of the different passages that militate against this canon may be seen.
On the same side is Elmsley, ad Eurip. Jph. Taur. 678. (Mu*. Crit.
vol. ii., p. 292.) Hermann, however, seems inclined not to make the rule
so absolute a one, in his remarks on Soph. Philoct. 1060. " Non ubiquc
equidcm disionem diphthongi defendarn, sed hie earn nolim sine librorum
auctoritafe removeri. Nam minus suavitcr ad aures accedit faif&rjooftai
cum ictu in ultima ante cttsuram," &c.
'J I'lnuUy, ad Eurip. Med. 56. " Sed hodie inter omnes fere eru~
ditos convemt, dativum uol disionem pati non posse, licet cum qutbus-
dam voeibut per cratin coaletcere poisit."
3. Blomjield, Remarks on MaUhiat, G. G. p. xxivii., third rdition.
Incor[x>rated into the fifth edition by Kcnrick, p. 87. Compare Soph.
Aj. b%l.Koen. ad Greg. Corinth, p. 171.
4. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 299, in notis.
6. Elmtley, ad Eurip. Heracl. 460.
IAMBIC TRIMETER. 67
long a ; as, 6 avfjp into 'dvrjp ; rov dv6pd$ into rdvdpdf,
and the like. 1
II. Kal never makes a crasis with ev, except in com-
pounds ; and never with del.
III. In words joined by crasis, as Kan, icdv, nav (for Kal
ert, Kal eX Kal av), and the like, i should not be subscribed
except where Kal forms a crasis with a diphthong contain-
ing an iota ; as, Kara for Kal elra ; but Kara for Kal em, &c.
IV. MT/ ov and ^ ov always coalesce into one syllable
with the Attics ; thus, TO p/ ov rod' ayyo? (Track. 622),
is to be pronounced TO ubv rod' ayyo^, &c.
V. Both in tragic and comic versification, a very frequent
synizesis occurs in the words f) eldevai, and ur) etdevai ; in
irfd ov, in eyw ov, and in the concurrence of w ov, and w e* .
VI. The tragic writers make the genitive singular and
plural of the third declension in ew^ , ewv either monosyl-
labic or dissyllabic, as suits the verse.
Of Hiatus in the Iambic Trimeter? &c.
I. Hiatus of any kind is not admitted by the tragic wri-
ters into their iambic and trochaic measures. But observe
that,
II. When a vowel in the end of a word, after another
vowel or diphthong, is elided, a collision takes place be-
tween the preceding vowel or diphthong and the vowel or
diphthong at the beginning of the next word ; thus,
Haa&v avaidei' ev 6' eTToirjaaf jLtoAwv,
TeKfirjpi' dvOp&rfOLOiv tiTraoag aa(j)rj.
III. The hiatus after n and bri is admitted in comedy ;
as, ri av, Arist. Thesm. 852 ; ri av, Plut. 464 ; on, d%-
6eaerai, Av. 84 ; on ov, Ach. 516, &c.
IV. In exclamations and the use of interjections, the
1. Dawes, Misc. Cnt. p. 481, ed. Kidd.Matthia G. G. $ 54. The
lonians and Dorians, on the contrary, contracted u'v;/p, rwvfyof, &c.
2. Sandford's Or. Pros. p. 308.
68 IAMBIC TRIMETER.
tragic writers sometimes allow a long vowel or diphthong
to stand before a vowel ; thus,
'Ororo?, AVKEI' "Arro/Uov- o? VG>, fyc5. ! (JZsch. Ag. 1228.)
T Q OVTO$ Afof, devrepov oe TtpooKokti. (Soph. Aj. 89.)
V. Interjections, such as 0ei>, </>ev, &c., often occur extra
metrvm, and sometimes other words, especially in passages
of emotion; thus,
Tdkaiva- OVK eanv aAA?/- (pcudpd y' ovv air' dpudrarv*
VI. The diphthongs at and 01 are occasionally shorten-
ed by the Attic poets before a vowel in the middle of a
word ; 3 as,
TLaJidtov re -thjaavpiofjia Aiovvaov rode. (Eurip. Electr.
500.)
a|it' av rolavrq %eipi n^pelv t9e/lo4. (CEd. T. 140.)
Of the Comic and Satyric Trimeter*
I. The comic iambic trimeter admits an anapaest into the
first five places of the verse ; as,
Kdrddd \ Kdrd6d \\ ndrd6d \ Kdrd6d (| Kdrddfj \ aofiai. \\
(Vesp. 979.)
II. It also admits a dactyl into the fifth place ; thus,
HvOoip | eO' av \\ rbv %pria\i \ bv i] || \>v orl \ voeL |j
(Plut. 55.)
III. It allows of lines without caesura ; and, though some-
what rarely, such also as divide the line by the dipodia of
scansion ; thus,
1. Compare the language of Blomficld. ad loc. " Notanda eat ultima
raxL TOV iyu in hiatu porrecta. Hoc ut rcctc Jiat, hiatu* in ictum c-
e debet."
-2 <1M. Col. 318. Compare Trach. 1087. Electr. 1159, kc.
3. Compare page 4, note 3.
1 Qvtfarit ad Htphast. p. 242. Tote, Introd. p. 9. Hermann,
EUm. Doctr. Mctr. p. 80, cd. Glatg.
IAMBIC TRIMETER. 69
Ji rbv avOpunov Kaiuara rovrovi. (Plut. 68.)
epetf | rtiv apnekuv \ rerprmtvuv ; (Ach. 183.)
IV. It violates the rule respecting the Porsonian pause ,
thus,
yeveoOai napa^povovvro^ \ deanorov. (Plut. 2.)
enparrov Kal Trevrjs TJV \ Oldd rot. (Ib. 29.)
rov dv6pa nal rbv opviv \ rov $eov. (Ib. 63.)
V. It permits also the concurrence of resolved feet, yet
not so that an anapaest should come after a dactyl or tribrach.
VI. The iambic trimeter of the satyric drama appears, in
its structure, to occupy a middle place between the nicety
of the tragic laws and the extreme license of comedy ; as
far, indeed, as we are able to form any opinion concerning
it from the scanty remains that have come down to oui
times. 1
VII. The anapaest is found, as in the case of the comic
trimeter, in the first five places of the verse ; the pause is
in like manner neglected, and trisyllabic or resolved feet
are of frequent occurrence. 2
We will now return to the most important of the remain-
ing iambic measures.
8. Trimeter Catalectic.
/i* w(7 || re vava \ ITTO^TT \\ ov avp \ av. |
9. Trimeter Brachycatalectic.
vyevr \ a rrald \\ OTTOL \ 6v a \\ dovdv. [ ||
10. Scazon, or Choliambus.
W ol | ftev a || yel Bov | na^io \\ Kdrrj \ ptivro. K
1 . The only satyric drama that has reached us is the Cyclops of Eu-
ripides.
2. Gaisford (ad Hcphast. p. 242) inclines to exclude the anapaest from
the third place in the satyric trimeter, but without sufficient authority.
On the occurrence of trisyllabic feet, consult Casaubon, de Sat. Poes. p.
222.
70 IAMBIC TETRAMETER.
I. This measure is nothing more than the iambic trimeter
acatalectic, with a spondee instead of an iambus for the
sixth foot. Hence its name of scazon (a/cawv, " limping")
or chol iambus (^wA^'a^Sof, " lame iambus").
II. The fifth foot is generally an iambus, since the line
would otherwise be too heavy if both the fifth and sixth
feet were spondees ; though instances of this kind occur
even in Theocritus ; as,
6 fjiov | OOTTOI || 6$ ev \ Bad' 'I-rrrr || u>vd | nelrai (|
el fiev | novTj || po? p) | Trorepx \\ ev TGJ | Tv/i6<j. ||
III. This species of verse is also called the Hipponactic
trimeter, from the virulent poet Hipponax, who invented
it, and after whose example it was employed for purposes
of railing and sarcasm. The writers who used it construct-
ed it generally in the neatest and most exact manner, rare-
ly employing resolutions, and entirely avoiding the anapaest,
except that Babrius has sometimes taken it into the first
place. The tragic writers abstained altogether from this
measure, nor did the comic poets use it, unless, perhaps,
with allusion to the iambic writers, as Eupolis in the Baptae
(ap. Priscian, p. f32S). 1
11. Tetrameter Catalectic.
el fwl | yevol || TO nap \ 0ei>6c || Kd^rj \ re Kal \\ repel \ va. (j
I. This measure was much used by the comic poets, but
not at all by the tragic writers. It may be considered as
two dimeters, the first complete, the second wanting one
syllable. 2
1. Hermann, Eltm. Doctr. Mctr. p. 94, ed. Glasg.
2. The iambic tetrameter catalectic is used also in English ; as in the
ong called " Miss Bailey," viz., " A captain bold from Halifax," <fcc.
It forms also the prevalent measure of the modern Greek poetry, or, in
other words, it is their heroic verse. (Consult /'/////, Chants popu-
lairet de la Grece Modernc, vol. i., p. cxix., Disc. Prtlim.) The follow-
ing lines will illustrate this, the pronunciation being regulated entire!;'
by accent :
IAMBIC TETRAMETER.
71
II. This measure is the most harmonious of iambic
verses, and those lines are the most pleasing which have
the caesura at the end of the fourth foot or second metre ; as,
el pot yevoiro irapOevos, \ KaXf] re Kal repeiva.
But the comic writers often neglect this caesura.
III. The following is the metrical scale :
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8_
Z3~
I3~
I3~
~~_
Proper Name.
IV. This scale is based upon the remarks of Person and
Elmsley,' and the authority of the latter has been followed
in admitting the anapaest into the fourth place, a license
which Person restricts to the case of a proper name. The
only license of the kind will occur, then, in the seventh
foot.
V. In the resolved or trisyllabic feet one restriction ob-
tains ; that the concurrence of the feet ^ ~ or ^ ~ ~ and
- in that order never takes place ; a rule which, even
in the freer construction of the trimeter, is always strictly
observed from its essential necessity.
VI. All the trisyllabic feet which are admissible into the
comic iambics are employed with much greater moderation
in the catalectic tetrameters than in the common trimeters. 2
VII. The comic poets admit anapaests more willingly and
frequently into the first, third, and fifth places, than into the
second, fourth, and sixth of the tetrameter. 3
, irovdev
pxeaaL ; ttovki (JLOV,
TITTOTE, navev /caXov ju
1. Porson, Suppl. ad Prcef. ad Hec. p. xxxix. Elmsley, Edinb. Rev.
No. 37. Elmsley is for the admission (though very rarely) of an ana-
pffist of a common word in the fourth place, which opinion we have fol-
lowed in the scale.
2. Elmsley, Ed. Rev. No. 37.
8. Ibid.
72 IAMBIC TETRAMETER.
IX. We have remarked above, that the most pleasing
caesura in this species of verse falls after the fourth foot.
Sometimes the verse is even so constructed as to give a
succession of iambic dipodias, separately heard ; as the fol-
lowing from Aristophanes, Plutus, 253, seq. 1
r\ \ ro> deorroTq \\ ravrbv tivpov \ (fxiyovres,
oi | Kal dr^iorai || KCLL rov novelv | epaaraf.
12. Tetrameter Acatalectic.
I. This measure, called also Boiscius, from its inventor
Boise us, is not used by the Greek tragic and comic wri-
ters. Hephaestion gives an example from Alcaeus, as fol-
lows : 2
Aea | fie KCJ || p,a$ovT \ a d% \\ at "klaa \ opal j| ae Xiao \
dfial. U
II. The Roman comic and tragic poets, however, made
much use of this species of verse. The Latins called it
octonarius.
III. This measure allows of one of two caesuras. Plau-
tus commonly divides it in the fourth arsis, and therefore
intended it to be asynartete ; which is indicated by the
hiatus and short syllable ; as in the Amphitr. 3, 4, 5, and
Bacch. 4, 9, 9.
Hie nd | vem sal || vdm nun \ ctdt \\ out t | rdti ad ||
ventiim \ senis. \\
O Troi | a 6 patrl || a 6 Perg \ Urnum, || 6 Prta \ mt pe-
rt || isti | stnex. ||
In Terence, on the other hand, this kind of verse is not
asynartete, because he usually makes the caesura in the the-
sis which follows the fourth arsis ; as,
Nunc Am \ phttrno || nem volt \ dtlu \\ di-me"iis \ pater |j
faro | prdbe. \\
1. Tale, Introd. p. 10.
2. Hermann, Doctr. Elem. Metr. p. 102, ed. Glatf.
TROCHAIC VERSE. 73
II. Of Trochaic Verse.
I. Trochaic verse derives its name from the foot which
prevails in it, namely, the trochee.
II. The trochee, however, as in the case of the iambus,
is convertible into a tribrach, and the spondee and anapaest
are also admitted, but not the dactyl, except in a proper
name. 1 There is this difference, however, between iambic
and trochaic measure, that the latter admits the spondee
and anapaest into the even places, the former into the uneven.
III. The following are the principal trochaic metres :
1. Manometer Acatalectic, or Base.
dare \ vdKrd$. ||
OIKUV.
Trochaic monometers are usually found in systems,
which, as in most other numbers, so in the trochaic also, it is
the custom, especially of the comic writers, to form into dime-
ters. These systems are continued in one unbroken tenour,
concluded by a catalectic verse. On this account there is
no place for hiatus at the end of each verse, nor is it held
necessary to conclude a verse with an entire word ; but the
whole system is as one verse. Thus in Aristophanes (Pac.
339, seq.) we have the following :
nal Padre, Kai yeAar'- r\
67) yap e^ecfrai rod' vftlv
j peveiv, Kivelv, Kadevdeiv,
iandodai,
iv,
lov lov KeKpayevai.
1. Compare remarks under trochaic tetrameter catalectic.
G
74
TROCHAIC VERSE.
2. Manometer Hypercatalectic.
TTOVTl | &V 0dA U d)V
maid | dog TDK \\ ov
Bdp6dp | d) /3d || d.
3. Dimeter Acatalcctic.
Scale.
Examples.
Trot TpdTr | a>jLtat || Trot Trop | evO& ; |j
el 6e | rtf i>Trep || OTrra | %epalv. \\
0,160$ | ore Molp' \\ avvfj^v \ aid$ \\
dvdne \ (ffive. jj
4. Dimeter Catalectic.*
7) Xoy | a> Trop || eve \ rat fl
ndi K&T | a yvG) || \ir\v Id \ pl$. |j
TO <f>epov | e t?e || ov /eaA, | aif . |
ydv. fl
5. Dimeter Brachycatalectic.*
elal | detv yly || dvrt | ||
1. Called also Euripidean.
2. Called also Ithyphallic. Compare Tcrcntianus Maunu, v. 1846,
and Aliliu* Fortunatus, p. 2698, aa cited by Gaitford, ad Hcphaut. p.
260.
TROCHAIC VERSE.
6. Dimeter Hypcrcatalcctic. 1
75
rovf /zev | Iv ardOp |j otatv | l-rmt \\
7. Trimeter Catalectic*
ep%e | rat rl
rldlrl | \ir\
yv
EITE
w yev | el. ||
ear \\ ai KTVTT \ 6$.
8. Trimeter Brachycatalectic.
ol 6e
rov 6'e \
\\ ov dddicp \ vrov \\
9. Trimeter Hypercatalectic.
ddfj, || ov$ Iv | avO' e \\ Kdard \ ool
o arpdr \\ ^Xd \ rag -ndr \\ fjp e/cA | r\
10. Tetrameter Catalectic.
Scale.
1
2
3
4
5
fi
7
33_
33_
33
=
Proper Name.
Examples.
05- 0?/ || (3rjg ev \ OLKOL, || hevoaer' \ Oldl \\
o | 6e
e> rd | /cA^Iv' at || vty^ar' | ^d^, || KOL Kpdr \ IOTO$ || fp>
dv | f/p.
I. This measure is commonly called the tragic tetrame-
ter ; and it has with the tragic writers the caesura almost
1. Called also Bachillidean, from the poet Bachillides.
2. The trochaic trimeter acatalectic is found neither in tragedy nor
comedy, as rightly stated by Bentley (ad Ctc. Tusc. 3, 12). If any ap-
pear to be found, as those which Gaisford (ad Hephast. p. 265) adduces
from Sophocles ((Ed. Col. 1081, 1092) they belong to epitrites. Her-
mann, ELcm. Doctr. Mctr. p. 52, ed. Glasg.
76 TROCHAIC VERSE.
always at the end of the fourth foot ; as in the lines just
given. 1
w Trdrpas Qrj6rj^ evoiKoi, \ Xevaaer', OldiTTOV$ ode,
b$ rd /tAetV alviypar' $6*77, \ nai Kpdnaro^ TJV avrjp.
This caesura, however, is often neglected by the comic
poets.
II. The fourth foot of a tragic tetrameter should always
end with some word that allows a pause in the sense ; not
with a preposition, for instance, or an article belonging in
syntax to what comes after. 2
III. If the first dipodia of the verse is contained in entire
words (and so as to be followed at least by a slight break
of the sense), the second foot is a trochee, or may be a tri-
brach ; 3 as,
' 6 Bpojitiof, || o)f e/xotye (fraiverai, dot-av
\\ p)cP tdoi^t \i,vr\\ia; Ttohefiia yap
IV. In every place except the fourth and seventh, a dac-
tyl of proper names is admitted. This dactyl is chiefly al-
lowed to enter where its two short syllables are enclosed
between two longs in the same word ; very rarely when
the word begins with them; under other circumstances,
never ; 4 as,
1. This caesura is found neglected in ^Eschylus, Pcrs. 164, where
Person corrects the verse by removing Atirhij to the end of the line ; an
emendation of which Hermann speaks rather slightingly. (Parson,
Suppl. ad Prof. p. xliii. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Metr. p. 52, cd.
Glasg.) Blomfield follows Porson.
2. Porson, Suppl. ad Prctf. p. xliii.
3. This nicety of structure in the long trochaic of tragedy was first dis-
covered by Porson. Consult Tracts and Misc. Criticisms of Porson,
rd K,d,l, 'p. 197. Class. Journ. No. 45, p. 166, *y.~ Maltby, Lex.
Pros. p. Ixvii. Tate, in his Introduction, p. 12, examines and explains
(from Ins ji;i|nT in the Class. Journ. 1. c.) the ditlrivnt lines that appear
to militate against this canon of Person's.
4. The jirincijilc on which this rule is probably based has alreod
alluded to in a previous note, psge 60.
TROCHAIC VERSE. 77
dp | l<f>lyz || I'Kidv \ EAevf/^ || vdoTO$ \ r\v TT \\ irp^tv
\tf.
f crrpar | 6$ 6e \\ Mvpfiido \ vtiv ov ||
run nap \ ijv.
i-vyyov | ov r' e || \ir\v IIvAa | dijv TK \\ TOV rd \ 6e %vv \\
dptivrd | fioi.
V. As to scansion, one limitation only obtains ; that --
or ~ ~ in the sixth place, never precedes ~ ^ - in the
seventh. Even in comedy, a verse like the following is
exceedingly rare :
ovre yap vavaydf , dv [IT} y^f kd67]rai \ fpspofjtevog.
VI. If the verse is concluded by one word forming the
cretic termination ( ^ ), or by more words than are to
that amount united in meaning, so that after the sixth foot
that portion of sense and sound is separately perceived, then
,the sixth foot is ^ or ~ ~ ~ ; that is, it may not be --
or - - -. Thus,
na yap
6' OVTTW KaOevdova', al$ Trenoida \ ovv
VII. If from the beginning of a trochaic tetrameter you
take away a cretic ( ^ ), or a first paeon ( ^ ~), or
fourth paeon (~ ~ ~ -), a regular iambic trimeter will be
formed. Thus,
-daaaov 77 ju,' | &xpr\v npodaiveiv IKO^V 61' aareog.
Meve | Aew Tporroiai ^pc5/f0' olareov rdde.
77 | KOLVOV TTO^iraig int(j>epuv eyK^r^ia, n ;
VIII. The senarius thus formed, however, must always
have a penthemimeral csesura, in order that the proper pause
may take place at the end of the fourth trochaic foot. 1
1. It admits, too, a dactyl, although very rarely, into the fifth place.
P or son, Suppl. ad Praf. p. xlUi.
G2
78 ANAPAESTIC VERSE.
Comic Tetrameter Catalectic.
I. The scansion agrees with that of the tragic, except
only that the spondee in the sixth sometimes, though very
rarely, precedes the tribrach in the seventh ; as in the fol-
lowing line from Philemon :
ovre yap vavaydf , av pr\ y/jf Xdftrjrai <[>ep6uevo$ .
II. The comic, like the tragic tetrameter, admits the dac-
tyl only in the case of a proper name, and not otherwise.
III. As regards structure, it must be remarked, that the
comic poets freely neglect the nice points of tragic verse.
They pay little attention to the pause at the end of the
fourth foot, and to the rules respecting those divisions which
sometimes take place after the first dipodia or before the
final cretic. Lines like the following occur in great abun-
dance : l
Ttptira uev %aipeiv 'AOTjvai. | oiat KOI rolg gvu(j,d%oi(;.
drr' av vuel^ | et-audpTTjT' , inl TO fiehriov Tpe
TT^elara yap #e<i5v anavrw ufahovoau; | TTJV
III. Of Anapaestic Verse.
I. Anapaestic verse admits its proper foot, the anapaest
(^ ^ _) w ith the dactyl, which is said to be admitted tear'
avrnrddeiav. It admits also the spondee, and sometimes,
though very rarely, the proceleusmaticus (~ ~ ).
II. Systems of anapaestic verse are scanned by the dipo-
dia. They are generally dimeter acatalectic.
III. These, however, like other dimeters, have not the
last syllable common. A synapheia (ovvdfatd) or principle
of continuous scansion prevails throughout them, so that
they run on, from beginning to end, as if they all fornu-d
but one verse.
IV. The end of an anapaestic system is marked by a
(liiix ter acatalectic, or, as it is more commonly termed, a
1. Tote, Introd. p. 13.
ANAP^STIC VERSE. 79
parcemiac line, and the last syllable in this line is the only
ii tliis system which is excepted from the law of syna-
and which may be long or short indifferently.
V. The principal anapaestic measures are as follows :
1. Manometer Acatalectic, or Base.
2
Examples.
ala% \ vvel \\
\\
2. Manometer Hypercatalectic.
6opl 6fi | dopl -nep \\ adv.
3. Dimeter Acatalectic.
oarlg dv \ elnol \\ frorepov \ QOiHEvrjv \\
TroAAw | pevptirZ \\ rrpoavlaa \ o^lvov^ ||
Zevf yap \ fiiyd^ \\ yAoxra^c | Kdpnovg. \\
I. The anapaestic dimeter of tragedy is so named from
the striking predominance of the anapaestic foot, though it
frequently admits the dactyl and spondee.
II. The proceleusmaticus (- - - ~), as pddvicopa, is not
admitted by the tragic writers into a legitimate anapaestic
system. Even in comedy its admission is very rare. 1
III. As has already been remarked, a regular system con-
of dimeters acatalectic, with a monometer acatalectic
sometimes interposed, generally as the last verse but one
of the system, and is concluded by a dimeter catalectic,
otherwise called a paro3miac. 2
1. Hermann, Elcm. Doctr. Metr. p. 239, ed. Glasg.
2. The paroemiac took its name from the circumstance of proverbs
(irapoifiiat) being frequently composed in this measure. Compare He-
phastion, p. 46, ed. Gaisford.
80 ANAPAESTIC VERSE.
IV. The anapaestic dimeter admits indiscriminately the
dactyl and spondee for the anapaest. The scale is as fol-
lows :
V. With regard to the arrangement of the feet, the fol-
lowing rules are to be observed :
1. The anapaest and spondee are combined without any
restriction, as will appear from the following :
dep%6fid' | olalg \\ alia \ alaiv |]
dldKval | dfievos \\ rov pv \ plerfj j|
evati.
2. In the dactylic syzygies the dactyl usually precedes
its own spondee, as in the following verses :
qua) | ddkixfjg \\ reppd eA | evOov \\
didpefy \ dfj-evof \\ Trpog ae Ilpo \ p^Oev [\
rov rrrepvy \ >?/ || rovd' ol \ &vov. \\
3. Sometimes the dactyl is paired with itself; thus, 1
<b peyd \ Aa Qe[il \\ Kal irorvV \ A.prSjj,l \\
a) irdrep \ w TroAtf H wv dire \ vdadfjv. \\
4. Very rarely does an anapaest or a spondee precede a
dactyl in the same syzygy, especially in the last syzygy
of the verse. Of the two following instances the first
presents the more objectionable form ; the second, suc-
ceeded by a dactyl and spondee, can hardly be said to
offend at all.*
1. " Dactyli sapissime tubstttuuntur anapastis, ncc tantum unus alt'
quit, sed tape ttiam plurcs cunt i nut. yininjuc continuant .Kschtjlus
vn Agam. 1561, teq. Septem L'un/>idrx in Hippolyt. 1361, tq" lier-
mann, EU>n , -lo. ,,/. (ilasg.
2. Elmtley, ad Eunji. M,,l. lOM), note g./d. ad Sopk., (Ed. Col.
1766. TatSt Introd. p. l5.Sandford, 6V. Pro*, p. 314.
ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 81
dalptiv I ode rl$ \\ ^.KVKTJV \ alBepd II
. \\ 2
5. An anapaest ought not to be preceded by a dactyl, to
avoid too many short syllables occurring together. On
this subject, which is one of great awkwardness and
ililliculty to metrical scholars, the following rules may
be laid down. 3
(a.) The concurrence of dactyl with anapaest, in that
order, is never found within the same syzygy. And
hence the following line of Euripides (Alcest. 80),
as given in the common editions,
oarls dv evenol \\ Trorepov 00j/jev7/,
is well corrected by Monk, who reads eliTOt for iv-
87TOI.
(j3.) The concurrence of dactyl with anapaest, in that
order, is not very often found between one dimeter
and another, as in Euripides (Electr. 1320, seq.) :
...... t-vyyovs 0fArare
did yap | &vyvva' ripdg TTarpiuv.
(y.) The combination is very rare where one syzygy
closes with a dactyl and the next begins with an
anapaest, as in the following (Electr. 1317) :
ei IldAAarfo^ || oolav
IV. Thus far of the anapaestic dimeter, when the first
syzygy, as most usually it does, ends with a word. This,
however, is not always the case ; and of such verses as
want that division, those are the most frequent, and the most
pleasing also, which have the first syzygy after an anapaest
1. Eurip. Androm. 1228 (1204).
2. Id. Iph. A. 161 (159).
3. Tote, Introd. p. l5.Semdford, Gr. Pro*, p. 314.
82 ANAPAESTIC VERSE.
(sometimes after a spondee) overflowing into the second,
with the movement anapaestic throughout. 1 Thus,
Trrepvyw eperfiol | oiv tpeooopevoi.
Kal gvy%aipov \ oiv d^oLOTTpenel^.
Here the last syllables of eper^iolffiv and ^vy^aipovaiv
overflow into the second syzygy, the first syzygy ending
after the penultimate syllables of each of these words.
V. In this species of verse one hiatus alone is permitted,
in the case of a final diphthong or long vowel so placed as
to form a short syllable. The following instances may
serve : 2
Kal ekeioddrai va&v epercu. (Pers. 39.)
TToOeovoai Idelv dpri^vjiav. (Ib. 548.)
olxerai, dvdptiv. (Ib. 60.)
TO) Qrjaeida d', 6w 'A-Oyvtiv. (Hecub. 123.)
VI. The synapheia (avvdfaia), that property of the an-
apaestic system which Bentley first demonstrated, 3 is nei-
ther more nor less than continuous scansion, that is, scan-
sion continued with strict exactness from the first syllable
to the very last, but not including the last itself, as that
syllable, and only that in the whole system, may be long
or short indifferently. Thus,
el$ dp6[j,bv ifiol Kal fakorrrra
OTrev6(i)v anevdovn noQ* r\%u. (Prom. v. 199, seq.)
Here the last syllable of verse 199 becomes long, from the
short vowel a in 0tA6r7yra being united with the consonants
air at the beginning of verse 200. Had a single consonant,
or any pair of consonants like Kp, TrA, <fec., followed in verse
200, the last syllable of verse 199 would have been short
in violation of the metre. Again,
J> fieydAa Qfyi, Kal rfdrvC "Apre/u,
d nda^ ...... (Mcd. 161.)
1. Ta/,p. 16.
2. Hermann, Elem. Dortr. Mctr. p. 237, ed. Chug,
3. Dittertation on the Epittlct of Phalaria, p. 150, *y., ed. Lond.
1816.
ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 83
If, after verse 161, ending with a short vowel, any vowel
whatever had followed in verse 162, that would have vio-
lated the law of hiatus observed in these verses. And if a
double consonant, or any pair of consonants like r, <TTT,
d/i, fiv, <fcc., had followed in verse 162, the word "Aprejui,
necessarily combined with those consonants, would have
formed a cretic or amphimacer ( ~ ), and not the dac-
tyl required. But hevaaeO' follows, with the initial A, and
all is correct. 1
VII. The law of synapheia, however, is occasionally vi-
olated ; namely, sometimes in a change of speaker, as
Eunp. Med. 1368; Electr. 1333; Soph. (Ed. Col. 139,
143, 170, 173, 1757 ; Antig. 931. It is violated sometimes,
also, at the end of a sentence, and likewise in exclamations,
as in dEsch. Agam. 1544. 2
VIII. The paro3miac verse has its scale as follows :
1
2 | 3
4
-~^
1
Examples.
Atyev | reap' efiol \\ deddfcfj \ aat, ||
ndv pot | (j)55epov || TO Trpdaep-rr \ ov. \\
IX. In the parffimiac one limitation as to the concurring
feet obtains, namely, that a dactyl in the first never pre-
cedes an anapaest in the second place.
X. In this same species of verse, also, the foot before
the catalectic syllable must be an anapaest ; as,
|ueyaAo>v | KOG^V || Kredrelp \ a.
XI. There are, however, some few verses, in which the
foot preceding the parosmiac is found to be a spondee ;
thus,
1. Tatc, Introd. p. 17.
2. Hermann cites also Soph. (Ed. Col. 188, to prove that the syna-
phria is sometimes neglected likewise in the case of addresses. But the
reading on which he founds this exception has been long corrected.
Sandfard, Gr. Pros. p. 319.
84 ANAPAESTIC VERSE.
ITTTTUV r' i^arrjp StioOd \ v^. (Pers. 32.)
if^Kt | KV, (Agam. 374.)
yvuoQu I aai. (Suppl. 8.)
Other examples may be found in the Sept. ad Theb. 832,
and Suppl. 983, but these arise, most probably, from some
corruption in the text. 1
XII. In the anapaestic dimeter, as has already been re-
marked, the first syzygy usually ends with a word ; but in
the paroemiac this is very seldom the case, and hence a
very common shape of this latter species of verse is found
in the following line :
e^potc em%dpr \ a Trenovdd.
XIII. The paroemiac sometimes, though rarely, begins
with a dactyl ; thus,
OVK. dTTopovadv TO yvvaln&v.
But it comes most agreeably to the ear when it presents
the last three feet of a dactylic hexameter with an initial
syllable ; 2 thus,
fj-ol (f>66epdv TO rrpdaep-ndv
Or with two initial syllables, when an anapaest begins ; as,
0tA,df | earl (3e6aIdTepo$ aol.
XIV. With regard to position, the Attics observe the
same laws, as to a vowel before a mute and liquid, &c., in
the anapaestic dimeter which prevail in the iambic trimeter. 3
XV. The question whether the augment may be occa-
sionally rejected in regular anapaestics still remains unde-
cided. 4 It is safer not to exercise this license in modern
versification.
1 . Hermann, Elem. Doc.tr. Metr. p. 240, ed. Glasg.
2. Tote, Introd. p. 18. Sandfurd, Gr. Pros. p. 316.
3. Some instances, however, may be found in the anapaestic dimeter,
where a short vowel at the end of a word is lengthened before ?rp, irA,
&c., in the beginning of the next. Consult Erfurdt, ad Soph. Aj. 1 120.
Itlumf. ad ich. Sept. c. Thtl.
4. Elmsley (ad, Eunp. Med. 1380) is in favour of the occasional re-
ANAPAESTIC VERSE.
85
XVI. In systems of anapaests the tragic writers neither
alway- employ nor always discard the Doric dialect, at
least those peculiarities of it which are usual in the choral
parts or admitted into the senarius.
4. Tetrameter Catalectic.
I. This metre, called Aristophanic, from the frequent
use of it by Aristophanes, consists of two dimeters, the last
of which is catalectic. Its scale is as follows :
1
2 I! 3
4
5
6
7
8
~ ~ ^ ^
--
-
Examples.
|| rl Xeyzlv | vfidg \\ o6(f>dv
oere rr\v \ 61
ydorepd \\ rol$ avy \ ylveolv || /car' OVK
II. In the first three places, as will appear from the
scale, besides the anapaest and spondee, a dactyl may be
used; but it must be observed that a dactyl is admitted
much more sparingly into the second than into the first
place of the syzygy. 1
III. A dactyl is also admitted into the fifth place, but is
always excluded from the fourth and sixth places.
IV. The two feet ~ ~ , ~ , in that order, nowhere
occur in the anapaestic tetrameter. The catalectic syllable
is never preceded by a spondee in the seventh place, which
should always be an anapaest. The proceleusmaticus is ex-
cluded from the verse.
V. The caesura always occurs after the fourth foot, which
must never end with an article or a preposition. Besides
jection of the augment, but Blomfield (ad JEsch. Pers. 912) controverts
this opinion. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 320.
1. In the twelve hundred (or more) tetrameter anapaestics of Aristoph-
anes, only nineteen examples occur of a dactyl in the second place, the
only second place of a syzygy which it can occupy. Tate, Introd. p. 19.
H
86 DACTYLIC VERSE.
this main division, moreover, there should be likewise an-
other one after the first syzygy, which always gives an
agreeable finish to a verse. Thus,
<UA* Tjdrj xpijv \ n keyew vpag \\ ao(f>6v t w viK^aere rrjvdi.
iv rolai Xoyou; | dvn^eyovreg- \\ uafaiKdv 6' evdtiaere
The following verses, faulty on this account,
gvp6ovkoiaiv aTtdaais vplv xprjaupai. Kal yap ticel [tot,,
T]vdyicaev ETTT) A^ovrof y' e$ TO dearpov rrapad^vai,
have been corrected, the one by Brunck, the other by Por-
son, 1 thus,
^v^ovXoLGLV | rrdaai^ vfilv \\ xprjaufjiai Kal yap iicel pot.
Tjvdyica^ev \ "ki^ovraq ETTTJ \\ -rrpdf TO dearpov Trapadfjvai.
VI. In the anapaestic tetrameter, the very same hiatus of
a long vowel or diphthong sometimes occurs as in the dim-
eter. 2 Thus,
ovr' iv ddmaiv ri$ yap v<f>alveiv 0eA7/<r
OVKOVV drprov 1% Ur^xeiag Ileviav $auev elvai
IV. Of Dactylic Verse.
1. Manometer Hypercatalectic.
Oldlno | da. 3
2. Dimeter Acatalectic.
ov 6elo | fjvopd.
ravde yv \ vatK&v.
The pure dactylic dimeter consists of two dactyls, as in
st example given ; the impure admits a spondee into
1. Suppl. ad Praf. p. lix., ttq. Brunck, ad Aristoph. EecUt. 614.
Tale, Introd. p. 81.
8. This may also be scanned ai a choriainbic monometor.
OlttirOM
DACTYLIC VERSE. 87
the first place, and sometimes into the second ; it is also
found composed of two spondees ; as,
ohTTdv. (Agam. 104.)
I r' dpxov$. (Ib. 122.)
3. Dimeter Hypercatalectic.
ov T* em | Ae|dfte | vd.
oiKTpov | yap Ttohlv | oxT.
4. Trimeter Acatalectic.
\ d$ fiev v \ 6pl$ TEKOS \
al Mov | aal rov e \ pwra. |
5. Trimeter Hypercatalectic.
di TroAv | nXavrl <f>l | holoi $d \ vtiv.
Kolfjil^ | el (phoyp | a> povt | 6d$ .
This measure, in its pure state, consists of three dactyls
and a syllable over. It admits a spondee into the first place,
and sometimes into the second, but never before the cata-
lectic syllable.
6. Tetrameter Acatalectic.
ad 6' eptf | OVK epi$ \ a
OldiTTO | dd do^iov
alfidrl | delvti \ al^arc \ AiJypai. |
I. Alcman composed whole strophes in this measure ; as,
Mc5a', dye, KaAAtOTra, dvyarep Atdf,
ap%' ipaT&v inew, em 6' ipepov
VJUVG) Kai xapLEvra ridei %opov.
II. These tetrameters have no caesura. Among the Lat-
ins they were used by both tragic and comic writers. Thus
Attius, op. Non. s. v. * Expergite :"
Heu vigiles propcrate, expergite,
Pectora tarda sopdre, exsurgite.
88 DACTYLIC VERSE.
And Terence, Andr. 4, 1, 1 :
Hdccine credibile aut memorabile.
7. Tetrameter Hypercatalectic.
ovd* VTCO | ndpOevi \ d$ rov v \ red fi)(}>a \ pol$.
8. Pentameter Acatalectic. 1
\ evdoKip \ ov arpdrl \ d$ arcl
I. In its pure state, this measure consists of five dactyls.
It admits, however, a spondee into every place.
II. In the Eumenides of ^Eschylus (v. 373, seq.) there is
a system of pentameters which closes with a trochaic dim-
eter catalectic ; thus,
6o%al | T' dvdptiv \ KOL udk' VTT' \ alOepl \ aepvdi, \
rdKdpe | val Kara \ ydv ^Ivv \ Bovalv d \ riuol \
f)fj,erep \ alg e<f>66 \ ol$ fiekdv \ eluoalv | op^rja |
9. Pentameter Hypercatalectic.
(3oaicdfjLs | vol Xdyl \ vdv ipl \ Kvuovd \ (freppdrZ | yev-
vav, K. T. X. (Agam. 119.)
10. Hexameter Acatalectic.
yev \ elddo$ \ o> <}>lXos \ ti tioicT \ fj&Tdros \ r EA-
A pure dactylic hexameter consists of six dactyls through-
out. An impure one admits the spondee into all places but
the fifth, and the spondee alone, excluding the dactyl, into
the sixth place, thus lormin^ the ordinary hexameter of epic
verse, or, as it is often call* <1, irom its being employ* -d to
celebrate the exploits of heroes, Heroic Verse.
1 . The elegiac pentameter will be considered after the hexameter,
since it in not properly a pentameter measure, but should be called merely
elegiac verse.
DACTYLIC VERSE. 89
11. Heroic Verse.
I. A heroic verse is composed of six feet, the last of
which must be a spondee, while the fifth is almost always
a dactyl. The first four may be either dactyls or spondees.
II. Sometimes a spondee is allowed to enter into the fifth
phicr, and the verse is then called spondaic. This is done
when anything of a grave, solemn, or affecting nature is in-
tended to be expressed, or in order to denote astonishment,
consternation, vastness of size, &c.
III. This spondee in the fifth place, however, is admis-
sible under the following restrictions : l 1. It must not con-
sist of one entire word. 2 2. It must not end with the end of
a word, except that word be a monosyllable. 3. It must not
consist of two monosyllables. 3
IV. A spondee in the third place of the verse may con-
sist of two monosyllables, but not of one entire word.
V. When a genitive in oto is used, the syllable 01 must
be the first of the foot.
VI. In the close of the verse a short syllable may be
lengthened. In other words, the last syllable of the verse
is common, and hence a trochee here becomes a spondee.
VII. A word cannot be divided between two lines in
Homeric verse, although Simonides and other writers of
epigrams have sometimes indulged in this license in the
case of proper names. Nor does Homeric poetry allow the
elision of a vowel at the end of one line before a vowel at
the beginning of the next. Moreover, punctuation, or a
pause in the sense, should not be admitted between the fifth
and sixth foot.
1. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 258.
2. Hence, for djipov, rju, &c., which occasionally appear in the fifth
place, we should read ^jy/zoo, rjoa, &c.
3. The later writers of hexameters admitted two monosyllables into
the fifth place (as (iff a Quva in Theocritus), but the practice is not
Homeric.
H'2
90 DACTYLIC VERSE.
Of the Caesuras in Heroic Verse.
I. The term caesura is used by grammarians in two ac-
ceptations : first, as applied to whole verses, and, secondly,
as applied to single feet. 1
II. In the former acceptation, caesura means the division
of a verse into two portions or members, affording a little
pause or rest for the voice in some convenient part, where
that pause may take place without injury to the sense ox
harmony of the line.
III. In the second acceptation, caesura means the divis-
ion or separation which takes place in a foot, when that
foot is composed of syllables belonging to separate words.
IV. These two kinds of caesura will now be considered
in order.
1. Caesura of the Verse.
I. The favourite caesura of the Homeric hexameter falls
after the first syllable of the third foot, or the fifth half foot,
and is hence denominated the penthemimeral ; as,
iei || Kparepov 6' inl pvdov
II. Another principal caesura in a heroic verse is that
which falls after the first syllable of the fourth foot, or the
seventh half foot, and is hence called the hepthemimeral ; as,
\Lr\ ae yipov Koikqaiv yo> || napd vrjval
Both this and the previous caesura are sometimes fouud
in the same verse.
III. Another position of the caesura is after a trochee in
the third foot ; as in the opening line of the Odyssey :
avdpa \LOI Ivvene Movad
1. Priscian uses the term in both acceptations : " Cauurat vero vcr-
fum et rhythmum leviorcm tolent perficerc" &c. ; and again, " 7'
dfg in guinoue dividitur hie ternu neturas." (Pritc. de zii. vers. JEn.
c. 1. }> . vol. ).., p. 276, 277, cd. Krehl.)
DACTYLIC VERSE. 91
But the trochee must either be an entire word, as in the
example just given (Movaa), or must be formed from the
last two syllables of a word ; as in the following line, where
it is formed of the syllable dovde :
(LVTH; eneira nedovde \\ Kvkivdero "kaaq dvai6fi$.
IV. The beauty of hexameter composition lies as much
in the variation of caesuras in the different lines as in the
variation of feet in the same line.
V. There are many other caesuras admitted into heroic
verse ; but in the variety there is one which, on account of
its debilitating the strength and harmony of the numbers,
was rejected by the best poets. This caesura falls after a
trochee in the fourth foot ; as,
yvvaina
ore rtc re yvvatKog \\ evfavoio.
VI. In passages of force or dignity the caesura sometimes
falls after the first syllable of the sixth foot ; thus,
yalav dpov nai TTOVTOV optipei 6' ovpavoOev \\ vv.
VII. The bucolic caesura, so called from its prevalence
in bucolic or pastoral poetry, falls after the fourth foot,
which, in this case, is most commonly a dactyl. Thus,
adv TL TO ij)i6vpia[j,a nal a mrv$ || a/TrdAe rrjva,
a TTorl ral<; Trayalat nekiaderai- \\ a6v fie nal TV
Tvpiader- juerd TLdva TO dei)T8pov \\ aQhov anoioy.
This pause is often found in epic verse, and is generally
employed by the epic writers in order to strengthen and
amplify what is said.' Thus, in Homer (//. 4, 424), we have
TTOVTO) |LtV TO, KOtoTa KOpVOGZTai,, || CLVTap
and in Dionysius Periegetes, v. 131,
Aiyaiov TTOVTOIO TrkaTvv tropov \\ ev$a TE
1. Hermann, Elcm. Doctr. Metr. p. 214, ed. Glasg.
92 DACTYLIC VERSE.
It occurs, also, with the same effect in Latin verse ; thus,
in Lucretius, 3, 920, and 6, 155, we find
Insatiabiliter deflebimus ; || aternumque.
Denique s&pe geli multus fragor, \\ atque ruina.
And in Virgil, Georg. 1, 356 :
Continuo ventis surgentibus, \\ autfreta ponti.
Sometimes the epic poets would make the fourth foot a
spondee, and the most ancient of them occasionally admit-
ted even a trochee into that place which, by a pause after
it, becomes a spondee in pronunciation. Thus, we have
the following lines in Homer (//. 11, 36) and Ennius (Ann.
1, p. 22, ed. Hessel.) :
r*g 6' em fj,ev Topyti pkoavp&mg \\ eore^dvcjro.
Ornnis cura viris uter esset || induperator.
Theocritus, on the other hand, in the composition of his
lines, was careful to make the fourth foot a dactyl, so that,
the last two feet being cut off, there would remain a dactylic
tetrameter. 1 Thus,
ddv rl | TO ipWv \ plopd Kal \ d mrv^ \
d norl | rals ird \ yalal jue | kloderai \
rvplod | i$ [Agra I Hdvd TO \ devrepov \
VIII. We will now proceed to the second kind of caesura.
2. Cassura of the Foot.
I. This species of caesura is equally important with the
other, and equally necessary to the harmony and beauty
of versification. A verse in which it is neglected, and in
which the isolated feet seem to slum all socirty with each
1. Warton, de Poet. Bucol. (Thcocrit. vol. i., p. xxx*i.) Valckenaer
was the first to mark the bucolic cesura in Theocritus. The first seven
idylls, with tin- tenth and eleventh, onii.uu nine hundred ;md tucntv-
soven lines, of winch not less than sevon hundn < :i h..\ . tins
csjsura. Virgil's Eclogues consist of eight hundred and thirty linos, but
of these only two hundred and lhiriy-i\\ i n!nrm to in. l>iu:olic model.
HEROIC VERSE. 93
other, is stiff and awkward in the extreme, and wholly de-
void of all poetic grace ; as the following examples from
the old Koman poets, Ennius and Lucilius, will clearly tes-
lify.
Sparsis \ hastis \ late \ campus \ splendct et \ horret.
Has res [ ad te \ scriptas \ Luci | misimus \ jEli.
II. On the other hand, the frequent recurrence of the
caesura of the foot, which, while it breaks the feet, tends to
link the words with each other, greatly contributes to the
flow and harmony of the verse. As in the following pas-
sage from Theocritus :
T fl TLdv, | Hdv, air' \ aai KCLT* \ &pea \ paicpd Av \ Kaia),
aire rvy' \ d^nro \ tel<; fj^ya \ Maivakov \ evO' irri \ vd-
oov
rdv 2i;e | Aov, 'EAt | Kag de M \ ire 'Piov, \ alnv re od^a
rr)vo Av | naovld \ ao, rb \ KCLL paKdp \ eaaiv d \ yaarov.
III. The caesura of which we are now treating may either
be syllabic, monosyllabic, or trochaic.
IV. The syllabic caesura is when the first part of the foot,
that is, the part before the break, consists of a syllable be-
longing to a preceding word. Thus, in the lines of The-
ocritus just quoted, Aeic peya in the second verse is an in-
stance of syllabic caesura, the syllable Aef forming the first
part of the dactyl, being a syllable belonging to d[uf)i7Tokel<;
which precedes.
V. The monosyllabic ccssura is when the first part of the
foot consists of a monosyllable ; as T ft Hdv, in the com-
mencement of the passage just given from Theocritus, and
Hdv air 1 , the foot that succeeds.
VI. The trochaic c&sura is when the first part of the
foot consists of a trochee ; as, eaol /car', and {laitpd Av, in
the line just referred to.
Two subjects remain to occupy our attention under the
head of heroic verse ; the Digamma and the Ictus Metricus,
each of which will be considered in order.
94 HEROIC VERSE.
1. The Digamma.
I. The whole subject of the digamma rests on the fol-
lowing remarkable fact. A certain number of words be-
ginning with a vowel, especially the pronoun ot>, ol, e, and
also &>, eoLKa, etnelv, aval;, "lAtof, oZvo^, OIKO$, epyov,
laog, eKaoTOf, with their derivatives, have in Homer so
ofte'n the hiatus before them, that, leaving these words out
of the account, the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Ho-
mer, becomes extremely rare, and in most of the remaining
cases can be easily and naturally accounted for. These
same words have also, in comparison with others, an apos-
trophe very seldom before them ; and, moreover, the imme-
diately preceding long vowels and diphthongs are far less
frequently rendered short than before other words. 1
II. From an attentive examination of the subject, the il-
lustrious Bentley was led to conclude, that the words before
which these deviations from the usual rules of prosody took
place, although beginning with a vowel, must have been
pronounced at least, if not written, as if beginning with a
consonant. He recollected, that some ancient grammarians
mentioned a letter as more particularly used by the ^Eoli-
ans or most ancient Greeks, and that its existence might
be traced in the changes which some Latin words, derived
from the ^Eolic Greek, had undergone ; as, olvo$, vinum ;
?f, vis ; oZ/co, vicus ; fjp, ver. The letter alluded to, which,
from its form, has the name of digamma or double gamma
(F), is yet to be seen in some ancient inscriptions and on
coins ; and it supplies the data for resolving the cases of
metrical difficulty where the lengthening of a short syllable
uniformly takes place before particular words.
III. Let us examine some of the instances which an
found at the very opening of the Iliad : 'A.rpetdr^ re avag
dv6ptiv (v. 7). ' A.ya[ifivovi fjvdave $v/*w (v. 24). 'A -<>/ -
1. Buttmann, Ausf. < 27. HuttmaniC* Larger Gr.
Gr. p. 28, Robinton's transl.Maitby, Greek Gradus, p. xi., teq.
HEROIC VERSE. 95
avaKTi (v. 36). 6 6' ijie vvurl eotictis (v. 47). $ap-
fidka, eJrre (v. 85). In all these cases, according to
the practice of the language in the days of Attic purity, the
short vowel ought to have been elided before ava%, yvdave,
&c. But if we write Fdva%, Fyvdave, &c., or fancy the
words pronounced vrdvat;, wrpdave, wewoj/ewf, weme, &c.,
the difficulty will in a great degree disappear. 1
2. The Ictus Metricus. 2
I. There are, however, cases of syllables not merely at
the end, but in the beginning and middle of words, where
the digamma cannot operate, and which must be accounted
for in a different manner. Thus, at the end,
ovre deols, elnep ri$ erl vvv tiaivvrai ev^pwv. (77. 15, 99.)
ol re K.v6epV7jT(u, Kai e%ov oirj'ia vq&v. (II. 19, 43.)
ey%eL epeidoiievti- en yap e%ov e/Uea hvypd. (Ib. 49.)
At the beginning and end ; as,
(f)tXe Kaaiyv7]Te KOfiiaai re fie . . . . (ll. 5, 359.)
In the middle ; as,
Kai ra fiev eirra^a Ttdvra 6iefj,oiparo datfav. (Od. 14, 434.)
II. The question naturally arises, upon what principle
are such violations of quantity to be explained ? Evidently
on the following : In scanning any verse, the voice natural-
ly rests longer upon the place where a long syllable is ne-
cessary than where it may be dispensed with. In the he-
roic verse we lay greater stress upon the long syllable of the
dactyl, and pause more deliberately there than upon either of
the short ones. The same preference is naturally given to
the first syllable of the spondee, which is equally long as
1. The doctrine of the digamma, however, and its introduction into
the text of Homer, still requires illustration. For an able examination of
the whole subject, consult Thiersch, Gr. Gr. p. 295, Sandford's transl.
2. Maltby, Greek Gradus, p. xii., seq. Compare remarks on Arsis,
page 50 of this volume.
96 HEROIC VERSE.
in a dactyl, rather than to the second, which corresponds
to the short syllables. We cannot pretend to know any-
thing about the way in which the contemporaries of Ho-
mer pronounced poetry. But, where so much was left to
recitation, it is probable that the difference between long
and short syllables, or those which occupied respectively
the places of long and short, would be more marked than
at a subsequent age, when refinement might moderate the
vehemence of intonation, and the readier access to writing
superseded the necessity of reciting. Certain, however, it
is, that, when we perceive short syllables lengthened, and
cannot have recourse to the aid of a digamma, we find that
they occupy the long place of the dactyl. We therefore
account for the temporary elongation by considering the
place which they occupy in the verse ; and we call it the
effect of ictus metricus, or arsis.
III. Upon this simple principle, then, the greater part of
those metrical phenomena which have so much perplexed
the commentators on Homer will be found to receive a sat-
isfactory explanation. Thus,
avrap eneir' avrolai /3eAof tye-nevaes tyidt;. (II. 1, 51.)
Here the syllable Xo$ in j3e'Aof is made long, although
short in itself, because it occupies the first or long place of
the dactyl, and therefore receives the ictus or stress of the
voice. For the same reason, the initial syllable of did be-
comes long in the first of the following verses, although it
is short (which is its natural quantity) in the second. Thus,
did fikv &<jTrl6o$ fade <f>aeivri$ 66pL^t,ov
Kai did -d<*>priKo<; TroXvdaiddhov rjp'fjpeiaro. (II 3, 357, scq.)
So, again, the first syllable of "Ape$- appears both long
and short m one and the same verse; as, "Apef, "Apef,
otyt ..... (//. 5, 31.)
IV. In both these cases, the long and unusual pronuncia-
ELEGIAC VERSE. 97
lion is in arsis, or on the long syllable of the dactyl ; while
the short and usual one is in thesis, or laid on one of the
short syllables of the dactyl.
10. Elegiac Pentameter.
I. This measure, although commonly called elegiac pen-
tameter, a name which we have here, in obedience to cus-
tom, allowed it to retain, is more correctly denominated ele-
giac verse. 1
II. The construction of this species of verse is as fol-
lows : The first two feet may be either dactyls or spon-
dees ; then comes a long syllable, to which succeed two
dactyls, followed by another long syllable. Thus,
Scale.
1
2
3 II 4
5
6
1 "
III. Hence the elegiac pentameter may be considered to
be composed of two dactylic penthemimers, or, in other
words, of two dactylic trimeters catalectic joined together.
IV. The place of the caesura, which should always be at
the end of a word, is after the fifth half foot, or after the
middle long syllable ; a rule which is inviolably observed
except in the case of a proper name, of which we have an
instance in Callimachus. Frag, cxcii. 2
'lepd vvv 6e AioaKovpttiscj yeve7j.
V. Some of the old grammarians, however, viewing this
species of verse as pentameter, made it consist of two dac-
tyls or spondees, followed by a spondee and two anapaests,
according to the following scheme : 3
1. Hermann, Eiem. Doctr. Metr. p. 225, ed. Glasg.
2. Hephastion, p. 93, 1. 11, ed,. Gaisf. Callimachus is defended by
D'Orville, Vann. Crit. p. 481.
3. Compare Quintilian, b, 4, 38. Tcrtnt. Maur. 1757, scq.
98 ELEGIAC VERSE.
1
2
3
4
5
VI. Hephaestion, however, who has been followed by al-
most all modern scholars, regards it as composed of two
dactylic penthemimers, 1 according to what we have already
stated. That this is the proper view to take of its structure
seems certain from the fact of the caesural pause falling after
the fifth half foot.
VII. We will now give specimens of the verse, with the
two modes of scanning :
epTrvkk | df KBIT | at || ralg ~EA | Ktivtd \ ol \
val fate | TWV Trdpd | aov \\ TOVT' dvep \ dorord \ TOV.
Or
eprrvAA | df KELT \ ol Tatf | ~EA?a>v I Idol \
val (f)l&e | T&V Trdpd \ oov TOVT' \ dvepdaT \ ordrov. |
VIII. An elision in the caesura is not regarded as injuri-
ous to the verse. 2 Thus we have in Meleager, 12, 4, and
Callimachus, Ep. 37,
TOV Tpnrdvovpyov "Epwr' || In^aoev v Kpadia.
aitpTjTov TTponoOels' \\ &%er' e^ovaa K,vXi%.
IX. An elegiac pentameter should not consist of feet
composed of separate words, as the following from Theog-
nis, 448.
ovxtof | &anep \ vvv \\ ovfevfy \ at-ioc; \ el. \
X. In the previous part of the elegiac pentameter, that
is, the part prect-dinii the caesura, it is more elegant to huvr
1 . Tov Ar AaKTvhtKOv ircvdrifitfiepovf Kf %.ap6avofiivov -yiverai TO ^A.-
eyttov, K. r. X. Hephatt. p. 92, ed Gaisf Compare the language of
.lust, p. 186. B&nov di oCrw fier^lv tirel nal elf dvo 6'iyptf-
rai irn'Oripift'i''/. x. r. A.
2. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Metr. p. 226. The case is different, how-
i-\< r. in Latin verse, where such an elision is regarded as a blemish. It
occurs in Catullus, 68, 82 ; 68, 90 ; and 76, 8 ; but he is her* mutating
the Greeks. Compare Ramsay' t Lot. Pro*, p. 183.
DACTYLIC VERSE. 99
a spondee following a dactyl than a dactyl following a
spondee, as decreasing numbers suit the measure better
than increasing ones. The difference will be perceptible
in the following lines :
rav avrdv \\ dig //eTe07//ce KOfiav.
knrapdv \\ afiaaa^ieva TrkoKafjiov.
XI. This species of verse is customarily subjoined to
the heroic hexameter, thus forming the most ancient kind
of strophes, having the name of ikeyeia. It has been once
used in tragedy by Euripides (Androm. 103, seq.). On ac-
count of the equality of its members, the elegiac pentameter
cannot well be often repeated alone. Nor has it been so
repeated, except in the Epigr. 4 of Philip of Thessalonica
(Brunch, Anal. vol. ii., p. 212), and by Virgil in that spor-
tive effusion, sic vos non vobis. 1
11. jEolic Verses.
I. ^Eolic verses are composed of pure dactyls, except
the first foot, which may be any dissyllabic one whatsoever.
In other words, they are dactylic verses with a base. 2 The
scholiast on Hephaestion (p. 177, ed. Gaisf.) admits spon-
dees also instead of dactyls.
II. These verses are apparently to be divided into two
kinds ; the one used by the Doric poets, whom the Attic
dramatic writers followed, and the other by the ^Eolic lyric
poets.
III. The Doric poetry excludes a pyrrhic from the base,
admitting only an iambus, trochee, or spondee ; and, after
the base, allowing a place to spondees, also, instead of dac-
tyls. The jEolians, on the other hand, put a pyrrhic also
in the base ; the rest of the feet they appear to have kept
pure dactyls. 3
1. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Mctr. p. 227, ed. Glasg.
2. By " a base" metricians mean two syllables put before a verse or
metrical clause, and which c,re to be pronounced somewhat apart. An
anacruses, on the other hand, is a prefix of a single syllable.
3. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Mttr. p. 228, ed. Glasg.
100 DACTYLIC TERSE.
IV. Hephaestion mentions the following kinds of
verses : 1. The trimeter (which may be termed more prop-
erly the dimeter) catalectic on two syllables ; as,
&vpcj |
rd 6e \
TTLOVJ | yot 6e deic' igenovaoav.
2. The tetrameter (now properly trimeter) acatalectic ; as,
epos | 6' avri p* 6 ^vaifteA^ dovel,
yXvicv | micpov dp,d%avov opnerov
'Ar6i, | ooi 6' epedev pev dnrj^dero
<f)povria | drjv, im 6' 'Avdpopedav irorq.
3. The pentameter (more properly tetrameter) catalectic
on two syllables ; as,
8pna | KI ftpadivu ae
4. The pentameter (more properly tetrameter) acatalec-
tic ; as,
Tjpd | \LOLV pev iy& oedev, 'Ardlj Trdkcu TTOKO.
5. The hexameter (more properly pentameter) catalectic
on two syllables, which the ancient metricians call
Thus,
| fiai rtva rov %apievra Meiwa
fj | m>nTTo<jia$ in' ftvaoiv
V. ^schylus (Pers. 866, seq.) has many verses of this
kind, and some of them very long, but admitting spondees,
too, after the Doric manner. 1
12. Logacedic Verses.
I. These verses are generally classed with dactylic.
They consist of two, thrrr, or four dactyls, followed by any
number of trochees.
I Thin it Hermann'* opinion. Hiirm-y and Gaisford make them
common dactylic vere. Herm. Elem. Doctr. Mctr. p. 230, cd. Gla*g,
Bum. Tent, Pert. p. 40. Caw/ ad Hepkatt. p. 275.
DACTYLIC VERSE. 101
II. Logacedic verses (Aoyaoidind perpa) are so called
from their appearing to hold a middle station between song
and common speech ; the dactylic measure being the lofty
language of poetry, while the trochaic approaches more
nearly to that of ordinary discourse.
III. The form most commonly used was two dactyls fol-
lowed by two trochees, which is the same with what is
called the minor alcaic, or dactylico-trochaic of the Hora-
tian stanza in Latin poetry. Thus,
Kdl rig 7r* | ea^drl \ alolv
Kpal7rvo<f>dp \ ol 6e ft' e \ Trepipdv \ avpal. \
IV. To this metre may also be referred what is called
choriambic dimeter catalectic. Thus,
fioalv dp | fjidrevadg. Chor. dimeter catalectic.
7]6alv | dppd | revadg. \ Loga&dic.
V. Burney 1 gives the following scheme of variations of
Iogao3dic verses.
^ j Called also Adonic.
_ ^ ^ | _ ^ ^ Choriambic dimeter catalectic.
Logacedic.
VI. Logacedic metre is found interspersed, among other
kinds, through the lyric poets and the chorusses of the
scenic writers.
VII. Verses may often appear to be logacedic which in
reality have other numbers, chiefly antispastic and chori-
ambic, especially in the dramatic poets. These discover
themselves both by measures in the antistrophe foreign from
logacedic numbers, and by an association with other num-
bers, which shows that they are to be reckoned among
these rather than logacedic.
1. Tentamen. p. Uvi.
12
102 CHORIAMBIC VERSE.
VIII. By prefixing a base to logaoedic numbers we ob-
tain a Glyconic, Pherecratic, or Phalaecian hendecasyllabic.
Thus,
_>_ v | _^ | ^ | Logaoedic.
' ' | >" <- | ~ | ~ Glyconic hypercatalectic.
__^^ | ^, | Logaoedic.
.. .. I _^~- I ^ Pherecratic.
_^_|_^,|_^|_~ | Loga&dic.
.'. .'. | -~^ | _~ | -~ | -~ | Phal&cian.
V. O/ Choriambic Verse.
I. Choriambic monometer hypercatalectic consists of a
choriambus and a syllable over. It is also called Adonic,
and is the same as an impure dactylic dimeter. Thus,
rfi$e dfu | etf. (Iph. A. 156.)
Adf onoadv | av. (Sept. Theb. 733.)
II. Choriambic dimeter catalectic is formed of a choriam-
bus and a bacchius, or an iambic syzygy catalectic. This
verse is called Aristophanic, as it is frequently found in
Aristophanes, mostly joined with dimeters acatalectic.
rjoalv dp | judrevaac. (Eurip. Orest. 988.)
lidpfidpoeoa | dv alykav. (Soph. Antig. 610.)
icalvov OTrwf | (frdvffael. (Arist. Vesp. 526.)
HI. Choriambic dimeter acatalectic is either pure or im-
pure. The first consists of two choriambi ; as,
pdvTis eAdy | ev Trpo^epwv. (Agam. 202.)
In <fr>evof, d \ nXalo^va^. (Sept. Th. 926.)
An impure dimeter admits an antispastus into either place
for a choriambus. When it occurs in the first, the versr is
called by some metricians " Glyconeum Polyscfiematistum"
Another form of the impure choriambic dimeter consists
of a choriambus and ilnamlms, or the contrary. Thus,
CHORIAMDIC VERSE. 103
r fj.ev
yap f)6e rat; \ 1$ Trrepvytiv.
IV. Choriambic dimeter hypercatalectic is not often found.
The two following verses are from Sophocles, in the latter
of which the choriambus of the second place is represented
by the diiambus. As,
rdv 6 fj,eyd$ \ [ivdo? del- \ el. (Ajax, 226.)
vvv yap epol \ /zeAet %dpev \ aal. (Ibid. 701.)
V. Choriambic trimeter catalectic consists of two chori-
arnbi and a bacchius. The first foot, however, is often a
diiambus, as in Eurip. Med. 431.
ov 6' eic jv OLK &
VI. Choriambic trimeter acatalectic consists of three cho-
riambi. As,
pvpr an* aiax \ ptiv dvdre^X \ ovO' df e^' rj.
In the following example from Euripides, Iph. Aul 1036,
the long syllable in the first foot is resolved; and we have
a proceleusmaticus with a long syllable.
rlf dp' vfjieval \ 5$ did Ao> | rov Aldvog.
VII. Choriambic tetrameter cataleclic consists of three
choriambi and a bacchius ; as,
el av jLtfy* av \ %els erepol \ aov TrAeov ov \ pekovTal.
This measure is called Sapphic by Servius. Besides the
tragedians, Anacreon always employs it, putting a diiambus
in the second place ; as,
eic nordpov \ Trdvep^opal \ navrd <f>epov \ ad kdfnrpd.
VIII. Choriambic tetrameter acatalectic is used by Anac-
reon, a choriambus and diiambus being put promiscuously,
except that in the end there is almost Always a diiambus.
Thus,
104 CHORIAMBIC VERSE.
\ Kep6eplov,
d<rrpdydXov$ \ * v <*>ol nal \ ^Ihov nepl.
7rd/U,d pv ev \ dovpl rWelg \ av^evd 7roA/l' ) d 6' ev r
IX. Choriambic verses are met with beginning with an
anacrusis ; as in ^Eschylus, Sept. Theb. 330. 1
vn' | dvdpo$ ~A.%al \ ov OloOlv \ rrepOdfievdv \ em^f.
Of which kind some metres of the ^Eolic lyrics appear to
be which by grammarians are accounted ionics a majore ;
as the following of Sappho (ap. Hephast. p. 64, ed. Gaisf.) :
EV | fiopcf>drepd \ Wlvdaldlitd \ rd$ dndkdg \ Tvplwtif.
d | adporepds \ ovddp' err' o> | p&wd oeOev | rv^olad.
X. The choriambics most in use are those with a base,
which ancient metricians erroneously ranked among anti-
spastic verses. But if they were antispastic, they could
never begin with a trochee or pyrrhic, and they would have
the last syllable of each antispastus doubtful.
XL The shortest of these verses has one choriambus ;
as in JEschylus, Suppl. 42.
vvv kv | TTolovofiol^.
Next to that is the hypercatalectic, commonly called Pher-
ecratic; as in jEsch. Sept. Theb. 301.
rot [lev | yap TTOTI nvpy \ ovf .
Then the Glyconic, in the same, v. 325.
dovXei | dv ij)d<f>dpd \ arrodw.
The most common is the dimeter hypercatalectic ; as in
Sophocles, Aj. 628.
ov6' olicrp | af yoov op \ vWoq dfj \ dov$.
VI. Of Antispastic Verse.
I. An antispast is composed of an iambus and trochee
!--) ___ ___ _
1. Hermann, Elcm. Dor.tr. Mctr. p. 2T4, ed. Gtug.
ANTISPASTIC VERSE.
105
II. Several antispasti seldom follow one another, because
these numbers have a very disagreeable and uncouth move-
ment ; as if one were to divide the following choriambic
verse, with a base, after the manner of the grammarians :
Kdrdvaoitel KV \ Oeprj d6p6$ \ "Arfwvif. rl \ ice delpev ;
III. To soften this asperity, the poets increased the an-
tispastus by one syllable, from which arises a dochmius
(~ ~ ), associated it with other numbers, and made
use of frequent resolutions.
IV. The antispast being composed, as has just been re-
marked, of an iambus and trochee, any variety of the iam-
bus is admitted into the first part of the foot, and any vari-
ety of the trochee into the second. Hence we get the fol-
lowing kinds of antispast :
V. In other words, the first or iambic part of the anti-
spast may be either an iambus, tribrach, spondee, anapaest,
or dactyl ; and the second or trochaic part may be either a
trochee, tribrach, spondee, or anapaest.
VI. Instead of an antispast, an iambic or trochaic syzygy
is occasionally used ; as,
VII. The second foot of the iambic syzygy also admits
* dactyl ; as,
VIII. An antispastic monometer is rare. Thus, in ^Eschy-
lus, Agam. 1151, 1161, we have,
o> irorvV "Hpd |
106 ANTISPASTIC VERSE.
IX. Nor is the dimeter frequent. JEsch. Agam. 1151,
1161.
vdfiov dvopov ol | a rl$ %oi)6d.
rl 6' ImQdbd 6va \ Qdrti icAdyya.
X. The other kinds of antispastic verse are extremely
various. A few may be here enumerated.
Dimeter Brachycatalectic.
l\Lol xpfiv %V\L | <f>6pdv. (Eurip. Hec. 627.)
Dimeter Hyper cat alectic.
epol %pfjv 7T7/ | \iovav ylvlod | at. (Hec. 628.)
Ktind nefind \ fievdv rdhalv \ dv. (Ib. 455.)
rdhalv' ovKlr | la' l^drev | aw. (Ib. 901.)
Trimeter Acatalectic.
a^A' a (jiolpid | Id rl^ dv \ vdal<; delvd. (Ib. 950.)
Trimeter Brachycatalectic.
rdhalvd rdk \ alval nopal | Qpvytiv. (Ib. 1046.)
Trimeter Catalectic.
advpaol d 9 ol \ d vlv dpdftovr \ I (3dK%al. (Orest. 1502.)
XL Among the tragic writers chiefly, the antispastus is
often associated with other numbers, mostly iambic and tro-
chaic. Of these the iambic are not such as have been pre-
viously treated of, which proceed by syzygies or dipodiae,
but of another kind allied to antispasts. This kind, because
they consist of shorter orders, and, therefore, admit a doubt-
ful syllable even into those places from which it is excluded
in syzygies (whence arises a broken and feeble movement),
are called Ischiorrhogic Iambics.
XII. These verses are found even without any antispas-
tus added. Thus, Soph. Electr. 504, seq. :'
i. Hermann, Elem. Doetr. Metr. p. 147, ed. OUug. Hermann's tr-
ANTJSPASTIC VERSE. 107
w IleAo I Trdf d I -npooOev
TrdX.vTTOV I df tTTTr | eld
<if quo | Aef al \ dvr\
rdde j(i. | Cretic.
evre yap \ 6 TTOVT \ laOelg
eKol \ fidOrj^ K. r. A.
Dochmiac Verses. 1
I. A dochmius consists of an antispast and a long sylla-
ble, thus, ~ -- ^ ; and, therefore, a simple dochmiac is
the same as antispastic monometer hypercatalectic.
$eo>v 77 $edv.
II. Two of these feet or verses are continually united to-
gether in such a manner, and with such various combina-
tions of feet, that almost any two penthemimers put together
may claim the name of dochmiac dimeter.
III. A pure dochmiac dimeter is not of frequent occur-
rence. The following are three instances :
Trordral (3pefj.el. (Sept. Th. 84.)
<f>d6o$ \ d' apeltiv oTrA-div. (Ib. 114.)
Hal deol \ olv ov t-vpmrvel. (Hec. 1013.)
IV. Impure forms of the dimeter dochmiac are varied
almost ad infinitum. Thus, the following occur in the
chorus, jEsch. Sept. Th. 79, seq. :
[iWelral arpdro^ \ OTpdrdneSov
pel nokvc; tide Aeo>f | 7rpd6pdud$
aldepld Kdvl$ \ jtte nelOel <f>dvel(j'
dudxerov dlndv \ vddrog oporvTrov
Iti $eol deal r' \ opopevov KCLKOV
rangement, however, of these verses is opposed by Wunder, Conspect.
Metr. &c., ad loc.
1 . For a more detailed account of dochmiac verse, consult Seidler, de
Versibus Dochmtacis, Lips. 1812, 8vo. Burneii Tcnlamcn de Mctris
ab JEschylo in Choricis Cantibus adhibitis, p. xx., scq. (Introd.). Malt-
by, Observat. ad Morcll. Gr. P. Lex. p. Ixx.
108 IONIC A MAJORE TERSE.
' (36d d* | irrrep
dpd pvoeral | TI$ dp' eirapKeoel ;
Kal ore<f>etiv | TTOT' el pj vvv, dp 0t.
ov T' ~A/>77 <ei) 0ei>, | Kd(ty/oi> eraJvv/zov
ev re pd^alg {jdnalp' \ dvdaad npo TroAewf
Iw reAetot | re^clat re ydf :
V.' A dochrjiiac is sometimes connected with a cretic,
either pure or resolved ; thus,
eTTTdtnUov | edd$ emppvov. (Sept. Th. 151.)
rdode rrvp \ yo^vXdne^ noXlv. (Ib. 154.)
VI. Pherecratic and Glyconic verses are commonly
ranked under antispastic, but they are more correctly to be
regarded as choriambic with a base. 1
VII. Of Ionic a Majore Verse.
I. An Ionic verse a major e admits a trochaic syzygy pro-
miscuously with its proper foot ( -- ~ ~). It receives also
a second paeon (-^ ~ -*) into the first place, and a molos-
sus ( --- ) into an even place of a trimeter whole or cata-
lectic.
II. Resolutions of the long syllables are allowed in all
possible varieties.
1. Monometer Hypercatalectic.
v I x& v - (Hcc. 1048.)
2. Dimeter Brachycatalectic.
%)*>pal<; viro | Pfjoaalf. (GEd. Col. 673.)
Kal oti<j>povd | TrwAo^ . (PAoen. 182.)
3. Dimeter Cat alec tic.
| ev notel. (Hec. 465.)
6 $101*601 | rift df ov. (Arist. Ecclcs. 289.)
t. These two measures have already been touched upon at page 104.
They will again be considered separately at page 1 17.
IONIC A MAJORS VERSE. 109
4. Dimeter Acatalectic.
rl rol nore \ rag dnkdarov
Kolrdg epog \ w fidrald
onevael Odvd | rov rlXevrdv (Med. 152.)
5. Dimeter Hypercatalectic.
vvv 6' ovrog dv \ elral orvye \ pw. (Aj. 1232.)
6. Trimeter Brachycatalectic.
IKOV rd Kpdr \ lard ydg ITT \ avkd. ((Ed. Col. 669.)
7. Trimeter Acatalectic.
dvdrtiv ftlo | TCJ TrdftTTokv y' | eicrog drag. (Ant. 614.)
rdv ovO' VTrvog \ alpel Trod' 6 \ Trdvroy^pwf. (Ant. 606.)
III. The most noted kind of Ionic verses a majore is the
Sotadic (so called from Sotades, a poet of Alexandria, who
frequently employed it in his writings), or tetrameter brachy-
catalectic.
IV. The tetrameter brachycatalectic was constructed for
recitation only, not for song. 1 In its pure state it consists
of three Ionics and a trochee. Two trochees are found in
any place, but for the most part in the third.
V. The most usual form of the verse is as follows :
avrog yap e \ tiv Trdvroye \ vr\q 6 ndvrd \ ylvv&v.
VI. It is seldom that all the feet are either Ionics ; as,
dv xpvaotyop | fig rovro rv \ %f]g lariv ITT \ dp[4d t
or trochees ; as,
W Ttevrjg tfeA, | <bv e%elv ital \ n^ovatog TrAe | dv o^elv.
VII. The following are examples of resolutions :
evQ' ol fjv e-rr' | dKpalm rrvp \ alg veKveg e \ Keivro
yf^g em e | vr]g opfyavd \ relxed TTpokin \ ovreg
1. Aristidcs Quintilianus, p. 32.
K
110 IONIC A MINORE TERSE.
Up | 7)$ KOL pvxov
epd | rfjv Kal KdXov ] fjklov irpoo \ WTTOV.
VIII. If the three remaining paeons, or the second pason
in any place but the first, or if an iambic syzygy or an epi-
trite be found in the same verse with an Ionic foot, the
verse is then termed Epionic.
VIII. Of Ionic a Minore Verse.
I. An Ionic verse a minore admits an iambic syzygy pro-
miscuously with its proper foot ( -- ). It begins some-
times with the third paeon (*-- ^ ~), sometimes with a
molossus, which is admitted into the odd places. Resolu-
tions of the long syllable are also allowed.
II. An epionic verse a minore is constituted by intermix-
ing with the Ionic foot a trochaic syzygy, an epitrite, a sec-
ond or fourth paeon, or the third in any place but the first.
1. Manometer Hypercatalectic.
\LO, \ rpo$. (Hec. 185.)
2. Dimeter Brachycatalectic.
enl rdv6' eaa \ v6el$. (Ib. 1065.)
3. Dimeter Catalectic.
dicp \ OKdpol^. (Phoen. 1540.)
vTi66$ | 'E;U7fr. (Pers. 71.)
yap \ Kara palp'. (Ib. 102.)
III. Timocreon is said to have composed an entire poem
in this measure.
iron rdv \MTip' <f>a, K. r. A.
4. Dimeter Acatalectic.
\ t~ (Agam. 721.)
PHONIC VERSE. Ill
5. Dimeter Hyper catalectic.
povdd' altiv | d dia^ovo J d.
6. Trimeter Brackycatalectic.
6le6l<j)pevo | e MvprtAov | (f>ovov.
f7. Tetrameter Catalectic.
TO ye \ir\v elv \ Id 6ovad(; \ Aoydf wtrrrep | Aeyerat.
IX. OfPaonic Verse.
I. A paeonic verse admits any foot of the same time as a
paeon ; viz., a cretic, a bacchius, or a tribrach and pyrrhic
jointly.
II. The construction of the verse is most perfect when
each metre ends with a word.
1. Dimeter Brachycatalectic.
| Kvpel. (Phan. 137.)
2. Dimeter Catalectic.
\ r' e/z66Ad. (Ib. 113.)
3. Dimeter Acatalectic.
', | olxoneOd. (Orest. 179.)
ti \ Trrepd^dpol. (Ib. 311.)
4. Trimeter Brachycatalectic.
Kdrddoarpv \ %6^ opp,dal \ yopydf. (Phccn. 146.)
5. Trimeter Catalectic.
%pov | <y Qvyddd \ j^eAeov. (7i. 169.)
X. O/ Crrtic
I. Cretic numbers belong, in strictness, to the trochaic,
and are nothing else but a catalectic trochaic dipodia, which
consists of arsis, thesis, and arsis again.
112 CRETIC VERSE.
II. Since this order is periodic, it is plain that the thesis
cannot be doubtful, but consists always and necessarily of
one short syllable only ; but that each arsis may be resolved,
whence it comes to pass that both the first and the fourth
pason, and, moreover, even five short syllables, may be put
for the cretic. Thus,
ITT. It must also be remarked, that, when several cretic
feet are conjoined in one verse, no one coheres with an-
other in a periodic order ; and the last syllable of the last
foot, as every final syllable, is doubtful, and cannot be re-
solved except in systems in which, since the numbers are
continued in one unbroken tenour, the last foot of the verses,
unless it is, at the same time, the last foot of the whole sys-
tem, is subject to the same law as each intermediate foot.
IV. The dimeters are very much used by both tragic and
comic poets, and are commonly conjoined in systems, so
that the last syllable of the verses is neither doubtful nor
admits a hiatus, and may be resolved. In these systems a
monomcter, too, is assumed. Thus, in dEsch. Suppl. 425,
seq. :
yevov
rdv <}>vya6d \
rdv eicddev \
V. The tetrameter, too, is frequent, having the caesura at
the end of the second foot. Thus, in Simmias, ap. Hephast.
p. 74:
fidrep ti | TTorvid \\ icXvBl vvp \ <f>dv d6pdv,
Ad>pr, K.V | iidKTvntiv || //pi i/ IIM | cjv pv%<I)v.
VI. Alcinan used the catalectic hexameter, whence the
following verse has the name of Alcmanian.
ANACREONTIC VERSE. 113
~A.<f>pd6l | rd fiev WK I earl, papy \ of 6' Epwf, | old Trai$ t
| naladel,
dKp' err' av6 \ 77 nd6al \ vtiv, d ^ \ p
XI. Of Anacreontic Verse.
I. This species of verse is generally ranked under the
Ionic a minore class ; it belongs, however, more properly
to the Ionic a majore kind.
II. The poems which pass at the present day under the
name of Anacreon are not genuine, but are the productions
of persons who lived at a much later period, and some of
whom appear to have been quite ignorant. Hence the doubt
and difficulty to which they have given rise.
III. As a great part of these poems consist of pure iambi,
we ought to rank such, no doubt, with iambic rather than
Ionic numbers. As, for example, the following :
#Aw | Aeyetv | ~A.rpeld \ a$.
IV. But of those which are really Ionic there appear to
be two kinds ; one with a monosyllabic, the other with a
dissyllabic anacrusis.
V. The kind which has a monosyllabic anacrusis admits.
of two forms only, of which the proper one is this :
- i ___ ^ I __
I I
and the other, which changes the dactyl of the Ionic foot
into an amphibrach, is as follows :
VI. The first of these forms, which is very like the
Pherecratic, is found constantly employed in one ode mere-
ly, the thirtieth ; as,
al | Movaat rov ~E | ptird
6fj | odadi aretydv \ olal,
T(j) | ad} Afit rrdped \ aidv, K. T. A.
"
114 ANACREONTIC VERSE.
In other odes it is found intermingled with the second form,
which is much more usual.
VII. The second form is employed in the twenty-third,
twenty-sixth, and twenty-seventh odes. Thus,
6 | TrAovrdf elye \ xpvoov
TO | TJV Trdpffye \ -&vfjrolg. (23, 1, seq.)
oV | els PZ Badf | eAfl?/. 1
ev | dovalv al pe \ plpval. (26, 1, seq.)
VIII. We now come to that species of Anacreontics
which has a dissyllabic anacrusis. It has two forms, as
follows :
^^| ^ ^ I
i i
The first of these is much less used than the second, and
we will therefore treat of the latter first in order.
IX. This latter form is employed in the 3d, 4th, 7th,
21st, 28th, 44th, and 45th odes. Thus,
nod' \ &
orpfye | ral or' dpKrd$ \ f)6rj. (3, 1, seq.)
em | iivpalvai$ rep \ elval$
eiTi | Xtirlvals re \ Trolai^. (4, 1, seq.)
dye | %Cyypd<f>tiv dp \ lore
ypd0e | ^ypd^v dp \ lore. (28, 1, seq.)
X. When, in this species of Anacreontics, the anacrusis
consists of one syllable, that syllable must necessarily be
long, as arising from the contraction of two short ones. In-
stances of this, however, are not frequent. Thus,
icui | pov fierelm \ xalptiv. (6, 16.)
Trij j yfi peovod \ mldov^. (22, 6.)
1. We have given Barnes's emendation, based on that of Scaliger.
The common reading it 6rav 6 Ba/^of iot/.Uij.
ANACREONTIC VERSE. 115
XL Sometimes the first long syllable is found resolved.
Thus,
av 6e | 0Urdf el ye \ wpyoiv. (43, 8.)
o> | noad <f>epovalv \ vhdt. (Ib. 7.)
and occasionally also the second ; as,
fj,edv | oi/zev ddpd ye \ Aoivref. (6, 3.)
161 | Troi^ yepdvo$ 66 \ evel. (37, 6.)
XII. Of the middle iambi the first has sometimes a long
anacrusis, but oftener in the tragedians and comedians.
Thus,
and | plTTTOvral pep \ ipvai. (39, 5.)
The second more unfrequently ; as in Sophocles, El. 1058,
and Euripides, Cycl. 497.
<f>povl | [itirdrovs ol \ wvovf .
em | 6ep,vZal$ re \ t-dvOov.
XIII. The species of Ionics which we have just been con
sidering under the preceding paragraph is found intermin-
gled with that referred to in paragraph IX., in the following
odes of Anacreon ; the 5th, 6th, 22d, 29th, 36th, 37th, 39th,
41st, 42d, 51st, 52d, 53d, 54th, 56th, 57th, and in fragments
13, 17, and 21.
XIV. We come now to the first of the two species men-
tioned in paragraph VIII., namely, that consisting of a dis-
syllabic anacrusis, with an Ionic a majore and two syllables
over; as,
XV. These are often formed into systems by the tragic
writers, with a monometer occasionally appended, and end-
ing with a verse of iambic form. The final doubtful sylla-
ble is excluded, as in anapaestics. Thus we have the fol-
lowing in the Supplices of ^Eschylus, v. 1025, seg.: 1
1. Burncy erroneously makes these lines Ionic a minore. (Tent.
Suppl. v. 1013, p. 72.)
116 ANACREONTIC VERSE.
Ire | pdv dorvd \ vdicro$
fidicdp | df deovg ydvd \ evref
ovftovf re Kai \ ol %ev\ik
olvov |
Trepl | valovral ndh \ diov
VTTO | decode 6' on \ ddoi
l^eAdf | alvo$ 6e TroA, | Iv TTJV-
SK He | Adtrywv e%e | TW,
Irl N&Acw
XV. Another kind of Anacreontic verse employed by the
tragic writers is that in which anaclasis, or the conjunction
of a third paeon (~ ~ ~) and second epitrite (- ~ -- )
prevails. Thus,
XII. OfGalliambic Verse.
I. Galliambic verse is composed of two Anacreontics, of
which the last is catalectic ; in this form :
337-3 ~ II ^~ |_3 ^~
| N_X>^ I! | W^ ^^
II. The caesura always falls at the end of the first An-
acreontic, and is observed with great care. The following
are two lines of this measure, given by Hephaestion :
FdAA | at (i>7irpd$ op \ elrj$ \\ 0rAo | Ovpaoi dpopd \ def .
als | evred irdrd \ yelral \\ nal \ %dhKed Kpord \ Ad.
III. The following Galliambics are given by Diogenes
Laertius (8, ad. Jin.). H. Stephens scanned them errone-
ously as hexameters; and Salmasius, in his eagerness to
rincml tlicin, only corrupted them the more. I'OIMMI re-
stored them to their true numbers. We have marked in
each the place ol ih< cxsural pause, that the melody may
be more perceptible.
GLYCONIC VERSE. 117
KV Menfai Aoyof iori \\ TrpopaOslv rr]v
Fjvdot-ov nore fiolpav || napd rov
ravpov, ovdev !Aeev || Pot yap
4>voi$ OVK eduKe p6o%u \\ AaAov "Atrtdi aroua,
Trapd 6' avrbv Ae^ptof ard$
rovro
did Kai ol
dendittt; TTKVT' em rpiooats \\ eaidovri
XIII. OfGlyconic Verse.
I. The first, and, at the same time, most simple and ele-
gant form of Glyconics is a base followed by a logacedic
order, consisting of a dactyl and trochee, and terminating
with an arsis. Thus,
II. This kind of verses form systems, for the most part,
which are customarily concluded by the catalectic verse
called Pherecratic. Thus,
dd' i | 70) #epaf alpdr \ r\
pd$ (3p6 | %oloZ KEK^elfif-v \ d
Trej^TTo | pal Kara yal \ d$. (Androm. 502, seq.)
III. The logao?dic order was subsequently changed into
a choriambus and iambus, by which the last syllable but
one was made doubtful ; as,
'I- -I--
Thus we have in Euripides, HippoL 741, the following:
rag rj \ Ae/crpd0detf | avyd$.
IV. The logacedic order having been divided into a cho-
riambus and iambus, it was thought fit to vary the numbers
by transposition, so that the iambus, being placed before
the choriambus, was changed into a spondee or trochee, be-
cause an arsis ought to follow the base. Thus,
nevr | fjKovO' \ oi>\f>l6ldc.
118 GLYCONIC VERSE.
V. And again, another transposition also was made,
though not of frequent occurrence, the choriambus taking
the first place, and the base and trochee being changed into
an iambic syzygy. As,
VI. The Pherecratic verse, in which the choriambus is
not followed by an iambus that may be transposed, admits
only two forms :
^ *., \ ^ **
Of which the last is uncommon, and used, for the most
part, only in some compound verses.
VII. The primitive species of Glyconics, which ends in
an iambus, receives among dramatic poets, at least in the
later tragedy, even a spondee in the end, so that in anti-
strophics a spondee may answer to an iambus. Thus, in
Sophocles, Philuct. 1128, 1151, we have
LJ rot-ov fakov,
rdv npooOev peheuv
VIII. A pyrrhic is excluded from the base among the
dramatic poets and in the graver lyric poetry. The rest of
the dissyllabic feet are used promiscuously by the dramatic
writers, so that any one may answer to any one. The tri-
brach is most used by the later tragedy, as in Euripides,
PAcen. 210.
Tvplov | oldfid XLTTOV^ \ e6dv.
The tragedians of the same age sometimes allowed them-
selves an anapaest also ; as in Sophocles, Philoct. 1098 :
rl nor av \ fioi rd ndr' f) \
or a dactyl ; as in Iph. Taur. 1144 :
GLYCONIC VERSE, 119
IX. The choriambus is not unfrequently resolved, espe-
cially in the later tragedy. Thus, the first syllable in
Soph. (Ed. Col. 186, 205 :
rerpo<f>ev \ d(f>lkov and \ arvyelv.
And in a Pherecratic ; as, Eurip. Hel. 1502, 1519 :
enlner \ 6(j,ev6$ ldK% | el
podld | TTdkld ddXdoa \ dc.
So also in the last syllable ; as, Hel. 1505 ; Here. Fur. 781 :
(3dre \ Hkeldddg VTTO \ peadg.
laufjv' | (D GTe<f>dvo<f)6p \ lav.
X. In this other form of Glyconics,
' j ^z ^ I *-'*-'
the order which follows the base may have both a resolu-
tion of the arsis and the last syllable doubtful. Whence, in-
stead of a trochee, sometimes a spondee is put, sometimes a
tribrach, and these very often ; sometimes, but more sel-
dom, an anapaest also, as in Orest. 812, and Iph. Aul. 1041 :
olKTpo | rdrd $olv \ df^drd nal.
ev dalrl
XI. Sometimes both the long syllables of the choriambus
are resolved ; as in Eurip. Bacch. 410, 427 :
KKela* | dye |Lte, | Bpo/Lut Bpouls.
oo<j>dv | 6' d-ne^K \ TTpdmdd (frpevd re.
XII. As dochmiac verses have other numbers, resem-
bling them or parts of them, both intermingled and coupled
with them, so with Glyconics, also, a vast multitude of
verses are found joined which are either like them or con-
sist of Glyconics themselves, with some part taken away
or added. These verses have usually this in common, that
they contain a choriambus joined with a different foot.
120 GLYCONIC VERSE.
XIII. The forms which are about the most in use are
these : First, the shortest,
_ ~ ~ _ | c - and .'..'( ----
Thus, in Soph. (Ed. Col 128, 160, and Eurip. Suppl. 960,
066:
dc rpefidfjbev \ heyelv.
pevpdrl ovv \ Tpe%et.
dvoal | (Dv 6' 6 (315$.
OVT* ev
XIV. Next, with an anacrusis put instead of a base, as
in Soph. (Ed. T. 467 :
w | pa vlv aAA | ddtiv
ITT | TTWV cdevdpti \ repov
<fiv | yd
XV. There are other forms longer than a Glyconic. Of
these the first is that of the hypercatalectic Glyconic.
Thus,
The following examples are from Soph. (Ed. Col. 133, 165,
and JEunp. Hel 1317:
levr | $ rdde vvv \ riv rjicelv.
' d^drd.
6pei | a TTOT | e Spopddl
XVI. Another kind often joined with Glyconics is the
following :
-~* -^ ^ I ^_>-_^
eromoc j ffi;0e?c d travrcDv. ((Ed. Col. 110.)
XVII. Another kind is this :
GLYCON1C VERSE. 121
KaA/U'<TT | tiv 5(j,6p \ wv blodev \ arepeloal. (Electr. 736.
Kretveig \ nkelvtiv | avyyeverelp' \ ddetytiv. (Ib. 741.)
XVIII. The longest of the verses allied to the Glyconic
is the Phalaecian hendecasyllabic. Thus,
at re \ valere a/U \ ItruXov edp \ dv.
The more usual, but less correct way of scanning this meas-
ure, is as follows :
al re \ valere \ acOOCi \ ntikov \ edpdv.
XIX. Glyconics are sometimes augmented in the begin-
ning. Hence we have the following forms :
reyyel 6' vn \ otypval nay \ nXavrolq. (Antig. 831.)
ovre \ vv^ldld^. (Ib. 814.)
XX. Another kind has a trochee inserted between the
base and the other parts of the Glyconic. Thus,
I I
\ ovad \ ^elpdKog fj \ ddvaig. (Bacch. 865.)
ftot yew \ altiv \ \ilv Trdrep&v. (Cycl. 41.)
XXI. Another kind consists of a Pherecratic verse, with
molossus or cretic. Thus,
| yap jueya^wf | rod' \ oppdral. (Med. 183.)
rdnov | Svpoulvd \ aov \ evverdv. (Ib. 159.)
XXII. Sometimes a bacchius is put before a Glyconic.
Thus,
L
122 PRIAPEIAN VERSE.
epwrwv, | p6r \ &v <T dneirav \ ae v d> | -pot.
yevolfidv, \lv t v\ Adev e-rreffr \ I TTOVT \ -ov.
XXIII. A verse is often found among Glyconics com-
posed of a cretic and choriambus ; as in Eurip. Hel. 1356 :
opy <; evenei.
Pare aepv \ al Xdplre^.
XIV. OfPriapeian Verse.
I. The Priapeian verse consists of a Glyconic and Pher-
ecratic joined in one. Thus,
' I ------ 1 ~-n !- |-
II. Of these forms it is probable that one was for the
most part used to the exclusion of the rest ; as by Anac-
reon:
Tff ftv rp ov eTTTov fiiKpov rro
olvov | <T et-emov \ icddov \\ vvv 6' afip \ wf Zpoeoa \ dv
ipdkXb) | nrjKTidd rfj \ <f>lkq \\ KWJLWZ^ | tiv -ndld d6p \ rj.
III. The caesura is everywhere carefully observed. This
metre appears to have been asynartete ; and hence the hi-
atus in the following line given by the scholiast on Theoc-
ritus :
dv (f>epo | fiev trapd r^ \ $eov \\ dv eicd \ keoodro rfjv \ d.
XV. OfEupolidean Verse.
I. The Eupolidean verse, which is peculiar to the comic
poets, consists of a Glyconic verse having a choriambus at
the end, ami nnoihcr like innnhrr, in which is a cretic in-
Rtead of a choriambus.
II. In the base are found a trochee, iambus, spondee, and
sometimes a tribrach. Thus,
CRATINEAN VERSE, ETC. 123
' I Cl^^ H
vol Kdrepti \\ npog v \ fj,d$ e
epvdpov | eg dKp \ ov nd^v rol$ \\ naldi \ ol<; Iv \ r\v
XVI. Of Cratinean Verse.
I. The Cratinean verse differs from the Eupolidean in the
first portion only, in which it has a choriambus and an iam-
bic dipodia. Thus,
Trdvrd (f)5pf)r | d ndvr \ d ro^fj, \ 7)rd \ rwde | roi %opw.
II. The caesura, as in the line here given, is often neg-
lected.
XVII. Of Polyschematistic Verse.
I. This name is applied to verses whose composition is
so irregular and variable that they cannot be classed with
propriety under any particular head. In other words, poly-
schematistic verses are those which consist of entirely ir-
regular feet. Thus,
Oldinodd \ Pportiv ovde \ vd 'pdicdplt; \ w. ((Ed. T. 1195.)
XVIII. OfProsodiac Verse.
This appellation is given to a verse in which choriam-
bics are mixed with Ionics or paeons. Thus,
1. Dimeter Acatalectic.
vfjfjidrd &' I H ero TrecJoi. (Orest. 1431.)
2. Dimeter Hyper catalectic.
v 6* and \ aal %dpdnol \ wv. (Hec. 905.)
vnep | reAAovr laid \ tiv. (Orest. 832.)
3. Trimeter Catalectic.
opydvol?. (PAcen. 114.)
124 ASYNARTETE VERSES.
4. Trimeter Hypercatalectic.
fieydld de \ rig tivvdplg \ SV dkdarop \ tiv. (Orest. 1562.)
XIX. Of Asynartete Verses.
I. This name is given to those verses which consist of
two different measures united into one line.
II. The name denotes that the union is not a close one
(AavvdpTTjTog, i. e., "not jointed together"), and, in fact,
the last syllable of the first member of the line may be ei-
ther long or short, just as if it were the final syllable of a
separate line. On this same principle, too, a hiatus is al-
lowed between the two measures. Thus,
delvd | delvd \] TTSTTOV \ 6dfj,ev. Troch. syz.-flamb. syz. 1
alhlvdv \\ dp%dv \ ddvdrov. Dact. dim.-f-Anap.
mon.
lov tig \\ Treaolp' \ eg evv \ dv. Anap. mon.-f-
lamb. penth.
III. The metre of Archilochus is this, in which he uni-
formly observed the caesura :
^ I ^ *, I ^ 3ll__l ~l c
I I l~ l~
w Epao/zdv | idfj Xap j Ikde \\ xpfjfid \ rol ye | Xolov.
IV. Another measure employed by the same poet, and
imitated by Horace (Od. 1, 4), is as follows :
ova Id' o | p5? tfdAA | elg and \ Aov ^pod- || icapfe \ ral
yap | 770*77.
V. Another asynartete verse of Archilochus, which Hor-
ace has imitated in epode 11, is as follows :
-I- H-IF-I P- |~
dUd p' 6 | Ivolpe | Ar7f || w' ralp \ c ddfjtv \dral\ nodog.
1. A verse of this kind, in which a trochaic is followed by an iambic
fjrzygy, or vice verm, is termed periodicu*.
PART III.
CHORAL SONGS.
L2
CHORAL SCANNING
OF THE
PROMETHEUS VINCTUS.
Vss. 114-119.
ANTISPASTIC SYSTEM.
1. T A, a, ea, la.
2. rl<; d%ti \ rl^ od^id \ npdaeTrrd \ \
3. deoaavros r] | (3pdreldg 77 | KEKpdfisvf) ;
4. LKKTO reppdvl \ 6v em Trdyov,
5. Ttovtiv eptiv | tfewpo^, rj \ rl dfj i9eAwv ;
6. opdre deep \ tirijv fie 6va \ TTOT^LOV &eov
1. Extra metrum. 2
2. Bacchic tetrameter.
3. Antispastic trimeter.
4. Antispastic dimeter.
5. Antispastic trimeter.
6. Antispastic trimeter.
Vss. 120-127.
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. rov Ato? | ex e Pi \\ rdv
2. 61' dnex8 \ eld \\ eWov
3. TTv AIo^- avkfv \\ elaolv evalv
1. We have included under this general head not only anapaestics,
but parts of tho play, also, not uttered by the chorus, but where the
measure employed is of a choral nature ; as in the piece first given.
2. Exclamations, not included in any measure.
I
128 CHORAL SCANNING
4. 6td rfjv \ Xlav \\ </>U6r7/ | rd
5. (j>ev <f>ev \ rl TTOT' av \\ nlvddlan \ a
6. 7rehd$ ol | oii>ajv || alO^p \ 6*
7. TTTepvyaiv | plnalg || VTTOOV \
8. rrdv pol \ (j>66epov \\ TO Trpoaepu | ov. (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 128-138 (Leipsic ed. 128-135).
STROPHE /3'.
2. ydp ^de rat- \ 1$ nrepvyutv
3. &dal$ d/itAA |
4. rovdl Trdyov,
5. ftoy^ TrdpEln \ ovad
6. Kpalnvdtydp \ ol 6e [*' e \ ne^dv \ avpal'
7. KTVTTOV yap d \ %a> ^dAvfio^
8. dl^ev dvrp \ wv jttv^ov, e d*
9. 7rA^^e juov |
10. rdv T9ejLtepai7r | a> aidw* (7v-
11. i^v 6' dne \ 6iko$ 6% \ ai nrep
1. Gly conic polyschematistic.
2. The same measure.
3. The same measure.
4. Choriambic dimeter catalectic.
5. Glyconic polyschematistic.
6. Logacedic.
7. Glyconic polyschematistic.
8. The same measure.
0. Antispastic monometer.
10. Choriambic dimeter acatalectic.
11. Logacedic.
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 129
Vss. 139-146 (Leipsic ed. 136-143).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. Al al | al o,l ||
2. rift TTO%,V | rlnvov || TfjOvdf \ lay ova ||
3. rov Trepl | Ttdadv &' \\ eiklaa \ dfievov \\
4. %6ov' aicolfj, | 7/TO) || pevudri \
5. Trdrpdf <j | Kedvov- \\ 6ep%6r)T' \
6. otw | deapti \\ rrpdaTropn \ drdf ||
7. T7)a6e <f>dp \ dyyo^ l| aicdnekols \ ev aKpol$ \\
8. (frpovpdv | d^ || Aov d^(T | w. (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 147-157 (Leipsic ed. 144-151).
ANTISTROPHE 0',
corresponding line for line with STROPHE
1. Aevaacj IIpop] | 6ev <f>56epd (5*
2. efiolatv doa \ ol$ dfu^fj
3. Trpod^^e TrA^p | ^^ dditpvtiv
4. cro v deader ela \ Idovofj
5. TTerpals Trpoaav \ alvopevov
6. Tamd' add | fidvrode \ rolal
7. veot yap oZ | dicovofiol
8. Kpdrovo' "OAvj^TT | ov
9. <5e d^ vdjito^ |
10. Zev ddertic; \ Kpdrvvel rd
11. Trptv dfi TreA | aiptd I vvv a | larol.
Vss. 158-164 (Leipsic ed. 152-158).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. Et yap | ft' VTTO y^v, || vspdev r' \ didov |
2. TOV ve/cpo | deyfiovos \\ el$ dnep \ dvrov \
3. Tdprdpov \ iJKev, \\ dsa^olg
4. dtaif TreAdffdf, || 0)5- u^ re
130 CHORAL SCANNING
5. fjtjfre rl$ \ dAAof || rolad' e-ne \ yrjOel- ||
6. vvv 6' alO | eplov || tuvvyp' \ 6 rdXd$ \\
7. e^flpoZf | em%dpr || d TrenovO \ a. (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 165-173 (Leipsic ed. 159-166).
STROPHE y'.
2. t9ewv OTCJ | rd(5'
3. rif oi; gvvda% \ dkp
4. Teolai, dl%d | ye Ato^ ; 6 <$' errt | /coroif del
5. -&e(ievo^ | dyvdjLtTTT (| ov vo | ov,
6. ddfivdral \ ovpdvl \ dv
7. yevvdv \ ovde \ Xf^-
8. el rrplv dv | f) Kdpea \ y neap, \ rj TrdAd | ^ rlvl
9. rdv dvad \ Awrov eA | ^ rtf | dp%dv.
1. Antispastic dimeter.
2. The same measure.
3. The same measure.
4. Antispastic trimeter.
5. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
6. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
7. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
8. Dactylic pentameter.
9. Logaoedic.
Vss. 174-184 (Leipsic ed. 167-177).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. "H pfjv | er' epovj \\ Kalnep \ Kpdrepdi$ ||
2. ev yvl \ drrtdaif || alicl^ \ dpevov ||
3. xpeldv | K^el \\ [tdicdptjv \ npvrdvl^ [|
4. deli-al \ TO veov \\ ftov^evfi* \ v<' droti (J
5. OKfnrdv rliid \\ r' CTrdavA dral \\
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 131
6. Kal fi f ov | rl fieXl || yXtiaaol<; \ TreWovg \\
7. endol \ dalalv || debt-el \ areped$ r' \\
8. ovnor' an \ elXd$ || Trrrj^d^ \ rod' eyw ||
9. Kdrdprjv \ voti \\ rrplv dv $ \ dyplcjv \\
10. deo/MJv | %dhdafi || 7rolvd$ \ re rlvelv ||
11. rfjad' alK \ ld$ || edeXija \ ^. (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 185-193 (Leipsic ed. 178-185).
ANTISTROPHE y',
corresponding line for line with STROPHE y'.
1. 2v jj,ev ftpdavs \ re nal
2. dvalalv ovd \ ev
3. dydv 6' ekevO \
4. e(j,d$ 6e (f)pevd$ \ fjpeOtae did
5. dedld d' dfi(f)l \ oai rv^al^j
6. nd nore \ rtivde TTOV \ tiv
7. %p7j ae | reppd \ /ceA-
8. advr' eald \ elv dulx \ rjrd yap \ ?j8ed, \ Kal Keap
9. drrdpd \ pvOov e% \ el Kpov \ ov
Vss. 194-200 (Leipsic ed. 186-193).
ANAP.ESTIC MEASURE.
1. Ot<5', orl | rpdxvc; \\ Kal nap' e
2. TO dlnal | ov
3. fidhaKO
4. earal \ rroO', ordv || ravrq \ palaOf \\
5. rffv 6' drep \ dpvdv \\ 0rdpead$ \ opyfjv, \\
6. el$ dpO \ \LOV epol \\ Kal fakor \ fjrd \\
7. VTrevdtiv | anevdovr || I ndB' ^ \ el. (Parcemiac.)
132
CHORAL SCANNING
Vss. 285-305 (Leipsic ed. 277-297).
ANAPJESTIC MEASURE.
rjOev.
ol
1. OVK d
2. TOVTO, Upon
3. ical vvv \
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. rov Trrepvy \
11. yvcjfirj | ordfji
12. rals aals \ de
13. TO, re yap | fie,
14. eadvdyK \ d&l,
15. OVK ear \ Iv 6ra> ||
16. velfialfj,', | 7i aol. \\
17. yvtiael \ de rd6' &
18. %aptrd | yktiaaelv
19. ofjpalv', | d, rl
20. ov yap \ TTOT'
21. 0tAdf ear \ I fteoal
U
nodi upalrrv
, H aldepd \
OOVTQV
dyvov ||
5$ dicova
reppd e/l |
(Paroemiac.)
||
, \\
rovd' ol \ tivov |(
\\ drep ev \ Ovvtiv \\
|] Ia6l, avv
do KM, \\ ^vyyeve^
re yevovg II
\ fiolpdv \\
', ovd \ e
evl juor | <f>epe yap H
\ aol v[i \ Trpdaaelv \\
|| oif "Q | itedvov [\
\ orepog \ ool. (Parcemiac.)
Ves. 405-413 (Leipsic ed. 397-405).
STROPHE 6'.
1. 2rvoi ere rof | ovkdaevds
2. rv^ttf, UpdfiT) | 0ei), ddicpval-
3. <TTdTOV (J' (ZTT* 6(7(1 | 6
4. peof, Tropct I fiv vorlols
5. ereyt-K nay \ ate;- dpeydp-
6. rd yap rdctc | Zevf Mrotf
7. vo/iotr /cparvv | wv, tmepjj-
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 133
8. (f>dvov -deols \ rolal
9. tielKVvalv al^dv. \
1. Glyconic polyschematistic.
2. The same measure.
3. The same measure.
4. The same measure.
5. The same measure.
6. The same measure.
7. The same measure.
8. The same measure.
9. Dochmiac monometer.
Vss. 414-422 (Leipsic ed. 406-414).
ANTISTROPHE c5',
corresponding line for line with STROPHE cf"
1. Hpondad d' r\ \ drj orovoev
2. A^Ade %6>p | a,
3. o%r)[j,dvd r' apx
4. arlvoval rdv \ adv t-vvdfial-
5. juovdiv re rlfj, \ dv, OTTOOOL r 9
6. EITOLKOV dyv \ d$
7. e(5of vepovr | at,
8. arovolal aolg \ rrfj^dal ovy-
9. KdfjLVOval
Vss. 423-427 (Leipsic ed. 415-419).
STROPHE e.
0^ re || ya^ ev \ olnol \\
2. TrdpOev | ol [id% || d$ d \ rpearol (J
3. /cat I,KvO | rjf ojit || tAdf | ol yd^ ||
4. 0%drov TOTT | dv d/z^t Mat-
5. tiriv eftova \
1. Choriambic dimeter.
M
134 CHORAL SCANNING
1. Trochaic dimeter acatalectic.
2. The same measure.
3. The same measure.
4. Antispastic dimeter.
5. Choriambic dimeter catalectic.
Vss. 428-432 (Leipsic ed. 420-424).
ANTISTROPHE e,
corresponding line, for line with STROPHE e.
1. "A.pd6l | dg T' dp U elov \ dv66$, \\
2. v^l | Kpfjuvov || $' ol TroA | lofid ||
3. Kavicda \ ov rreA | d$ vep \ ovrai, \\
4. ddlog arpdr \ df, ogvnp&p
5. dial etiv ev
Vss. 433-444 (Leipsic ed. 425-435).
ANTISPASTIC SYSTEM.
1. Movov dfj TrpdaQ \ ev dkkov ev \ novololv tidp-
2. evr' dfcdfi \ dvrode \ roi
3. Tlrdvd Xvpal? \ elalddjj,dv
4. "ArAav^', of al \ EV
5. oOevd$ Kpdralov \
6. ovpdvl | ov re TroA | ov
7. vtirololv VTTO | ftdard^el.
8. (3op 6e TTOVT | log Avda>v | ^v/i-
9. m7rrwi>, errevet | /3i)06f, icekalv \ of d*
10. dtddf VTTO | ftpE^iel fiv%5$ \ yaf,
11. Trdyat T?' ayvopp \ vrtiv Trord/iwDv | arev-
12. ovatv | dAydf fl olKTpov. \
1. Antispastic trimeter.
2. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
3. Dochmiac dimeter.
4. Antispastic dimeter.
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 135
5. Dochmiac monometer.
6. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
7. Antispastic dimeter catalectic.
8. Antispastic dimeter hypercatalectic.
9. The same measure.
10. The same measure.
11. The same measure.
12. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic.
Vss. 535-546 (Leipsic ed. 527-535).
STROPHE $'.
1 . Mrjddfj,' 6 \ Trdvrd vep \ 6v
2. delr' e\i | d yvti- \\
3. /z Kpdros \ dvrlTrd \ ko
4. fj,fj6' e | Xlvvv- ||
5. oalfil $e | ov$ ool \ al$ dolv-
6. alg TTOTI | vlaadfie \ vd
7. flov(f>6v | otf, Trap' ||
8. fl/ceav | old Trdrp \ of
9. do6e<JTdv Tropov,
10. firjd' dhlr | ol\Li Ady | otf
1 1 . aAAa | jLtot rod' \\ I\L\LKV | ot,
12. TTOT' e/cra/c || tlr.
1. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
2. Trochaic monometer.
3. Dactylic trimeter.
4. Trochaic monometer.
5. Dactylic trimeter.
6. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
7. Trochaic monometer.
8. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
9. Dochmiac monometer.
10. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
136 CHORAL SCANNING
11. Trochaic dimeter.
12. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic.
Vss. 547-558 (Leipsic ed. 536-548.)
ANTISTROPHE r',
corresponding line for line with STROPHE f '.
1. H6v rl | tidfHJdte [ al$
2. rov fidKp | ov relv- \\
3. elv (3lov | elimai, \ fydvaiq
4. &i>fiov | dXdalv- ||
5. ovadv ev \ evtypoavv \ al$' $piaa~
6. <ii <?e (7e | depKdpev \ ij
7. p)pt | o?f fio^- ||
8. otf (5ta | Kvalofiev \ ov.
9 * * * * * * i
10. Zfjvd yap \ ov rpope \ tiv,
11. ev 161 | a yvai^ || 77 <7e6 |
12. ovf ay | av, IIpo// y ^0ev.
Vss. 559-567 (Leipsic ed. 546-553).
STROPHE '.
2. TTOV | rtf d^K || a
3. rlf e<f)d \ pepl&v ||
4. dprit | *?' o^^' II edepxd \ W
6. dAiyo | dpdvlfjv \\
6. at | KVV la \\ ovelp \ ov p || TO
7. d^aov | * * * || yevof ep, \
8. evov ov | Trore rdv || Atdf dp/u | ovtdv
9. i?vdrcjv 7rde| || td <rt /3oi)A | al.
1. Aline is wanting here to answer to the corresponding one in the
strophe.
2. A trisyllabic word is wanting in this line. Blomfield suggests
fieponuv ; Burney aAo<if, changing at the same time the preceding
ulauv into dAawv.
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 137
1. Anapaestic dimeter.
2. Iambic monometer hypercatalectic.
3. Anapaestic monometer.
4. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
5. Anapaestic monometer.
6. Iambic trimeter catalectic.
7. Anapaestic dimeter.
8. The same measure.
9. Iambic dimeter hypercatalectic.
Vss. 568-576 (Leipsic ed. 554-561).
ANTISTROPHE ',
corresponding line for line with STROPHE '.
1. EpdOov | rdde, od$ \\ -npooldov^ \ 6/ldd (]
2. Tv%a$, | npd/z7j || Oev-
3. TO dld^ | Zdtov I]
4. de \Loi \ /zAdf || rrpoaeTrr \ d
5. rod', eicetv \ 6 6* o, T' a/z- ||
6. 0t Aovrp | a /cat || Ae^of | aov v \\ fieval \ ovv
7. lord | rl ydfttiv, \\ ore rdv \ o/ndnd- \\
8. rplov Idv | oif a |] yayef "H | olovdv ||
9. mQtiv | ddpdpr \\ d KOLV \ dkeftrp \\ ov.
Vss. 577-581 (Leipsic ed. 562-560)
ANAP^SSTIC MEASURE.
1. Tif y?/, | rt yevof, || rlvd </>w | Aev^aetv 1|
2. rovde ^;aA | Zvot^ || ev Tterplv \ olalv \\
3. "Xfipat) | opevov ;
4. TTOiv at^ | okenel
5. y?fc ^ 1 poyepd \\ TreTr/lav?/ | juat. (Paro3miac.)
M2
138 CHORAL SCANNING
Vss. 582-607 (Leipsic ed. 567-588).
ANTISPASTIC SYSTEM.
1. *A a", ea la-
2. xpiel rig av (JLK \ rdkalvdv olorpo$,
3. etdwAdv "Apy | ov yfjyevov^ \ dkev' w da, | <j>66ovnal
4. rdv [ivpltiTT | ov eladptig \ a ftovrdv.
5. 6 6e 7rdpevKTO,l \ doklov opp' e^aiv,
6. ov ovde Kdr \ Odvovrd yal \ d Kevdel.
7. dAAa fjLe rdv \ rdXalvdv
8. e^ eveptiv Treptiv \ KvvTJyerel,
9. Tr^ava re vfjor \ Iv dvd rdv Trdpd \ )ddv
10. VTTO 6e Kfjponkdor \ of drofeZ dovd
11. dxerd$ \
12. vTrvdddrdv vopdv. \
13. To) tw, | nol Trot, TTW TTG),
14. rrw Trai TT^ /^' ay | ovalv r^Ae | Tr^ay/croZ
15. Tt TTOTfi |Lt', W I KpOVle TTdl,
16. T Trdrl rato"(5' ev | eev|af evptiv
17. dpdprovadv \ ev Kf\\LQV<uolv
18. e ^.
19. olorpfjkdTG) de \ delpdrl delhaldv
20. TrdpaKOTTov tide ; | relpel$ rrvpl 0Ae^ov,
21. 7/%0oW KdAvi/JOV, | ^ Trovrtorfftv
22. 6dK80i 65$ pop \ av, fjiTjde fiol
23. (f)dov7](J^ evy \ [uir&v dvdi;.
24. adT/v jite rroAv | 7rAdyrot
25. yeyvfjLvdKd \ oiv, ovd' e
26. fid6elv oTrfj TTTJ
1. Extra motrum.
2. Dochmiac dimeter.
3. Antispastic tetrameter catalectic.
4. Antispastic trimeter catalectir.
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS.
139
5. Dochmiac dimeter.
6. Antispastic trimeter catalectic.
7. Choriambic dimeter catalectic.
8. Dochmiac and antispastic.
9. Antispastic trimeter.
10. Dochmiac dimeter.
1 1 . Cretic monometer.
12. Antispastic monometer.
13. Antispastic dimeter.
14. Antispastic trimeter.
15. Cretic dimeter.
16. Antispastic and dochmiac.
17. The same measure.
18. Extra metrum.
19. Dochmiac dimeter.
20. The same measure.
21. The same measure.
22. Antispastic dimeter.
23. The same measure.
24. The same measure.
25. The same measure.
26. Dochmiac dimeter.
Vss. 613-629 (Leipsic ed. 594-609).
ANTISPASTIC SYSTEM.
1. Hodev efjLOv av TTO, | rpog ovdfj, drrvetg
2. ELTTE fJLOL |
3. rd po-yepd, rig tiv, \ rig dpd fi\ ti
4. rdv rakai \ raDpov wd*
5. ervftd Trpoadopelg \
6. deooavrov \ (5e VOGOV &vd(j,dod$
7. d pdpalv | et JJLE %pl \ ovad ev-
8. rpolg (polrdkeolalv. \
9. e. .
140 CHORAL SCANNING
10. OKlprfiiidrtiv de \ vfjariaiv alulalq
1 1. hadpoaavrd? ?/A | Oov emuorol \ olv prjfieGlv \ ddfielad
12. dvadalpovtiv \ 6e rlve$, o, e e, oV
13. eyti poyov \ olv dAAa \iol
14. Topw^- reKfji^pov, \ o rl /z* endfj-fievel
15. nddelv rl pfj %prj- \ rl (f>dppdKdv
. 16. voaov, delgov, el \ nep olaOd
17. (J>pde rd
1. Dochmiac dimeter.
2. Cretic monometer.
3. Dochmiac dimeter.
4. Cretic dimeter.
5. Dochmiac monometer.
6. Antispastic and dochmiac.
7. Cretic trimeter.
8. Dochmiac monometer.
9. Extra metrum.
10. Dochmiac dimeter.
11. Antispastic tetrameter catalectic.
12. Antispastic and dochmiac.
13. Antispastic dimeter.
14. Dochmiac dimeter.
15. Dochmiac and antispastic.
16. The same measure.
17. Cretic trimeter.
Vss. 706-718 (Leipsic ed. 688-694).
ANTISPASTIC SYSTEM.
1. "Eola.
2. drrexe (frev- \
3. OVTTOT* ovndr' \ rjv-
4. #ovv evoiif ftoA | el-
5. o6al
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 141
6. e? and \ av ep \\ dv
7. ovd' aide 6vo \ 0edrd, nal \ dvoolora
8. TTTJfidTa,
9. delftdr'
10. rjKel Kevrpti i/>v | xjtiv ipv^dv
11. /GJ /w, |
12. [tolpd, | [tolpa, K
13. Idovaa Ttpdt; \ Iv
1. Extra metrum.
2. Cretic measure.
3. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
4. The same measure.
5. Cretic monometer.
6. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
7. Antispastic trimeter catalectic.
8. Antispastic monometer.
9. Cretic monometer.
10. Dochmiac dimeter.
11. Antispastic monometer;
12. Pherecratic, commencing with trochee.
13. Antispastic dimeter catalectic.
Vss. 898-908 (Leipsic ed. 876-885).
ANAPJESTIC MEASURE.
2. vno /i* av \ ff^d/ceAof || nal <f>pevo \ Tr^yelg fl
3. fidvlai | tidknovo', \\ olarpov \ d' dpd'u; \\
4. Xplel | fi* dTTvpog. ||
5. Kpddld | 6e 0o6o
6. rpoxodlv | emu
7. e^di | de dpdjuov || Qepdpal, \ kvaofis \\
8. TTvevpdTl |
142 CHORAL SCANNING
9. dotepol | 6e hoyol \\
10. arvyvfis \ 7rpo$ KV \\ pdolv dr \ 7j$. (Parcemiac.)
Vss. 909-918 (Leipsic ed. 886-892).
STROPHE ?/.
1. "H ffd^of, | rj oofyos | rjv, 6f
- 2. TTpwro^ | ev yvtifi- \\
3. g, rod' e \ ddardae \ KOI
4. ^ die | pvdoXdy \ j)aev,
5. wf TO | KTjdeva- ||
6. at KdO' e \ avrov dp \ larev-
7. el pdicp | w- at || pfjTe \ rtiv
8. TGJ did
9.
10.
11. ovrd | %pv^ II rdv e \ pdarsv \\ acti.
1. Dactylic trimeter.
2. Trochaic monometer.
3. Dactylic trimeter.
4. The same measure.
5. Trochaic monometer.
6. Dactylic trimeter.
7. Trochaic dimeter.
8. Dactylic dimeter hyporcatalectic.
9. Trochaic monometer.
10. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
11. Trochaic dimeter hypercatalectic,
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 143
Vss. 919-929 (Leipsic ed. 893-899).
ANTISTROPHE 77,
corresponding line for line with STROPHE rj.
2. pal * | * * || l
3. * Ae^e | uv A?O | evvd- 2
4. relpdv Id \ oloOe TreA | ovadv
5. jzT/de | 7rAd0et- ||
6. 77 v ydjite | TO, rlvl \ rtiv e
7. ovpdv | ov* rap6 || ci> yap | darep- \\
8. ydvopd \ rrdpBevl | dv
9. er<rdp | $' ?a- 1|
10. ov$ jtteyo | ddTrrdpe \ vdv.
11. dvCTTrAd | vo^ "Hp 1! df dA | dret ||
Vss. 930-938 (Leipsic ed. 900-905).
EPODE.
1. "E^ot d' ort jt^ev | o^dAdf o yduog
2. d^)d6df, ov |
3. cJedtd' | p]<5e || Kpelaaov- \
4. wv i9e | wv cp H <Df
5. d(f>vKTOV d(j,[j, | a TTpoaSepKolro ]U*.
6. aTroAe^of 6(5e | y' o TroAe^df, d-rropd
7. TTdplfio^' ovd' e^d) | T?f dv yevolpdv
8. rdv Afof yap | ov#' opw
9. ^rtv dud | <j>vyol[j,* dv.
1. Antispastic dimeter.
2. Cretic monometer.
3. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic.
1. Four syllables wanting : **s -- |
2. A syllable wanting.
144 CHORAL SCANNING
4. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
5. Antispastic and dochmiac.
6. The same measures.
7. Dochmiac dimeter.
8. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
9. Choriambic dimeter catalectic.
Vss. 1075-1128 (Leipsic ed. 1039-1092).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. Eldorl | rol pol || rdaS' dyy \
2. 66' 06) | vl-ev, || r(do%elv \ 6e
3. e%6pov VTT' \ e^Qptiv, \\ ovdlv a \ elice<;. ||
4. Trpof ravr\ \ V epol \\ plirread \ w pev fl
5. 7rvp5$ dfKJ) \ JJKTJS || floarpvxds, \ aWqp 6' \\
6. epe6l \ eaOti || fipovrq, \ (T0deAo> r 9 ||
7. dypltiv | dvefjtiv \\ %6ovd 6' etc \ Trvdfiev&v U
8. avralg \ pl%al$ \\ trvevfid icpdd \ alvol, \\
9. Kvfid 6e | TTOVTOV \\ rpd%ei \ poOlti \\
10. ^vy^wd | elev || roiv r 9 ov \ pdvltiv \\
11. dorp&v | dtorfovf, || $ re eA | alvov H
12. Tdprdpov \ dpdfjv || pti/;Z | e 6efj,d$ \\
13. rovfiov, d [ vay/tTJ^ || areppal^ \ dlval^ II
14. Trdvrwf | ejtte y' ov || i9dvara)(j | et. (Paroemiacl)
15. Totdrfe | [levTOt \\ rtiv <f*plv5 \ TrkijKTtiv \\
16. ftovhevfj, | dr y ITT^ || r' earlv an \ ovaai. ||
17. rl yap eM, \ el-nel || firj -rrdpd \ nalelv ; ||
18. el firjd' | drv^wv ||
19. dAA' oi)v | t5/tietf || y 9 al
20. gvyicdpv | ovaal \\ rai$ rovd \
21. /^erd TTOL \ %tipeiT' U e rtivd \ e i^oaif ||
22. py <f>pevd$ \ v^v \\ fj^lOl \ w<7(/ ||
23. (3povrf)$ | fivnijp' \\ dripdpv | ov. (Paro?miac.)
24. ~AAA,o rl \ (fxJvel \\ nal ndpd \ [tuOov p' ||
25. d rl ital \ Treloei$' \\ ov yap \ 6fj TTOV II
OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 145
26. rovro ye \ r^fjrdv \\ rrdpeav \ pd$
27. 7ra> fie Kek \ evel$ \\ KdKorrjr' \
28. fiKTd rovd' | 6 rl %pfj \\ 7rdo%elv \
29. TOV$ ydp | T
30. KOVK ear \ I
31. Trjo6' f)v | rlv' anem \\ vad /idAA | ov. (Paroemiac.)
32. "AAA* ovv
33. \ifide npos | dr^f || dfjpd \ Belaal
34. jj,efj,\{jiiffd' | I TV^;?/V, || ^Tjde TTOT'
35. wf Zevf | v/idf || el$ dnpo \ onrov \\
36. 7T^' eta | e6dAev || ^ (5?yr', | avral 6' \\
37. v(Ltdf | avTd$- \\ eldvl \ al yap, ||
38. KOVK et- | al(f)vfi, \\ oi>6e Ad0p | otaif, ||
39. et aTrep | dvrov || diKrvov \ dr^ \\
40. epntexB \ fjcreod' || VTT' dvol \ d$. (Paroemiac.)
41. Kai \ir\v \ epyti \\ KOVK em \ fivBti \\
42. %0oh> aeadk \ evral- \\
43. (3pv%ld | d' TJX& H rrdpdfjLv \ Kdral \\
44. j3povr^^, | ektKes \\ 6' eK^dfnr \ oval \\
45. arepoTr^, | ^dirupol, || arpopool \ 6e KOVIV \\
46. eiXloa \ oval- || OKiprd \ d' dvep&v \
47. Trvevpard \ Trdvrtiv, \\ el$ d^A | ^Ad ||
48. ardolv dv \ rlirvovv \\ dnodelK \
49. ^vvrerd \ pdKral \\ d' aWrjp \
50. roldti' | err' epol \\ pirn) \
51. rev^ova \ d (f>66ov \\ orel%el \
52. w fji-fj | rpdf ej^^^ || <re6df , w |
53. diOfjp | Kolvov \\ 0d6^ eA | loativ, \\
54. eoopd$ \ ft* w? e/c || did 7rdo% | o>. (Paroemiac.)
CHORAL SCANNING
OF THE
AJAX FLAGELLIFER.
Vss. 134-171.
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. Tehdfitiv | le nal, \\ rfjs d/i</> \ Ipvrov
2. SdkdfMiv | df e%tiv || ftddpov dy% \ id&ov, \\
3. ae (iev ev \ Trpdaoovr' \\ em%alp \ d>. (Paroemiac.)
4. 2e 6' ordv \ 7^77777 \\
5. Adydf EK
6. \iiyav OKV \ ov
7. Trr^v^f | d)f oft/i j| a TreAet | df. (Parcemiac.)
8. "flf nal | Tfjf vvv
9. jueydAot | tiopvdol
10. CTrt dv<y | K^eld, \\ ae rov ITTTT \
11. yUZfiwv' | em6dvr\ \\ okeaal \ Advdwv H
12. pord Kal | Aetdv, H
13. Tj-nep | ddplkfJTT || rdf IT' ^v | AolTr^, ||
14. KTBIVOVT' \ alduv \\ I oldfjp \ w. (Paroemiac.)
15. Tolovod | e A^yov? II ij>lOvpov$ \ nkdootiv \\
1C. etf or | d <i>epel \\ naolv "Od \ vaoev$ ||
17. Kal oQotipd \ nelOel- \\ mpl yap \ aov vvv \\
18. ev-rrelor \ d fey el, \\ KOI no? \ 6 icAvwv ||
19. rov tei- I dvTOf || %aZpct | /^dAAov ||
20. rotf ao?f | d^eolv || itdOv6pl \ wv. (Paroemiac.)
2 1 . Ttiv yap \ fieydk&v || ^v^v \ lel<; \\
22. OVK. dv dp, | dpror || itdrd 6' dv \ rtf efiov |j
CHORAL SCANNING OF THE AJAX FLAGELLJFER. 147
23. Tolavr | d Arywv, || OVK dv \ irelOol- II
24. rrpoV yap \ rov e%ovd' \\ 6 <j>66vd<; \ epnel' II
25. KaiTol | apiKpol || peydhtiv \ %tipls \\
26. a<j>dkepov \ rrupyov || pvud TreA | ovrar \\
27. /*tra yap | fieydtiJv \ (3alo$ d \ plar' dv, \\
28. Kal neyd$ \ 6p6olO' \\ VTTO fiiKp \ oreptiv \\
29. dAA' ov | dvvdrov \\ rovg dvo \ yrovg \\
30. rovraiv | yva)jj,dg \\ TTpodlddaK \ elv. (Paroemiac.)
3 1 . ~Y7ro roi | ovrtiv \\ dvdptiv j $dpv6el \\
32. #' ^/ze^ | ov^ev || adevopev \\ irpo$ ravr' \\
33. dredge!; | d<70ai | aov %tip \ 1$ dvdt;. \\
34. dAA' ore | yap drj || ro aov dfifj.' \ dnedpdv, \\
35. Trdrdyova \ Iv, are \\ Trrf\v&v \
36. fieydv al \ yvmov 6' \\ vnodela \
37. rd%' dv eg | afyvTJs, \\ el ov (f>dv \
38. olyq | Tmj^ei || dv dfytiv \ ol. (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 172-181 (Leipsic ed. 172-182).
STROPHE a.
1. "H pd oe | Tavpono
2. a> fieydh \ d (j)drl^ \
3. jLtarep ato^vv |
4. ijp | fidae rrdvdd | povg em \ (3ovg dye
5.^|| TTOV Ttvdf vl | /cd^ dicdpTTti | rdv %dplv
6. ^ pd tfAv | raiv evd | pwi/
7. i/>ev(70 | elad 6upol(; \ elr' ekd \
8. 77 | ^dA/co^aipd^ | et
9. |ito^</) | dv e%oiv ^iv | oi)
10. nd%dvai$ e \ rladro \
1. Dactylic tetrameter.
2. Dactylic trimeter catalectic.
3. Epitritic and cretic monometers
148 CHORAL SCANNING
4. lambelegus hypercatalectic. 1
5. Epitritic dimeter with anacrusis, and cretic.
6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic.
7. lambelegus.
8. The same measure.
9. The same measure.
10. Epitritic monometer and Adonic. 2
Vss. 182-191 (Leipsic ed. 183-193).
ANTISTROPHE a.
1. Ov trore | yap (j>pevo \ dev y' en' a \ plorepd,
2. TTCLL TeAd | /zdjvdf e6 | a$
3. TOGOOV, ev Trolftv \ al$ mrvtiv
4. 7} | Kol yap dv del \ a vooo^- \ dAA' dnep \ vicol
5. Kal | Zev$ naicdv ical \ Ootfidf 'Apyel ) wv (bdrlv
6. el d' VTTO | )9aAAdjue j vot
7. icAeTTT | ovol pvOov? | ot ju^ya | Xol f3dolk \ TJ$
8. 77 | raf aotirov \ ILlovfyl \ 6dv yeve \ af,
9. IL^I | \ifi fi\
10. Ojtt^' e%(Dv, icd/e | dv (frdrlv dpfj.
Vss. 192-198 (Leipsic ed. 194-200).
EPODE.
1. "AAA* dvd | e edpdv | div | onov \
2. orfipi$ I et Trore | rod' | dyaiv | ta>
3. drdv | ovpdvidv
4. #0p | wv d
6. opfjuTol ev | evdvefi \ ol$ (3daa \
1. The iambelegus is ranked under concrete numbers, and consists of
a second epitritic monometer with an anacrusis, and a dartvhc dimeter
hypercatalectic. Herm. Elem. Doctr. Metr. p. 425, srq. , QUtg, nl
'2 'I'lic lavt sylhililf of tin- c|>itrit> is doubtful, or, in other \MI.
mils a short for a long, but only when it is folKm-tnl ntht-r by otbor
mnnhers, as dactylic or cretic, or by another memlx -r lornu-il of t-jtitntt-s.
C.tinpari: the ninth verse of the antistrophe that follows.
OP THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 149
7. ftdpvd^yfir'- tfiol | 6' d^og eardnev.
1 . Dactylic dimeter hyperc. and Iambic dim. brach.
2. The same measures.
3. Glyconic.
4. Glyconic catalectic, with molossus following. 1
5. Epitritic monometer and dactylic dim. hyperc.
6. Dochmiac dimeter catalectic. 2
7. Dochmiac and antispast.
Vss. 199-218 (Leipsic ed. 201-220).
ANAP^STIC MEASURE.
1 . Nddf dp | cDyot || TT/C A.I \ dvros, ||
2. yevedf \ ftdovltiv \\ drr' ~Epe;0 | elddv, \\
3. e^opev \ arovd^d^ \\ ol Kf\d \ opevol \\
4. rov TeAd | //GJVO^ || r^dOev \ OIKOV. \\
5. vvv yap 6 \ delvo^, \\ fieyd^ , oi | fioicpdrTj^ \\
6. Aids | ^oAepoi ||
7. nelral \ %ln&v \\ I voarj | od$. (Paroemiac.)
8. Tt (5' ev^AA | aural || r^^ d | fj,epZd$ \\
9. vi)^ 776* | e (3dpo$ ; ||
10. ?rat rov | Qpvylov \\ ov TeAei)
11. Aey', eTreZ | as Ae^o^ || dovptd
12. OTep%d$ | dve%et || dovplog \
13. war' oi)/c | dv dldp \\ 1$ v-rreln \ ol$. (Paro3miac.)
14. Htig d^r | d Aeyw || Aoyov dpp \ TJTOV ; ]|
15. t?dvdTcJ | yap loov H Trddo^ en \ rrevael. \\
16. {jidvlp | yap dAov^ || ^ftev o | Kkelvo$ \\
17. vvurepos | Atd^ || aTreAw | 6^0^. ||
18. rolavr' \ dv ZSol<; \\ OKr\vr\<; \ ev6ov \\
1. " Catalectico (Glyconeo) interdum molossus adjicitur." (Hern.
Ele.rn. Doctr. Metr. p. 361, ed. Glasg.)
2. Compare JEsch. Pers. 978, j? KOI rov Hepauv ; and 678, Trda^ y
a^ (Burn. Tent. p. xxiii., n. xiii. ; p. xv., n. xiii.)
N2
150 CHORAL SCANNING
19. #eZpddd | iKTd || aj&yV alp \ do
20. Kelvol | XpfiaTfip || Id r' dvdp \ o$\ (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 219-227 (Leipsic ed. 221-232).
STROPHE 0'.
1. Oldv | eb*?/ || k&ods \ dvdpd$ \\
2. aWorros \ dyyIAt | dv
3. drA,d | TOV, ovd || e QevKT \ dv,
4. TWV j^eyo/l | tiv Aava | wv VTTO | K^6fiV \ dv,
5. rdv o /zeydf | [i,vdo$ de% \ el.
6. oi/zot, | $d6ov[j, || at TO Trpoaeprr | ov
7. t^dverr | at,
8. Kekalv | otf ^t0eor | tv j9drd,
9. /J6r df fTTTT OVW
1. Iambic and trochaic monometers.
2. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
3. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
4. Dactylic pentameter catalectic.
5. Choriambic dimeter hypercatalectic.
6. Iambic monometer and choriambic trimeter cat. 8
7. Choriambic trimeter cat., preceded by an iambus.
8. Dactylic dimeter hyperc., preceded by an iambus.
9. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
Vss. 228-239 (Leipsic ed. 233-244).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. 8 (Aol- | iceWev, || KeiOev dp \ ^lv ||
2. <J<7/ua>T | lv dyuv
1. This and the succeeding line may be united into one logaoedic,
consisting of a base, two dactyls, and four trochees.
3. Comparo the remarks of Hermann on the choriambic catalexis,
EUm. Ductr. Meir. p. 1*67, ed. Glatf.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 151
3. G)v rijv I fj,ev eaw || O(f>d? em \ yald$, \\
4. rd 6e -rrtevp \ OKOTTUV \\ 61%' dvepp \ ffyvv ||
5. 6vo 6' dpy \ Inddd^ \\ Kplovg \ aveAwv ||
6. rov pev \ Ke^d^rjv \\ Kal yktioa \ dv dupdv H
7. plTrrel \ &eplad$ \\ rov d' opd \ ov dvti \\
8. KLOVL | dfjads \\
9. fjLeydv ITTTT \ odeTfjv \\ pvrfjp \ d hddtiv \\
10. nalel \ Xtyvpg, \\ pdarly \ I dlTT^rj \\
1 1. Kdud dew \ dfav \\ pfjpdO' d \ 6al(i,tiv \\
12. Kovdelg | dvdptiv \\ edlddt- \\ ev. (Paroemiac.)
Vss. 240-248 (Leipsic ed. 245-256).
ANTISTROPHE (3'.
rlv' TI || 6fj Kdp | d ad- || l
2. 'kvppaol I ttpv^dfie | vov
3. Trodolv | K^OTrdv \\ dpeoO I al,
4. ?/ -&OOV | etpeal \ d$ $vyov \ e^ope \ vov
5. TrovroTTopo) | vdl fieOelv \ al.
6. roldg | epeaa \\ ovoiv dnel^ \ d$ dlKpdrel^ \ "ArpeldaZ
7. Kdd' TIP | wv 7re0o6^/z | al XWdkzvoT | ov dpfj
8. ^vvaAy | elv perd \ rovde rvn \ elf,
9. rov ala' dnXd || TO^ to el.
Vss. 325, 328, 331 (Leipsic ed. 333, 330, 339).
ANTISPASTICS.
325. to) pol fiol. |
328. to> jLiol juoL |
331. id) Trat real. \
325. Antispastic monometer.
328. The same measure.
331. The same measure.
1. Hermann's arrangement. Compare, however, the remarks of
\Yunder, ad loc,
2 CHORAL SCANNING
Vss. 340-344 (Leipsic ed. 348-353).
STROPHE y'.
1. tu> |
2. 0rAo vavtaral) \ fiovol e^
3. judvoZ r' efj.fj,evovr \ e$ 6p0o>
4. tdeafl | I p* ot II ov dpr | t jci>fi H d <otv | la$ || vrro
5. dfupidpdfjLdv KVK^elr \ at.
1. Iambus. 1
2. Dochmiac dimeter. 2
3. The same measure. 3
4. Iambic tetrameter.
5. Dochmiac monometer hypercatalectic.
Vss. 347-351 (Leipsic ed. 356-361).
ANTISTROPHE y'.
1. 1C* |
2. yevof valac; \ apwyov re^vaf,
3. aAtov df cTrefidf | eAZaaaiv TrAdrdv, 4
4. (re rot, | ae rot || fiovov \ 6edopK \\ d
ETrdpK I eaovr'' \\
5. dAAd |^ avvddli- \ ov.
Vss. 354-356 (Leipsic ed. 364-366).
STROPHE e.
1 . 6pd$ rov dpdavv, \ TOV evitdpdldVj
2. TOV ev 6dlol$ \ drpeardw ftdxais ,
3. v d66ol ie -dfo I delvov
1. A single iambui, followed by a dochnuac verse, is of frequent o<
cunrence in the tragic choruses. Consult Sadler, dc Vers. Dochm. p
HI
2. Respecting the hiatus after the shorti-m -.1 iin.il syllabic in [tuvol
//ann, EUm. Dor.tr. Mctr. p. 158, ed. Gltug.
:< s, t ,.Ucr t dc Vtrt. Dochm. ,, i:,
4. In the first foot of this line two long are resolved into four short.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 153
1. Dochmiac dimeter.
2. The same measure.
3. The same measure.
Vss. 362-366 (Leipsic ed. 372-376). 1
STROPHE $'
1. dva | fiopos, o? || x*P<> \&v \
2. \i&Qf\K, | d rovg || dXdar \
3.
4.
5. epe/iv | ov alp \\ edeva \ d.
1. Anapaestic dimeter brachycatalectic.
2. Iambic dimeter.
3. Choriambic and Iambic monometer.
4. Iambic and Choriambic monometer.
5. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
Vss. 369-371 (Leipsic ed. 379-381).
AJMTISTROPHE e.
1. 1C) Trdvd' opwv, | dndvrtiv r' del
2. KaKtiv opydvov, \ reKvov Adprlov,
3. KQKomvzaraTov \ r' d^fjfid arpdrov.
Vss. 377-381 (Leipsic ed. 387-391).
ANTISTROPHE $ ' .
1. d> Zev, | npoyovtiv \\ Trpondrtip, \
2. TTC^- dv | rov alp \\ vfojr \ drov, \\
3. K%0pdv d^f)fi d roijg rl dlo- \\
1. Line 360 (Leipsic ed. 370) is an antispastic monometer, at al at
ci | like lines 325, 328, 331.
154
CHORAL SCANNING
4. adp%d$ \ oXeaa \
5. reAo ddvolj, || i KCLVT
Vss. 384-400 (Leipsic ed. 394-409).
STROPHE % '.
1. ?<5 |
2. OKorog epov <ddf | '
3. epe66$ w (f>aevv \ ordrov, u)
4. eAeafl', | eAe<70 || e
5. ekeoO \ e p,'- ovr \\ e yap
6. dew yevo$, ovd \ dfj,epltii?
7. Ir' d | to? II ^AeTretv | rlv' el? \\ ovd \ alv dvBp
8. dAAa | ft' a At || 6^
9. d^Kifid deos 6- \
10. teOpiov at | t^ei
11. TTOI rtf | oi5v 0vy || 77
12. TTO? ftoA I wv /zev || d>
13. el rd \ pev (f>0iv \\ el 0tA | ol
14. rolad' O\L | ov TreA || df
15. ii)pal$ | d' dypals || Trpoaicelp \ edd \\
16. rrdf de | or par 5^ \\ dl-ndhr \ of dv || pe
17. ett ov evol.
1. Iambus.
2. Dochmiac monometer.
3. Dochmiac dimeter.
4. Iambic monometer and dochmius.
5. Iambic dimeter brachycatalectic.
6. Choriambic dimeter.
1. Respecting the short syllable made long here at the end of the doch-
miua, consult Seidler, dc Vert. Doc km. p. 85.
"2 'I In \Noni >>nJv forms one long syllable here.
M (Jui i>t fine (rimrtrt ndditux t.\t />fx, numero Vldctur trockdtU IC-
mantu* ctic." Herm. ad (Ed. R. 1318.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 155
7. Iambic trimeter and Semantus trochee.
8. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
9. Dochmiac monometer. 1
10. Glyconic without a base. 2
11. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
12. The same measure.
13. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
14. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
15. Iambic dimeter.
16. Iambic dimeter hypercatalectic.
17. Adonic.
Vss. 403-419 (Leipsic ed. 412-427).
ANTISTROPHE '.
1. Iti |
2. TTopol dXlppodol I
3. Trdpdkd r' dvrpd, KOL \ ve^og endKrlov
4. TrdAvv j nokvv \\ pe ddpov re 6f)
5. Kdrel \ %er dfjuf) \\ I Tpol- \
6. dv xpovov dAA, | OVK erl ^ OVK
7. er' dfin \ vod^ \\ e%ovr \ d TOVT \\ 6 rig \ foov&v || larti
8. w 2/ca | fjLdvdpi \\ ol
9. yelroveg poal \
10. ev0pdvef "Apy | elol$
11. OVK er' | dvdpd \\ \LT\
12. rov(5' Id | T?T' en \\ 5$
13. egep | ew jttey || olov \ ov- 3
1. Compare Hermann, ad loc. We have given his reading, although
Wonder maintains that the first syllable of otedptov cannot be thrown
back to the preceding line. The latter editor makes ofadpiov aiKifcl a
dactyl (the long being resolved into two short) and molossus. Hermann,
on the contrary, makes the dochmius end in two short, resolved from one
long.
2. Compare Herm. Elcm. Doctr. Mctr. p. 361, ed Glasg.
3. We must read ffepetj here as a trisyllable. Porson and Elmsley
prefer kfrpu at once, but the Attic rule does not hold good in lyric verse.
Compare Hermann, ad loc.
156 CHORAL SCANNING
14. rlvd Tpol | a or par || ov l
15. 6ep%0fi | ftdovos || ^oAovr' | drro
16. "EAAdv | d6f || rdvvv \ 6' drip \\
17. aide Trpo |
Vss. 589-598 (Leipsic ed. 596-608).
STROPHE 77.
1. T fl Kteiv | a HaAa/Uf | av fiev
2. vat
3. 7rd<7 I tv Trepl(j>dvT \ 6$ al \ el
4. eyw | (J* o rkdp \\ w nak \ ald$ a$ ov
5. ~ldal | d \ii\LV || w Aef/it | w^r dnolv \ a
6. av | iipWfidg al \ Iv \ evvtipa
7.
8.
9. ert /ie TTOT* dvvaelv \ 5
10. TOV dtrorponov d \ t(5^A | ov a || ddv. 6
1. Glyconic hypercatalectic.
2. Glyconic catalectic, with molossus following.
3. Glyconic hypercatalectic.
4. Iambic monometer and Glyconic.
5. Iambic monometer and Glyconic hypercatalectic.
6. Glyconic catalectic, with molossus following.
7. Iambus and choriambus.
8. The same measure.
1. The diphthong ot in the word Tpoiav is shortened before the suc-
ceeding vowel, and the first foot becomes a tribrach, answering to the
trochee in the corresponding line of the strophe. Compare Spitzner,
Gr. Pros. p. 7.
2. Herm. Elem. Doctr. Mctr. p. 362, cd. Glasg.
3. Compart- In..
4. We have adopted the reading recommended by Hermann.
5. We have adopted the arrangement of Hermann. Compare ^Eschy-
lus, Pen. 1055, HvT dvf dvl&\ ; Agam. 1 162, rl r6<5? rQpdv d>uv I, &c.
Verm antigpcuto incipit, quern tequitur penthcmimcrcs iambi'
cum." Herm, ad loo.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 157
9. Dochmiac monometer.
10. Antispastic monometer and iambic monom. hypercat
Vss. 599-608 (Leipsic ed. 609-621).
ANTISTROPHE 77.
1 . Kai fJLOL | dvaOepdnevr \ 5$ A.I \ d$
2. %vv | ear Iv etyedp | 6$ | d> pol p,ol
3. $ei | a fj,dvld \ %vv avX \ 5$
4. ov e% | ene^i}) \\ o> npiv \ dfj nore -Sovp \ to
5. Kpdrovvr' \ ev ~Ap \\ el- vvv | 6' av
6. fyik | otf j^eyd 7rev0 | of
7. rd Trplv | (5* epyo %ispolv
8. pE-yiGT | df dperd$
9. d(f>lkd Trap' d<f>ikol$ \
10.
Vss. 609-617 (Leipsic ed. 622-633).
STROPHE $'.
1. ~H TTOV \ Trdkal \\ a pev [ evrpo^df d
2. kevKG) j de y^p || a |udr | rjp vlv ordv J voaovvr \ d
3. 0pvo/zo | paif d/c || oi)(7^ |
4. alXlvov | alklvov
5. ov6' oinTp | df yoov opv \ Wo? drj \ dovg
6. ijaei \ dvofiopos akK \ ot-vrovovs \ [lev ai
7. dprivrja \ el xepdnkfJKT \ ol 6'
8. ev arepv \ olal rreaovvr \ al
9. (JovTTot, /cat TrdAt df d
1. Iambic monometer and Glyconic.
2. Iambic monometer and Glyconic hypercatalectic.
3. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic.
4. Dactylic dimeter. 1
1. This verse may also be scanned as an iambus and choriarabus.
o
158 CHORAL SCANNING
5. Choriambic dimeter hypercatalectic, with base.
6. Choriambic trimeter catalectic, with base.
7. Choriambic monometer hypercatalectic, with base. 1
8. The same measure.
9. Phaleecian hendecasyllabic.
Vss. 618-626 (Leipsic ed. 634-645).
ANTISTROPHE tf'.
1. Kpeloativ | yap pd \\ a Kevdp \ tiv 6 vootiv \\
2. df e/c | Trarpo) |j af TJK \ tiv ylvld<; \ dplar \
3. TToAvTrov | wv "A
4. OVK erl \ ov
5. bpyalg \ e/zTredo^ dAA' | e/crdf oplk \ el
6. w r^ap | wv ndrep ol \ dv ae pevei \ TrvQeoO \ al
7. naidos \ 6vo<f>dpdv dr \ dv
8. av ovn \ a> rl$ e0pi/> | ev
9. atwv Ata/ad av a re^e rovde.
Vss. 674-686 (Leipsic ed. 694-706).
STROPHE I.
2. 5, ?w, Ildv, Ildv, |
3. o> Ildv, | IId> dklrthdyKT \ e KvA-
4 . AaW j df 'xji
5. Trerpai | df OTTO de?p
7. 5 I 7TG)f W0 I Nl5(Trd KVCJOG
8. J/jAar' | avrodd | r\ t-vv \ wi
9. vvv yap e | /not fieA | e? ^;op | evaat
10. > titdpl&v d' vTrep | Tr^Aayediv ^idAwv | dvc^ | "ArroAA ||
11. i ov
12. 6 | AdAtdf n; | yvtiord?
13. f/iot I ifvvel lfa\dl\& TTdvr I df ev
1. Called also a Pberccratic verse.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 159
1. Iambic trimeter.
2. Dochmiac monometer. 1
3. Glyconic.
4. The same measure.
5. The same measure. 2
6. Glyconic, increased by a syllable before the base. 3
7. The same measure.
8. Phalaecian hendecasyllabic.
9. Logacedic.
10, 11. Dochmiac dimeter and iambic monom. hyperc.
12. Glyconic.
13. Two iambic monometers hypercatalectic, the second
with anacrusis.
Vss. 687-699 (Leipsic ed. 706-718).
ANTISTROPHE i.
1. ekva | ev alv || 6v d%6$ \ an' opp, \\ drtiv
2. G>, tor vvv av, \
3. vvv, & | Zev Trdpd kevic \ ov ev-
4. dfiep | ov nekdoal \ </>a6f
5. $ouiv | (D/cvaAwv | vewv
6. or' | Alag \ kd6i7rdvo$ \ rrdklv
7. i9e | tiv 6' av \ TrdvOvrd -dean \ V e%-
8. Tjvvo', | evvdfu \ a ae6 \ tiv pey \ larp
9. trdvQ' 6 juey | a^ %pov | og pap \ alvel
10. > Kovdev dvavdrJTOV \ (pdrl^alfi' dv ev \ re y'
1 1 . $ deA-nrr || wv
12. At | d$ \ilrdveyv \ (baBfj
13. -&vfiov | r y "Arpeld \\ al$ \ ^iey \
,
1. Consult Seidler, de Vers. Dochm. p. 35. The second vowel in
the verse is shortened before the one that succeeds.
2. In this and the three following verses Hermann gives a different
arrangement. The mode adopted above, however, is sanctioned by Seid-
ler (ep. ad Lobcck).
3. Consult Hermann, Elcn. Mctr. Doctr. p. 358, scq., ed. Glasg.
160 CHORAL SCANNING
Verse
847. Trovof | Trovoi || TTOVOV I <j>epel. \\
848. rrp, TT, |
849. Tig, yap \ OVK e6 \\ dv ey \ oi
850. Kovdel$ \ emar || dral \ pe avfifi || dOelv \ TOTTO? ||
851. Idov |
852. dov-TTov | av ickv \\ o> rlv \ d
853. r\\iuv | ye vd || o? /cotv | OTrAovv || dfilX \ lav. H
854. rl ovv dfj \
855. ndv ear \ lbf\T || at ntevp \ dv eair || epov \ vetiv fl
856. e^etf ovv |
857. TTOVOV | ye ?rA^0 || 6^ ovd | ev el$ \\ vtylv \ trAeov ||
858. dAA' ovd' | epoi \\ 6rj rfjv \ d(f>' r\k || lov \ (3oXtiv \\
859. KlkevQ \ dv d \\ vrjp ovS \ dpov \\ dfjkoi \ <f>dvei$. \\
847. Iambic dimeter.
848. Spondee (as part of an iambic line). 1
849. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
850. Iambic trimeter.
851. Iambic monometer brachycatalectic.
852. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
853. Iambic trimeter.
854. Bacchic monometer.
855. Iambic trimeter.
856. Bacchic monometer.
857. Iambic trimeter.
858. The same measure.
859. The same measure.
Vss. 860-868 (Leipsic ed. 879-890).
STROPHE id.
1. Ttf dv dfjrd pol, \ rl<; dv ^tArmovtiv
2. dkldddv 1% | wv dvrrvov$ dypd$
1. Or, in other words, iambic monometer brachycatalectic.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 161
3. ?/ rig 6 I kvfjimd \ 6tiv \ $ed>v r\ pvroiv
4. BdOTTOpl | 6JV TTOrdfjLLJV idplg
5. TOV oi | ftoflv || /Ltov I el node \ TT^d^dfievov hevootiv
6. dirvoi \ a%erkld yap
7. efie ye rov pdicptiv \ dkdrdv TTOVGJV
8. ovplti | \ir\ Trehdaal (5po//oi
9. aAA' dfievfjvdv dvdp \ d pj | hevaelv \\ onov. \
1. Dochmiac dimeter. 1
2. Antispastic and dochmiac monometers.
3. Dactylic dimeter hypercat. and dochmiac monom. 2
4. Dactylic and dochmiac monometers.
5. lambico-dactylic and dochmiac monometers.
6. Cretic dimeter.
7. Dochmiac dimeter.
8. Cretic and dochmiac monometers. 3
9. Dochmiac monometer and Ischiorrhogic iambic. 4
Verse
869. Iti fiol \LO~I |
871. la) r^f)fj,G)v |
875. rl d' early \
878. G) (j,ol eptiv voor&v \
879. (5 | \LO~I Kdre \ Trefyvev dv \ at;
880. rovde ovvv \ avrdv d>
881. w roAaZ | (f>ptiv yvval |
886. (D jtiot e(j,d(; drag \ olog dp'
887. d(f)pdicrdg 0t/UJv |
888. ey \ ti 6' 6 ndvrd \ Ktifyog 6 \ navr' dldp \
889. Kdrfj | juA,7J || ad -nd \ red
1. Seidlcr,dc Vers. Dochm. p. 13.
2. Id. p. 145.
3. Id. p. 123, 127.
4. " Versus 874 (859) iambico finitur ex to genere, quod apte ischior-
rhogiaim appellari posse in dementis doctrine mctrica dixi." (Herm.,
ad loc.)
02
162 CHORAL SCANNING
890. Kelral o \ dvarpd-rre \ Aof
891. dva
869. Antispastic monometer.
871. The same measure.
875. Bacchic monometer.
878. Dochmiac monometer. 1
879. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, with anacrusis.
880. Cretic and dochmiac monometer.
881. Cretic dimeter.
886. Dochmiac dimeter. 2
887. Dochmiac monometer.
888. lambelegus. 3
889. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
890. Dactylic trimeter catalectic.
891. Adonic, with anacrusis.
Vss. 902-910 (Leipsic ed. 925-936).
ANTISTROPHE id.
1. l/zeAA-ef TaA,df | e^eMes xpovti
2. OTpeo<f>ptiv dp' | ei-dvvoelv Kdndv
3. polpdv d | Trelpeol | tiv | TTOVVV rold fiol
4. ndvvvxd \ ical Qdedovr' * * 4
5. dvtor | evdS || e? |
6. ovAta> | ovv TrdOel
7. /Lieydf dp' qv KKBLV
1. " Afonuit Seidlerw hunc versum conjungi posse cum sequenti in
unum fieiamelrum hermcum. At recte me monuit Hermannus, turn so-
Ure tragico* versum ilium ita nude ejusmodi numeris adjungere, quotes
sunt qui antecedunt et sequuntur." ( Wunder, ad loe.)
"2. In UK- common text, verse 883 (Leips. 905) reads as follows, rivof
Tror* dp' irritate x et 9 l Mouopof, and is an iambic trimeter. Hermann,
however, gives lpe for eirpafe, and makes the line consist of an iambic
alalectic and iambic dimeter brachycatal-
3. Consult pace 148, noto 1.
4. Two syllables wanting to complete the line. Hermann read* 6/w.
Klmsley prefers &vo
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 163
8.
g * * * * oTrAcJv I enelr' I dyoiv I irepl. I l
/
Verse
911. Iti fiol fiol |
913. l(jj fiol pol |
917. frvavdti |
920. w pot,
821. 6ia j otiv eOpo \ fjads dv j ai)6dv
922. epyov "Arp | elddv raid'
923. dAA' dnelpy \ ol i?edf
928. 7) pd KehalvtiTTdv \ dvpov
929. TroAvrAaf dv^p |
930. ye | Ad 6e rolol J fj,alvofie J votf d# J <7tv
93 1 . TroAvv | yeAwr || d 0ev | 0ei)
932. %vv re dtTrA | oZ /3d<7tA | ^c
933. Av | ovres "Arp | eldaZ.
The scanning of these verses, from 911 to 933, corre-
sponds, line for line, to that of verses 869-891.
Vss. 1136-1140 (Leipsic ed. 1162-1167).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1 . earal \ /zeyd A?^ || epi6d$ \ TI$ dytiv \\
2. dAA' o> | dvvdaal || Tev/cpe rd% | vvdg |j
3. oirevoov \ KOL^TJV \\ KdnSrov \ rlv' Idelv \\
4. raid' ev0 | a (3porol^ \\ rov del \ fj-vfjarov \\
5. rd(j>dv ev \ paievr H d Kddet; \ el. (Paro?miac.)
1. Four syllables wanting at the beginning of the line. Brunck re-
ceives into the text the supplement given by Triclinius, namely, 'A^t^-
Xecjf ; but Musgrave, with more probability, suggests ^puaodf ruv, which
is approved of by Hermann.
164 CHORAL SCANNING
Vss. 1158-1164 (Leipsic ed. 1185-1191).
STROPHE $'.
1. ri$ dpd | vedro$ \\ e$ nore \ A?)-
2. - t-el TToAvTrAdy/cr | tDv ere&v
3. rdv d | TTavorov || aiev epol
4. Jop | vaaovrtiv
5. a | rdv e-rraywv | dvd
6. rav | eiiptidTJ \ Tpoldv
7. 6v$ | rdvov oveld \ o$
1. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
2. Choriambic dimeter catalectic.
3. Trochaic and choriambic monometers.
4. Glyconic.
5. The same measure.
6. The same measure.
7. The same measure.
Vss. 1165-1170 (Leipsic ed. 1192-1198).
ANTISTROPHE tj3'.
1. o^eAe | Trporepov \\ aiOepd \ 6vv-
2. al p^ydv rj \ rdv trokvicolv \ 6v pdav
3. Kelvo$ | dvrjp || of arvyeptiv
4. I | dei&v ortvlwv | 'EAAd-
6. (Tt | KOIVOV "Aprjv \ 1C)
6. -rrov | ot irpoyovol \ TTOV&V
7. tv o d eTTccr ev
1. A molossuu here takes the place of the choriambus, and so also in
verse 8. Compare Hermann, A'/rm. Doctr. Mclr. j>. ;Ui(, <</. Gkug.
OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 165
Vss. 1171-1182 (Leipsic ed. 1199-1210).
STROPHE iy'.
1. eitelv \ df ov \\ re arfydvtiv
2. ovre (3dOel \ dv Kvhlictiv
3. velpev efiol \ rep^lv tfyuA \ el
4. ov | re ykvicvv av\ \ tiv orodov
5. dvapopos ovr' \ evvv^ldv
6. repTplv lav \ elv
7. eptirtiv |
8. epcjr | tiv (5* dneTtav \ oev oi /not
9. Kelp | al d' d/j-eplfiv \ 6f ovroif
10. d | el nvKivals \ 6poaol$
11. Teyyopevos \ Kdfj,d$
12. Avypaf | fivfjfidrd Tpol \ d<;.
1. Iambic monometer and choriambus.
2. Choriambic dimeter.
3. Choriambic dimeter hypercatalectic.
4. Choriambic dimeter, with anacrusis.
5. Choriambic dimeter.
6. Choriambic monometer hypercatalectic.
7. Bacchic monometer.
8. Glyconic hypercatalectic, with base.
9. The same measure, with anacrusis.
10. The same measure.
11. Choriambic monometer and iambus.
12. Pherecratic.
Vss. 1183-1194 (Leipsic ed. 1211-1222).
ANTISTROPHE ty'.
1. Kal TTplv | uev ovv \\ evvv^lov
2. de^dTdf TJV \ fiol 7tp66okd
166 CHORAL SCANNING OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER.
3. real pefetiv I $ovpld$ A.I \ dg
4. vvv | 6' ovrog dvelr \ al orvyepti
5. datpovl rig \ pol rig er' ovv
6. repels enear \ al
7. ylvol\LQ.v |
8. iv vA | dev eneor \ I TTOVTOV
9. Trpo | ft^fjfi' dklithvar | ov dKpdv
10. VTT | 6
11. rdf tepd^ |
12. TTpdoeln \ olpev
Vss. 1374-1392 (Leipsic ed. 1402-1420).
ANAPAESTIC MEASURE.
1. dkig TI | 6f) yap || rro^vg eic \ rerdral
2. Xjpovog dAA' | ol pev \\ Kolkijv \ icdnerov \\
3. Xpol rd% \ vvere \\ rol 6' inf) | I6drov \\
4. rplrrod' d[Mf> \ Irtvpov \\ Aovrpwv | ooltiv \\
5. -dead' em \ Kalpov \\ pld 6' lit \ Kkloldg \\
6. dvdp&v | Ikf) || rov vndo \ mdlov \\
7. KOOfJLOV
8. nal ov 6e
9. (filkdrfjr \ I tJtycJv, || Trtevpdg \ ovv epol \\
10. rdod' em \ Kov(f>lt?- \\ erl ydp \ deppal \\
11. ffvptyy | eg dvti f| (frvotio \ I fteAdv ||
12. fj.ev6g dAA' | dye Trd^, || <f>l^og do \ rig dwjp \\
14. rcjv dv6p I i TTOV&V || TW ndvr' \ dydOti ||
^5. icovdevl | TTCJ Ao> H ovl dvfjr \ wv. (Paroeraiac.)
16. Atdv | rog or' fjv \\ rore <jx>v \ 6>. (Paroemiac.)
17. rj troAA | d ftporolg II earlv 16 \ ovolv \\
18. yv&val \ nplv I6elv [j (T oi)(5c?f | pdvrlg \\
19. TWV /itcAA | ovrwv, || 6 rl npdi- \ el. (Paroemiac.)
CHORAL SCANNING
(EDIPUS TYRANNUS.
I. Vss. 151-158.
STROPHE d.
ddve TTT drt rt
5-
3. 677600 ; | ticrerd \ pal <f>56ep \ dv Qpevd, \ delfidrl \
4. I | T/ie | AdAte | Ilamv,
5. d|it<j!)fc aol | d^o/Lte | vof rl jitot | ^ vedv,
6. 77 Trept | rehkope \ valg a> | patf ndklv
7. e^dvv
8.
1. Dactylic hexameter.
2. Iambic dimeter acatalectic.
3. Dactylic hexameter.
4. Dactylic trimeter, with anacrusis.
5. Dactylic tetrameter.
6. The same measure.
7. Dactylic dimeter.
8. Dactylic hexameter.
168 CHORAL SCANNING
I. Vss. 159-166.
ANTISTROPHE a.
ae Kenofie vd$ vya rep
"A. | Odvd,
2., yad \ 5%ov \\ r' d6ek(f> \ lav ||
3. 'Aprefuv | a KVK^O | evr' dyo \ pd$ dpovov \ evK-
fed | ftdoael
4. Kal | 4>oi6ov e | Kdddhdv, \ Id)
5. rplaool a \ te^op \ ol rrpo^d | vfjre poi,
6. el Trore | /cat Trpore | pd$ a \ rdf vnep-
7. dpvvfie | vaf TroAe*
8. fjvvadr' \ eKrom \ dv <f>^6yd \ Tr^j^drof, | ekdere \
KCU vvv.
II. Vss. 167-175.
STROPHE /?'.
1. "fl TroTTOi, | dvdpW[4 || a yap | 0epw ||
2. Tr^fidrd- | v6(jet || r5e /zot | rrpoTrdf H ffroAof, ovd' | prt J
3. ^povrtdof | ey^of,
4. a) rtf a | te^eral, [ ovre yap | c/eyovd
5. ic^v | rdf %9dvd$ \ avi-eral, \ ovre TO \
6. t^ | 1 1| wv /icd/id | rwv dve | ^ov^r yv |
7. dAAov | (5* dv dM, || (j Trpoald | otf, dTrep | evirrcpdv
| opvtv,
8. Kpelooov d | fjicu^dice \ rov Trvpo$ \ opitevov
0. a/era v | Trpdf earr || epov \ t?eov. !
1. Iambic dimeter acatalectic.
2. Verse resembling an iambic trimeter. 2
1. We must pronounce dcnv u one syllable, by synacresis, in order
that the Terse may correspond with the last line of the antistroplic. Com-
pare Porson, ad Orctt. 3 ( J:< \',ttrci Attici hanc vocem (&en()lificnter
in termone contraxt**t rtdentur ; nomina enim a, dco? incipicntta. pro-
nunctarunt, 6ovyrv/(Jr/f, QovKvAifyf," <5tc.
2. Compare Hermann, ad loc. : " Versum ejfiaunt timilcm trimetro
iambico, wri quod quintvt pet anapctstu* ctt."
OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. 169
3. Dactylic dimeter, or Adonic.
4. Dactylic tetrameter.
5. Dactylic tetrameter, with anacrusis.
6. Iambic monometer catalectic, with dactylic tetram.
7. Iambic monometer acatalectic, with dactylic tetram.
8. Dactylic tetrameter.
9. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
II. Vss. 176-184 (Leipsic ed. 179-189).
ANTISTROPHE (3'.
1. o)V TroAtf I dvdpWfi, \\ 05* 6AA, | vral ||
2. vfjked | 6e yev0A || a TTpd \ Tredti || ^dvdrfj \
3. Kelral dv \ olttrtii;
4. Iv d' <zA6 | %ol rroXt | al r f em \ fj,drepe$
5. die | rdv Trdpd \ (3tiiuov \ dkJidQev \ dkhal
6. Avypciiv j TTOV \\ &v IKT \ 7/pef CTT | lor ova, \ %ovolv
7. Traidv | (Je kdfjLTT || et arovo | eaad re \
8. wv vrrep, | w xpvae \ d dvyd \ r
9. evti rrd ?rzi> ov a\K dv.
III. Vss. 185-197 (Leipsic ed. 190-202).
STROPHE y'.
1. "Apeo | re TOV || jLtaAepov |
2. 65- vvv | d^d^K || df a(77r | fJwv H
3. faeyel \ fie nepl \\ 66rj \ rot; dvr || id \ tiv
4. ndXloo | vrov \\ Spd^ \ \id vtir || laal \
5. dTToi) I pov elr' \\ e$ \ilyav
6. ddkapov | ~A/i0r || rplrfjs \
7. dr' | ef TOV d?r | o^evov
8. QpfJKi | ov :Av || daiva |
9. reAet | yap el [I rt vi;^ | df^rj \\
10. TOVT' CTT' | qftdp || ep^er | al'
P
170 CHORAL SCANNING
11. rdv to rdv 7ri5p0 |
12. darpd \ ndv Kpdr \\ r\ vl\i \ tov Zev ||
13. Trdrep imo rev \ <f>0loov /cepavvw.
1. Iambic dimeter brachycatalectic.
2. Iambic dimeter acatalectic.
3. Iambic trimeter catalectic.
4. Iambic trimeter acatalectic.
5. Iambic monometer and cretic.
6. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic.
7. Dactylic trimeter, with anacrusis.
8. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic.
9. Iambic dimeter acatalectic.
10. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
11. Antispastic monometer brachycatalectic.
12. Trochaic dimeter acatalectic.
13. Dochmiac dimeter.
HI. Vss. 198-210 (Leipsic ed. 203-215).
ANTISTROPHE y'.
1. AviceV | dvdi- \\ rd re ad. \
2. xpvooarp } ofajv || drr' dyK \ vk&v \\
3. /3eAed | deholn' \\ dv add \ ftar' ev || ddreloQ \ al
4. apoi | yd npoa \\ rdOevr \ d rag || re Trip \ <t>opov$.
5. "Aprc/it | eJdf alyX \\ d$ %vv ai$
6. A.VKI' op | ed 61 \\ dwel \
7. rdv | xpvoopi | rpdv re KL \ /
8. road' en \ uvv \\ \LOV yd$ \
9. olvtifT | a BdK% II ov ev \ lov
10. Matvdd | <iv dfi \\ otrroA | 6v
11.
I. We hate adopted, in this and the two succeeding verses, the ar-
rangement of Hermann, a* given by Erfurdt, ad loc.
OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. 171
12. * * | dyAa || tint \ Trevicd \\ l
13. em TOV d-norl \ pov ev -&eol$ tfeov.
IV. Vss. 458-466 (Leipsic ed. 463-472).
STROPHE d'.
1. Ttf ov | rev d || deome \ neld \ AeA^tf | etTre | rrerpa
2. dppTJr' | dpprJT | a}v reAe | advrd \ (polvl \ alol \
^
3. a) | pd vlv
4. ?TT | TTWV odevdpti | repov
5. ^>v | ya 7rd(5d vw | \LOLV
6. evoTrAo^ | yap err' av || rov enevdp \ a>(Tet.
7. TTVpl Kal \ areponal^ || 6 Ai
8. deiv \ al 6' dp' enovr \ al
9.
1. Iambic monometer, with a logacedic.
2. Spondaic dimeter, with a logaoedic.
3. Gly conic.
4. The same measure.
5. Glyconic catalectic, or Pherecratic.
6. Anapaestic dimeter.
7. The same measure.
8. Glyconic catalectic.
9. Trochaic dimeter brachy catalectic.
IV. Vss. 467-475 (Leipsic ed. 473-482).
ANTISTROPHE 6".
e yap || TOV vl<f>6 \ lvro$ \ dprl \ ti$ <f)dv
elad
1. A word of two syllables wanting, according to Hermann's arrange-
ment,
2. The two spondees which begin this measure are very probably se-
mantus trochees.
172 CHORAL SCANNING
2. (fxifid I Udpvdoo \ ov rov a \ drj^ov \ dvdpd \ TTOVT*
I'Xy | evelv
3. fair | d yap VTT* dyp \ lav
4. vA, | dv dvd r' dvrp \ d ical
5.
6.
7. rd ^eerdjLt | 0aAd ydf || dnovooty \ l&v fl
8. jttavr | eld rd 6' at \ el
9. Z&vrd J Treplno \\ rdral.
V. Vss. 476-484 (Leipsic ed. 483-497).
STROPHE e.
1. deivd f*ev ovv, | detvd rdpdao \ el owfrdf ol \ wvo-
2. ovre doKOvvr', \ ovr' dnfydait \ ovd'- 6 rl teg \ w
3. TTeTOfjtal \ 6' ekmalv, ovr' \ evddd* opcjv, | our'
4. rl yap r\ \ Ad66dKi6al$, \ TJ
5. T(D H.okv6ov | velicdf eicelr', \ ovre -rrdpol \ 6ev TTOT*
6. ovre rdvvv \ TTW
7. e/id^ov | Trpdf orov || * * * * | 6rj
8. errt rdv | emdd \\ pov (fxirlv elp* \ Ol6ln66d
9. Ad66dKi | dale; em \ Kovp6$ ddrj \
1. Choriambic tetrameter.
2. The same measure.
3. An anapaest, with a choriambic trimeter.
4. An anapaest, with a choriambic monometer hypercat.
5. Choriambic tetrarm t r.
0. Choriambic monometer hypercatalectic.
1. Cowult Hermann, Elem. Doe*. Mttr. p. 359, ed. GUg.
2. A word IB wanting here to complete the measure, and make the
line answer to the corresponding one ol the antistrophe. Hermann sug-
OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. 173
7. Anapaestic monometer and choriambic dimeter.
8. The same measure.
9. Dactylic dimeter and choriambic dimeter.
V. Vss. 485-493 (Leipsic ed. 498-511).
ANTISTROPHE e.
1. dAA,' 6 [iev ovv \ Zevf, 6 r' ~A7rdAA | tiv gvverol, \
Kal rd (Bportiv.
2. eldoreg dvdp \ &v d' orl fidvr \ 1$ TrAeov 77 | yw 0-
peral
3. Kpiol$ OVK | larlv dXrj \ 6fj^ ooffid \ 6' dv od(f>ldv
4. TTdpdpeiTj) | elev dvrjp- \ aAA'
5. OVTTOT' eywy | dv trplv Idolfi' \ opdov eTrof , | ^/^>o-
fiev&v
6. dv Kdrdtyal | fjv
7. Qdvepd | yap en av H TO> rrrepoeaa' | T/Afle Kopd
8. Trore /cat | ad05f a>00 || ^, pdadvti \ &' Tjdvnohls
9. ra> aTr' e | /uaf <}>pevo$ \ oimor' d(f>Mj \ oei Kdicldv.
VI. Vss. 630-636 (Leipsic ed. 649-657).
STROPHE g '.
1. mO | ov i?eA^ | <7df <^pov7y | od$ T* dvd^,
2. T? aot | ^eAetf |j dfjr' el \ KdOti \\
3. rov | ot5re nplv j v^TTidv, | vvv T* ev op/e | w
4. Kdrald | eaat. ||
5. otad' ovv | a %p??^ II tc 5 old \ a. ^>pd^ || e
6. rov evdyf} fylXov | jti^Tror* ev
7. avv d(f>dvel AdycD | drlpov (3dXelv
1. Cretic tetrameter, with anacrusis.
2. Iambic dimeier.
3. Cretic tetrameter, with anacrusis.
P2
174 CHORAL SCANNING
4. Iambic monometer.
5. Iambic trimeter.
6. Dochmiac dimeter.
7. Dochmiac dimeter.
VII. Vss. 639-645 (Leipsic ed. 660-668)
STROPHE '.
1. ov TOV | TrdvToiv | $ea>v | $eo
2. e-rrel ddeoc;, d^iAdf , | 6 rl -nv^drov
3. dholpdv (}>povfj | alv el rdvd' e%a>
4. dAAa ft' a | dvapoptis 1
5. yd (pdlvovad rpv% \ el
6. /cat rdd' \ el KdK \\ ol$ ndic \ d
7. npdod^el rolg \ -rrdkal \ rd Trpof H
1. Ischiorrhogic iambi, with dochmius.
2. A dochmiac and cretic monometer. 2
3. Dochmiac dimeter.
4. Cretic dimeter.
5. Dochmiac monometer hypercatalectic.
6. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
7. Antispast and iambic monometer hypercatalectic.
VI. Vss. 655-661 (Leipsic ed. 678-686).
ANTISTROPHE $'.
1 . yv | val rl fieAA | el$ KO^ \ elv do/iwv | rovd'
2. fidOov | ad y' ^ |j rl? rj \ rv^fj. \\
3. doK | ^<r?f dyv \ ti$ Adywv | TjAfle, ddrrr | et de ical
4. TO ^ 'v | dlitov ||
1 . We have adopted Hermann's emendation, ft' d Avajtopuf, in place
of the common reading, pot Avapopv, and have rejected ipvxdv, which the
common text give in the succeeding line.
2. The dochmius it here resolved into eight ahort syllables (Stutter,
<U Vert. Dockm. p. 63, $cq.), and the crelic into five.
OF THE (ED1PUS TYRANNU8. 175
5. dfKpolv | an' avr || olv val \ %l KCU \\ rl
6. dAiff epoiy' dAtf | yd$ irpd-novov^vd^
7. (fraiveralj evO' eA?^ J ev avrov (j,eveiv.
VII. Vss. 664-670 (Leipsic ed. 689-697).
ANTISTROPHE '.
1. w 'vd | etTrov | [iev ovft | dirdt; povov ZaOi tie
2. Trdpdtypovipov, dnopov \ em (f>pdvlfj,d
3. 7re(f)dv6al p' dv el \ oe vda<pl$6pal
4. op-' e/^dv | ydv QlXdv
5. ev novolg dXv \ ov-
6. adv dr' | op^ov || ovpltr | dg
7. rdvvv r' evTropr | 65- et | dvval || o.
VIII. Vss. 836-845 (Leipsic ed. 863-872).
STROPHE 77.
1. et [tol | ^vvet || ^ (f>ep \ ovrl ||
2. fiolpd rdv ev \ aenrov dyvel \ dv Aoywv
3. epy | tiv re navrtiv, \ uv VO\L \ ol Ttpo \\ Kelvral \
4. v^irrddSs, j ovpdvl | dv 6V
5. aldepd \ revw || devr \ e$ tiv \ "OAvjUTT || Of
6. ?rar | ^p //ovdf ov | 6e vlv
7. i9va | rd 0vaif dv | eptiv
8. erl/cr | ev ov \\ 6e
9. ^^v Trore Ad | 0d KdrdKOtfj, \ dael
10. jLteyd^ ev rov | rotf ^edf | ovde \ yfjpdaic \ el.
1. Iambic dimeter and trochaic dimeter.
2. Epitritic dimeter and cretic monometer.
3. Epitritic monometer, with anacrusis, and trochaic
dimeter brachycatalectic.
4. First paeon, dactyl and trochee.
5. Two iambic monometers hypercatalectic.
176 CHORAL SCANNING
6. Glyconic.
7. The same measure.
8. lambie monometer hypercatalectic.
9. Choriambic dimeter, with a spondee.
10. Ionic a minor e and logaoedic, with spondaic ending.
VIII. Vss. 846-855 (Leipsic ed. 873-882).
ANTISTROPHE 77.
1. v(3pl$ | <f>vrev \\ el TV \ pdvvov
2. v(3pi$ el TrdAA | tiv vnepn^od \ 77 /Ltdrdv
3. a | jLtr/ 'micalpd \ [ifjde \ avpQep | ovrd
4. dupdrdrov \ eladvd6 \ da 1 1$
5. dnord | \LQV a> || pov \ aev el$ \ dvdyn || dv
6. ev6' | ov nodi %prj \ oifjti
7. xpri | ral' TO itdh&s | d' e%ov
8. TroAfi? | TraAata^ || a
9. fi^noTe Xv | aal &eov al \ Tovpal
10. -&KOV ov hf)t; | (D TTOTC | rrpdara | rdv lo% \ wv.
IX. Vss. 856-868 (Leipsic ed. 883-890).
STROPHE &'.
1. el 6*e | Tie vrrep
2. ^ Ady | a> Trop || ever | al
3. (Ji | dc d^>d6 | ^rdf, | ovte \
4. ^aifwv | a>v ed || ?/ (Te6 | d>v
5. ica | d vlv eA | otro | polpd \
6. dv(m6Tfi | ov ^dp II tv #Afd |
7. ei | p/ TO Kepddf | Ktpddv \ el
8. ca^ [ raiv daeTrrwv | ep^eraZ
9. fl | rwv ddlKT&v | efe | T<W /id
10. rl? erl | Trdr' cv || roiad dv | rjp $vp, \\ ov 6eA
11. epi-KTal
OF THE CEDIPUS TYRANNUS. 177
12. el yap al rol \ aide 7rpdt-el$ \ rlfual
13. ri | del pe %6p \ evelv ;
1. Trochaic dimeter.
2. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
3. Logaoedic, with anacrusis.
4. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
5. Logacedic, with anacrusis.
6. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
7. Epitritic monometer, with anacrusis, and trochaic
dimeter brachycatalectic.
8. Epitritic monometer, with anacrusis, and cretic.
9. Epitritic monometer, with anacrusis, and trochaic
dimeter brachycatalectic.
10. Iambic monometer and trochaic dimeter catalectic.
11. Epitritic dimeter.
12. Epitritic dimeter, with cretic.
13. Adonic, with anacrusis,
IX. Vss. 869-881 (Leipsic ed. 897-910).
ANTISTROPHE #'.
1 . OVK er | I rov a \\ Blurov \ elfu \\
2. yd$ CTT' | eyw^aA || ov ae6 \ wv
3. ovd' | eg rov "A | dalal \ vdov \
4. ovde | rdv ~OA || vpm \ dv
5. el | pj rdde \ %eipo | delnrd
6. Ttdolv | dpfio || oel (3por \ ol$
7. dAA' | 6> Kpdrvvtiv \ elrrep \ 6p6' die \ ovcl$
8. Zei), | Train-' dvdoativ, \ \ir\ Aa0^
9. <re, | rdv re adv d \ Odvdrov \ alev \ dp%dv
10. <j>6ivovr | a yap || Adi j ov TrdA || aid | rd
11. i?e<70ar' egal \ povolv rjdfj
12. Kovddpov rl \ pal? "
13. ep | pcZ 6e rd \ deld.
178 CHORAL SCANNING
X. Vss. 1057-1067 (Leipsic ed. 1086-1097).
STROPHE t.
1. eiTrep eyti \ pdvri$ \ el(j,i \\
2. Kal Kara yvtip \ r\v ldpi$ \
3. ov TOV ~OA | vfnTov an \ elptiv
4. G) KWalptiv, j OVK eael
5. rdv avp j lov \\ rrdvaeX^vdv
6. (47) ov ae ye \ nal Trarpl \ tirdv \ Qlfflnov
7. nal rpd(pov Kal \ ^f}rep' avt-elv
8. Kal %6pevKoQ \ al 7rp6$ fjfuJv
9. wf em | Tjpd (f>ep \ ov
10. rd rolf | ejuolf || rv paw \ ol$
11. I | rjie | $or6e, | aot de | ravr* dp \ lor' el \ 77.
1. Choriambic monometer and trochaic monometer.
2
'
Epitritic monometer and dactylic tetrameter.
o. *
4. Epitritic monometer and cretic.
5. Iambic monometer and epithte.
6. Dactylic tetrameter.
7. Epitritic dimeter.
8. The same measure.
9. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic.
10. Iambic dimeter catalectic.
11. Logacedic, with anacrusis and catalectic syllable.
X. Vss. 1068-1078 (Leipsic ed. 1098-1109).
ANTISTROPHE I.
2. rd>v iidKpattiv \ Ctv dpd \ >
V *
8. Have)? dp | eomdd \ rd TTOV
4. TTpfaiTttMoOeZo', \ffaeyl
OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. 179
5. rl$ tfvydTT/p, | Adt-iov ; roi 1
6. yap TrAd/ce? | dypovo | fiol nda \ al
7. eW o KvAAa | vdg avdaotiv
8. elO' o BdK%el \ 5$ #edf val-
9. aiv ITT d/cp | a>v ope | wv
10. evpTJ/j | d de 11 dr' e/c | rov
11. Nvt dv "EAt KwvlcJ tiv aTf irtelard ovp-
XL Vss. 1155-1165 (Leipsic ed. 1186-1195).
STROPHE m.
1. 'I | w yeveal \ (3portiv
2. a)f v | ftdf Tad Kal \ TO |Lt^-
3. 6ev ^G> | adf evapWfj, \ a>
4. T^ | yap, rtf dv^p | irkeov
5. rdf ev | dal^ovld^ \ (f>epsl
6. ^ ro(T | ovrov ooov \ doicelv
7. Kal dog | dvr' d-rroK^l \ val
8. rd aov | rot TTdpadelyp' \
9. r6v adv | dat/zovd, rov |
10. rAdjitov
11. ov | (Jevd (jidKa
1. Glyconic.
2. Glyconic, with a spondee in the base.
3. Pherecratic.
4. Glyconic.
5. Glyconic, with a spondee in the base.
6. Glyconic, with a trochee in the base.
7. Pherecratic.
8. Glyconic, with an iambus in the base.
1. The choriambus in this line answers to the iambic syzygy in the
corresponding verse of the chorus. Compare Hermann, Elem. Doctr.
Metr. p. 160, ed. Lip*.U. Epit. p. 160.
180 CHORAL SCANNING
9. Glyconic, with a spondee in the base.
10. Glyconic, with a trochee in the base.
11. Pherecratic. 1
XI. Vss. 1166-1176 (Leipsic ed. 1196-1203).
ANTISTROPHE id.
. (7 rg K vnep
2. To%ev | od$ eupdrrj \ od$ rov
3. Trdvr' ev \ dalpovog oA6 | ov
4. to | Zei), Kara fj,ev \ <f>6lodf
5. rdv yapip \ tivvftd ndpQ \ evog
6. xprjapu | dov -ddvdrtiv \ d' epp
7. x<*>pa | nvpyos dveor \ d$
8. &( ov | KOI ddolkevs \ Kdtel
9. ^6f, | Kal rd neylar' \ erl-
10. pdOT)^, | ral$ peydhalo \ Iv ev
11. &TI | dalalv dvdaa \ div.
XII. Vss. 1177-1187 (Leipsic ed. 1204-1212).
STROPHE i(3'.
1. rdvvv | 6' dKOv \\ elv, \ rl$ dBX \ Iti H repof |
2. rig ev | Trovola \\ Iv, \ rl$ d \ ral? dyp \ lai$
3. t-vvol | KO$ dA^ || dyg, \ (3Zov \
4. D KteZvov | OZdt | TTOV nap || d
5. w ftly | df AI/^ || r\v
6. ovrdf | ^pc<7 || ev
7. -rratdf | not -rrdrp || t
8. tfdAd/ATJ | TTOAo) || TTKOtiV
9. 7T(j Trdrt, | rraif noO' \ at Trdrp | wat <r' |
10. dAd/ftc | ^eptv, li rdXdc |
11 (Jly f IdvvdoOfi | adv cf | roaov U cJe.
1. The first syllable of the choriambus is resolved into two short.
OF THE CEDIPUS TYRANNUS. 181
1. Iambic monometer hypercat. and dimeter brach.
2. Iambic monom. hypercat. and ischiorrhogic iambi.
3. Iambic dimeter.
4. Antispastic monom. and trochaic monom. hypercat.
5. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic.
6. The same measure.
7. The same measure.
8. Iambic dimeter brachycatalectic.
9. Logaoedic.
10. Iambic dimeter brachycatalectic.
11. Antispastic monom. and iambic monom. hypercat.
XII. Vss. 1188-1198 (Leipsic ed. 1213-1222).
ANTISTROPHE $'.
1. efevp | e a' a \\ KovO' \ 6 Trdvd' \ optiv \\ %pdvo$ \
2. At/cd | diKd% H el \ ydpov a \ ydpov
3. renvovvT \ d KOL |j T envoi) \ pevov. ||
4. fo> Adi | elov | reicvov \\ *
5. elOe | a', el8e \ *
6. PJTTOT' | eldo || pdv
7. dvpofi | al yap \\ w
8. TTCpldkk | ldK% || l&v |
9. KK ordfjLd | rwv TO | 6' opdov | eltrelv \
10. dveirvev \ ad T' eic \\ aeOev \
11. Kal KdreKolprja \ d rov \ pov opp \ a.
XIII. Vss. 1272-1282 (Leipsic ed. 1297-1306).
ANAP^STICS.
1. w delv \ ov Idelv \\ Trd66$ dv \ BptiTtols \\
2. a> fclv | ordrov \\ ndvrtiv \ do' eyti \\
3. npooeicvpa' \ ^d^- || rig a\ ti
1. We have adopted Hermann's reading in this and the corresponding
line of the strophe.
Q
182 CHORAL SCANNING
4. npoaetfi \ fidvid ; || rtf d TTT?
5. pel^ovd | dalptiv \\ rtiv fid \ KIGTUV \\
6. Trpof ay \ dvadal \\ povl palp \ d (ParoBmiac.)
7. 0d) <ev I dvardv'. \\ dAA' ovd' | ealdelv ||
8. dvvdfial | cr', efleAwv H TroAA' dvep | eaOal \\
TTV | 6e(j0at, || rrdAAa 6' d8p \ ffGal U
\ pol. (Paroeniiac.)
XIV. Vss. 1283-1287 (Leipsic ed. 1307-1311).
ANAP^STICS.
1. at at, | at at, |
2. ^ev, 0fiv- | dvard || vof eyw. | Trot yaf ||
3. <f>epd[j,al \ rAdpyv ; || nd /zot | <j>6oyyd ||
4. (Jtarrere | rat rdf || dtai | <j>opd6fjv \\ l
5. tw dalpov | tv*
XV. Vss. 1290-1293 (Leipsic ed. 1313-1316).
STROPHE ty'.
1. tw | OKOTOV || 3
2. ve<^of ej^dv dnorponov \ emTT^opev
3. dddfjidrov re nal \ dvaovplarov 6v
4.
1. Iambic monometer
2. Dochmiac dimeter.
1. A proceleusmaticus in the first place. On the admisaibility of this
foot into anapKHtic measure, consult Hermann, Elcm. Doctr. metr. p.
243, ed. Glaig.
2. We have adopted Hermann's arrangement. " Ex men description*
vertut ultimut conttat duobut dochmiacit, quo genere veriuum tcene clau-
duntur tyttemata, iitque pramiuo proceleu*matico." Herm. ad loc.
3. With regard to the iambic monometer preceding the dochiniac
measure, consult Soidler, de Vert. Dochtn. p. 116, *cq.
4. Respecting the resolution of the dochmius into eight short sylla-
bles, consult Seidler, de V. D. p. 63.
6. Regarded by some as a semantua trochee.
OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. 183
3. The same measure.
4. Extra metrum.
XV. Vss. 1297-1300 (Leipsic ed. 1321-1324).
ANTISTROPHE iy'.
2. av \iiv e/zdf eTUTroAo? | erl fidvipd^ erl yap
3. vTTOfievels p,e rov | rvfaov Kfjdevtiv
4. <}>ev <f>ev. \
XVI. Vss. 1305-1310 (Leipsic ed. 1329-1334).
STROPHE id'.
1. "A-Tro^Uwv rad' r\v \ ~A7ro/U | &v, ti \ (fikol \
2. o KaXa | rad' epd \ reAwv | oa rocJ' e/za Tra^ea |
3. ETrala | e d' av || rd^eip | vtv ov || rtf dAA | eyw
T^OjLiCJV |
4. rt yap edet /z* opav |
5. orw | y' opwv || T! j^^ | 6ev rjv \\ Idelv \ ykvuv. \\
6. r\v ravO\ \ OTTW^ II nep Kal \ av (ffis. \\
1. Dochmiac monometer and ischiorrhogic iambi.
2. Ischiorrhogic iambi and dochmiac monometer.
3. Iambic trimeter and semantus trochee.
4. Dochmiac monometer.
5. Iambic trimeter.
6. Iambic dimeter.
XVII. Vss. 1311-1317 (Leipsic ed. 1337-1343).
STROPHE te.
. Tfc 07/
2. arepKrov \ f) npoa \\ rjyop \ ov
3. fir* ear' \ anov \\ elv \ i]dov \ a 0tA || ot
184 CHORAL SCANNING
4. dTrdyer' enromov \ 6rl rd%lord fie
5. andyer* w 0Aot | rov okeOpov peydv
6. rov Kdrdpdrordrdv | eri 6e Kal
7. e%0pdrdrdv (3portiv. |
1. Cretic dimeter, with anacrusis. 1
2. Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
3. Iambic monom. hyperc. and trochaic mon. hyperc.
4. Dochmiac dimeter. 2
5. The same measure.
6. The same measure. 3
7. Dochmiac monometer.
XVI. Vss. 1320-1325 (Leipsic ed. 1349-1354).
ANTISTROPHE id'.
rjv \ df an* dyp \ ld$ \ rclda^ \
2. vofuidds | em-nod \ id$ \ ehd6e p' and re (f>6vov \
3. eppv | ro Kdv || eotio \ ev ovd |j ev el$ \ %dplv \\
4. rore yap dv tidvtiv \
5. OVK fjv | 0tAoZ || alv ovd' \ epol fl rooovd* \
6. tfeAovr | I Kd || fiol rovr' | dv ^v. ||
XVH. Vss. 1326-1332 (Leipsic ed. 1357-1363).
ANTISTROPHE li.
1. oijK. ovv Trdrpof | y' dv (f>ov ev$
2. 7/A0ov I ovdi || vvpt>l | 5f %
8. /3pdrofc | eicMi U 07/v | wv c | </>vv drr || o
4. vvv d' dOed$ p$v elp' | dvooluv dl
5. 6[i,dyevf)$ 6' atp u)v
1. Seidler, d Fer/t^iu Dochnutcii, p. 144.
S. /., p. 68.
3. Compare Hermann, ad loc.
OF THE CEDIPUS TYRANNUS. 185
6. el 6e rl 7rpea6vrepov \ e<f>v KO.KOV ndicov
7. rovr'
XVIII. Vss. 1490-1496 (Leipsic ed. 1524-1530).
TROCHAIC TETRAMETERS CATALECTIC.
1. G> Trdrp | df 6776 || 775- ev \ OIKOL \\ Xevooer', \ 0161
Trovf 66 | e
2. 05- rd | /cAetv' atv || ty/zar' | ^(5^, || al Kpdr \ larog
^v dv | ?7p
3. oarlf | ov ^ || ai TroA | Trwv || at rv% \ atf err
4. eZf da | ov Avd || tivd \ delvrj^ || avp^op \ d$ e A [|
^Av | Qev
5. ware | -dv^rov \\ ovr', e \ Kelvfjv \\ rfjv reA | evral |j
dv 16 | etv
6. Tjftep | av err || IOKOTT I ovvrd, || pfj6ev \ 6k6l \\ elv
npiv | dv
7. rep/za | rov 61 \\ ov nep \ dofj, || p7]6ev \ d&yelv || ov
(Dv.
Q2
PART IV.
INDO-GERMANIC ANALOGIES.
INDO-GERMANIC ANALOGIES.
I. OF LANGUAGE IN GENERAL.
I. THE farther comparative philology carries back its researches into
the earlier periods of the history of language, the more convinced do we
become that all the spoken idioms of the globe have originated from one
common source, and, consequently, that all the members of our race
may trace their descent from one common parentage.
II. The idea of a primitive language for our species, though often
made a subject of ridicule by the superficial and half-learned inquirer,
rests on too firm a basis to be shaken, and connects itself too closely with
the earliest traditions of our race, as recorded in the sacred writings, to
leave any doubt of its truth on the mind of the philologist.
III. What this primitive language may have been is, of course, all un-
certainty, and each investigator is here left to the conclusions of his own
judgment. It would seem, however, that a very large portion of this
early vocabulary consisted of terms which sought to imitate, by their
sounds, the various movements of the natural world, such as the noise of
thunder, the roaring of the tempest, the gentle or rapid flow of waters,
and the different cries of the animal creation.
IV. The simple narrative of Scripture, which represents the Deity as
bringing into the presence of our first parent the numerous creatures
that peopled his new domains, in order that the progenitor of our race
might give each its appropriate name, is only another way of stating that
the germe of language is a faculty inherent in the soul, and that the ap-
pellations given by Adam to the various members of the animal kingdom
consisted simply of imitations of their peculiar cnes, or of attempts to
express, in strong though inartificial terms, some striking peculiarity of
structure.
V. Following up this idea, we will come naturally to the conclusion
that, in the infancy of our species, a close sympathy, founded on immu-
table laws, must have united the visible to the intellectual world, and
that the result of this sympathy manifested itself in a variety of simple
but expressive sounds, which, by gradual combinations and progressive
improvement, formed eventually the splendid fabric of language.
190 OF LANGUAGE IN GENERAL.
VI. The earliest spoken idiom of our race was necessarily analogouf
to the sensations which gave it birth. Melodious sounds were employed
to express soft and gentle emotions ; sounds of a rough or harsh nature
served to indicate what was painful or unpleasing ; beauty, activity, and
strength were each depicted, as it were, by different intonations, and
thus each syllable became a kind of musical note, the peculiar force of
which we are still, in many cases, able to perceive, though so many ages
have intervened. 1
VII. To pretend to analyze, however, at the present day, all these
accordances of the soul of man with external nature ; to endeavour to
show how each rapid perception of form, of movement, and of colour,
affected in different ways the internal sense, and was then enunciated
by some particular sound, is a task which presents insuperable difficul-
ties, and bids defiance to the most ingenious hypotheses.
VIII. The utmost that we can ascertain respecting the earlier move-
ments of language is simply this : that primitive words must have been
comparatively few in number, and all of them monosyllabic ; that each
element of these syllables, designating as it did some principal object,
was soon applied, in various combinations, to a series of other objects
analogous to the first, which last served in their turn as types for new
analogies ; and that thus, by a progressive march, the same sounds be-
came applied to a multitude of things, always more and more removed
from each other, and the affiliation of which, though real, became con-
tinually less apparent.
IX. Guided by that instinct of comparison or assimilation so inherent
in the human mind, thought, though infinite in its essence, submitted,
nevertheless, to the restrictive forms of language, and yielded itself
to general laws, which arranged in the same class all things that were
susceptible of partial approximation. Hence we see, in the most ancient
languages, and those that are nearest the infancy of our species, the ideas
of height and depth, of hollowness and convexity, of light and heat, of
cold and gloom, expressed by one and the same sound, as being of one
and the same origin.
X. The rapid increase of the human family, and the corresponding in-
crease of their relations and wants ; the modification of material object*
by the inventive spirit of man, and his subjugation of the domain of na-
ture, in order to adapt it more immediately to his use, all tended to the
gradual but sure development of what had at first been little better than
the union of a few simple sounds ; and language, departing in this way
more and morr from its monosyllabic, changed at lut into what may be
called a polysyllabic, character.
1. BicJvfr, PvdUU ft LoNfitM, Ac., p. 4, f.
OF LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 191
XI. The division of the human family, by their necessary dispersion
in quest of new and more distant abodes, soon brought about other and
more important changes. Separated from each other by wide intervals,
by mountains, rivers, and seas, intervals which great terrestrial revolu-
tions contributed from time to time to increase, the various tribes that
had migrated from home wrought out each their peculiar idiom under
influences of the most opposite character. Melodious in the temperate
regions of the globe, languid under the fires of the tropics, strong and
rough amid the snows and ice of the north, language was employed
under these different characters to depict respectively the contemplative
life of the shepherd, the listless inactivity of the tenant of southern
climes, and the menacing cries of hardy and warlike tribes ; and, in this
way, what were at first intonations common to all, became, under each of
these three distinct influences, as different as were the characters of the
different tribes or races that employed them.
XII. Amid the various movements of our race, some tribes, in re-
moving from the common centre of civilization, fell into barbarism ; while
others, more fortunate, attained, in process of time, to a high degree of
culture. Among the former, continually agitated and divided as they
were by intestine wars, language, which had already begun to degenerate,
broke off into a multitude of idioms, as vague and fluctuating as they
were strange and incoherent. Among civilized communities, on the
other hand, which, by reason of a fertile soil and peaceable possession,
had it in their power to lead an intellectual life, and to make themselves
acquainted with sciences and arts, language became more and more pol-
ished, and, extending itself in a constant and uniform manner, knew no
other limits save the frontiers of the race. Hence we perceive that the
idioms of Europe have all a common physiognomy, whereas those of the
aborigines of our own country differ almost continually in the case of
each petty tribe.
XIII. The conclusions, then, which we are authorized to draw from
a careful examination of this most interesting subject are manifestly the
following: 1. There was originally but one 1 single language ; 2, What
are called languages are, in fact, only different dialects of this primitive
tongue ; 3. The form of words varies, but their essence undergoes no
1. " 8i se comparan hoy las muchas lenguas que hay esparcidas por la superflcie
del glovo, se vera que todas ellas descienden de mm sola, y que guardan lal nerman-
da y analogia en su estructura, que no scran otra cosa q^ue la misma lengua primi-
tiva variada, cambiada, enriquecida " (Zamacola.) " 11 resulie de ces principes,
que pamil les hordes les moins eivilisees, il eat impossible d'en trouver une seule
dont le vocabulaire ne presente un certain nombre de mots fegalement usites dans les
dialectes les plus connus Mais !es ' mnumeroe lingua dissimtllume inter st. tta ut
null ix machinis ad communem oigmem retrahi pu.ismt,' voila ce qu'on cherch'rait
en vain sur notre globe." (Merian, Principes de C Etude comparative des Langues,
p. 3, in notis.)
192 OF ROOTS.
change ; 4. The essence of words is in the roots, and in the elements
which compose these roots.
II. OP ROOTS.
I. In every word composed of several syllables, a single one alone of
these comprises the fundamental idea of the word, and is termed the
radical syllable. The others are merely accessory, and serve to modify
the meaning of the primitive one.
II. All roots are monosyllabic, and consist generally of three letters,
a consonant, a vowel, and a consonant.
III. With regard to what are erroneously styled dissyllabic roots, it
will be well to bear constantly in mind the judicious observation of Ade-
lung : ! " Every word, without exception, may be reduced to a monosyl-
labic root, and ought to be so reduced if we wish to follow the path
which nature has traced out for us. If the grammarians, who laboured
on the Semitic tongues, misled by a blind regard for rabbinical authority,
still hold to the doctrine of dissyllabic roots, this error only shows the
proneness of man towards everything complicated and intricate, at the
expense of simplicity and the clearest indications of nature."
IV. For example, to carry out the idea of Adelung, why are we to re-
gard katal as a root in Hebrew, when we have in Latin r.ad-o, and in
English cut 1 Why call karab, galal, or marar radicals when they can
be traced respectively to fear, gal, and mar ? He who should doubt
whether the roots just mentioned be really so or not, would doubt, in like
manner, whether the syllables cad in cado, car in caro, cap in capio, mar
in marc, /cvX in Kv7J.u, elX in ei%?u, be radicals, and would end by with-
holding his assent from the clearest and most positive principles. 8
V. A similar error is sometimes committed even by those who inves-
tigate the Sanscrit language. Thus, in many of the elementary works
published by them, we find such roots as bri or bhri, djna, kram, srip t
stou, tri, trip, trou, &c. Now these are, in fact, only lengthened forms,
including a contracted root, or one that has lost its vowel. The root of
bri is bar, her, dec., and the contraction has given bri. This radical may
be traced in the Greek $tp-u, the Latin fcr-o, and the English " to bear."
The root of djna is ken or ghcn, the consonant g being pronounced like
dj, as in many English words ; and this root may be traced in the Greek
yiv-ooKu and in the English ken. The root of kram is kar, lengthened
into karam, and then contracted into kram. The root of trip is tar, scr,
&c., preserved in the Latin $erp-o, the Greek Ipn-u, and the Latin rcp-o t
I. Mithndatr*, vol i . p. 301, rq.
9. M,r,an,\>. 10. C
apiKiidcd 10 Mtrian's
2. M.r,,,,,. |, Id. Compare Ktaprotk ntr In Racinti dn Langv
OF ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT. 193
belonging to the same source. The root of 3 ton is sat, sot, sout, &c.,
whence the Persian soutou or south-ou, and the Latin suad-co. And so,
in like manner, of the rest. 1
III. OF ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT.
I. The numerous points of resemblance that exist between different
languages would be rendered still more apparent and striking, were we
not often arrested in our inquiries by the change of consonants belonging
to the same series, and which are often employed the one for the other.
II. In the European alphabets the utmost confusion prevails. The
series of consonants is nowhere apparent in them, and there is nothing
by which we can perceive the relations which consonants produced by
the same organ respectively bear to each other, and the propriety which
exists for their being mutually interchanged. This propriety gives rise
to an almost infinite number of variations, to which we find it extremely
difficult to accustom ourselves, from the irregular disposition of our own
alphabetic characters.
III. The alphabet of the Sanscrit tongue is in this respect much more
philosophically arranged, though still even its disposition is far from be-
ing perfect.
IV. The order in which the Sanscrit letters are arranged is as fol-
lows :
FIRST SERIES. Long and short vowels and diphthongs.
SECOND SERIES. Guttural consonants and their modifications.
k. k'h. g. gh. ng.
THIRD SERIES. Palatals, which have an analogy with the prece-
ding:
tch. tchh. dj. djh. ny.
FOURTH SERIES. Consonants which the grammarians designate
by the name of cerebrals. 2
t. th. d. dh. n.
FIFTH SERIES. Dentals.
t. th. d. dh. n.
SIXTH SERIES. Labials.
p. ph. b. bh. m.
1. M&rian, p. 29, seq.
2. The cerebrals are pronounced by turning and applying the tip of the tongue far
back again.-! the palate, which producing a hollow sound, as if proceeding from the
head, is distinguished by the term murddhanya or cerebral. (Wilkins, Sanscrit
Grammar, p. 8.)
R
194 OP ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT.
SEVENTH SERIES. Semivowels.
y. r. 1. v.
EIGHTH SERIES. Sibilants and aspirates,
j. ch. s. h. z.
V. This arrangement would be more regular if the sibilant and aspi-
rated consonants followed immediately after the palatals, for they often
confound themselves with these.
VI. An alphabet rectified in this way will present four series of homo-
geneous consonants, under which all those which one can imagine, and
that can only be modifications of the former, easily admit of being ranged. 1
Thus:
I. II. III. IV.
k. s. n. r.
k'h. j. m 1.
g. ch. b. y.
ng. h. p.
tch. kh. f.
dj. v.
t.
d.
VII. There exists an affinity between the first and second series by
means of the mutual relations which k, k'h, and g have with kh or h aspi-
rated, and by means of those which t, d, tch, dj, bear to ch, *, aud j.
VIII. The third and fourth series have fewer points of contact. Nev-
ertheless, g often changes into h, kh, and T ; the letters / and h are often
confounded ; the v of the third and the y of the fourth series connect
themselves with the vowel sounds ; the liquids I, m, n frequently supply
each other's place ; while, in many idioms, n, d, and r are also con-
founded.
IX. The mutual interchange of vowels is of so frequent occurrence
that it cannot be taken at all into account in the comparison of languages
and dialects. Indeed, it often happens that, in the same idiom, the dif-
ference of vowel sounds only serves to indicate certain modifications of
the root.
First Example. Drawn from the French.
J'-ai, tu art, \\B o-nt, j'-o-v-ais, j'-eu-t, j'-au-rais.
Second Example. Drawn from the change of vowels in the Get-
1. Jftrtoi, p. M.
OF ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT. 195
man word stein (stone), which in the different cognate dialects
varies as follows :
German . . . st'n.
Gothic .... stains.
Anglo-Saxon . . . stan.
English . . . stone.
Dutch .... eteen.
Cimbric . . . stoane.
Islandic . . . steim.
Frison .... stt'ng.
Swedish . . . sten.
Danish .... stera.
X. In the words Hebe (love) and Helen (to love), not only the vowels,
but the very consonants are modified. Thus :
German . . . Hebe.
Sclavonic . . . Huby.
Illyrian .... gloubav.
Vende .... Hobotch.
Anglo-Sazon . . . lufe.
English . . . love.
Dutch . . . . Hefde.
Frison .... liwe.
Finnish . . . giouve.
Permian . . . Houbov.
XL The case is the same with the German word graben (to hollow
out).
Gothic .... graba.
Old German . . . grapo.
German . . . graben.
Danish .... grave.
Swedish . . . grafva.
Esthonian . . . krawi.
Lappish . . . grouopta.
Finnish . . . raw.
Russian . . . rov.
Georgian . . . rowi.
Illyrian .... rouppa.
XII. A remark here veiy naturally presents itself : if variations such
as these occur in dialects which belong all, or nearly all, to one and the
196
OF ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT.
same family, what must the changes be that occur in dialects belonging
to different families of languages ! And this single remark will serve us
as a guide in many an intricate speculation into linguistic affinities.
XIII. Let us now pass to the variations of consonants, and give a few
examples in each of the series indicated under $ VI.
FIRST AND SECOND SERIES.
German
English
Sclavonic
Swedish
Danish
German
Arabic
German
Sclavonic
Turkish
English
Swedish
German
Latin .
French
Armenian
Georgian
Arabic
Mongul
Old German
German
Dutch
Swedish
Latin .
French
Hebrew
German
Dutch
English
Swedish
Danish
German
Samoiede
kirche
church
tserk-ov
kyrka
kirk
> church.
gieb-e\ and gipf-el 1
djeb-e\ and gheb-el
kopp-e
sop-kz
top-*, tub-e, tepp-e
top
topp
summit.
throat.
- tooth.
head.
The interchange of T and D, and of P and B, is very common in
German. That of F and H in frequent in Spanish. Thus, from the
Latin facer e, the Spanish forms hacer ; from fditts, hijo ; from/ormonw,
hermoto.
I ( -..in pare the Kngltth table.
OF ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT. 197
The interchange of F and Kh exists in the different dialects of Japan.
Thus, the inhabitants of the isle of Sikokf say
Khirando for Firando, the name of a city.
kha.no, " /ana, the nose.
khassi " fassi, a bean.
khebi " feb, a snake.
khisa " fisa, the knees.
khone " /one, a bone.
khourou " fourou, to shake.
The interchange of S, H, or Kh, is also very frequent. For example,
German, salz, salt, . Breton, feoZ-on.
Latin, sal, " . Old German, hall. 1
Slavonic, serdtse, heart, German, hertz.
Slavonic, zim-a,, winter, Greek, ^ft/ua,
Latin, hiems.
Changes also take place between the sibilants and gutturals. Thus,
Armenian sar
Hebrew . . har
>)
^ Of lmountain.2
Slavonic . . gor-a. (
Afghan . . ghar \
Arintse (Siberia) . kar )
There is also an affinity between K and Sh. Thus, many Sanscrit
roots which commence with Sh begin in Latin and Greek with C or K ;
as,
Sanscrit, shoun 3 -^ . a dog, . Latin, can-is, Greek, KVUV.
" sham-*., . softness, . " corn-is.
" sJiad-a., . to fall, . " cohere.
" shach-z, . to kill, . " oc-cw-us, cas-us.
THIRD SERIES.
The letters M, B, P, are employed for one another in the Turkish di-
alects. Thus, for
bouz, . . they say . mouz, ke.
boinuz, . . " " , moinuz, a horn.
Bahhmout, . " " . Mahmoud (a name.)
michik, . . " " . pichik, a cat.
1. Hence the name of the city of Ho/te, derived from the neighbouring salt-mines.
2. This interchange is very frequent in Greek and Latin ; as, i'prrw, serpo; 1$, sex;
iAj, sal, &c.
3. Compare the German hund and tbe English hound.
R2
198 OF THE AFFILIATION OF LANGUAGES.
The root of the Latin faba, " a bean," is found in the Slavonic bob
and in the French feve. So also numerous instances might be cited
where F is put for B and B for V.
FOURTH SERIES.
In all languages there is a mutual and very frequent change between
L and R. Thus,
Greek* Trvp, . . fire, . . Russian, pyl.
" ^payeA^ov, . a scourge, . Latin, flagellum.
" faiptov, . a lily, . . lilium.
Latin, titulus, . . a title, . . French, titre.
" epistola, . an epistle, . epitre.
" capitulum, . a chapter, . " chapitre.
" apostolus, . an apostle, . " apdtre.
" ulmus, . . an elm, . " orme.
The Japanese, in the greater part of their provinces, cannot pronounce
L, but use R in its stead, while with the Chinese the case is directly the
reverse.
The vowel that is found between two consonants in the root often
disappears, and the two consonants then follow in immediate succession.
Thus,
Greek, ^aparru, . German, kratzen.
. " klopfen.
. " klicbcn.
IV. OF THE AFFILIATION OF LANGUAGES.
I. It is a common but very great error, to represent languages as pro-
ceeding from one another in a kind of perpendicular line of descent, one
tongue disappearing in order to make way for another.
II. The true doctrine represents all languages as moving on, side by
side, from one common source, some developing themselves and attain-
ing to maturity at an earlier, others at a later period, but all pursuing an
onward and simultaneous course, and no one of the number pro
from or produced by the other.
III. It must be borne in mind, however, that we are here speaking of
separate and distinct languages, such as the Sanscrit, the <:rk, the
Latin, German, dec., and not of such as are merely corrupt dialects of
some parent tongue, or, in other words, that same tongue reappearing
in an altered and more barbarous form. Thus, the Italian, Fn m-li,
OF THE INDO-GERMANIC TONGUES. 199
Spanish, and Portuguese are only, in strictness, so many corrupt dia-
lects of the parent Latin ; and yet, at the same time, they may be truly
said to possess an affiliation among themselves.
IV. This affiliation between the Italian, French, Spanish, and Portu-
guese, will serve to explain what we mean by affiliation in the case of
the Indo-Germanic tongues. As the former all sprang from one com-
mon source, the Latin, and have pursued an onward route, side by side,
so the Zend, the Sanscrit, the Greek, the Latin, the German, and other
Indo-Germanic tongues, have all come from some parent tongue, now
lost, and have all pursued routes side by side with each other, some of
them attaining to an early, others to a late maturity. To quote the
graphic language of Ovid,
" Fades non omnibus una,
Nee diversa tamcn, qualem decet esse sororum"
V. OF THE INDO-GERMANIC TONGUES.
I. The term Indo-Germanic is applied by philologists to the group of
nations extending from India, along central Asia, and throughout the
Continent of Europe.
II. This group, more strictly speaking, is divided into six principal
families, the Indian, Persian, Grtzco- Roman, Slavonic, and Celtic.
III. All the languages coming under the general appellation of Indo-
Germanic, whether in India, Persia, or Europe, and whether considered
with reference to their structure or phraseology, are originally identical ;
that is to say, they are composed of the same primitive roots, which the
influence of climate, of national pronunciation, and of logical combina-
tions, has in various degrees affected and modified.
IV. Before entering, however, more fully into the analogies between
these tongues, we will give a brief sketch of each language, in order
that the points of resemblance between them may be more clearly un-
derstood.
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
I. At the head of these is to be placed the Sanscrit, the sacred idiom
of the Brahmins, and the common source of all the languages of India.
Its name means " complete," "perfect," or " altogether finished," from
sam, " altogether," and krita, " done ;" and hence is equivalent to the
Latin confcctus. 1
II. This very name " Sanscrit" is one among many proofs of the high
antiquity of the language ; for if it plainly point to an antecedent state
1. Wilkins's Sanscrit Grair.mar, p. l.Bopp, Vergleichende Grammatik, p. iv.
200 INDIAN LANGUAGES.
of the tongue in question, when as yet the language had not become
completely settled, and if, as has been well ascertained, the most posi-
tive literary monuments carry back the Sanscrit, in its actual form, to
more than fifteen centuries before our era ; for how long a period must
it have existed prior to this, in a fluctuating and changing state, before
it finally settled down into an established tongue, and became entitled
to the appellation of " completely formed !"
III. The Sanscrit has an alphabet of fifty characters ; but, upon ex-
amining their powers with some degree of care, the number of simple ar-
ticulations may be reduced to twenty-eight, namely, five vowels, and
twenty-three consonants. 1
IV. Sanscrit nouns are of three genders, masculine, feminine, and
neuter. They have three numbers, singular, dual, and plural, and they
are declinable through eight cases in each number. 2
V. The names of the cases are, the nominative, vocative, dative, ac-
cusative, ablative, locative, instrumental, and genitive. The force of
these will be explained more fully hereafter.
VI. The Sanscrit verb has two voices, the active and passive ; but
the active voice has two forms, one with the ordinary transitive meaning,
and the otner with a reflexive or intransitive force, indicating that some
action is exerted on the agent himself, or for his advantage or disadvan-
tage. This latter form is analogous to the middle voice in Greek.
VII. The moods in Sanscrit are five in number, the indicative, poten-
tial, imperative, precative, and conditional. Besides these, there occur
in the Vedas fragments of another mood, which the grammarians term
Ut, and which corresponds to the Greek subjunctive.
VIII. The indicative has six tenses, namely, a present, three preter-
its, and two futures. The conjugations are ten.
IX. The syntax of the Sanscrit is simple and logical, and the facility
in compounding words, which the language so abundantly affords, opens
one of the widest fields imaginable for the culture of poetry. Hence
poetic writing enjoyed a decided ascendency during all the four ages of
Indian literature. The primitive and religious epoch, marked by the
Vedas, was soon followed, about the time of the heroic ages, by the laws
of Menu, the Pouranas, or Annals of Mythology, and the gigantic poems
of Ramayan and Mahabharat, which celebrate, the one the conquest of
1. Tbota pretended philologist* who regard the number of alphabetical character*
in the Sanscrit a* a proof of the modern origin of the language, appear to forget that
they are thus adducing an argument In favour of thu very aide which they seek to op-
poe. For if the appellation of " Banacrit" was only given to the UMIRUU in question
after it wa* completely formed, how many centuries must it have existed before ila
alphabet wa* modernized by this large increase of characters !
1 Wdktnt't SaiunrU Grammar, p. 36 and 121, ttq.Bopp, Vtrgleicktndt Gram-
*,<**, p. fll7,"|.
PERSIAN LANGUAGES. 201
Ceylon, the other a contest between two dynasties, and the authors of
which poems, at once bards and philosophers, appear like two majestic
figures, the rivals and contemporaries of Homer. Soon after this suc-
ceeds the elegant and polished era, a short period antecedent to Vir-
gil, when Jayadevas produced his pastoral elegies, and Calidasas his
beautiful poem of the Sacountala. After these commenced the decline
of the language, which shows itself more and more in all subsequent pro-
ductions. 1
X. The Sanscrit has ceased to be a spoken tongue, and is now studied
in India as the Greek and Latin are with us. Even when in a living
state, however, and at the period, too, of its greatest extension, it was
only spoken by the privileged classes. The main body of the people
employed what was called the Pracrit, that is, the " natural" or " spon-
taneous" tongue. This Pracrit contained the same elements as the San-
scrit, but under a rude and uncultivated form, and differing in each lo-
cality.
XL Another language, more cultivated than the Pracrit, namely, the
Pali, and which was spread formerly throughout the south of India, was
adopted by the sect of the Buddhists, who, expelled by the Brahmins
from their native land, carried beyond the Ganges into Thibet, and also
into China, their dogmas, traditions, and literature, as preserved in their
sacred books.
XII. Of the modern dialects of India, which have arisen from the in-
termingling of the ancient idiom with the languages of various races as
brought in by conquest, we need only briefly speak. The most widely
extended of these is the Hindoostanee, which, originating on the banks
of the Indus, from the fusion of the Sanscrit and Arabic, has eventually
established itself throughout all the Mogul empire and all Mohammedan
India. The Bengalee, peculiar to the banks of the Ganges and to the
worshippers of Brahma, has deviated least from the primitive language
of the country. The Mahratta tongue in the north of the peninsula, the
Tamoul and Telinga along the southern coasts, and the Maldivian in
the isles of the same name, are the most important of those that remain,
and are all in a greater or less degree derivatives from the Sanscrit, or,
more correctly speaking, the Pracrit tongue. 2
PERSIAN LANGUAGES.
I. The Persian family has for its primitive type the Zend, the sacred
idiom of the magi, the language of Zoroaster, which, issuing from the
same parent source as the Sanscrit, spread itself over the eastern part
1. Eickoff, p. 22.
2. Id. p. 23.
202 PERSIAN LANGUAGES.
of Asia, among the worshippers of the sun, and has been preserved for
us in the valuable fragments that remain of the Zend-Avesta.'
II. The Zend was in use among the ancient Persians, as the Pehlvi,
another idiom intermingled with Chaldee, was spoken by the Medes and
Parthians. More masculine and more concise than the Sanscrit, but less
varied in their terminations, these two languages, appropriated to warlike
tribes, were written in cuneiform characters before having special alpha-
bets.
III. The theory of Rask attempts to explain the origin of the Zend
and Sanscrit by a bold and ingenious hypothesis. According to this
writer, the Scythian race had spread themselves, at a remote period an-
tecedent to all positive history, over the whole of Northern and Central
Asia, and had possessed themselves of India. The Japhetic race, how-
ever, advanced subsequently into India from the eastern part of Persia,
conquered the northern and more central parts of the former country,
and drove the Scythian hordes towards the southern coasts, where the
remnants of the race are still, at the present day, distinguished by the
darkness of their colour from the comparatively fairer hue of the Brah-
mins. Out of the Japhetic language were framed, according to Rask,
the Sanscrit and Zend. 2
IV. The Zend and the Pehlvi were displaced, about the commence-
ment of our era, by the Parsi, a dialect of the same family, which, after
being restricted for a long period to Persia proper, where it perfected
itself more and more, became eventually, under the dynasty of the Sas-
sanides, the dominant idiom of the whole empire. It preserved itself
pure and unaltered until the period of the Mohammedan invasion, when,
from a union of the Arabic with the national idiom, arose the modem
Persian.
V. The modern Persian, notwithstanding its double origin, which
places it in the same relation to the Zend as that in which the English
stands to the German, is nevertheless distinguished by conciseness and
force, and full of grace and poetic spirit. The monuments erected by
its writers, the Schahnameh of Firdausi, and the Gulistan of Saadi, give
it a high literary importance, and plainly show what it is still able to ac-
complish. Enriched at one and the same time by Arabic and Indian
roots, the terminations of which it abridges, simple and clear in ita syn-
tax, expressive in its compounds, it is with good reason regarded as the
most polished language of modern Asia.
VI. Around the Persian are grouped, at distances more or less re-
1 lly the /.Miil-AM'Mfi. -in- nil-run Hi.- namM " nliii?n of iliiMvirly IVmmnM. in whirh
the religion of Zoroaster is set forth. The work WM Or* nude known to Europe by
1 Utter dot Alter und die Ecktktit der Zendtprackf. Berlin, 18M.
GR.ECO-ROMAN LANGUAGES. 203
mote, certain rude and barbarous idioms, such aa the AJghan, spoken
in the kingdom of Caboul ; the Beloutche, on the confines of India ; the
Kaurde, among the mountaineers of Persia ; and, finally, the tongue of
the Ossetes, in the range of Caucasus, which is the most remarkable of
all, as affording indubitable traces of the groat migration of Indian com-
munities into Europe.
VII. Before leaving this subject it is important to remark, that the
modern Persian contains not only Sanscrit, but a large number also of
Zend roots, a fact which at once overthrows the opinion that the Zend
was never a spoken language, but merely brought in as a sacred idiom
from India.
GILECO-ROMAN LANGUAGES.
I. The Thracian, or Grace- Roman family of languages, divides itself
into four branches, the Phrygian, Greek, Etruscan, and Latin.
II. The first or Phrygian branch is that comprising the languages,
now extinct, that were formerly spoken in Asia Minor by the Phrygians,
Trojans, Lydians, and in Europe by the Thracians and Macedonians :
languages which now exist only in proper names (but which names are
sufficient to establish the Indian affiliation of these tongues), and also in
some fragments intermingled with the particular dialect of the Arnauts
of Albania.
III. The second, or Greek, comprehends the Pelasgic idioms, or, in
other words, the language of that active and intelligent race which peo-
pled Thessaly, Epirus, the coasts of Italy and Asia Minor, and the con-
tinent and islands of Greece, and from the bosom of which sprang the
Hellenes, who gave to Europe the most beautiful of its languages. i
IV. The Greek, considered generally, is remarkable for its melody,
for the abundance of its inflexions, for the delicate shades of meaning
marked by the tenses of the verb, for its clear and highly logical syntax,
and its richness and facility in compounding. In this last-mentioned re-
spect, as well as in the fulness of its terminations, no language in the
world approaches more closely to the Sanscrit than the Greek.
V. The third branch is that of the Etruscans or Rhaseni, of whose
early history and of whose language so very little is known. As far as
an opinion may be ventured, the origin of the race was a triple one, Pe-
lasgic, Lydian, and Celtic, and their idiom, known only by some monu-
mental inscriptions, which have never been satisfactorily elucidated, par-
took, in all probability, of the features of the Pelasgic, Lydian, and Cel-
tic tongues.
1. The identity of the Pelasgic and Hellenic races is now generally acknowledged
by scholars.
204 GERMAN LANGUAGES.
VI. The fourth branch is that of the Osci or Ausones, and of many
other, if not all, of the Italian communities, the gradual blending of
which with one another and with the Greek produced the Latin tongue.
This last-mentioned tongue, concise and energetic, more Indian in its
substance than even the Greek, but less varied in its terminations, and
less pliant in the combining of words, underwent several changes before
it acquired an established character, an event which only took place about
the commencement of the Christian era.
VII. The Rustic Latin, or the idiom spoken by the lower orders of
the people and by the soldiers in the military colonies, and which subse-
quently became more and more altered by invasions from the north, end-
ed at last by transforming itself into various secondary idioms, which,
adopted by the new conquerors of Rome, have prevailed since that period
under the names of the Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, through-
out all the south of Europe.
VIII. The Walachian, spoken in a corner of Turkey in Europe, may
also be regarded as a fragment of the Latin, which, by its admixture with
the Slavonic, has assumed a form quite peculiar to itself, but which pre-
sents to the view but little culture, and possesses, therefore, but little
interest. 1
GERMAN LANGUAGES.
I. The German race, spread over the whole of Northern Europe, ap-
pears to have been divided originally into several large tribes, the spoken
idioms of which constitute five great branches, the Teutonic, Saxon,
Anglo-Saxon, Norman, and Gothic.
II. The first of these, comprising the nations of Southern Germany,
produced the High-German, the monuments of which can be traced back
to the eighth century of our era, and which was spoken at the courts of
the Franc and Saxon kings, until it was superseded at the former by the
Romance tongue, and at the latter by the Allemannic, which last was
the poetic idiom of the Minnesingers and of the Nibelungenlied. At
last, from the impulse given by the writings of Luther, in the sixteenth
century, arose the modern German, so conspicuous as a rich, picturesque,
and energetic tongue. If this language has lost that variety of termi-
nations which once brought it into so close an approximation with tin-
Greek and the Sanscrit, if its conjugation is too restricted, and its peri-
ods are too complicated, it has, at the same time, however, an incontest-
able advantage over all modern tongues in the exact derivation of its
words, in their almost unlimited composition, and, above all, in the tono-
J. J^/iwr, "'.</.< /nadir Qprwftkftr*, Wicn., 17!*.
SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 205
accent, which, resting invariably on each radical syllable, imparts to the
German an intellectual type, which no other idiom possesses to the same
degree.
III. The second branch, that of Western Germany, comprises the old
Low-German or Saxon, from which has arisen the patois at present pre-
vailing along the German borders, the Prison, which is now extinct, on
the borders of Holland, and the Netherland, which, remaining in an un-
cultivated state in the Flemish dialect, has, on the other hand, become
in Holland a national and literary idiom.
IV. The third branch, a mixture of almost all the rest, was formed in
England by the union of the Saxons, the Jutes, and the Angles, to whom
were added, at a subsequent period, the Danes. Thus arose the Anglo-
Saxon, the earliest monuments of which date from the eighth century of
our era, and which language, about three centuries later, combining in
its turn with the old French brought in by the Norman conquest, gave
birth to the English tongue.
V. The fourth branch, that of Northern Germany or Scandinavia, gave
birth to the Old Norman, the sacred language of the Edda, superseded
afterward by the Norwegian or Icelandic, in which the Scalds composed
their sagas. This last-mentioned idiom also fell into disuse about the
fifth century of our era, and from it arose the Swedish and Danish, two
languages intimately connected with each other, which to the force and
regularity of the German add a peculiar clearness and conciseness of
their own, and the culture of which is far from being neglected.
VI. The fifth branch, formed from the conquering nations which cov-
ered Eastern Germany, but the dialects of all of whom are now extinct,
is known to us merely by the Maeso-Gothic, some fragments of which
are preserved in the Bible of Ulphilas. This precious monument of the
fourth century, the most ancient that remains to us of the German idi-
oms, displays to us, in its rich grammatical forms, the common bond that
united these idioms to one another, and shows, at the same time, the
affiliation, no less intimate and real, which connects them all with the
Latin, the Greek, and the Sanscrit.
SLAVONIC LANGUAGES.
I. The Slavonic family, which occupies the eastern part of Europe,
divides itself into but three branches, which may be denominated the
Senrian, Tchekhe, and Let ton.
II. The first of these comprehends the eastern Slavi, whose language
was the old Slavonic, employed, about the commencement of the ninth
century, in the writings of Cyrill, who was also the inventor of their al-
phabet. This old Slavonic has given birth to several dialects, still used
206 CELTIC LANGUAGES.
in Illyria and Servia, but it has become an ecclesiastical and dead lan-
guage in Russia, where it has been superseded, in all the ordinary rela-
tions of life, by the Russian, which only differs from it, however, in
some small degree.
III. The Russian language, but little known beyond the precincts of
that empire, yields not, however, either to the Greek or the German in
the abundance of its roots, the regularity of its derivations, or the happy
combination of words, while, on the other hand, it surpasses the latter
in sweetness and harmony. Around the Russian are grouped, with a
striking analogy, the Servian, Croatian, and Winde, spoken by the Slavi
of the Turkish and Austrian provinces.
IV. The second branch, that of the western Slavi, comprehends the
Bohemian, formerly a cultivated tongue, and of which the Slovaque, in
Hungary, is a rude dialect, the Polish, the Wende, and the Sorabian, the
two latter of which remain still in an uncultivated state.
V. The third branch, very different in its character from the other
two, which it in all probability preceded, is that of the central Slavi,
whose primitive idiom, the Prucze, is now entirely extinct. The Lith-
uanian, however, and the Letton, spoken at the present day in Lithuania
and Courland, still offer to the consideration of the philologist the most
interesting subjects of comparison with the other Slavonic dialects, whose
elementary forms they reveal to our view, as well as with the Sanscrit,
with which they appear immediately connected.
CELTIC LANGUAGES.
I. This ancient family, which we have reserved for the end of the list,
as having been the first that was separated, and, consequently, the farthest
removed from its Asiatic source, is divided into two branches, the Gae-
lic and Cymric.
II. The Gaelic branch, that of the pure Celts, who fled to the north-
ern part of England and to Ireland, is marked by frequent aspirations,
by a scarcity of terminations, and by the monotony of its combinations,
which leads to the supposition that there were earlier flexions than those
which have reached us. This language, after having attained to a con-
siderable degree of culture, still exists, in some obscure degree, in the
Irish and the mountaineer-Scotch.
III. The Cymric branch, that of the Celto-Belge, known at a later
period by the name of Bretons, is remarkable for its moveable articula-
tions and its close affinity to the Latin, the result of the Roman sway.
It remains in two popular dialects at the present day, the Welsh in Eng-
land, and the Bos-Breton or Breyzad in France.
INDO-GERMANIC ANALOGIES. 207
Such are the languages that compose the Indo-Germanic group, and
to an examination of the analogies between which we will now devote
the remainder of this volume. We have omitted, in the enumeration
above given, the Basque tongue, spoken in the southwestern part of Eu-
rope, and the Finnish dialects in the northeast. The reason is, because
they present a physiognomy too different from that of all the languages
we have just been considering to admit of their being ranked in the same
class with them. It may be observed, however, that the Finnish dialects
have borrowed many words from the German and Slavonic, while the
Basque, notwithstanding its African origin, displays many points of con-
tact with the Celtic and Latin. 1
VI. INDO-GERMANIC ANALOGIES.
I. In conducting the present inquiry, we will first turn our attention
to the interchange of sounds, consonants as well as vowels, traceable in
words etymologically corresponding to each other in the Sanscrit and its
European and Oriental sister tongues.
II. It is highly probable that, in all languages, only the simple vowels
, i, and u primarily existed, and that all other vowels arose out of these
three elementary sounds by mixture, or, in some instances, by their mu-
tual influence when placed in close proximity to each other in the same
word and in successive syllables. 2
III. In Sanscrit, the short vowels a, i, and u only are represented by
distinct characters ; and if we consider the extreme accuracy with which,
in the Devanagari alphabet, all the varying articulations of the human
voice are expressed, we are driven at once to the conclusion that, in the
age when that alphabet was invented to fix the various sounds and com-
binations of sounds occurring in the Sanscrit language, the latter pos-
sessed no other short vowels but these. 3
IV. It is even remarked by a recent writer, 4 that, in the vernacular
idioms now current in India, he never was able to detect any sounds sim-
ilar to the Italian short e and o in the pronunciation of natives from all
the different provinces of India.
V. In the Gothic, the short e and o are in like manner wanting, and
the short German e corresponds to a, i, and u of the former tongue.
Thus, for faltha, in Gothic, we have in German (ich) falte ; and for the
Gothic giba, the corresponding form in German is (ich) gebe.
1. Eichoff, p. 24, seq.
2. Pott, Etymtilozische Forschungen, p. 1.
3. Pott, 1. c. Journal of Education, No. 20, p. 341. Bopp, Vergleickende Gram-
matik. p. 3.
4. Colonel Vans Kennedy, Researches, &.C.. p. 243.
208 SANSCRIT AND TEUTONIC.
SANSCRIT AND TEUTONIC.
1. Vowel-changes.
I. For the Sanscrit long a the Gothic has almost always long 0, the '
long a being entirely wanting in this latter tongue. In contractions,
however, this long o becomes short a. Sometimes, in Gothic, long t is
found to correspond to the Sanscrit long a, as, for example, in the geni-
tive plural of the masculine and neuter.
II. For \ and I in Sanscrit, the Gothic has t and ', which last is ev-
erywhere equivalent to t, and in the old High-German appears as such.
In the modern German this old t is most commonly changed to ei. Thus,
mein in German, meina the Gothic genitive, mln in old High-German.
III. As a general rule, the as a final vowel disappears entirely in
German, and most commonly in Latin. Thus,
SANSCRIT. GREEK. LATIN. GOTHIC.
pan, irepij per, fair,
upari, VTTEP, super, ufar.
asti, tori, eat, ist.
santi, hri, sunt, find.
IV. Wherever a final i occurs in Gothic and old High-German, it is,
in fact, ouly a mutilated sound remaining from what was originally j fol-
lowed by a vowel. Thus, the Gothic hari (exercitum) is mutilated from
karja. The Sanscrit would require here Jiarya-m, and the Zend, meet-
ing the German halfway, would be harl-m.
V. For the Sanscrit u and u the Gothic has u, which is for the most
part short. Among the few examples, on the other hand, that exist
of the long M, the following may be cited as giving the parent source of
a well-known English term. Thus, in Sanscrit we have dhrti, " to stand
firm," whence comes dhruva, " firm," " certain," " true ;" and in old
High-German trucn, " to confide."
VI. For the Sanscrit diphthongs e (formed from a-J-0 and 6 (formed
from a-\-u) the Gothic has at and au, which, like the Sanscrit, are of
one syllable, and most probably were pronounced as e and 0. Thus,
compare the Gothic bauaima (sadificemus) with the Sanscrit b'avcma
(simus), and the Gothic sunau-s (" of a son") with the Sanscrit sun6-s t
which has the same meaning. In the old High-German these diph-
thongs appear as i and o, but are to be still regarded as equivalent re-
spectively to a-j-i and a-j-u. Just as in Latin we have mntmus from
ama'imut, and bos from bous (floOf ) ; where the u changes before a vowel
to v, as in boms, lovem. Compare, in farther illustration of this point,
the following :
SANSCRIT AND TEUTONIC.
209
SANSCRIT. GOTHIC. OLD HIGH-GERMAN.
charlma (eamus), faraima, varemis.
chareta (eatis), faraith, vartt.
Ubhyas (his), thaim, dim.
2. Consonant-changes.
I. The German family of languages are influenced, as regards the in-
terchange of consonants, by a remarkable law, according to which they
change, with reference to the Greek, Latin, and, under certain restric-
tions, the Sanscrit and Zend, tenucs into aspirates, as, for example, put-
ting h for k, th. for t, f for p ; giving tenucs for media, as t for d, p for
b, and k for g ; and, finally, mediae for aspirates, as g for %> d for tf. and
b for/. 1
II. The following table will show these changes more clearly, as well
as those which take place in the old High-German.
SANSCRIT.
GREEK.
LATIN.
GOTHIC.
0. H. GER.
pdda-s,
7TOVC, TTOd-Of ,
pes, ped-is,
fdtus,
vuoz.
panchan,
irEUTTE,
quinque,
f^mf,
vinf.
purna,
Tivleoc,
plenus,
fulls,
vol.
pilr,
jraTTJp,
pater,
fadrein, 2
vatar.
upari,
VTrep,
super,
ufar,
ubar.
bhangh,
frangere,
brikan,
prechan.
bhug,
frui, fructus,
brukon,
pruchon.
bhratr,
frater,
brothar,
pruoder.
bhri,
0epw,
fero,
baira,
piru.
bhru,
6^pvc,
prawa. 3
kapdla,
KEyakf)i
caput,
haubith,
houpit.
tvam (Norn.),
TV,
tu,
thu,
du.
tarn (Ace.),
TOV,
is- turn,
thana,
den.
tray as (N. pi. M.),
rpelf,
tres,
threis,
drl.
antara,
repof,
alter,
anthar,
andar.
danta-m (Ace.),
6<5ovr-a,
dent em,
(hunlu-s,
zand.
dvau ( N. du),
dvo,
duo,
Inii,
mtint.
daks hind,
6e$ia.,
dextra,
taihsvo,
zesawa.
uda,
tdup,
unda,
vato,
wazar.
duhitr,
"&v~yuTr)p,
dauhtar,
tohtar.
dvdr,
i^vpa,
fores,
daur,
tor.
madhu,
utOv,
meto. 4
1. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, p. 584. Bopp, Vergleichende Grammatik, p. 79,
sctj.
2. " Parents."
3. The English " iroic" closrly resembles the Sanscrit.
4 Compare English " mead," a drink.
210
SANSCRIT AND TEUTONIC.
shouna,
hridaya,
aksa,
<wru,
pasu,
svasura,
dasan,
KVCJV,
canis,
hunths,
kund.
KapSia,
cor, cord-is,
hairto,
herza.
6lCOf,
oculus,
augo,
ouga.
duKpv,
lacrima,
tagr,
zahar.
pecus,
faihu,
viku.
tKVpOC,
socer,
svaihra,
suehur.
6iKa,
deccm,
taihun,
zehan.
yvtifu,
gnosco,
kan,
chan.
yevof,
genus,
kuni,
chuni.
yow,
genu,
kniu,
chniu.
ptyaloc,
magnus,
mikils,
mihil.
xt*,
anser,
gans,
Jeans.
**r.
heri,
gistra,
kestar.
MX",
lingo,
laigo,
Hkbrn.
gdnu,
mahat,
hansa,
hyas,
ML
III. The Lithuanian language has allowed the consonants to retain
their ancient places, almost without any change. The only alteration
that occurs is the substitution of the tenues for the Sanscrit aspirated
tenues, and of the medics for the aspirated media. Thus,
LITHUANIAN.
rata-s
busu
ka-s
dumi
pats
penki
try*
ktturi
kttwirtas
szaka
(" a wheel"),
(" I will be"),
(" who"),
(" I give"),
(" a master"),
(" five"),
(" three"),
("four"),
(" the fourth"),
("a bough"),
SANSCRIT.
ratha-s ("a wagon").
bhavishydmi.
ka-s.
daddmi.
pati-s.
panchan.
trayas (N. pi. M.).
chatvaras (N. pi. M.).
chaturtha-s.
sdkhd.
IV. The following table shows a striking similarity between the Zend
and the Gothic, in certain letters admitting an aspirate before them, and
thus departing from the tcnuis of the root. In Zend this remark applies
principally to semivowels, and so also in Gothic. Thus,
GOTHIC.
ZEND.
SANSCRIT.
thri (" three," the root),
thri,
tri.
thu-s ("to thee"),
thwoi,
toi.
fra (insep. prep.),
M
pro.
1 . From the root ? on, " to bef.
SANSCRIT AND GREEK. 211
frijo (" I love"), dfrinami, 1 prindmi.
ahva* (" river"), a/*, ap (root).
V. Frequently, however, we have flections, or grammatical additions,
which do not obey the laws regulating the interchange of consonants,
but remain true to the primitive sound. Thus, the old High-German re-
tains the original t in the third person singular and plural ; as, for ex-
ample, hapet, " he has," and hapent, " they have ;" with which compare
the Latin habet and habent. The Gothic, on the other hand, has habaith
and haband. So, also, in the participle present, and in that of the pas-
sive voice, the old High-German adheres to the t, as hapenter, hapeter,
whereas the Gothic, under the influence of the n that precedes, brings
in the d ; as, habands, gen. habandins ; habaith, gen. habaidis.
SANSCRIT AND GREEK. 3
1. Vowel-changes.
I. The short vowels d, i, u, in Sanscrit, generally correspond to the
Greek a, i, v. The Greek language has seldom substituted these three
vowels one for another ; but its two short vowels, e and o, have each their
share of the province which in Sanscrit is left to the a solely. The fol-
lowing examples may serve to throw some light upon this subject.
I. Sanscrit a corresponding to a in Greek.
1. In roots.
SANSCRIT. GREEK.
labh (" to take"), AAB, hafj.6dvu.
das (" to bite"), AAK, 6anvu.
dam (" to tame"), AAM, dafidu.
tan (" to extend"), TAN, ravvu.
han (" to kill"), 0AN, IQavov, tfavaro?.
apa ("off." " from"), cnro.
asm (" a tear"), 6aKpv.
sata ("a hundred"), inarov
a (negative prefix), a-.
2. In terminations, suffixes, &c.
a*, the termination of the accusative case of the plural number of
masculine words, the crude forms of which end in a consonant, corre-
sponding to the Greek of in Xeovr-af, &c.
1. " I bless," from the Sanscrit root pri, " to love," with the preposition a prefixed.
2. The Zend qfs and Sanscrit ap denote " water," and the Gothic form is explained
by the frequent change of ;> into A-, lor which the law that regulates the interchange
of consonants requires h. Compare the Latin aqua.
3. Pott, Etymol. Fumrh. p. iso. Journal of Education, No. 20, p. 342, seq., where
an able abstract is given by Rosen of part of the German work.
212 SANSCRIT AND GREEK.
man is in Sanscrit the termination of a number of substantives, de-
rived from verbal roots, and generally denoting the result of the
action implied by the verb ; as, ganman (nom. ganma), " birth,"
from the root gan t " to beget," " to produce ;" karman (nora.
karma), " an action," " a deed," whether good or evil, from the
root krl, " to do." To this termination corresponds the Greek suf-
fix -pa, gen. -^orof ; as in &pafia, " a spectacle," " anything seen,"
from opdu, "to see ;" dijfia and depa, "a tie," from Jew, "to
bind," " to tie," &c.
an is in Sanscrit the termination of the crude form of the numer-
als for five, seven, eight, nine, and ten, panchan, saptan, ashtan,
navan, dasan. The corresponding Greek numerals have dropped
the final n, and three of them, ETTTU, vvea, and tiena, have re-
tained the a, while TTEVTE and OKTU I have kept it only when placed
in composition before other parts of speech ; as, OKTaerrjf , burd-
[Aijvo$, irevTaeTijs, TrwroTn^iif, &c.
II. Sanscrit a corresponding to e in Greek.
1. In roots.
SANSCRIT. GREBK.
pat ("to fall"), HET,
pack ("to cook"), HEH,
ad ("to eat"), EA, Wu.
tap ("to be hot"), TE*, re>pa.
taksh ("to build"), TEKT, re/craw*.
abhi ("near"), km.
pari (" around"), wept.
aham ("I"), kyu.
hya* ("yesterday"), tfff.
2. In terminations, &c.
a, the augment of several forms of the preterit tense in Sanscrit,
has in Greek become t.
as in Sanscrit is the termination of the nominative case in the
plural number of substantives, the crude form of which ends in a
consonant, corresponding to the Greek -ef in Afovr-ff, &c.
III. Sanscrit a corresponding to the Greek o.
1. In root*, &c.
SANSCRIT. GREEK.
tad ("to go"), OA, <W-Of.
]"* ("to go"), nOA.*ogf,
I. The w in d*rw ! thought to come from the <m m ,^h(<m, tin- nominative dual.
Compare the Latin octovu* from oeto. (Pott, Ktimml. Forick. p. 88.)
SANSCRIT AND GREEK. 213
pati ("master," "husband"),
dama (" house"), <Jo/zof.
pra, prati, rrpo, irpof, irpori.
sama (" alike," " the same"), <5/zo, in composition.
sak (" he"), 6, of (for error, &*)
2. In terminations, &c.
as is in Sanscrit the termination of the genitive case singular of
substantives, the crude forms of which end in a consonant, cor-
responding to the Greek of in Aeovr-of, &c.
a, as the termination of the crude forms of a large number of San-
scrit nouns (substantives, adjectives, participles), corresponds, in
the majority of instances, to o in Greek ; as, asva, " a horse,"
vrika, " a wolf," Av/cof, &c.
IV. The instances of words in which a Greek i corresponds to a in
Sanscrit are few in number. The following are some of the
principal ones :
SANSCRIT. GREEK.
pat, HIT,
khara (" an ass"),
a*, la-Si.
was, ia-ria, Ionic ia-rii).
2. Consonant-changes.
1. Gutturals.
I. The guttural letters in Sanscrit and Greek generally correspond to
each other. Thus, in the case of the Sanscrit k, we have the root Jbi,
" to do," and in Greek Kpaivo, " to accomplish," with which may be
compared the Latin creare. So, also, kapdla, " the head," Gr. HttydKii
(Alexandrian /cefiaAjy) ; kapi, " an ape," Gr. KJjnoc ; kumba, " a vase,"
Gr. Kiyzfof, &c.
II. Sometimes the guttural in Greek corresponds to a y or t sound in
Sanscrit ; as, 7/6;?, Sanscrit root yar (compare the Latin juv-enis), where,
moreover, the v sound has passed into a (3 ; and ^rrap, gen. r/Trar-of,
where the Sanscrit has yakrit and the Latin jecur. The old form of
jecur is thought to have been jecurt 1 (jecurit), which would supply the
link.
III. . Sometimes the Sanscrit k changes to a TT in Greek. Thus we
1. Instances arc found also in Gothic; thus, sibun (8. saptan) ; fidvor (S. tshat-
vari) ; Jimf (S. pantsch) ; kinnus (S. hanu) ; &c.
2. Po^, Etymol. Forycfi. vol. i., p. 113 ; vol. ii., p. 290, 609.
214 SANSCRIT AND GREEK.
have in Sanscrit, in the case of the interrogative pronouns and particles,
fow, Ara, kim, &c., and in Greek the pronominal roots IIO2, IIH, IION,
whence come TTOV, irodev, Trdrepof, <fcc. It is worthy of remark, that /c
is used for TT, however, not only in Ionic, as KOV, KoQev, Korepof, <Stc.,
but also in ^Eolic Greek, the oldest of the dialects, and mflre extensively,
too, in this than in Ionic. 1 The Latin qu, equivalent to K, may also be
compared with this.
IV. The consonants ksh in Sanscrit answer to f in Greek (where the
^Eolians say <r) ; as, aksha, " a chariot," Gr. of-wv (axis) ; daksha,
" the right," Gr. dei--i6f. Sometimes, however, the k is preserved in
Greek, but the sh changes into a r ; as, kshindmi, " to destroy," Gr.
KTLvwfii ; riksha, " a bear," Gr. ap/crof ; with which may be compared
vakshas, " a breast," in Latin pect-us.
2. Palatal*.
I. The palatal consonants in Sanscrit are ch and /, and their respect-
ive aspirates chh and jh. Neither of these sounds seems to have exist-
ed in Greek or Latin, and, accordingly, we must expect to find their
places occupied by different letters in such words as are common to
either of these languages with the Sanscrit. Ch has often passed over
in Latin into q, and in Greek into TT or r. Thus,
SANSCRIT.
chatur (" four"), Latin quatuor, Gr. Tffoapc(, ^Eol. niavpef.
panchan (" five"), " quinque, Gr. Trcvre,
vach (" to call"), " voco, Gr.
pack (" to cook"), " coquo, Gr.
cka (" and"), " que, Gr. re.
paschat ("after"), " post.
3. Dentals.
I. The letters of the dental class, the common / and d, with their as-
pirates, and n, are very extensively used in Sanscrit, and have, for the
most part, been preserved unchanged in such words as are common to
the Greek and Latin with the Sanscrit. Thus, among others that might
be cited,
SANSCRIT.
trip (" to satiate"), Greek r^prru, ripirofiai.
tap (" to warm"), Latin tcpcrc, Gr. r%>a, " ashes."
tri (" to cross"), " /ran*, intrarc, Gr. reppa.
vrit (" to turn"), " vertere.
tan (" to stretch"), Greek rr/vu,
1. Corinth. Dial. p. 411, 579, nq-> But, * loc.
SANSCRIT AND GREEK. 215
II. In some instances, the Sanscrit t has become a in Greek, but re-
mains unchanged in Latin. Thus,
SANSCRIT.
tuam (" thou"), Gr. av, Dor. and JSol. TV, Latin tu.
chatur (" four"), Gr. retro-apef, Latin quatuor.
pat (" master," " husband"), Gr. noaif, Latin potens.
III. The instances where d has been kept unchanged are very frequent.
The following are a few of the number :
SANSCRIT.
ad (" to eat") Greek 2(5w, Latin edo.
dam (" to subdue"), " dapdu, Latin domare.
da (" to give"), " AQ, didupt, Latin do.
rfa (" to cut"), " daco/nai, whence date.
sad (" to sit"), " 'EA, 2fo/zat, Latin secfere.
IV. The number of words with n, which letter has generally been pre-
served unaltered in all the cognate languages, is also considerable. The
following may serve as specimens :
SANSCRIT.
man ("to think"), Greek MEN, fiejwva, Latin memini.
nri (" a man"), " avrjp.
nau (" a ship"), " vavc, Latin navis.
nas (" to die"), Latin necare, nez, Gr. NEK, vcjcpof, &c.
II. GRAMMATICAL ANALOGIES.!
I. Ground-form.
I. The Sanscrit settles the long-contested question whether the nom-
inative is a case, or only the form from which cases are derived. In
this language there exists a theme or ground-form entirely distinct from
the nominative, and from which the nominative itself is formed by add-
ing a distinctive termination.
II. Before we proceed to describe the manner in which the respective
cases are formed, it will be important to make some general remarks on
the end-vowels which connect the case-suffixes with these ground-forms
in different words, and on the points of resemblance or difference, in this
respect, between the Sanscrit and the other Indo-Germanic tongues.
III. The three ground-vowels a, i, u, appear in Sanscrit, as well short
as long, at the end of the ground-forms of words. The short a is al-
ways either masculine or neuter, never feminine, and we find a corre-
sponding a in Zend and Lithuanian. In the German dialects, however,
1. Bopp, Vcrgleichende Grammatik, p. 133, scy.
216 SANSCRIT AND GREEK.
*
even in the Gothic, this a very seldom appears, and in the younger dia-
lects is superseded by u or e In Greek, the o of the second declensiou
(Aoyo-f ) answers to this same a, as was also the case in the early Latin,
where they said domino-s in the nominative for dominu-s. 1
IV. The Greek masculines of the first declension in u-f , together with
the form in T]-$, proceeding from them, point at once to the connexion
between themselves and the Sanscrit masculine a, while, on the other
hand, their identity with the o-stem is shown by the termination ov in
the genitive. So, too, in the compounds ^vpOTrwAjy-f, iraidoTpifaj-f, the
vowel / appended to the roots II Q A and TPIB takes the place of the
Sanscrit a in similar compounds, where in Greek the o-sound generally
appears.
V. The short t, which is of three genders, answers to the same vowel
in the other Indo-Germanic tongues. In Latin, however, this i is some-
times interchanged with e ; as, facile for facili, mare for mari, where
we may compare the Sanscrit root vari, " water." In Greek, this same
t is weakened, for the most part, before another vowel, into e.
VI. The short u also appears in Sanscrit in the three genders, like
the Greek v and the Gothic u. To this corresponds the Latin u of the
fourth declension.
VII. The long vowels <t, t, u belong in Sanscrit mostly to the femi-
nine, never to the neuter, very seldom to the masculine. In Zend, the
long final a is shortened in polysyllables. So, also, in Gothic, where
the Sanscrit feminine stem in a long changes to o long, this o becomes
short a in flectionless nominatives and accusatives singular. The Latin
also has shortened the old feminine long a in flectionless nominatives
and accusatives, while the Lithuanian, on the other hand, preserves the
a in the nominative long.
VIII. The long i appears most frequently in Sanscrit as the charac-
teristic addition for forming the feminine stem. Thus, from mnhat
(" magnus") comes mahati (" magna"). The same thing occurs in
Zend. The Lithuanian, however, has preserved this t as a feminine
characteristic in the truest manner, for in this language an t is added to
the old participle-suffix ant ; and thus we have csant-i (" she being") and
bu-scnt-i (" she about to be"). In Greek and Latin this long feminine
t generally disappears, or else, when traces of it happen to be found, we
also find, at the same time, some letter added as a kind of support for
the case-ending. This addition is in Greek an a or d, in Latin a c.
Thus, the Greek r/dela corresponds to the Sanscrit stadv-l, from sradu,
" sweet." And so also in Greek, -rpia and -rpid in bpxr/oTpia, and
1. Struvc, utor die Lot. DtcUn. p. 11.
SANSCRIT AND GREEK. 217
s, answer the same purpose as the Sanscrit -tri in gan-
t'/ri, which last again corresponds to the Latin forms genttri-c-s, gen.
genitri-c-is.
IX. In such Greek forms as yevereipa the feminine t is removed one
syllable back, and the same analogy prevails in [Mehaiva, Tuhatva, Tepei-
va, &c., and also in such substantive forms as Te/trcuva, ftepaTratva,
"teaiva. The instances in Greek where the feminine i is supplied by a,
limit themselves to feminines from forms in vr, where the r changes to
a a, and the v is transformed into an v or i, or else its place is supplied
by the lengthening of the preceding vowel. Thus,
ova-a, eta-a, eaa-a, uc-a, va-a,
for ovr-a, evr-a, evr-a, avr-a, wr-a.
X. The long u appears in Sanscrit very seldom at the end of ground-
forms, and is mostly feminine. The most usual terms with this are
vadhu, " a wife ;" bhu, " earth ;" svasru, " a mother-in-law ;" bhru,
" the eyebrow." To this last corresponds the Greek o^pvf, which has
also a long v in the termination of the nominative, though the short v in
the genitive.
XI. Very few ground-forms in Sanscrit end in a diphthong. None in
I, and only one in ai, namely, rai, " a thing," " wealth," which in the
nominative makes rd-s for rai-s, and is evidently the same with the
Latin res.
XII. Ground-forms in 6 are seldom found in Sanscrit. The only two
thus far ascertained are dyo, " heaven," and go. In the former of these
the 6 changes into a in the accusative ; as, dya-m, with which we may
compare the Latin accusative diem. The latter, namely, go, has sev-
eral significations, the most common of which are, in the masculine, " a
steer," in the feminine, " a cow," and also " the earth." For the last of
these significations the Greek employs the form yij or yu, but for the
meaning of " bull," " cow," &c., it brings in the diphthong ov, and
changes the old guttural letter into the cognate labial /9, forming in this
way /JoOf. 1
XIII. Ground-forms in au are also few in number in Sanscrit. The
most remarkable is nau, " a ship," with which we immediately compare
the Greek vavj- and the Latin navis. This Sanscrit root nau is thought
to have been originally snau, from sna, " to bathe," and which probably
signified at first also " to swim," with which, in this sense, we may com-
pare the Latin na-to and the Greek vd-u, ve-u. The digammated form
vdFff may easily be assimilated to the Sanscrit nav-as. In the Latin a
foreign appendage presents itself; as, navi-s, navi-bus, for nau-s, nau-
1. Bopp, Vergleichcnde Grammatik, p. 146.
T
218 SANSCRIT AND GREEK.
bus. As the half vowel v easily hardens into a guttural, we find a sister
form for nau, nav-am, in the German nach-en, " a wherry," which in old
High-German is nacch-o.
XIV. We now pass to the consonants. Of these, , t, *, and r most
frequently appear in Sanscrit at the end of ground-forms. All the other
consonants are found only at the end of radical words that are of rare
occurrence, and appended to certain verbal stems whose origin is not
clearly established. Of the gutturals, again, namely, Jt, kh, g, gh, we
find none at the end of the more familiar verbal stems, whereas in Greek
and Latin they are of frequent occurrence, as $PIK, KOPAK, *AOF,
ONYX, DUG, VORAC, EDAC, LEG, &c. The d seldom appears in
Sanscrit ground-forms ; the t, on the contrary, is of very frequent occur-
rence. The Greek, besides T, shows also 6 and #. We must be care-
ful, however, not to regard such words as KOPY9 and OPNI9 in the
light of simple roots. In the former of these the 6 is part of the root
6H or 9E, and the term denotes originally something placed, on the head.
In the latter case we trace the etymology to the Sanscrit arani, in Ben-
galee oroni, " a forest," whence the Greek opvi, which, with 9 added
from #ew, " to run" or " move swiftly," indicates a creature that flies
swiftly through the woods, no unapt designation, certainly, of a bird.
XV. Ground-forms ending with a labial, the nasal m being included
in this class, appear in Sanscrit only in the case of naked roots, as the
last member of a compound, and even here not very often. We have,
however, as an isolated root, the term ap, " water,*' whence the Latin
aqua, the p being changed into qu, as in quinque, from the Sanscrit pan-
can, " five," and a vowel being added. From this same ap comes the
Latin am-nis, " a river," like somnus for sopnus, and otftvo^ for oe6v6f.
XVI. Of the Sanscrit sibilants, the '* and sh appear only at the end
of radicals, and therefore but seldom. The s, on the contrary, becomes
a closing letter for a very usual suffix in the forming of words ; as, for
example, in a*, which is employed in the formation of neuter nouns.
The Greek apparently is without any root in 2 ; but, the truth is, this
sibilant in Greek is commonly rejected between two vowels, especially
in the last syllable, and therefore neuters like pevof and yevof (from
M KN KS and TENE2, the e being changed to o) form the genitive ptv-
eof and yeveof , for fteveaof and
II. Individual Cases.
I. The Sanscrit cases, as has already been mentioned, are eight in
number, namely, the nominative, vocative, dative, accusative, ablative,
locative, instrumental, andgenitm.
II. The locative refers not only to place, as its name imports, but also
NOMINATIVE. 219
to the point of time conceived as space, and to the state, condition, or
circumstances made up of time and place.
III. Tht- instrumental case indicates the instrument or means by which
anything is done, and, under the general idea expressed by this latter
term " means," are included the individual ideas of the accompanying
person, the member or part affected, and the quantity or amount el!
IV. The genitive is placed last, as it is a case per se, standing in the
same relation to the noun as the other cases do to the verb, and, although
a single case, imbodying all their different usages and acceptations.
Hence the wide range given to the genitive in the Sanscrit, Greek,
Latin, and German ; and hence, also, this same case has been styled the
adnominal, since it is properly used with the noun, while the other cases
have been termed adverbial, from their relation to the verb.
Nominative.
I. The suffix of the nominative singular in Sanscrit masculine and
feminine stems that terminate in a vowel is 5, and the origin of this may
be traced to the pronominal stem sa, " he," " this one." Thus we have,
among masculines,
vrika-s (stem vrika), " a wolf."
pati-s (stem pati), " a lord" or " husband."
kawi-s (stem kawi), " a poet."
And among feminines the following :
priti-s (stem priti), " love."
tanu-s (stem tanu), " a body."
ndu-s (stem nau), "a ship."
II. In Zend, this s, if preceded by a, changes into u, and then the a
and u are blended into 6. The same happens in Sanscrit, but only be-
fore sonant letters. Thus, in Zend we have vchrkd (from vchrka-u,
stem vehrkd), " a wolf," and ko, " this," for ka-u (stem ka). So in San-
scrit, suto mama, "my son," from suta-u; but sula-s tava, " thy son."
III. This nominative suffix s appears also in Greek, Latin, Lithuanian,
and Gothic. Thus, /lu/co-c, TTOGI-C, TTITV-C, OTT-S, 7ro-f ; lupu-s, hosti-s,
pecu-s, voc-s, opu-s ; Lithuanian, wilka-s, pati-s, sunu-s ; Gothic, vulf'-s,
gast's, sunu-s, &c.
IV. The Gothic, however, suppresses a and i before the s, except in
monosyllabic words, where such suppression would be impracticable.
Thus, it says hva-s, " who ;" i-s, " he ;" but vulf's, gasfs, for vulfa-s,
gasti-s. 1 Masculine stems in ja must be excepted from this rule, since
1. The term gasti-s means " a stranger," whence the English " guest." With the
Gothic we may compare the Latin hosti-s, in its original acceptation, which, according
to Cicero, was also " a stranger." Thus, be remarks, " Hostis enim apud majorcs
220
NOMINATIVE.
they retain the vowel at the end, only softening it to ; as, harji-g, " tn
army." If, however, what is frequently the case, a long vowel or more
than one syllable precede the final syllable, then ji changes to ; as,
andei-s, " the end ;" raginei-s, " advice."
V. In others of the Teutonic dialects the nominative-ending * has
passed into r ; as, Old German, :-r, " he ;" de-r, " this ;" hue-r, " who ;"
plintc-r, " blind." Old Norse, ulf-r, " a wolf ;" son-r, " a son ;" blind~r,
" blind." German, er, der, wer, blinde-r. Swedish and Danish, llind-r.
In the rest of the Teutonic dialects the nominative-characteristic is lost.
VI. If the ground-form in Sanscrit end in a consonant, the is omit-
ted in masculines and feminines ; and when two consonants close the
ground-form, the latter of the two is rejected by the same law of euphony.
Hence we have bibhrat for hbhrat-s, " he that bears ;" tudan for tu-
dant-s, " he that afflicts." The Zend, Greek, and Latin, on the other
hand, preserve the s, and therefore stand, in this respect, on earlier ground
than the Sanscrit. Thus we have, in Zend, af-s (for ap-s\ " water ;"
kerefs, " a body." The Greek and Latin, when the final consonant of
the stem will not unite with the s, prefer giving up a part of the stem it-
self, and hence we have x"P<-S for X"P iT -f> comes for comit-s. Moreover,
the Latin, ^Eolic Greek, and Lithuanian agree in a surprising manner
with the Zend, in that nt, when uniting with *, gives the form ns.
Thus we have amans ; rttfevf ; Lithuanian, sukans ; Zend, srdvayans,
"he that speaks."
VII. A final n after a short vowel is no favourite in Sanscrit. Hence
we have the n rejected from a stem in the first part of a compound ;
as, rdga-putra, " the king's son," for r&gan-putra. It is rejected also
from the nominative, in which rejection a preceding short vowel is made
long if the stem be of the masculine gender. Thus, rdgd, " a king,"
from ragan, masculine, and ndmd, " a name," from naman, neuter.
The Zend agrees in this with the Sanscrit, except as regards the length-
ening of the vowel ; as, ashava, " the pure," from ashavan, masculine ;
cashma, " the eye," from cashman, neuter.
VIII. The Latin follows the Sanscrit and Zend in suppressing n in
the nominative of masculines and feminines, but not in neuters; as,
fermo, sermon-is ; actio, action-is ; but nomcn, not nome or nomo. The
root can at the end of compounds does not, however, reject the n, in
order, very probably, to prevent any further weakening of so feeble a
syllable. Hence we have tubi-cen, fidi-ccn, os-cen, &c. The trim hen
is a mutilation from licni-s. Pecten appears to be an isolated case.
IX. If the theme in Sanscrit end in r, the r is omitted ; neither does
noatret it dicebatvr, quern nunc jxrcfrmum dicimiu" (Uc Qf. ], 19). The Indian
origin otkottu, therefore, is fully apparent.
NOMINATIVE. 221
any nominative suffix * appear. The preceding vowel also is lenirth-
ened. Thus we have Ihratd, from bhrdtar, " a brother ;" data, from
ddtar, "a giver ;" mdtd, from malar, " a mother ; pita, from pltar, "a
father." The lengthening of the vowel appears to supply the place of
the rejected r.
X. The Zend and Lithuanian follow the analogy of the Sanscrit, and
reject the r, while, on the other hand, the Teutonic dialects, together
with the Greek and Latin, retain it. Thus we have, in Gothic, brothar,
svistar, daughtar ; in the old High-German, pruodar, suestar, tohtar ;
in Greek, Tran/p, UTJTJJP, &vydTi)p, darjp ; in Latin, pater, mater, frater,
soror, &c. The question here presents itself, whether these forms in r
be the earlier ones, or whether the rejection of this same letter be not
more ancient. A careful examination of the point will result in favour
of the latter opinion. In the first place, we have the testimony of the
Sanscrit, Zend, and Lithuanian for the early origin of the rejection of r ;
and, in the second place, such Greek forms as Trarjyp, fiTJTTjp, &c., show
in their declension something peculiar and strange, since, as p and a are
unwilling to coalesce, they prefer giving up the case-sign and retaining
the stem-consonant, a process directly the reverse of what takes place in
the more regular forms, such as irai and Trove;, for iral6-q and Trod-f.
XI. Masculine and feminine ground-forms in Sanscrit that end in as
lengthen the vowel a in the nominative singular. They are mostly com-
pounds, and have for the last member in this composition a neuter sub-
stantive in as. Thus, dur-manas, " bad-spirited," from dus (which be-
comes dur before the sonant letters) and the neuter noun mauds, " spirit"
(the root, probably, of the Latin animus, but certainly the source whence
come mens and /*cvof). We have, therefore, in the masculine and fem-
inine, durmanas, but in the neuter durmanas. The analogy between this
and the Greek 6, y, Svouevfc, neuter TO 6vouevis, is very striking. The
Sanscrit genitive, again, is dusmanas-as, with which we may compare
the old Greek form dvopevea-o?, whence, according to a previous para-
graph, comes the received form dvapeve-o<;. The ? at the end of the
nominative is to be regarded either as a stem-consonant, or a case-sign
before which the stem-consonant f has fallen away. The former of these
opinions is the more probable one, and derives support from the analogy
of the Latin, where those masculine and feminine forms of the nomina-
tive which correspond to the Sanscrit stems in a* are, in like manner,
without a case-sign. Thus, the Sanscrit comparative suffix -iyas be-
comes in Latin -tor, with the usual change of s into r, and the nomina-
tive is without the case-sign in both the masculine and feminine ; but in
the neuter we have us, corresponding to the Sanscrit as, the u being
T2
222 LOCATIVE.
friendly to a final s, and protecting it from being changed into r. Hence
gravius answers to the Sanscrit gartyas.
XII. Feminine ground-forms in a lose the * ; as, dshiiod, " a tongue,"
id, " which." The same takes place in Zend ; as, hizwa, " a tongue,"
kd, "which ;" and so in Lithuanian, rankd, "a hand ;" with all which
may be compared the Greek and Latin forms ^wpa, povaa, terra, rnusa,
<tc. We find, also, in Zend, feminine nominatives in e; as, percne,
" full," kaine, " a maiden ;" and these nominatives resemble very closely
in appearance Greek nouns in i). The Zend form in e, however, appears
to be merely euphonic, and the e has been changed from an a through
the influence of a suppressed y (compare the Sanscrit form kanyd, where
this y appears). Hence it is not unreasonable to suppose that the I of
the Latin fifth declension, as in almost every instance an t precedes it,
has been changed from an a by the influence of this '. This may serve
to explain why we have occasionally two forms for the nominative, one
of the fifth and the other of the first declension ; as, for example, mate-
ries and materia, the latter of which follows the analogy of the Greek,
and allows a to remain unaltered before i, as in oo<j>ia. The Ionic form,
on the other hand, follows the Zend, as
Vocative.
I. The vocative in Sanscrit has no peculiar case-sign of its own. It
is often identical with the nominative, and where it differs from that case
it coincides very nearly with the naked theme or ground-form.
II. In monosyllables the vocative is the same as the nominative.
Thus we have, nom. bhi-s, " fear," voc. bhi-s, " oh fear," like KI-( and
other monosyllables in Greek.
III. In other kinds of words an a at the end of the stem remains un-
altered in Sanscrit and Zend, but in Lithuanian is weakened into e.
The Greek and Latin, like the Lithuanian, change o and u into a short
e in the corresponding declension, as MKK, lupe. We must not, how-
ever, regard this e as a species of case-ending either in the Greek or the
Latin. The forms /like and lupe bear the same relation to the Sanscrit
vrika that TTEVTC and quinque do to pancan ; that is, the old a, which in
Av/cof appears as o, and in lupus as u, has assumed the form of a short e.
IV. Sanscrit stems in and u are increased by guna ;' neuters have
also the pure vowel. Thus we have in Sanscrit pate, vocative of pati-s,
"a lord" or "husband;" fund, vocative of sunu-x, "a son;" tinnm,
vocative of naman, " a name," neuU r.
V. The guna-form in o (from a-j-t<) agrees in a remarkable manner
I <;,,,i,i. in Sai.Ni-r.1, IIII-HIIH !!,. IIIHITUIIII iH a liort a before i un.l , nnd in (In n
making a+t coalesce into /, and o+u into 4.
DATIVE. 223
with the Gothic and Lithuanian. Thus we have, in the two latter, *u-
nau, sunau, and in Sanscrit suno (from sunau).
VI. The Gothic and Latin, where the stem ends in n, suppress this
letter in the vocative as in the nominative, whereas the Sanscrit and
Zend restore to the vocative the nasal letter taken from the nominative.
Thus we have in Sanscrit dtman, in Zend asman, but in Gothic ahma\
with which compare the Latin scrmo in the vocative.
VII. The Greek, in numerous instances, takes its vocative pure from
the nominative. In others, it gives this case the naked stem, or else
the stem only so far altered as euphony or assimilation requires. Thus
we have ru/lav as the vocative of raAaf, x a P' LEV (f r xapievT) as the
vocative of #a/wf, and iral (for Trald) as the vocative of naif. The
Latin carries out still more fully the example of degeneration set for it
by the Greek in the case of the vocative, and, with the single exception
of the second declension, makes the vocative the same as the nominative.
Dative.
I. The dative in Sanscrit ends properly in 2, which termination de-
rives its origin, in all probability, from the demonstrative pronominal
stem I. The Zend has a similar ending. Thus we have in Sanscrit
bhrdtr-l, " to the brother ;" duhitr-e, " to the daughter ;" and in Zend,
brathr-e and dughdher-.
II. Feminine stems in a, i, &, and occasionally those in ? and u, lengthen
out, in Sanscrit, this termination e into di. Stems in d have, moreover,
an i inserted ; as, givdi-di, " to the tongue" (stem giva), while those in
1 and u, take the guna before i ; as, sunav-l, "to a son" (stem sunu).
In Zend, feminine stems in d and i have also the ending of the dative in
di, as in Sanscrit.
III. Sanscrit stems in d add another a to the case-sign e, and then,
since e is here equivalent to a-\-i, there results from this union the form
aya. Hence we have vrikaya, " to the wolf" (stem vrikd). The Zend
makes merely di ; as wchrkdi.
IV. The Sanscrit forms the dative-ending of pronouns in smdi, from
the particle srna with an i appended ; as, tasmdi, " to this," kasmdi, " to
whom." In Zend, this sma changes to hma; as, kahmdi, "to whom."
In Pracrit and Pali, also, we have the * converted into an h, but the h
and m at the same time are placed in an inverted order, whence we find
mho. used for hma. In Pracrit, therefore, we have amhe, " we," with
which compare the Greek u^utf ; and from mha we come to the Gothic
nsa, in u-nsa-ra and n-nsi-s.
V. In Lithuanian the dative ends in i; as, wilku-i, "to the wolf;"
224 ACCUSATIVE.
*unu-j, " to the son." In adjectives and pronouns it ends in m ; as,
/am, " to him ;" geram, " to the good."
VI. The usual Greek and Latin dative are taken from the original lo-
cative, to which the student is here referred.
Accusative.
I. The characteristic of the accusative in Sanscrit, Zend, and Latin,
is the letter m ; in Greek, v is substituted on grounds of euphony. In
Lithuanian the old m is still farther weakened into a species of nasal n,
which in Sanscrit is termed anusvara. The Germanic languages have
lost the accusative-sign in substantives, and this loss shows itself as early
as the Gothic. In masculine adjectives and pronouns, however, a ter-
mination appears, and this termination in Gothic is na, but in the old
High-German more correctly n.
II. The following tabular view will make this subject more apparent :
SANSCRIT. ZEND. GREEK. LATIN. LITH. GOTHIC.
vrika-m (wolf) wehrke-m Tivno-v lupu-m wilka-n vulf
pati-m (lord) pati-m ITOCL-V hoste-m pati-n gasf
sunu-m (son) pasu-m ix&v-v pecu-m sunu-n sunu
ddna-m (gift) date-in 6upo-v donu-m ***** daur*
tanu-m (body) tanu-m nirv-v socru-m ***** handu.
III. Monosyllabic words, in Sanscrit, ending in i, it, and du, make the
termination of the accusative am in place of the simple wi, and this ap-
pears to be done in order to give them somewhat of a polysyllabic ap-
pearance. Thus, bhi, " fear," and nau, " a ship," do not make in the
accusative bhini and naum, as we might be led to expect from the anal-
ogy of the Greek vavv, but bhiy-am, ndv-am. With this agree the Greek
stems in ev, since they make, in the accusative, e-a, from eF-a, instead
of ev-v ; as, ftaatte(F)a for ftaatXev-v.
IV. It is erroneous, however, to regard, as many do, the Latin m in the
termination of the accusative as originating from an earlier ending em ;
and to make, for example, lupu-m come from lupo-em ; horam from hora-
m ; fructum from fructu-em, and diem from die-em. That a mere nasal
letter is amply sufficient to indicate the accusative, appears from the his-
tory of not only the whole class of Germanic tonges, but also the Sans-
crit, Zend, Greek, and Lithuanian.
Y. The Latin em in the accusative of the third declension is of twofold
origin. At one time the e belongs to the stem, and stands for i ; as,
e~m in ign-em (Sanscrit apni-m), which corresponds to t-m in Sanscrit,
t-m in Zend, t-v in Greek, i-n in Lithuanian, and i-na in Gothic : at other
times, when the stem terminates in a consonant, the e of em answers to
the Sanscrit a, to which it also corresponds in numerous other instances.
ACCUSATIVE. 225
VI. Sanscrit and Zend neuter stems in a, and those related to them
in Greek and Latin, take an m for the termination of both the accusa-
tive and nominative ; as, sayana-m, " a guard," in Sanscrit ; sa.ya.nl-m
in Zend. So in Latin and Greek, donu-m, dupo-v. All other stems of
the neuter gender remain, with a few exceptions in Latin, unaccompa-
nied by any case-sign in the nominative and accusative, and present
merely the naked stem, which, however, in Latin, changes a final i into
e ; as, mare for man, in Sanscrit wdri, " water." The Greek, however,
like the Sanscrit and Zend, leaves the i unaltered ; as, Idpt-f, tApi, as
in Sanscrit, suds, suc-i. Examples of neuter u-stems, which supply
the place of both nominative and accusative, are, in Sanscrit, madh-u,
" honey," " wine ;" asr-u, " tears ;" swad-u, *' sweet ;" in Zend, woh-u,
" wealth ;" in Greek, /ue#-v, 6ctKp-v, r)6-v ; in Latin, pec-u, gen-u.
VII. The in Greek neuters, such as ycvoc, /zevof, evyevef, has al-
ready been explained as belonging to the stem. The case is the same
with respect to the Latin s in such neuters as genus, corpus, &c. ; it is,
in fact, the earlier form of the r of the oblique cases, as in gener-is, cor-
por-is, for genes-is, corpos-is, with the latter of which we may easily
compare the Sanscrit vapus, also signifying " a body," genitive vapus-as.
The 2, also, of neuter stems in T, for example, rerv^df and rcpaf, is
not to be regarded as a case-sign, but as having been changed from T,
which latter is never tolerated at the end of a word, but is either thrown
away entirely, as in the case of fiihi and Trpay/za, or is exchanged for the
cognate S, just as Trpof is formed from the Sanscrit prati, through the
intermediate ^Eolo-Doric form -rrpori.
VIII. Gothic neuters and masculines want the case-sign m. In Lith-
uanian the neuter entirely disappears in the case of substantives, and
has only left a trace behind in pronouns and adjectives.
IX. Pronominal stems in a have in Sanscrit t, in Zend t, as the flec-
tion-sign of the nominative and accusative neuter. The origin of the
neuter case-sign t is to be found in the pronominal stem ta, " he," " this
one," Greek TO, Gothic THA, &c. The Lithuanian tai, " that," used
as a nominative and accusative, corresponds to the Sanscrit ta-t, the
Zend ta-t, the Greek TO, &c. The final i appears to have some affinity
to the demonstrative t in such forms as ovroai, tKeivoai, and both the
Lithuanian and Greek terminations may be traced to the old Sanscrit
form it, occurring in the Vedas, and which, on account of its antiquity,
appears to have lost all regard for the particular gender of its termina-
tion, since, though neuter in form, it attaches itself also to masculine
pronouns of the third person. This same it appears to be the sister-form
of the Latin id and the Gothic i-ta.
226 ABLATIVE.
Ablative.
I. The ablative in Sanscrit has t for its characteristic, the origin of
which is to be traced, in all probability, to the demonstrative pronoun
to, " this."
II. This case-letter, however, only appears with stems in a, which
yowel is lengthened before it ; as mikdt, " from the wolf."
III. In Zend, the ablative, in like manner, ends in t; as, u-ehrkdt,
" from the wolf ;" but stems in i have di-t ; as, dfritdi-t, " benedictione ;"
radshoi-t, " institutione."
IV. The old Latin agrees in this respect with the Sanscrit and Zend
to a very remarkable degree. Thus we have on the Columna Rostrata,
and in the decree of the senate " De Bacchanalibus," such forms of the
ablative as presented dictatored, prcedad, in altod marid, senatud, &c.
The Oscan also formed the ablative in d, as appears from the Bantian
inscription, where we find dolud, mallud, cum preivatud, toutad, prtz-
sentid, &c. We may remark, in passing, that the old Latin and Oscan
forms of the third person of the imperative, namely, es-tod and es-tud (for
es-to), correspond surprisingly to the Veda-form obtained from Panini,
givu-tat, which signifies as well " vivat" as " vive," and which may it-
self be compared with " vivito" of both the third and second person.
V. In classical Latin we meet with a kind of ablative form in the in-
separable pronoun met, which, from having originally belonged only to
the first person, as far as we can hazard a conjecture (supposing it to
be cognate with the Sanscrit ablative mat, " from me"), passed subse-
quently over to all the persons. The conjunction sed t too, appears to
have been nothing more, originally, than the ablative of the reflexive pro-
noun se. In the decree of the senate " De Bacchanalibus," sed occurs
twice as a pronoun governed by inter, whence we may infer either that
inter was construed, in early Latin, with the ablative, or that the accu-
sative had then, in some instances, the same force as the ablative. In
favour of the latter opinion we may cite the accusative use of <</ and
ted in Plautus, and the employment of ead for ca (accusative plural neu-
ter) in the decree just referred to. We find, in this same decree, the
preposition extra appearing under the form of extrad. This will servo
to strengthen the opinion that the Latin prepositions in a were all origi-
nally ablative cases, and even pro would seem to have been at first writ-
ten prod, as an ablative, since we find traces of this early form in prod-es,
prod-cram, &c., whereas, in prosum, the d has disappeared from before
t by a law of euphony.
VI. The ablative in Sanscrit expresses removal from a place, an
ing to the question " whence 1" and this is its true and original meaning,
LOCATIVE. 227
which the Latin has preserved only in the names of places. From the
idea of " whence," the ablative passes over to the relation of cause,
since that, on account of which anything takes place, may be regarded as
the spot or place from which the action goes forth. In this way the do-
mains of the ablative and instrumental cases touch each other.
used adverbially, the ablative embraces a still wider range, and express-
es, in the case of some words, certain relations that are otherwise quite
foreign to it. In Greek, adverbs in wf may be regarded as sister-forms
of the Sanscrit ablative ; so that w-f, from a stem in o, bears relation to
the Sanscrit d-t, from a stem in a, just as diduai does to dadd-ti. Hence
6[iu-? is related to the Sanscrit samd-t, " similarly," both in its ending
and its stem. Now, in the Greek language, the change from T to 2 at
the end of a word was absolutely necessary, in order to prevent the
total suppression of the former letter ; and, therefore, we may safely
conclude that such adverbs as fy*-f, oflrw-f, w-f, came originally from
6fuJ-T, OVTU-T, &-T, &c. We have a similar analogy in the Latin ad-
verbial forms quomodo, raro, vero, perpetuo, &c.
Locative.
I. This case has, in Sanscrit and Zend, an t for its characteristic
letter.
II. In Greek and Latin the locative has united itself under one form
with the dative, but still without losing its own peculiar reference to
place. Hence we have AwJuvi, Mapaduvt, ZaAccjtuvi, aypu, OCKOI, x a ~
liai. So also we find this same case retaining its reference to a point of
time conceived of as space ; as, TTJ avry fjpspa, TTJ avry VVKTI, and in
Sanscrit divasd, " in the day," nisi, " in the night."
III. When the stem ends in a, the case-sign i passes into I in both
Sanscrit and Zend, except that, in the latter language, 6i also stands for
e, which circumstance produces a singular analogy between Zend lo-
catives in oi and such Greek datives as olnoi, poi, aoi.
IV. In Lithuanian, the stems in a agree surprisingly in the locative
with the Sanscrit and Zend, since they convert this a, together with the
old locative-sign t, which nowhere any more appears pure in this tongue,
into the vowel I, saying diewe, " in God," stem diewa, with which we
may compare the Sanscrit dfo& and the Zend datvi.
V. Masculine stems in Sanscrit that end in i and u, and occasionally
also feminine ones, have a locative ending in au ; as, tanau, " in the
body." The Zend gives to stems in u the genitive ending 6, while to
express a genitive meaning the form eu-s is more usually employed.
VI. In Zend and Sanscrit we discover in several instances a specios
of alliance between the genitive and locative, and the one appearing for
228 INSTRUMENTAL.
the other. The same remark holds good with reference to the Latin j
and as in this language the genitive of the first and second declension
only appears with a locative meaning, for example, Roma, Corinthi, hu-
mi, not in the third declension nor in the plural, the opinion has been
advanced that the Latin genitive of (he first two declensions is derived
from an ancient locative. It would seem, therefore, that when the first
declension lost its genitive in d-s, the dative (in its origin a locative)
was compelled also to supply the place of a genitive. In the second de-
clension, the form in o-i, which belongs properly to the locative, corre-
sponding to the Greek 9 and 01, and of which examples still remain,
as popoloi Romanoi, underwent a twofold change. It lost in the one
case the vowel that marked the ending, as domino ; while, in the other,
it dropped the stem-vowel and retained the ending, as domini ; the for-
mer of these settled down into a dative, the latter into a genitive.
VII. This view of the Latin cases frees that language from a gross
absurdity of syntax invented by the grammarians. According to them,
the name of a town is put in the genitive when the question is " where 1"
provided that name be of the first declension ; but if it be of the third
declension or of the plural number, the name is put in the ablative ! The
truth is, what the grammarians mistake for a genitive in the one case,
and for an ablative in the other, is in both instances the same, namely,
a locative, and the error has arisen from confounding similar forms.
Instrumental.
I. The instrumental case has a for its characteristic letter in Sanscrit,
and this termination appears to be nothing more than a lengthening of
the pronominal stem a, and identical with the inseparable preposition a,
" on," " along," " to," which comes from the same stem.
II. In Sanscrit, masculine and feminine stems ending in a short vowel
take a euphonic n. If the vowel at the end be a it is changed into I.
Hence we have vriM-n-a, " by the wolf;" sunu-n-a, " by the son."
III. The Vedas show likewise the remains of a formation without n ;
as, swapnay-d, " by sleep," for swapnt-n-a, theme swapna ; and the or-
dinary language exhibits two forms analogous to this in may-d, "through
me ;" and tway-d, " through thee," from ma and twa.
IV. In Zend the instrumental case is marked, as in Sanscrit, by a,
but more commonly short than long. Thus we have zaosk-d, " through
design ;" wehrk-u, " by the wolf." Monosyllabic stems, however, in a,
always lengthen the case-ending ; as, ktui, " proprio."
V. In Lithuanian, this case end* in d, a, and mi. Stems in a form
their instrumental in ; as, difw-u, " Deo;" feminine stems in a retain
this vowel as a case-ending ; as, ratiku, " by the hand ;" while ull other
GENITIVE. 229
stems take mi as the termination of the instrumental ; as, sunu-mi, " by
the son."
VI. In Latin, the ablative is generally employed to denote the instru-
ment or means. Traces, however, of an independent instrumental case
still appear in such adverbs of manner as dure, " hardly ;" bene, " well,"
4o.
VII. In Gothic, the instrumental, usually called the dative, ends in a;
as, gast-a, " by the guest." In the other Germanic tongues it remains
in certain pronominal adverbs of manner ; as, in old High-German, diu,
swa, wio 1 in Anglo-Saxon, thus, swa, hu ? in English, thus, so, how 1
Genitive.
I. The terminations of this important case, in Sanscrit, are s, sya, as,
and as, whereof the first three are common to the three genders, while
the last is confined to the feminine.
II. In Sanscrit, the vowels i and u take the guna, and this is also the
case in Zend ; as, patc-s, " of a husband ;" suno-s, " of a son ;" in Zend,
patoi-s, " of a husband ;" taneu-s, " of a body." The Lithuanian and
Gothic, on the other hand, take the guna in the case of these same vow-
els in a more limited degree. All u- stems in these two languages in-
sert an a before their final vowel, and thus the Lithuanian sunau-s and
the Gothic sunau-s correspond to the Sanscrit suno-s, from sunau-s.
The guna, however, limits itself, in Gothic, in the case of i-stems, to
feminines merely; as, anstai-s, "of favour."
III. The Sanscrit genitive-ending as passes over, in Greek, into Of in
the case of t and v stems, as also where the stem ends in a diphthong the
last vowel of which is v. Thus we have Tropri-of, ix6v-oe, ftacihi-os.
In these no guna appears, such as Tropm-f, IxOev-f, forms utterly un-
known in Greek as genitives ; but, on the contrary, the true forms cor-
respond, like 7rod-of , to the Sanscrit genitive of consonant-stems, pad-as,
" pedis ;" vac-as, " vocis," &c. The Latin, on the other hand, agrees
more closely with the sister tongues, though not so far as to have the
guna, and hence hosti-s resembles the Gothic gasti-s. In the case of
Latin u-stems (4th declension) the lengthening of the u may take the
place of the guna ; or perhaps, more correctly speaking, this class of
words follow the Greek or consonant-principle, and the vowel which has
fallen away from before 5 is compensated by the lengthening of u.
IV. Stems in a, and also the pronouns of the third person, of which,
however, only one, namely, amu, ends with any other vowel but a, have
in Sanscrit the fuller genitive-sign sya; as, vrika-sya, "of the wolf;"
ta-syd, " hujus," &c. ; antu-sya, " illius." In Zend, this ending takes
the form of he; as, vehrkahc, "of the wolf;" ka-hc, "of whom."
U
230 GENITIVE.
V. The Greek and Latin show manifest traces of this genitive ending
in sya. Thus, since Sanscrit stems in a answer to Greek ones in o, and
since a towards the end of Greek words, when placed between two vow-
els, generally disappears, there can be but little, if any, doubt that the
old epic genitive-ending in to is a mutilation from oio, and that, for ex-
ample, in TOIO (compare the Sanscrit ta-sya), the first o belongs to the
stem, and to to the case-ending. As regards the dropping of a from
TOIO (TOOIO), it may be remarked, that the Greek language exhibits an-
other oio, from which a a has been dropped, namely, 616010, the old form
of which was 6166100, just as tteyov comes from ehryeoo, and i6t6ov
from 616000. It is easy to infer, therefore, by analogy, that roto comes
from TOOIO, and that this last is identical with the Sanscrit ta-sya. In
the common language, this form TOIO, after parting with the old a, loses
also t, and makes ro-o, out of which comes, by contraction, the form TOV.
The Homeric termination ao, in Bope-ao, Alvei-ao, and the like, belongs
to this same part of the subject, and stands for ai-o, which last was ori-
ginally a-aio. The Latin, on the other hand, changes the Sanscrit sya
into jus, with the favourite conversion of a into u before a final s ; as,
for example, hu-jus, cu-jus, e-jus, illius for illi-jus, &c.
VI. The Lithuanian genitive of the a-stems deviates in a remarkable
manner from that of the other declensions, and has o for its case-sign, in
which vowel there ia a blending also of the rowel that closes the stem ;
thus we have wilko, " of the wolf," for wilka-s. The Gothic has pre-
served as little as the Lithuanian any trace of the full genitive ending sya,
and the Gothic a-stems are in this case like those in i, the a being weak-
ened before a final s into t, so that we have mtl/i- for vulfa-s. The
consonant-stems have in Gothic a simple * for the case-sign of the geni-
tive ; as, namin-s, " of a name ;" brbthr-s, " of a brother." The earlier
sister languages, however, lead us to infer that this * was originally pre-
ceded by an a, and at a later period by an i, which vowels subsequently
disappeared, like the a from the nominative vulf-s for vulfa-s.
VII. Feminines have in Sanscrit, as has already been remarked, a
fuller genitive ending, namely, as. The Greek is somewhat analogous
to this in the long vowel which characterizes the genitive singular femi-
nine of the first declension ; as, otyvpas, MOVOIJC, &c. It appears also
in the old Latin genitive of the first declension, escds, terras, &c.
DUAL CASKS.
Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative.
I. These three cases bare in Sanscrit, in masculines and fominin.
ending au, which arose very probably from as by vocalizing the , and,
consequently, itt nothing more than a strengthening of the plural ending
DUAL CASES. 231
as. Since the dual implies a clearer designation than more undefined
plurality, and involves more of strong expression and lively personifica-
tion, it loves the broadest endings, as well in the cases here named as in
the others that remain to be mentioned.
II. While the Pracrit and Pali have lost the dual, the Zend, on the
other hand, has preserved it, yet in such a way only as that the plural
frequently occupies its place. The dual in Zend is much less frequent,
however, in the case of verbs. The Sanscrit ending an becomes iu Zend
do.
III. In the Veda dialect, the ending an is mutilated frequently to d,
the latter element of the diphthong being suppressed. In Zend, by a sim-
ilar process, a is used for ao, and more frequently, too, than the full form.
From this Veda-ending d, and the short a that often stands for it in Zend,
we easily come to the Greek dual e, since this vowel is fond of taking
the place of the old short a at the end of words ; and as, in the vocative,
TMKE stands for vrikd and vchrkd, so, in the dual number, uv6p-e (with
the euphonic d) corresponds to the Veda-form nar-d and tfce Zend nar-d.
IV. In Lithuanian the dual termination of masculine stems in a is u
contracted from no ; and the Veda-form vrikd, the Zend vehrkd, and the
Lithuanian icilku, are in principle identical. In the vocative, the Lith-
uanian places a shorter u, and hence throws the accent back on the pe-
nult ; as, wilhu ! which resembles the change that takes place in the
Greek irarfip and irdrep.
V. Masculine and feminine stems in i and u suppress, in Sanscrit, the
dual-ending au, and in its stead lengthen the end-vowel of the stem ; as,
pati, " two husbands," from pati ; sunu, " two sons," from sunu. The
same principle operates frequently in Zend ; as, mainyu, " two spirits ;"
crczu, " two fingers." The Lithuanian, in like manner, suppresses the
case-ending of the dual in its i and u stems, and lengthens the end-vowel
of the stem in full accordance with the Sanscrit rule ; as, awl, " two
sheep," from am (compare the Sanscrit avi, from avi) ; and sunu, " two
sons," from sunu (compare the Sanscrit sunu).
VI. In Greek, the dual of the first two declensions follows the same
principle. In the first declension, the nominative singular, it is true,
often ends in rj, but the stem always terminates in a, and this becomes
d in the dual ; as, K^iaA-d, Tiu-d, KOU-U. In the second, the u of the
dual is a lengthening of the o in the stem ; as, Aoy-w, 66-u, 6up-<j.
VII. Neuter nouns in Sanscrit have in the dual not au, but f for an
ending, as in the plural they have not as, but a short i. An a at tho i-nd
of the stem coalesces with this i into c, and hence we have sate, " two
hundred," from sata-i. Other vowels insert a euphonic n ; as, talu-n-i.
VIII. Lithuanian dual-forms of the feminine gender ending in t agree
232 INSTRUMENTAL, ETC., DUAL.
with those ending in e in Sanscrit and Zend ; as, ranki, from ranka.
The accusative dual, however, is formed in Lithuanian, contrary to the
other sister tongues, after the analogy of the singular, by means of a na-
sal letter ; as, irilkun.
IX. The study of comparative grammar shows that the dual was ori-
ginally common to the different branches of the Indo-Germanic family,
but that it has gradually disappeared from the greater number of them.
We find it in the Sanscrit and Zend, for example, whereas in Pali it oc-
curs only in the two words dui, " two," And oubha, " both." Traces of
it are found in the Gothic, but not in the more modern Teutonic dialects.
It occurs in Greek, but often with a mere plural meaning, whereas in
modern Greek it is unknown. In Latin we find it remaining only in two
words, duo and ambo, exactly as in Pali.
Instrumental, Dative, and Ablative.
I. These three cases have a common termination in the dual number
in both Sanscrit and Zend, whereas in Greek the genitive has attached
itself to the dative, and borrowed its termination from the latter. The
Sanscrit termination for these three cases is bhydm, which in Zend is
curtailed to lya.
II. Connected with this dual termination is, in the first place, the end-
ing bhyam of the pronouns of the first and second person in the dative
singular and plural, but which, however, in the pronoun of the first per-
son, is curtailed to hi/am.
III. The curtailment alluded to at the close of the preceding paragraph
appears to have existed at a very early period, since we find a remarka-
ble coincidence, as regards this form, between the Latin and Sanscrit,
the Latin pronoun mi- hi corresponding directly to the Sanscrit ma-hyam,
and the Latin ti-bi, on the other hand, to the full Sanscrit form tu-bhyam.
IV. In the second place, connected with the dual termination bhyam
is the form bhyas, which marks the dative and ablative plural, which in
Zend becomes byd, and in Latin bus, by suppressing in this last-men-
tioned language the letter y, and by the usual conversion of as into us.
V. In Lithuanian, in the dative dual, the letter m alone remains to in-
dicate the dual ; as, for example, wilka-m. This m, however, is not to
be regarded as the final letter of the Sanscrit bhy-dm, but the initial la-
bial converted into a nasal.
VI. The dual-ending bkydtn is also related to the Sanscrit bhts, which
it the mark of the plural instrumental. This latter termination.
in Zend becomes bit, has settled down in Latin into the case-sign for
the dative and ablative ; as, for example, in no-bit and vo-bis, where bis
takes the place of but, that comes from %*. In Lithuanian, on the
INSTRUMENTAL, ETC., DUAL. 233
other hand, mis (the labial being changed to a nasal) is peculiar
instrumental, and pati-nns answers to the Sanscrit pati-Lhm and the
Zend pat i- Ills.
VII. The old epic ending in Greek in $i and <j>tv belongs to this part
of the subject. On the supposition that $iv is the earlirr form of the
two, we may easily hazard the conjecture that it arose from ptf, just as
we trace fiev from /zef in the first person plural of verbs ; which <
in //ff, moreover, corresponds to the Sanscrit mas and the Latin mug.
In accordance with this idea, the old Greek form $1$ will answer to the
Sanscrit bhis, and to the Latin bis in nobis and vobis. It is highly prob-
able, too, that originally a difference existed between $L and <j>iv, and
that the former belonged to the singular, the latter to the plural, having
the same analogy between them as bi and bis in the Latin forms ti-bi and
vo-bis, and mi and mis in the Lithuanian aki-mi, " by the eye," and aki-
mis, " by the eyes."
VIII. That the endings <j>i and $iv belong especially to the dative is
well known. The locative and instrumental use of the same termina-
tions in such forms as avrotyt, ftvpriyi, PIT/QLV, is easily explained on the
principle that the common dative itself has assumed a locative and in-
strumental relation. That <j>t and <piv, however, have at any time a
strong genitive meaning may very safely be denied ; since when prepo-
sitions, that are otherwise construed in Greek with a genitive, appear also
with cases ending in <f>i or <j>iv, there is no need whatever for us to re-
gard these last as genitives, or as supplying the place of a genitive. All
prepositions that are construed in. Greek with a genitive would be much
better joined with an ablative or locative, if such cases existed in Greek.
Even the suffix $ev, which is commonly regarded as supplying the place
of the genitive ending, is, strictly speaking, of genuine ablative significa-
tion, expressing as it does the departing from a place.
IX. The Greek dual-ending in iv appears to be a curtailing of the
Sanscrit form bhydm, by throwing out the initial labial, as, in the latter
language, vrikais is formed from vrikdbis, and then by contracting yam
into tv, just as, in Sanscrit again, ista is said for yasta, from yag, " to
offer," and in Zend im, " haec," is formed from iyam. The third de-
clension in Greek might, by its dual termination, as in daifidv-otv, give
rise to the suspicion that oiv, and not iv, was the true ending. The
latter, however, appears in both the first and second declensions, where
iv, and not otv, attaches itself to the final vowel of the stem ; as, Movtra-
tv, Uyo-iv, &c. Hence, in the third declension, wo are to regard the
o before iv merely in the light of a connecting vowel between t:
and case-ending.
X. On the principle that the dual-ending in tv is contracted from bhy-
U2
234: NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PLURAL.
dm, we discover also the origin of the tv appended to the dative plural of
certain pronouns, namely, r/fi-lv, vu-lv t o<j>-iv. This latter iv appears to
have been of very early origin, since we find that the Sanscrit has bhyam
for the ending of the dative plural of the pronouns of the first and second
person, but in all other words bhyas. From this bhyam we come as
easily to tv, as from the dual termination bhyam. The accusative use of
this same ending, in such forms as fiiv and viv t may be explained in two
ways : either by supposing that the original dative force of the termina-
tion had become forgotten, or that the analogy of the accusative ending
in v was followed, pi-v, vi~v.
Genitive and Locative.
I. These two cases have in Sanscrit the common ending os, which
may possibly be connected with the genitive ending of the singular.
Thus we have vrikay-ds, paty-6s, tanu-bs.
II. In Zend, this ending seems to have disappeared, and its place to
have been supplied by the plural. So also in Lithuanian, where, for ex-
ample, awj-u is both the dual and the plural genitive.
PLURAL.
Nominative and Vocative.
I. Masculines and feminines in Sanscrit have the nominative plural
ending in as, with which case, as in the sister tongues, the vocative is
identical in all the declensions. This plural termination in as appears
to be nothing more than an enlargement of the * which forms the case-
sign of the nominative singular, in order that by such enlargement the
idea of plurality might be symbolically, as it were, expressed.
II. The neuter, as in the singular and dual, so also in the plural,
wants the letter *, which would seem, therefore, to have too much of a
personal reference to harmonize with this gender.
III. In Zend, as becomes 6, but before the particles ca and cit it
changes merely to as'. In Greek it appears under the form ff, though
with some limitations ; in Latin it makes cs ; in Lithuanian, when the
stem ends in r, the termination of the nominative plural is es, otherwise
merely . Hence we have in Sanscrit dufntar-as ; in Zend, dughdhar-
at'-ca; in Greek, dvyarip-ec, ; in Lithuanian, dukter-es ; with all which
we may compare the Latin matr-es.
IV. The masculine pronominal stems in Sanscrit, Zend, and Gothic
that end in a do not take the full nominative sign, but, in place of this,
they lengthen the stem by the addition of an i, which vowel, on being
blended with the a of the stem, becomes in Sanscrit c, and in Zend e or
6i. Hence we have in Sanscrit te, in Zend te t and in Gothic Mat, all
ACCUSATIVE PLURAL.
signifying " these," whereas the feminine forms of the same case and
number are tds, tdo, and thds, corresponding to the masculine forms
just mentioned in the Greek TO/ (Doric for oi). In Greek and Latin,
however, this i, which is added to the stem in Sanscrit, Zend, and Goth-
ic only in masculine pronominal themes, takes a much wider range, and
is to be found connected with all other steins of both the first and sec-
ond declensions. Hence we have X^P at y MKOI, for ^wpa-ff, Av/co-ec ;
and lupi (from lupoi), terra, (from terrai), for lupo-es, terra-es.
V. Stems in i and u have in Sanscrit the guna, and hence we find
patay-as and sunav-as for paty-as and sunv-as. This guna has been
preserved in the Gothic, though in its weakened form i, which before the
vowel u changes into a j. Hence in Gothic we have sunj-us, " sons,"
for suni-us, from sunau-s. In the Gothic i-stems the guna-i blends
with the i of the stem and becomes long i (written ei) ; as, gastei-s, from
gasli.
VI. Neuters in Zend, as in the sister languages of Europe, have a
short a for the ending, the remains, in all probability, of the fuller form
as, after the s had been thrown away as having too much of personal ref-
erence to harmonize with the neuter. This a remains also in the accu-
sative, since masculines and feminines most commonly have as for the
termination of this case.
VII. Corresponding to these Zend-European neuters in a the Sanscrit
has neuters in i, which latter vowel is evidently a weakening merely of
an earlier a. The end-vowel, moreover, of the stem is lengthened, and
between this and the case-ending a euphonic n is inserted ; whence we
have ddnd-n-i, vdri-n-i, madhu-n-i. . Stems ending in a consonant, n and
r excepted, place before the same a nasal, and lengthen the preceding
vowel ; as, vacdn-si. With this insertion of i we may compare the very
isolated neuter-forms which appear in the Latin qua (quai) and h(tc
(haic). But the analogy is most striking between qua and the Sanscrit
Are, formed from ka-\-i, which appears as a dual, but was originally also a
plural form.
Accusative.
I. Stems ending with a short vowel in Sanscrit affix an n and lengthen
the final vowel of the stem; hence we have vrikd-n, pati-n, xunu-n.
This n in the accusative plural is a curtailment of the full form ns, which
has remained fully in the Gothic ; as, vulfa-ns, gasti-ns, sunu-ns. The
Greek, on the other hand, has retained the sibilant, but converted the v
into a f ; as, Aikoi-f. The form Aw/couf, therefore, bears the same anal-
ogy to.Ar/covf that rvTTTovai does to rvnTovai (formed from n'nrorr/.)
II. For 7ro<Ti-af, IxOv-ac, and the like, however, we cannot expect that
236 ACCUSATIVE PLURAL.
any such old forms as iroat-vc, ixOv-v( ever existed. In the case of their
i and v stems, the Greeks constantly follow the same rule as in stems
ending with a consonant, namely, by appending ag , as in Sanscrit, where
we have padas corresponding to the Greek Trodof .
III. This a* for ns may be compared with the Ionic anw, aro, for
vrai, VTO, a form which has extended itself from cases where the vocali-
zing of n was absolutely necessary ; as, ireireidarat, rcrpu^arai, for
irEireiOvrai, rerpd^vrat, even to those where v could very properly have
been allowed to remain ; as, ireiravaTat, KeK^iarai, for TrcTravvrat, /ce/c-
Atvrcw.
IV. Feminine stems ending in a vowel follow in Sanscrit the analogy
of consonant stems, with the suppression, however, of the a, and they
have therefore * for as or ns. Feminines ending in a short vowel length-
en this, in order to compensate, very probably, for the suppression of the
a ; hence we have priti-s from prity-as, and tanu-s from tanu-as.
Something like an analogy with this may be found in the Greek forms
of the accusative plural ending in tf and vf, but these are not limited to
feminines, and the same terminations occur in the nominative also for
i-ef and v-ef .
V. The Zend follows, like the Greek, in its i and u stems, the apalo-
gy of consonant stems ; while in feminine stems in i and u we sometimes
find a form corresponding to the Sanscrit in i-s, u-s ; as, for example,
gairi-s, " mountains ;" peretu-s, " bridges." Masculine stems ending in
a have in the accusative an ; as, im-an, " hos ;" mazistan, " maximos."
VI. In modern Persian, animate objects form the plural in an, and in-
animate in ha ; as, merd, " a man," plural, merd-an, " men ;" murg, " a
bird," murg-an, " birds ;" ruz, " a day," ruz~ha, " days ;" khiwan, " a
table," khiwan-ha, " tables."
VII. A peculiar neuter suffix in the singular number of S
nouns is found, as has already been remarked, in as. This occurs still
more frequently in Zend, and forms, in this latter language, its plural in
ha. The modern Persian Aa, with its vowel lengthened, stands in close
analogy with this. So also in the modern German many striking resem-
blances to the modern Persian may easily be found. That the German
tcorter ("words"), however, shows an analogy in termination with the
Persian tui, can only be discovered through the medium of the Sanscrit
and Zend. And this discovery is readily made when we call to mind
that the old High-German, in its earliest periods, almost continually
changed into r, and as frequently converted a into i, which became at
a later period c.
PLURAL CAs; 237
Instrumental.
The Instrumental plural has already been referred to under the head
of the instrumental dual. In Sanscrit it ends in bhis ; in Zend, in
in Lithuanian, in mis ; in Gothic, in m ; in Greek, in $t or <f>iv ; in Latin,
in bis, &c.
Dative and Ablative.
I. The suffixes of both these cases have already been referred to. In
the Latin, all that remains of the termination bus in the first and second
declensions is merely the letter s ; as, penni-s, terri-s, lupi-s, domini-s ;
except forms in a-bus, presently to be mentioned.
II. The vowel t in terris, lupis, &c., belongs to the stem, not to the
case-sign. Lupi-s, in fact, is for lupo-bus, according to the analogy of
ambo-bus, duo-bus. From o-bus, the language passed over to i-bus, for
the purpose of lightening the end-vowel of the stem, just as in the be-
ginning of some compounds we find multi-plcx for multu-plex or midto-
flex,
III. The form i-bus remained in the vulgar dialect of the lower orders,
and hence we have in Gruter (2, 9, 24: 6, 46, 9: 5, 618, 3: &c.)
such forms as dibits, diibus, filibus, parvibus, &c. (Compare also En-
nius, ap. Charts., p. 4.)
IV. In the first declension the form a-bus has remained in several in-
stances as a convenient mode of distinguishing between feminines and
masculines. No traces of i-bus are found in this declension. Still, how-
ever, we can hardly suppose that the language passed at once from a-bus
to i-s. It is far more probable that a-bus weakened the stem-vowel d
into t, and that this i was subsequently lengthened as a compensation for
the removal of bu. Hence terrl-s arose from tern-bus, for terra-bus ;
just as the verb malo arose from mavolo.
V. The Erse language makes aibh the termination of the dative plural,
and this striking analogy connects that language at once with the case-
system of the other European tongues. Thus we have, in Erse, ghri-
anai-bh, " to" or " with suns ;" fearai-bh, " to" or " with men."
Genitive.
I. The Genitive plural in Sanscrit, in the case of substantives and ad-
jectives, ends in dm ; in Zend, in anm. The Greek wv connects itself
at once with the primitive am., just as, in verbs, e6i6-uv answers to the
Sanscrit adad-dm. The Latin has preserved the final m unaltered, but
has shortened, through the influence of this letter, the preceding vowel ;
238 PLURAL CASES.
and hence we have, in this latter language, pcd-um, whereas the corre-
sponding form in Sanscrit is pad-am.
II. The Lithuanian terminates the genitive plural in ti, rejecting the
m, and in this rejection of m the German agrees with it. In Gothic, the
m in like manner disappears, and the vowel that remains assumes the
form either of an e or an d. The d appears in feminine o and n stems.
III. Stems ending in a vowel, with the exception, generally speaking,
of those that are monosyllabic, insert, in Sanscrit, a euphonic n between
the case-ending and the stem ; and when this is done, the end-vowel of
the stem, if short, is lengthened. This insertion of n appears to be of
very early date, since the Zend participates in the same, though in a
more limited degree ; namely, in stems that end in a and a ; as, vehrka-
n-anm, gihva-n-anm. Analogous, in a striking degree, to this is the
genitive of the corresponding class of words in old High-German, in
old Saxon, and in Anglo-Saxon, which genitive ends in d-n-6 or e-n-a.
Thus we have, in old High- German, kepo-n-d ; in old Saxon, geb6-n-d ;
in Anglo-Saxon, gife-n-a.
IV. Pronouns of the third person have in Sanscrit the genitive plural
ending in sdm instead of dm. It is probable that this sdm was the
earlier form of the two, and that dm is merely the ending of this ending.
The High-German has here, as in many other instances, changed the
sibilant to an r. The Latin does the same, as in istorum, istarum, (Sec.
V. This rum, in the termination of the genitive plural, has passed
over, in Latin, from the pronominal inflection to the first, second, and
fifth declensions. And this was the more easily effected, since these
pronouns of the third person are all in the genitive plural of either the
second or first declension. Forms, however, occasionally present them-
selves, especially in earlier Latin, which show that the language was not
always equally favourable towards the reception of this ending in rum,
and hence we have such genitives plural as the following, sucium, dcum
amphorum, drachmum, agricolum, &c.
VI. The Latin rum and Sanscrit sdm would lead us to expect ouv in
Greek. Such, however, is not the case. But still the forms that do
occur in u-uv and E-UV, such as atro-wv, avre-uv, dyopu-uv, dyopt-wv,
point very plainly to a consonant that has fallen out. It remains a ques-
tion, therefore, whether a a has been dropped in every instance or only
a o in pronouns, and in other words a v, as in ftcifa, from peifcva. If
this latter view be correct, XVKCJV will be for ILVKO-V-UV, ^upouv for p-
a-v-uv ; but TUV for roauv, and rduv for raouv.
PLURAL CASES. 239
Locative.
I. The characteristic of the locative plural in Sanscrit is su, which is
converted also, on some occasions, into shu. For this in Zend we have
shu and hu. The primitive form in Sanscrit, however, was swa, from
which comes shwa in Zend, which is more usually employed for shu
and fiu.
II. The primitive ending swa is identical with the reflex possessive
stem swa. And as in Latin si-bi points to an earlier form su-bi, which
we would be led to expect from su-i ; and ti-bi to an earlier form tu-bi,
which we may compare with the Sanscrit tu-bhyam, so the Greek dative
locative ending in ci (or oiv) points at once to the Sanscrit su.
III. Stems in a append to this vowel, as in many other instances, an
t, and from the blending of a-\-i arises e, to which the Greek oc corre-
sponds, as in Atkoi-<Tf, Sanscrit vrike-shu. The i in Greek passes over
from these stems to others in a and 77, and either appears in its full force
or as a subscript i. Hence we have ITAaraiuffiv, 'Ohvpiriaat, 'A.&TJV-
jjai, &c.
IV. In Lithuanian, the endings of the locative plural are for the mas-
culine se, for the feminine sa. This sa appears to have arisen from swa,
by rejecting the w.
240
NUMERALS.
I
I
2
I
I
s
I
J
if
11
i
b
flarl
ill 11
o ^3 P- 45
l.f ii
I o $$'i % I
If i II '? I 1
^ ^'
' f f
:1 f S
SS
,- S -^
111!
rtoSEw>wrt
rf ^3 >,^0<U<t
J3 O 0.9JwOS*n3T3H3
If
^ 3 SffBQfLiBa
II i 1 11 1 fl 1 1
- -a
ill !
-f J 1 1 11 1
a ffi -fl is 1 ^ !s
S rS _o ** Jc -S
S ] If 1 11 I i
4 I
111
I * 1
II
f i!iiiirt
-g g,lilltJ
CD t^ 00 05 O
NUMERALS.
241
Remark*.
I. A very slight inspection of the preceding table will show that nearly
all the words contained in them are derived by each language from some
of its cognates, or by all from a common source. 1
II. Certain consonants, or certain classes of consonants, in one lan-
guage, are almost uniformly substitutes for certain others in a different
language. And one of the most striking facts that appears on compa-
ring these lists of numerals is, that in some of the languages of Western
Europe guttural or hard palatine consonants abound, and take the place
of the sibilants, soft palatines, and dentals, and even of the labial con-
sonants which are found in the more eastern and in some northern lan-
guages.
III. The following examples will prove the truth of this remark.
Numeral 4.
chatur,
Sanscrit, \ N
chetyre,
Russian, > ch
chehar,
Persian, 5
TETTCLOEf,
TTitTVpCf,
pedwar,
Greek, > T
J 7T
Welsh, )
( q, quatuor, in Latin.
bec0me lk,keathair,inErse.
petor,
Oscan, J P
fidwor,
Gothic, \ f
fiuuar,
Teutonic, J J
Numeral 5.
pancha,
Sanscrit, p and ch ^
penj,
Persian, p and j
Greek, TT and T
, ( q and q, quinque, Latin.
irtfnre,
ae ( k and g, kuig, Ewe.
pump,
Welsh, p and p
fimf,
Gothic, f and f J
Numeral 6.
shash,
shesh,
sex,
saihs,
Sanscrit, sh and sh ^
Persian, sh and sh
Latin, s and x
Gothic, s and s ,
f ch and ch ) chwech,
^become < guttural, J Welsh.
( (') and f, If, Greek.
Numeral 7.
saptan,
septem,
saith,
Sanscrit, s and pt
Latin, s and pt
Welsh, s and th
, ( s and cht, Erse.
become < h and ft, Persian,
i ( (') and TTT, Greek.
Numeral 8.
ash tan,
hesht,
wyth,
\>-JS r &
,,..,' , l I ct, octo, i^atin.
Welsh ' th ' I* ahtan, Gothic.
1. Prichard, Eastern Origin of the Celtic Aari<ww, p. 40, seq.
X
242
NUMERALS.
Numeral 10.
i
de/ca,
Greek.
c,
dec em,
Latin.
dashan,
ch, deich,
g dejr,
Erse.
Welsh.
h,
tchan,
Teutonic.
h,
taihun,
Gothic.
Numeral 20.
(
g.
viginti,
Latin.
vinshati,
Sanscrit, sh becomes -I
g>
e,
ugain,
el/cotTi,
Welsh.
Greek.
I
.ch,
fichid,
Erse.
Numeral 30.
trinshat,
Sanscrit, sh becomes j *'
rpiaKovra,
triginta,
Greek.
Latin.
Numeral 100.
/c,
/carov t
Greek.
satam,
sad,
c,
c,
E
centum,
cant,
kett,
Latin.
Welsh.
Erse.
h,
hunt,
Gothic.
From the data here afforded the following inferences have been de-
duced. 1
I. The Sanscrit, and some other languages holding a near relation to
it in the form of words, abound in sibilants and soft palatine consonants.
They have these letters in several instances in which cognate words in
other languages have in the place of them gutturals, or hard palatines,
or dentals.
II. The Greek substitutes for the sibilants and soft palatines of the
Sanscrit chiefly the tenues of the hard palatine or guttural class and of
the dental, namely, AC and r. In several instances the Greek, particular-
ly the JEolic, has TT in the place of the Sanscrit soft palatine, or ch ; as
in Tre/ZTre for pancha, iriavpa (KETvpal) for chatur,
III. The Welsh makes nearly the same substitutions as the ^Bolic
Greek. It puts p for the soft palatine ch in the instances before men-
tioned. It substitutes more generally hard palatines or gutturals (either
, i. e., Jt, or ch) for the soft palatines and sibilants of the Sanscrit. It
has the aspirate guttural ch instead of the aspirate sibilant sh. It has th
in the place of ct and pt.
IV. The Erse substitutes for the sibilants and soft palatines of the
Sanscrit, gutturals, as the hard c or k, as also in some instances the gut-
tural aspirate ch.
I. Prichard, f. e.
NUMERALS, 243
V. The Latin displays nearly the same phenomena as the Erse. It
puts c or y, equivalent to k, in the place of the letters above mentioned.
Neither the Erse nor the Latin adopts the p of the Welsh and JEolic
Greek, but they have c or q instead of it, as in other instances where the
Sanscrit has ch.
VI. The Gothic and other Teutonic dialects resemble the Welsh and
the ^olic Greek, except in the circumstance that they prefer aspirate
consonants, as finfe for TT^ZTTC or pump ; fidwor for pedwar or Trervp. ; thrt
for tri. They likewise substitute the simple h in the place of palatines
and sibilants in other languages, as may be seen in a variety of instances,
as in the numerals, 6, 8, 9, 10, 100. The Persic and the Greek lan-
guages use the aspirate in some instances in a similar manner.
More Special Analogies in the Cardinal Numbers.
1.
I. In designating the number one a great diversity prevails among the
Indo-Germanic tongues, owing to the circumstance of pronouns of the
third person being employed to express it, and the wide scope thus af-
forded by the early richness of their forms.
II. The Sanscrit eka, the comparative of which we have reappearing
in Greek in the form /carepof, appears to have arisen from the joining
of the demonstrative stem c with the interrogative ka ; which same ka
unites likewise with api, " also," forming kdpi, " any one," " whosoever."
III. The Gothic am'*, from the theme aina, the same as the Ger-
man eincr, connects itself in origin with the Sanscrit defective pronoun
ena, " this one." To this same pronominal stem we may trace the old
Latin form oinos, the accusative of which, oinom, appears in the inscrip-
tion found in the tomb of the Scipios. From this oinos comes the later
unus t by the common change of the old o into u, with a lengthening of
the vowel at the same time, in order to compensate for the i which is
thrown out.
IV. Besides the analogy pointed out in the preceding paragraph, the
Latin unus also shows a surprising resemblance to the Sanscrit Una-s,
which properly signifies " less" (compare the German wen-ig, " little ;"
ictn-igcr, " less"), and is placed before higher numbers in order to ex-
press diminution by unity ; as, una-vinsati, " nineteen," in Latin unde-
viginti ; una-trinsat, "twenty-nine," in Latin undctriginta, &c.
V. The Greek Iv connects itself very probably with this same Sanscrit
ena, and has lost its final vowel, like the Gothic aina, in the nominative
masculine, namely, am'-*. The Greek oZof, " alone," in Latin unicus,
comes in all likelihood from an old form ou'Of, analogous to the old Latin
244 NUMERALS.
2.
I. The theme in Sanscrit is dwa, which is naturally inflected with the
dual endings. The Gothic has in place of this twa, and as it dispenses
with a dual, it inflects this theme like a plural, Nom. twai, twos, twa;
Dat. twaim ; Accus. twans, thwos, twa. With twai the form bai, " both,"
connects itself from the root la. Dat. bairn ; Accus. bans. This ba is
supposed to come from the Sanscrit ubha, stem obo.
II. In Greek and Latin, dvu, 6vo, and duo, have changed the old w
into u, but have not parted with the end-vowel of the stem ; Svu agrees
with the masculine dwa, found in the Vedas. In Sanscrit, the a of dwa
becomes weakened into t at the beginning of compounds ; as, dicimatri,
" having two mothers." The Greek, where such a form as dFi is im-
possible, employs 61 ; as, diprjTcjp. The Zend and Latin agree very re-
markably in altering this dwi, since they throw away the d, and change w
into b by a hardening pronunciation. Hence we have in Zend bipaitis-
tana, and in Latin biceps, bidens, &c.
III. In old Norse we find swar, which appears in thriswar, " three
times," and with which is connected the syllable ce, in the English twice,
thrice, &c. This swar may be traced to var, which corresponds to the
Sanscrit vdra, and this latter indicates " time." Thus we have ekavdra,
" once," and vdramvdram, " repeatedly." Now from vdra comes the
Persian bar, also referring to time ; as, bar-i, " once ;" and from this
same source, in all probability, is derived the Latin termination her, ap-
pended to the names of months ; as, Septem-ber, &c., meaning literally
the seventh time-portion of the year ; Octo-ber, the eighth ; Novcm-ber,
the ninth, &c.
3.
I. The theme in Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and Slavonic is
tri, for which we have in Zend and Gothic thri.
II. The declension of this theme is in most of these languages quite
regular, except that in Gothic, on account of the word being a mono-
syllable, the i before the vowel-ending does not disappear, but becomes
ij, and hence we have the genitive thrij-c, and nominative neuter thrij-a.
III. The Sanscrit and Zend, however, have, the former tri, the lat-
ter thri, only as a designation for the masculine and neuter. In the
feminine they employ the Sanscrit titra* for /i*ar<w, from the root tisar,
and the Zend tisaru.
4.
I. The Sanscrit feminine theme is r.hatatar, which follows the analogy
of tittar mentioned in the preceding paragraph, and the resemblance be-
NUMERALS.
tween the two is so striking as to lead us at once to the supposition that
chatasar is formed from tisar (itself a weakening of tasar) by the addi-
tion of the particle cha, " and." Viewing tasar as identical with the
demonstrative stem in Sanscrit, we may obtain a glimpse of the earliest
and most natural mode of counting ; namely, it, (his, that, attd-thts, &c.
II. The Gothic fidvdr connects itself with the Sanscrit ckatvur by the
ordinary change of consonants. This form chatvdr is the stronger, and
chatur the weaker, one in Sanscrit. The Lithuanian keturi may also be
compared with the same ; but still more clearly the Latin quatuor (i. e.,
chatvor}. The Greek rerrap-cf (reaaap-ec.) connects itself with the Sans-
crit chatvdr-as, the nominative masculine of chatvdr. In Pali the form
is cha/tdr-d, and both this and the Greek rerrapef gain the second t by
assimilation.
III. The Zend converts the softer form chatur into chathru at the
beginning of compounds, which agrees in a very striking manner with
the Latin quadru in quadrupes, quadruple!, &c.
IV. The adverbial s, by which are formed in Sanscrit dwis, " twice,"
iris, " thrice," is dropped in chatur, " four times," for chaturs. The
Latin drops the s in both three and four ; as, ter, quater.
5.
I. The Sanscrit-Zend panchan is the theme, and the genders were
not distinguished in this and the following numerals. Moreover, we
have the nominative, accusative, and vocative always in the singular
neuter form, whereas the other cases show plural endings ; as, genitive
panr.hdndm, in Zend panchananm. This irregularity in inflection pre-
pares us for a total want of it in the Greek irivre and Latin quinque.
II. It is also worthy of remark, that the final nasal in panchan appears
in none of the sister European tongues, whereas the n of saptan, navan,
and dasan is found also in Lithuanian and Gothic. The final n in the
Sanscrit and Zend numerals was properly a later addition, and the origi-
nal termination would seem to have been cha, " and," which occurred
as a prefix in the case of the number four in Sanscrit. Analogous to
this are both the Latin quinque, ending with quc, " and ;" and the Greek
Trevre, ending with the enclitic re. In pan-cha, therefore, the root pan
will be euphonic for pam, and the final m will be the neuter case-sign,
while pa, as a pronoun, will be identical with ka, to which we havi: re-
ferred in our remarks on the numeral one. This interchange of p and k
has already been alluded to, and we may compare the old Latin form
pidpid for quidquid, as well as iroloc, for KOIOC., &c.
III. From what has been premised, it would appear that the numeral
five, when traced to its origin, meant, " and one," indicating the cue,
X2
246 NUMERALS.
namely, which, on being added to four, made up the number five. We
may, however, derive patichan at once from the Sanscrit pani, " the
hand," and make the term refer to the number of the fingers on the hand,
just as the word finger is to be traced, through the Gothic figgr* (i. e.,
fingrs) to the numeral /tin/, i. e.,Jimf, " five."
6.
I. For the Sanscrit shash, the Zend has cswas, and it is highly probable,
inasmuch as sh does not properly commence a syllable in Sanscrit, but
requires.a k to precede it, that the original form in this latter language
was kyhash.
II. In Latin, Greek, and German the guttural appears to have been
inverted, and hence we have in Latin sex, evidently inverted from xes.
7.
I. The Zend has haptan, which closely resembles the Greek form ;
the Lithuanian, on the other hand, has septyni, and the Slavonic scdmi.
The m in septem and sedmi appears to have come in from the ordinal
number, which in Sanscrit is saptama, nom. masc. saptama-s> and in
Slavonic sedmyi. The same remark will apply to osmi, " eight," and to
the Latin novem and decent, in Sanscrit navama-s, dasama-s, " ninth"
and " tenth."
II. It is not probable that the final n of the Sanscrit cardinal foims
changes to m in septem, &c. The change of m to n is very frequent,
especially at the end of words, in which case it becomes in Greek a ne-
cessary alteration. But the change from n to m is hardly ever met with.
8.
The termination au in asht-au reminds us very strongly of the av in
the Latin octav-us, of the oF in the Greek 6yooF-of, for oy(Joof, and of
the ow in the Teutonic dative ahtow-en.
I. The Lithuanian has deieyni, the Slavonic devyati. Both of these
appear, at first view, altogether different from the forms that occur in
the other sister tongues. On a closer inspection, however, we will find
that they all agree, the nasal letter being converted in the Lithuanian
and Slavonic numerals into the medial, just as we have 0por6f in Greek
from the same source with the Sanscrit mrtla-s, with which compare the
Latin mart-uus.
II. Etymologists deduce the Sanscrit naran from Tiara, " new," a
indicating a new number after eight ; and they refer, in support of this
ctymolony, to the Latin iccundut, " second," from icquor.
NUMERALS.
247
10.
The Gothic taihun involves two peculiarities of that language. In
the first place, the letters A and r never allow a pure i or u to precede
them in Gothic, but always call in the aid of the guna, converting, there-
fore, i into at, and u into au. In the next place, the old a does not every-
where remain unaltered in Gothic, but is frequently, through the influ-
ence of a liquid that follows after, converted into u, not only in the radical
syllables, but also in endings.
20100.
I. The increase by tens is expressed in Sanscrit by sati, sat, or ti t
and in Zend by saiti, sata, or ti. The words to which these terminations
are appended are substantives with singular endings.
II. The analogy is very striking in Greek and Latin as regards the
termination ti, for which we have TI, ra, ti, ta. Thus,
Sanscrit.
Zend.
OH*.
Lit in.
20.
vingsati,
visaiti,
el/cart, 1
viginti.
30.
(ring sat,
thrisata,
TplUKOVTd,
tnginta.
40.
50.
chatvanngsat,
panchasat,
chathwaresata,
panchasata,
TeaaapaKOvra,
irevriJKOVTa,
guadraginta.
quinquaginta.
60.
shashti,
csvasti,
kt-TJKOVTa,
sexaginla.
70.
saplati,
haptditi,
t66ofi7JKOVTa,
srptuaginta.
80.
asiti,
* * *
bydoTjKOVTa,
octogmta.
90.
navatt,
navaiti,
kvV7jK.ovra,
nonagmta.
100.
sata-m,
sate-m,
i-K.a.To-v,
centu-m.
III. The terminations sati, sat,sata, and ti, are shortened from dasati,
dasat, and dasata, which are themselves derivatives from dasan, " ten."
To the same dasan are we to trace sata, the theme of sata-m, " a hun-
dred," and with this sata-m the Greek /carov connects itself, fox i-Karov
is literally " one hundred." So the Latin centu-m points to the same
source, and is, moreover, the connecting link for the Gothic hund and old
High-German hunt, the k or hard c of centum being expressed by the
aspirate.
1. Old form for UKOOI.
PRONOUNS.
Tabular View of the Ordinal Numbers.
Feminine Gender. 1
Suucrit.
Zend.
Greek (itor J
uUi:
Gothic.
Lilhuanuu.
1st
pratiiaiiKi
frathema
TTpCJTU
priina
fruma
pinna
2d
dwitiy&
bitya
devrepd
secunda
anthara
antra
3d
tritiya
thritya
TP'LTU.
tertia
thridjo'
trecia
4th
chaturtha
tuirya
TSTupra
quarta
(tidvordo') 2
ketwirta
5th
panchama
pugdha
TrqtZTrru
quinta
fimfto'
penkta
6th
shashtha
cstwa
l/crd
sexta
saihst6'
>/.( >/lU
7th
saptama
haptatha
efidojia.
septima
(sibundo')
sekma
8th
ashtama
astema
by6oa
octava
ahtudo')
aszma
9th
navamet
nauma
Kvvu.ro,
nona
niundo'
dewinta
10th
dasama
dasema
6EKU.TO.
decima
taihundo'
deszimta
llth
ekadasa
aevandasa
EvdEKUTU
undecima
(ainlifto')
wienolikta
20th vmsatitama|Visauitema
einooTu
vicesima
I. The Latin prima appears to come at once from the Sanscrit prath-
amd, by changing a to i and dropping the middle syllable. The pro, of
pralhamd points directly to the ^Eolic trpat for Tr/ao, and to the Latin
pree.
II. The Gothic fruma shows nearly the same analogy to prathama as
the Latin prima and the Lithuanian pirma.
PRONOUNS.
Tabular View of the Personal Pronouns I and THOU.
Singular.
Sanscrit.
Zend.
Greek.
Latin.
Gothic.
Lithuanian.
Sluouic.
Q ( aham
azem
kyuv
ego
ik
asz
az
>|J { tuam
turn
TOVV
tu
thu
tu
ty
^ ( mam, ma
manm, ma
//
me
mik
manen
mja
^J { twam, twa
thwanm, thwa
re
te
thuk
tawen
tja
4 \ ma ^ 4
\ twaya
manimi
tawimi
mnoju
toboju
( mahyam
kfiiv
mihi
mis
man
mnje, mi
**' J me"
lilt', IIIUl
fioi
P | tubhyam
rdv
tibi
thus
taw
V thwe, te
thwoi, t6, toi
TOI
/'mat
me(d)
2 J mattas
kfiidtv
<J ^ twat
thwat
te(d)
V twattas
otdev
( mama
mana
flOV
UK i
meina
manens
mene
J' J me
me, inni
") tawa
tawa
rriJ
tui
theina
tawens
tebe
Uwe, te
thw6i, tfi, toi
v ( mayi
J J twayi
thwahmt
mei
tui
manije'
tavMj,-
mnje
1. The feminine fender U selected M ihowlng the different analogic* more clearly
2. auppoced Gothic forms, conitructed according to the analogy of the old II.-Ger.
PRONOUNS.
249
Dual.
Sanscrit.
Zend.
Greek.
Laliu.
t.olhic.
Jjlhunin.
Siavoulc.
i avaiiL
vui
Vlt
inuddu
m. va : f. vje
\ yuvam
o<j>C)i
judu
" favfiin
ugkis
mudu
m. va : f. vje
o 1 nau
vui
4j ^j yuvam
igqwis
judu
V vain
vao
a^wi
*; ( avabhyam
riama
( yuvabhyam
vama
{dvabhyam
v<5iv
ugkis
mum dwiem
Duma
nau
vuiv
nama
yuvabhyam
oQtiiv
igqwis
jum dwiem
vama
vam
vao
o<j>CJiv
vama
-2 ( avabhyam
<J < yuvabhyam
{avayos
ugkara
mumu dwieju
naju
nau
VtJiV
naju
yuvayos
igqwara
jumu dwieju
vajQ
vim
vao
otytiiv
vaju
c5 { avayos
j < yuvayos
vaju
vaju
Plural.
Suacrit.
Zend.
Greek.
Latin.
Gothic.
Lithuanian.
Slav.
f vayam
vaem
veis
g 1 asmd
U^/XCf
nos
veis
mes
my
^ S yuyam
yuschem
Vyushme
yCs
v^/zej-
vos
yus
JUS
vy
{asman
UflflE
unsis
mus
ny
nas
no
nos
yusman
vf^e
izvis
jus
vy
vas
v6
vos
-J ( asmabhis
nobis
mumls
nami
^ ( yushmabhis
vobis
j umis
vami
f asmabhy am
unfit (v)
unsis
mumus
nam
*j I nas
no
nobis
nam
p ] yushmabhyam
yusmaeibya
vHfii (v)
izvis
jumu s
vam
Uas
vobis
vam
_; ( asmat
nobis
^ \ yushmat
yusmat
vobis
/ asmakam
ahmakem
tifj.fieuv
unsara
m&sfi
nas
ts \ nas
no
nostri
Q*J | vusmakam
yusmakem
vfifieuv
izvara
jusu
vas
Uas
v6
vestri
o ( asmasu
^3 ( yushmasu
mususe
jususe
nas
vas |
250 PRONOUNS.
Remarks.
I. The Indo- Germanic tongues all agree, after a remarkable manner,
in forming the nominative singular of the pronoun of the first person from
a theme altogether unlike that whence the oblique cases are deduced.
The am in aham is only a termination, as in twam, and in the European
languages, with the exception of the Greek and Latin, all traces of this
ending disappear. In ^Eolic Greek we have tyuv, which comes nearer
the Sanscrit than the later form kyu. In the pronoun of the second per-
son, all the European tongues, including the regular Greek and the Latin,
drop the ending am. It occurs, however, in dialective varieties, such
as the Boeotian row, and the Doric and Laconic TVVIJ and row;/, where
traces of the am are very apparent.
II. The oblique cases have in Sanscrit ma for the theme of the pro-
noun of the first person, and twa for that of the second. These themes
in some cases coalesce with an i, and become me and twe. With the
stem ma the Greek stem MO connects itself, and forms (he basis of the
genitive pov and dative pol. The e in EMO arises from the strong ten-
dency in Greek to prefix a vowel to stems beginning with a consonant ;
as, for example, in ovopa, bdove, b<j>pv, thaxvf, where in Sanscrit we
have nama, danta-s, bhru-s, laghu-s. In MO or 'EMO, the o interchanges
with e, and hence we have ifielo, tpedev, for kp.olo, kpo-Bev (compare
iroOev, ahho-dev, and the like), as also e/zeo for kpoo, and kpev, /zev, for
kfiov t fiov. In the ^Eolo-Doric forms ifievf, i/iov?, the a is a later ad-
dition (as in reOf, reovc) and was brought in as a characteristic of the
genitive, after the old genitive sign s, which in the o-declension stood
not at the end, but in the middle (compare TOIO for ro<Ho), had complete-
ly disappeared.
III. The theme of the pronoun of the second person, namely, twa, as-
sumes in Greek two forms, according as the a or to is dropped. In the
former case we have 2Y, in the latter ZO, and the o is interchanged
with c in oelo, oiQev, and the like.
IV. The Gothic weakens the a in ma to an i, and contracts the va of
tva to u, whence arise the two themes MI and THU. The Latin, like
the Gothic, shows the a of ma weakened to t, and hence we have tni-hi
in the dative, where in Sanscrit we find ma-hyam. The accusative
me is for mem, as hostc-m, from the theme hosti, and the ablative me
for med, like the Sanscrit mat. The genitive mci is connected with
the locative may-i (euphonic for ml-i) in Sanscrit. From the form mci
we would expect, by analogy, tome such a form for the genitive of tu
aa tvci, from the Sanscrit tvay-i, but euphony changes the v after a con-
sonant into u, and at the same time rejects the vowel that follows, uud
PRONOUNS. 251
hence we have tui. The analogy between ti-bi and the Sanscrit tu-lhyam
is too striking to need any comment.
V. In almost all the Indo-Gennanic tongues the nominative plural of
the pronoun of the first person comes from a stem altogether unlike that
of the singular, for the idea expressed by the personal pronoun I is not
susceptible, strictly speaking, of plurality, since there is but one I, where-
as the term we indicates merely one's self alon g with others. In the Vedas
we find the form asme as a nominative plural, instead of the more usual
Sanscrit vayam. This asme comes from a theme asma, out of which
last all the oblique cases in ordinary Sanscrit are formed ; and with the
theme asma the ^Eolic u/^ff, by assimilation for ao/zff, closely connects
itself, just as we have tfipi, by assimilation for kepi, connecting itself
with the Sanscrit asrni, " I am." The forms r//zetf, vpel?, on the other
hand, presuppose such themes as fat, fyu, where the weak i takes the
place of the Sanscrit final a. From stems in i are also to be deduced
the genitives aji/iE-uv, vufte-uv, for apfii-uv, vppi-uv, and the datives fffitv,
vfitv, for fjfii-tv, vfii-Lv. The accusative rjjiaf, vfia?, become in ^Eolic
ufifie, vfifie, which later forms connect themselves at once with the San-
scrit, asmdn, ynshmdn (for asma-ns, yushma-ns\ by a rejection of the
case-suffix.
VI. It will be seen by an examination of the table, that in Sanscrit
nas and vas appear in the accusative, dative, and genitive. This cir-
cumstance shows conclusively that the s cannot be a case-sign, and
hence, reasoning from the analogy afforded by the Zend, we may regard
nas and vas in the accusative as abbreviated from nasmdn and vasmdn,
and in the dative and genitive from nasmabhyam, nasmakam ; vasmabhy-
am, vasmakam. After removing the residue of each of these forms, we
have na and va remaining as the chief element in either case of person-
al designation, and from these latter come the dual forms ndu and -cam
(for raw).
VII. The principle on which nas and vas were sought to be explained
in the preceding paragraph may also be extended to the Latin. The
stems na and va would lead us to expect in this language such themes
as nu and vu (no and t?o), as also ni and vi for plural nominatives, and
nos and vos for accusatives. But we find nos and vos already appearing
in the nominative, and the final s maintaining its ground even in the pos-
sessives nos-tcr, -ces-ter (for vos-ter). Hence the os in nos and vos can-
not well be explained in the same way as the os, for example, in lupos,
and we must therefore regard these two words, like the Sanscrit nas and
vas, in the light of abbreviations or curtailments from some more extend-
ed form, in which, very probably, the pronoun sma appeared. It is very
singular that we actually find traces of such a form in the syllable met
252
PRONOUNS.
appended to various pronouns, as cgomet, memet, tumet, nosmtt, votmet,
<5tc., and this met connects itself readily with smat the ablative, from
which we pass at once to the Sanscrit ablative plural, a-smat, yu-shmat.
Now, as this last-mentioned case is employed also by the Sanscrit gram-
marians as a species of ground-form for all cases and numbers, we may
easily account for the free employment of met in the Latin tongue.
VIII. The Greek dual has Ni2 and 24>i2 as themes for the pronouns
of the first and second person, and from these come vui and a<pui. The
peculiar form of vtii and <r<?cjf , as duals, has led to the supposition that
the i is a- weakening of the a which originally formed the dual-ending of
the masculine and feminine, and which a, in the ordinary declension, was
changed to e.
Tabular View of the Pronoun of the Third Person.
Singular.
Pracrn.
Zend.
Greek.
Latin.
Gothic.
Lithuanian.
Slavonic.
Ace.
0<f>e, ,
se,
Slk,
sawen,
sja.
Inst.
sawimi,
soboju.
Dot.
se,
he", hoi,
ol,
sibi,
sis,
saw,
sebje, si.
Gen.
se,
he, hoi,
0V,
SUl,
sema,
sawens,
sebe.
Loc.
sawije,
sebje.
Remarks.
I. The Sanscrit wants a substantive pronoun of the third person.
That it originally possessed one, however, appears evident from the tes-
timony of its European sister tongues, and especially from the circum-
stance that in Zend he and hoi, and in Pracrit *r, were employed as the
genitive and dative of the third person for all genders. The theme of
this pronoun in Sanscrit must have been sva, lengthened afterward to
roe, like me from ma, and (DC from tva.
II. The existing form sva has the force of a possessive, and is used
not only in the meaning of " his," but also of " mine" and " thine."
With this sva-s the Doric a<j>6c connects itself, while crfeff, ofi-at, in
the plural is to be traced to a theme in t, as o<j>i. The apparent affinity
between it and the dual of the pronoun of the second person is merely
accidental. In the latter the a comes from an earlier r, whereas in the
pronoun of the third person it is a part of the primitive form.
Ill In oi, oJ, I, for ff^ou, <T0o/, <r^f, the last of which old forms has
alone remained, and in which forms the takes the place of the digam-
ma oYov, <$tc., the 0, an the representative of the digamma, necessarily
diMppears after the conversion of the a into an aspirate.
IV. The Gothic in like manner throws out a v, and says sei-na, ti-*,
ii*k, for na-na, rri-t, tvi-k. The Lithuanian ami Slavonic follow in
PRONOUNS. 253
this pronoun the analogy of the second person, and distinguish it from
the latter by the initial * for /. They also, like the Latin, (.in;ek, and
German, dispense with the nominative, since they use the pronoun re-
flexively ; and they employ the singular instead of the plural.
Remarks on the Demonstrative Pronouns.
I. The stem ta (feminine to) signifies in Sanscrit " he," " this one,"
" that one." The Zend-form is identical, except that the middle mutes
often take the place of the tenues ; as, for example, in the accusative
singular masculine, where for tim we have dem, or, more frequently, dim.
In Greek and German this pronoun has supplied the place of an article,
a part of speech that is wanting in Sanscrit and Zend, as in Latin, Lith-
uanian, and Slavonic.
II. The stems TO, Gothic tha; feminine rd, rrj, Gothic tho, correspond
to the Sanscrit-Zend ta and td, with which the Lithuanian demonstrative
stem ta, in the nominative masculine tas, feminine ta, is completely
identical. The Latin has no demonstrative pronoun from a similar stem
which it employs by itself, if we except certain adverbial accusative-
forms, as turn, tune (like hunc}, tarn, tan-dem, tam-en, and certain deriv-
atives from such a pronominal source ; as, for example, tabs, tantus,
tot, totidem, toties, totus, &c. A demonstrative, however, of the form
here referred to appears in the compound iste, and is declined with it,
the first part of the compound, namely, is, being an old unchangeable
nominative masculine, the case-sign of which, as if unconscious of its
origin, remains also in the oblique cases ; as, istius for ejuslius, &c.
III. In the nominative singular masculine and feminine the Sanscrit
and, in surprising accordance with it, the Gothic, substitute an s for the t,
which in Zend becomes an h, and in Greek the rough breathing. Thus
we have in Sanscrit sa, sd, tat ; in Gothic, *a, so, thata ; in Zend, ho,
hd, tat, and in Greek, 6, 'd, TO (the Doric a for ij). The early Latin em-
ployed a form in the accusative closely connected with the primitive stem ;
namely, sum for cum, and sam for earn, and used also sapsa as a nomi-
native for sa-ipsa. There are remains of the old s-form also in the Greek
adverbs ar^cpov and afjref, though here, since these compounds express
an accusative, not a nominative meaning, the Attic rrjpepov, r^rej- are
more in unison with the Sanscrit usage, ta being the general theme, and
sa only that of the nominative. It is an anomaly in Greek when the as-
pirate takes the place of the <-sound in the nominative plural also, as oi,
al. The Doric form is much more accurate, rot, ra/, and harmonizes
with the usage of the sister tongues.
Y
254 PRONOUNS.
General Observations on the other Pronouns.
I. The change from a tennis to a middle mute has already been re-
ferred to, and must again be mentioned as playing a very important part
in comparative philology. Thus, for example, ode is not compounded
of 6 and de, as is generally supposed, but the latter part of the word is
evidently to be traced to the demonstrative stem TO, the vowel changing
from o to e, as in the vocative of the o-stem, and also in such accusatives
as fit, en, e, <fcc. In the word ode, therefore, both parts of the compound
are of similar origin, and we are reminded of the doubling of the pronoun
in Sanscrit, Latin, and other tongues ; as, yd yas, " quicunque ;" yan
yam, " quemcunque ;" and in Latin, quisquis, quidquid, sese, &c.
II. The principle alluded to in the preceding paragraph is farther il-
lustrated by the Sanscrit neuter forms i-dam, " this," and a-das, " that,"
where the d takes the place of /, just as in the Latin i-dem, qm-dam,
&c., the syllables dam, das, &c., being all traceable to the demonstrative.
Examples of a similar kind occur in the Latin dum, dem-um, don-ec,
den-ique, &c. The adjective totus, on the other hand, retains the t un-
altered, and its primitive meaning evidently is, " this and this," i. e.,
this and the other half, or the " whole."
III. The pronominal t-stem, consisting merely of a simple vowel, ex-
presses in Greek and Latin the meaning " he," but in Sanscrit and Zend
" this one." In the two latter languages it has no declension of its own,
but has only left behind certain adverbs, such as, itas, " from here,"
" from there ;" itha, " so" (compare the Latin ita), &c. We have also
from the same pronominal root t the derivatives itara-s, " the other"
(whose accusative itera-m reminds us at once of the Latin iterum), id-
lisa,, " such," &c. The Latin is enlarges its theme in many cases by
means of a u or an o, in feminines by an a ; the i also is converted into
an e, especially before vowels ; hence, as from the verbal root t come eo
and eunt, in opposition to w, it, imus, itis, ibam, &c., so from our pro-
nominal root come cum, eo, eorum, eos, and the feminines ea, ett, cam,
earum. To the primitive i-type there belong merely is, id, the old forms
im, ibus, the genitive and dative e-jut and e-i, and the locative tin.
IV. The stem of the relative pronoun in Sanscrit and Zend is ya, h in-
inine yd. The Greek of, #, 6, converts the initial y into an aspirate, a
change that often occurs ; as in v/zeif , for yushmi ; ACw, from yag, " to
revere," &c.
V. The interrogative stem in Sanscrit, Zend, and Lithuanian is KA,
from which came the Greek interrogative stem KO. This latter wju
preserved by the Ionic dialect, but wa converted in the others, from
the ease with which gutturals and labials are interchanged, into HO.
PRONOUNS. 255
The actual declension, however, of this KO or HO was superseded by
r/f, and we have therefore remaining of it only certain adverbs and de-
rivatives ; as, /core, TTOTC ; /ctjf, Trwf ; Korepov, irbrtpov (compare the
Sanscrit kataras, " which of the two") ; Kooof, ir6aof ; *co?of, Trotof ;
all which point clearly enough to the existence, at one period, of such a
form as /cof, KTJ, KO. This interrogative stem affords a basis, also, for
those cases of the Latin interrogative and relative which belong to the
second declension, namely, quod (compare the Zend kat), quo, and, in
the plural, qui, quorum, quos. The neuter plural qua deviates from an-
alogy, and ought to be qua. It is possible, however, that this qua may
be the remains of an old dual, subsequently received as a plural, since
it agrees precisely with the Sanscrit ke. The Latin feminine has, in its
different cases, a Sanscrit-Zend feminine stem for its basis, namely, kd,
and hence we compare quam with the Sanscrit kdm ; quarum with kd-
sdm ; quas with kds.
VI. The Gothic changes the k of the interrogative stem to an A, and
as the gutturals arc fond of uniting in this language with a v, it places
this last-mentioned letter after the h, making thus HVA out of KA, and
HVO out of kd. The Latin, like the Gothic, loves to place a euphonic
v after the gutturals, and hence the Latin QVO corresponds to HVA, in
its departure from the Sanscrit KA ; and so also aqVa agrees with the
Gothic ahva, " a river," just as angVis is related to the Sanscrit ahi-s,
" a snake," and the Greek IX L S-
VII. The interrogative stem ki also occurs in Sanscrit, from which
there appear to have been formed, in this same language, kit, and, before
the vocal letters, kid. This reminds us at once of the Latin forms quis
and quid. That there existed at one time, in Sanscrit, a masculine
nominative kis, analogous to the Latin quis, is proved conclusively by
the compound forms mdkis and nakis, which appear in the Vedas, and
with the latter of which we may compare the Latin ncquis.
VIII. The Latin hie appears, notwithstanding its difference of mean-
ing, to be derived from the same parent-source as quis and qui. It has
the same peculiarity of declension, hu-jus like cu-jus, huic like cui, and,
besides, the nominative plural neuter shows a strong analogy to the cor-
responding part in quis and qui, namely, qua. The final c in hie appears
to be shortened from ce, which remains in hicce (more correctly hice),
and is analogous to que, pe, quam, and piam, in quis-que, quip-pc, quis-
quam, quis-piam, all which terminations are nothing more than different
forms. of the Latin qua. And as these terminations, on being appended
as suffixes to the interrogative stem, change its meaning and part with
the interrogation, the same thing operates in hie. The earlier form ap-
pears to have been cic, cac, coc, and traces of the initial c still remain in
256 PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.
ci-*, ci-tra, just as in ul-tra we have the remains of the opposite pronoun
Me (olU), deprived of its last syllable.
Pronominal Adverbs.
I. Locative adverbs are formed in Sanscrit by the suffix tra, which
connects itself immediately with the theme ; as, a-tra, " here ;" la-tra,
" there ;" ku-tra^ " where 1" &c. To this same source are the Latin ad-
verbs ci-tra, ul-tra, to be assigned. Locative pronominal adverbs are
formed also in Zend by the suffix dha, which reminds us at once of the
Greek termination tfa, in tvda, kvTavda, &c.
II. In Sanscrit, by means of the suffix tas, adverbs are formed not only
from pronominal stems, but also from substantives and adjectives, and
these adverbs denote the removal from one place to another ; sometimes,
also, they take the place of the ablative. Analogous to this, in some re-
spect, is the Latin termination tus in cceli-tus, " from heaven ;" divini-
tus, fundi-tus, &c. The final 5 appears to have changed to r in igi-tur,
and the first part of the word connecting itself with the Sanscrit tAo,
" here," we have for the primitive meaning of igitur, " from here,*' i. e.,
" on these grounds," or " therefore."
III. In Sanscrit the termination tas is sometimes converted into dhas,
from which last come the Greek dev and the Slavonic du. Thus,
Sanscrit. Greek. Slavonic.
ku-dhas, Tro-tfev, ot-ku-du.
ta-dhas, ro-#ev, ot-tu-du.
ya-dhas, 6-&ev, ju-du-sche.
IV. The locative adverbs Aic, illic, istic, were originally datives, of
whose primitive form we have a trace remaining in rwri. The enclitic
c being added to hi (changed from hut), illi, and isti t converted them into
adverbs, and at the same time distinguished them from datives.
V. Adverbs of time are formed in Sanscrit by the suffix da ; as, kadd,
" when ;" tadd> " then ;" ya-dd, " at which time," &c. The Greek ter-
mination re, in similar adverbs, appears to be analogous to this ; as,
irore, Tore, ire, <tc., and we may also find a trace of the Sanscrit termi-
nation in the Latin quan-do.
Verb.
I. One system of personal terminations belongs to all Sanscrit verbs,
and the differences of conjugation which are distinguished by gramma-
riani consists in the changes which the verbal roots undergo. The fol-
lowing is an example diaplaying the terminations of the present tense,
a* they are subjoined to the verbal root tud, " to strike," in Latin tundo.
VERB. 257
1st Person. Id Person. 3d Person.
Sing. Tudami, Tud. Tudati.
Dual. Tudavas, Tudathas, Tudata*.
Plur. Tudamas, Tudatha, Tudanti.
II. This verb belongs to those classes of roots which insert a vowel a
between the theme and the personal endings. Others subjoin these end-
ings immediately. The personal endings alone are as follows :
1st Person. Zd Person. 3d Person.
Sing. -mi, -si, -ti.
Dual. -vas, -thas, -tas.
Plur. -mas, -tha, -anti.
III. The same terminations belong to the future tenses as to the pres-
ent ; but those tenses which have the augment prefixed to the verb have
the personal endings, as in Greek, in a more contracted form. The fol-
lowing is the first preterit of the verb tudami, corresponding closely to
the Greek imperfect :
1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person.
Sing. Atudam, Atudas, Atudat.
Dual. Atudava, Atudatam, Atudatam..
Plur. Atudama, Atudata, Atudan.
IV. There is another form of the indicative tenses in the active voice,
namely, that of the reduplicated preterit, formed by rules nearly the
same as those of the perfect in Greek verbs. The reduplicated preterit
of the verb tud or tudami is as follows, and will remind us at once of the
Latin tutudi.
1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person.
Sing. Tutoda, Tutodltha, Tutoda.
Dual. Tutudiva, Tutudathus, Tutudatus.
Plur. Tutudlma, Tutuda, Tutudus.
V. The following examples are from another verb, lafrdmi, "to say,"
with the corresponding forms of the Greek verb Ai'yu following immedi-
ately after.
PRESENT.
1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person.
Sing. mi, > Lagasi, ) Lagati, )
Atyu, J Acyei?, $ Acyet. $
Dual. Lagavas, ) Lagathas, ) 'as, )
j Atyerov, ) Afyrrov. f
Plur. Lagamas, ) Lagatha, > Laganti, \
) Aeyerf, J ~i, >
Doric. }
Y2
258
VERB.
AUGMENTED PRETERIT.
1st Person. 2d Person.
Sing. Alagam, ) Alagas, \
Aeyov, J
Dual. Alagava, )
Plur. Alagama, )
^Aeyo/zev, J
REDUPLICATED PRETERIT.
Alagatam, )
Aeyerov, J
Alagata,
Alagat, )
tte?e. $
Alagatam, >
A lagan, )
lleyov. ]
1st Person.
2d Person.
3d Pcr*on.
Sing. Lalaga, )
AeAt^a, J
Lalagitha, )
AeAe^af, >
Lalaga, )
AeAe^e. f
Dual. Lalaglva, )
LalagTthus, )
AeAc^arov, J
Lalagltus, >
Plur. Lalaglma, >
Lalaga, )
Lalagus, )
AeAc^aat. J
Potential Mood.
PRESENT.
1st Person.
2d Person.
3d Person.
Sing. Lageam, >
Lage, )
Aeyojf, ^
Laget, )
Aeyof. )
Plur. Lagema, )
Lagetc, )
Lageyuh, >
Aeyoiev. J
IMPERATIVE.
2d Per. 3d Per.
2d Per.
3dPr.
Sing. Laga, ) Lagatu,
Aeye, ) Aeycrw.
) Plur. Lagata, )
J Aeyere, J
Lagantu, )
Aeyovrwv, >
Attic, &c. )
VI. The Sanscrit infinitive is preserved in the first supine of the Latin
verb ; as, pafitum, " alitum ;" sanitum, " cinctum" (old form " cingi-
tum").
VII. The present participle of the masculine gender is closely analo-
gous to that of the Greek and Latin ; as,
Norn. Gen. Dat. Ate. Abl.
Lagan, ) Lagatah, ) Lagate, \ Lagantam, \ Lagati, )
A^yovrof, > A^yovrt, > A^yovra, > . . . . >
legenti*, ) legenti, ) legentcm, ) legente. >
N. and A. Gen. Dat. Abl.
Lagantas, ) Lagatam, \ Lagadbiah, \ I^agatsu, \
A^yovruv, > Atyota*, > ... >
legentium, ) legcntibvs, ) Ugenttbus. }
Sing.
Plur.
agan, \
Myuv, V
legens, )
VERD.
259
VIII. The present participle of the middle and passive voices is also
nearly the suine in Sanscrit and Greek ; as,
Lagamfuias, > Lagamanah, ) Lagamanam, )
Aeyo/zevof, J Aeyo/ztv;;, J \eybfj.n>uv . )
And the Sanscrit past participle has been preserved in Latin ; as,
Lagatas, ) Lagatah, > Lagatam,
Icgatus,
$ legata, ) legatum
. ?
Verb
ASMI, " I am," and its cognates.
PRESENT.
1. In Sanscrit.
1ft Per. 2d Per.
3d Per.
Sing.
asmi, asi,
asti.
Plur.
smah or ) stha,
santi.
sinus, }
2. In Greek (old forms).
Sing.
kfipiy kaai,
kari.
Plur.
eipec., tare,
ivri.
3. In Latin.
Sing.
esum or ) es,
eat.
sum, J
Plur.
suinus, estis,
sunt.
4. In Persian.
Sing.
am, iy,
est.
Plur.
Im, Id,
end.
5. In Slavonian.
Sing.
yesm', yesi,
yest.
Plur.
yesmi, yeste,
sut' for jesut'.
6. In Lithuanian.
Sing.
esmi, essi,
esti.
Plur.
esme, este,
esti.
7. In Gothic.
Sing.
im, is,
ist.
Plur.
siyum, siyuth,
ind.
Remarks. 1
I. It is at once evident that all these are slight modifications of the
same element, conjugated by means of the same suffixes. The variation
1. Prichartfs Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 164.
260 VERB.
between the different languages does not exceed such as exists between
proximate dialects of the same speech.
II. The imperfect tense is not to be traced with so much regularity.
It is in Sanscrit as follows :
Sing. asam, asis, asit.
Plur. asma, asta, asan.
In Latin, csam was probably the old form of eram, since * was often
changed into r, and csam would regularly form essem in the subjunctive,
which is actually found. Thus,
Sing. esam, esas, esat.
Plur. esamus, esatis, esant.
III. The second form of the verb, in the arrangement adopted by the
Sanscrit grammarians, is the potential. The potential form of the verb
asmi bears a strong analogy to the old potential stem in Latin, and also
to the Gothic potential. Thus we have,
Singular.
Sanscrit. syam, syas, syat.
Latin. siem, sies, siet.
Gothic. siyan,i siyais, siyat.
Plural.
Sanscrit. syama, syata, syus.
Latin. siernus, sictis, sient.
Gothic. siyaima, siyaith, siyaina.
IV. It may be observed that all these words have lost the initial vowel
a or e, and that, if it were restored, the preceding formaiwould bear a
near analogy to locum, which, though not extant, would be a regular de-
rivative from iaopai.
V. The Sanscrit verb asmi has no future, but it has been conjectured,
with great probability, that syami, the adjunct by which a future tense
is formed in attributive verbs, is, in fact, only the obsolete future of the
verb ax mi. A fact strongly favouring this hypothesis is, that a tense of
this verb exists in Sanscrit, and is recognised as such, which is only used
in forming the preterperfect tense of certain verbs. 'Asa, dsitha, dsa t
is termed the third preterit or aorist of asmi. It is joined with kdrayam,
from the verb karomi, " facio," " creo," and forms kdraydmdsa, " lint,"
" creavit."
VI. There is only one other tene of the verb mi, which is the im-
perative. It is as follows :
1. Errooeoualy consUnvd by Hiekes a Aiiun tease.
VERB. 261
Sing. asani, aidhi, astu,
Plur. asanya, sta, santu.
Compare aslu with taru, esto ; sta with tori, este, and santu with *un/0.
The second person aidhi bears a strong analogy to some of the modifi-
cations of the verb substantive in Celtic.
VII. There is also in Sanscrit the verb bhavami, from the root lihu,
allied to the old Latin verb fuo, and in the sense of oriri, nasci. "With
this may be compared the Greek <j>vu, and the verb to be in English, to-
gether with the Celtic bydh, the Russian budu, and the Persian budemi.
The Sanscrit has preserved the whole of bhavami, whereas the cognate
verbs are defective in most other tongues.
Remarks on the Endings of Verbs.
First Person.
I. The characteristic of the first person, in its original shape, is m in
Sanscrit as well for the plural as the singular. In the first person dual,
however, this m changes to a v.
II. The full expression of the ending of the first person singular, in
the active voice, is mi, and this is found in all Sanscrit verbs without
distinction. In Greek, however, the number of verbs in pi is compara-
tively small, being only about 200. The rest of the Greek verbs have
entirely suppressed this ending, and their final w, as well as the Latin o
of all conjugations, answers to the Sanscrit a, which a, in such forms as
bodh-d-mi, tud-d-mi, &c., belongs neither to the root nor the personal
ending, but characterizes merely the class to which the verb belongs.
When this consists of a short a, or of a syllable ending in a, this a is length-
ened before m and v if a vowel follow, and hence we have bodh-d-mi,
bodh-d-vas, bodh-d-mas, but bodh-d-si, bodh-d-ti, bod-d-nti, &c.
III. The Greek takes no part in this lengthening of the vowel, but
gives TEpn-o-fiEv as corresponding to the Sanscrit tarp-d-mas. In the
singular, however, the form Tepir-u-fjii, answering to tarp-d-mi, may per-
haps have existed ; and, if so, it is very probable that the u became short-
ened in the passive and middle voices by reason of the greater stress that
was laid on the ending of the verb.
IV. The passive and middle ending in fiat clearly shows that all verbs
in Greek had originally fit as the termination of the first person active,
format arises from [it, just as aai, rai, vrai, do from at, TI, VTI, and no
could ever have come into the language except from a
V. We have, in wharhas just been said, a remarkable confirmation of
the fact that the different members of the great family of languages mu-
262 VERB.
tually illustrate and complete each other, since the richest of them have
not reached us in a perfect state. While the ending pat still remains
firm in the modern Greek passive, the corresponding Sanscrit form lay
already in ruins at the early period when the Vedas were composed ;
while, on the other hand, Homer employs but seldom the form in pi,
out of which have arisen his numerous present and future forms in fiat ,
although it is universal in Sanscrit, and is even employed at the present
day in many Lithuanian verbs ; such as esmz, " I am ;" dumi, " I give ;"
eitni, " I go ;" dcmi, " I place," &c.
VI. It has been already remarked, that those tenses of the Sanscrit
which have the augment prefixed to the verb have the personal endings,
as in Greek, in a more contracted form. With these the ending mi be-
comes merely m, and this curtailed termination changes in Greek, by the
laws of euphony, to v. Thus we may compare the Sanscrit atarp-a-m
with the Greek Irepir-o-v ; adadd-m with k6idu-v ; and add-m with 6u-v.
So, again, dad-yam is analogous to dido-irjv, and de-yam to do-ijjv. In
the first aorist active the Greek has lost entirely the characteristic of the
person ; as, itiett-a, whereas in Sanscrit we have adiksam. The earlier
form I6ei%av, of the first person, appears to have come from a still older
one, Weifa/z, as is indicated by the first aorist middle, Ideit-up-rjv.
VII. The Latin, on the other hand, shows a strong attachment to the
ending in m ; as, amabam, amem, amarem, &c., all which point to the
existence, at one period of the language, of verbs in mi. Traces of the
m termination in the present tense are still found in sum and inquam,
the original forms of which were, undoubtedly, sumi and inquami.
VIII. As regards the origin of the ending for the first person, it may
be remarked that m: is, in all probability, weakened from ma, which lat-
ter form is, in Sanscrit and Zend, the theme of the oblique cases of the
personal pronoun. Hence the syllable mi, in dadd-mi, bears the same
analogy to ma that the t in cin, in the termination of the Latin tubi-cin,
does to the a in the true form of the root, can, from cano. The change
from mt to m is a still farther weakening, and would seem to have been
occasioned by the stress of the voice, laid, in pronouncing, upon the aug-
ment or initial syllable.
IX. The Sanscrit ending mas, in the first person plural, connects itself
at once with the Latin mus ; as, ama-mus, amaba-mus, Ac., and also
with ihe old Greek termination fief, for pcv \ as, <j>epo-ftf{, dido-pes, 'iara-
utC, for ^ipo-fiev, diio-jtev ; lora-fiev. This plural ending in mas is
equivalent to m-as, where m indicates the pronominal stem, and as the
plural ending. 4
X. In the dual the Sanscrit vas becomes ra in the augmented tenses,
in analogy with the plural endings mas and ma. This v, in the dual, is
VERB. 263
a softening from wi, and the change must have taken place at an early
period, since the same peculiarity in the dual ending may be traced in
the Gothic, Slavonic, and Lithuanian,
Second Person.
I. The Sanscrit pronominal stem tva or tve assumes different forms in
its combination with verbal themes. The t either remains unaltered, or
else becomes th or dh; or, like the Greek av, is converted into an *.
The r, moreover, either remains or is dropped ; while the a is retained
unaltered, or is weakened to i, or else entirely disappears. The pronom-
inal form appears fullest in the middle voice, since this part of the verb
loves the weightier endings, and therefore avoids, more than any other, the
curtailing of the pronouns.
II. The full ending of the second person present of the dual is that,
and in the plural tha. But there are strong reasons for believing that
the second person plural originally ended in thas, and that from this arose
the dual ending thds ; and, farther, that in the course of time thas of the
plural dropped its s, and thds of the dual its long vowel. On the suppo-
sition that the second person plural ended originally in thds, we cau
readily see the analogy of the Latin tis, as well as the correctness of
Thiersch's remark in relation to the hiatus, namely, that for the ending
re in Homer, in the second person plural, we ought to read rcf, from the
analogy of //ff for ptv in the first person.
III. The Lithuanian has preserved the ending si of the second person
singular, in common with the Greek, only in the substantive verb, where
es-si and the Doric ka-ai show clearly their common lineage. In the case
of other verbs, however, the two languages part company, the Lithuanian
everywhere retaining the i but parting with the s, the Greek pursuing a
directly opposite course. The Latin and Gothic agree with the Greek.
Hence we may compare the Lithuanian dud'-i with the Sanscrit dadd-si,
the Slavonic da-si, the Greek <JJw-f, the Latin da-s, the Gothic vigi-s.
With regard to Greek verbs in w, it would seern that the i of ci, after
having been dropped, has gone back and united itself to the preceding
syllable ; and as, for example, yeveretpa comes from yeverepta, and fii-
haiva from fiehuvta, fteifav from fie&uv, puv from ^eptwv, apeivuv
from ufieviuv, so also repir-ei-e is formed from Tepir-e-ai, corresponding
to the Sanscrit tarp-d-si,
IV. We find also in Sanscrit two other endings of the second person,
dhi and tha, the former appearing in the imperative, the latter in the re-
duplicated preterit. The first of these, namely, dhi, reminds us of the
termination di in Greek imperatives ; as, lo-&i, Kenpax-di, uvu^-^i,
i, &c. The second presents, at first view, a striking analogy to
264 VERB.
the Greek termination da, but it is in reality a deceptive one, since # on
other occasions corresponds to the Sanscrit dk, and arises from the influ-
ence of the preceding o, just as, in the passive and middle, all the active
personal endings in r become & by the influence of the a preceding.
V. The Sanscrit tha will remind us then of the Greek tfa, although
these two terminations are not in fact identical, since the Greek #a comes
from dha, and the d has been converted into a # by the influence of a
preceding a, just as the r of the active personal endings is converted
into & in the passive and middle by the insertion of a. The a of the
active voice, however, belongs to the root, and hence we must divide as
follows : rja--$a, olo-&a (for oM-tfa).
VI. In Latin the termination sti corresponds to the Sanscrit ending
tha, the a being weakened to an t, and an s being inserted before the t,
the aspirate also disappearing. Thus we may compare the following :
LATIN. SANSCRIT.
dcdi-sti, dadi-tha.
steti-sti, tasthi-tha.
momord-isti, mamard-i-tha.
tutud-isti, tutod-i-tha.
Third Person.
I. The pronominal stem ta has, after the analogy of the first and sec-
ond persons, weakened its vowel to an t in the unaugmented tenses, and
in the augmented ones has laid it aside entirely. The t, however, in
Sanscrit and Zend, undergoes, the termination u* excepted, no change
whatever, whereas the t of the second person becomes, as we have jnst
seen, /, th, dh, or *. The Greek, on the contrary, retains the r of the
third person only in the substantive verb <m, Sanscrit asti, and on other
occasions either has 01, as in diduvi, or ft, as in repirct.
II. The form 6i6uoi resembles more the Sanscrit second person dadd-
si than the third person dadati, and it is only distinguished from its own
second person Si6uf by the latter dropping the t. That originally, how-
ever, even in the u conjugation, the third person singular ended in n t
it proved by the middle and passive ending rat, since rt-pireTai bears the
same relation to ripn-e-Ti that 6iAorai does to diAun. The for
TTFI, in fact, arises from the rejection of T, jnst as ridet comes from ri-
Oert, diiot from 6idoOi, nip? from Kfpart, O'IKOI from oiKodt, <fcc.
Ill In the augmented tenses, on the other hand, the Grerk l.iys aside
entirely the T sound, and agrees in this with the Pracrit, the Gothic, and
Slavonic; whereas the Latin n tains the / throughout tin- v-rli. and in
this, as in many other instances, displays far more of an Indian character
than the Greek.
VERB. 265
IV. For the purpose of making the plural, an n ia inserted before the
pronominal characteristic. After this n the Gothic places the middle
mute d, where other languages have tin- tennis t. Hence we may com-
pare the Gothic si nd with the Sanscrit santi, the Zend hcnti, the Latin
aunt, and the old Greek form (a) EVTL.
V. The Sanscrit always inserts an a before an , unless an a already
exist there, from the verbal class or radical syllable. Hence we have
tarp-a-nti, like TEpir-o-vri ; lisht-a-nti, like tar-a-vrt, &c. The Greek
uot, from avTt, in such forms as deiKvv-aai, t-aat, ride-act, dtdo-aat, &c.,
finds here a remarkable support, since it is hardly possible to suppose
that these were merely accidental anomalies. For, even if such forms
as TideavTt, fiitioavTi, iavrt, deiKvitavn, remain at the present day in
none of the Greek dialects, still there can be no doubt but that the a is
lengthened in order to supply the place of the rejected v, and that at is
put for Tt, as everywhere in the third person.
VI. Some Sanscrit verbs, on account of the weight of the reduplication
which they receive in what are called the special tenses, endeavour to
lighten their ending, and therefore throw out n from the third person
plural, shortening, at the same time, a long a in the root. Hence we have
dadd-ti, " they give ;" gahati, " they leave." There can be no doubt but
that, in the earlier state of the language, these forms were dada-nti, ga-
ha-nti, and that, therefore, the Doric dtdo-vrt, Ttdt-vTt, &c., give us the
primitive forms of the Greek tongue.
VII. The Sanscrit verbs, moreover, not merely those of the reduplicated
class, but those also of the second conjugation, corresponding to the Greek
verbs in /zi, throw away, in the middle voice, the n from the third person
plural, in order to give more stress to the personal ending. Thus we
have cim-ate for cim-antc. This change has very much the appearance
of having taken place after the separation of the different tribes of the hu-
man family from their common home. The Greek, for example, preserves
the old form, and retains the nasal letter as a badge of the plural, with
still more firmness in the middle and passive than in the active, giving
not only Ttprr-o-vrat for the Sanscrit tarp-a-nte, but also 6i6-o-vrat, ride-
vrat, for the Sanscrit dadate, gahate, &c. The Greek, however, has
found, by another process, the means of lightening the too great weight
of the middle ending, by employing merely vrat where we would natu-
rally look for avrat ; saying, for example, deiKW-vrat, and not demvv-
avrat, although 6nK.vv-aai would lead us to expect this latter form.
VIII. The rejection of a from such a form as dtKw-(a)vTai t is like
the dropping of i\ from the optative, where, on account of the weight of
the personal ending, the passive and middle voices form from dtdoiijv of
the active, not dKJoy/ir/:>, but dtdoifiijv. The Ionic dialect, however,
AA
266 VERB.
has in the third person plural sacrificed the v to the a, and in this respect
harmonizes closely with the Sanscrit. Hence we have arai in Ionic,
formed from avrai, as in Sanscrit ate from ante.
IX. The Slavonic changes the nasal in many of its verbs to a short u,
and this u, coalescing with a preceding vowel, forms ou or ti, so that ve-
zutj, from vezontj, is surprisingly like the Greek ^ovat, from tyovoi for
tX OVT i- The Bohemian wezau, on the other hand, has preserved the
old a of the Sanscrit vah-a-nti and Gothic vig-a-nd, which in the Latin
vchunt becomes a u, through the influence of the nasal, in opposition to
the i of the other persons (vehis, vehit, &c.).
X. In the augmented tenses the final vowel in nti or anti disappears, just
as it does from ft, *i, mi of the singular ; and with this vowel the person-
al characteristic t also disappears, in accordance with a law of euphony,
which forbids the union of two consonants at the end of a word. The
Greek, which cannot endure a final r, goes on a step farther than the
Sanscrit, and removes the r from the third person singular also. Hence
we have IrepTr-e answering to atarp-a-t, and, where the resemblance is still
more clearly shown, Irepir-o-v agreeing with atarp-a-n (for atarp-a-nt).
The Greek aorists, however, which make av in the third person plural,
agree better with the Sanscrit form, since the sibilant has preserved the
a from being converted into o. Thus we have Wetf-av, corresponding to
the Sanscrit adikshan.
XI. In the unaugmented tenses the Sanscrit terminates the dual in tax;
in the augmented ones, in tdm. The former of these corresponds to the
Greek TOV ; as, Tepir-e-rov, Sanscrit tarp-a-tas. The other ending, tdm,
has divided itself in Greek into the two terminations TTJV and rwv, of
which the first is the more prevalent one, while the latter is confined to
the imperative. Hence we have eTepir-e-Trjv, corresponding to atarp-a-
tarn ; kdcm-aa-rriv to adik-sha-tdm ; but repir-i-ruv to tarp-a-tam.
Hence it follows that the distinction between TOV on the one hand, and
TIJV, TUV on the other, in the dual number, is of very early origin, and
is not, as Buttmann supposes, a later formation of the prose language.
Four places occur in Homer, it is true, where TOV takes the place of rqv,
but in three of these it is occasioned by the metre, and the fourth is,
therefore, only a solitary instance. The same remark will apply to the
lit, which is not to be vicwi-d merely as a later addition baeaim
it IB sometimes suppressed in Homer, since it is common, in fact, to both
the Greek and tin- Sanscrit.
VERB. 267
Remarks on the Passive and Middle Endings.
I. The passive and middle endings distinguish themselves from those
of the active by a greater degree of fulness, though the mode of forming
them is not the same in all the sister tongues.
II. The Sanscrit, Zend, and Greek agree in lengthening out a final i,
in the unaugmented tenses, by the insertion of an a, and form, therefore,
fiat out of fii, oai out of ai, rat out of TI, and in the plural vrai out of
VTI , In the Sanscrit and Zend the vowels a and i then coalesce into an e,
which answers to the Greek ai.
III. The Gothic parts with the i out of the diphthong ai, and has,
therefore, in the third person, da for dai ; in the second, za (euphonic for
sa) for zai ; and in the third person plural, nda for ndai. The first
person singular and the first and second persons plural are lost, and were
supplied by the third.
IV. The Sanscrit and Zend, in both the unaugmented and the aug-
mented tenses, parted with the pronominal consonant of the first person
singular, and along with it have also lost the a, of the verb-class in words
of the first conjugation. Hence we find bode for bod-d-me. Compare
the following :
SANSCRIT. ZEND. GREEK. GOTHIC.
1. S. bkar-e, bair-e, Qep-o-fiai, *****
2. S. bhar-a-se, bar-a-he, <j>ep-e-oai (<j>ep-i) bair-a-za.
3. S. bhar-a-tc, bar-ai-te, Qep-e-rai, bair-a-da.
4. P. bhar-a-ntc, bar-ai-nte, tyip-o-vTai, bair-a-nda.
V. In the augmented tenses the concluding diphthong at loses, in
Sanscrit and Zend, the vowel i, like the Gothic in the unaugmented ones,
and the a which remains appears in Greek as an o. Hence we have
i<pep-e-To answering to abhar-a-ta in Sanscrit and bar-a-ta in Zend ; and
in the plural kqip-o-vro answering to abhar-a-nla in Sanscrit and bar-a-
nta. in Zend.
VI. In the second person singular of the augmented tenses, the San-
scrit has tkds where we would expect to find sa ; as, abhod-a-thds.
That there was, however, an ending in sa also, is proved by the Greek
edi6o-ao, as opposed to e(5Jo-ro, and likewise by ha in Zend, which ap-
pears in places where we would expect sa in Sanscrit, the h in Zend
being here substituted for s.
VII. The ending thus, of which we have spoken in the preceding par-
agraph, affords a curious theme for discussion. It connects itself very
evidently with the active ending tha, of which mention has already been
made, and is, no doubt, derived from it by lengthening the vowel and
appending the sibilant, which would seem to have been added for the
268 VERB.
purpose of indicating the second person. Now, if this be so, either the
first or the second of the personal indications iinbodied in tha-s must have
been used to designate the individual on whom the action is exerted or
for whose advantage it is performed, a meaning inseparably connected
with the middle voice. Hence, in the Sanscrit adat-thd-s, " thou gavest
to thyself (i. e., thou didst take), either thd stands for " thou," and *
indicates " to thyself," or vice versa. If we allow this, and if in the
Greek first person the v of the ending fitjv (Doric /zuv) be organic, that
is, not a later unmeaning appendage, but an expressive element bequeathed
by the earliest periods of the language, then ididourjv properly signifies,
" I gave to myself," whether it be that the subjective relation is expressed
by JJLTI (fiu) or by the v. To complete the analogy, we may take for the
third person the ending ta-t found in the Vedas, and where the person
is doubly expressed. Regarding this remarkable ending as a middle one,
we have the same resemblance between it and the Greek ending TO as in
the case of repir-l-ru and tarp-a-tat, ididu and adaddt, &c. ; and, to make
the case still stronger, we may call in the aid of the Bantian inscription,
where the old Oscan imperatives end in a d, as licitu-d for liceto, estu-d foi
esto ; all which would tend to show that the primitive form of the Greek
ending TO was TOT, and that the final r was rejected for euphony. The
Sanscrit- Veda ending tdt will express the action of the third person upon
himself, like the other endings in the case of the first and second persons.
VIII. The first person plural in Sanscrit ends in make, but in Zend
it terminates in maidhe, from which latter comes evidently the Greek
ending peda, which drops the i like the Gothic forms.
IX. The second person dual ends, in the unaugmented tenses, in dthc,
the third in ate. In the augmented tenses, on the other hand, the second
person ends in dthdm, the third in dtdm. There is every reason to sup-
pose, however, that these endings were originally tdthc and ttite, tathdm
and tdtdm. The initial syllable ta became a in Greek, and the follow-
ing t was converted into an aspirate through the influence of the a. Hence
arose in this latter language such forms as 6i6o-o-6av, k6i6o-o-6ov, &c.
X. In the Latin verb, the final r of the passive voice would appear to
owe its origin to the reflexive pronoun, and to have been changed from *
by a favourite principle of conversion. In those persons which end with
a consonant, a connecting vowel was necessary, and the u was brought
in, probably through the influence of the liquid ; as in amatur, amtmtur.
The imperative forms amato-rain] amanto-r require no connecting vowel.
In amamur the * of amamit* disappears before the reflexive, ami the
more readily as it docs not express any personal indication. In
on tin) other hand, the personal ch;u ii {uvt n up,
could not stand, and amcinur was required in the plural for onu-
xn. 269
musr. In amaris, ameris, &c., we have either a metathesis for amasir,
&c., or else the personal characteristic * could not withstand the strong
inclination to become an r between two vowels ; and this having taken
place, the reflexive preserved unaltered its original s. In the imperative
amare the reflexive has preserved its own vowel, and if we change r back
again to s, we have in se the accusative of the simple pronoun. So, also,
the old infinitive amarier is nothing more than amare-er by metathesis for
amare-re. (i. e., amare-se).
XI. The form amamini deviates from all analogy, as will readily be
perceived, and presents no small degree of difficulty. It is probable that
amamini is the nominative plural masculine of a passive participle, and
was joined to cstis, so that amamini stood originally for amamini estis,
as in Greek we have Tervpuevoi del. The Latin suffix is -minu-s, and
corresponds to the Greek -uevof and the Sanscrit -mdna-s. Now when
this participle, forced, as it were, out of its ordinary path, changed to
amamini from amaminus, this amamini, so employed in the second per-
son plural, appears to have remained in that person as a kind of unalter-
able form, and to have been regarded, in the ordinary usage of the Latin
tongue, as having a verbal termination. The consequence was, that the
substantive verb was dropped, and amamini became employed for both
genders. In support of the opinion that amamcnus was originally a pas-
sive participle, we may cite the forms alumnus and Vertumnus, which
aie both evidently of participial origin. So, also, terminus, " what is
stepped over;" femina, "she that bears" (middle participle), the root
being fe, whence we have fetus, fetura, and fecundus ; and, finally, gem-
ini for genimi, " they who are born at the same time."
XII. But how are we to explain the imperative amaminor ? Is the r
identical with that in amor, amator, amantor 1 The answer must be in
the negative, since to express the passive or reflexive meaning here by
appending a pronoun would be unnecessary, as the participial suffix has
this employment. The best way is to seek for a plural case-ending in
nuiaminor, as we did in amamini. Now it happens, luckily enough,
that the Eugubian inscriptions supply us with what we want, for we
there find subator for subacti, scrchitor for scripti. This plural ending
in or agrees very well with the Sanscrit as (a-}-as) and Gothic os, where-
as the Latin t has forced its way in from the pronominal declension.
Still farther, the nominative singular of the second declension masculine,
in the Umbrian dialect, ended in o, and we still find orto for ortus, and
subatu for subatus. Now it is very remarkable that we find, in the re-
mains of early Latinity, imperatives singular ending in mmo ; as, famino
in Ffstus, and prcefamiro in Cato. We have also fniimino in an in-
scription given by Gruter, " is eum ayrum nei habcto nei fruimino."
Y2
270 VERB.
Here fruimino indicates the third person, a circumstance which tends
very clearly to prove it a participle that may be applied to either person.
We have now reached the limit which we had proposed to ourselves
in the prosecution of the present inquiry, and cannot but entertain the
hope that the result will prove satisfactory to every one who will bestow
upon the subject his candid attention. The analogies existing through-
out the Indo-Germanic chain of languages are not the mere results of
accident. To assert this would be the height of absurdity. They prove,
on the contrary, the affiliation that exists between all these individual
tongues, as well as their common descent from one parent source, what-
ever this source may have been, or in whatever region of the globe it
may have been prevalent.
THE END.
ANTHON'S SERIES OF CLASSICAL WORKS
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
FROM WILLIAM A. DUER, LL.D., PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA
COLLEGE, IN THE CITY OF NEW-YORK.
Columbia College, N. Y., May 4, 1838.
Messrs. HARPER & BROTHKRS,
Gentlemen I have examined the first three volumes issued from
your press, of a series of classic works now in the course of preparation
by Professor Anthon of this college, with a view to furnish accurate and
uniform editions of all the classical authors of antiquity read in our col-
leges and schools, to be printed from the best texts, and accompanied
by such a commentary in the English language as may effectually aid
the student in overcoming the difficulties of the original, and at the same
time open to him the wide field of mental discipline and culture afforded
by classical pursuits and the auxiliary studies connected with these.
From the manner in which this undertaking has been so far executed,
as well as from the established character and reputation of Professor An-
thon as a scholar, his experience as an instructer, and the accuracy and
judgment previously evinced by him as an editor and commentator, I
can entertain no doubt of the success of the enterprise, so far as his ed-
itorial labours and your own skill and experience as publishers are con-
cerned ; and I trust that, from the increasing value of classical studies in
the estimation of the public, this judicious and spirited effort to facilitate
and promote so important a branch of education will be duly appreciated
and liberally rewarded.
I remain, gentlemen,
Your obedient servant,
W. A. DCER.
FROM WILBUR FISK, D.D., PRESIDENT OF THE WESLEYAN
UNIVERSITY, AT MIDDLETOWN, CONN.
Messrs. HARPER & BROTHERS,
Gentlemen J am highly gratified to notice that you have com-
menced a series of the classics under the editorial supervision of that
accomplished scholar, Professor Anthon of Columbia College. No man
in our country is better qualified for this office than Professor Anthon.
To show in what estimation he is held in England as a classical scholar,
it need only be known that an edition of his " Horace" has been pub-
lished in London, and the publishers informed me that the entire edition
had met with a ready sale ; showing that, notwithstanding the numerous
editions of this standard work by the first scholars in England, the credit
of the work by our American scholar had carried it successfully through
the English market, and that, too, by virtue of its intrinsic merit. Your
editions of his Caesar, Cicero, and Sallust are now before me, and show
that there is no falling off from the reputation of the edition of Horace.
The copious notes and commentaries cannot fail to shed a flood of light
upon the mind of the ycung student, and will contribute much, I trust, to
foster in the rising generation of scholars a taste for the ancient classics.
Yours respectfully,
May 8, 1838. WILBUR FISK.
TESTIMONIALS.
FROM H. HUMPHREY, D.D., PRESIDENT OF AMHETCST COLLEOI,
AT AMHERST, MASS.
Messrs. HARPER,
Gentlemen I am very happy to see that you have undertaken to
furnish uniform editions of the Latin classics for the use of our gram-
mar schools and higher seminaries of learning. Professor Anthon de-
serves and will receive the thanks of the public for the labour which he
has so judiciously and successfully bestowed upon Sallust, Caesar, and
Cicero. The explanatory notes or commentaries are more copious and
comprehensive than those of any other edition I have seen, and much
better adapted to the wants of young students. Among the most valu-
able of these notes are those which divert attention to the beautiful uses
of the moods and tenses, and explain the delicate shades of meaning and
peculiar beauties that depend upon them, which our language often ex-
presses imperfectly and with difficulty, and which young learners rarely
regard. The explanations of the force and meaning of the particles are
also very useful.
The historical, geographical, and other indexes are also highly valua-
ble, furnishing the student, as they do, with felicitous illustrations of the
text, and much general information.
The text seems to be settled with much care and ability. The edi-
tions adopted as the basis or referred to as authority are those in the
highest repute among scholars. The typographical execution is very
fine, and this is a high merit. The wretched reprints of foreign editions
of the classics, got up in cheap offices, on wretched paper, with incom-
petent proof-readers and no editors, to which, until within a very few
years, our students have been universally condemned, have, by taking
them young, been as successful in making them uncertain and inaccu-
rate scholars as if that had been one of the main objects of the publish-
ers. School books of all kinds, instead of being the worst (as they often
are), should be the most carefully printed books we have.
H. HUMPHREY.
May 15, 1838.
FROM THE CHRISTIAN ADVOCATE AND JOURNAL.
Anthonys Caesar. It is with great pleasure that we perceive that the
Messrs. Harper are continuing their excellent series of American classics,
under the authority and editorship of that erudite and mature scholar,
Professor Anthon. This is the third of the scries, professing to In- tor
the use of schools and colleges, but, in truth, so correct in text, so elabo-
rate in commentaries, so vastly superior, in clearness, depth, and v.n ictv
of information, to any which have gone before, that no man, i
thoroughly imbued with classic lore, has any right to consider these ad-'
mirable works beneath his notice, or suited only to the half-formed intel-
lect of young beginners. " Sallust" and " Cicero" preceded " Cesar;"
and tliuunh ( Ih-nt, were neither of them, we conceive, quite equal to
tin- ))i< ;< nt work, on which no pains have been spared that the most
painful research and tin keenest halms of literary disquisition ran -
complbh. In addition to a complete series of notes, explain
critical, it |>osiessei three copious indexes of history, antiquities, and
TESTIMONIALS.
geography, the first book of the Greek paraphrase (hitherto unpublished
in America), and a set of \\cll-c.\cr, itrd plans and dra\Mn<:s of battles,
sieges, &c., exceedingly well qualified to elucidate any obscurities of
t. We hail its appearance, and shall look anxiously for its suc-
cessors, as a most valuable addition to the literary treasures of our country.
FROM THE NEW-YORK COURIER AND ENQUIRER.
Caesar" 1 s Commentaries on the Gallic War, cfc. By Charles Anthon,
LL.D. Harper & Brothers, Cliff-street Being the third of their edi-
tion of American school and collegiate classics, has just made its appear-
ance. The profound scholar under whose supervision these excellent
works are put forth to the world is as well known on the Continent of
Europe as he is on our own shores ; and is, perhaps, the only son of
America who has ever attained that degree of fame for classical attain-
ments which should constitute him an authority second, if second, only
to the great names of English or of German criticism the Heynes and
Bruncks, the Elmsleys and the Persons, and the Bentleys, who have de-
voted so much time and labour to minute investigation and clear exposi-
tion of the great works of old. The Sallust, Cicero, and Csesar are not,
perhaps, quite equal, nor, indeed, are they intended to be so, in deep
lore, to his great work, the Horace, which is, perhaps, the best, decidedly
the most lucid and explanatory edition ever published of Rome's lyric
bard and satirist ; but they are eminently adapted to the minds of the
young ; nor need the ripest scholar blush to own that he has reaped both
profit and amusement from their accurate and varied notes. Of the three
latter publications, the Caesar is in all respects the best, and is unques-
tionably superior to any pre-existing copy of the journal of the great cap-
tain, orator, and statesman of earth's most mighty empire.
FROM THE NEW- YORK EVENING STAR.
The Harpers have just issued from their press, nothing daunted by the
evil times, an edition of Ccesar's Commentaries, edited by Professor
Anthon of Columbia College, which, in every point of view, surpasses
anything that has yet been published of the works of the great dictator.
The type is beautiful, both Latin and Greek, for we have not only the
complete journal in the grave, chaste, and even style of the tongue in
which it was written, but the first book of the Greek Paraphrase, a work
not geneially known, and both curious as a matter of philological interest
and useful as elucidatory to the text. The notes are all that notes can
be ; copious but not diffuse, learned but not pedantic, luminous, and re-
plete with varied and most entertaining knowledge. Three indexes, his-
torical, archa'.iln.'ical. and geographic, are appended, and add much, as
do the dear cuts of sieves, battles, camps, and military works, to the
utility and beauty of the book. The series, which commenced with
Cicero and Sallust, is ably maintained before us, and will, we under-
stand, be continued through all the classics usually read in schools and
colleges. In conclusion we can only say that, if they meet with the
support they merit, neither the editor nor publishers will meet a small
reward.
TESTIMONIALS.
FROM RUFUS BABCOCK, JR., D.D., LATE PRESIDENT or WATERVILLB
COLLEGE, IN MAINE.
Messrs. HARPER & BROTHERS,
Gentlemen I have examined with considerable care, and with
high and unmingled satisfaction, your recent edition of Professor Anthon's
Latin Classics. The distinguished editor of Horace has rightly judged,
that in order to elevate the range and standard of scholarship in this coun-
try, it is requisite to facilitate the thorough acquisition of those element-
ary text-books which are usually first put into the hands of pupils. By
the beautiful volumes which you have now given to the public from his
pen, more has been done to make the student thoroughly acquainted
with those three prime authors, Caesar, Sallust, and Cicero, than by any
other helps within my knowledge. I need not minutely specify the va-
rious points of excellence by which these books are distinguished. Their
practical value will immediately be appreciated by teachers and learners.
I rejoice to see that the mechanical execution is of that high order which
cannot fail to make these works far more welcome to pupils in the forming
period of their taste ; when such attractive specimens of the typographic
and pictorial art will not only attract their regard, but form lasting and
beneficial associations.
Allow me, gentlemen, to tender, through you, my hearty thanks to
Professor Anthon for the very valuable service he has performed in aid
of the great cause of classical learning. May he continue his labours
for the public good.
Yours most respectfully,
RUFUS BABCOCK, JR.
FROM SILAS TOTTEN, D.D., PRESIDENT OF WASHINGTON COLLEGE,
HARTFORD, CONN.
I have examined with some care the first three volumes of the classi-
cal series which you propose to publish edited by Professor Anthon.
The volumes which I have examined I entirely approve, and think them
better adapted to the purposes of classical instruction than any edition
of the same authors yet published in this country. The well-known
ability of the learned editor admits no doubt of the excellence of tho
volumes yet to be published.
S. TOTTEN.
FROM THE PRESIDENT AND FACULTY OF MIAMI UNIVERSITY, AT OX-
FORD, OHIO.
(Salliut Cicero Catar) Tin -M- three volumes, enriched by a co-
pious and valuable apparatus of critical imu s, und judiciously ar:
historical, geographical, archaeological, and legal mattrr>. lurmslu-d by so
ripe a scholar as Dr. Anlhon, are specimens well calculated to
nit-mi the series of which tlu-y an- tin- roiimu-nceinent. Thcv .<
adapted to IIKMIH.K- thorough classical learning, and are entitled to a high
grade of popular favour.
By order of the Faculty,
K. H. BISHOP, I'n -id. -iit.
Miami Univernty, Oxford, 0., July 13, 1838.
TESTIMONIALS.
FROM TUB RT. REV. BISHOP M'!I.VAIXK. PKESIDKWT OF RENYON
COLLEGE, AT GAMBIKK, OHIO.
Kenyan College, July 30, 1838.
Messrs. HARPER & BROTHERS,
I anticipate the greatest benefits to our schools and colleges from
the admirable edition of the classics which you are now publishing, under
the superintendence and illustrated by the copious and learned notes of
Professor Anthon. What your accomplished editor has aimed at in his
Horace, Caesar, and other volumes of the series, few can have been
much connected with classical institutions in this country without learn-
ing to be precisely the one needful thing to their students. The object
is most satisfactorily attained. The needed books we have, so far as
your series has yet been published ; and as to what are yet to come,
we have learned from what we have, if I may use the words of one oil
your authors, qua a summa virtute summoque ingenio expectanda sunt,
expectare. Wishing you the most abundant encouragement in your im-
portant enterprise, I remain,
Gentlemen,
Your obedient servant,
CHAS. P.
FROM THE COMMERCIAL ADVERTISER.
The established reputation of Professor Anthon for sound learning and
classic taste affords a sure guarantee for the value of the Greek Gram-
mar which has just been issued by the Messrs. Harper. From a cursory
examination of the work, we are persuaded that it is well calculated to
facilitate the acquisition of the language, and obviously to render easy to
the learner the abstruse and difficult parts of the grammar. In the ab-
sence of the living teacher, it may be confidently affirmed that more
knowledge of Greek can be attained from this grammar than from any
work extant, while the scholar will find it as a book of reference most
invaluable.
FROM THE NEW-YORK TIMES.
ANTHON'S GREEK GRAMMAR. Harper <f- Brothers. As a philolo-
gist and a classical scholar, Professor Anthon has no superior in the Uni-
ted States ; and his schoolbooks have been deservedly popular, both h
England and in this country. His Greek Grammar, now before us, will
add to his reputation, and we commend it to the attention of classical
teachers as a work eminently calculated to facilitate and promote the
study of the language. In our opinion, it is decidedly superior to any of
the Greek Grammars now used in our preparatory schools.
FROM THE NEW-YORK NEWS.
This is a great improvement on the grammars which have hitherto been
used in our colleges and schools, and ought to supersede them all.
Much is simplified to the comprehension of the youthful student, and the
declensions, particularly, are arranged so as to facilitate their study.
TESTIMONIALS.
FROM THE NEW- YORK AMERICAN.
Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, with the First Book of the
Greek Paraphrase. ' By Charles Anthon, LL.D. New- York : Harper
& Brothers. This is a beautiful edition, with very valuable notes, by a
hand every way competent. It forms a most valuable addiiion to the
stock of useful classics published by the Harpers. It is on the same
plan with the Sallust and Cicero, edited by Professor Anthon, and con-
tains many valuable corrections from the Greek Paraphrase, which has
been referred to in all doubtful cases, and the first book of which is ap-
pended, both as a literary curiosity and an easy introduction to the study
of that language.
FROM THE KNICKERBOCKER MAGAZINE.
Cotsar*s Commentaries on the Gallic War, and the First Book of the
Greek Paraphrase, with English Notes, critical and explanatory, Plans
of Battles, Sieges, $c., and Historical, Geographical, and Archaeological
Indexes. By Charles Anthon, LL.D. Harper & Brothers, Cliff-street.
It is with very sincere pleasure that we perceive that the enterprising
publishers from the press of whom this very valuable classic issued a
few weeks since, are turning their attention steadily to the promulgation
of classical knowledge, through the medium of a series of works edited
under the supervision of that sound and ripe scholar, Professor Anthon
of Columbia College. ******* Jt Wa8> therefore, as
we have said above, with very sincere pleasure that we became acquainted
with the determination of the Messrs. Harper, and that we received ev-
idence and earnest of their good faith in the excellent school editions of
Sallust and Cicero, which they have previously put forth, and, above all,
in the work which furnishes the matter for this notice. The Horace of
the same gentleman, a work displaying the most entire acquaintance with
his subject, the deepest research, and the soundest judgment, united to a
severe and practised taste, has already received the stamp of universal
approbation ; being generally admitted, even on the continent of Europe,
to be the best existing edition of that poet, and being almost universally
adopted in the schools and colleges of England. With regard to tho
Sallust and Cicero, they fully equalled, in ability and fitness for that scale
of intellect to which they were intended to apply, their predecessor ; and
the Caesar, with its admirable notes, full of all that boys can require and
of much that men may read with interest and profit ; with its indexes,
clear, comprehensive, and, at the same time, highly entertaining; with
its well-executed plans and sketches, affording admirable illustrations ot
the text, and with the curious and rarely-published paraphrase, is in no
degree inferior, or, rather, is so far superior to tho earlier numbers of tho
series, that it may safely be pronounced the lest schoolbook ever pub-
lished in this or any other country. The editor and publishers ha\
with each other ; and, the one in matter, the others m manner, have been
most eminently successful, and may be most justly proud of their bene-
ficial labours ; for if he has been termed the most useful member uf a
state who causes two blades of grass to spring up where but one grew
before, what name shall be applied to him who calls forth two ideas in
the place of one from that m..,i noble Held, \\hi-u cultivated dui
mind of rational and thinking man.
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