THE
SYSTEM
or
NATURAL HISTORY,
WRITTEN BY
M. DE BUFFON,
Carefuilp ^btttrgetr :
AND THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS;
COMPILED CHIEFLY FROM
SWAMMERDAM, BROOKES, GOLDSMITH, &c.
EMBELLISHED WITH
Elegant Engravings on Wood.
IN FOUR VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
ALNWICK :
PRINTED BY AND FOR W. DAYISON.
1814.
CONTENTS
TO VOLUME FIRST.
CHAP. I. Of the Earth ; its Form, and Compost
fion: of Attraction ; Repulsion; Elements; Heat; Air;
Water. 9
CHAP. II. Of Hills ; Seas ; Rivers, and Lakes ;
their Nature and Properties 41
CHAP. III. Of Tides, Winds, regular and irre-
gular; Monsoons; Hurricanes; Whirlwinds; Wa-
ter-spouts, 56
CHAP, IV. Of Volcanoes; Earthquakes; the
Formation of new Islands ; Caverns and Grottoes ;
I5ogs and Fens ; Changes of Land into Sea, &c. 69
CHAP. V. Analogies between Animals and Ve-
getables ; on the Nature of Man ; of Infancy ; Man-
hood; Extent of Human Life ; of the Senses; Anec-
dotes illustrative of this Subject B4>
CHAP. VI. Of the apparent Varieties in the
Human Species; Laplanders; Tartars; Chinese;
Japanese ; Formosans ; Moguls ; Persians ; Arabians ;
Circassians; Turks; Russians; Negroes; Hottentots;
Americans; causes of this variety. 107
CHAP Vll.-Of Quadrupedes in general; Domestic
Animals ; the Horse ; the Ass ; the Ox ; the Sheep ;
the Goat. Of the Swine; the Wild Boar, &c. 131
CHAP. VIII Of another Class of Domestic ani-
mals; the Dog; its varieties. Of the Cat, &c, 18
2090823
^r CONTEXTS.
CHAP. IX. Of certain intermediate animals be-
tween Wild and Domestic ; the Stag, or Red Deer ;
of the Fallow-deer; the Roe-buck, &c. 204
CHAP. X. Of Wild animals ; the Hare and the
Rabbit 214
CHAP. XL Of Carnivorous animals ; the Wolf;
the Fox ; the Badger ; the Otter ; theMartin ; the
Pine Weasel ; the Pole-cat ; the Ferret ; the W^easel ;
the Ermine 220
CHAP. XII. Of certain smaller animals of the
Carnivorous class. The Squirrel ; the Rat ; the
Mouse ; the long-tailed Field Mouse ; the Water
Rat ; the short-tailed Field Moase ; the Guinea Pig;
the Hedge- Hog ; the Shrew Mouse ; the Water Shrew
Mouse ; the Mole ; the Bat ; the Fat Squirrel, (he
Garden Squirrel, or Greater Dormouse : -the Dor-
mouse; the Brown Rat ; the Marmot 239
CHAP. XIII. Of Carnivorous animals continued,
the Bear ; the Beaver ; the Racoon ; the Coati ; the
Agouti 266
CHAP. XIV. Of Carnivorous animals continued*
the Lion : the Tiger ; the Panther, Ounce, and Leo-
pard; the Jaguar; the Couguar ; the Lynx; the
Caracal ; the Hyaena ; the 'Civet, and Zibet ; the Ge-
nett ; the Ondatra and Desman 283
CHAP. XV. Of the Peccary, or Mexican Hog*
Of the Ternat Bat. The Spectre ; the Paying Squir-
rel; the Grey Squirrel ; the Palm Squirrel, and those
of Barbary, &c. the Ant-eaters : short and long-tailed
Manis ; the Armadillo ; spotted Cavy ; the Opossum ;
the Marmose ; the Cayapolin ; the Kanguroo. 310
PREFACE,
NATURAL HISTORY is, of aii sciences, the
most important and extensive. Its object is, to observe
and classify the various appearances of nature, as they
present themselves spontaneously, while undisturbed
by the intervention of human art. Thej general phe-
nomena of the universe, the wonders of the heavens,
the form and structure of the earth, animals, vegeta-
bles, fossils, and inanimate bodies of all species, fall,
therefore, under its observation. Whatever can be dis-
covered of any of these, by an attentive survey ; or
by carefully watching those changes to which they
are naturally subject, is recorded by the naturalist, in
order that it may be added to the materials of some
other science or some art, or that it enlarge the gene-
ral experience of mankind.
Although thus important, thu* extensive, and thus
generally interesting, it was late in the progress of
knowledge, before natural history assumed a regular
form, or began to be cultivated as a distinct branch of
science. Many theories of the earth and heavens had
been imagined ; the science of ethics had been success-*
fully cultivated in all its different branches ; the most
important theorems in mathematics had been demon-
strated, and the most intricate problems solved ; when
Aristotle, the father of natural history, first attempted
to collect a body of facts belonging to this department
of knowledge, and to arrange them in scientific order.
Taste and genius had passed their meridian at Rome,
Vel I. A3
ir PREFACE.
when the elder Pliny collected that medley of science
and fable, which is the only valuable work upon na-
tural history that the remains of Roman literature
afford. And, in modern times, the great masters of
Almost every other science had passed, before Buffon
and Linnaeus appeared.
But if natural history did not, till a late period, be-
gin to assume a regular form, or to command the atten-
tion of the votaries of knowledge ; it has at length
become a favourite study with almost all classes of men.
The philosopher finds no task more pleasing, than to
watch and compare the habits and manners of plants
and animals. The virtuoso rejoices in the possession
of a shell, a skeleton, or a stuifed skin, no less than in
a rusty medal, a faded picture, or a mutilated statue.
The painter and the engraver have exhibited some of
the finest specimens of their respective arts in imitating
the forms and colours of birds and quadrupeds. And
what a numerous train of writers have lately sought
fame or emolument, by illustrating subjects of natural
history !
Linnaeus and Buffon, the chief of these last, have
equally displayed, in their works, some of the highest
efforts of genius ; although differing as much in their
views, and manner of composition, as is possible for
two able writers, upon the same train of subjects.
The one has reduced natural history to the austere
regularity of scientific method: while the other has
displayed its materials in a loose order, and arrayed
them in all the pomp of popular eloquence. The one
has formed a new classification, and invented a new sys-
tem of technical language, as apparatus for his favourite
science : the other, in compiance with the taste of his
eountiy ; and the turn of hisown genius, has endeavoured
PREFACE. r
to strip natural history of \vhateverisreinote from popu-
lar expression and popular ideas, and to teach her those
blandishments, which invite and insinuate, and attract
the notice, and even the regard of the gay, the careless,
and the indolent. Buflbn, like most other eminent
philosophers of France, intermixes ill-founded, and
fantastic theory, in a large proportion, v. ith extensive
and enlightened views of nature, and the most beauti-
ful delineations of facts. Linnaeus seems to have pro-
posed to himself to form simply an index to these
parts of the volume of creation which are open to hu-
man view. Both are eminently eloquent ; but the
eloquence of Buffon is copious, diffusive, and often
declamatory and redundant : while Linnaeus is re-
markably concise and energetic. Yet whatever
may be their comparative merits, Buffon will long
continue one of the most popular writers on scientific
subjects : but, it is not probable, that the volumes of
Linnaeus will ever be fondly perused by any but men
of science.
These views of the importance and extent of natu-
ral history, of the ardour with which it is, at present,
cultivated, and of the character of the most popular of
the capital writers upon the science, first suggested the
idea of the PRESENT ABRIDGMENT. It seemed pro-
bable, that the work of Buflfon might become still more
popuLir, and of consequence, more generally useful,
if it could be reduced to a less bulky and less expen-
sive form. It was natural to observe, that of those
who are desirous of acquiring some knowledge of na-
tural history, or of amusing themselves with the con-
templation of the objects which it presents, many are
unwilling to be detained by theory, however plausible,
to listen to amplifying declamation, or tc perplex them--
T i PREFACE.
selves with examining authorities, or balancing the evi-
dence on the different sides of disputed facts. To the
young it is peculiarly proper to recommend the study
of natural history ; and nothing but a detail of inter-
esting facts, in easy, correct, and perspicuous language,
can be put, with any prospect of utility, into their
hands.
The compiler of this Abridgment has been guided
by these considerations in the performance of his task,
He has rejected, as far as was practicable, without
destroying the contexture of the work, all such of Buf-
fon's theories as appeared to him plainly ill-founded
and fanciful : he has left out that display of authori-
ties which Buffon had not always confined to his notes,
but frequently introduced into the text : and he has
often condensed his author's diffuse descriptions of the
forms and manners of animals, and abbreviated his
narrative of historical facts relative to them. He has
at the same time anxiously endeavoured to make this
Abridgment, a regular work, having consistency and
connexion through all its parts, not an awkward heap
of incoherent fragments. In the latter part, some ad-
ditions are introduced from other writers, and to the
whole is subjoined the NATURAL HISTORY OF
INSECTS, compiled chiefly from Srvammerdam,
Brookes, and Goldsmith ; and intended as a suitable
companion to the present Abridgment of BufFon'u
Work.
CHAP. I.
OF THE EARTH ITS FORM AXD COMPOSITIONOF AT-
TRACTION REPULSION ELEMENTS
HEAT AIR WATER.
1 HE figure of the earth, its motions, or the external
relations which subsist between it and the other parts
of the universe, belong not to our present inquiry. It
is .the internal structure of the globe, its form and
manner of existence, that we here "propose to examine.
The general history of the earth ought to precede that
of its productions. Details of particular facts relating
to the economy *and manners of animals, or to the
culture and vegetation of plants, are not, perhaps, so
much the objects of natural history, as general deduc-
tions from the observations that have been made upon
the different materials of which the earth itself is com-
posed ; as its heights, depths, and inequalities ; the
motions of the sea, the direction of mountains, the si-
tuation of rocks and quarries, the rapidity and effects
of currents in the occean, &c. This is the history of
nature at large, and of her principal operations, by
which other inferior or less general eifect is produced.
The theory of these effects constitutes what may be
called the primary science, upon which a precise
knowledge of particular appearances, as well as of ter-
restrial substances, solelv depends.
Vol. I. A
10 NATURAL HISTORY.
With regard to the history of the earth, therefore,
we shall begin with such facts as have been universal-
ly acknowledged in al! ages, not omitting those addition-
al truths that have fallen within our own observation.
The surface of this globe presents us with heights,
depths, plains, seas, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulf's,
volcanoes, in the disposition of which, upon a slight
view, we observe neither regularity nor order. If we
penetrate into the bowels of the earth, we discover
metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, and, in short mat-
ter of every kind as it were without any apparent de-
sign. Upon a more accurate inspection we perceive
matter in every form, blended in a chaos of confu-
sion, which can be compared to nothing but the ruins
of a world.
Amid these ruins, however, the different generations
of animals, and of vegetables, succeed each other in a
beautiful and regular order. With respect to us, the
earth, formerly a chaos, is now become a delightful
habitation, where every object aifords amazing displays
of the power, of the intelligence, and of the bene-
ficence of its great Creator.
Astronomers tell us, that this earth which we inha-
bit forms but a very minute part in that great assem-
blage of bodies of which the world is composed. It is
a million of times less than the sun, by which it is en-
lightened. The planets also, which, like it, are sub-
ordinate to the sun's influence, exceed the earth one
thousand times in magnitude. These have been dis-
covered as forming, with our earth, a system of bodies
circulating round the sun, all obedient to one law, and
impelled by one common influence.
Modern philosophy has taught us to believe, that,
when the great Author of Nature began the work of
KATURAL HISTORY. H
creation, he choose to operate by second causes ; and
that, suspending the constant exertion of his power, he
endued matter with a quality, by which the universal
economy of nature might be continued without his
immediate assistance. This quality is called attraction;
a sort of approximating influence, which all bodies,
whether terrestrial or celestial, are found to possess ;
and which in all increase's as the quantity of matter in
each increases. The sun, by far the greatest body in
our system, is, of consequence, possessed of much the
greatest share of this attracting power ; and all the
planets, of which our earth is one, are, of course en-
tirely subject to its superior influence. Were this
power, therefore, left uncontrouled by any other, the
sun must quickly have attracted all the bodies of our
celestial system to itself ; but it is equally counteracted
by another power of equal efficacy ; namely, a pro-
gressive force which each planet received when it w r as
impelled forward by the divine Architect upon Us first
formation. The''heavenly bodies of our system being
thus acted upon by two opposing powers; namely, by
that of attraction, which draws them towards the sun ;
and that of impulsion, which drives them straight for-
Wtird into the great void of space ; they pursue a track
between these contrary directions: and each like a stone
whirled about in a sling, obeying two opposite forces',
circulates round its great centre of heat ai:d motion.
In this manner, therefore, is the haimonyofour
planetary sysU-rn preserved. The sun, in the mitlsf,
es heat, and light, and circular motion to the phi-
nets which surround it. Though we see the greatness
and wisdom of the Deity in al! those worlds around us
it is our chief concern to trace Him in that which
WK iniu'bit.
4S NATURAL HISTORY.
In examining and describing the surface of the earth
the first object which solicits our attention is that body
of water with which the greater part of the globe is
covered. The waters occupy the lower grounds, and
notwithstanding their uniform tendency to rest, they
are kept in continual agitation by an agent, that com-
municates to them a regular periodic motion, which
produces a vibration, even to the most profound depths
in the whole mass.
When we explore the bottom of the sea, we discover
hills and valleys, plains and hollows, and rocks and
earths of every sort. We discover too that islands
are only the summits of vast mountains ; we likewise
find other mountains whose tops almost reach the sur-
face of the w r ater ; and rapid currents which counter-
act the general movement ; and of which the motion
is sometimes in the same direction, and at other times
retrograde. On the one hand, we meet with tempestu-
ous regions, where the heavens and the ocean seem
equally confounded in the general shock ; violent in-
testine emotions, tumultuous swellings, water-spouts,
and strange convulsions produced by volcanoes, and
dreadful whirl-pools. On the other hand, we discover
vast regions always calm, but equally dangerous to
the mariner. In short, when we direct our eyes to-
wards the polar regions, we perceive huge masses of
ice, which having detached themselves from them, ad-
vance, like floating mountains, till they dissolve in the
temperate climates.
Besides tl>ese grand objects, the ocean exhibits an
infinite variety of animated beings ; all of which find
abundance of food in this fluid element.
But when we take a view of the land, what differ-
ences tajce place in different climates ! what a variety
NATURAL HISTORY. is
of soils ! what inequalities in the surface ! Yet upon
an attentive observation, we* observe that the great
chains of mountains lie nearer the equator than the
poles ; that, in the old Continent, their direction is
more from east to west than from north to south.
And the figure and direction of these mountains which
appear most irregular, correspond so, that the promi-
nent angles of one mountain are constantly opposite to
the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and
of equal dimensions, whether they be separated by an
extensive plain or a small valley. I have remarked
that the opposite are almost always of the same height ;
and that mountains for the most part occupy the mid-
dle of continents, islands, and promontories, and that
they divide them by their greatest lengths. By trac-
ing the courses of the principal rivers, I find that their
direction is nearly perpendicular to the sea-coasts in-
to which they empty themselves, and that for the
greater part of their courses they follow the direction
of the mountains from which they take their rise.
The sea-coasts are generally bordered with earth and
sand accumulated by the waters of the sea, or swept
down by rivers. In opposite coast?, separated only
by small arms of the sea, the different strata are of
the same materials. Volcanoes never exist but in
high mountains ; a great number of them are entirely
extinguished ; some are connected with others by sub-
terraneous passages, and their eruptions pretty fre-
quently happen -at the same time. Similar communi-
cations subsist between certain lakes an 1 seas. Some
rivers disappear on a sudden and seem to precipitate
themselves into the bowe!s^ the earth. Certain in-
land seas, too, constantly receive from many rivers
prodigious quantities of water, and .-which, as their
14 NATURAL HISTORY.
bounds are not augmented, probably discharge thos
extraneous supplies by subterraneous passages. Coun-p
tries that have long been inhabited may likewise be
easily distinguished from those where the earth ap-
pears in a rude state, where the rivers are full of ca-
taracts, where the land is either almost overflowed
with water, or scorched with drought, and where every-
place where a tree can grow is covered with wood.
In bur examination of the upper stratum of the
earth, we find it to be universally the same substance
which substance is nothing else than a composition of
the decayed parts of animal and vegetable bodies.
Penetrating a little deeper, we discover the real earth,
beds of sand, lime, stone clay, shells, marble, gravel,
chalk, &c. These strata are always parallel to ore
another, and of the same thickness throughout. In
neighbouring hills, strata of the same materials are
uniformly divided by perpendicular fissures. Shells,
skeletons of fishes, marine plants, &c. perfectly similar
to those of the ocean, are often found in the bowels of
the earth, and on the tops of mountains at very great
distances from the sea. Petrified shells are found al-
most every where in prodigious quantities, not only in-
closed in rocks of marble and limestone, in earths and
in clays, but incorporated and filled with the very sul -
stances in which they are inclosed. Indeed all ir.a:-
bles, lime-stones, chalks, marles, chiys, sands, and al-
most all terrestrial substances, are full of shells and
other spoils of the ocean.
From these facts, let us try what conclusions can
IK drawn.
The changes which the earth has undergone for the
last two or three thousand years, are inconsiderable,
when compared with those revolutions, which succeed
NATURAL HISTORY. Id
the creation. For as the surface of the earth was at
iirst much softer than it is now, of consequence the
same cause which at present produce but slight altera-
tions for many centuries, were then capable of produc-
ing very great revolutions in a few years. It is very
evident, in my opinion, that the dry land, and even
the summits of the highest mountains, were formerly
cuvirc-d with the waters of the sea ; because shells and
other marine animals are still found upon the very tops
of mountains. It appears too that the waters of the
sea have remained a great number of years upon the
surface of the earth ; for such immense banks of shells
have been discovered, as to render it impossible for so
great a number of animals to have existed at the same
time. This circumstance proves pretty clearly, that,
though the materials on the surface of the earth wore
then easily disunited by the water, yet these transpor-
tations ceuld not be suddenly effected. Even though
it should be supposed, that, at the deluge, all the shells
were transported from the bottom of the ocean and de-
posited upon the dry land ; yet, besides the difficulty
.hlishing this hypothesis, it is evident, . that as
shells are found incorporated in marble, and.in the rocks
of the highest mountains, we must likewise suppose
that all the^e marbles and rocks w,ere formed at the
same time, and that too when the deluge took place ;
and that before tills grand revolution, there were nei-
ther mountains, nor marbles, nor rocks, nor clays, nor
matter of any kind like that with which we are now
acquainted.
But without dwelling any longer upon this particular
I shall confine myself to well authenticated facts. It
is certain, that tli waters of the sea have, at one pt-
riod or other, continued for a succession of ages upon
16 NATURAL HISTORY.
what we now know to be dry land ; and that, of con-
sequence, the vast continents of Asia, Europe, Africa,
and America, were then the bottom of an immense
ocean, replete with every thing which the present one
produces. It is also certain that the different strata of
the earth are horizontal and parallel to one another,
which situation is occasioned by the operation of the
waters. The horizontal position of water is almost
universal ; in plains the strata are perfectly horizontal.
And it is only in the mountains that they are inclined
to a horizon ; because they have been originally form-
ed by sediments deposited upon an inclined base. Now
these strata must have been formed gradually ; for
nothing is more frequent than strata composed of hea-
vy materials placed above light ones, which could not
have been the case, if the whole had been blended and
dissolved by the deluge, and then precipitated.
Another circumstance requires our attention. No-
thing but the motion and sediments of water could
possibly produce the regular position of the various
strata of which the superficial part of this earth is
composed. And as both the highest mountains, and
the lowest vallies consist, of parallel strata, this par-
allel and horizontal position of strata must be the ef-
fect of an uniform and constant cause. And hence
we conclude that the dry and habitual part of the
earth has remained a long time under the waters of
the sea, and must therefore have undergone the same
changes which are at present going on at the bottom
of the ocean. By examining therefore v.-hat passes
in the bottom of this sea, we shall soon be able to
draw some rational conclusions respecting the external
figure and internal constitution of the earth,
NATURAL HISTORY. 17
The ocean, since the creation of the solar system,
has been subject to a regular flux and reflux. This
motion, which uniformly takes place twice in twenty-
four hours, is principally owing to the moon, and is
greater in the equatorial regions than in ether climates.
The earth too performs a rapid motion on its axis, and
consequently has a centrifugal force, which is also
the greatest at the equator ; which last circumstance
proves that the earth must be more elevated under the
equator than at the poles. From the tides, therefore,
and the motion of the earth combined, we may fairly
conclude, that, though this globe had originally been a
perfect sphere, its diurnal motion, and the ebbing and
flowing of the tides, must, in a succession of time, have
elevated the equatorial part-;, bv gradually carrying
mud, shells, &c. from other climates, and depositing
them at the equator. On this hypothesis, the great-
est inequalities on the earth's surface ought to be found
and indeed are found near the equator. But farther,
as the alternate motion of the tides has been regular
since the existence of the world, may we not naturally
imagine, that, at each tide, the water carries from one
place to another a small quantity of matter, which
falls to the bottom as a sediment, and forms those ho-
rizontal and parallel strata that every where appear.
It may, however, be objected, that as the flux is
equal to, and regularly succeeded by the reflux, the
two motions will balance one another, and, of conse-
quence, that thi; cause of the formation of strata must
be chimerical, as the bottom of the ocean can never be
affected by a uniform alternate motion of the waters.
But, in the first place, the alternate motion of the
waters is far from being equal, as the sea has a con-
tinual motion from east to west, and also as the agi'
Vol. I. P,
IS NATURAL HISTORY.
tations occasioned by the winds produce great inequa-
lities in the tides. By every motion of the sea too,
particles of earth, and other materials, must be carried
from one place and deposited in another ; and these
collections of matter must assume the form of parallel
and horizontal strata. Besides, on all coasts where
the ebbing and flowing are discernible, numberless ma-
terials are brought in by the flux, which are not carried
back by the reflux. Thus ths sea gradually increases
on some places, and recedes from others. But in order
to remove every doubt, let us examine more closely
the practicability of a mountain being formed at the
bottom of the sea, by the motion and sediments of the
water. On a coast which the sea lashes with vio-
lence, some part of the earth must be carried off by
every stroke of the waves. Even where the sea is
bounded by rock, it is a well authenticated fact, that
small particles are carried off from the rock by the re-
treat of every wave. Those particles of earth or
stone being transported to some distance, it happens
that, when the agitation of the water is abated, the
particles are precipitated in the form of a sediment,
and lay the foundation of a first stratum, which will
soon be succeeded by a similar one. In process of
time this gradually accumulating mass will become a
mountain in the bottom 'of the sea, perfectly like,
both in external and internal structure, the mountains
on the dry land. When the bottom of the sea too,
at particular places, is troubled by the agitation of
the water, earth, clay, shells, and other matter
must be removed from thence, and deposited else-
where. For divers assure us, that the bottom of
the sea, at the greatest depths to which they descend,
is so strongly agitated by the water, that earth, clay,
NATURAL HISTORY. 19
and shells, are removed to great distance?. Trans-
portations of this kind must therefore go on in every
part of the ocean ; and the matters transported, after
having subsided, must raise eminences similar to the
composition and structure of our mountains. We
must not however imagine that these matters cannot*
be carried to a great distance ; for we daily find grain,
and other productions of the East and West Indies,
landing on our coasts. These bodies may be said to
be specifically lighter than the water, and the other
substances specifically heavier. Yet as they arc re-
duced to an impalpable powder, they may be long
suspended in the water, and consequently transported
to any distance.
It has been imagined that the agitation, produced
by the winds and tides, docs not affect the bottom,
when it is very deep. But the truth is, tliat whate-
ver be the depth, the power which occasions the flux
and reflux operates equally upon every particle of the -
mass at the same time. It therefore appears that the
tides, the winds, and whatever else gives birth to mo-
tion in the sea, must produce heights and inequalities
in its boUoiir; and that these eminences must uni-
formly be composed of regular strata, either horizon-
tal or inclined.
Whenever civinencc.s are formed they interrupt the
uniform motion of the waters, and produce new ones
called currents. Between two neighbouring heights
in the bottom of the ocean, there must be a current
which will follow their common direction, and, like a
river, cut a channel, the angles of v.hu h will be alter-
nately opposite through the whole of its course.
These heights must continually increase, ss ti
tor will depoit its ordinary ?edicr:ent upon their ri
20 NATURAL HISTORY,
and thus, by means of the different motions and sedi-
ments, the bottom of the ocean, though formerly-
smooth, must soon he furrowed, and interspersed with
hills and chains of vast mountains, as we find it at pre-
sent. And the materials which consisted of sandy
and crystalline particles, would produce those masses
of rock and flint in which v, e find crystals and preci-
ous stor.es. Others composed of stony particles and
shells, produce lime stone and marble ; and, lastly,
particles of shells mixed with a pure earth, have given
risa to all our beds of rnarle and chalk.
It may be said, however, that the greater number
of hills, whose summits consist of solid rocks of moor
stone, or marble, are founded upon small eminences
composed of lighter materials. But the explication of
this phenomenon is perfe :tly easy. The waters would
first operate upon the upper stratum, either of coasts,
or the bottom of the sea. This upper stratum general-
ly consists of clay, or sand ; and these light substances
being carried oiF and desposited sooner than the more
dense and solid, they woutd of consequence become
foundations for the more heavy particles to rest upon.
The harder and more ponderous substances would next
be subjected to the attrition of the water, and carried off
and deposited about the hillocks of sand or clay. These
small stony particles would, in process of time, form
those solid rocks which we now find on the tops of
hills and mountains. And as particles of stone are
heavier than those of either sand or clay, it is probable
that they were originally covered by superior strata
of considerable depth ; but that they now occupy the
highest stations, because they were last transported;
b.y the. waves..
NATURAL KISTOilY. 212
To confirm this reasoning, it is worthy of remark,
chat the different strata of stones in quarries are al-
most all horizontal or regularly inclined. Indeed the
strata of granite vitrifiable sand, clays, marbles, cal-
careous stones, chalk, and marlcs, are always parallel
or equally inclined ; and the disposition of strata, as
deep as mankind have penetrated is the same.
Those heds of sand and gravel which are washed down
from the mountains, must, in some degree, be excepted
from the general rule. And as they are formed by
rivers and brooks which often change their channels,
it is not surprising that they are so frequent. The
strata formed by rivers are not very ancient ; they are
easily distinguished by their frequent interruptions, and
the inequality in thickness, which is constantly vary-
ing, but the ancient strata uniformly preserve the same
dimensions throughout. These modern strata may
likewise be distinguished by the form of the stones and
gravel they contain, which bear evident marks of having
been rounded by the motion of water. The same ob-
servation holds good with respect to those beds of turf,
and corrupted vegetables, which are found in marshy
grounds, immediately below the soil ; and which have
derived their origin from successive accumulations of
decayed trees, and other plants. The strata of slime
and mud being formed by stagnating waters, or the
inundations of rivers, are neither so perfectly horizon-
tal, nor so uniformly inclined as those produced bv the
regular motions of the sea. In strata formed by rivers,
we meet, with river and seldom with sea shells ; but in
the ancient strata there are no river shells ; the sea
shells are numerous, well preserved, and all placed in
the same manner. From whence could this beautiful
regularity proceed? Instead of regular strain, why do
12 NATURAL HISTORY.
we not find the materials which compose the earth hud-
dled together without order ? Why are not rocks, mar--
bles, clays, marlcs, &c. scattered promiscuously, or
joined by irregular or vertical strata ? Why are not
heavy bodies found in a lower situation than light ones ?
It is easy to perceive, that this uniformity of nature,
this species of organization, this union of different ma-
terials by parallel strata, without regard to their weights
could only proceed from a cause equally powerful and
uniform as the motions of the .sea, produced by regu-
lar winds, or by the flux and reflux, &c
As these causes act with superior force under the
equator than in other climates, the chains of mountains
are most extensive in its neighbourhood. Thus the
mountains of Africa and Peru are both the highest and
most extensive in the world. The mountains of Europe
and Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not
so high as those of Africa and South America. Be-
sides, in the northern seas, the islands are but few,
when compared with those in the Torrid Zone. As
islands, therefore, are nothing but the summits of moun-
tains, it is clear there are more inequalities on the sur-
face of the earth near the equutor than in northerly
climates.
Those vast chains of mountains which run from west
to east in the old continent, and from north to south
in the new, must have been formed by the general mo-
tion of the tides. But the origin of smaller mountains
and hills may be ascribed to particular motions occasion-
ed by winds, currents, and other irregular agitations
of the sea, or to a combination of all those motions
which are capable of infinite variations.
But how has it happened that this earth, which, .
from time immemorial, hus been an kmncnse continent..
NATURAL HISTORY. 23
/tumid, if formerly the bottom of an ocean, be now so
i::urh elevated above the waters, and so completely se-
parated from them ?
A little reflection will furnish us with at least plaus-
ible solutions. We daily observe the sea gaining ground
on certain coasts, and losing it on others. The ocean
has a general and uniform motion from east to west ;
there are whole provinces which human industry can
hardly defend from the fury of the wares, and there
are islands which have but lately emerged from the
waters, and regular inundations. History too informs
us of inundations and deluges of a more extensive na-
ture. Should not all this convince us, that the surface
of the earth has undergone very great revolutions, and
that the sea may have given up the greater part of the
ground which she formerly possessed? Lot us suppose
for example, that the old r.nd new worlds were for-
merly but one continent, and that, by a violent earth-
quake, the ancient Atalantis of Plato was sunk.
What would be the consequence? The sea would rush
in from all quarters, and from what is now called the
Atlantic Ocean, and vast continents would of conse-
quence be left dry. This great, revolution might be
effected by the sudden failure of some immense cavern
in the interior part of the globe, and an universal de-
luge would infallibly succeed. I am inclined however
to think, that to effect such a revolution would require
a very long period. Be these conjectures as they
may, it is certain that the revolution has happened,
and I believe that it has happened naturally. It is a
well-authenticated fact, that the ocean has a constant
motion from east to west; which motion, like the
trade-winds, is not only perceived between the tropics
hut through the whole temperate climates, and as near
-24 NATURAL HISTORY.
? the poles as navigators have approached. In conse-
1 quence of this motion, the Pacific Ocean must make
continual efforts against the coasts of Tartary, China,
and India; the Indian Ocean must act against the
east coast of Africa, and the Atlantic must operate in
a similar manner upon the eastern coasts of America.
Hence the sea has gained, and will always gain on
the east, and lose on the west. If such is the natural
effect of the motion of the sea from east to west, may
we not suppose that Asia, and all the eastern conti-
nent, is the most ancient country in the world? and
that Europe and part of Africa, particularly the west
parts of these continents, as Britain, France, Spain,
&c. are more recent countries ? Both history and
physics concur to establish this hypothesis.
But there are many lands lower than the level of
the sea, and defended only by banks, which the action
of the waters must gradually destroy, and of conse-
quence the lands must then become part of the ocean.
The mountains too are daily diminishing ; and every
little brook carries earth, and other materials, from
the high grounds into the rivers, by which they are at
last transported to the ocean. Thus the bottom of
the sea is gradually filling up, and the surface of the
earth is approaching to a level.
But we shall give a detail of facts, in order to ex-
plain the different alterations which the earth has un-
dergone, whether by irruptions of the sea upon the
land, or by the sea returning from lands it formerly
occupied.
That irruption which gave birth to the Mediterra-
nean is no doubt the greatest. The motion through
the straits of Gibraltar is contrary to the motion in
every other strait; for the general motion of the sea
NATURAL HISTORY. 25
w from east to west ; but in the straits of Gibraltar it
Is from west to east. This circumstance is a clear proof
that the Mediterranean Sea is not an ancient gulf, but
that it has been formed by an irruption, produced by
some accidental cause.
When the ocean forced this passage, it ran through
the straits with much more rapidity than it does now,
and immediately deluged that large tract of land which
formerly joined Europe with Africa. The waters
covered all the grounds which were lower than the
level of the ocean ; and no part of them is to be seen
at present, except the tops of some of the mountains,
Mich as part of Italy, Sicily, Malta, Corsica, Sardinia,
Cyprus, Rhodes, and the islands of the Archipelago.
It is not improbable, that the Black Sta will, some
time or other, be entirely divided from the Mediter-
ranean ; and that the Bosphorus will be choaked up,
whenever the rivers shall have accumulated a quantity
of materials sufficient for that purpose.
The Caspian and Black Seas should rather be con-
sidered as lakes than as gulfs of the ocean ; because
they are perfectly similar to other lakes that receive
a number of rivers without any visible outlet, as the
Dead Sea, several lakes in Africa, and elsewhere.
But that we may give some recent examples of the
changes of sea into land and of land inio sea. At
Venice the bottom of the sea is constantly rising ; and
the same thing may be said of most harbours, bays,
and mouths of rivers. In Holland, the bottom of the
sea is elevated in many places ; the gulf of Zudovzee
and the straits of the Texel, cannot receive such large
vessels as formerly ; and it is quite evident that the
sea is always dammed up, wherever great rivers empty
themselves. The Rhine is lost in tie sdnds which
Vok I. C
%S NATURAL HISTORY.
itself has accumulated. The Danube, the Nile, and
e!l large rivers, after they have- transported great
quantities of slime, sand, &c. never arrive at the sea
by a single channel. Marshes are drained everyday;
lands, forsaken by the sea, are now ploughed and sown ;
we navigate whole countries now covered by the wa-
ters. In short, we see so many instances of land
changed into water, and water into land, as to con-
vince us that, in time, the gulfs of the ocean will be-
come continents, the isthmuses will be changed into
straits, and the tops of the mountains concerted into
shoal y rocks in the sea.
Still, however, those perpendicular fissures, which
are equally diffused through rocks, clays, and every
constituent matt rial of the globe, remain to be consider-
ed. The perpendicular fissures are indeed placed at
greater distances from one another than the horizontal ;
and the softer the matter, the more tli.si;ir,t arc the fis-
sures. In marble and hard stone, the fissures are only
a few feet asunder. If the mass of rock be extensive,
the distance between the fissures is some fathoms.
The cause of perpendicular fissures is easy investi-
gated. As various materials constituting the different
strata were transported by the waters, and deposited
in the form of sediments, they would at first be in a
yery diluted state, and would by degrees harden and
part with the superfluous quantity of water they con-
tained. In the process of drying, they would contract
and split at irregular distances. The contraction,
therefore, of the parts in drying is the cause of per-
pendicular fissures; for I have often remarked, that
the sides of tho.se fissures, through their whole e*xtent r
correspond as exactly as the two sides of a split piece*
of wood.
NATURAL HISTORY. 27
Perpendicular fissures vary greatly as to the extent
of their openings. It is clear, ho>wever, that the fis-
sures, whose openings are small, have been occasioned
solely by drying. But those which extend several feet
are partly owing to the sinking of the foundation upon
one siue while that of the other remains firm. When
rocks are founded on clay or sand, they sometimes slip
a little to a side ; and the fissures are of consequence
increased by this motion. I have not taken notice of
those prodigious cuts which are found in rocks and
mountains, arid which could be produced by nothing
but ths sinking of immense subterraneous caverns that
were unable to support the load any longer. But these
cuts in mountains are not of the same nature with per-
pendicular fissures : They appear to have been ports
opened by the hand of mature for the communication
of nations. This appears to be the intention of all
openings in chains of mountains, and of those
t?l raits by which different parts of the ocean arc con-
nected ; as the straits of ThermOpyle, of Gibraltar, &c.
:>s or ports in Mount Caucasus, i he Cordeliers, c.
These great sinkings, though owing to accidental
and secondary cantos, are leading facts in ihe history
of the earth, and have contributed much to change
the appearance of its surface. Most of them have
been produced by subterraneous fires, whose explosions
;;ive birth to earthquakes and volcarioes. But though
the f;>rce of inflamed matter pent up in the bowels of
the earth be great, and though its- effects appear to
hi 1 protfigious, we v car,not suppose that these subterra-
neous fires are only branches of an immense abyss of
'flame in the centr: of the t-a-th ; nor do we believe
that those fires have their seat at a great depth helovr
dite surface, asmsLter carsnct begin to burn,, cr at least
99 NATURAL HISTORY. ,
the inflammation cannot be supported without air. In
order to be convinced that the matter emitted by volca~
njes does riot come from any considerable depth, we
have only to attend to the height of the mountain, ancV
ta consider th amazing force which would be necessary
to project, stones and minerals to the height of half a
league ; for JEtna, Hecla, and other volcanoes, have at
least that elevation.
This, however, is not inconsistent with volcanoes
being the cause of considerable earthquakes ; nor does
it contradict, the communication of one volcano with
another, by means of subterraneous passages, For
to produce an earthquake in a plain, it is not necessary
that the bottom of the volcano should be below the le-
vel of that plain, nor that there should be subterraneous-
cavities filled with the same burning matter under it.
A violent explosion may by its reaction produce an
earthquake of considerable extent. I would not, how-
ever, be thought to say that no earthquakes derive
their existence from subterraneous fires ; all I mean is,
that there are earthquakes produced solely by the ex-
plosion of volcanoes.
It is not dii'iicult to account for volcanoes appearing
only in mountains ; for greater quantities of minerals,
sulphur, and pyrites, exist in mountains, and nearer
the surface than in the plains. Besides, mountains are
more subject to the impressions of the air, and receive
more rain and moisture, by which mineral substances
are capable of being fermented to such a degree as to
produce actual inflammation. And mountains having
diminished, nearly in proportion to the quantity of mat-
ter thrown out, is another proof that the volcanoes are
not so deep as the base of the mountains, and even that
they are not much below the summit.
NATURAL HISTORY. 2^
In several places, earthquakes have formed consider-
able hollows, and even some large gaps in mountains
All other inequalities are coeval with the mountains
themselves, and owe their existence to currents in the
ocean.
From what has been said, it is easy to perceive hcnr
much subterraneous fires have contributed to change
both the surface and internal part of the globe. But
it is difficult to conceive how any sensible alteration
upon the land can be produced by the winds. Their do-
minion would appear to be confined to the sea ; yet it
is well known that the winds raise mountains of sand
in Arabia and Africa;, and that they frequently carry
these sands many leagues into the sea, where they
form banks, downs, and even islands. Every body
knows that hurricanes are the scourge of the Antilles,
of Madagascar, and of other countries, and that their
impetuosity is so violent as to drive back rivers, to
overthrow rocks and mountains, to scoup out holes and
gulphs in the earth, and totally to change the face of
those unhappy countries which they infest.
But the greatest changes upon the surface of the
earth are produced by rains, rivers, and torrents from
the mountains. These derive their origin from va-
pours raised by the sun from ihe surface of the ocean,
and which are transported bv the winas through eve-
ry climate. The progress of these vaponrs is inter-
rupted by the tops of 'the mountains, where they ac-
cumulate into ciouds and descend in the form of rain,
dew, or snow. By their intrinsic gravity, they run
to the bottom of the mountain's, and penetrating or
dissolving the lower grounds, they sweep along with
them sand and gravel, furrow the plains, and thus
open passages to the sen, which always gains as much?
30 NATURAL HISTORY
water by rivers, as it loses by evaporation. Tht
windings in the channels of rivers uniformly have
corresponding angles on their opposite banks ; and as,
mountains and hills, which may be considered as the
banks of the vallies by which they are separated,
have also, sinuosities with corresponding angles, this
circumstance seems to demonstrate, that the vallies
have gradually been formed by currents of the ocean,
in the same manner as the channels of rivers have
been produced.
The waters which run upon the surface, compose
perhaps not one half of the quantity that is produced
by vapour. In almost all the vallies and low grounds
at a certain depth, water is uniformly to be found ;
hut in high grounds, it is impossible to extract water
from the bowels of the earth. There are extensive
countries where no wells can be obtained. In the
east, and especially in Arabia, Egypt and Persia,
wells and springs are seldom to be met with. To
supply their place the inhabitants have been obliged
to make large reservoirs to collect the rain water. In
plain countries, furnished with large rivers, it is al-
most impossible to break the surface of the earth
without "finding water.
The greatest part of the water so liberally diffused
through low grounds, comes from the neighbouring hills
and eminences. During great rains, or the sudden
inciting of snow, part, of the water runs upon the sur-
face, but most of it penetrates the earth arid rocks by
small chinks and fissures. It emerges indeed as soon
?s it can find an opening ; but it often creeps along un-
til it can find a bottom of clay, or hard earth and there
forms subterraneous lakes, brooks, and perh;:ps rivers,
whose channels arc ccn.-i"ned to eternal oblivion.
NATURAL HISTORY. SI
There are several lakes which neither receive nor
give origin to any liver. A greater number, however,
receive no considerable river, but are the sources of
the largest in the world. Such are the lakes from
which the river St Laurence arises ; the lake Chiame,
from which two large rivers proceed, that water the
kingdoms of Asem, and Pegu ; the lakes of Assiniboii
in America; those of Ozera in Muscovy; those too
which give rise to the Bog and the Irtis, and many
more. It has been affirmed, indeed, that lakes are to
be found on the tops of the highest mountains ; but
those found en the Alps, and other elevated situa-
tions, all derive their origin from the waters which
run down the sides, or are filtered through the bowels
of these superior eminences.
Hence the existence of subterraneous collections of
water ; for mountains, hiiis, and heights of every
sort, are exposed on every side to the weather. The
waters which fall upon any place of an elevated situ-
ation, must, after penetrating the earth, from the de-
clivity of the ground, break forth at many places,
springs, and fountains ; and of consequence little wa-
ter will be found in the bowels of mountains. But,
in plains, as the water filtrated through the earth can
find no vent, it must be collected in subterraneous
caverns, or dispersed in small veins 'among sand and
gravel. The bottom of a pit or well is only a small
artificial bason, into which the water insinuates itself
from the higher grounds. Hence it is, that, though
water may be found in any part of a plain, only a
number of wells can be supplied in proportion to the
quantity of water diffused, or rather to the extent of
the higher grounds from which it comes.
To find water, it is unnecessary to dig below the
level of the river. Even what is found in the earth.
32 NATURAL HISTORY.
below the level of rivers, is not derived from them.
Five or six feet of earth is sufficient to contain water,
and to prevent its escape.
It would not be easy to make an. exact calculation
of the quantity of subterraneous wafers that have no
apparent issue. Many suppose that it is far greater
than all that is upon the surface of the earth. But
it is probable that the quantity of subterraneous wa-
ters which never appear at the surface, is very incon-
siderable ; For, if the number of subterrjmeous rivers
were so great, why do we never see any of their
mouths break out like springs, on the surface. But
rivers likewise produce considerable changes on the
surface of the earth ; they carry off the soil ; they
wear away the most solid rocks, and sweep off what-
ever opposes them. The same effects would result from
subterraneous rivers. But no such changes have ever
been discovered ; the different strata every where pre-
serve their parallel and primitive position.
From what we have advanced, we may conclude,
that the flux and reflux of the ocean have produced
all the mountains, valleys, and other inequalities on
the surface of the earth ; that currents of the sea
have scooped out the valleys elevated the hills, and
iestowed on them their corresponding directions ; that
the waters of the ocean too, by transporting and de-
positing earth, c. have given existence to the par-
allel strata ; that the waters from the heavens destroy
the effects of the sea, by diminishing the height of the
mountains, filling up the vallies, and chosking the
mouths of the rivers ; and, by reducing every thing to
its former level, they will restore the earth to the sea,
, by its natunil operations, will again create nevr
NATURAL HISTORY. 3$
continents, beautifully diversified with mountains and
rallies, and in every respect like those which we now
inhabit.
The surface of this globe is divided, from one pole
to the other, into two immense bands of earth, and two
of water. The principal of these bands is that which
is called the ancient continent, and which includes Eu-
rope, Asia, and Africa. This continent, if measured
from the two extreme points, that is, from the eastern
point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, will pro-
duce a line of 3600 leagues ; and if measured direct-
ly from north to south, we shall find that there are only
2500 leagues from the northern Cape of Lapland to
the southernmost point of the Cape of Good Hope.
The utmost breadth of this continent, that is from the
western coast of Africa to Trefana, as far as Nisingpo,
on the east coast of China, is about 2800 leagues.
Another line may be drawn also from Brest in Brit-
tany, as far as the coast of Chinese Tartary, will be
about 2300 leagues. The old continent, on the best
calculations, may be said to contain 4 94-0,780 square
leagues, which is about a fifth part of the surface of
the globe, and may he considered as a large belt of
earth, with an inclination to the equator of about 30
degrees.
The new continent is called America, and is divided
into north and south. Its greatest length may be es-
timated from the mouth of the river Piata in Paraguay
to the lake of the AssiniboHs which amounts to about
2500 leagues. It is supposed to contain 2.140,212
square leagues. The whole superficial contents there-
fore, of both the old and new continents, are about
7,080.093 square leagues, rot near a third of the sur-
Vol I. D
'** NATU&AL HISTORY.
face of the globe, which contains 25,000,000 square
leagues.
Of these lines, which divide both the continents in-
to two equal parts, it is worthy of remark, that they
both terminate at the same degrees of north and south
latitude ; and that the two continents make mutual
advances perfectly opposite to one another, to wit, those
on the African coast, from the Canary Isles to Guinea ;
and those of America, from Guiana to the mouth of the
Rio-Janeiro.
It therefore appears, that the most ancient lands on
the globe, are those which extend from 200 to 250
leagues on each side of the two lines that we have al-
ready taken notice of. Agreeable to which idea, we con-
clude that in the old continent, the most ancient coun-
tries of Africa are those which reach from the Cape of
Good Hope to the 'Red Sea and Egypt, and are about
500 leagues broad ; and, of consequence, that the
whole western coast of Africa, from. Guinea to the
Straits of Gibraltar, are new lands.
In the new continent we shall likewise find, that
Terra Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, of the
country of the Amazons, of Guiana, and of Canada,
are new lands, when compared with Tucuman, Peru.
Terra Firma, the islands in the Gulf of Mexico, Florida,
the Missisippi, and Mexico.
It was but a small part of the globe with which the
ancients were acquainted. All America, the Arctic
circle, Terra Australis the Magellanic, and a great
part of the internal regions of Africa, wore entirely un-
known to them. They knew not that the torrid zone
was inhabited, although they had navigated around
Africa; for it is 2200 years since Neco king of Egypj
NATURAL HISTORY.
gave vessels to the Phoenicians, which departed from
the Red Sea, coasted around Africa, doubled the Cape
of Good Hope, and having employed two years in this
voyage, the third year they filtered the straits of Gib-
raltar*. Nevertheless, the ancients were not acquaint-
ed with the property which the load-stone had of turn-
ing towards the poles, although they knew that it at-
tracted iron. They were ignorant of the general cause
of the flux and refhix of the sea ; they were not cer-
iain the ocean surrounded the globe without interrup-
tion ; some indeed suspected it, hut with so little foun-
dation, that no one dared to say, or even conjecture it
was possible to make a voyage round the world. Ma-
gellan was the first who made it A. D. 1519 in 112-i
days. Sir Francis Drake was the second, in 1577,
and he did it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Ca-
vendish made this great voyage in 777 days, in the
year 1 586. These famous voyagers were the first who
demonstrated physically, the globular form and extent
of the earth's circumference : for the ancients were far
from having a just measure of this circumference, al-
though they had travelled a great deal. The general
and regulated winds, and the use to be made of them
in long voyages, were also absolutely unknown to
them ; therefore, we must not be surprised al the little
progress they made in Geography, since at present, in
spite of all the knowledge we have acquired by the aid
of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of naviga-
tors, many things remain still to be found, and vast
countries to be discovered.
As there is so large a portion of the globe with which
we are unacquainted, particularly near the poles, where
the ice has never permitted any navigator to penetrate,
* Sc Hwcd. Lih. if.
36 NATURAL HISTORY.
we cannot exactly know the proportion between the
surface of the earth and that of the sea ; only as much
as may be judged by inspection of what is known,
there is more sea than land.
If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity
of water which the sea contains, let us suppose one
common and general depth to the ocean; by comput-
ing it only at 200 fathoms, or the 10th part of a mile,
we shall see that there is water sufficient to cover the
whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, and if
we would reduce this water into one mass, we shall
find that it forms a globe of more than 60 miles diameter.
The form of the earth is not that of a perfect globe,
but rather what is termed a spheroid, a globe which is
flattish at the poles, the axis, therefore, or line, which
may be supposed to pass through it at the equator, is to
its axis at the poles in the proportion of 230 to 229-
The solid parts of the earth are formed of beds or strata
of different materials, which lie one upon another in a
regular order. The first stratum consists of common
soil, mixed with a variety of decayed vegetable and
animal substances, and with stony and sandy particles.
In different parts of theworld the other strata are found
to consist of different materials, and differently dispos-
ed. In some parts the strata are horizontal, in others
they are inclined ; and veins or fissures of metals, coals,
and other minerals, frequently penetrate through the dif-
ferent beds or strata to a great depth, and divide them.
At Marly-la- Ville in France, which is a high country,
but flat and fertile, the following strata were found ar-
ranged horizontally. From the shells which were found
in N" 16. we may conjecture, that at some period the
soil of Marly-la- Ville was the bottom of the sea, but
has since been raised to the height of 75 feet.
NATURAL HISTORY. 37
The state of the various Beds of Earth found at
Marly-la- Ville, at the depth of 101 feet.
J. A free reddish earth, mixed with much Veet lHch
mud, a very small quantity of vitrifiable sand,
and somewhat more of calcinable sand, - - 13
II. A free earth or soil mixed with more
gravel, and a little more vitrifiable sand - - 2 6
III. Dirt mixed with vitrifiable sand in a
very great quantity, and which made but very
little effervescence with aqua fortis - - 30
IV. Hard marie, which made a very great
effervescence with aqua fortis 2
V. Pretty hard marly stone 4
VI. Marie in powder mixed with vitrifiable sand 5
V II. Very fine vitriiiable sand - 1 6
VIII. Marie in earth, mixed with a little
vitrifiable sand - - - - 3 6
IX. Hard marie, in which was real flint 3 6
X. Gravel, or powdered marie - 1
XI. Eglantine, a stone of the grain and hard-
ness of marble, and sonorious - 1 6
XII. Marly gravel - 1 6
XIII. Marble in hard stone, whose grain
was very fine - - 1 6
XIV. Marie in stone, whose grain was not
so fine - 1 6
XV. More grained and thicker marie 2 6
XVI. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed with
sea fossile shells, which had no adherence with
tiie sand, and whose colours were perfect 1 6
XVII. Very small gravel or fine marie
powder - 20
XVIII. Mui-li- L: hard otoye - 36
Carry over 54, ft
3* NATURAL HISTORY.
Feet fncli
Brought over 54 6.
XIX. Very large powdered marie 1 6
XX. Hard and calcinable stone like marble 1 6
XXI. Grey and vitrifiable sand mixed with
fossile shells., particularly oysters and muscles,
which have no adherence with sand, and which
are not petrified - - 30
XXII. White vitrifiable sand mixed with
shells 20
XXIII. Sand streaked red and white, vitrifi-
able and mixed with the like shells 1
XXIV. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable and
mixed with the like shells - 10
XXV. Grey, fine, and vitrifiable sand, mix-
ed with the like shells - 8 6
XXVI. Very fine fat sand, where there were
only a few shells - - - 30
XXVII. Freestone .... 3
XXVIII. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and
white -.-...40
XXIX. White vitrifiable sand -.36
XXX. Reddish vitrifiable sand - - 15
Total depths when they left off digging JQJ g
Within a trench made at Amsterdam, the earth was
dry to the depth of 230 feet, and the strata of earth
were found as follows : 7 feet of vegetable or garden
earth, 9 feet turf, 9 feet soft clay, 8 feet sand, 4 feet
earth, 10 feet sand, on which it is customary to fix the
piles which support the houses of Amsterdam ; then
2 feet argile, 4 of white sand^ 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft
earth, 14 of gravel, 8 argile, mixed with earth ; 4 of
gravel mixed with shells ; then clay 1 02 feet thick,
and at last 31 feet sand, at which depth they ceased
NATURAL HISTORY. 3.
. Every stratum, whether horizontal or inclined, ha*
an equal thickness through its whole extent : that is to
say, every bed, of any matter whatsoever, taken se-
parately, has an equal thickness through its whole ex-
tent ; for example, when the bed of stone in a quarry
is three feet thick in one part, it will have the same
thickness throughout : if in one part it is found to be
six feet thick, it will be so throughout. In the quar-
ries about Paris, the bed of good stone is not thick,
and scarcely 18 or 20 feet thick ; in other quarries, as
those of Burgundy, the stone is much thicker ; it is the
same with marble ; the black and white marble have
a thicker bed ; the coloured are commonly thinner ; and
I know beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in
Burgundy make use of to cover their houses, that are
not above an inch thick. The thickness of different
beds, therefore, are different, but each bed preserves
the same thickness throughout its extent ; in general
it may be said, that the thickness of the horizontal
strata is so greatly varied, that it is found from one
line and less to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet thick; the an-
cient and modern quarries which are horizontally dug ;
the perpendicular, and other divisions of mountains,
prove that there are extensive strata in every direction.
The various strata of which the earth is composed,
are not disposed according to the order of their specific
weight ; for we often find strata of heavy matters plac-
ed on strata of lighter. To be assured of this, we have
only to examine the nature of the earth on which rocks
are placed, and we shall find that it is generally cla}',
which is specifically lighter than the matter of the rock.
In hills and other small elevations, we easily discover
the base on which rocks are placed ; but it is not s(*
with large mountains, not only the summit is rock.
40 NATURAL HISTORY.
but those rocks are placed on other rocks ; tlicre air
mountains upon mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to
such a considerable height, and in so great an extent
of ground, that we can scarcely be certain where there
is earth at bottom, and of what nature it is. We set-
peaked rocks which are many hundred feet high ; these
rocks rest on others, which perhaps are no less so ;
nevertheless, may we not compare great with small ?
and since the rocks of little mountains, whose bases
are to be seen, rest on the earth less heavy and solid
than stone, may we not suppose that the base of hiyh
mountains is also of earth ?
In a soil where flint is the predominant stone, the
country is generally fertile, and if the place is unculti-
vated,, and these stones have been long exposed to the
air, without being moved, the upper superfices is al-
ways very white, while the opposite side, whi:h touches
the earth} preserves its natural colour. If the black-
est, and most flinty flint be exposed to the weather, in
less than a year its surface will change colour ; and if
we have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall
see it by degrees lose its hardness, transparency, and
other specific characters, and approach every day near-
er and nearer the nature of argile.
What happens to flint happens to sand ; each grain
of sand may be considered as a small flint, and each
flint as a mass of grains of sand, extremely fine and
exactly grained. The example of the first degree of
decomposition of sand is found in the brilliant and
opake powder sailed Mica, in which potters earth and
slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent
flints, the Quariz, produce, by decomposition, fat and
soft talc, as pctrih'able and ductile as clay : and it ap-
pears to me that talc is a mediate term between glass or
NATURAL HISTORY. 4t
transparent flint and nrpile; whilst, on tlte contrary*
coarse and impure fiint, by decomposing, passes to
potters earth without any intermedium.
Our factious >!ass proves also the same alterations:
it decomposes in the air, and perishes in some degree
by remaining in the earth. At first its superficial scales
exfoliate ; by working it we perceive brilliant scales
fly from it ; but when its decomposition is more ad-
vanced, it crumbles between the fingers, and is re-
duced into a very fine white talcy powder ; and art
has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass
and flint.
CHAP. II.
OF HILLS SEAS RIVERS AND LAKES THEIR NA-
TURE AND PROPERTIES.
IF, in place of that beautiful variety of hills and val-
lies, of verdant forests, and refreshing streams, which
at present delight our senses, the earth were an even
and regular plain ; a dreary ocean would then cover
the whole globe, and it would be merely the habita-
tion of the scaly race.
It cannot therefore be supposed, that even at first
the surface of the earth was perfectly regular ; and
since its first production, a variety of causes, the mo-
tion of the waters, the subterraneous fires, the wind,
and other external causes, have contributed much to
this irregularity.
Next to the elevation of mountains, the depths of
the ocean form the greatest irregularities ; this depth
Ss very different even at great distances from land ;
Vol. I. E
48 NATURAL HISTORY.
it is said there are parts above a mile deep, but these
are few, and the most general profundities are from 60
to 150 fathoms. The gulphs bordering on the coasts
are much shallower, and the straits have generally the
least depths.
In general, the depths in open seas increase or di-
minish pretty regularly, being for the most part deeper
the farther from land. But there are places in the
middle of the sea, as at the Abrolkos in the Atlantic,
where large shelves appear ; and in other places, there
are vast sand banks, to which the East Indiamen are
no strangers.
Along coasts, the depths are also very irregular.
Yet it may be laid down as a certain rule, that the
depth is always proportioned to the height of the coast :
the same remark is equally applicable to rivers.
The highest mountains in Asia, are Mount Taurus,
Mount Imaus, Caucasus, and the mountains of Japan,
all of which are higher than any in Europe : the high-
est mountains in Africa, i, e. the great Atlas, and the
mountains of the moon, are at least as high as those
in Asia, and the highest of all are in South America,
particularly those of Peru, which are more than 3000
fathoms higher than the level of the sea. In general,
the mountains between the tropics are loftier than those
of the temperate zones, and these more than those of
frigid zones, so that the nearer we approach the equator,
the greater are the inequalities of the earth : these in-
equalities, although very inconsiderable with respect
to us, are nothing when considered with respect to the
terrestrial globe. Three thousand fathoms difference to
3000 leagues diameter, is one fathom to a league, or
one foot to 2300 feet, which on a g'obe of 2 feet and
a half diameter, does not make the 6th part of a line.
NATURAL HISTORY. 43
Hence this earth, which appears to us to he crossed and
cut hy the enormous height of the mountains, and by
the frightful depth of the sea, is, when we consider its
size, so very slightly furrowed with irregularities, that
they can make no variation upon its general figure.
Upon the continents the mountains are continued,
and form chains. In islands they appear to be more
interrupted and isolated, and generally raised above the
sea, in form of a cone or pyramid, and are called peaks.
The peak of Teneriffe is one of the highest mountains
on the earth ; it is near a mile and a half high perpen-
dicular from the level of the sea ; the peak of St George
in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam in the
island of Ceylon, are also exceedingly high. All these
peaks are composed of rocks, piled one above ansther,
which emit each from their summits, fire, cinders,
bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are even islands
which are precisely only as tops of mountains, as the
island of St Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores,
and Canaries : and we must remark, that in most of
the islands, promontories, and other projecting lands
in the sea, the middle is always the highest, and they
are generally separated by chains of mountains, which
divide them in their greatest length ; as the Grampian
mountains in Scotland, which extend from east to west,
and divide Great Britain into two parts ; it is the same
with the islands Sumatra, Lucon, Borneo, Celebes,
Cuba, and St Domingo, and also Italy, which is tra-
versed through its whole length by the Appenines.
With respect to the depths on the surface of the earth,
those of the ocean are, no doubt, the greatest, but
as these can only be discovered by sounding, we shall
take notice of none but such as appear on the dry land.
The precipices then which are between rocks, are form-
44 NATURAL HISTORY.
ed by the sinking of rocks, the base of which sometimes
gives way more on one side than the other, by the
action of air and frost, which splits and divides them ;
and by the impetuous fall of torrents, which opens
passages, and carries along with them whatever op-
poses their violence. But these abysses, that is, these
vast and enormous precipices found at the summit of
mountains, and to the bottom of which it is not pos-
sible sometimes to descend, although they arc above
a mile or half a mile round, have been formed by the
operation of fire. They were formerly the funnels of
volcanoes, and all the matter which is there deficient
has been ejected by the action and explosion of these
fires, which are since extinguished for want of com-
bustible matter. The abyss of mount Ararat, of which
M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the
Levant, is surrounded with black and burnt rocks, as
the abysses of /Etna, Vesuvius, and other volcanoes
will be when they have consumed all the combustible
^natters they include.
Plot, in his natural history of Staffordshire, mentions
a kind of gulph, which has been sounded to the depth
of 2600 perpendicular feet, without finding either
water or bottom.
Great cavities and deep mines are generally m
mountains, they never descend to a level with the
plains ; so we learn from them the internal structure
of the mountain only, and not that of the globe.
It was long thought that the cliains of the highest'
mountains run from west to east, till the contrary di-
rection was discovered in the new work! ; but no per-
son before Mr Bourguet discovered the surprising re-
gularity of the structure of t!,o-e ijjreat masses. After
having crossed the Alps thiiiy tunes in fourteen dif-
NATURAL HISTORY. 45
ferent parts, twice over the Appenine mountains, and
made clivers tours in the environs of these mountains,
and in mount Jura, he found that the contours of all
mountains hear a striking resemblance to the works of
regular fortifications. When the body of the moun-
tain runs from east to west, it forms prominences,
which face as much as possible to north and south ;
tins admirable irregularity is so striking in Tallies, that
we seem to walk in a very regular covered way : if,
for example, we travel in a valley from north to south,
we perceive that the mountain which is on the right
forms projections or angles which front the east, and
those of the mountain on the left, front the west ; so
that, in fact, the prominent and concave angles, on
each side, correspond with one another alternately.
The angles which mountains form in great vallies are
less acute, because the direction is less steep, and as
they are farther distant from each other ; and in plains
they are not so perceptible as in the course of rivers,
which generally take up their elbows ; the middle of
them naturally answer to the most striking projections,
or the most advanced angles of mountains ; and this
is the cause of the serpentine course of rivers. It is
astonishing so obvious a fact should have remained so
long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclina-
tion of one of the mountains which border it, is less
steep than that of the other, the river takes its course
much nearer the steepest mountain, and does not flow
through the middle of the valley.
These observations might be confirmed by a num-
ber of facts. The mountains of Switzerland, for in-
stance, are steeper on the south ^iJo than on the north,
and on the we.st than on the east side. But the most
striking example is afforded by the mountains of
46 NATURAL HISTORY.
Chili and Peru. The Cordeliers are exceedingly steep
on the west side, but they have a gradual declivity
towards the east, and they terminate in vast plains,
which are terminated by the largest rivers in the world.
This is a consequence of the parallel directions of
the different chains of mountains ; and besides the
whole continent of Europe and of Asia is broader from
east to west, than from north to south ; for there are
two modes of conceiving this direction. In the long
and narrow continent of South America, there is only
one principal chain of mountains, that is, from east to
west, or from west to east; in fact, it is in this direction
all the rivers of America flow, because, excepting the
Cordeliers, there are no very extensive chains of moun-
tains, and none whose directions are parallel to them.
In the old as well as the new continent, most of tire
waters have their greatest extent from west to east,
and most of the rivers flow in this direction, which is
owing to another cause, to wit, that there are many
long chains of mountains parallel to each other, whose
direction is from west to east, and because the rivers
and other streams are obliged to follow the intervals
which divide these chains of mountains, consequently
one single chain of mountains, directed from north to
south, will produce rivers, whose direction will be the
same as that of those which issued from many chains
of mountains, whose common direction is from east to
west ; and it is for this particular reason, that the ri-
vers of America have this direction common with those
of Europe, Africa, and Asia.
A remarkable phenomenon has been observed with
respect to rivers, which is, that in the inland parts at
a distance from the sea, they flow in a direct line, but
in proportion as they approach their mouths they as-
NATURAL HISTORY. 47
sume more of a winding course. In large rivers there
is a considerable eddv along the banks ; and the near-
er the sea this eddy is the greater. The surface of
the water in rivers is by no means level from bank to
bank ; on the contraiy, the middle of the stream is
higher or lower than the water of the sides according
to circumstances. When a river swells suddenly by
the melting of snow or any other cause, the middle of
the stream is sensibly higher than the sides : in one
instance the elevation is said to have been three feet.
On the other hand, when rivers approach their mouths
the water near the sides is commonly more elevated
than in the middle.
The inundation of the Nile, though nothing can be
more natural, has long afforded matter for curious
and doubtful speculation. It is the rain which falls
in Abyssinia and Ethiopia which occasions the swel-
ling and inundation of this river, though the north wind
must be regarded as the primitive cause. 1st, Be-
cause it drives the clouds which convey this rain from
the coast of Abyssinia: 2dly, Because blowing a-
gainst the two mouths of the Nile, it forces the wa-
ters back against the stream, and thus prevents them
from pouring into the sea in too great a quantity :
this circumstance may every year be relied on, when
the wind being at the north, and suddenly veering to
the south, the Nile in one day loses what it gathered
in four.
Inundations are generally greatest in the superior
parts of rivers ; because the velocity of a river uni-
formly increases until it empties itself in the ocean.
But as the theory of running waters is subject toinany
difficulties, we ought carefully to study the peculiari-
ties of particular rivers.
48 NATURAL HISTORY.
The greatest rivers of Europe arc, the Wolga,
whose course from Reschow to Astracan on the Caspian
Sea, is about ()50 leagues ; the Danube, which runs
about 450 leagues, from the mountains of Switzerland
to the Black Sea ; the Don, from the source of the
Sosna, which receives it, to the Black Sea, runs 400
leagues ; the Nieper, which also falls into the Black
Sea, after running 350 leagues ; the Duine, which
empties itself in the White Sea, runs a course of
about 300 leagues.
The greatest rivers of Asia are, the Hoanho, which
rises at Raja Rilron, and which, after running 850
leagues, falls into the middle of the gulf of Changi,
in the Chinese Sea ^ the Jenisca, which runs from
Lake Leling to the northern sea of Tartary, a course
of about 800 leagues ; the Oby, from Lake Kila to
the North Sea beyond Waigat's Straits, runs about
()00 leagues ; the Amour, in East Tartary, has a
course of 575 leagues, from the head of the river
Kerlon, which falls into it, to the sea of Kamtschatka.
The river Menan may be measured from the source
of the Longmu, which falls into it, to its mouth at
Poulo-condor ; the Kian, which runs about 550
leagues, from the source of the Kinxa, which it re-
ceives till it discharges itself in the sea of China ; the
Ganges, which has a course nearly of the same extent
with the Kian; the Euphrates, computing from the
source of the Irma, which it receives; runs about 500
leagues ; the Indus, which runs about 400 leagues,
and falls into the Arabian Sea. on the east of Guzarat ;
and the Sirderoias, which runs about 400 leagues, and
falls into Lake Aral.
The greatest rivers cf Africa are, the Senegal, the
course of which, comprehending the Niger, which i
NATURAL HlSTOllY. 4
but a continuation of it, and the source of the Gatn-
barou, which falls into the Niger, is about 1125
leagues; the Nile, which rises in upper Ethiopia, runs
about 970 leagues. There are others, the courses of
which are but little known, as the Zaira, the Coanza,
the Couama, and the Quilmanci, but each of which
\ve are acquainted with to the extent of 400 leagues.
In America, the river of the Amazons runs above
1200 leagues. The course of the river St Lawrence
in Canada is more than 900 leagues. The river Mis*
sisippi runs above 700 leagues. The Plata extends
more than 800 leagues, from its mouth to the source
of the Parana, which it receives. The Oronoko runs
above 575 leagues, if we reckon from the source of
the river Caketa, near Pas to, a part of which falls
into the Oronoko, and a part runs towards the river of
the Amazons. The Madera which falls into the
Amazons extends above 660 leagues.
In order to ascertain the quantity of water discharged
into the sea by all the rivers, we shall suppose the one
half of the surface of the earth to be sea, and the other
half to be dry land. We shall also suppose that the
mean depth of the sea is 230 fathoms. The total
surface of the earth is 170.981,012 square miles, and
that of the sea is 85,4-90,506 square miles, which,
when multiplied by one fourth, the depth of the sea,
gives 21 3 372,62() cubic miles for the quantity of water
contained in the whole ocean. Now that we may pretty
nearly ascertain the quantity ef water discharged
into the sea from the rivers, let us take the river- Po,
for example, which runs through Lombardy, and wa-
ters a country 380 miles long. According to Riccioli,
the breadth of the Po is 100 feet, and its depth is 10
feet, and it runs at the rate of 4 miles an hour. Con-*
Vol. I. F
50 NATURAL HISTORY.
sequenily, the Po discharges into the sea 200,000 cu-
bical perches of water in an hour ; and as a cuhic mile
contains 125,000,000 cuhic perches, the Po will re-
quire 26 days to discharge into the sea a cuhic mile
of water. It now only remains to determine the pro-
portion that the Po bears to all the other rivers of the
earth taken together, which cannot be done exactly.
But, to come as near to the truth as possible, let us
suppose the quantity of water, which the sea receives
from the great rivers in every country, to he propor-
tioned to the extent of the surfaces of those countries;
and, consequently, that the country watered by the
** and by the rivers that fall into it, is to the total
su rface of the dry land, as the Po is to all the rivers
f the earth. Now, from the most accurate charts, it
appears, that the Po waters a country 380 miles long
and 120 broad, which makes 45,6'00 square miles.
But the surface of the dry land is 85,4-90,506 square
miles ; consequently, the quantity of water conveyed
to the sea by all the rivers, will be 1874 times greater
than the quantity discharged by the Po. But, as 26
rivers, equal to the Po, furnish a cubic mile of water
every day, it follows, that, in the space of a year, 1874
rivers equal to the Po, will convey to the sea 26,308
cubic miles of water ; and that in 8 1 2 years, all these
rivers would discharge 21,372,626 cubic miles, which
is a quantity equal to what is contained in the ocean ;
of course, if the ocean were empty, 812 years would
be necessary to fill it from the rivers.
There results from this calculation, that the quantity
of water evaporated from the sea, and which the winds
convey on the earth, producing rivulets, streams, and
rivers, is from 20 to 21 inches in- a year, or about two
thirds of a line each day ; this is a very trifling eva-
NATURAL HISTORY. 51
poration when even doubled or trebled, in order to
estimate the water which falls back into the sea, and
which is not conveyed over the earth. Mr Halley has
demonstrated that the vapours which rise above the
sea, and which the winds convey over the whole earth
are sufficient to form all the rivers, and to contain all
the waters which are on the surface of the earth.
In the old continent there are about 430 rivers,
which fall directly into the ocean, or into the Mediter-
ranean and Black Seas, and in the new continent,
scarcely 180 rivers- are known, which fall directly into
the sea. In this number, however, I have included none
hut such as are as large as the river Somme in Picardy.
All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of
mineral and saline parts, which they have washed
from the different soils through which they have passed.
The particles of salt which are known to be easily dis-
solved, are conveyed to the sea by the water. Some
naturalist?, and among the rest Halley, have pretended
that the saltness of the sea proceeded only from the
salts of the earth, which the rivers transport thither.
Others assert, that the saltness of the sea is as ancient
as the sea itself, and that this salt was created only
that it might not corrupt, but it may be well supposed
that the sea is preserved from corruption by the agita-
tions of the wind, and the flux and reflux, as much as
by the salt it contains ; for when it is kept in a bar-
rel, it corrupts in a few days ; And Boyle relates that
a mariner becalmed for 13 days, found at the end of
that time the sea so infected, that if the calm had not
ceased, the greatest part of las people on board would
have perished. The water of the sea is also .mixed
with a bituminous oil, which gives it a disagreeable
taste, and renders it very unhealthy. The quantity
52 NATURAL HISTORY,
of salt contained in sea water is about l-40th part,
and the sea is nearly equally saline throughout at top
as at the bottom, under the line, and at the Cape of
Good Hope, although there are several parts, as on
the Mosambique G'oast, where it is salter than else-
where. It is also asserted not to be so saline under
the Arctic Zone, which may proceed from the great
quantity of snow, and the great rivers which fall into
those seas, and because the heat of the sun produces
but little evaporation there, in comparison of that pro-
duced in hot climates.
There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands,
and others which seem to precipitate into the bowels
'of the earth : the Guadalquiver in Spain, the river of
Gottenburgh in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose
themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the
west part of St. Domingo, there is a mountain of a
considerable height, at the foot of which are several
large caverns that receive the rivers and brooks,
whose fall is heard seven or eight leagues off. The
rivers, however, which disappear in the earth are very
few ; and they seem not to descend very deep. And it
is probable that, like the Rhine, they lose themselves
by dividing and disappearing through a large surface
of sand, of which there are many examples in Afric a,
Persia, Arabia, &c.
The rivers of the north carry down to the sea pro-
digious quantities of ice, which form those enormous
masses so dangerous to the mariner. Those in the
sea of Nova Zembla and in the straits of Waigat,
come from the Oby, and, perhaps, from the Jenisca,
and other great rivers in Siberia and Tartary :
those of Hudson's straits, from Ascension bay, into
which many rivers in North America empty them-
NATURAL HISTORY. 53
selves ^ and those of Terra del Fuego, from the south-
ern continent. If fewer of them are found in the
northern coasts of Lapland than in those of Siheria and
Waigat's straits, it is hecause all the Lapland rivers
fall into the gulph of Bothnia, and none of them into
the North Sea.
The ocean surrounds the whole globe without any
interruption of continuity, and the tour of the globe
may be made by passing the point of South America,
but it is not yet known whether the ocean surrounds
the northern part of the globe in like manner ; and
all mariners who have attempted to sail from Europe
to China by the north-east or north-west, have equal-
ly miscarried in their enterprises.
The seas which are called Mediterranean, are pro-
perly branches from the great ocean, by which they
are supplied. Lakes differ from the Mediterranean
seas, because they do not receive any water from the
ocean ; for, on the contrary, if they have communi-
cation with the seas, they furnish them with water ;
thus the Black Sea, which some geographers have re-
garded as connected with the Mediterranean, and con-
sequently as an appendix of the ocean, is only a lake,
because, instead of receiving water from the Mediter-
ranean, it supplies it with some, and flows with ra-
pidity through the Bosphorus into the lake called the
sea of Marmora, and thence through the strait of the
Dardanelles into the Grecian Sea. The water of the
Black Sea is less clear, and much less saline than that
of the ocean. No island is to be met with in this sea:
tempests are very violent here, and more dangerous
than in the ocean ; because the whole body of the
waters being contained in a bason, which may be said
to have no outlet, they have a kind of whirling motion
54 NATURAL HISTORY.
when they are agitated, which strikes the vessels on
every side with an intolerable violence.
Next to the Black Sea, the greatest lake in the uni-
verse is the Caspian Sea, \vhose extent in length from
north to south is about 300 leagues, and scarcely more
than fifty broad, computing it in a moderate propor-
tion. This lake receives the Wolga, which is one of
the greatest rivers in the world ; and also some other
considerable rivers, as the Keir, the Fay, and the
Gempo ; but what is singular is, that it does not re-
ceive any on its eastern side throughout this whole
length of 300 leagues. There are some small islands
in the Caspian Sea, and its waters are much less sa-
line than those of the ocean. In this sea no large
vessels are used, as navigation is very dangerous in it,
because it is shallow, and many banks and shoals are
scattered under the surface of the water.
There are lakes which, like pools, neither receive
nor emit rivers. There are others which do receive
rivers, and from which others run : and lastly, some
which only receive rivers. The Caspian Sea and the
lake Aral are of the last kind, they receive the waters
of many rivers, and contain them. Thus the Dead
Sea receives the Jordan, though no river issues from
it. In Asia Minor there is a small lake of the same
kind, which receives the waters of a river, the source
of which is near Congi, and which, like the preceding,
has no other mode than evaporation, to throw off the'
waters it receives ; there is one much larger in Persia,
on which the town of Maraga stands, its figure is oval
and it is about ten or twelve kaj>ues long, by six or
seven bro;ul ; it receives the river Taurus, which is
not very considerable. There is also a similar small
lal;e in Greece, about 12 or 15 leagues from Lepnnto,
NATURAL HISTORY. 55
and there arc some of the same sort both in Africa
and America.
The most general and largest lakes, however, are
those which, having received another river, or many
small rivers, give rise to other great rivers. It is wor-
thy of remark, that all lakes from which rivers derive
their origin, all those which fall into the course of ri-
vers, and which carry their water to them, are not sa-
line. But almost all those, on the contrary, which
receive rivers, without other rivers issuing from them,
are saline, which seems to favour the opinion we have
laid down on the subject of the saltness of the sea,
for evaporation cannot carry off fixed salts, and con-
sequently those which rivers carry into the sea remain
in it; and although river water appears to taste sweet,
we know that it contains a small quantity of salt, and
in course of time the sea must have acquired a consi-
derable degree of saltness, which must still continue
to increase. Hence, in my opinion, the Black Sea,
the Caspian Sea, the lake Aral, the Dead Sea, &c.
are become salt.
The lakes which are any ways remarkable are, the
Dead Sea, the waters of which contain much more
bitumen than salt ; this bitumen, which is called the
Bitumen of India, is no other than the Asphaltum,
which has induced some authors to denominate this
sea Lake Asphallum. The land which borders on
this lake contains a great quantity of bitumen, and
may have applied the fables to this lake, which the
poets feign of the lake Avernus, that no fish could
live in it, and that birds which attempted to fly over
it were suffocated. But neither of these lakes produce
such mortal events ; fish live in both, birds pass over
them, and men bathe in them without the least dan-
56 NATURAL HISTORY.
ger. A petrifying lake in Iceland, is also mentioned,
and the lake Neagh in Ireland, 1ms also the same pro-
perty of apparently turning wood, &c. into stone ;
but these petrifications are no other than incrustations
like those made by the water of Arcueil.
CHAP. III.
OF TIDES, OF WINDS, ' REGULAR AND IRREGULAR
MONSOONS HURRICANES WHIRLWINDS
WATER-SPOUTS.
W ATER, like every other fluid, remains smooth
and tranquil, unless put in motion by some foreign
cause. All the waters of the ocean are collected in
the lowest places upon the surface of the earth ; and
hence the motion of the sea must proceed from exter-
nal causes. The chief motion is that of the tides,
which rise and fall alternately, and which produce a
perpetual motion from east to west. These two mo-
tions have an unvariable relation to the motions of
the moon. During the full and new moons, this mo-
tion from east to west is most observable, as well as
that of the tides, which ebb and flow upon most coasts,
every 6^ hours. It is always high tide when the moon
arrives at the meridian ; and it is always low tide
when the moon is at the greatest distance from it.
The motion from east to west is perpetual ; because
when the tide rises, it pushes an immense body of wa-
ter from east to west, and the ebbing seems only to
be occasioned by the smaller quantity of water which
is then impelled westward.
NATURAL HISTORY. 5?
This motion is attended with the following circum-
stances : 1st, It is more apparent at the full and new
moon than at the quadratures. It is also more violent
in spring and autumn than in any other season ; and is
weakest at the solstices. This is owing to the com-
bined attraction of the sun and irioon. 2d, The direc-
tion and quantity of this motion is often varied by the
winds, particularly by those which blow incessantly
from the same quarter. 3d, It is worthy of remark,
that when one part of a fluid is moved, the motion is
communicated to the whole. During the tides, there-
fore, a great part of the ocean is put in motion ; and
the whole ocean, from top to bottom, is agitated at
the same time.
In order to throw a little more light upon this sub-
ject, let us attend to the causes which produce the
tides. We may therefore remark that the moon acts
upon the earth by a power called gravity or attraction.
This power penetrates the whole globe, and is exactly
proportioned to the quantity of matter, and decreases
as the squares of the distances increase. Let us now
examine what effects this power must produce upon
the waters when the moon comes to the meridian oi
any place. > The surface of the water immediately
under the moon is therefore nearer that planet than
any other part of the earth, consequently that part of
the sea must be elevated towards the moon, and tire
summit of this eminence must be opposite to the moon's
centre. To produce this eminence, the waters upon
the surface, as well as those at the bottom, contribute
their share, in proportion to their distances from the
moon, which acts upon them in the inverse ratio of
the squares of their distances. Hence t! surface ef
Vol. I. G
S3 NATURAL HISTORY.
this pait of the sea is first elevated ; the surface of
the adjacent parts is also elevated, but not so much ;
and the waters at the bottom of all these parts are
raised by the same cause. Thus as the whole portion
of water under the moon is raised, the waters at a
distance, upon which no attraction is exerted, must
necessarily rush forward with precipitation to supply
the place of those which were drawn towards the
moon. It is in this manner that the high tide is pro-*
duced, which is more or less perceivable in different
coasts, and which agitates the sea not only at the
surface, but at the greatest depths. The ebb is a
consequence of the natural disposition of the water,
which when no lon'ger acted upon by the moon, sub-
sides, and returns to occupy those shores from which
it had been forced to retire by an external cause.
Nothing is more irregular in our climates than the
fiourse of the winds ; but there are countries where
this irregularity does not exist, and others where the
wind blows constantly in the same direction.
There are several causes which influence the mo-
tions of the air, but the most powerful is the heat of
the sun, which by rarifying the air produces an influx
of the cold air, which is a heavier fluid, and con-
sequently presses in upon that which is rarified and
light, and produces a stream or current air. In the
torrid zone this effect is more uniformly manifest than
in other parts of the world. In the regions near the
equinoctial line a continual rarefaction is produced by
the sun, and a constant current of air follows that lu-
minary from east to west. This easterly wind blows
so generally in the Pacific Ocean, that the ships
which sail from Acapulca to the Philippines, perform
a voyage of 2700 leagues in less than two month?.
NATURAL HISTORY. 59
About 28 or 30 degrees on this side of the line the
vest winds are equally constant, and for this reason
the vessels returning from the West Indies to Europe
do not pursue the same route as in going out.
The winds which hlow continually for some months
are generally followed by contrary winds, and mariners
are obliged to wait for that which is favourable to
them ; when these winds change, a calm or dangerous
tempest ensues for several days, and sometimes for a
month.
These general winds, occasioned by the rarefaction
of the atmosphere, combine differently by different
causes in different climates. In part of the Atlantic
Sea, under the temperate zone, the north wind blows
almost constantly during the months of October, No-
vember, December, and January, which is the reason
why these months are the most favourable to embark
from Europe to India, in order to pass the line by the
favour of these winds ; and it is known, that ships
which quit Europe in the month of March do not ar-
rive sooner at Brazil than those which sail in the
month of October. The North wind almost continually
reigns during winter in Nova Zembla, and the other
northern coasts. The south wind blows during the
month of July to Cape Verd, when the rainy season,
or winter of these climates sets in : at the Cape of
Good Hope the north-west wind blows during the
month of September : at Patna, in India, this north-
west wind blows during the months of November, De-
cember, and January, and produces heavy rains ; but
the east wind blows during the other nine months.
In the kingdom of Guzarat, and on the coasts of
the neighbouring sea, the north winds blow from
March till September; and during the other rnonthi
60 NATURAL HISTORY.
of the year south winds almost always prevail. The
Dutch, in order to return from Java, generally set sail
in the month of January or February by an easterly
wind, which is felt as far as 18 degrees northern lati-
tude, after which they meet with south winds which
carry them to St. Helena.
In the Mediterranean, the winds blow from the land
towards the sea at the sun's setting, and, on the con-
trary, from the sea towards the land at its rising.
Hence in the morning it is an easterly wind, and in
the evening a westerly wind. The south wind, which
is rainy, and which generally blows at Paris, Burgun-
dy, and Champagne, at the beginning of November,
and which gives place to mild and temperate breezes,
produces the fair weather vulgarly called the summer
of St Martin's.
On the sea, the winds are more regular than at
land, because the temperature of the sea is more equal
than that of the land. For the temperature of the
latter is altered by a variety of causes ; such as elec-
tricity, volcanoes, exhalations from the earth, the
explosion of meteors, &c.
In general, on the sea, the east winds and those
which come from the poles, are stronger than the west
and those which proceed from the equators. On the
land, on the contrary, the west and south winds are
more or less violent than the east and north winds, ac-
cording to the situation of the climates.
Contrary currents are often observed in the air ;
clouds that move in one direction, and others which
are higher or lower than the first, proceed in a direc-
tion perfectly opposite. This contrariety of motion
however does not remain very long, and it is common-
ly produced only by the resistance of some clouds to
NATURAL HISTORY. 6t
the action of the wind, and by the reaction of the di-
rect wind, which reigns solely as soon as the obstacle
is removed.
The winds are more violent in mountainous places
than in plains ; and the higher we ascend, the more
the power of the wind increases, until we reach the
common height of the clouds, which is about one quar-
ter or one third of a league perpendicular height.
Beyond that height, the sky is generally serene, espe-
cially in summer, and the wind is said to be even im-
perceptible on the tops of the highest mountains.
A current of air increases in velocity, like a current
of water, where the space of its passage is contracted
The wind which is but slightly felt in a wide and o-
pen plain, becomes violent in passing through a nar-
row passage between two mountains, or between two
lofty buildings ; and the point of the most violent ac-
tion of the wind is above the structures or mountain
straits. For the air being compressed by the resistance
of these obstacles, has a greater mass, density and the
same velocity subsisting : the effort or gust of wind,
the momentum becomes much stronger ; this is the
cause that near a church, or a castle, the winds seem
to be much stronger than they are at a certain distance
from these edifices. I have often remarked, that the
wind reflected from a building that stands by itself,
is stronger than the direct wind that produced it.
And since I have endeavoured to discover the reason
of this, I have been able to find no other than the a-
bove. The impelled air compresses against the build-
ing, and is reflected, not only with its former velocity,
but also with a greater body, wliich, in fact, render*,
its action much more violent.
<62 NATURAL HISTORY.
Particular winds, Aether direct or reflected, are
more violent than those which are general. An uni-
formly continued stream of air produces not such havo
as the fury of those winds which blow in sudden gusts.
The predominancy of certain winds, in certain parts,
has occasioned a general division of them into zones,
though it is not to be understood that their effects ar
invariable. The east wind, which extends 20 or SO
degrees on each side of the equator, occupies the torrid
zone, and the north wind the frigid zones. With regard
to the temperate zones, the winds which reign the:
are, if I may use the expression, only currents of air,
whose motion is composed of those two winds whose
direction tends to the west. And with respect to the
westerly winds, whose direction tends to the east, anxl
which often prevail in the temperate zone, whether in
the Pacific or Atlantic oceans, they may be considered
as winds reflected by the continents of Asia and A-
merica, but originally derived from the east and north
winds.
The monsoons, or trade winds, which have an alter-
nate motion, are subject to many deviations. Some con-
tinue for a longer, some for a shorter time ; and they
also differ in their extent, and in their degree of vio-
lence. In the Indian ocean, for instance, between Af-
rica and India, as far as the Moluccas, the east wind
begins in January, and lasts till June. In the month
of August or September, the contrary motion begins ;
and the west winds reign during three or four months.
In the intervals of these monsoons, that is, at the end
of June, in the month of July, and beginning of Au-
gust, there is no wind on that sja; but it L> infested
with violent storms from the north.
NATURAL HISTORY. 03
There are winds which may be regarded as peculiar
to certain coasts ; for example, the south wind is al-
most continual on the coasts of Chili and Peru. It be-
gins about the 4-6th degree of south latitude, and ex-
tends beyond Panama, which renders the voyage from
Lima to Panama much easier performed than the return.
The western winds blow almost continually, or at least
very frequently, on the Magellanic coasts, and over
the environs of the strait of Maire. The north and
north-west winds prevail almost continually on the Ma-
labar coast ; the north-west wind is also very frequent
on the coast of Guinea ; and at a certain distance from
that coast, in the open sea, we meet with the north-
east wind very frequently. The westerly winds reign
on the coasts of Japan, in the month of November and
December.
The alternate or periodical winds, which we have
just been speaking of, are sea winds. But there are
also land winds which are periodical, and return either
at a certain season, or in certain days, or even at certain
hours. On the Malabar coast, for example, from the
month of September to April, a land wind blows from
the eastern side : it generally commences at midnight
and finishes at noon, and is not felt beyond 12 or 15
leagues from the coast, and from noon till midnight a
weak sea wind reigns, which comes from the west. Oa
the coast of New Spain in America, and on that of
Congo in Africa, land winds reign during the night,
and sea winds during the day. At Jamaica the winds
blow from all quaiters at once during the night, which
hinders vessels from either landing or setting out but in
the day time.
The winds are howevej- more irregular on the land
than on the sea, and more irregular irr the higher lands
64 NATURAL HISTORY.
tlfan in plains. The mountains not only alter the di-
rection of winds, but they even produce winds, which
are either constant or variable according to different
causes. The melting of the snow, which is upon the
mountains, generally produces constant winds, which
sometimes remain very long. The vapours which
are stopped by mountains, and which accumulate upon
them, produce variable winds, very frequent in all
climates. In the straits, on all the projecting coasts,
at the extremity and in the environs of all pro-
montories, peninsulas, and capes, and in all narrow
gulphs, storms are frequent. But independent of
these circumstances some seas are much more tempes-
tuous than others. The Indian ocean, the Japan Sea,
the Magellanic Sea, that of the African coast beyond
the Canaries, and on the other side towards the coun-
try of Natolia, the Red Sea, &c. are very subject to
storms. The Atlantic ocean is more stormy than the
ocean, which from its tranquillity, is called the Pac[fic.
This ocean, however, is not absolutely tranquil, except
between the tropics, and about the temperate zones ;
and the more we approach the poles, the more we 'are
subject to variable winds, whose sudden change often
occasions tempests.
All continents are subject to variable winds, which
often produce singular effects. In the kingdom of Cas-
simir, which is surrounded by the mountains of Cau-
casus, a very sudden reverse of seasons is felt on
mount Pirepenjale. In less than an hour's journey
on it we pass from summer to winter. A north and
a south wind, according to Bernier, blow perceptibly
within 200 paces of one another. In the peninsula
. of India, which is traversed from north to south by
the mountains of Gate, the extreme heats of summer
NATURAL HISTORY. 65
are felt on one side of the mountains, and all the rigours
of winter on the other. The same phenomenon is also
observed at Cape Rozalgate in Arabia, and on the island
of Ceylon.
In Egypt during summer, a south wind prevails which
is so hot as to stop respiration ; and it raises so great
a quantity of sand, that the sky seems covered with
thick clouds. This sand is so fine, and driven with
such force, that it penetrates every where, even into the
closest coffers. When these winds last several days
they occasion epidemical diseases, which are often at-
tended with the most fatal consequences.
The Cape of Good Hope is famous for its tempests,
and the singular cloud which produces them. This
cloud appears at first only like a small round spot in
the heavens, called by the sailors the Ox's eye, and
which I imagine appears so little from its exceeding
great height. In Natolia, a cloud similar to the Ox's
eye at the Cape, produces the same direful effects. In
-the sea between Africa and America, especially under
the equator and in the neighbouring parts of it, those
tempests very often arise ; near the coast of Guinea
sometimes three or four of these storms are formed in
a day. They are occasioned and announced, like those
of the Cape, by small black clouds. The rest of the
sky is generally very serene, and the sea calm. The
first blast which issues from these clouds is furious, and
would sink ships in open seas, if they did not take the
precaution to furl the sails. It is principally in the
months of April, May, and June, that these tempest*
are experienced on the Guinea sea, because no regular
wind blows there during the season.
All these tempests originate from winds which issue
from a cloud, and their direction is either to the north
Val. I. H
6t> NATURAL HISTORY.
or south, north-cast or south-west, &c. But there ars
tempests called hurricanes, which are still more violent,
and in which the winds seem to hlow from all the coasts
at once, with a circular motion, which nothing can re-
sist. A calm generally precedes these horrible tem-
pests ; but in an instant the fuiy of the winds raises
waves as high as the clouds, borne parts of the sea
cannot be approached, because they are continually in-
fested with calms or whirlwind?. The Spaniards have
therefore called these places calms and tornados.
When from a sudden rarefaction, or any other cause,
contrary currents of air meet in the same spot, a whirl-
wind is produced. Perhaps the same effect takes place
in another element, and gulphs or whirlpools may be no
other than the eddies of the water formed by the action
of two or more opposite currents. The Euripus, so
famous for the death of Aristotle, alternately absorbs
and rejects the water seven times' in twenty-four hours.
This gulph is near the Grecian coast. The Charybdis,
which is near the strait of Sicily, rejects and absorbs
the water thrice in twenty-four hours. We are uncer-
tain, however, with respect to the number of alternate
motions in other whirlpools. The greatest known
gulph is that of the Norway Sea, which is affirmed to
be upwards of twenty leagues in circuit. It absorbs for
six hours water, whales, ships, and whatever is near it,
and afterwards returns them in six hours.
A waterspout is no other than a whirlwind at sea.
The vacuum which is occasioned by the meeting cur-
rents makes the waters rise up in the form of a cylinder,
or rather of an inverted cone. In the travels of Mr
Thevenot there is a very minute and circumstantial ac-
count of the formation of a waterspout, though there
is reason to suspect that the relation is not without
'some optical deceptions.
NATURAL HISTORY. 67
" The first, says tliis celebrated voyager, that we
,<;i\v, was on the northern coast, between us and the
island Quesomo, about a gun-shot from the ship.
We directly perceived water w hich boiled on the sur-
face of the sea about a foot high ; it was whitish, and
appeared above that height like a thick black smoke,
so that it properly resembled some burning straw,
which only smoked. It made a noise like that of a
torrent which runs with much rapidity in a deep valley.
But this noise was mixed with another, similar to the
strong hissing of serpents or vipers. A little while
afterwards we perceived something like a dark canal,
or pipe, which bore a strong resemblance to smoke
which ascends towards the clouds, revolved with great
velocity. This pipe appeared to be about the thick-
ness of my finger, and the same noise continued.
The duration of this spout was about a quarter of an
hour. We then perceived another on the south side of
us, which began in the same manner as the preceding.
Immediately a third and then a fourth sprung up,
both to the west. Each of them appeared like heaps
of smoking straw, and were accompanied with the
same noise as the first. We afterwards saw three
pipes cr canals, which descended from the clouds, on
those places where the water was raised up, and each
of them was as broad at the end fastened to the cloud,
as the broad end of a trumpet, and resembled the teat
(fan animal, drawn perpendicularly down by a heavy
weight. These canals apuei'.rjd of a darkish wh.'tt,
and were not straight, but crooked in some places-
They even were not peipendicular; but, on the con-
trary, from the clouds where they were joined to the
parts which drew in the water, they were very much
Lent.' And what is singular is, that the cloud which
68 NATURAL HISTORY.
the second of these three was fastened to, having been
driven by the wind, this canal followed it without
breaking or quitting the place where it drew in the
water, and passing behind the first canal, they were
sometimes crossed like a St Andrew's Cross. At the
beginning they were all three about the thickness
of my finger, but afterwards the first of the three
increased considerably. But the last which was form-
ed scarcely remained longer than that which we saw
on the north side. The second on the south side re-
mained about a quarter of an hour, but the first on
that side remained a little longer, and it was this
which terrified us the most. At first its canal was
as thick as my finger, afterwards as thick as my arm,
then as my leg, and at last as the trunk of a large
tree, which a man might compass with his arms.
We distinctly perceived water through this transpa-
rent body which ascended in a serpentine form.
Sometimes it diminished a little in size, sometimes at
top, and sometimes at bottom ; then it resembled ex-
actly a soft tube with some fluid matter pressed with
the fingers, either upwards, to make this liquor de-
scend, or at bottom, to make it ascend. After thia it
diminished so much that it was thinner than my arm;
afterwards it returned as thick as my thigh, and then
became very thin. At last, I saw that the water ele-
vated on the surface of the sea began to lower, and
that the end of the canal which touched it divided and'
grew narrower, when a variation of the light removed
It from our view."
NATURAL HISTORY. * t>9
CHAP. IV.
OF VOLCANOES EARTHQUAKES THE FORMATION
OF NEW ISLANDS CAVERNS AND GROTTOES
BOGS AND FENS CHANGES OF LAND
INTO SEA, &C.
TP
1 HE burning mountains called volcanoes, include
in their bowels sulphur, bitumen, and other materials,
which serve as aliment to a subterraneous fire, the
effect of which is more violent than that of gunpowder
or even of thunder. A volcano is a cannon of a very
large size, the orifice of which is often more than half
a league. This mouth vomits forth torrents of smoke,
flame, rivers of bitumen, sulphur, and melted metal,
clouds of cinders and stones, and sometimes it ejects
enormous rocks to many leagues distance, which
would baffle the utmost efforts of human strength.
The combustion is so terrible, and the quantity of
burnt, melted, calcined, and vitrified materials which
the mountain throws out, is so plentiful, that they
enter cities, forests, cover the fields an hundred and
two hundred feet in thickness, and form sometimes
hills and mountains. The action of this fire is so
great, the force of explosion so violent, that its re-
action has been known to shake the earth, agitate the
sea, overthrow mountains, and destroy the most solid
towns and edifices, even to very considerable distances.
The natives of Iceland imagine that the roarings of
the volcano are the cries of the damned, and its erup-
tions the effects of the rage and despair of these un-
happy wretches.
All these phenomena, however, are only the effects
of fire and of smoke. In the bowels of mountains,
70 'NATURAL HISTORY.
there are veins of sulphur, bitumen, and other inflam-
mable substances, and also great quantities of pyrites,
which ferment when exposed to thy air, or to moisture,
en.l produce explosions in proportion to the quantity
of inflammable matter they contain. A mixture of
sulphur, of filings of iron, and of water, buried at a
certain depth below the ground, will exhibit, in min.i-
nture, all the appearcnces of a volcano. This mix-
ture will soon produce explosions perfectly similar to
those of burning mountains.
There are three famous volcanoes in Europe, mount
^Etna in Sicily, mount Hecla in Iceland, and mount
Vesuvius in Italy, near Naples. Mount JEtna has
burnt from time immemorial. Its eruptions are very
violent, and the matters it throw's out are so plentiful
that they may be dug to the depth of 68 feet, where
we meet with marble pavement, and tie vestiges of an
ancient town which has been covered and buried under
this thickness of matter ejected from the mount, in the
same manner as the city of Herculaneum has been
covered by the matter thrown out from Vesuvius. New
mouths of fire were formed in 1650, iCfip, and at other
times. We see the flame and smoke of this volcano
from Malta, wliich is about 60 leagues distant from it ;
it smokes continually, and it sometimes vomits flames
and matters of every kind with impetuosity. In 1537,
there was an eruption of this volcano, which occasioned
an earthquake in Sicily for 12 days, and which over-
threw a very great number of houses and structures.
It ceased only by the opening of a new lire mouth, which
burnt every thing for rive miles in the environs of the
mountain. The cinders thrown out by the volcano
were to abundant, and ejected with so much force, that
they wove driven as far as Italy ; and vessels wliich
NATURAL HISTORY. 71
Y.-erc depu 1 i.-,l lo .some distance from Sicily were incom-
moded by them. Karelli describes the conflagration of
this mountain circumstantially, ami says the foot of it
is 100 leagues in circumference.
1 iiis volcano has now two principal mouths, the en*
narrower tiian the other. These two vents always
moke, but fire is never seen to issue from them, but du-
ring the time of eruptions. It i* pretended that stones
ore found which it has thrown out to the distance of
b'0,000 feet*.
One of the last and most violent eruptions of mount
Vesuvius was in the year 1?37- The mountain vomit-
ed by divers mouths large torrents of burning metallic
matters, which dispersed themselves over the country
and into the sea. Mons. de Montealegre, who com-
municated this relation to the Academy of Sciences,
observed with horror one of these rivers of fire, and saw
its course for six or seven miles till it reached the sea.
Its breadth was sixty or seventy feet, its depth, twenty-
five or thirty palms, and in certain bottoms or valleys,
220 ; the matter which flowed was like the scum which
issues from the furnace of a forge.
In Asia as well as in America there are a great num-
ber of volcanoes; but there is nothing peculiarly worthy
of remark in any, except the violence with which some
of them occasionally emit the burning matters with
which they are charged.
Near Fez in Africa, there is a mountain, or rather
a cavern, called Beniguazevel, which always emits
smoke, and sometimes flames. One of the islands of
Cape Verd, called the island of Fuogo, is only a larga
Sea a most interesting description of this celebrated mountain iii a
Mid <'iitrrta.i:;ii!g production iutilled, Bntlo.i's Tour tliroo^K
Ski!) and MaXa."
72 NATURAL HISTORY.
mountain which burns incessantly. This volcano,
like the rest, throws out many cinders and stones ;
and the Portuguese, who have attempted several times
to erect habitations in this island, have been constrain-
ed to abandon this project, through the dread of the ef-
fects of the volcano. The Canaries, the Peak of Tene-
riffe, and some of the highest mountains in the world,
throw out fire, cinders, and large stones ; from the top,
rivulets of melted sulphur flow, which are distinguish-
able at a great distance. The matters which volcanoes
throw out, generally come forth in the form of a tor-
rent of melted minerals, which inundates all the envi-
rons of these mountains. These rivers of liquified
matters extend even to considerable distances, and
when cooled, form horizontal or inclined strata, which
for position are like the strata formed by the sediment
left by the waters. But it is very easy to distinguish
the strata produced by the expansion of matters thrown
out by volcanoes, from those which have the sediment
of the sea for their origin. 1. Because these strata
are not of an equal thickness: 2. Because they contain
only matters which are easily perceived to have been
calcined, vitrified, or melted, and because they do not
extend to any great distance. When coal mines are
opened, which are generally met with in argillaceous
earth at a great depth, it sometimes happens that these
matters have taken fire. There are even mines of coal
in Scotland, Flanders, &c. which have burnt for a
number of years. The communication of the air suffices
to produce this effect, but the fires which are lightes
ed in these mines, produce only slight explosions, and
do not form volcanoes, because all being solid and full
in these places, fire cannot be excited, like that of vol-
canoes, in which there are cavities and void place*
NATURAL HISTORY. ?$'
where the air penetrates, which must necessarily ex-
tend the conflagration and augment the action of the
fire, to the point in which we see it when it produces
the terrible effects we have taken notice of.
There are two kinds of earthquakes, the one occa-
sioned by the action of subterraneous fires, and the ex-
plosion of volcanoes, which are only felt at small dis-
tances, and at the time when volcanoes act, or before
they open. When the matters which form subterran-
eous fires, ferment, heat and inflame, the fire makes an
effort on every side, and if it does not find a natural
vent, it raises the earth and forces a passage for itself
by throwing it out, which produces a volcano, whose
effects are repeated, and last in proportion to the quan-
tity of inflammable matters. If the quantity of mat-
ters which take fire is not considerable, a commotion
or an earthquake may ensue, without a volcano being
formed. The air produced and rarefied by the subter-
raneous fire, may also find small vents, by which it will
escape, and in this case there will be only a shock with-
out any eruption or volcano. But when the inflamed
matter is in a great quantity, and confined by solid and
compressed matters, then a commotion and volcano a-
rises : but all these commotions form only the first
kind of earthquakes, and can enly shake a small space
of ground. A very violent eruption of mount ^tna
will occasion, for example, an earthquake through the
whole island of Sicily ; but it will never extend to the
distance of three or four hundred leagues. When any
new mouth is formed in mount Vesuvius, there are
earthquakes at Naples and in the neighbourhood of the
volcano : but these earthquakes have never shook the
Alps, and are not communicated to France or to other
countries remote from the source of the phenomenon.
Vol. I. I
74 NATURAL HISTORY.
But there is another kind of earthquake, very di*
ferent in its effects, and perhaps in its causes. There
are earthquakes too which are felt at great distances,
and which shake a long course of ground, without any
new volcano or eruption appearing.
To understand rightly what may be the causes of
this kind of earthquake, it must be remembered, that all
inflammable matters capable of explosion, produce like
gun-powder, by inflammation, a great quantity of air ;
that this air produced by fire is in a state of very great
rarefaction ; and that, by a state of compression in
which it is found in the bowels of the earth, it must pro-
duce very violent effects. Let us therefore suppose,
that, at a very considerable depth, as at about one or
two hundred fathoms, pyrites, and other sulpherous
matters are to be met with ; and that, by the fermen-
tation produced by the filtration of the water, or other
causes, they inflame. At first, these matters are not dis-
posed regularly by horizontal strata, as the more ancient
matters are, which have been formed by the sediment
of the waters. On the contrary, they are formed in
perpendicular strata, in caverns at the foot of these
clefts, and in other parts where the water can act and
penetrate. These matters inflaming, will produce a
great quantity of air or vapour, the spring of which,
compressed in a small space, like that of a cavern, will
not shake the earth immediately above, but will search
for passages, in order to make its escape. It will there-
fore naturally force its way through those parts where
it meets least obstruction, and will therefore proceed
through the interstices between the different strata, or
through any channel or caverns through which it can
find a passage. This subterraneous air or vapour will
therefore produce in its passage a noise and motion pro-
NATURAL HISTORY. 75
portioned to its force and to the resistance it meets with.
And these effects will continue till it finds a vent,
perhaps in the sea, or tiil it has diminished its force by
being greatly expanded. This explanation corresponds
entirely with all the phenomena which are observed re-
specting earthquakes. They proceed with a wave-like
motion, and are felt at different places, not at the same
instant, but at different times, in proportion to the
distance.
We can also confirm what has been advanced, by
connecting it with two other circumstances, It is well
known that mines exhale vapours, independent of the
wind produced by the current of the water; we often
see currents of unhealthy air and suffocating vapours'.
We also know that there are holes, abysses and deep
lakes in the earth, which produce winds, like the lake
Boleslaw in Bohemia, &c.
From history we have innumerable instances of the
dreadful and various effects of these terrible phenomena.
Pliny, in his first book, chap. 84, relates, that in tlw
reign of Tiberius, an earthquake happened, which over-
threw twelve towns in Asia ; and in his second book
he mentions an earthquake which overthrew 100 towns
in Lybia. In the time of Trajan, the town of Antio-
chus, and a great part of the adjacent country, were
swallowed up by an earthquake ; and in the time of
Justinian, in 528, it was again destroyed by a second,
with upwards of 40,000 of its inhabitants. And, sixty
years after in the time of Saint Gregory, it felt the ef-
fects of a third earthquake, with the loss of 60,000 of
its inhabitants. In the time of Saladin, in 1182, most
of the towns of Syria and Jerusalem were distroyed by
the same cause. In Calabria and Poh, there have
been more of them than in any other part of Europe.
76 NATURAL HISTORT.
In the time of Pope Pius XI. all the churches ami
Palaces of Naples were overthrown, and ahove 30,000
of its inhabitants killed. In 1 629, there were earth-
quakes in Pola, which destroyed 7000 persons ; and
in 1638, the town of Saint Euphemia was swallowed
up ; and there -remains only a stinking lake in its place.
Ragusa and Smyrna were also almost destroyed. There
fras an earthquake in l6'92, which extended into Eng-
land, Holland, Flanders, Germany, and France ; it was
chiefly felt on the sea coasts and rivers, and extended
to a space of at least 2600 leagues square, On the l6th
of June, 1628, there was so horrible an earthquake in
the island of St Michael, that the Sea near it opened,
and in one place, where it was more than 1 50 fathoms
deep, threw up an island more than a league and a half
long, and upwards of 6'0 fathoms high.
Another earthquake happened in lfi91 which be-
gan the Kith of July, and lasted in the island of St
Michael till the 12th of the following month. Tercera
and Fayal were agitated the next morning with so
much violence, that they appeared to move ; but these
frightful shocks returned only four times ; whereas, at
St Michaels, they did not cease a moment for 15 hours.
The islanders having quitted their houses, which they
saw fall before their eyes, passed all that time exposed
to the injuries of the weather. A whole town, named
Villa Franca, was overthrown to its very foundation,
and most of the inhabitants buried under its ruins.
Several plains rose into hills and some mountains be-
came flat. A spring of water issued from the earth,
which flowed for four hours, and which appeared dry
all on a sudden. The air and sea, still more agitated,
resounded with a noise like the roaring of a number of
wild beasts. Many per?ons died with the fright, and
NATURAL HISTORY. 77
the ships in the ports suffered dangerous shocks ; and
those which were at anchor, or under sail, 20 leagues
distant from the islands, sustained great damage.
In the year K)-t5 the mountain of the island of Ma-
chian split with terrible reports, by an earthquake ;
and so many fires issued through this opening, that
they consumed many negro-yards, and all that was in
them. This prodigious crack is still apparent; and it
is called the path of Machian, because it descends from
the bottom like a road hello wed out, but which at a dis-
tance appears like a path.
At sea the shock of an earthquake is felt at a consi-
derable distance. M. Shaw relates, that in 1721, being
on board the Gazelle, an Algerine vessel, mounting 50
guns, three violent shocks were felt one after the other,
as if every time a weight of 20 or 30 tons had been
thrown on the ship. This happened in a part of the
Mediterranean which was 200 fathoms deep.
In countries subject to earthquakes, it happens,
when a new volcano is formed, earthquakes cease, and
are only felt in the violent eruptions of the volcano, as
is observed in the island of St Christopher.
New islands are produced, either suddenly by the
operation of subterraneous fires, or slowly by the accu-
mulated sediments of water. Seneca informs us, that
in his time the island of Therasia suddenly emerged
from the sea; and Pliny relates, that thirteen islands
arose all at once from the bottom of the Mediterranean.
Upon this subject, however, we have some facts ir.ore
recent, and less involved in obscurity.
The 23d of May, 1707 5 at sun rising, near this
same island of Therasia, or Santorini, something was
seen like a floating rock in the sea, Some persons, ex-
cited, by curiosity, approached it, and found this shoal.
78 NATURAL HISTORY.
which had issued from the bottom of the sea, to increase
under their feet ; and they brought with them the pu-
mice stone and oysters, which the rock still had attach-
ed to its surface. There was a slight earthquake at
Santorini two days before the growth of this shoal.
This new island increased considerably till the 14th of*
June, without any accident, and was then half a miie
round, and from twenty to thirty feet high. The earth
was white, and bordered a little on argillaceous, after
which the sea was still more agitated ; vapours arose,
which infected the island Santorini; and, the iCth,
17th, or 18th of July, rocks were seen to issue at one
time from the bottom of the sea, all of which seemed
to unite into one rock. All this was done with a dis-
mal noise, which continued upwards of two months,
with flames that rose from the new island, which still
kept itself increasing in circumference and height ; and
the explosions always threw out rocks and stones to
the distance of seven miles.
The 10th of October, 1720, near the island Tercera,
a very considerable fire arose out of the sea. Mari-
ners having been sent to examine it, they perceived,
the 19th of the same month, an island which appeared
to be covered with fire and smoke, and a prodigious
quantity of cinders thrown to a distance, as from a
volcano, and accompanied with a noise similar to that
of thunder.
The historian of the French Academy in relating'
this event, remarks, that, after an earthquake in the
island of St Michael, a torrent of fire appeared be-
tween It and the island Tercera, which gave birth to
two new rocks. And next year, the same historian
gives the following account:
NATURAL HISTORY. 79
Ct M. de I'lsle has informed the Academy of several
tc particulars, which were communicated to him in a
' letter, from M. de Montagnac, consul at Lisbon,
" concerning the new island among the Azores. On
"the 18th of September 1721, M. de Montagnac's
" vessel was moored off the Fortress of St Michael,
" and he procured from the Pilot of the port the fol-
" lowing intelligence:
" On the 7th, of December, 1720, at night, a great
"earthquake happenedin Tercera andSt Michael, which
" are distant about 28 leagues from one another, and a
'' new island emerged from the sea. It was, at the same
" time, observed that the island Peak, thirty leagues
" distant, which ejected flames, was extinguished. But
" a continual thick smoke proceeded from the new is-
" land, which was distinctly perceived by M. de Mon-
" tagnac, as long as he stopped in that part. The pilot
" assured him, that he had sailed round the island, and
" approached it as near as he could with safety. He
" sounded on the south side of it with a rope of 60
" fathoms, but found no bottom. On the west side,
' ' the water appeared to be mixed with white, blue, and
" green ; and at the distance of two miles, it seemed
" to be shallow and boiling. On the north-west, the
" side from which the smoke issued, he found, at 15
" fathoms, a bottom of coarse sand. He threw a stone
" into the sea, and at the place where it fell, he observed the
" water boil and mount into the air with great velocity.
" The bottom was so hot as to melt a piece of suet
" that had been fastened to the end of the plumb line.
" The pilot also observed smoke to issue from a small
" lake, in the midst of a sandy plain.
" We have since learned from M. Adrien, the French
" consul at St Michael, dated, March 1 722, that the
80 NATURAL HISTORY.
" new island is near on a level with' the water, and
" that it will probably soon disappear.
" From these and several other similar facts, it ap-
" pears, that inflammable bodies exist under the bot-
" torn of the sea, and that they sometimes produce
fl violent explosions."
On the whole, however, the islands produced by the
action of fire and earthquakes, are but few, and these
events are seldom ; but tiiere are an infinite number
of new islands produced by the mud, sand, and earth,
which the rivers, or the sea carry and transport into
different places. At the mouth of all rivers, masses of
earth and banks of sand are formed, whose extent often
become considerable enough to form islands of a mode-
rate size. The sea retiring from certain coasts, leaves
the parts highest from the bottom naked, which form
so many new islands, And likewise, by extending it-
self on certain shores, it covers the lowest parts, and
leaves the highest, which it could not surmount, to ap-
pear above the surface of the water, which form so
many more islands. In consequence of which, it is
remarked, that there are very few islands in the mid-
dle of the sea, and that they are almost all in the
neighbourhood of the continents, where the sea formed
them, either by retreating from, or approaching towards,
these different countries.
Water and fire, whose natures are different, and,
even contrary, produce what, at least appears to us to
be similar effects. Water, as has been observed, has
produced mountains, and formed most islands. There
are likewise caverns, clefts, holes, gulphs, &c. some
of which owe their origin to subterraneous fires, and
others to water.
NATURAL HISTORY. si
Saint Patrick's cavern, in Ireland, is not so consi-
derable as it is famous. It is the same with the Dog's
Giotto in Italy, and with that which throws out fire
in the mountain of Benigauzeval, in the kingdom of
Fez.
One of the most remarkable and largest caverns
known, is that of Antiparos, which is computed to be
three hundred fathoms deep from the surface of the
earth ; but the grotto appears to be forty fathoms high
by fifty broad. It is filled with large, beautiful sta-
lactites, of various forms, both en the roof of the vault
and at the bottom
In that part of Greece, called Livadia, (the Achaia
of the ancients) there is a large cavern, in a mountain
which was formerly very famous for the oracles of
Trophonius, between the lake Livadia and the adjacent
sea. There are forty subterranean passages across the
rock, under a lofty mountahij through which the waters
of the lake continually flow.
In the month of June, 1714, apart of the mountain
of Diableret in Valois, fell suddenly, between two and
three o'clock in the afternoon. The sky was very serene ;
the mountain was of a conical figure, and destroyed
fifty-three huts belonging to the boors, and crushed to
death fifteen people, and above t\vo hundred cattle, ar>d
covered a square league with its ruins. A profound
darkness was occasioned by the dust. The heaps of
stones thrown together stopped the current of the wa-
ter, which formed new and very deep lakes. In all of
which, however, there was not the least trace of bitu-
minous matter, sulphur, lime, nor consequently any
subterranean fire, and it appeared that the base of this
great rock was worn away, or reduced to dust.
Vl. T. K
2 NATURAL HISTORY.
We have a remarkable example of these sinkings near
Folkstone, in the county of Kent. The hills in its en-
virons have sunk gradually, by an imperceptible motion,
and without any earthquake. These hills internally
are rocks of stone and chalk. By this sinking, they
have thrown into the sea rocks and earths which are
adjacent to it.
When the waters on the surface of the earth cannot
find vent to flow, they form morasses and hogs. The
most famous morasses in Europe, are those of Muscovy
at the source of Tanais ; those of Finland, where are
the great morasses of Savolax and Enasak. There are
also some in Holland, Westphalia, and many other low
countries. In Asia, the morasses of the Euphrates,
those of Tartary, and the Palus Meotidis ; neverthe-
less, in general there are fewer of them in Asia, and
Africa than in Europe. But America may be said to
be one continued morass through all its plains. This
great number of morasses is a proof of the modern date
of the country, and of the small number of inhabitants,
and still more of their want of industry.
To give an idea of the quantity of earth which the
rain detaches from the mountains and carries along with
it into the valleys, we can quote a circumstance related
by Dr Plot. In his Natural History of Staffcrdshire,
he observes that eighteen feet deep in the earth several
pieces of money coined in the reign of Edward V. have
been found ; i. e. two hundred years before his time.'
Hence this ground, which is boggy, has increased above
a foot in eleven years, or an inch and a twelfth every
year. We can still make a similar observation on
trees buried at seventeen feet depth, below which
medals of Julius Caesar have been found. Thus the
brought from the tops of mountains into plain*
NATURAL HISTORY. 99
by running waters, fail not to increase the elevation of
the ground of plains very considerably.
In the city of Modena, and four miles round, what-
ever part is dug, when we reach the depth of sixty-
three feet, and bore five feet deeper with an augur,
the water springs out with such force, that, the well
is filled in a very short space of time. This water
flows continually, and neither diminishes nor increases
by the rain or drought. What is remarkable in this
ground is, that when we reach the depth of fourteen
feet, we find pavements, and other ruins of an ancient
town, as boards, houses, different pieces of mosaic
work, &c. Below these we find a very solid ground,
which is thought never to have been stirred ; yet be-
low it we find a moist earth mixed with vegetables.
And at twenty-six feet, are entire trees, as nut-trees,
with nuts on them, and a great quantity of branches
and leaves of trees. At twenty-eight feet depth, we
meet with a friable chalk, mixed with many shells ;
and this bed is eleven feet in thickness ; after which,
we again meet with vegetables, and so on alternately
chalk and earth mixed with vegetables, to the depth
of sixty-three feet. At which depth is a bed of sand
mixed with some gravel arid shell, like those formed
on the coasts of the Italian sea. These successive
beds of fenny or marshy earth and chalk, are always
found in the same order, wherever we dig ; and very
often the augur racels with large trunks of trees,
which it bores through, but which give great trouble
to the workmen ; bones, coals, flint, and pieces of iron
are also found. Ramaz/ini, who relates these cir-
cumstances, thinks that the gulf of Venice formerly
extended beyond Modena, and that perhaps by tie in-
undations of the sea this ground has been formed*
84. NATURAL HISTORY.
It is evident, that considerable changes have taken
place on the surface of the globe, not only by the
action of fire, but also by water. The sea, from
various circumstances, has repeatedly changed its bed.
Authors have suspected, that the island of Great
Britain was formerly united to the continent of France.
On the coast of France, England, Holland, and Ger-
many, the sea has retreated in many parts. In Italy,
a considerable tract of territory has been gained by
the retreating of the ocean ; and Ravenna, which was
formerly a sea-port of the Exarques, is no longer a
maritime town.
On the mountain of Stella, in Portugal, is a lake
in which the wrecks of ships have been found, not-
withstanding this mountain is more than twelve leagues
distant from any sea. Sabinus, in his commentaries
on Ovid's Metamorphoses, says, that from the monu-
ments of history it appears, that in the year 14GO, a
whole ship, with its anchors, was found in a mine
of the Alps.
CHAP. V.
ANALOGIES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES-
ON THE NATURE OF MAN OF INFANCY MAN-
HOOD EXTENT OF HUMAN LIFE OF THE
SENSES ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATIVE OP
THIS SUBJECT,
j*\MONG the vast variety of objects in which the
surface of this globe abounds, animals hold the first
rank, both on account of the relation which they bear
to man, and of thoir superiority over vegetable and
NATURAL HISTORY. 85
inanimated nature. The senses, the figure, and the
motions of animals, afford them a more intimate con-
nection with surrounding objects than vegetables pos-
sess. The latter, however, from their expansion, their
growth., and the variety of parts which compose them,
are more intimately related to external objects than
minerals or stones, which are perfectly inert, and des-
titute of every vital principle. It is this number of
relations alone which renders the animal superior to
the vegetable, and the vegetable to the mineral.
What a variety of springs, of powers, and of me-
chanical movements, are included iu that small portion
of matter of which the body of an animal is composed !
What a number of relations, what harmony, what cor-
respondence among the different parts ! How many
combinations, arrangements, causes, effects, and prin-
ciples, all conspiring to accomplish the same grand
design !
But how admirable soever this work may appear,
the greatest miracle is not exhibited in the individual.
It ii in the successive renovation, and in the continued
duration of the species, that nature assumes an aspect
inconceivable and astonishing. This faculty of repro-
duction, which is peculiar to animals and vegetables,
must, with regard to us, continue to be so profound a
mystery, that we shall probably never be able to inves-
tigate it with sufficient accuracy.
Even inanimated bodies have some properties, and
the most imperfectly organized matter possesses many
relations with the other parts of the universe. We
will not assert, however, that matter, undc-r whatever
form it appears, is conscious of its existence,
and of its relative powers. We shall only say,
that being ignorant of th > extent of our own con-
86 NATURAL HISTORY.
nections with external objects, we will not hesitate to
pronounce inanimated matter to be infinitely more so.
Besides, as our sensations have not the most distant
resemblance to the causes that produce them, analogy
obliges us to conclude that dead matter is neither en-
dowed with sentiment, sensation, nor even with a con-
sciousness of its OAvn existence.
With inanimated matter, therefore, we have no other
relations than what arise from the general properties
of bodies, extension, impenetrability, gravity, &c. But
as relations purely material make no impression
on us, and as they exist entirely independent of us,
they cannot be considered as any part of our being.
Our existence, therefore, is an effect of organization,
of life, of the soul. Matter, in this view, is not a prin-
cipal but an accessary. It is a foreign covering, unit-
ed to us in a manner unknown. But in order to give
a more perfect idea of the nature of man, let us trace
him through the different stages of his existence.
At its birth, the infant is exposed to a new element,
the air. What the sensations are on the admission of
this element into the lungs, it is impossible to conjec-
ture ; but, from the cries of the infant, we have reason
to believe that it is attended with pain. The eyes of
an infant are indeed open, but they are dull, and ap-
pear to be unfitted for the performance of any office
whatever; and the outward coat of them is wrinkled.
The same reasoning will apply to most of the other '
senses. It w not till after forty days that it begins to
smile ; nor is it till then that it begins to weep. Its
former sensations of pain are unaccompanied with tears.
The size of an infant born at the full time, is twenty-
one inches, though some do not exceed fourteen ; and
it generally weighs twelve,' and sometimes fourteen
NATURAL HISTORY. 87
pounds. The form of the body and members of a
new-born infant are by no means perfect. At the end
of three days there generally appears a kind of jaun-
dice ; and at that time, there is generally milk in the
breast of the infant, which is squeezed out with the
fingers. The skull of infants is not completely formed.
In the language of the nursery, the head is open in a
particular part ; that is, the skull bones have not yet
grown far enough to meet. In this opening, a palpi-
tation may sometimes be discovered ; and the beating
of the arteries may always be felt. Above this open-
ing, a species of scurf appears, which is rubbed off
with a brush. In this country, infants, as soon as
born, are injudiciously and unnaturally laced with ban-
dages, which renders them unable to move a single
joint. Nations which we call barbarous, act more ra-
tionally in this respect. The Siamese, the Indians,
the Japanese, the Negroes, the Savages of Canatla, of
Virginia, of Brasil, and almost all the inhabitants of
South America, lay their infants naked in hanging beds
of cotton, or in cradles lined with fur.
Infants sleep much, but their sleep is often inter-
rupted. They ought to have the breast every two
hours in the day, and in the night as often as
they awake. It is of great importance to keep
children clean and dry from their excrements. The
American Indians, who cannot change their furs as
frequently as we can do our clothes, put under them
the dust of rotten wood, and renew it as often as it
gets damp. Great evils ensue from the negligence of
nurses. Infants are sometimes left to cry for a con-
siderable time, which often occasions diseases, or, at
least, throws them into a state of lassitude, which de-
ranges their constitutions. To palliate this they are
88 NATURAL HISTORY.
sometimes put into a cradle and rocked to sleep
which may occasionally derange the stomach and
head. Before children are put up into the cradle, we
ought to be certain they want nothing, and when they
are rocked, it ought never to be with such violence as
to stun or stupif'y them. The eyes of children are
always directed towards the light, and if one eye only
be directed to it, the other will probab'y become
weak ; both eyes ought, therefore, to be equally
shaded, or equally exposed. Squinting is commonly
the effect of injudicious treatment in this respect,.
For the first two or three months the diet of the in-
fant Ought chiefly to be confined to the'mother's milk.
The eight incisores, or fore-teeth, appear first.
They are produced generally by pairs, and from two-
months old to ten or twelve. The four canini (or dog-
teeth) appear commonly about the 9th or 10th month.
About the close of the first, or in the course of the
second year, sixteen other teeth appear, called niolares,
or grinders. In the 5th, 6'th, or 7th year, the fore-
teeth, and the dog-teeth, and the first six of the
grinders, naturally shed, and a new set appears. At
the age of puberty, or later, the denies sapiential, or
wise teeth, appear. Women are said to have fewer
teeth than men.
The hair of most infants is exceedingly light, al-
most white. When a child is suffered to cry violently,
and too long, it is in danger of a rupture, but the
early application of bandages or trusses will frequently
remove the complaint.
The frame of infants is less sensible of cold than
during any other season of life. The pulse is strong,
and it is therefore fair to conclude, that the internal
heat is considerable. Small animals, for the same
NATURAL HISTORY. 89
reason, have more heat than great ones ; because the
action of the heart and arteries increases in proportion
to the comparative smallness of the animal. Till the
aga of three years the life of infants is extremely pre-
carious ; in the course of the ensuing second or third
years it becomes mere certain, and at six or seven a
child has greater probability of living than at any
other period of life. It is remarked, that of a certain
number of children born at the same time, above a
fourth die in the first year ; above a third in twa
years, and at least one half in three years. By other
calculations, it appears that one half of the children
born at the same time are not extinct in less than se-
ven or eight years.
At twelve or fifteen months infants begin to lisp*
A is the vowel which they pronounce with most ease.
Of the consorlants, B, M, P, T, are most easy. In
every language, therefore, Baba, Mama, Papa, are
the first words that children learn. Some children
pronounce distinctly in two years, though the gene-
rality do not speak for two years and a half.
Some young persons cease growing at fourteen or
fifteen, while others continue their growth to twenty-
two or twenty-three. In men the body attains, its
perfect proportion at the age of thirty, and in women
sooner. The persons indeed of women are generally
complete at twenty. The distance between the eyes
is less in man than in any other animal ; in some
creatures, in fact, the eyes are at so great a distance,
that it is impossible they should ever view the same
object with both eyes at once. Men and apes are the-
only animals that have eye-lashes on the lower eye-
lid. Other animals have them only on the upper one.
Vol. I. L
90 NATURAL HISTORY.
The upper eye-lid rises and falls, the lower has scarce-
ly any motion.
The ancients erroneously considered the hair as a
kind of excrement, and believed that, like the nails, it
increased by the lower part pushing out the extremity.
But the moderns have discovered that every hair is a
tube, which fills and receives nutriment like the other
parts of the body. The roots, they observe, do not
turn grey sooner than the extremities, but the whole
changes its colour at once. We have known persons
the hair of whose heads have become grey in one night.
There is no part of the body which has been subject
to such changes of fashion as the hair and the beard.
...
Some people, and among others the Turks, cut the
hair off their heads, and let their beards grow. The
Europeans, on the contrary, shave their beards, and
wear their hair. The negroes shave their heads in
figures at one time, in stars at another, in the manner
of friars; and still more commonly in alternate stripes ;
and their little boys are shaved in the same manner.
The Talapoins of Siam, shave the heads and the eye-
brows of such children as are committed to their care.
Every nation seems to have entertained different pre-
judices, at different times, in favour of one part or
another of the beard.
The neck supports the head, and unites it to the
body. This part is much more considerable in the
greater number of quadrupeds, than in man. But fishes
and other animals that have not lungs similar t!o
ours, have no neck whatever. Birds, in general, have
the neck longer than any other kind of animal. Those
which have short claws, have also short necks ; those
on the contrary, that have them long, are found to
have the neck in proportion.
NATURAL HISTORY. 91
The human breast is outwardly formed in a very
different manner from that of other animals. It is
larger in proportion to the size of the body ', and none
but man, and such animals as make use of their fore
feet as hands, such as monkeys, bats, and squirrels, are
found to have those bones called clavicles, or, as we
usually term them, collar-l ones. The breasts in
women are larger than in men ; however, they seem
formed in the same manner ; and, sometimes, milk is
found in the breasts of men, as well as in those of wo-
men. Bird?, and all other oviparous animals, have no
teats ; but viviparous fishes, as the whale and the dol-
phin, have both teats and milk.
There is little known exactly with regard to the
proportion of the human figure ; and the beauty of the
best statues is better conceived by observation than by
measurement. Some who have studied after the an-
cient masters, divide the body into ten times the length
of the face, and others into eight. They tell us, that
there is a similitude of proportion in different parts of
the body : thus, that the hand is the length of the
face ; that the thumb is the length of the nose ;
that the space between the eyes is the breadth of the
eye ; that the breadth of the thickest part of the thigh
is double that of the thickest part of the leg, and treble
the thinnest, &c.
The strength of man is very considerable when ma-
tured by practice. We are assured that the porters of
Constantinople carry burthens nine hundred pounds
weight. And M. Desaguliers mentions a man in an
upright posture, who, by distributing a certain number
of weights, in such a manner that every part of his bo-
dy bore its share, was able to support a weight of two
thousand pounds.
,92 NATURAL HISTORY.
The strength of a man may be still farther estimate J
by the continuance of his labour, and by the agility of
his motions. Men, who are exercised in running, out-
strip horses, or at least continue their speed for a greater
length of time. In a journey, after a man and a horse
have proceeded together for several days, the former
will be fresh when the latter will be quite tired. The
royal messengers of Ispahan run thirty-six leagues in
fourteen or fifteen hours. Travellers assure us, that the
Hottentots outrun lions in the chace ; and that the
savages who hunt the elk, pursue this animal, which
is as fleet as a stag, with such speed that they take it.
The civilized man is ignorant of his own strength, nor is
he sensible how much he loses of it by effeminacy, and how
he might add to it by the habit of vigorous exercise.
To complete our description of man, it will be proper
to investigate the human countenance, as it appears
among ourselves, when agitated by the passions. In
affliction, in joy, in love, in shame, in compassion, the
eyes are apt to be swelled, and as it were obscured by an
overflow of tears. The effusion of these is always ac-
companied with a tension of the muscles of the visage,
by which there is occasioned an opening of the mouth.
At the same time, the natural moisture in the nose be-
comes more copious, and, by internal passages, mixes
itself with the lachrymal moisture ; which, however,
flows only at intervals, not always.
The two corners of the mouth are lowered by grief,
the under lip is erected, the eye-lid is half closed, the
pupil of the eye is raised, and almost covered with the
eye-lid. And the other muscles of the face are so much
relaxed, that the space betwixt the mouth and the eyes
is larger than ordinary, and consequently the counte-
nance assumes a lengthened appearance.
NATURAL HISTORY. 93
Fear, terror or horror, wrinkles the forehead, raises
the eye-brow, extends the eye-lids as much as possible,
and discovers a part of the white of the eye over the
pupil, which is lowered, and somewhat concealed by
the inferior eye-lid. Tiie rnouth, at the same time, is
widely opened, and the lips being separated, both the
upper and under teeth appear.
Contempt or derision raises the upper lip on one side,
and on the other there is a little motion, as if in order
to smile. The nose is shrivelled on the same side on
which the lip is raised, and the corner of the mouth is
extended. The eye on the same side is almost shut,
while the other is open as usual, but the pupil of each
is lowered,' as when one looks downward.
By jealousy, malice, and envy, the "eye-brow falls
down, and is knit, the eye-lid is raised, and the pupil
lowered. The under-lip is raised on each side, while
the corners of the mouth are rather lowered, and the
middle of the under-lip is raised, in order to join the
middle of the upper one.
The two corners of the mouth are extended by laugh-
ter, and somewhat raised. The upper part of the cheeks
is raised, and the eyes are more or less closed. The
upper lip too is raised, while the under one is lower-
ed ; and, in moderate laughter, the mouth is opened,
and the skin of the nose is contracted. Where there
is a good natural constitution of the body, it is not
impossible, by moderating the passions temperance and
sobriety, to extend the period of life for a few years.
But even of this there seems to be an uncertainty ; for
if it is necessary that the body should employ its whole
strength, that it should consume whatever it is capable
of consuming, that it should undergo every possible ex-
94, NATURAL HISTORY.
ercise, whence could any benefit accrue from regimen,
and from abstinence ? Men, no doubt, there are who
have outlived the usual period of human existence.
Not to mention Parr, who lived to the age of one
hundred and fifty-two, and Jenkins, to that of one
hundred and sixty-nine, as recorded in the Philosophical
Transactions ; we have many instances of the prolong-
ation of life to one hundred and ten, and even to one
hundred and twenty years. Yet this longevity was
owing to no peculiar art or management. On the con-
trary, it appears, that the greater number of such long
livers were peasants accustomed to the greatest fatigues,
huntsmen, or labourers ; men, in fact, who had em-
ployed their whole bodily strength, and even abused
it, if it be possible to abuse it by any thing but by con-
tinual idleness and debauchery.
If in the duration of life there is any difference to be
found, it seems proper to ascribe it to the quality of the
air. In elevated situations, old people are more generally
found than in low ones. In the mountains of Scotland
and Wales, Auvergne and Switzerland, there have been
more instances of extreme longevity than in the plains
of Holland or Flanders, of Germany or Poland. Hu-
man life is however nearly the same in every country.
Accidental distress excepted, the common verge of ex-
istence is ninety or an hundred years, which has been
the case since the days of David, without much vari-
ation.
The following table of the probabilities of human life
has been compiled from a careful examination of many
country registers of burials in France, compared will*
the mortality bills of Paris.
NATURAL HISTORY. f)5
TABLE
OF THE PROBABILITIES OF THE DURATION OF L1FK.
Age.
Duration of
Ajre.
Durat ion of
Age.
Duration of
Life.
Li IV.
Lite. .
Years.
YearsMontlis
Years.
YearsMontlis
Years.
Years Months
o
8
29
28 6
58
12 3
1
33
30
as o
59
11 S
3
38
31
27 6
CO
11 1
a
40 O
32
2fl 11
Cl
10 f,
4
41
33
88 3
62
10 u
6
41 6
34
25 7
63
9 6
6
42
35
25
Gt
9
7
42 3
86
24 5
65
8 6
8
41 6
37
2.J 10
M
S
g
40 10
38
23 3
67
7
10
40 2
39
2-2 8
68
7
11
89 6
40
22 1
69
6 7
19
88 9
41
31 6
70
6 3
13
88 1
42
20 11
71
5 8
1*
37 6
4J
20 4
72
6 *
15
36 9
44
19 9
73
5
1'^
86
45
19 3
74
4 9
IT
35 4
46
IS 9
75
4 6
IS
34 8
47
18 S
76
4 3
1'J
34
48
17 8
77
4 1
20
33 5
49
17 2
78
3 11
21
32 11
60
1C 7
79
S 9
23
32 4
51
16
80
3 7
23
31 10
52
15 6
81
3 5
24
31 3
63
16
82
3 3
25
30 9
5*
14 6
83
s a
36
30 2
65
14
84
3 I
27
29 7
56
13 5
85
8
29
29
67 '
12 10
By this Table, it appears that we may lay our belt
one to one, that an infant newly born will live eight
years ; that an infant of one year will live thirty-three
years longer ; that an infant of two years will live
thirty-eight years longer ; that a man of twenty will
live thirty-three years and five months longer ; that a
man of thirty will live twenty-eight years longer; and
so proportionally of every other age.
96 NATURAL HISTORY
Ideas of external things are conveyed to the soul of
man by means of the five senses, seeing, hearing, feel-
ing, tasting, and smelling. The organs by which the
senses act are the nerves, which are small thread-like
fibres distributed over the whole bodyj and all of them
connected with the brain.
The eyes seem to be formed very early in the human
embryo. In the chicken also, of all the parts that are
double, they are the soonest produced ; and I have ob-
served upon the eggs of several sorts of birds, as well
as upon those of lizards, that the eyes were much
larger and earlier in their expansion, than any other
parts of two-fold growth. Though in viviparous ani-
mals, and particularly in man, they are, at first, by no
means so large in proportion as in the oviparous classes,
yet they obtain their due formation sooner than any
other parts of the body. This is also the case with
the organ of hearing. The little bones that assist in
constructing the internal parts of the ear are entirely
formed before any of the other bones have acquired any
part of their growth or solidity. Hence it is evident,
that the parts of the body which are furnished with
the greatest quantity of nerves are those which appear
first, and which first attain to perfection.
Mr Chesselden having couched, for a cataract, a
lad of thirteen years of age, who had from his birth
been blind, and thus communicated to him the sense
of seeing, was at great pains to mark the progress of '
his visual powers. This youth, though hitherto inca-
pable of seeing, was not, however, absolutely and en-
tirely blind. Like every other person, whose vision
is obstructed by a cataract, he could distinguish day
from night, and even black from wliite, or either from
the vivid colour of "scarlet. Of the form of bodies,
NATURAL HISTORY. 9;
however, he could distinguish nothing, nor of colours
themselves, unless the light was strong. At first the
operation was performed only upon one of his eyes ;
and when he saw for the first time, he was so far
from forming the least conception of distances, that
he supposed (as he himself expressed it) every thing
lie saw touched his eyes, in the same manner as every-
thing he felt touched his skin. The objects that
pleased him most were those of which the surfaces
were plain, and the figures regular ; though he could
neither judge of their different forms, nor give any
reason why he preferred some to others. The ideas
lie had entertained of colours, during his former dark
state, were so imperfect, that, when he saw them in
reality, he could hardly he persuaded they were the
same. When such objects were shewn him as he had
been formerly familiar with, by the touch, he beheld
them with earnestness, in order to distinguish them a
second time. As of these, however, he had too many
to retain at once, the greatest number were forgot ;
and for one thing which he recollected upon seeing a
second time, there were a thousand of which he had
not the least remembrance. He was very much sur-
prised to find that those persons, and those objects, which
he had loved best, were not the most pleasing to
the eye. Nor could he help expressing his disap-
pointment in finding his parents less handsome than
he had conceived them to be. Before he ccnld dis-
tinguish that a picture resembled a solid body, above
two months elapsed. Till then, he only considered it
as a surface diversified by a variety of colours ; but,
when he began to perceive that these shadings actually
represented human beings, he also began to examine,
by the touch, whether they had not the usual qualities
Vol. I. M
.98 NATURAL HISTORY.
of such bodies ; and great was his surprise to firrd
what he had imagined a very unequal surface, to be
smooth and even. He was then shewn a minature
portrait of his father, which was contained in his mo-
ther's watch-case ; and though lie readily perceived the
resemblance, yet he expressed his astonishment, how
so large a face could be comprised in so small a com-
pass. To him it appeared as strange as that a pint
vessel should contain a bush-jl. At first, he could
bear but a very small quantity .of light, and he saw
every object much greater than the life. But in pro-
portion as he observed objects that were really large, he
conceived the others to be diminished. Beyond the li-
mits of what he saw, he had no conception of any
thing. Although he knew that the apartment he oc-
cupied was only a part of the house, he could not con-
ceive how the latter should seem larger than tiie for-
mer. Before the operation he had no great expectation
of the pleasure he should receive from the new sense
be was promised. That by it he might be enabled to
read and write, was his grand object. He said, that
he could enjoy no greater satisfaction from walking in
the garden, with this sense, than without it ; because
there he already walked at his ease, and knew all the
walks. With great truth he also observed, that his
blindness gave him one advantage over the rest of man-
kind ; an advantage which indeed he retained long af-
ter he had acquired the sense of seeing ; namely, that
of being able to walk in the dark with confidence and
security. He no sooner, however, had begun to enjoy
this new sense, than he was transported beyond mea-
sure ; and he declared that every new object opened
to him a fresh source of delight. About a year after,
he was carried to Epsom, where there is a beautiful,
NATURAL HISTORY. 99
and an extensive prospect. With this he seemed great-
ly charmed ; and the landscape before him he called a
new method of seeing. He was couched in the other
eye, a year after, and of hoth operations the success
was equal. AVhen he saw with both eyes every thing
appeared to him twice as big as when he saw but with
one, although he did not see double, or at least he dis-
covered no marks from which any such conclusion
could be inferred.
Distance is only conceived by experience, for the
tr.ore distant an object is, the less it appears. When,
from certain circumstances, we cannot form a just con-
ception of distance, and when we cannot judge of ob-
jects but by the angle, or rather by the image, which
they have in our eyes, we are then necessarily deceived
as to their size. Every man has felt, how liable we are
in travelling by night to mistake a bush which is near
for a tree at a distance, or indeed a distant tree for a
bush at hand. In the same manner if we do not dis-
tinguish objects by their shape, and if we cannot by it
judge of distance, the same fallacy will still continue.
Jn this case, a fly, which may pass before us with
rapidity, will seem to be a bird at a considerable dis-
tance ; and a horse which may be in the middle of a
plain, not moving, and in an attitude similar, for in-
stance, to that of a sheep, will seem to be no bigger
than a sheep, till we have found out that it is a horse.
If, therefore, we are benighted in a strange place,
where no judgment can be formed of distance, we are
every moment liable to deceptions of vision. Hence
originate the dreadful stories of spectres, and of those
wonderful, hideous, and gigantic figures, which so
many persons speak of having seen. Though such
figures, it is commonly asserted, exist solely in the iaui-
100 NATURAL HISTORY.
gination, yet it is highly probable that they might ap-
pear to the eye, in every different respect described to
us. This remark will be allowed to be more probable,
when we consider, that whenever we cannot .judge of
an object but by the angle which it forms in the eye,
this object is magnified according to its propinquity.
And that, if it seemed at first to the spectator, who is
equally incapable of distinguishing what he sees, and
of judging at v;hat distance he sees it, when at the dis-
tance of twenty or thirty paces from it, a few feet high,
it must look to him, when within a jew feet of it, of a
size stupendously increased. At this he must natur-
ally be terrified, till he touches and distinguishes the
seemingly gigantic object, for, in the very instant that
he has an actual perception of what it is, the object
will diminish, and appear to him what it really is. If,
on the other hand, he is afraid to approach it, and he
flies from the spot with precipitation, the only idea
he will form of what had presented itself to him, will be
that of an image, gigantic in its size, and dreadful in
its form. This prejudice about spectres, therefore,
originates from nature ; and such visions depend not,
as philosophers have supposed, upon the imaginatiou
only.
We have several reasons for supposing that such
persons as are short-sighted see objects larger than
others ; and yet it is a certain fact that they see them
less.
Deception is not, however, confined to one sense ;
so that hearing is liable to similar mistakes with sight.
By this sense no distinct intelligence is conveyed of the
distance whence a sounding body is heard. A great
noise, if distant, and a small one, very near, produce
the same feeling ; and unless we receive information
NATURAL HISTORY. 101
from some other sense, we can never tell accurately
whether the sound be great or small. It is not till
we have by experience become acquainted with any
particular sound, that we can judge of the distance
whence we hear it. When, for example, Ave know the
tone of a bell, we are then at no great loss to determine
how far it is from us.
Every body that strikes against another produces a
sound, which is simple in such bodies as are not elastic,
but which is often repeated in such as are. If we strike
a bell, for instance, a single blow produces a sound,
which is repeated by the undulations of the sonorous
body, and which is multiplied as often as it happens to
undulate or vibrate. These undulations succeed each
other so fast, that the ear supposes them one continued
sound ; whereas they form many sounds. Sounding
bodies are therefore of two kinds, to wit, non-elastic
and elastic. The former when struck return but a
single sound, and the latter return a succession of
sounds, which form a tone. This tone may be con-
sidered as a great number of sounds, all produced one
after the other, by the same body, as we find in a bell
which continues to sound for some time after it is struck.
A continuing tone may also be produced from a non-
elastic body, by repeating the blow quick and often, as
when we beat a drum, or when we draw a bow along
the string of a fiddle.
To know the manner in which musical sounds be-
come pleasing, it must be observed, no one continu-
ing tone 3 how loud or swelling soever, can afford us
delight. We must have a succession of them, and
those in the most pleasing proportion. The nature
of this proportion may be thus conceived. If we
strike a body incapable of vibration with a double
102 NATURAL HISTORY.
force, or, what amounts to the same thing, with a double
mass of matter, it will produce a sound that will be
double grave. Music has been said, by the ancients,
to have been first invented from the blows of different
hammers on an anvil. Suppose then we strike an
anvil with a hammer of one pound weight, and again
with a hammer of two pounds, it is plain that the two
pound hammer will produce a sound twice as grave
as the former. But if we strike with a two pound
hammer, and then with a three pound, it is evident
that the latter will produce a sound one third more
grave than the former. If we strike the anvil with
a three pound hammer, and then with a four pound,
it will likewise follow that the latter will be a quar-
ter part more grave than the former. Now, in com-
paring between all those sounds, it is obvious that
the difference between one and two is more easily
perceived than that between two and three, three and
four, or any number succeeding in the same propor-
tion. The succession of sounds will therefore please
in proportion to the ease with which they may be
distinguished. That sound which is double the for-
mer, or, the octave to the preceding tone, will be the
most pleasing. The next to that, which is as two or
three, or, the third, will be most agreeable. And
thus universally, those sounds whose differences may
be most easily compared are the most agreeable.
Sound has in common with light, the property of
being extensively diffused. Like light, it also admits
reflection. The laws of this reflection, it is true, are
less distinctly understood than those of light. All
we know is, that sound is principally reflected by
hard bodies, and that their being hollow also some-
times increases the reverberation, The internal cavity
NATURAL HISTORY. i03
f the ear, which is fashioned out in the temporal
bone, like a cavern cut into a rock, seems to be fitted
for the purposes of echoing sound with the greatest
precision.
One of the most common complaints in o!d age ia
deafness; which probably proceeds from the rigidity of
the nerves in the labyrinth of the ear. This disorder
also proceeds sometimes from a stoppage of the wax,
which art may easily remedy. In order to know whe-
ther the defect be an internal or an external one, let
the deaf person put a repeating-watch into his mouth ;
and if he hears it strike, he may be assured that hi*
disorder proceeds from an external cause.
It often happens, that people hear better with the
one ear than with the other ; but these have, what
musicians call, a bad ear. I have made several expe-
riments on persons of this description ; and I have
uniformly found, that their defect in judging properly
of sounds proceeds from the inequality of their ears,
and from their receiving by both at the same time,
unequal sensations. In like manner, as such persons
hear false, they also, without knowing it, sing false.
They also frequently deceive themselves with regard
to the side whence the sound comes, generally sup-
posing the noise to come on the part of the best ear.
Hearing is a much more necessary sense to man
than to animals. In these it is only a warning against
danger, or an encouragement to mutual assistance.
In man, it is the source of most of his pleasures ; and
without it the rest of his senses would be of little benefit.
A man born deaf, must necessarily be dumb ; and his
whole sphere of knowledge must be bounded by sen-
sual objects. We have a singular instance of a young
man, who, being born deaf, was restored, at the age
104 NATURAL HISTORY.
of twenty-four,, to perfect hearing. The account
which is given in the memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, 1703, page 18, is as follows :
" A young man, of the town of Ciiartres, between
the age of twenty-three and twenty-four, the son of a
tradesman, and deaf and dumb from his birth, began
to speak all of a sudden, to the utter astonishment of
the whole town. He gave them to understand that,
about three or four months before, he had heard the
sound of the bells, and was greatly surprised at this
new and unknown sensation. After some time, a kind
of humour issued from his left ear, and he then heard
perfectly well with both. During these three months
he listened to every thing ; and without attempting to
gpeak aloud he accustomed himself to utter softly the
words spoken by others. He laboured hard also in
acquiring the pronunciation of words, and in learning
the ideas of which they are expressive. At length,
having supposed himself qualified to break silence, he
declared, that he could now speak, though as yet but
imperfectly. Soon after, some able divine questioned
him concerning his ideas of his past state ; and prin-
cipally with respect to God, his soul, the moral beauty
of virtue, and deformity of vice. The young man,
however, had not directed his solitary speculations in-
to that channel. He had gone to mass indeed w ith
his parents, had learned to sign himself with the cross
to kneel down, and to assume all the grimaces of a
man in the act of devotion. But he did all this with-
out any manner of knowledge of the intention or the
cause ; he saw others do the like, and that was e-
nough for him. He had formed no idea of deatli ;
but he led a life of pure animal instinct ; and though
entirely taken up with sensible objects, and such a*
NATURAL HISTORY. 105
were present, he yet did not seem to have mane such
reflections even upon these, as might reasonably have
been expected. The young man was not, however,
deficient in understanding ; but the understanding of
a man, deprived of all commerce with others, is so very
confined, that the mind may be said to be under the
control of its immediate sen sations.
" It is highly possible, nevertheless, to communicate
ideas to deaf men, which they previously wanted, and
even to give them very precise notions of abstract and
general subjects, by means of signs and of Jetters. A
person born deaf may, by time and application, be
taught to read, to write, and even by the motions of
the lips to understand what is said to him. This is a
plain proof how much the senses resemble, and may
supply the defects of each other. It is probable, how-
ever, that as most of the motions of speech are made
within the mouth by the tongue, the knowledge from
the motion of the lips can be but very confined.
The sense of feeling is spread over the whole bo'dy,
but it employs itself differently in different parts.
The sensation which results from feeling, cannot be
excited otherwise than by the' contact and immediate
application of the superfices of some foreign body to
that of our own. If we apply a foreign body against
the. breast, or upon the shoulder of a man, he will feel
it ; that is, he will know that there is a foreign body
which touches him. But he will not have a single
idea of the form of this body, because the breast touch-
ing the body in a single plain, or surface, he cannot
gather from it any knowledge of this body. It is the
same with respect to all other parts of the body, which
cannot adjust themselves upon the surface of foreign
bodies, and bend themselves, to embrace at one time-
'Vol. I. N
100 NATURAL HISTORY.
many parts of their superfices. These parts cf ouv.
body cannot, therefore, give any just idea of their form;
but .those on the contrary, which, like the Rand, art-
divided into small flexible and moveable parts, and
which, consequently, can apply themselves at one and
tile same time, upon the different plains of the super-
flees of the bod}', are those, wliieh, Li e.ftect, give us
the ideas of their form, ar.d of iheir size.
It is not, therefore, only because there is a greater
quantity of nervous tufts at the extremity of the fin-
gers than in any other part of the body. It is not, a*
it is vulgarly pretended, because the hand lias the
most delicate sense, that it is in effect the principal
organ of feeling. On the contrary, we can say that
there are parts more sensible, and where the sense of
feeling is more delicate, as the eyes, the tongue, &c.
But it is merely because the hand is divided into ma-
ny parts, all moveable, all flexible, alt acting at the
same time, and all obedient to the will ; it is, because
it is the only organ which gives us distinct ideas of
the form of bodies. Animals which have hands, ap-
pear to be the -most acute. Apes do things so like
the mechanical actions of man, that it seems as if
they had the same succession of corporeal sensation
for the cause of them. Animals, which are deprived of
this organ, as they cannot grasp any object, and as they
have not any part divided and flexible enough to be
able to adjust itself upon the superfices of bodies, they
certainly have not any precise notion of the form, or
of the size of them. It is for this reason that we of-
ten see them in suspense, or frightened at the aspect
of objects which are the most familiar to them. The
principal organ of their feeling is the muzzle, as this
part is divided in two by the mouth, and as the tongue
NATURAL HISTORY. 107
Is another part, that serves them at the same time to
touch bodies, which we see them turn and turn again
before tfiey take them between their teeth.
It is therefore to the sense of feeling that we are
indebted for the power of usefully exercising all other
faculties. One "inn does not, perhaps, possess more
ingenuity or capacity than another; but because in
"his earliest infancy he made a greater, and a readier
use of this sense. As soon as children are indulged
with the liberty of their hands they presently bring
them into action, and are fond of touching whatever
is presented to them. They are seen to amuse them-
selves, and to take a pleasure in handling every thing
they are capable of grasping. They seem as if they
were endeavouring to find out the form of bodies, by
touching them on every side ; and for a considerable
time, they amuse themselves in this manner, or rather
they inform themselves of new objects.
CHAP. VI.
OF THE APPARENT VARIETIES I.V TMK HUMAN SPE-
CIES LAPLANDERS TARTARS CHINESE JA-
PANESE FCRMOSANS MOGULS PERSIANS
ARABIANS CIRCASSIAN'S TURKS RUS-
SIANS N KG HOES HOTTENTOTS- AMERI-
CANS CAUSES OF THIS VARIETY.
J. HERE are many causes which contribute to pro-
duce an apparent variety between the different na-
tions of the globe. Climate, food, manners and cus-
toms, produce not only a difference in sentiment, but
oven in the external form of differer.t people.
108 NATURAL HISTORY
In examining the surface of the earth, and beginning
our inquiries from the north, we find in Lapland, and in
the northern parts of Tartary, a race of small-sized men,
whose figure is uncouth, and whose physiognomy is
as wild as their manners are unpolished. Though they
seem to be of a degenerate species, they are very nu-
merous, and occupy vast regions.
The Laplanders, the Danes, the Swedes, the Mus-
covites, the inhabitants of Nova Zembla. the Boran-
dians, the Samoeids, the Ostiacs of the old continent,
the Greenlanclers, and the savages to the north of the
Esquimaux Indians of the new continent, appear to 1)0
of one common race, which has been extended and mul-
tiplied along the coasts of the northern seas, and over
deserts, considered as uninhabitable by every other na-
tion. In these countries, the visage is large and broad,*
the nose is flat and short, the eyes are of a yellowish
brown, inclining to black, the eye-lids are drawn towards
the temples, the cheek-bones are extremely prominent,
the mouth is very big, the lower part of the countenance
is very narrow, the lips are thick and turned out-
ward, the voice is shrill, the head is bulky. The hair
is black and straight, and the skin is tawny. They
are small in stature, and, though meagre, they are of a
squat form. In general, their size is about four feet,
nor do the tallest exceed four and a half; and among
these people, if there is any difference to be found, it
depends on the greater or less degree of deformity.
The Danish Laplanders have a large black cat, which
they make a confidant of all their secrets, and a coun-
sellor in all their difficulties. Among the Swedish Lap-
landers, there is in every family a drum, for the pur-
pose of consulting the devil : and notwithstanding the
.natives of these countries are robust and nimble^ from
NATURAL HISTORY. 109
many circumstances there is reason to suppose, that
they cannot live but in their own country, and in their
own manner. In travelling over the ice and snow, they
use skates made of fir, which are about two feet long,
and about half afoot broad, which are raised and point-
ed before, and fastened to the foot by straps of leather.
With these they make such dispatch, that they easily
overtake the swiftest animals. They also use a pole,
pointed with iron at one end, and rounded at the other.
This pole serves to push them along, to direct their
course, to keep them from falling, to stop the impetuosity
of their career, and to kill what game they overtake.
With their skates they descend the steepest mountains,
and scale the most craggy precipices ; nor are the wo-
men less skilful in such exercises than the men. They
are all accustomed to the bow and arrow ; and it is as-
serted, that the Muscovite Laplanders lance a javelin
with so much dexterity, that at the distance of thirty
paces, they are sure to hit a mark no larger than a
silver crown, and with such force, that it will transfix
a human body. As huntsmen, their favourite pursuit
is that of the ermine, the fox, the lynx, taid the martin ;
and of these animals, they barter the skins for their fa-
vourite articles of luxury, brandy and tobacco.
In winter, the Laplanders clothe themselves with
the skin of the rein-deer, and in summer with the
skins of birds. To the use of linen they are perfect
strangers. The women of Nova-Zembla have their
nose and their ears pierced, in order to have them or-
namented with pendants of blue stone ; and also, as
an additional lustre to their charms, they form blue-
streaks upon their forehead and chin. Those of Green-
land dress themselves with the skin of the dog-fislu
They also paint the visage with blue and yellow cq-
110 NATURAL HISTORY.
lours, and wear pendants at their ears. They all live
under ground, or in huts almost entirely covered with
earth, and with the bark of certain trees, or the skin
. of certain fishes. Some even form subterranean trench-
es, by which one hut communicates with another, and
by which, during the winter months, they enjoy the
conversation and society of their neighbours. A con-
tinued series of darkness for several months, obliges
them to illuminate their dreary abodes with lamps,
which they keep alive with that very train-oil they
use as drink. Under all these hardships, they are
subject to few diseases, and they live to a prodigious
age. So vigorous indeed are the old men, that they
are hardly to be distinguished from the young. The
only infirmity they experience, and it is an infirmity
common to them all, is blindness. Dazzled by the
strong reflection of the snow, in winter, and enveloped
in clouds of smoke in autumn and spring, when
advanced in years, they seldom retain the use of
their eyes.
The Tartar country, taken in general, comprehends
the greatest part of Asia, and extends even from Rus-
sia to Karntschatka. It is from eleven to twelve hun-
dred leagues long, and about seven hundred broad, nf
course its circumference is twenty times larger than
that of the whole kingdom of France.
All the Tartar nations have the upper part of the
visage very large and wrinkled, even in their youth.
Their nose is short and flat, their eyes are little and
sunk in the head ; their cheek bones are high ; the
lower part of their visage is narrow ; their chin is Ion;;
and prominent-; their teeth are long and straggling ;
their eye-brows are so large as to cover the eyes ;
llmir eye-lids arc thick ; the face is broad and flat ;
NATURAL .HISTORY. Ill
tiieir complexion is tawny, and their hair is black.
They have hut little heard, have thick thighs, and
.short legs, ajid, though but of middling stature, they
arc remarkably strong and robust. The ugliest of
them are the Calmouks, in whose appearance there
seems to be something frightful. They are all wan-
derers and vagabonds ; and their only shelter is that
of a tent made of hair or skins. Their food is horse-
flesh and camel-flesh, either raw, or a little soJden
between the horse and the saddle. They eat also fish
dried in the sun. Their most common drink is mare's
milk, fermented with millet ground into meal. Thsy
all have the head shaved, except a tuft of hair on the
top, which they let grow sufficiently long to form in-
to tresses on each side oF the face. The women who
are as deformed as the men, wear their hair, which
they bind up with bits of copper, and other ornaments
of the same nature.
The majority of these tribes are strangers to religion,
morality, and decency. They are robbers by profes-
sion ; and the natives of Daghestan, who live in the
neighbourhood of more polished countries, carry on a
great traffic of slaves, whom they carry off by force, -
and afterwards sell to the Turks and the Persian;.
Their wealth consists chiefly of horses, which are more
numerous', perhaps, in Tartary, than in any other part
of the world. They are taught, by custom, to live in
the same place with their horses. They are continu-
ally employed in training and exercising them ; and
at length they reduce them to such implicit obedience,
that they actually appear to understand the intention
of the rider.
The limbs of the Chinese are well-proportioned,
their bodies are large and fat, their visages are large
112 NATURAL HISTORY.
and round. Their eyes are small, their eye-brows are
large, their eye-lids are turned upwards, and their noses
are short and flat. Their beards are black, upon their
chins there is very little hair, and upon each lip there-
are not more than seven or eight prickles. Those who
inhabit the southern provinces of the empire, are more
brown and tawny than the others. In colour, they
resemble the natives of Mauritania, and the more swar-
thy Spaniards ; but those who inhabit the middle pro-
vinces are as fair as the Germans.
Le Gentel assures us, that the Chinese women do
every thing in their power to make their eyes appear
little, and oblong. For this purpose, it is a constant
practice with the little girls, from the instruction of
the mother, forcibly to extend their eye-lids ; and with
the addition of a nese thoroughly compressed and
flattened, of ears long, large, open, and pendant, they
are accounted complete beauties. He adds, that their
complexion is delicate, there lips are of a fine vermi-
lion, their mouth is well-proportioned, their hair is
very black ; but that, by the use of paint, tliey so
greatly injure their skin, that, before the age of thirl v,
they have every appearance of old age.
So strongly do the Japanese resemble the Chinese,
that we can hardly scruple to rank them in the same
class. As being inhabitants of a more southern cli-
mate, they only differ from them in being more yellow
or more brown. In general, their stature is small,
their face, as well as their nose, is broad and flat, their
hair is black, and their beard is little more than per-
ceptible. They are haughty, fond of war, full of dex-
terity and vigour, civil and obliging, smooth-tongued,
and courteous, but fickle and vain. With astonishing
patience, they sustain hunger, thirst, cold, heat, fa--
NATURAL HISTORY. n.,
iigue, and all the other hardships of life. Their ce-
remonies, or rather grimaces, in eating, are numerous
and uncouth. They are laborious, are very skilful
artificers, and, in a word, have nearly the same dispo-
sition, the same manners, and the same customs, as
the Chinese.
One custom which they have in common, and which
is not a little fantastic, is, so to contract the feet of
the women, that they arc hardly able to support them-
selves. Some travellers mention, that in China, when
a girl has passed her third year, they break the foot
in such a manner, that the toes are made to come un-
der the sole ; that they spply to it a strong water,
which burns away the flesh ; and that they wrap it
up in a number of bandages, till it has assumed a cer-
tain fold. They add, that the women feel the pain of
this operation all their lives ; that they walk with
great difficulty ; and that their gait is to the last de-
gree ungracefjl. Other travellers do not say that
they break the foot in their infancy, but they only-
compress it with so much violence as to prevent its
growth ; but they unanimously allow, that every
woman of condition, and even every handsome woman
must have a foot small enough to enter, with ease, the
slipper of a child of six years old.
Though the inhabitants of the kingdoms of Pegu
and Aracan are blacker, yet they bear all a consider-
able resemblance to the Chinese. Those of Aracan
put great value upon a forehead large and flat ; and,
in order to render it so, they apply a plate of lead to
the forehead of their children as soon as they are born.
Their nostrils are large and extended ; their eyes ant
small and lively ; and their ears are of such length as
to hang over their shoulders. They feast with a
VoCl. Q
ill. NATURAL HISTORY.
relish on mice 1 , on 'rats, on serpents, and on fish, how-
ever it may stink. Their women are tolerably fair,
and their ears are as long as those of the men.
The people of Achan, who are situated farther to the
north than those of Aracan, have also a flat visage,
and an olive-coloured skin. They allow their boys
to go quite naked, and their girls with only a slight
plate of silver over those parts which nature dictates
to conceal.
Northward of the Phillippine Islands is situated
the island Formosa, of which the natives, though at
no great distance from the coast of Fokian in China,
bear not the least resemblance to the Chinese. Ac-
cording to Struys, the Formosans are of a small sta-
ture, particularly those who inhabit the mountains,
and their visage is broad. The women have large
and full breasts, and a beard like the men. Their ears
are naturally long, and they render them still more so
by certain thick shells, which they wear as pendants.
Their hair is very black, and very long, and their com-
plexion is yellowish. These Islanders, though averse
to labour, are yet admirably skilled in the use of the
javelin and bow. They are also excellent swimmers ;
and when they run, their swiftness is incredible.
The Moguls, and the other inhabitants of the penin-
sula of India, are not unlike the Europeans in shape
and in features ; but they differ more or less from
them in colour. The Moguls are of an olive complex-
ion ; and yet, in the Indian language, the word Mogul
signifies White. The women areextremely delicate, and
they bathe very often. They are of an olive colour,
as well as the meii ; and, contrary to what is seen a-
mong the women of Europe, their legs and thighs are
long, and their body is short. Tavernier says, that,
NATURAL HISTORY. 11.3
after passing Lapor, arid the kingdom of Cashmire,
the women have no hair on any part of the body, and
ihe men have hardly any beard. According to Theve-
not, the Mogul women are tolerably fruitful, though ex-
ceedingl y chaste. They likewise suiter little from the
pains of child-birth, and are often known to be abroad
the day following. He adds, that in the kingdom of
Decan they are allowed to marry, the husband by his
tenth, and the wife by her eighth year ; and at that
age they very often have children. The women who
become mothers so soon, usually cease bearing, how-
ever, before they arrive at thirty ; and by that period,
they appear wrinkled^ and marked with all the defor-
mities of age.
The customs of the different nations of India are all
very singular, if not whimsical. The Banians eat
nothing which has life in it; and they are even afraid
to kiii the smallest reptile, however offensive to them.
They throw rice and beans into their rivers as food for
the fishes, arid grain of different kinds upon the c-arih
for the birds and insects. When they meet with a
huntsman, or a fisher, they beg of him instantly to desist
from his employment. If he remain deaf to their in-
treaties, they offer him money for his gun, or his nets ;
and when no persuasion, no offer, will avail, they
trouble the water, in order to frighten the fishes, and
cry with all their might, to put the birds and other
game to flight.
In Ceylon there is a species of savages, denominated
Bedas, who occupy a small district on the north part
of the island, and seem to be totally different from all
the nations around them. The spot they inhabit is en-
tirely covered with wood, amidst which they keep
themselves so closely concealed, that it is with greai
i\6 NATURAL HISTORY:
difficulty they are discovered. Their complexion 19
fair, and sometimes even red, like that of the Europeans.
They do not speak the language of Ceylon ; nor indeed
has their language the least affinity to that of any of
the other Indians. They have no villages, no houses,
no intercourse with the rest of mankind. Their arms
are, the bow and the arrow, with which they destroy
a number of boars, stags, and other animals ; and
though they never dress their meat, they sweeten it
with honey, winch they possess in great abundance.
The inhabitants of Persia, of Turkey, of Arabia, of
Egypt and of the whole of Barbary, may be consider-
ed as one and the same people, who, in the time of
Mahomet, and of his 'successors, invaded immense ter-
ritories, extended their dominions, and incorporated
with the original natives of all those countries. The
Persians, the Turks, and the Moors, arc to a certain
degree civilized ; but the Arabians have, for the most
part, remained in a state of independence, which im-
plies a contempt of laws. They live, like the Tartars,
without order, without government, and almost with-
out society. Theft, robbery, and violence, are author-
ized by their chiefs. They glory in their vices ; and
of all human conventions, those only have they ad-
mitted which owe their existence to fanaticism and
superstition.
They are a people much inured to labour ; and to
it they habituate their horses. They allow this ani-
mal to eat and drink but once in twenty-four hours ;
and though their horses are meagre, they are excellent
coursers, and seem indefatigable.
The Egyptian women are very brown ; their eyes
nre lively ; their stature is rather Jow ; their mode of
is by no means agreeable ; and their conversation
NATURAL HISTORY. 117
is pcfectly tiresome. But though the women of Egypt
are commonly rather short, yet the men are of a good
height. Both are of an olive colour; and the farther we
remove from Cairo, the more we find the people tawny,
till we reach the confines of Nuhia, where they are as
black as the Nubians themselves.
The most inherent defects of the Egyptians are idle-
ness and cowardice. They do nothing almost the
whole day but drink coffee, smoke, sleep, remain in-
dolent in one place, or chatter in the streets. They
are highly ignorant, and are full of the most ridiculous
vanity. Though they cannot deny but that they have
lost every thing noble they once possessed ; the scien-
ces, the exercise of arms, their history, and even their
language ; and that, from an illustrious and a valiant
nation, they have become a people dastardly and ensla-
ved ; they scruple not to despise all other nations, and
to take offence at the bare offer of carrying their chil-
dren into Europe, in order to initiate them in the arts
and sciences.
" The women of Circassia," says Struys, " are ex-
ceedingly fair and beautiful. Their complexion is in-
comparably fine ; their forehead is large and smooth ;
and, without the assistance of art, their eye-brows are
so delicate, that they appear as threads of silk. Their
eyes are large, soft, and full of animation, their mouth
is small and expressive of a smile, and their chin forms
a perfect oval. Their neck and breasts are admirably
formed ; their stature is tall, and the shape of their
body easy ; their skin, is white as snow, and their
hair of the most beautiful black. They wear a little
cap of a black stuff, over which they fasten a roller of*
the same colour ; but, what is truly ridiculous, is,
that, instead of this roller, the widows wear the blad-
118 NATURAL HISTORY.
der of an ox, or a cow, inflated as much as possible,
by which they disfigure themselves amazingly. In
the summer months the inferior classes wear nothing
but a shift, which is open down to the middle, and
which is generally of a blue, yellow, or red colour.
They are tolerably familiar with strangers, but at the
same tin-.e faithful to their husbands, who are by no
means jealous; of them."
The Turks, who purchase a vast number of these
women as slaves, arc a people composed of many dif-
ferent nations. From the Armenians, the Georgians,
the Turcomans, intermixing in the time of the crusades
with the Arabians, the Egyptians, and even the Eu-
ropeans, it is hardly possible to distinguish the native
inhabitants of Asia Minor, of Syria, and of the rest
of Turkey. The Turkish men are generally robust,
and tolerably well-made ; and it is even rare to find
among them persons either hump-backed or lame.
The women are generally beautiful, well-proportioned
and free from blemishes. They are very fair, because
they seldom stir from home ; and when they go abroad
they are always veiled.
Before the Czar Peter I. we are told, that the Mus-
covites had not emerged from barbarism. Born in
slavery, they were ignorant, brutal, cruel, and des-
titute of courage. Men and women bathed promiscu-
ously in stoves heated to a degree intolerable to all
persons but themselves; and on quitting this warm
Lath, they plunged, like the Laplanders, into cold water.
Their food was homely ; and their favourite dishes
were cucumbers, or melons, of Astracan, which, in
summer, they preserved in a mixture of water,
flour, and salt. From ridiculous scruples they ab-
stained iiora several viands, amongst which were
NATURAL HISTORY. llj)
pigeons anil veal. Nevertheless, at this period of
rudeness, the women were" skilful in the arts of co-
louring the skin, of plucking out the eye-brows, and
of painting artificial ones. They also adorned them-
selves with pearls and jewels, and their garments
were made of rich and valuable stuffs. From these
circumstance? does it not appear, that the barba-
rism of the Muscovites was near a close, and that
their sovereign had less trouble in polishing them than
some authors have endeavoured to insinuate? They
are now a people in some degree civilized and com-
mercial, fond of spectacles, and of other ingenious
novelties.
From the regions of Europe and Asia, our attention
is now to be directed to a race of people differing
more from ourselves in external appearances than any
we have hitherto mentioned.
In the seventeenth or eighteenth degree of north
latitude, on the African coast, we find the negroes of
Senegal and of Nubia, some in the neighbourhood of
the ocean, and others in that of the red sea. After
them, all the nations of Africa, from the latitude of
eighteen North to that of eighteen South, are black;
the Ethiopians, or Abyssinians, excepted. It appears,
then, that the portion of the globe which Nature has
allotted to this race of men, contains an extent of
ground, parallel to the equator, of about nine hundred
leagues in breadth, and considerably more in length,
especially northward of the equator. Beyond the
latitude of eighteen or twenty, there are no more ne-
groes, as will appear when we come to speak of the
Caffres, and of the Hottentots.
By confounding them with their neighbours the
Nubians, we have been long in a error, with respect
120 NATURAL HISTORY.
to the colour, and the features of the visage of the
Ethiopians. Marmot says, that the Ethiopians are
absolutely black, that their visage is large, and their
nose flat ; and in this description the Dutch travellers
agree with him. The truth, however, is, that they
differ from the Nubians, both in colour and in features.
The skin of the Ethiopians is brown, or olive-coloured,
like that of the southern Arabians, from whom, it is
probable, they derive their origin. In stature thev
are tall : the features of their countenance arc strong-
ly marked : their eyes are large and beautiful : their
nose is well-proportioned : their lips are thin ; and
their teeth are white. Of the inhabitants of Nubia, on
the contrary, the nose is flat, the lips are thick ami
prominent, and the countenance is exceeding black.
These Nubians, as well as the Barberins, their western
neighbours, are a species of Negroes not unlike those
of Senegal.
The Ethiopians are a people between the extremes
of barbarism and of civilization. Their garments are
of cotton, though those of the more opulent are of silk.
Their houses are low, and of a bad construction.
Their lands, too, are wretchedly neglected. These
circumstances are owing to the behaviour of their no-
bles, who despise the tradesmen and the common peo-
ple. Each of these classes, however, lives separate
from the other, and has its own villages or hamlets.
Unprovided with salt at home, they purchase it from
abroad for its weight in gold. So fond are they of
raw meat, that, at their feasts, the second course,
which is considered as the most delicate, consists of
it entirely. Though they have vines they have no
wine ; and their usual beverage is a sour composition-
Made with tamarinds. They use horses for the pur-
NATURAL HISTORY. 121
pose of travelling, and mules for that of carrying their
merchandise. Of the arts or sciences they have lit-
tle knowledge. Their language is without rules ; and
their manner of writing, though their characters are
more beautiful than those of the Arabians, is so im-
perfect, that they take seveial days to write a letter.
In their mode of salutation there is something exceed-
ingly whimsical. Each takes the right hand of the
other, and carries it to his mouth ; after, the saluter
takes off the scarf of the person saluted, and fastens
it round his own body : Thus the latter is left half
naked, few of the Ethiopians wearing any more than
this scarf, and a pair of cotton drawers.
The first Negroes we meet with are those who live
on the south side of Senegal. These people, as well
as those who occupy the different territories between
Senegal and Gambia, are called Jalofes. They are
all very black, well-proportioned, and of a size suffi-
ciently tall. Their features are less harsh than those
of the Negroes ; and some of them, especially of
the female sex, have features that are far from being
irregular. With respect to beauty, they value fine
eyes, a well made nose and mouth, and lips of a
proportional smallness. With respect to the ground
of the picture alone do they differ from us ; for, with
them, the colour must be exceedingly black and glos-
sy. Their skin, however, is highly delicate, and soft ;
and, colour excepted, we find among them women as
handsome as in any other country of the world. They
are usually very gay, lively, and amorous.
Father du Tertre says expressly, that if the Negroes
are for the most part flat-nosed, it is because the pa-
rents crush the noses of their children. He adds, that
they compress their lips too, in order to render them
Vol. I. P
122 NA1TUAL HISTORY.
mprc thick ; oml tliar, of the few who have undergone
neither of tli < .ov, tlons, the features of the coun-
tenance art; r; i;o i: ','>ly, the nose is as prominent, and
the lips arc r. 1 ? ('flu-ate, as those of the Europeans,
,It appears, however, th;.u nm >n theNegvoesin general,
thick lips and a i : . ] ruid iiat, are gifts from na-
ture, by which w.; '; : : .-.!iv ir.iroduced, and at length
established, their custom of flattening the nose and
thickening the iips of such as, at their birth, discovered
a deficiency in these ornaments.
Though the Negroes of Guinea are in general very
healthy, yet they seldom attain what we term old age.
In his own country, a Negrore at the age of fifty, is a
very old man ; and so early as that of forty, he dis-
covers all the marks of being so.
The Negroes in general are remarkably innocent
and inoffensive. If properly fed, and not exposed to
bad usage, they are contented, joyous, and obliging ;
and on their very countenance we may read the satis-
faction of their soul. If hardly dealt with, on the
other hand, their spirits forsake them, and they
droop with sorrow. Alike impressed with a sense
of what injuries, and of what favours they have
received, to a cruel master they are implacable
foes. But to an indulgent one, they are servants
who will exert every effort of which human na-
ture is capable, in order to express to him their zeal
and attachment. To their children, their friends, their
countrymen, they are naturally compassionate and ten-
der. Contented with the little they have, they com-
municate a share to whose who are in indigence,
That they have an excellent heart, therefore, is evident;
and, in having this, they have the seed of every virtue.
Their sufferings demand a tear. Are they not already
NATURAL HISTORY.
sufficiently unhappy in being reduced to a state o
slavery; in being obliged to work without reaping the
smallest fruits of their labour ? To cro\v;i their wretch-
edness, must they be abused, buflV'led, treated like
brutes? Humanity revolts nt the i - I of ;i COl -'"cr,
which nothing but the thirst of goM could C.VC.T luive
introduced, and of which, every ihr* viH proa-jce an
aggravated repetition, till an enlLihU^jd legislature
shall put an end to a traffic which c.\ ---faces human
nature.
Mr Kolbe, though he has given so minute a descrip-
tion of the Hottentots, is strongly of opinion, however,
that they are negroes. Like that of the latter, he as-
sures us, their hair is short, black, frizzled, and woolly;
nor in a single instance did he ever observe it long.
Though of all the Hottentots the nose is very flat,
and very broad, yet it would not be of that form, did
not their mothers, considering a prominent nose as a
deformity, crush it presently after their birth. Their
lips are also thick, and their upper lip is particularly
so: their teeth are very white; their eye-brows are
thick ; their head is large ; their body is meagre ; and
their limbs are slender. They seldom live above forty
years ; and of this short duration of life, the causes,
no doubt, are, their residing continually in the midst
of filth, as also their living upon meat that is tainted,
of which indeed their nourishment chiefly consists. I
might dwell longer upon the description of this nasty
people ; but as most travellers have already given
very accurate accounts of them, it might be thought
unnecessary in this place. One fact, however, related
by Tavernier, I ought not to pass in silence. The
Dutch, he says, once took a Hottentot girl, soon after
bc-r birth ; and, after bringing her up amoJig them-
424 NATURAL HISTORY.
selves, she became as white as an European. From
this circumstance lie presumes, that all the Hottentots
would be tolerably white, were it not for their custom of
perpetually begriming themselves.
Though in America we observe less variety in the
human form than might be expected, it cannot be sup-
posed, but that in such a diversity of climates and
situations, a considerable diversity of inhabitants must
also be found.
In beginning our inquiries, then, we find in the
most northern parts of America a species of Laplanders,
similar to those of Europe, or to the Samoeids of Asia ;
and though, in comparison of the latter, they are few
in number, yet they are diffused over a very consider-
able extent of ground. Those who inhabit the lands
of Davis's Straits, are of a diminutive size, of an olive
complexion, and their legs are short and thick. They
are skilful fishers. They eat their fish and their meat
raw. Their drink consists of pure water, or of the
blood of the dog-fish. They are also very strong, and
generally live to a great age. Here, we see, there-
fore, the figure, the colour, and the manners of the
Laplanders. But what is truly singular is, that, as
among the Laplanders of Europe we meet with the
Finlanders who are white, comely, tolerably tall, and
tolerably well made ; so, among the Laplanders of
America, we meet with another species of men, tall,
well made, tolerably white, and with features exceed-
ingly regular.
Of a different race from the former seem to be the
savages of Hudson's Bay, and northward of the land
of Labrador. They are ugly, however, diminutive,
and unshapely ; and their visage is almost entirely
covered with hair, like the savages of the country of
NATURAL HISTORY. ]5
Yeco, northward of Japan. In summer they dwell
under tents made of skins of the rein-deer. In win-
ter they live ui.der ground, like the Laplanders and
the Samoeids, and, like them, sleep together promis-
cuously, and without the smallest distinction. They
likewise live to a great age, though they feed on no-
thing hut raw meat and fish. The savages of New-
foundland have a considerahle resemblance to those
of Davis's Straits : they are low in stature : they
have little or no beard : their visage is broad and flat :
their eyes are large : they are generally rather flat-
nosed ; and, upon the whole, are far from being un-
like the savages of the north continent, and of the en-
virons of Greenland.
Besides these savages, who are scattered over the
most northern parts of America, we find greater num-
bers, and which are perfectly different, in Canada
and in the vast extent of land to the Assiniboils.
These are tolerably tall, robust, vigorous, and well
made. They have hair, and eyes black, teelh, very
white, a complexion, tawny, beard, scanty, and over
the whole of their body hardly a vestige of hair. They
are hardy, indefatigable walkers, and very nimble run-
ners. They are alike unaffected by excesses of hun-
ger, and of satiety. They are by nature bold and
fierce, grave and sedate. So strongly, indeed, do they
resemble the Oriental Tartars in the colour of the
skin, the hair, and the eyes, in the scantiness of beard,
and of hair, as also in disposition, and in manners,
that, were they not separated from each other by an
immense sea, we should conclude them to be descend-
ed from that nation. In point of latitude their situa-
tion is also the same, which still farther proves how
powerfully the climate influences, not only the colour,
but the figure of men.
ia6 NATURAL HISTORY.
Mr Fabry, who travelled a prodigious way to the
north-west of the Mississippi, and visited places which
no European had done before him, and of which con-
sequently, the savage inhabitants had not been de-
stroyed, has assured me, that that part of America is
to deserted, that he often travelled a hundred, and
two hundred leagues, without observing a single hu-
man face, or the smallest vestige of a habitation. He
adds, that, whenever he did meet with any habitations
they were always at immense distances from one ano-
ther ; and that, in each of them, there was frequently
not above one family. Sometimes he says there were
two or three families, but never above twenty persons
together ; and between these twenty persons and
twenty others, there was generally a space of a hun-
dred leagues at least.
To dwell long on the customs of such savage na-
tions, would, in my opinion, be unnecessary. It has
not been always attended to by author?, that what
they have given us for established customs, and for
the manners of a community, were nothing more than
actions peculiar to a few individuals, and often deter-
mined by circumstances, or by caprice. Some nations
they tell us, eat their enemies, some burn them, and
some mutilate them. One nation, they say, is per-
petually at war ; and of another, the grand object is
to live in peace ; in one country, the child kills his
parent, when he has lived to a certain age ; and in
another, the parent eats his child. All these stories,
on which travellers have with so much complacency
enlarged, mean nothing more than that one savage
had devoured his enemy, another had burned or muti-
lated him, and a third had killed or eaten his child.
All these things may be known to happen in one, as
NATURAL HISTORY. 127
well as in several savage nations. For every nation
in which there is no government, no law, no master,
no habitual society, ought rather to be termed a tu-
multuous assemblage of men, barbarous and indepen-
dent. Men who obey nothing but their own private
passions, and who incapable of having a common in-
terest, are also incapable of pursuing one object, and
of submitting to fixed and settled usages.
If, however, in the whole of North America there
were none but savages to be met with, in Mexico and
in Peru there were found nations, polished, subjected
to laws, governed by kings, industrious, acquainted
with the arts, and not destitute of religion.
In the present state of these countries, so intermix-
ed are the inhabitants of Mexico and New Spain,
that we hardly meet with two visages of the same
colour. In the town of Mexico, there are white men
from Europe, Indians from the north and from the
south of America, and negroes from Africa, &c. inso-
much, that the colour of the people exhibits every
different shade which can subsist between black and
white. The real natives of the country arc very
brown, and of an olive colour, well made, and active ;
and though they have little hair, even upon the eye-
brows, yet upon their head, their hair is very long,
and very black.
In surveying the different appearances which the
human form assumes in the different regions of the
earth, the most striking circumstance is that of colour.
This circumstance has bee nattributed to various
causes ; but in my opinion experience warrants us to
affirm that the heat of the climate is the principal one.
When this heat is excessive, as at Senegal and in
Guinea, the inhabitants are entirely black. When it re
1-28 NATURAL HISTORY.
rather less violent, as on the eastern coasts of Africa, they
arc of a shade more light. When it begins to be somewhat
more temperate, as in Barbary, in India, in Arabia &o.
they are only brown ; and, when it is altogether tem-
perate, as in Europe and Asia, they are white. These
varieties are wholly owing to their various modes of
living. All the Tartars, for example, are tawny, while
the Europeans, who live in the same latitude, are
white. Of this difference the reasons seem to be,
that the former are always exposed to the air ; that
they have no towns, no fixed habitations ; that they
sleep upon the earth, and live coarsely in every re-
spect. These circumstances alone are sufficient to
render them less white than the Europeans, to whom
nothing is wanting which may render life comfortable
and agreeable. Why are the Chinese more white
than the Tartars, whom they resemble in all the fea-
tures of the visage? It is because they live in towns,
because they are civilized, because they are provided
with every expedient for defending themselves from
the injuries of the weather, to which the Tartars are
continually exposed.
When cold becomes extreme, however, it produces
some effects similar to those of excessive heat. The
Samoeids, the Laplanders, the Greenlanders, are very
tawny ; and it is even asserted, as we have already
observed, that among the Greenlanders there are men
as black as those of Africa. Violent cold, and violent
heat, produce the same effect upon the skin ; for
these two causes act by one quality, which they pos-
sess in common. This quality is dryness ; and as it
is a quality of which intense cold is equally productive
as intense heat, so by the former, as well as by the
latter, the skin may be dried up, altered, and render-
NATURAL HISTORY. 129
ed as tawny as what we find it among the Laplanders.
Cold compresses, shrivels, and reduces within a nar-
row compass all the productions of nature. Hence
\ve find the Laplanders, who are perpetually exposed
to all the rigours of the most piercing cold, the most
diminutive of the human species.
The most temperate climate is lietwecn the degrees
of forty and fifty. There we behold the human form in
its greatest perfection ; and there we ought to form
our ideas of the real and natural colour of man. Situ-
ated under this zone, the civilized countries are,
Georgia, Circassia, the Ukarine, European, Turkey,
Hungary, South Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France,
and the North of Spain. Of the latter, the inhabitants
are the most beautiful, and the most shapely in the *
world.
As the first, and almost the sole cause of the co-
lour of mankind, we ought therefore to consider the
climate ; and though upon the skin the effects of
nourishment are trifling, when compared with those of
the air and soil, yet upon the form they are prodigious.
Food which is gross, unwholesome, or badly prepared,
has a strong and a natural tendency to produce a de-
generacy in the human species. Hence in all coun-
tries where the people fare wretchedly, they are more
ugly, and more deformed than their neighbours.
The air and the soil have also great influences, not
only on the form of men, but on that of animals, and
of vegetables. In comparing the peasants who live
on hilly grounds, with those who live embosomed in
the neighbouring vallies, we find, that the former are
active, nimble, well-shaped, and lively ; and the
women generally handsome. On the contrary, the
Vol. I. Q
130 NATURAL HISTORY.
latter, in proportion as the air, food, and water arf
gross, are clumsy, and less active and vigorous.
From every circumstance, therefore, we may obtain
ii proof, that mankind are not composed of species es-
sentially different from each other. It appears, on
the contrary, that there was originally but one indi-
vidual species of men, which after being multiplied
and diffused over the whole surface of the earth, un-
derwent divers changes from the influence of the cli-
mate, from the difference of food, and of the mode of
living, from epidemical distempers, as also from the
intermixture, varied ad infiniium, of individuals more
or less resembling each other : at first, these alterations
were less considerable, and confined to individuals ;
but afterwards, from the continued action of the above
causes becoming more general, more sensible, and more
fixed, they formed varieties in the species. These
varieties have been, and are still perpetuated from
generation to generation, in the same manner as cer-
tain deformities, and certain maladies, pass from pa-
rents to their children. And in short, as these varieties
would never have been produced but by a concurrence
of external and accidental causes, as they would ne-
ver .have been confirmed and rendered permanent, but
by timcj and by the continued action of these causes;
so it is highly probable, that in time they would in
like manner gradually disappear, or even become dif-
ferent from what they at present are, if such causes
were no longer to subsist.
NATURAL HISTORY. 131
CHAP. VII.
OF QUADRUPEDS IN GENERALOF DOMESTIC ANIMALS
THE HORSE THE ASS THE OX THE SHEEP
THE GOAT OF THE SWINE THE WILD
BOAR, &c.
U PON comparing the various animals of the globe
with each other, we shall. find, that Quadrupeds de-
mand the rank immediately next ourselves ; and, con-
sequently, come first in consideration. The similitude
between the structure of their bodies and our own,
those instincts which they seem to enjoy in a superior
degree to the other classes that live in air or water,
their constant services to man, or the unceasing enmity
they bear him, all render them the foremost objects of
his curiosity, the most interesting part of animated
nature.
In the first ages of the world it is probable, that
all living creatures wero nearer an equality than at
present. Man, while yet savage himself, was but ill
qualified to civilize the forest. While yet naked, un-
armed, and without shelter, every wild beast was a
formidable rival, and the destruction of such was the
first employment of heroes. But when he began to
multiply, and arts to accumulate, he soon cleared the
plains of its brute inhabitants ; he soon established an
empire over all the orders of animated .nature ; part
was taken under his protection and care, while the
rest found a precarious refuge in the burning desert
of the howling wilderness.
The most obvious and simple division therefore of
Quadrupeds, is into the domestic and savage ; by do-
mestic 1 mean, such as man has taken into friendship,
or reduced to obedience; by the savage, those who
132 NATURAL HISTORY.
still preserve their natural independence and ferocity ;
who either oppose force by force, or find safety in
swiftness or cunning.
The savage animal preserves at once his liberty and
instinct, but man seems to have changed the very na-
ture of domestic animals by cultivation and care. A
domestic animal is a slave, which has few other de-
sires, but those which man is willing to grant it.
Humble, patient, resigned, and attentive, it fills up
the duties assigned, ready for labour, and content
with subsistence.
Thus we, in some measure, see'nature under a con-
tinual constraint, in those creatures we have taught to
live about us ; but it is otherwise when we come to
examine the savage tenants of the forest, or the wil-
derness; there every species preserves its characteristic
form, and is strongly imprest with the instincts and
appetites of nature. The more remote from the ty-
ranny of mankind, the greater seems their sagacity ;
the Beavers, in those distant solitudes, where men
have rarely past, exert all the arts of architects and
citizens ; they build neater habitations than even the
rational inhabitants of those countries can shew, and
obey a more regular discipline than ever man could
boast ; but as soon as man intrudes upon their society,
their spirit of industry and wisdom ceases ; they no
longer exert their social arts, but become patient and
dull, as if to fit them for a state of servitude.
But not only their industry, but their courage is
represt by the vicinity of man : the Lion of the de-
serts of Nubia, that has been only taught to measure
his strength with weaker animals, and accustomed to
conquer, i.s possessed of amazing courage ; instead of
avoiding man, as other ;miinals are found to do, lie
NATURAL HISTORY. 135
attacks whole caravans crossing th< desert, and when
over-powered, retires still facing the enemy. But the
Lion of Morocco, which is a more popolous country,
seems to acknowledge a superiority, arid is even scared
away by the cries of women and children.
It is in the forest therefore, and remote from man,
that we must expect to find those varieties, instincts,
and amazing instances of courage and cunning, which
Quadrupeds exert in a very high degree.
The heads of Quadrupeds are variously formed,
corresponding to their different manner of subsisting :
in the porcine species, it is sharp, as their food is
chiefly under ground : in the canine, which pursue
their prey by scent, it is long, in order to afford room
for the olfactory nerves : in others, which are fre-
quently engaged in combat, it is short and strong, as
in the lion. Their teeth also are adapted to the nature
of their food : in those which live on vegetables, they
are edged before, for cropping grass and herbs: in car-
nivorous animals, the fore teeth are sharp, for holding
and dividing; and farther in the mouth, they turn
broad with unequal, rugged surfaces, to render the
aliment fit to assimilate with the fluids in the stomach.
Their feet and legs are also adapted to them ; those
which live on fish have webbed feet ; and beasts of
prey have claws which they can sheathe or unsheathe
at pleasure. The stomachs of quadrupeds are formed
according to their diet ; those which eat flesh, have it
small and glandular, while those which eat vegetables,
have it very large. Some animals which chew the cud
have four stomachs; but in Africa, where the plants
are soft and nutritious, only two.
The first aliaient of all quadrupeds is milk, which,
is a liquor at once both nourishing, and easily digested,
134, NATURAL HISTORY.
this being in carnivorous animals in much less quan-
tity than others, the female often carries home her
]>rey alive, that its blood may supply the deficiencies
f nature jn herself.
Whatever be the natural disposition of animals at
other times, they all acquire new courage and fierce-
ness in defence of their young; even the mildest, if
wild, will then resist and threaten the invader; but
such as have force, and subsist by rapine, are at such
times uncommonly terrible.
But their care in the protection of their young, is
not greater than their sagacity inchusing such month*
for bringing forth, as afford the greatest quantity of
provision, suitable to the age and appetite of each pe-
culiar kind. In general they couple at such times as
that the female shall bring forth in the mildest sea-
sons, such as the latter end of spring, or the beginning
of autumn. The wolf and the fox, for instance, cou-
ple in December, so that the time of gestation conti-
nuing five months, they may have their young in
April. The marc who goes eleven months, admits the
horse in summer, and foals in the beginning of May.
On the contrary, all those which lay up provisions for
the winter, as the beaver and marmot, couple in the
latter end of autumn, so as to have their young about
January, for which severe season they have already-
laid in the proper supplies. This provisional care in
every species of quadrupeds, of bringing forth at the
fittest seasons, may well excite human admiration; in
man the business of procreation is not marked by sea-
sons, but brutes seem to decline indeterminate copula-
tions, as if conducted less by appetite than the future
subsistence of their offspring.
NATURAL HISTORY.
135
THE HORSE.
THE noblest conquest ever made by man, is that
of this spirited animal, which shares with him the fa-
tigues of the war, and the glory of the combat.
Equally intrepid as his master, the horse sees the dan-
ger, and braves it, Inspired at the clash of'arms, he
loves it, lie seeks it, and is animated with the same
ardour. He feels pleasure also in the chase, in tour-
naments, in the course. He is all fire, but equally
tractable as courageous, does not give way to his im-
petuosity, and knows how to check his inclinations.
He not only submits to the arm which guides him,
but even seems to consult the desires of his rider;
and, always obedient to the impressions which he re-
ceives from him, presses on, moves gently, or stops,
as Us rider pleases. The horse is a creature which
renounces his being, to exist only by the will of ano-
ther, which he even knows how to anticipate, and ex-
ecute by the promptitude and exactness of his move-
ments. He feels as much as we desire, does only
what we wish, gives himself up without reserve, and
156 NATURAL HISTORY.
refuses nothing, makes use of all his strength, exerts
himself heyoncl it, and even dies to obey us.
Such is the Horse, whose natural qualities art has
improved, which from the earliest ages has heen bro-
ken to the service of man. His education commences
with the loss of his liberty, and by constraint it is
finished. The servitude of these creatures is univer-
sal, and so ancient that we rarely see them in their
natural state. They are never wholly free from all
their bands, not even at the time of rest ; and if they
are sometimes suffered to range at liberty in the fields
they always bear about them the marks of servitude, and
frequently the cruel marks of labour and of pain. The
mouth is deformed by the wrinkles occasioned by the
bit, the flank scarred with wounds, inflicted by the
spur, the hoofs are pierced by nails, and the attitude
of the body constrained by habitual shackles. Even
those whose servitude is the most gentle, who are on-
ly fed and broken for luxury and magnificence, and
whose golden chains serve less to decorate them, than
to satisfy the vanity of their master, are still more
dishonoured by the elegance of their trappings, by
the tresses of their manes, by the gold and silk with
which they are covered, than by the iron shoes on
their feet.
Nature is more beautiful than art, and in an ani-
mated being, the freedom of its movements makes
nature beautiful. Observe the horses in Spanish .
America, that live wild ; their gait, their running, or
their leaping, seem neither constrained nor regular.
Proud of their independence, they fly the presence of
man, and disdain his care. They wander about in
liberty, in immense meads, where they feed on the
fresh productions, of an eternal spring. Destitute of
NATURAL HISTORY. 1.0?
finy fixed habitation, without any other shelter than
a mild sky, they breathe a purer air than those that
are confined in vaulted palaces. These wild horses
are also much stronger, much swifter, and more ner-
vous, than the greater part of domestic horses. They
have, what nature has bestowed upon them, strength
and nobleness. The others, only what art can give,
beauty and cunning.
The natural disposition of these animals is not fe-
rocious, for though superior in strength to the great-
est part of animals, they never attack them ; and if
they are attacked by others, they either disdain them
or trample them under their feet. They herd toge-
ther, as they are not fearful of but fond of one ano-
ther. As herbs and vegetables are sufficient for their
nourishment, they have quite enough to satisfy their
appetite ; and as they have no relish for the flesh of
animals, they never make War with them, nor with
themselves. They live in peace, because their appe-
tite is simple and moderate ; and, as they have enough,
there is no room for envy.
As all parts of Europe are at present peopled, and
almost equally inhabited, wild horses are no longer
found there ; and those which we see in America,
were originally European tame horses, which have
multiplied in the vast deserts of that country. The
astonishment and fear which the inhabitants of Mexico
and Peru expressed at the sight of horses and their
riders, convinced the Spaniards that this animal was
entirely unknown in these countries. They therefore
carried thither a great number as well for service, and
their particular utility, as to propagate the breed.
M. de la Salle, in 1685, saw, in the northern parts
of America, near the Bay of St Louis, whole troop*
Vol. L R
138 NATURAL HISTORY.
of these wild horses feeding in the pastures, which
were so fierce that nobody durst approach them. The
Author of the History of the Adventures of the Buc-
csneers, says, that in the island of St Domingo, hors-
es may sometimes he seen in troops of upwards of
five hundred running together, and that as soon as
they see a man, they will stop.. He adds, that one
of them will approach to a certain distance, snort,
take flight, and then all the rest will follow him.
To catch them, they make use of nooses made of ropes,
which they spread and hang in places which they
know they frequent. If they are caught by the neck
they strangle themselves, unless (.he huntsman hastes
their assistance, who instantly secures them by the
to body and the legs, and fastens them to trees,
where they are left ior two days without either food
or drink. This experiment is sufficient to begin to
make them tractable and in time they become a
much so as if they had never been wild ; and even,
if by chance they ever regain their liberty, they kno'.Y
their masters, and suffer them to catch them again
without trouble.
The manners of these animals almost wholly de-
pend on their education. From time immemorial it
has been the custom to separate the colts from their
mothers after they have suckled them five, six, or
seven months ; for experience has taught, that those
colts which are suckled ten or eleven months, are not
of equal value with those which are weaned sooner,
though they are generally fuller of flesh. After six
or seven months sucking, they are weaned, that they
may take more solid nourishment than milk. Bran
is then given them twice a-day, and a little hay, of
which the quantity is increased in proportion a* they
NATURAL HISTORY. 139
advance in age, and they are kept in the stable as
long as they seem to retain any desire to return to
the mare ; but when this desire ceases, they are suf-
fered to go out in fine weather, and led to pasture.
Care, however, must be taken not to suffer them to
go out to pasture fasting. They must have bran, and
be made to drink an hour before they are suffered to
graze, and are never to be exposed to great cold or
rain. In this manner they spend the first winter. In
the May following, they are not only permitted to
graze every day, but are suffered to lie in the fields
all the summer, and even to the end of October, only
they must not be allowed to eat the after-grass ; for
if they accustom themselves much to it, they will
grow disgusted with hay, which ought, however, to
be their principal food during the second winter, to-
gether with bran mixed with barley, or oats wetted.
They are managed in this manner, letting them graze
in the day time during winter, and in the night also
during the summer, till they are four years old, when
they are taken from the pastures, and fed on hay.
This change in food requires some precaution ; for the
first eight days, the colt should have nothing but straw
and it is proper to administer some vermifuge drinks,
as those insects may have been generated from indi-
gestion, and green food.
Great attention must be paid in weaning young
colts, to put them into a proper stable, not too hot,
for fear of rendering them too delicate arid sensible to
the impressions of the air. They should frequently
have fresh litter, and be kept very clean, by rubbing
them often down with a wisp of straw. But they
should not be tied up or curried till they are two
years and a half, or three years old; for this gives
140 NATURAL HISTORY.
them great pain, their skin being too delicate to bear
it, and they would fall away instead of growing fat
from it. Care too must be taken that the rack and
manger are not very high, the necessity of raising
their heads too high in order to reach their food, may
possibly give a habit of carrying it in this fashion,
which would give them an auk ward appearance.
At the age of three years, or three and a half, the
rider should begin to break them and make them
tractable. They should at first have a light easy
saddle, and ought to wear it two or three hours every
day, and they should be accustomed to have a snaffle
bit in their mouths, and to lift up their feet, on which
they should sometimes receive rather smart strokes,
and if designed for coach or draught horses, should
wear harness and a bridle. At first a curb should not
be used, they should be held by a leather strap, and
be made to trot, on even ground, without a rider, and
with only the saddle or harness on the body. When
the saddle horse turns easily, and willingly follows
the person who holds the leather strap, the rough ri-
der should mount him and dismount again in the
same place, without making him move, till he is four
years old, because, before that age, the weight of a
man overloads him ; but at four he should be made to
walk or trot, a little way at a time, with the rider on
his back. When a coach horse is accustomed to the
harness, he should be paired with a horse that is tho-
roughly broke, putting on him a bridle, with a strap
passed through it, till he begins to be used to the
draught. After this the coach-man must teach him to
back, having the assistance of a man before, who must
push him gently back, and even give him some blows
t,o make him do it. All this should be done before
NATURAL HISTORY. 141
young horses hare changed their food, for when once
they are what is called corn-fed, that is, when they
feed on grain and hay, as they are more vigorous, it
is remarked also that they are less tractable, and
more difficult to break.
The bit and the spur are two means made use of
to bring them into subjection. The mouth does not
appear formed by nature to receive any other impres-
sions than that of taste and appetite ; there is, howe-
ver, so great a sensibility in the mouth of a horse,
that in preference to the eyes and ears, we address
ourselves to it, to make him understand our pleasure.
The smallest motions or pressure of the bit, is suffici-
ent to inform and determine the animal ; and this or-
gan of sense has no other fault than its perfection.
Its too great sensibility must be managed, for if it is
abused, the mouth of the horse is rendered insensible
to the impression of the bit. The senses of sight and
hearing are not subject to such a change, and could
not be dulled in this manner; but, it has been found
inconvenient to govern horses by these organs, and it
is generally true, that signs given them by the sense
of feeling have more effect on animals in general than
those conveyed by the eyes or ears. Besides, the si-
tuation of horses with relation to those who mount or
conduct them, makes their eyes almost useless for this
purpose, because they see only straight forwards.
Hence they could only perceive the signs made to
them when they turned their heads round ; and al-
though they are frequently conducted and animated
by the ear, yet in fact, if they are well broken, the
smallest pressure of the thighs, or most trifling motion
of the bit, is sufficient to direct them. The spur is
<eveii useless, or at least it is only made use of to force
142 NATURAL HISTORY.
them to violent motions; and as, through the unskil-
fulness of the rider, it often happens that in giving
the spur he checks the bridle ; the horse, finding him-
self excited on one side, and kept in on the other, only
prances and capers without stirring out of his place.
By means of the bridle we teach horses to hold up
their heads, and place them in a proper manner, and
the smallest sign or movement of the rider is sufficient
to make the horse shew all his different paces. The
most natural is perhaps the trot, but pacing and gal-
loping are more pleasant for the rider, and these are
the two paces we particularly endeavour to improve.
Though walking is the slowest of all their paces,
a horse should, notwithstanding, step quick, and nei-
ther take too long nor too short steps. His carriage
should be easy, this ease depends much on the liber-
ty of his shoulders, and is known by the manner in
which he carries his head in walking. Jf lie keep it
high and steady, he is generally vigorous, quick, and
free in his motions. When the motion of the shoul-
ders is not free, the leg does not rise enough, and the
horse is apt to stumble, and strike his foot against the
inequalities on the ground. When, on the other hand
the shoulders are more confined in their action, and
the motion of the legs appears free, the horse is soon
fatigued, stumbles, and becomes useless. A horse
should raise his shoulders, and his lower haunches in
walking. He should also suppoit his leg, and raise
it high enough, but if he keep it up too long, or let it
fall too slowly, he loses all the advantage of his sup-
pleness, and becomes quite heavy.
It is not sufficient that his walk should be easy,
his steps must be also equal and uniform both behind
and before, for if his buttocks have a swinging motion,
NATURAL HISTORY. 145
whilst he keeps up his shoulders, the rider is much
jolted. The same thing happens when the horse ex-
tends his hind leg too much, and rests it almost in
the same place in wlach he rested his fore foot. Hors-
es with short bodies are subject to this fault. Those
which cross their legs or strike them against each other,
are not sure footed. Those again whose bodies are
long, are the most easy for the rider, because he is at
a Greater distance from the two centers of motion, the
.
shoulders and haunches, and is therefore less sensible
of the motion and joking.
The usual method of walking among quadrupeds,
is to lift up one of the fore legs and one of the hind
legs together. Whilst the right fore leg is in motion,
the left hind leg follows and advances at the same
time, and this step being made, the left fore leg con-
jointly with the right hind leg in its turn, and so on.
As their bodies are supported upon four points of sup-
port, which form a long square, the easiest manner of
moving for them, is to change two of them at once in
a diagonal line, in such a manner, that the centre of
gravity of the body of the animal may move but lit-
tle, and rest always in the direction of the two points
which are not in motion. In the three natural paces
of the horse, the walk, the trot, and the gallop, this
rule of motion is always observed, but with some dif-
ference. In the walk, there are four times in the
movement ; if the right fore leg moves first, the left
hind leg follows the moment after, then the left fore
leg moves forward in turn, to be followed the instant
after by the right hind leg. Thus the right fore foot
rests, on the ground first, the left bind foot next ;
then the left fore foot rests, and, lastly, the right hind
foot, which makes a movement of four times, and at
1M, NATURAL HISTORY.
three intervals, of which, the first and last are shorter
than the middle one. In the trot there are but two
times in the movement ; if the right fore leg goes off
first, the left hind leg moves at the same time, and
without any interval between the motion of the one and
the motion of the other ; the left fore leg moves also
at the same time with, the fight hind one.
In the gallop there is usually three times ; but as
in this movement there is a kind of leaping, the interior
parts of the horse do not move of themselves, but are
driven away by the strength of the haunches and the
hinder parts. Thus, of the two fore legs, the right
ought to advance more forward than the left. The
left ought beforehand to rest on the ground to serve
as a point of rest for the sudden jirk which he takes.
Hence the left hind foot makes the first time of the
movement, and rests on the ground first ; then the
right hind leg is lifted up conjointly with the left fore
leg, and rest on the ground together. At length, the
right fore leg, which is raised an instant after the left
fore leg, and right hind one, rests on the ground last,
which makes the third time. Thus, in this movement
of the gallop, there are three timea and two intervals ;
and in the first of these intervals, when the movement
is made with haste, there is an instant when the four
legs are in the air at the same time, and when the
four shoes of the .horse may be seen at once. When
the horse has the haunches and the houghs supple,
and moves them with agility, the movement of the
gallop is more perfect, and the cadence is made in
four times : he then rests the left hind foot, which
shews the first time ; when the right hind foot falls
to the ground, and shews the second time, the left
fore footfalls a moment after, shewing the third time;
NATURAL HISTORY. U5
and at length the right fore foot, which rests last,
shews the fourth time.
Horses usually gallop on the right foot, in the-
same manner as they cany the fore right leg in walk-
ing and trotting. They also throw up the dirt in gal-
loping with the right fore leg, which is more advanced
than the left. The right hind leg which follows im-
mediately the right fore one, is more advanced than
the left hind leg, the whole time that the horse con-
tinues to gallop. Hence the left leg which supports
all the weight, and which forces forwards the others,
is more tired ; for this reason it would be right to ex-
ercise horses in galloping alternately on the left foot,
as well as on the right ; and they would consequentlj
bear much longer this violent motion.
In walking, the legs of the horse are lifted up onlj
a small height, and the feet almost scrape the ground.
In trotting they are raised higher, and the feet are en-
tirely free from the ground. In galloping, the legi
are lifted up still higher, and the feet seem to rebound
from the earth. The walk, to be good, should be
quick, easy, light, and sure. The trot should be firm,
quick, and equally sustained. In this place, the horse
should carry his head high, and his back straight;
for, if the haunches rise and fall alternately at each
trot he takes, if the. crupper moves up and down, and
the horse rocks himself, he trots ill. If he throws
out his fore legs, it is another fault : the fore legs
should tread in a line with the hind ones, which should
always efface their tracks. When one of the hind
legs is thrown forwards, if the fore leg of the same
side remain in its place too long, the motion become*
more uneasy and difficult from this resistance. For
this reason the interval between the two times f the
Vol. I. S
146 NATURAL HISTORY.
trot should be short ; but, be it ever so short, this re-"
sistance is sufficient to make this pace more uneasy
than walking and galloping ; because in walking, the
motion is more easy, gentle, and the resistance less;
and in galloping there is scarcely any horizontal resist-
ance, which is the only one inconvenient for the rider.
Walking, trotting, and galloping, are the most
usual natural paces. Some horses, ho\ever, have
another natural pace, called the amble, winch is very
different from the three others, and at the first glance
appears contrary to the laws of mechanics. In this
pace the foot of the horse grazes the ground still more
than in walking, and each. step is much longer. But
tjhe most remarkable circumstance is, that the two legs
on the same side, set off at the same time to make a
step,, and afterwards the two other legs move at the
same time to make another, so that each side of the
tody alternately is without support, and there is no
equilibrium maintained between the one or the other.
It is therefore only from his almost grazing the earth,
an.d the quick alternate motion, that he- can support
himself in this pace. There is in the amble, as well
a% in the trot, but two times in the motion; ;u;d ; ( !1
the difference is, that in the trot the two legs which
go. together . are opposite, and in a diagonal line; in-
stead of which, in the amble, the It-gs on the sar.itt
side go together. This pace is very easy for the rider,
as.it has not the jolting of the trot, which is occasion--'
ed from th, resistance the fore leg meets with whei>
the hind leg rises. Because in the amble, the fore
leg ,riss, at the same time with the hind kg on the
same sides: instead, of which, in trotting, the foreleg
n the saan.e side rests and assists. the impulse during
ihts whole time.. that: the- hind. leg. is in
NATURAL HISTORY. 147
Of all the large animals, the horse has the greatest
proportion and elegance in every part of the body. The
great length of the jaws is the principal cause of the
difference between the heads of quadrupeds and of the
human species. It is also the most ignoble mark of
all ; yet, though the jaws of the horse are very long,
he has not, like the ass, an air of imbecility, or of stu-
pidity like the ox. The regularity of the proportions
of Ins head, on the contrary, gives him an air of
sprightliness, which is well supported by the beauty
of his chest. The horse seems desirous of raising him-
self above his state of a quadruped, by holding up his
head, and in this noble attitude he looks man in his
face. His eyes are lively and large, his ears well
made, and of a just proportion, without being short
like those of the bull, or too long like those of the ass.
His mane suits well his head, ornaments his neck, and
gives him an air of superiority. His long bushy tail
covers and terminates advantageously the extremities
of his body, far different from the short tails of the
stag, the elephant, c. and the naked tails of the ass,
the camel, the rhinoceros, &c. The tail of the horse
is formed of long, thick hair, which seems to come
from his rump. He cannot raise his tail like the lion,
but it suits him better hanging down, as he can move
it sideways. It is very useful to him to drive away
the flies which incommode him, for though his skin is
very hard, and is every wtiere furnished with a close
thick coat, it is extremely sensible.
The head of a well-proportioned horse should be lean
and small, without being too long. The ears should
be at a moderate distance, small, straight, immoveable,
narrow, thin, and well placed on the top of the head.
The forehead should be narrow, and a little convex*
148 NATURAL HISTORY.
Hollows should be filled up, the eye-lids thin, the eyes
clear, lively, full of fire, rather large, and projecting
from the head ; the pupil large, the nether jaw thin,
the nose a little aquiline, the nostrils large and open,
the partition of the nose and the lips thin. The mouth
ought to be of a moderate width, the withers raised
and sloping, the shoulders thin, flat, and not confined,
the back equal, even, and insensibly arched length-
ways, and raised on each side of the spine, which should
appear indented. His flanks should be full and short,
the rump round and fleshy, the haunches well covered
with hair, the stump of the tail thick and firm, the
fore legs and thighs thick and fleshy, the knees round
before, the houghs large and rounded, the sinew loose,
the joint next the foot small, the fetlock not thickly
covered with hair. The pastern ought to be large,
and of a middling length, the coronet rather raised,
the hoof black, smooth, shining, and high, the quarters
round, the heels wide and moderately raised, the frog
small and thin, and the sole thick and hollow.
But there are few horses in which this assemblage
of perfection is to be found. The eyes are subject to
many complaints, which are sometimes difficult to be
known. In a healthy eye, we ought to see through
the cornea two or three spots of the colour of soot,
above the pupil. To see these spots, the cornea must
be clear, clean, and transparent ; if it appears double,
or of a bad colour, the eye is not good. A small,
long, and straight pupil, encompassed with a white
circle, is also a bad sign, and when it is of a blueish-
green colour, the eye is certainly bad and the sight
dull.
I shall at present only add some remarks, from
which, as well as from the preceding, a judgment
NATURAL HISTORY. U9
may be formed of the principal perfections or imper-
fections of a horse. It is very easy to judge of the
natural and actual state of the animal by the motion
of his ears. When he walks, he should project for-
wards the points of his ears. A jaded horse carries
his ears low ; those which are spirited and mischiev-
ous, alternately carry one of their ears forwards and
one backwards. They all carry their ears on that
side from which they hear any noise, and when any
one strikes them on the back, or on the rump, they
turn their ears back. Horses which have the eyes
deep sunk in the head, or one smaller than the other,
have usually a bad sight. Those which have the
mouth dry, are not of so healthy a temperament as
those which have the mouth moist, and make the bri-
dle frothy. A saddle horse ought to have the shoul-
ders flat, moveable, and not very fleshjfc A draught
horse, on the contrary, should have them flat, round,
and brawny. If, notwithstanding, the shoulders of a
saddle horse are too thin, it is a defect which shews
the shoulders are not free, and consequently the horse
cannot bear fatigue. Another fault of a saddle horse
is, to have the chest project too far forward, and the
fore legs drawn too much back, because he is apt to
rest on the hand in galloping, and even to stumble
and fall. The length of the legs should be propor-
tionable to the height of the horse ; when the fore
legs are too long, he is not sure footed ; if they are
too short, he is too heavy in the hand. It is remarked
that mares are more liable than horses to be short-
legged, and that horses in general have the legs
thicker than mares or geldings.
The age of the horse is known from his teeth. He
has forty ; twenty-four grinders, four eye teeth, and
twelve Incisive teeth. Mares have no eye teeth, or if
150 NATURAL HISTORY.
ihey have them they are very short. The grinders,
are not instrumental to the knowledge of their age,
we form our judgment from the front and eye teeth.
The twelve front teeth begin to shew themselves fif-
teen days after the birth of the foal ; these first teeth
are round, short, weak, and drop out at different times
iii order to make room for others. At two years and
a half the four front middle teeth drop out the first,
two at top and two at bottom ; a year after, four
others fall out, one on each side of those which are al-
ready replaced, At about four years and a half, four
others drop out, always on the side of those which
have been replaced ; these four last milk teeth are re-
placed by four others, which do not grow near so fast
as these which replaced the first eight ; and these
four last teeth, which are called the wedges, and which
replace the fouj last milk teeth, are those by which
we know the age of a horse. These are easily known,
since they are third as well at top as at bottom, be-
ginning to count from the middle of the extremity of
the jaw. These teeth are hollow, and have a black
mark in their concavity. At four years and a half,
or five years old, they scarcely project beyond the
gums, and the hollow is plainly seen. At six and a
half it begins to fill up, the mark also begins to di-
minish and grow narrower, and so continues till seven
years and a half or eight years, when the hollow is-
entirely filled up, and the black mark effaced. After
the animal has attained eight years, as these teeth do
not give further information of the age, we generally
judge by the eye teeth, cr tusks. These four teeth
are placed at the side of those which I have just now-
taken notice of. the eye teeth, as well as the grind-
ers, are not preceded by others which fall out, those
NATURAL HISTORY. t;>f
of the inferior jaw usually come out first at three
years and a half, and the two of the upper jaw at
four years, and till they are six years old they are ve-
ry sharp. At ten years old the upper ones appear
already blunt, worn, and long, because they are bare,
the gum wearing away with age. and the more they
are worn away, the more aged the horse is. From
ten till thirteen or fourteen years, there is hardly any
indication of the age, but then some hairs on the eye-
brows begin to grow white ; but this indication is
equivocal, since it has been remarked that horses en-
gendered from old stallions and old mares have the
hair white on the eye-brows at ten years old. There
are also horses whose teeth are so hard that they do
not wear, and upon which the black mark subsists,
and is never effaced ; and others which have the mark
in the mouth as long as they live. We may also
know, though with less precision, the age of a horstf
by the ridges of the palate, which are effaced in pro-
portion to his age.
It has been remarked, that studs kept in dry and
light countries produce good-tempered, swift, and vi-
gorous horses, with nervous legs and hard hoofs ;
while, on the other hand, those which are bred in damp
places, and in fat pasturage, have generally the head'
large and heavy, the legs thick, the hoofs soft, and*
the feet flat. This difference arises from the climate
and food ; but, what is more difficult to be accounted
for, and what is still more essential than any thing"
that has been said, is, the necessity of always cros-
sing or mixing the breed, if we would prevent their
degenerating.
'Mares usually go with foal eleven months and some
days ; they will breed commonly to the age of fourteen
152 NATURAL HISTOtlY.
or fifteen years, and the more vigorous till they are a-
bove eighteen years.
The duration of the life of horses is like that of
every other species of animals, in proportion to the
length of the time of their growth. Man who is a-
bove fourteen years in growing, lives six or seven times
as long, that is ninety or a hundred years. The horse
who attains his full growth in four years, lives six or
seven times as long, that is twenty-five or thirty years.
There' are so few examples to contradict this rule,
that we should not even regard them as exceptions
from which we may draw any precedents. It is wor-
thy of remark too, that as robust horses arrive at their
full growth in less time than delicate ones, they also
live less time, and at fifteen years of age are old.
The Arabian horses are the handsomest known in
Europe, they are larger and plumper than those of
Barbary, and equally well-shaped, but as they are not
ften brought into this country, riding-masters are
not able to give an exact account of their perfections
and defects.
The horses of Barbary are more common. They
are frequently negligent in their paces, and must be
often reminded. They are very swift and strong,
light, and fit for ^hunting. These horses seem the
most proper to breedTrom ; it were only to be wished
that they were larger, as they seldom exceed four feet
eight inches high.
The Turkish horses are not so well proportioned as
those of Barbary. They will, however, travel a great
way, and are long-winded. This is not surprising, if
Ave consider, that in warm countries the bones of ani-
mals, are harder than in cold climates, and it is for this
reason that they have more strength in the legs.
NATURAL HISTORY. us
The Spanish horses hold the second rank after those
of Bafbary. Those of a handsome breed are plump,
well-coated, a,nd low. Their movements are likewise
quick and supple, and they are remarkable for spirit
and boldness. Their hair is usually black, or of a
bay chesnut colour, though there are some of all co-
lours, and it is but seldo/n that they have white le^s
and noses. The Spaniards, who have an aversion to
these marks, never breed from horses that havo them,
choosing only a star in their forehead.
The handsomest English horses ha-re in their con*
formation great resemblance to thoss of Arabia and
Barbary, from which they originally sprung. They
are frequently five feet high ; and above. They are
of all colours, and have all kinds of marks ; they are
generally strong, vigorous, bold, capable of great fa-
tigue, and excellent for hunting and coursing.
The horses of Italy were formerly much handsomer
than they are at present, because the breed for some
time has been neglected. Notwithstanding this, there
are still some handsome Neapolitan horses, especially
draught ones ; but, in general, they have the head
large, and the chest thick. They are untrartaWe, and
consequently not easily managed ; but these defects
are compensated by their noble form, thtir statcliness
and the beauty of their motions.
The Danish horses are :-o handsome in their form,
and so beautiful in their coats, that they an? preferred
to all others fbt putting into carriages. They are of
all colours, and even of some singular ones, as pied.
Horses, however, spotted like tigers, are found no
where but in Denmark.
In Germany we meet with very handsome horses ;
but they are generally heavy and short-breathed.
Vol. I. T
154 NATURAL HISTORY.
The Hussars and Hungarians split their nostrils, ii;
order, they say, to give them more breath, and also to
hinder their neighing in battle. The Flemish horse*
are greatly inferior to those of Holland : they have
almost all large heads, flat feet, and are subject to
humours in the eyes ; and these two last are essential
defects in coach- horses.
According to Marmoi, the Arabian horses are de-
scended from the wild horses of the deserts of Arabia,
of which, in ancient times, large studs were formed,
which have multiplied so much, that all Asia and Af-
rica are full of them. They are so nimble, that some
will outstrip the very ostriches in their course. The
Arabians of the desert, and the people of Lybia, breed
a great number of these horses for hunting, but they
neither use them, in travelling nor in their wars ; they
send them to pasture whilst there is grass for them ;
and when that fails, they feed them only with date*.
and camel's milk, which make them nervous, nimble,
and lean. They lay snares- for the wild horses, and
eat the flesh of the young ones, which they affirm to
be very delicate food. These wild horses are smaller
than the tame ones, and are commonly ash-coloured,
though there are also some whke ones, and the mane
and the hair of the tail is sho*t and frizzled.
Let an Arabian be ever so poor, he has horses.
They usually mount the mares, experience having
taught them that they bear fatigue, hunger, and thirst,
lietter than horses. The Turks, on the contrary, do
not approve of mares ; and the Arabians sell them the
horses which they do not keep for stallions. They
have long preserved, with great care, the breed of N their
horses ; they know all their genealogy, and distinguish
the brreds by f'itlirjon* mime;:. The Jcvrest price for
NATURAL HISTORY. 155
are of the first clas?, is from one hundred, to tw
rr three hundred pounds sterling. As the Arabians
have only a. tent for their house, it serves them also
for a stable. The mare, colt, husband, wife, and chil-
dren, lie promiscuously together; and the little chil-
dren will lie on the body and neck of the mare and
colt, without being in the least injured. These mares
are so accustomed to live in this familiarity, that they
will suffer any kind of play. The Arabians treat them
kindly, talk and reason with them, and take great care
of them, always let them walk, and never use the
spur without necessity. Hence, as soon as they feel
their flank tickled with the stirrup-iron, they set out
immediately with incredible swiftness, and leap hedges
and ditches with great agility. But if the rider
happens to fall, they are so well trained, that they will
stop short even in the most rapid gallop. All Arabian
horses are of a middling size, very easy in their
manner, and rather thin than fat They are dressed
morning and evening regularly, with so much care,
that not the smallest spot is left on their skins.
Their legs, mane ; arid tail, are also washed, which they
let prow long, and seldom comb, to avoid breaking
the hairs. They have nothing given them to eat all
day, and seldom are allowed to diink above two or
three times. At sunset, a bag is fastened round their
heads, in which is about half a bushel of very clean
barley. These horses, therefore, eat only during the
night ; ami the bag is not taken from them till the
next morning, when all is eaten up ; and, in the month
nf March, when the grass is tolerably high, they are
turned out to pasture. As soon as the spring is past,
they are taken again from pasture, and have neither
igrass nor oats all the rest of the year, and straw bui,
556 NATURAL HISTORY.
seldom, barley being their only food. They do not
neglect to cut the mane of the colts as soon as they
are a year or eighteen months old, in order to make it
grow thick and long. They mount them at t\vo years
old, or two years and a half at most. Till this age
they put neither saddle nor bridle on them ; but after
it, all the Arabian horses stand saddled at the door of
the tent, every day, from morning to night.
The breed of these horses is dispersed in Barbary,
among the Moors, and even among the Negroes of the
rivr Gambia and Senegal. The principal people of
the country have some which are of uncommon beauty.
Instead of barley or oats, they give them maize reduced
to flour, which they mix witli milk, when they are in-
i lined to fatten them ; and in this hot climate they
seldom let them drink.
The Tartars live with their horses nearly in the
Game manner as the Arabians do. When they are a-
Ixnit seven or eight months old, the young children
mount them, and make them walk and gallop a little
way by turns. They thus break them by degrees,
and oblige them to submit to long fastings ; but they
never mount them for racing or hunting till they are
six or seven years old, and then make them support
incredible fatigue, such as travelling two or three days
together without stopping, passing four or five with-
out any other food than a handful of grass every eight
hours. They also inure them to go twenty-four with-
out drinking. These horses, which appear, and w.hich
are actually so robust in their own country, become
enfeebled, and are soon good for nothing when trans-
ported to China or the Indies ; but they succeed bet-
ter in Persia and Turkey. In lesser Tartary they
Jave also a breed of smali horses, which are in such
NATURAL HISTORY. 157
estimation, that they are not allowed to sell them to
foreigners. These horses have all the good and bad
qualities of these of Great Tartary, which shews how
much the same manners, arid the same education give
the same disposition to these animals. There are also
in Circassia, and in Mingrelia, many horses which are
even handsomer than those of Tartary. There are
also found some handsome horses in the Ukraine,
Walachia, Poland, and Sweden ; but we have no par-
ticular account of their qualities and defects.
When the horse is inflamed with love, desire, or ap-
petite, he shews his teeth, and seems to laugh. He
shews them also when he is angry, and would bite.
He sometimes puts out his tongue to lick, but less
frequently than the ox, who licks much more than the
horse, and who, notwithstanding, is less sensible to
caresses.
The horse also remembers ill treatment much longer
than the ox ; his natural disposition and courage are
such, that, when he finds more is expected from him
than he is able to perform, he is irritated, and will
not exert himself. Instead of which, the ox, who is
slow and idle, exerts himself, and is more easily tired.
The horse sleeps much less than man ; for when
he is in health, he does not rest more than two or
three hours together. He then gets up to eat ; and
when he is satisfied, he lies down a second time ; but
he does not sleep more than three or four hours in the
twenty-four. There are even some horses who never
lie down, but sleep standing. It has also been re-
marked, that geldings sleep oftener and longer than
horses.
Quadrupeds do not all drink in the same manner,
though they are all equally obliged to seek with the
:S8 NATURAL HISTORY.
head for the liquor, except the monkey, macaw, arid
some others that have hands, and consequently drink,
like men, when a vase or glass is given them which
tiiey can hold. They carry this to their mouths, in-
clining the head, throwing down the liquor, and swal-
lowing it by the simple motion of deglutition. Man
usually drinks in the same manner, because it is most
convenient. Most quadrupeds also -choose that mode
which is most agreeable to them, and constantly fol-
low it. The dog, whose mouth is large, and whose
tongue is long and thin, drinks lapping, which mode
he prefers to that of wetting the nose. The horse,
on the contrary, whose mouth is small, and whose
tongue is too short and thick to scoop it up, and who
always drinks with more avidity than he eats, dips the
mouth and nose quickly and deeply into the water,
which he swallows largely by the simple motion of
deglutition. This, however, forces him to drink with-
out breathing; whilst the dog breathes at his ease while
he is drinking. Horses therefore should be Suffered
to take seteral draughts, especially after running, when
respiration is short and quick. They should not, how-
ever, be suffered to drink the water too cold, because
that, independently of the cholic, which cold water
frequently occasions, it sometimes happens also, from
the necessity they are in of dipping the nose into the
water, that they catch cold, which often lays the foun-
dation of a disorder called the glanders, the most for-
midable of all to the horse. As the seat of the glan-
ders is in the pituitary membrane, it is consequently
a real cold, which occassions an inflammation in this
membrane. Travellers too, who give us a detail of
the maladies of horses in warm climates, as in Arabia,
Persia, and Barbary, do not say that the glanders arc
NATURAL HISTORY.
so frequent there as in cold climates. It is from this-
therefore that the conjecture arises, tiiat this malady is
occasioned hy the coldness of the water, because these
animals are obliged to dip and keep the nose and nos-
trils a considerable time under it. This, however,
might be prevented by never giving it to them cold,
and by always wiping the nostrils after drinking.
Asses, who fear the cold more than horses, and
resemble them so strongly in the interior structure,
are, notwithstanding, not so subject to the glanders.
This may possibly liappen from their drinking in a
different manner from horses ; for, instead of dipping
the mouth and nose deeply into the water, they scarce-
ly touch it with their lips.
I shall not speak of the other diseases of horses.
It would extend this Natural History too much ta
join to the history of an animal that of its disorders :
nevertheless, I cannot leave the history of the horse,
without regretting that the health of this useful ani-
mal should have been hitherto abandoned to the care,
and frequently absurd practice, of ignorant people.
The branch of physic which the ancients called V 7 ete-
rinarian, is at present scarcely known but by name.
Were some physician to direct his views this way.
and make this study his principal object, he would
soon find it answer his purpose, both with respect to
reputation and profit. Instead of degrading himself,
he would render his name illustrious ; and this branch
of physic would not be so conjectural and difficult as
the other. All causes being more simple in animals
than in man, the diseases ought also to be less com-
plicated, and conseauently treated with more gut-
ters.
16*0
NATURAL HISTORY.
THE ASS.
IF we consider this animal with attention, he ap*
pears only to be a horse degenerated. The perfect
similitude in the conformation of the brain, the lungs,
the stomach, the intestinal conduit, the heart, the li-
ver, and other viscera, and the great resemblance of
the body, legs, feet, and the entire skeleton, is a suf-
ficient foundation for this opinion. We may even at-
tribute these slight differences which are found be-
tween these two animals, to the influence of the cli-
Inate, food, and the fortuitous succession of many ge-
nerations of small wild horses, half degenerated, which
by little, have still continued to degenerate so far as
at last to produce a new and fixed species ; or rather,
a succession of individuals, all vitiated in the same
manner. What appears to favour this notion is, that
as horses vary much more than asse^ in the colour of
their skin, they are consequently more anciently domes-
tic, since all domestic animals vary* much more in their
colour than wild ones of the same species. Besides,
the greater number of wild horses, of which travellers
NATURAL HISTORY. 161
*peak, are small in their size, and have, like assts, the
voat grey, and the tail naked and frizzled at the end.
They also mention wild horses, arid even domestic ones,
\vhich have a black stripe on the back, and other marks
which nearly resemble both wild and domestic asses.
Again, if we consider the difference of the temper-
ament, disposition, the manners, the organism, of
these two animals, and, above all, the impossibility of
mixing the breed to make one common species, or even
an intermediate species which may be renewed, it ap-
pears a better-founded opinion, to think that these ani-
mals are of a species equally ancient, and originally
as different as they are at present. The ass differ*
materially from the horse, in the smallness of the size,
largeness of the head, length of the ears, hardness of
the skin, nakedness of the tail, the form of the rump,
and also in the dimensions of the neighbouring parts ;
such as the voice, the appetite, manner of drinking, &c.
Do the horse and the ass, then, come originally from
the same stock ? are they of the same family, or not f
and have they not always been different animals ?
When two individuals cannot produce together, we
can no otherwise account for it, but from a slight dif-
ference in their temperament, or some accidental fault
in the organs of generation, of one or other of these
two individuals. That two individuals of different
species, should produce other individuals which do not
resemble the one or the other in any fixed particular,
and can consequently produce nothing like themselves,
there needs but a certain degree of conformity between
the form of the body and the organs of generation of
these different animals. But what an immense num-
ber of combinations are necessary, even to suppose
that two animals, male and female, of a certain spe-
VoLL U
NATURAL HISTORY.
cies, are no longer able to produce with those of their
o.wn kind, but are even degenerated to such ;i degree
that they can only produce together ; and also, whal
a prodigious immensity of combination j ;ire necessary
that the production of these two degenerated animals
should follow exactly the same laws which are ob-
served in the production of perfect animals; for a de-
generated animal is itself a vitiated production ; and
how can a vitiated, depraved origin, become a stock,
and not only produce a constant succession of beings,
but even produce them in the same manner, and fol-
lowing the same laws, which in effect reproduce the
Animal, the origin of which is pure ?
Although we cannot demonstrate that the production
of a species, by degeneration, is a tiling impossible in
nature, yet the number of probabilities on the contrary
is so great, that we can no longer doubt of it. For
if some species have been produced by the degcm ra-
tion of others, if the species of the ass is derived fiojn
ijie species of the horse, this can only have happened
(successively. By degrees, therefore, there would havti
been, between the horse and the ass, a great number
of intermediate animals, the h'rst of which would have
4iffcrcd but slightly in its nature from the horse, and
the latter would lujve approached by degrees to that
of the ass. Why then do we not si-e the n i pr>
tjves, the descendants of the intermediate s; i
why do only the two extremes remain?
The ass is then an ass, and not a horse degenerated.
He is neither a stranger, an intruder, nor a bastard.
He has hjs family, his species, and his rank. I lib
blood is pure; and although his nobility is less illus-
trious, yet it is equally good, equally ancient with
that of the horse. Why, then, have we so much con-
NA'IVKAL HISTORY. luS
tempt for this animal ; so good, so patient, so steady,
so useful ? Do men awry (heir contempt even to ani-
mals, those which serve them so well, and at so small
an expense ? We take care of, we instruct, and ^
exercise the horse, whilst the ass is ahandoned to the
care of the lowest servant, or the tricks of children.
Thus, instead of improving, he must lose by his edu-
cation ; and if there were not a fund of good qualities,
he would certainly lose them hy the manner in which
he is treated. He is the May game of the rustics,
who beat him with stall's, overload him, and make
him work beyond his strength. We do not consider,
that he would be the most beautiful, the best-formed,
and most distinguished of the lower animals, if there
were no horses in the world. We forget that he is an
ass, that he has all the qualities of his nature, all the
gifts attached to his species ; and at the same time,
\ve only think of the figure and qualities of the horse,
which he ought not to have.
He is naturally as humble, patient, and quiet, as
the horse is proud, ardent, and impetuous. He suf-
fers with constancy, and perhaps with courage, chas-
tisement and blows. He is moderate both as to the
quantity and quality of his food. He is contented
with the hardest and most disagreeable herbs, which
the horse, and other animals, will leave with disdain.
He is very delicate with respect to his water, for he
will drink none but the clearest, and from rivulets with
which he is acquainted. He drinks as moderately as
lie eats, and does not put his nose in the water (through
fear, as some say, of the shadow of his ears). As
care is not taken to curry-comb him, he frequently
rolls himself on the grass, thistles, and in the dust;
and, without regarding his load, he lays himself down
164 NATURAL HISTORY.
to roll about as often as he can, and by this seems to
reproach his master, for the little care he takes of him,
In his earliest youth, he is sprightly, and even hand-
some, light, and genteel ; but, either from age or baj^
treatment, he soon loses it, and becomes slow, indo-
cil, and headstrong. Pliny assures us, that when they
separate the mother from the young one, she will go
through fire to recover it. The ass is also strongly
attached to his master, notwithstanding he is usually
ill-treated. He will smell him afar off, and can dis-
tinguish him from all other men. He also knows the
places where he has lived, and the ways which he has
frequented. His eyes are good, and his smell is acute.
His ears are excellent, which has also contributed to
hid being numbered among timid animals, which it is
pretended have all the hearing extremely" delicate, and
the ears long. When he is over-loaded, he shews it
by lowering his head, and bending down his ears :
when he is greatly abused, he opens his mouth, and
draws back his lips in a most disagreeable manner,
which gives him an air of derision and scorn. If his
eyes are covered over, he remains motionless. He
walks, trots, and gallops like the horse ; but all his
motions are smaller, and much slower. Notwithstand-
ing he can run with tolerable swiftness, he can gallop
but a little way, and whatever paces he uses, if he is
hard pressed, he is soon fatigued.
The Jack-ass brays in a very discordant manner.
The she-ass has a clearer and shriller voice. Those
that are gelded, bray very low ; and, though they
seem to make the same efforts, and the same motions
of the throat, yet their cry cannot be heard far off.
Of all the animals covered with hair, the ass is
least subject to verinir. This circumstance may be
NATURAL HISTORY. 165
attributed to the hardness and dryness of the skin,
which is certainly harder than in the greatest part of
other quadrupeds. He is much less sensible than the
horse to the whip and the sting of the flies.
At two years and a half old, the first middle incisive
teeth fall out, and afterwards the other incisive at the
side of the first fall also, and are renewed at the same
time and in the same order as those of the horse. The
age of the ass is also known by his teeth. The third
incisive on each side ascertains it, as in the horse.
The ass is three or four years in growing, and lives
twenty-five or thirty years. He sleeps less than the
horse, and does not lie down to sleep, except when
quite tired.
Thsre are among asses different races, as among
horses ; but they are much less known, because they
have not been reared with the same attention ; but
we cannot doubt that they came all originally from
warm climates. Aristotle assures us, that there were
none in his time in Scythia, nor in the other neigh-
bouring countries, nor even in Gaul, which, he says,
is a cold c'.imate. He adds too, that a cold climate,
either prevents them from procreating their species, or
makes them to degenerate ; and that this last circum-
stance is the reason that they are small and weak in
lllyria, Thrace, and Epirus. They appear to have
come originally from Arabia, and to have passed from
Arabia into Egypt, from Egypt into Greece, from
Greece into Italy, from Italy into France, and after-
wards into Germany, England, and lastly into Sweden,
&c. for they are, in fact, weak and small in propor-
tion to the coldness of the climate.
The Latins, after the 'Greeks, have called the wild
ass, angra ; which animal must not be confounded, us
f6(j NATURAL HISTORY.
force naturalists and many travellers have done, with
the zehra. The angra, or wild ass, is not striped like
the fcebra, and is not near so elegant in figure. Wild
;isses are found in some of the islands of the Archipel-
ago, and particularly in that of Cerigo. There are
also many in the deserts of Lybia, and Numidia.
They are grey, and run so fast, that the horses of
Barbary only outstrip them in the chase. When they
see a man, they give a loud cry, turn themselves a-
bout, and stop, and do not attempt to fly till he ap-
proaches pretty near them. They are taken in snares
made with ropes, and go in troops both to pasturage
and to drink ; their flesh is also eaten. There were
also, in the time of Marmol, wild asses in the island
of Sardinia, but less than those of" Africa; and Pietro
della Valle said, he has seen a wild horse at Bassora,
whose figure differed in no respect from a domestic
one. He was only of a lighter colour, and had, from
the head to the tail, a stripe of white ; he was also
much livelier, and lighter in hunting, than the greater
number of asses.
Neither asses nor horses have been found in Amer-
ica, although the climate, especially of North America,
is as good for them as any other. Those which the
Spaniards have transported from Europe, and which
they have left in the West Indies, and on the conti-
nent, have greatly multiplied ; and in some parts wild
asses are found in troops, and are taken in snares like
wild horses.
The ass with the mare produces large mules, and
the horse with the she-ass produces small mules, dif-
fering from the first in many respects.
As wild asses are unknown in these climates, we
cannot actually say whether the flesh is good to eat ;
NATURAL HISTORY. 167
but it is certain, that the flesh of the domestic ass is
'extremely bad, and harder than that of the horse.
The milk of the ass, on the contrary, is an approved
and specific remedy for certain complaints, and its use
is known from the Greeks to us. That it may be
good in its kind, we should choose a young healthv
she-ass, full of flesh, that has lately foaled, and which
has not since that period been with the male. Care
must be taken to feed her well with hay, wheat, and
grass. The milk must not be exposed to the air,
which will spoil it in a short while.
The skin of the ass is used for different purposes,
such as to make drums, shoes, and thick parchment
for pocket-books, which is slightly varnished over. It
is also with the skins of asses that the Orientals make
the sagri, which we call shagreen.
The ass is, perhaps, the animal which can carry
the greatest weight. As it costs but little to feed
him, and as he scarcely requires any care, he is of
great use in the country. He also serves fo ride on,
as all his paces are gentle, and he stumbles less than
the horse. He is frequently put to the plough in
countries where the earth is light, and his dung is an
excellent manure.
368 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE BULL.
27/E COW.
THE ox,* and other herbiverous animals are not
only the most useful to man, but they are also main-
tained at the least expense. The ox is the most ex-
cellent in this respect, for he restores as much to the
* The word Ox, in its common acceptation, denotes Black Cattle ii>
peneral without regard to sax. l,u a more restricted se,ns , it si:iiSes a
Bull.
NATURAL HISTORY. 169
earth as he takes from it, and even enriches the ground
on which he feeds.
That the ox is not so proper as the horse, the ass,
.nid the camel, for carrying burthens, the form of his
back and loins is a demonstration. But the thickness
of his neck, and the broadness of his shoulders point
him out as destined for the yoke.
In some places they make him draw by the horns.
In support of this practice, it is alledged that when
yoked in this manner he is more easily managed. His
head is very strong, and he draws well by the horns,
but with much less advantage than by the shoulders.
Nature seems to have destined him for the plough.
The size of his body, the slowness of his motions, the
shortness of his legs, and even his tranquillity and
patience when he labours, seem to concur in rendering
him proper for the cultivation of the fields, and more
capable than any other of overcoming the constant
resistance that the earth opposes to his efforts.
In those species of animals, which man has formed
into flocks, and where the multiplication is the princi-
pal object, the female is more useful than the male.
The produce of the cow is renewed every instant.
The flesh of the calf is wholesome and delicate. The
milk is the food of children ; butter relishes the most
of our dishes, and cheese is the common food of the
peasants.
The cow arrives at the age of puberty in eighteen
months, and the bull in two years. .But they should
not be admitted to each other till they be three years
old. From three to nine years these animals are in
their greatest vigour. After this, neither cows nor
bulls are fit for any thing but to fatten for the slaugh-
ter, as at two years of age they are almost at their
Vol. I. X
170 NATURAL HISTORY.
full growth. The length of their lives is also, like
that of the greatest part of the other species of ani-
mals, about fourteen years, and they seldom live above
fifteen.
The dullest and most idle animals are not those
which sleep the soundest, or the longest. The ox
sleeps, but his sleep is short, and not very sound; for
he awakes at the least noise. He usually lies on his
left side, and that kidney is always larger and fatter
than the kidney on the right side.
Oxen, like other domestic animals, differ in colour;
but at the same time red appears to be the most com-
mon, and the redder they are, the more they are
esteemed. It is said, that Oxen of a bay colour last
longest ; that those of a brown colour are sooner fa-
tigued, and shorter lived ; that the grey, brindled,
and white are not proper for work, and only fit to be
fatted for slaughter. But whatever colour the coat of
the ox is of, it should be shining, thick, and suf't to
the touch ; for if it is rough and uneven, we have rea-
son to think that the animal is not well, or at least,
that he is not of a slrong constitution.
The ox should only be worked from three years old
to ten ; and it is proper then to take him from the
plough, in order to fatten and sell him, as the flesh
will be better than if he be kept longer. The age of
this animal is known by his teeth and horns. The
first front teeth fall out when he is ten months old.
and are replaced by others which are larger and not
so white. At sixteen months those on each side of
the middle teeth drop out, and are replaced by others ;
and at three years old all the the incisive teeth are re-
newed. They are then all long, white, and even j and,
in proportion as the ox advances in years, they decay,
NATURAL HISTORY. 1?1
andbecome unequal and black. The borns fall off at three'
years, and these are replaced by other horns, which, like'
the second teeth, do not fall off a second time. Those
of the ox and the cow grow larger and longer than those
of the bull ; but the growth of 'these second horns is
not uniform. The fourth year of the age of the ox,
two little pointed horns sprout, which are even, and
terminate at the head by a kind of knob. The fol-
lowing year this knob grows from the head, pushed
out by a cylinder of horn, which forms and terminates
also by another knob ; for as long as the animal lives,
the horns grow. These knobs become annular knobs,
which are easily to be distinguished in the horns, and
by which also the age may be easily known, by reck-
oning three years for the first knob next the point of
the horn, and one year more for each of the intervals
between the other knobs.
The horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost
continually. The ox, on the contrary, eats quick, and
takes in a short time all the food which he requires ;
after which he ceases to eat, and lies down to ruminate.
This difference arises from the different conformation
of the stomachs ofthese animals. The ox, of whose sto-
machs the two first form but one bag of a vast capacity,
can in both of them receive grass, at the same time
which it afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure.
The horse, whose stomach is small, and can receive but
a small quantity of grass, is filled successively inpropoi-
tion as he digests it, and it passes into the intestines, where
the principal decomposition of the food is performed.
Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining,
occasioned by the re-action of the first stomach on the
food which it contains. The ox fills the two first
stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which is but a poj>
172 NATURAL HISTORY.
tion of the paunch, as much as he can. This membrane
acts with force on the grass which it contains; it is
chewed but a little, and its quantity is greatly increas-
ed by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force
of contraction would occasion it to pass by the third
stomach, which only communicates with the other by
a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit such dry food,
Or, at least, can only admit the moister parts. The
food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the
oasophagus, the orifice of which is larger than the ori-
fice of the conduit, and the animal again chews and
macerates them, imbibes them afresh with its saliva,
and thus by degrees makes the aliment more moist.
He reduces it to a paste, liquid enough for it to enter
this conduit which passes into the third stomach,
where it is again macerated before it enters the fourth ;
and it is in this last stomach that the decomposition
of the hay is finished, which is reduced to a perfect
mucilage.
What chiefly confirms the truth of this explication
is, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with
milk and other liquid aliments, they do not chew the
cud. They chew the cud much more too in winter,
when they are fed with dry food, than in summer,
when they eat tender grass.
Good milk is neither too thick nor too thin. Its
consistence should be such that when we take a drop, it
should preserve its roundness without running, and in
colour it should be of a beautiful white. That which is
inclinable to blue or yellow is not good. Its taste
should be sweet, without any bitterness or sourness.
It is better during the month of May, and during the
summer, than in the winter ; and it is never perfectly
good but when the cow is of a proper age, and in goecl
NATURAL HISTORY. 173
health. The milk of young cows is too thick, that
of old ones during the winter is also too thick. The
milk of cows which are hot, is not good, any more
than that of a cow which is near her time, or which
has lately calved. In the third and fourth stomach
of the calf which sucks, there are clots of curdled milk.
These when dried in the air, serve to make runnet, or
that well-known substance which coagulates milk.
The longer the runnet is kept, the better it is, and it
requires but a small quantity of it to make a great
deal of cheese.
Bulls, cows, and oxen, are apt to lick themselves,
but mostly when they are quiet ; and as it is thought
that it hinders them from fattening, it is usual to rub
all the parts of their bodies they can touch with their
dung. When this precaution is not taken, they raise
up the hair of their coats with their tongues, which
are very rough, and they swallow this hair in large
quantities. As this substance cannot digest, it re-
mains in the stomach, and forms round, smooth balls,
which is sometimes of so considerable a size, as to
prevent their digestion. These knobs in time get co-
vered with a brown crust, which is somewhat hard.
It is, notwithstanding, but a thick mucilage, which,
by rubbing and co-action becomes hard and shining.
It is never found any where but in the paunch, and it'
any of the hair gets into the other stomachs, it does
not remain, but seems to pass with the aliments.
Animals which have incisive teeth, such as the
horse and the ass, in both jaws, bite short grass more
easily than those which want incisive teeth in the up-
per jaw. Hence if the sheep and the goat bite the
closest, it is because they are small, and their lips are
tliin-. But the ox, whose lips are thick, can only bite
17-1
NATURAL HISTORY.
long grass ; and it is for this reason that they do no
harm to the pasture on which they live, as they can
only bite off the tops of the young grass. They do
not stir the roots, and for this reason scarcely hurt the
growth ; instead of which, the sheep and the goat
bite so close, that they destroy the stalk and spoil the
root. Besides, the horse chooses the most delicate
grass, and leaves the largest to grow, the stalks of
which are hard. The ox, on the other hand, bites
these thick stalks, and by little and little destroys the
coarse grass ; so that, at the end of some years, the
field on which the horse has lived becomes a very bad
one, whilst that on which the ox has broused, becomes
fine pasture.
NATURAL HISTORY.
THE RAM.
THE EWE.
We can no longer doubt, but that animals which are
actually domestic, were formerly wild. But man,
who has conquered so many millions of individuals,
can he boast of having conquered an entire species >
As they were all created without his aid, may he not
176 NATURAL HISTORY.
also believe, that they have had orders to grow with-
out his help ? If we consider, nevertheless, the weak-
ness and stupidity of the sheep, and at the same time
reflect, that this animal, without defence, cannot rind
safety in flight ; that he has for his enemies all de-
vouring animals, which seem to seek him in preference
to any other; that formerly this species produced but
few ; that each individual lived but a short time ; we
shall be inclined to think, that from the beginning, sheep
were entrusted to the care of man. What seems to
give farther strength to this opinion is, that there are
no wild sheep in the deserts ; that in all places where
man does not rule, the lion, the- tiger, and the wolf
reign by force, and by cruelty ; and these animals of
blood and carnage, all live longer, and multiply much
more than sheep ; and, in short, that if we were now
to abandon the troops of these species, which we have
rendered so numerous, they would soon be destroyed
before our eyes, and the species would be entirely an-
nihilated by the voraciousness of its numberless spe-
cies of enemies.
The sheep is indeed absolutely without resource,
and without defence. The ram has but feeble arms ;
his courage is nothing but a petulence useless to him-
self, inconvenient to others, and which is destroyed by
castration. The weather sheep are still more fearful
than ewes ; it is through fear that they muster up so
often in troops. The smallest noise to which they
are unaccustomed, is sufficient to make them fly, and
get close together. This fear is attended with the
greatest stupidity ; for they know not how to fly the
danger, nor do they even seem to feel the inconveni-
ence of their situation. They continue wherever they
are, either in rain or snow, whence they will not stir ;
NATURAL HISTORY. 177
and to oblige them to change their situation, they
must have a chief, who is intrusted to walk first, and
whom they will follow step by step. This chief will
remain with the rest of the flock, without motion, in
the same place, if he were not driven from it by the
shepherd, or the dog which guards them, who, in fact,
watches for their safety, defends, directs, and sepa-
rates them, assembles them together, and communi-
cates to them motions not their own. Goats, which
in mcny things resemble sheep, have much more
understanding.
But this animal, so cowardly in itself, so destitute
in sentiment, is the most precious and the most useful
of animals, both for the present and future support of
man. Of itself, it not' only supplies our greatest ne-
cessities, but, at the same time furnishes us both with
food and clothing. Without enumerating the parti-
cular advantages we have from the milk ; the skin,
and even the bowels, the bones, and the dung of this
animal evince that nature has given it nothing but
what is useful to man.
These simple animals, are also of a very weak con-
stitution; for they cannot walk long; travelling weak-
ens and exhausts them ; and when they run, they
pant, and are soon out of breath. The great heat of
the sun is as disagreeable to them, as too much mois-
ture, cold and snow. They are subject to many dis-
orders the greatest part of which are contagious ; too
much fat sometimes kills them, and always p'revents
thorn from having young ones. They suffer a great
deal in having young, have frequent abortions, and
require more care than any other domestic animal.
At one year old, the sheep lose the two front teeth of
the lower jaw ; and almost every one knows that they
VoL I. Y
178 NATURAL HISTORY.
have no incisive teeth in the upper jaw. At eighteen
months old, the two neighbouring teeth t)f the two first
that fell, fall also ; and, at three years old, they arc
replaced. They are then even, and tolerably whits ;
but, in proportion as the animal becomes older, they
become uneven and black. The age of the ram i*
also known by his horns, which shew themselves in
the first year, and frequently from the birth. They
grow every year a ring, which is a mark round. The
sheep have generally no horns ; but they have bony
prominences on their heads, in the same part where
the horns of the rams grow ; there are, notwithstand-
ing, some sheep which have two, and even four horns.
These sheep are like the others ; their horns are five
or six inches long, but less turned than those of the
ram ; and when there arc four horns, the two exterior
ones are shorter than the two others.
Sheep carry their young five months, and drop
them at the beginning of the sixth. They usually
produce but one lamb, and sometimes two. In warm
climates they may produce twice a year, but in cold
elimates they produce but once a year.
The sheep has great plenty of milk for five or sir
months. This milk is tolerable food for children, and
for poor people in the country ; and they make good
cheese with it, especially when it is mixed with cow's
milk.
In dry soils, and in high grounds, where wild thyme
and other odoriferous herbs abound, the flesh of the
sheep is of a much better quality than when it is fed
in low plains and humid vallies, unless these plains
are sandy and near the sea ; for then all the herbs
imbibe a saltness, and the flesh of mutton is no where
so good as in these salt meadows. The sheep's milk
NATURAL HISTORY 179
is also more abundant, and of a better flavour, as no-
thing is more pleasing to the taste of these animals
than salt, nothing is more salutary for them, when it
is given them in moderation ; and in some places, they
put into the sheep-pen a bag of salt, or a salt stone,
which they will lick by turns.
Nothing contributes more to fatten sheep, than to
give them water in great quantity ; and nothing pre-
vents this advantage so much as the heat of the sun.
We frequently find worms in the livers of animals ;
and in the Journal des Savans, there is a description
of worms found in the livers of sheep and oxen, as
also in the German Ephcmerides. One would think
that these singular worms were only found in the livers
of animals which chew the cud ; but Mr Daubenton
has found some, which exactly resemble them, in the
liver of the ass ; and it is probable that they may be
found in the livers of other animals. It has also been
said, that butterflies have been found in the livers of
sheep.
The operation of sheep-shearing is performed once
a year. In France it is performed in the month of
May, after the sheep have been well washed, in order
to make the wool as clean as possible. In April it
would be too cold ; and if they were to wait till
the months of June and July, there would not be
time enough for the wool to grow during the summer,
to preserve them from the cold in the winter. The
wool of ewes is generally better, and in greater abun-
dance than that of rams. That on the neck, and the
top of the back, is the best. White wool is preferable
to grey, brown, or black, because in dieing it will take
any colour. For the quality, that which is. smooth is
better than that which is frizzled ; it is also said, thut
li NATURAL HISTORY.
s' e -i whose wool is frizzled are not so healthy
others. Anotl er considerable advantage may be made
of sheep, by inclosing them on the ground we wish to
improve. The dung, the urine, and the heat of the
bodies of these animals, will, in a little time, enrich the
most exhausted, cold, and infertile ground. A hun-
dred sheep, in one summer, will enrich eight acres of
land for six years.
The ancients have said, that all animals which chew
the cud have tallow ; but this is only true of the sheep
and the goat ; and that of the goat is more abundant,
whiter, drier, firmer, and of a better quality than any
other. It is for the most part about the loins that
this suet is amassed in the greatest quantities, and the
left loin has always a larger quantity than the right.
Sheep have no other fat about them but suet ; and
this matter is so predominant in their habit, that all
the extremities of the body are edged with it ; even
the blood contains a considerable quantity.
The wool of Italy, Spain, and England, is finer
than that of France.
Those animals with large, long tails, which are so
common in Africa and Asia, and to which travellers
have given the name of Barbary sheep, appear to be
of a different species from our sheep, as well as the
lamb of America.
NATURAL HISTORY. 181
THE GOAT.
THOUGH the species of animals are separated from
tach other ; yet some species approach so near to
others, that space is only left for a bare line of distinc-
tion. The ass might almost replace the horse ;
and, if the species of sheep were to fail, that of the
goat might supply the loss. The goat, like the sheep,
affords both milk and suet in considerable quantities.
Her hair, though rougher than wool, serves, however,
to make very good stuffs ; and her skin is worth
more than the skin of the sheep. The flesh of the
young goat also nearly resembles that of the lamb.
These auxiliary species are wilder and more robust
than the principal species. The ass and the goat do
not require so much care as the horse and the sheep ;
for they every where find food to support them, and
browse equally on plants of all kinds. They are less
affected with the intemperance of the climate, and can
do better without the help of man. The less depend-
ence they have on us, the more they seem to belong
to nature.
182 NATURAL HISTORY.
Although the goat is a distinct species, yet he will
couple with the sheep ; but no intermediate species
has been introduced between the goat and the sheep.
These two species are distinct, remaining constantly
separated, and always at the same distance from each
other, and have never been changed by this mixture,
or produced any new stock or new breed of interme-
diate animals. They have, at most, only produced
different individuals, which have no influence on the
unity of each primitive species, and which, on the
contrary, confirms the truth of their different charac-
teristics.
The goat has naturally more understanding, and
can shift better for herself than the sheep. She comes
voluntarily, and is easily familiarized: she is sensible
of caresses, and capable of attachment : she is also
stronger, lighter, more agile, and less timid than the
sheep : she is lively, capricious, and lascivious.
Goats are fond of straying in solitary places, of
climbing up steep places, of sleeping on the tops of
rocks, and on the brink of precipices.
The inconstancy of this animal's nature is shewn by
the irregularity of her actions ; she walks, stops short,
runs, jumps, advances, retreats, shews, then hides her-
self, or flies, and this all from caprice, or without any
other determinate cause than her whimsical vivacity.
All the suppleness of the organs, all the nerves of the
body, are scarcely sufficient for the petulance and ra-
pidity of these motions, which are all natural to her.
That these animals are naturally fond of mankind,
and that in uninhabited places they do not become
wild, the following anecdote is a striking confirmation.
In 1698, an English vessel having put into harbour
at the isle of Bonavista, two negroes presented them-
NATURAL HISTORY. 183
selves on board, and offered the English as many goats
as they choose to take. At the surprise which the
captain shewed at this offer, the negroes observed
there were but twelve persons in the island ; that the
goats multiplied so fast, that they became troublesome ;
and that, far from having any trouble in taking them,
they followed them with a kind of obstinacy, like do-
mestic animals.
Goats go five months with young, and bring forth
at the beginning of the sixth month. They suckle the
young ones for about a month or five weeks ; so that
it may be reckoned about six-and-twenty weeks from
the time of their coupling till the time that the young
kid begins to eat. The goat generally produces one
kid, sometimes two, very rarely three, and never more
than four ; and she brings forth young, from a year
or eighteen months, to seven years. The knobs in the
horns, and their teeth, ascertain their age. The num-
ber of teeth is not alwavs the same in female goats ;
but they have generally fewer than the male goat,
which has also the hair rougher, and the beard
and the horns longer. These animals, like oxen and
sheep, have four stomachs, and chew the cud. This
species is more diffused than that of the sheep ; goats
like ours are found in several parts of the world, only
in Guinea, and other warm countries they are smal-
ler ; but in Muscovy, and other cold climates, they are
larger. The goats of Angora, and of Syria, have ears
hanging clown, and are of the same species with ours,
They mix and produce together, even in our climate,
The males have horns almost as long as the common
goat ; but the circumference and directions are very
different. They are extended horizontally on each
side of the head, and form spirals, somewhat like a
184 NATURAL HISTORY.
worm. The horns of the female are short, and first
turn round backwards, then bend down, and turn
round before, so much, that they end near the eyes ;
and in some their circumference and direction vary.
The male and female goat of Angora, which I have
setn, are such as I have described ; and these goats,
like all the animals of Syria, have the hair so very
long, and thick, and fine, that stuffs have been made
of it, almost as handsome and glossy as our silks. It
is, in fact, what is commonly termed mohair.
THE HOG.
I shall treat of the sow, the hog of Siam, and the
wild boar, at the same time, because they form all
three but one and the same species ; one is wild, and
the other two are domestic.
Aristotle first divided quadrupeds into beasts with
the hoof entire, those with cloven feet, and the species
which have claws. He allows that the hog is of an
ambiguous nature ; but the only reason he gives, is
NATURAL HISTORY. 18$
that in Illyria swine are found which have hoofs, and
in some other parts a species which have claws. This
animal is also a kind of exception to the two general
rules of nature, viz. That the larger animals are, the
fewer young they produce at a birth ; and that of all
animals, those which have claws are the most prolific.
The hog, though in its make greatly above the mid-
dle size, produces more than any such animal, or in-
deed, than any other quadruped.
To the singularities we have already related, we
shall add another, which is, that the fat of the hog is
different from that of almost all other quadrupeds,
not only in its consistence and quality, but also
in its position in the body of the animal. The fat of"
man, and of animals which have no tallow such as
the dog, the horse, &c. is mixed pretty equally with
the flesh. The tallow in the ram, the goat, the stag,
&c. is found only in the extremities of it. The
fat covers the flesh, and forms a thick, distinct, and
continued bed or layer, between the flesh and the skin.
The hog has this in common with the whale, and o-
ther cetaceous animals, the fat of which is only a
kind of lard, nearly of the same consistence with, but
more oily than that of the hog. This lard in ceta-
ceous animals also forms beneath the skin a bed of
many inches in thickness, which envelopes the flesh.
There are only the hog, and two or three other
species of animals, which have defensive or very long
canine teeth. They differ from the other teeth, by
'coming out at the front, and growing during their
whole lives. In the elephant and sea-cow, they are
cylindrical, and some feet long. In the wild-boar
and male hog, they are partly bent in form of a cir-
de ; and I have seen them from nine to ten inches in
Vol. I. Z
186 NATURAL HISTORY.
length. They are not very deep in the socket, and
have also, like those of the elephant, a cavity at the
superior extremity ; but- the elephant and sea-cow
have only these defensive teeth in the superior jaw,
and even want canine teeth in the inferior jaw. The
male hog and the wild boar on the other hand, have
them in both jaws, and those of the inferior are the
most useful to this animal. These are also the most
dangerous ; for it is with these lower tusks the wild
boar wounds.
Of all quadrupeds the hog appears the most rough
and unpolished. His voraciousness seems to be owing
to the incessant avidity he has to fill the vast capaci-
ousness of his stomach. It is the roughness of the
hair, the hardness of the skin, and the thickness of the
fat, which render these animals so insensible to blows.
Mice have been known to lodge in their backs, and
eat their fat and their skin, without their seeming
sensible of it. Their other senses are good ; and
the huntsmen know that wild boars both see, hear
and smell at a great distance. In order therefore to
surprise them, they wait in silence during the night,
and place themselves under the wind, to prevent the
boars perceiving their smell, of which they are sensi-
ble at a great distance, and which makes them change
their road immediately.
This imperfection in the senses of the taste and
touch, is still more increased by a distemper which is
called the measles, and which renders them almost
absolutely insensible. This disorder proceeds in ge*
neral from the coarseness of their food ; for the wild
boar, which usually lives on corn, fruits, acorns, and
roots, is not subject to this distemper, any more than
the young pig whilst it sucks. This is only to he
NATURAL HISTORY. 187
prevented by keeping the domestic hog in a clean
stable, and giving him plenty of wholesome food. By
these means his flesh will become excellent to the
taste, and the lard firm and brittle, if he be kept for
a fortnight or three weeks before he is killed* in a
clean stable without litter, and get no food but dry
corn. For this purpose we should choose a sow of a-
bout a year old, full of flesh and fat.
The Wild Boar is hunted by dogs, or else taken
by surprise in the night by the light of the moon. As
he runs but slowly, leaves a strong odour behind him,
defends himself against the dogs, and wounds them
dangerously, he should not be hunted by dogs design-
ed for the stag and the goat. The oldest only should
be attacked, and these are easily known by their traces.
A young wild boar, of three years old, is difficult to
take, because he runs a great way without stopping.
A wild boar that is older, on the other hand, does not
run far, suffers himself to be closely hunted, and is
not much afraid of the dogs. In the day he usually
hides himself in the thickest and most unfrequented
parts of the wood, and in the evening and at night he
goes out in quest of food. In summer, when the corn
is ripe, it is easy to surprise him, particularly among
oats, where he frequents every night. As soon as he
is killed, the huntsmen immediately cut out the. tes-
ticles, the smell of which is so strong, that if five or
six hours were to elapse without cutting them out,
all the flesh would be infected. In an old wild boar
the head only is good to eat ; but the flesh of the
young wild boar is extremely delicate.
Nobody is ignorant of the profits arising from the
hog. His flesh sells for more than that of the ox, the
the lard for double, the blood, the bowels, the viscera,
188 NATURAL HISTORY.
the fed, and the tongue, when properly prepared, may
all be eaten. The dung of the hog is much colder
than that of other animals, and should not be used for
any but hot and dry lands. The skin hath its use, for
sieves are made of it ; and brooms, brushes, and pen-
ciMbrushes, are made of the hair. The flesh of this
animal takes salt and salt-petrc better than any other,
and will keep longer salted.
This species, though abundant, and greatly spread
in Europe, in Africa, and in Asia, was not, however,
found on the Continent of the new world : they were
transported by the Spaniards, who have carried black
hogs to the Continent, and to almost all the large is-
lands of America. They are multiplied and become
wild in many places ; and resemble our wild boars,
with this difference, however, that the body is shorter,
the head larger, and the skin thicker. Domestic
hogs in warm climates are all black like wild boars.
The Hog of Siam resembles the wild boar more
than the common hog. One of the most evident signs
of degeneration is the ears, which become much more
supple when the animal changes into the domestic
state : in short, those of the domestic hog are not
near so stiff, are much longer, and more pendant, than
those of the wild boar, which should be regarded as the*
model of the species.
NATURAL HISTORY. is$
CHAP. VIII.
OF ANOTHER CLASS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS TH1;
DOG ITS VARIETIES OF THE CAT, &C.
THE SHEPHERD'S DOG.
THE MASTIFF.
100
NATURAL HISTORY.
THE GREYHOUND.
THE POINTER.
.I HE largeness of the make, the elegance of the
form, the strength of the body, the freedom of the mo-
tions, and all the exterior qualities, are not the noblest
properties of an animated being. As in mankind,
understanding is preferred to figure, courage to strength
NATURAL HISTORY. 191
and sentiment to beauty ; so the interior qualities are
those which we esteem most in animals. It is in these
that they differ from the automaton, it is by these
they are raised above the vegetable, and made to ap-
proach nearer to ourselves. It is their sense which
ennobles their being, which regulates, which enlivens
it, which commands the organs, makes the members
active, gives birth to desire, and gives to matter pro-
gressive motion, will, and life.
The dog, independently of his beauty, vivacity,
strength, and swiftness, has all the interior qualities
which can attract the regard of man. The tame dog
comes crawling to lay at his master's feet his courage,
strength, and talents, and waits his orders to use them.
He consults, he interrogates, and he beseeches. The
glance of his eye is sufficient ; he understands the
signs of his will. Without the vices of man, he has
all the ardour of sentiment, and, what is more, he has
fidelity and constancy in his affections. He has no
ambition, no interest, no desire of revenge, no fear but
that of displeasing his master. He is all zeal, all
warmth, and all obedience. More sensible to the re-
membrance of benefits than of wrongs, he soon forgets,
or only remembers them to make his attachment the
stronger. Far from running away, he licks the hand
which is the cause of his pain, he only opposes it by
his cries, and at length entirely disarms it by his pa-
tience and submission.
More docile and flexible than any other animal, the
dog is not only instructed in a short time, hut he even
conforms himself to the motions, manners, and habits
of those who command him. He has all the man-
ners of the house where he inhabits. Like the other
domestics, he is always attentive to his master ; and,
li)2 NATURAL HISTORY.
striving to anticipate the wants of his friends, he gives
no attention to indifferent people. When the care of
the house is intrusted to him during the night, he be-
comes sometimes ferocious. He watches, he walks
his rounds, he scents strangers afar off; and if they
happen to stop, or attempt to break in, he flies to op-
pose them, and by reiterated barkings, efforts, and cries
of passion, he gives the alarm. As furious against
men of prey as against devouring animals, he flies
upen, wounds, and tears them, and takes from them
what they were endeavouring to steal ; but, content
with having conquered, he rests himself on the spoils,
will not touch it even to satisfy his appetite, and at
once gives an example of courage, temperance, and
fidelity.
Thus we may see of what importance this species
is in the order of nature. Without the assistance of
the dog, how could man have been able to tame, and
reduce into slavery, other animals ? How could he
have discovered, hunted, and destroyed, wild and ob-
noxious creatures ? To keep himself in safety, and to
render himself master of the living universe, it was
necessary to begin by making himself friends among
animals, in order to oppose them to others. The first
art, then, of mankind, was the education of dogs, and
the fruit of this art was the conquest and peaceable
possession of the earth.
The dog, faithful to man, Avill always preserve a
portion of empire, and a degree of superiority over o-
ther animals. He commands them, and reigns him-
self at live head of a flock, where he makes himself
better understood than the voice of the shepherd.
Safety, order, and discipline are the fruits of his vigi-
lance and activity. But it is above all in war against
NATURAL HISTORY. 103
ihose animals which are his enemies, or which are in-
dependent, that his courage shines forth, that his un-
derstanding is displayed, and that his natural and ac-
quired talents are united. As soon as the sound of
the horn, or the voice of the huntsman, has given the
signal of an approaching war, transported with fresh
ardour, the dog expresses his joy, and shews by his
motions, and cries of impatience, his desire to combat
and to conquer. Then,, in silence, he investigates the
traces of his enemy, and, by different cries, indicates
the time, the distance, the species, and even the age
of his prey.
In deserts and depopulated countries, there are wild
dogs, which in their manner differ only from wolves
by the facility with which they are tamed. They
unite also in large troops, to hunt and attack by force
wild boars and bulls, and even lions and ticers. In
O
America, the wild dogs spring from a breed anciently
domestic, having been transported from Europe ; and
having been either forgotten or abandoned in these
deserts, are multiplied to such a degree that they go
in troops to inhabited places, where they attack the
cattle, and sometimes even insult the inhabitants.
They are then obliged to drive them away by force,
and to kill them like other ferocious animals ; and in
fact, dogs are such till they become acquainted with
man. When, however, we approach them with gen-
tleness, they soon become familiar, and remain faith-
fully attached to their masters. The wolf, on the
other hand, although taken young, and bred in the
house, is only gentle in his youth, for he never loses
his desire for prey, and sooner or later he gives himself
up to his fondness for rapine and destruction.
Vol I. A a
194 . NATURAL HISTORY.
The dog is the only animal whose fidelity may be
put to the proof. He is the only one which always
knows his master and his friends : the only one which
perceives the approach of a stranger: the only animal,
in short, whose talents are evident, and whose educa-
tion is always good.
Of all animals, the dog has fin understanding mo?t
susceptible of impressions, and is most easily taught
by moral causes. He is also, above all other creatures,
most subject to the variety and other alterations oc-
casioned by physical influences. The temperament,
the faculties, and habits of do<^> vary prodigiously, and
their form is not uniform. In the same country, one
dog is very different from another dog, and the species
is quite different in itself in different climates.
But what is most difficult to ascertain in the nu-
merous variety of different races, is the character of
the primitive and original breed. How are we to
know the effects produced by the influence of the cli-
mate, food, &c. ?
Among domestic animals, the dog is, above all
others, that which is most attached to man. He is
that in which sentiment predominates enough to ren-
der him docile, obedient, and susceptible of all impres-
sions, and even of all constraint. It is not astonish-
ing, therefore, that of all animals tin's should also be
that in which we find the greatest variety, not only
in figure, in height, and in colour, but in every other
quality.
There are also some circumstances which concur to
this change. The dog in general lives but a short
time; it produces frequently, and in pretty large num-
bers ; and as it is perpetually beneath the eyes of mart,
as soon as by a chance usual to nature, there may have
NATURAL HISTORY. 195
Lcen found among pome individuals, singularities, or
apparent varieties, endeavours may have been used in
order to perpetuate them, by uniting together these
singular individuals, as we do at present, when we
wish to procure new breeds of dogs, and other animals.
Dogs which have been abandoned in the deserts of
America, and have lived wild for a hundred and fifty,
or two hundred years, though changed from their ori-
ginal breed when they are sprung of the domestic dogs,
have notwithstanding this long space of time retained,
at least in part, their primitive form, and travellers re-
port that they resemble our greyhound : these wild
dogs, however, are extremely thin and light* and as
the greyhound does not differ much from the cur, or
from the dog which we call the shepherd's dog, it is
natural to think, that these wild dogs are rather of this
species, than real greyhounds. Ancient travellers
inform us, that the dogs of Canada have the ears straight
h'ke foxes, and resemble the middle-sized mastiff, that
is, our shepherd's dog, and that those of the deserts of
the Aratilles isles, had also the head and ears very
long, and are very like foxes.
Besides what we learn from the narratives of travellers,
we find that <logs of cold climates have all long snouts
and straight ears; that those of Lapland are small,
that their ears are straight, and their snouts pointed ;
that those of Siberia, known by the name of wolf dogs,
are larger than those of Lapland ; but that they have
also the ears straight, the hair rough, and the snout
pointed. We learn too that those of Iceland, have-
also some resemblance to those of Siberia ; and that,
even in warm climates, such as -the Cape of Good
Hope, the dogs natural to the countries have sharp
snouts, straight ears, the tail dragging on the ground,
and the hair shining, but long and frizzled.
196 NATURAL HISTORY.
We may presume, then, that the shepherd's dog ap-
proaches nearest to the primitive races of this species ;
for in all countries inhabited by savages, or, at least,
by men half-civilized, the dogs resemble this breed
more than any other. On the whole continent of the
new world, they had no other. In France, where this
species is usually called the shepherd's dog, and in
other temperate climates, it is still more numerous ;
though we are much more occupied in giving birth to,
or in multiplying the breeds which are more pleasing,
than preserving those which are more useful, and
which we have disdained and abandoned to the pea-
sants, who have the care of our flocks.
Dogs are generally produced with their eyes shut:
the two eye-lids are not only closed, but adhere by a
membrane, which breaks away as soon as the muscle
of the upper eye-lid is become strong enough to raise
itself, and to overcome this obstacle ; and the greater
number of dogs have not their eyes open till the tenth
or twelfth day. At this time, the bones of the skull
are not finished, the body is puffed out, the snout is
swelled, and they have not their proper form ; but in
less than a month they learn to make use of all their
senses, and begin to have strength and a swift growth.
In the fourth month, they get some of their teeth,
which all amount to forty-two.
Bitches go with young nine weeks, that is sixty-
three days, but never less than sixty. Length of life
in dogs is like that of other animals, proportioned to the
time required for their growth ; for if they are about
two years in growing, they live about fourteen years.
In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, we
find the history of a bitch, which having been acci-
dentally left behind in a country-house, subsisted forty
days without any other food than the stuff or the
NATURAL HISTORY. 197
wool of a mattress that she had torn. Water seems
to be still more necessary for dogs than food : they
drink often, and a great deal at a time ; and it is even
a vulgar opinion, that if they want water long, they
become mad.
To give a clearer idea of the order of dogs, of their
generation in different climates, and of the mixture of
their breeds, I subjoin a table, or rather a kind of
genealogical tree, in which, with a glance of the eye,
all the different varieties of the species may be seen.
The shepherd's dog is the stock or body of the tree :
this dog, transported into the rigorous climate of the
North, as into Lapland, for example, has become ugly
and small. He seems, however, to have been kept
up, and even brought to perfection, in Iceland, Russia,
and Siberia, where the climate is less rigorous, and
where the people are more civilized. These changes
have been occasioned by the influence of climate alone,
which has produced no great alteration in the form ;
for all these dogs have straight ears, long and thick
hair, and a wild look.
The same shepherd's dogs, transported into tempe-
rate climates, and among people who are quite civi-
lized, such as those of England, France, or Germany,
lose their savage air, their straight ears, their long,
thick, and rough hair, and become mastiff, hound, or
bull-dog, by the influence of climate merely. Of the
mastiff, and the bull-dog, the ears are partly straight,
or only half-hanging ; and in their manners and san-
guinary disposition they resemble the dog from which
they drew their origin. The hound is the most dis-
tant of the three : the long hanging ears, the docility,
gentleness, and, we may say, timidity of this dog, are
so many proofs of the great degeneration, or rather
198 NATURAL HISTORY.
the great perfection, which a long state of subjugation
has produced, joined to a careful, and well-followed
education.
The hound, the setting dog, and the terrier, are on-
ly one and the same race of dogs ; for it has been re-
marked, that tire same birth has produced setting-dogs,
terriers, and hounds, though the hound bitch has only
been covered by one of the three dogs.
The beagle, and almost all sorts of dogs transport-
ed into Spain and Barbary, have hair fine, long, and
thick, and become spaniels and barbets. The great
and little spaniel, which difTer only in size, when trans-
ported into England, change their colour from black
to white, and by the influence of the climate are be-
come large, small, and shabby. To these we may
add the terrier, which is but a black beagle, like the
other, but with liver-coloured marks on the four feet,
the eyes and the snout.
The shepherd's dog, transported to the north, is be-
come a large Dane, and into the south, is become a
greyhound : the large greyhounds come from the
Levant ; those of a middle size from Italy. Grey-
hounds from the latter of these places, when trans-
ported into England, become smaller greyhounds.
The large Danes, transported into Ireland, Ukrain,
Tartary, Epirus, and Albany, are become large Irish
dogs, and in size surpass all the rest of the species.
The bull dog, transported from England into Den-
mark, is become a small Dane ; and this small Dane,
when transported into warm climates, loses its hair
entirely, and becomes the naked Turk dog. All these
races, with their varieties, have been produced solely*
by the influence of climate, joined to the effect of their
food, and of a careful education: theotherdogs are not
of a pure race, and come from a mixture of these races.
NATURAL HISTORY. 199
The greyhound, and the shepherd's dog, have pro-
duced the mongrel greyhound, which is called the
greyhound with wolf's clothing. Of this mongrel
the snout is not so thin as that of the Turkish grey-
hound, which is very rare in France.
The large Dane, and the large Spaniel, have pro-
duced together the dog of Calabria, which is a hand-
some dog with long, thick hair, and which is taller
than the larger mastiff.
The spaniel and terrier produce another kind of dog,
which is called the Burgundy spaniel : the spaniel and the
little Dane produce the lion dog, which is very scarce.
The dogs with long, fine, and curled hair, which
are called dogs ef Purges, and which are of the size
of the largest barbels, come from ihe large spaniel and
the barbel .
The little barbel comes from the small spaniel and
the barbel.
The bull dog produces, with the mastiff, a mongrel,
which is called the strong bull dog, and which is much
larger than the real bull dog, and approaches the bull
dog more than the mastiff.
The pug comes from the English bull dog, and the
little Dane.
All these races are simple mongrels, and come
from the mixture of two pure races ; but there are al-
so other dogs which may be called double mongrels,
because they come from the mixture of a pure race,
and of one already mixed.
The shock dog is a double mongrel, which comes
from the pug and the small Dane.
The dog of Alicant is also a double mongrel, which
comes from the whelp and the little spaniel.
The Maltese, or lap dog, is a double mongrel, anil
comes from the small spaniel and ihe barbel.
200 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE WILD CAT.
THE cat, though an animal of prey, is a useful do-
mestic. It is neither wanting in sagacity nor sentiment;
but its attachments are stronger to places than to per-
.sons. The form of its body corresponds with its dis-
position : the cat is handsome, light, adroit, cleanly?
and voluptuous : it loves ease, and searches out the
softest furniture to lie upon.
Cats go with young fifty-five or fifty-six days :
they are not so prolific as dogs, and their usual num-
ber is four, five, or six. Young cats are gay, lively,
pretty, and would be very proper to amuse children,
if the strokes of their paws were not to be feared :
their disposition, which is averse to all restraint,' ren-
ders them incapable of a regular education. We are
told nevertheless, of the Greek friars of Cyprus, hav-
ing taught cats to hunt, take, catch, and destroy the
serpents with which that island was infested ; their
scent, which in the dog is an eminent quality, is 'far
from being good, and therefore they do not pursue
animals which they no longer see ; but wait and at-
tack them by surprise.
NATURAL HISTORY. 201
The most immediate physical cause of this inclina-
tion, which they have to spy out, and surprise other
animals, is owing to the particular conformation of
their eyes. The pupil, in man, as well as in the greater
part of the lower animals, is capable of a certain de-
gree of contraction and dilatation. It enlarges a lit-
tle when there is no light, and contracts when the
light becomes too strong.
In the eye of a cat, and of nocturnal birds, this
contraction and dilatation are so considerable, that
the pupil, which in obscurity is large and round, be-
comes in broad day, long and narrow like a Kne. For
this reason these animals see better during the night
than during the day, the form of the pupil being al-
ways round when it is not constrained. During the
day, there is a continual' contraction in the eyes of
the cat, and it is only by effort, that he sees in a
strong light ; whereas at twilight, the pupil resuming
its natural form, he sees perfectly, and avails himself
of this advantage in knowing, attacking, and surpris-
ing other animals.
Cats seem to have a natural dread of water, cold,
and bad smells : they are fond of perfumes, and glad-
ly suffer themselves to be taken and caressed by per-
sons who use them : the scent of- Valerian has so
powerful an effect on them, that they appear trans-
ported by it ; and, in order to preserve this plant in
gardens, it is common to surround it with a close
fence. Cats will smell it from afar, will run and rub
themselves with it, and will pass and repass so often
over it, as to destroy it in a short time.
As they are very cleanly, and as their coat is al-
ways dry and shining, their hair easily electrifies ; and
gparks are seen to come from it, when rubbed with
VoL L B b
202 NATURAL HISTORY.
the hand in any dark place : their eyes shine in thf
dark, almost like diamonds, and reflect outwardly,
during the night, the light which they may he said to
have imhihed during the day.
In this climate, we know hut one species of the
wild cat ; and it appears from the testimony of travel-
lers, that this species is found in almost all climates
without any great variety : there were some of them
on the continent of the New World hefore it was dis-
covered. A huntsman carried one which he had
found in the woods to Christopher Columbus : this
cat was of the common size, the hair of a dark grey,
with the tail very long, and very strong : there were
some of the same sort of wild cats in Peru, though
they had no tame ones ; and there are some in Canada,
in the country of the Illinese, &c. They have heen
seen in several parts of Africa, as in Guinea, at the
Gold Coast, at Madagascar, where the original in-
habitants had even domestic cats. At the Cape of
Good Hope, Kolbe says, there are also some wild
cats of a blue colour ; and these blue, or rather slate-
coloured cats, are found again in Asia.
In general it may be remarked, that, of all the cli-
mates of the inhabited earth, those of Spain and Syria
are the most favourable to the beautiful varieties of
nature. The sheep, goats, dogs, cats, rabbits, &c. of
those countries have the finest wool, the most beauti-
ful and the longest hair, the most agreeable and the
most varied colours : the colour of the wild cat, and
its hair, like those of most other wild animals, are ra-
ther coarse. When tamed, the latter becomes more
soft, the former more variegated -, and in the favoura-
ble climate of Chorasan and Syria, the latter becomes
longer, finer, more copious, the former uniformly soft-
NATURAL HISTORY i2t)3
tened ; the black and red changing into a transparent
brown, and the dark brown into an ash grey. By
comparing a wild .cat of our forests witlrone of tho.se
of Chorasan or Syria, we shall find that the only dif-
ference between them consists in this shaded variety
of colours. As these animals have therefore more or
less white upon the belly and the sides, it is easy to
conceive, that, in order to have cats intiroly white,
and with long hair, such as we properly term cats of
Angora, we have only to select from this race those
which are most white on the belly and the sides, and
to unite them together, as is done with rabbits, with
dogs, with goats, with sta^s, with deer, &c. In the
province of Pe-ch:-ly, in China, there are cats with
long hair, and hanging ears, of which the Chinese la-
dies are exceedingly fond ; these domestic cats with
hanging ears of which we do not possess a more ample
description, are, no doubt, more remote than those with
straight ears, from the race of the wild cat, which,
nevertheless, is the original and primitive race of all
cats.
204 NATURAL HISTORY.
CHAP. IX.
OP CERTAIN INTERMEDIATE ANIMALS BETWEEN WILD
AND DOMESTIC. THE STAG, OR RED DEER OF
THE FALLOW-DEER, THE ROEBUCK, &C.
THE STAG.
JL HE Stag is one of those mild, innocent animals,
which seem as if they were created solely to adorn and
animate the solitude of the forests, and to occupy, re-
mote from man, the peaceful retreats of Nature. His
light and elegant form ; his flexible, yet nervous limb ;
his head rather adorned, then armed, with a living sub-
stance, which, like the branch of a tree, is every year
renewed ; his grandeur, his swiftness, his strength,
NATURAL HISTORY. 205
sufficiently distinguish him from the rest of the inha-
bitants of the forest.
The old stags shed their horns first, which happens
about the end of February, or the beginnmg of March.
Stags in their seventh year do not undergo this change
till the middle or the end of March ; nor do those in
the sixth year, till the month of April.
After they have shed their horns, they separate from
each other ; the very young ones only associating to-
gether. They remain no longer in covert ; they seek
the beautiful parts of the country, the groves, and the
open coppices, where they remain all summer, till they
recover the antlers which used to adorn their brows.
During this season, they carry their heads low, for
fear of striking them against the branches ; for they
are exceedingly tender till they arrive at perfection.
The horns of the oldest stags are scarcely half repaired
by the month of May ; nor do they attain their full
length and hardness till about the end of July. The
horns of the young stag are very late shed, and very
late recovered ; but when they are completely length-
ened, and are become quite hard, they rub them a-
gainst the trees, in order to brush off the scurf with
which they are covered.
The hinds, or females, carry theiryoung eight months
and a few days : they are not all prolific ; and there
is one sort in particular which is always barren : the
fawn retains this appellation no longer than till it is
six months old ; then the knobs begin to appear, and
it takes the name of a knobber, which it bears till these
knobs are lengthened to so many points, whence they
are termed prickets, or brockets. It does not quit its
dam early, though it grows fast, but follows her all
the summer. In winter, the hinds, the knobbcrs, the
20(5 NATURAL HISTORY.
prickets, ami the young stags, resort to the herd, and
form troops, which are numerous in proportion as the
season is more severe. In spring they divide, the hinds
retiring to bring forth their young ; and at this time
there is scarcely any but the prickets and the young
stags which associate. In general, the stags are inclin-
ed to remain with each other, and to roam abroad in
companies ; and it is only from fear or necessity that
they are ever found separated.
The growth of the horns appears to depend on the
redundancy of the fluids, and has a near connection with
the production of the seminal fluid; for when castra-
ted, the horns of the stag cease to grow.
The beauty of this, as indeed of every part, depends
much upon their food; fora stag which lives in a
plentiful country, where he feeds at his ease, where
he is neither disturbed by men nor dogs, where he may
lie down and ruminate in quiet, has always a beauti-
ful head, high, open, palmated, large, and well adorn-
ed at top, broad and curled at bottom, with a great
number of long and strong antlers. In a country, on
the other hand, where he has neither sufficient food
nor repose, his head will be in these respects the reverse.
Hence it is not difficult to distinguish by the horns
of a stag, whether or not he inhabits a fertile or bar-
ren country.
The branches which sprout from the head of the
,tag, in their make and growth, resemble those of a
tree : their substance also is, perhaps, more of the na-
ture of wood than of bone. It is, as it were, a vege-
table grafted upon an animal, which partakes of the
nature of both, and forms one of those shades, by
which Nature always approximates two extremes.
NATURAL HISTORY. 207
The stag passes his whole life in the alternatives of
plenitude and want, of corpulence and leanness, of
health and sickness, without having his constitution
much affected by the violence of the change. Nor is
he shorter lived than other animals, which are not sub-
ject to such vicissitudes. As he is five or six years in
growing, so he generally lives, thirty-five or forty
years. What has been reported, therefore, concerning
the prodigious longevity of the stag, is without any
good foundation, though supported by the story of
one which was taken by Charles VI. in the forest of
Senlis, with a collar round its neck, whereon was in-
scribed, " Csesar hoc me donavit." People choose ra-
ther to believe that this animal had lived a thousand
years, and had received this collar from a Roman Em-
peror, than to conclude that he might come from Ger-
many, where the Emperors have always assumed the
title of Ctesar.
The horns of the stag continue to increase in bulk
and height from the second year to the eighth : they
remain beautiful, and much the same, during their
rigour of life ; but as their body declines with age, so
do their horns.
It is but seldom that our stags have more than
twenty or twenty-two antlers, even when their head
is in its most beautiful state. And, as the size of the
stag's head depends on the quantity of his food, so the
quality of his horns depends on the quality of it. In
fertile countries the quality of the horn is, like the
wood of the forest, large, soft, and light ; and on
the contrary, short, hard, and heavy, in such as are
barren.
The most common colour of the stag is yellow,
though there are many found of a brown, and many
208 NATURAL HISTORY.
of a red colour. White stags are much more uncom-
mon and seem to become domestic : the colour of the
horns, like that of the hair, depends on the nature and
age of the animal, and in general on the impression of
the air : the horns of the young stag are whiter than
those of the old ones. Of those stags also whose hair
is of a light yellow, the horns are often of a sallow
hue, and offensive to the eye.
This animal seems to have good eyes, an exquisite
smell, and an excellent ear. When he would hearken
to any thing, he raises his head, pricks up his ears,
and then he hears from a great distance. When he
issues from a little coppice, or some other spot half
covered, he stops in order to take a full view around
him, and then snuffs up the wind, in order to try whe-
ther he can discover the scent of any thing that maj
disturb him. Though naturally simple, he is far
from being destitute of curiosity and cunning. If one
whistles, or calls aloud to him from a great distance,
he instantly stops short, and gazes with fixed atten-
tion ; but if one has neither arms nor dogs, he passes
along without altering his pace. With equal tran-
quility and pleasure he seems also to listen to the
shepherd's pipe, or flageolet ; and the huntsmen, in
order to embolden them, sometimes use these instru-
ments. In general, he is much less afraid of men
than of dogs, and entertains neither distrust nor arti-
fice, but in proportion as he is disturbed. He eats
slowly, chooses his food, and seeks afterwards to re-
pose himself, that he may ruminate at leisure, though
not with the same ease as the ox ; nor is it without
undergoing much violence, that the stag can throw up
the food contained in his first stomach. He seldom
tuiflkg in the winter, and seldomer still in the spring.
NATURAL HISTORY. 209
THE FALLOW-DEER.
No two animals can be more nearly allied than tlv
stag and the fallow-deer ; and yet no two animals
more eagerly shun each other : they are never seen to
herd in the same place : it is even rare, unless they
have been transported thither, to find fallow-deer in a
country where stags are numerous ; they seem to be
less robust and less savage than the stag : they are
found but rarely wild in the forests, and are bred up
in parks, where they may be considered half domestic.
Of all the countries of Europe, England abounds
most in stags : and in this country their flesh is high-
ly valued. It seems to be an animal formed for a
temperate climate; for it is, never found in Russia,
and very rarely in the forests of Sweden, or in any o-
ther northern country. And as the fallow-deer is an
animal less savage, more delicate, and it may be ad-
ded, more domestic than the stag, it is likewise sub-
ject to a greater number of varieties. Besides the
common deer, and the whits deer, there are several o-
ther kinds. The deer of Spain, for example, which
are almost as large as the stags, but whose neck is
Vol. I. C c
210 NATURAL HISTORY.
more slender, whose colour is more obscure, and wliosc
tail is rather black than white underneath, and longer
than that of the common deer; and the deer of Virginia
which are almost as large as those of Spain. Other
deer, whose forehead is compressed and flattened be-
tween the eyes, whose ears and tail are longer than
those of the common deer, and whose hind legs have
the hoofs marked with a white spot; and others, which
are spotted or streaked with white, black, and yellow;
and others still which are entirely black.
The horns of the buck, like those of the stag, are shed
every year, and take nearly the same time for repairing.
It frequently happens, that a herd of fallow-deer is
seen to divide into parties, and to engage each other
with great ardour. They both seem desirous to gain
some favourite spot of the park for pasture, and to
drive the vanquished party into the coarser and more
disagreeable parts. Each of the^e factions has its par-
ticular chief, namely the oldest and the strongest of
each herd ; these lead on to the engagement ; and the
rest follow under their direction : their combats are
singular enough, from the disposition and conduct by
which their mutual efforts seem to be regulated : they
attack with ardour, and support the assault with cou-
rage : they come to the assistance of each other ; they
retire, they rally and never yield the victory upon a
single defeat. The combat is renewed every day, till
at length the more feeble side is obliged to yield, and
escape to the most disagreeable part of the park.
From the age of two, till that of fifte.cn or sixteen,
the fallow-deer is in a condition to produce. In short
as it resembles the stag in all its natural habits, the
greatest difference we find between these two animals
is in the duration of their lives. From the testimony
NATURAL HISTORY. 21.1
They likewise receive him while they are pregnant,
and, bv a particular formation of their genitals, are
often found to have a super-foctation.
The young ones are brought forth with their eyes
open : the dam suckles them for the space of twenty
days* after which they leave her, and provide for
themselves, they do not part far from each other ; yet
they live in solitude, and each composes for itself a
form, at a little distance. Thus when, we find a young
leveret in one place, we are almost sure of finding one
or two more in the neighbourhood : they feed more by
night than by day ; and their favourite articles of
food are herbs, roots, leaves, fruit, and grain ; but
particularly such plants as yield a milky juice : they
even eat the bark of trees in winter. When they are
reared at home, they are fed with lettuce and roots ;
but the flesh of these domestic hares has always a bad
flavour.
Hares sleep much, but always with their eyes open:
they have no eye-lashes, and seem to have but bad
eyes : their hearing, however, is exceedingly acute,
and their ears are very large compared with the size
of their body. They move these long ears with great
ease, and use them as a helm, in order to direct their
course, which is so rapid, that they outstrip almost
every other animal. As their fore legs are much shorter
than their hind ones, they can more easily ascend than
descend ; for which reason, when they are pursued,
their first object is to gain, if possible, some mountain :
their motion in running is a kind of gallop : they pro-
ceed without making any noise, because their feet are
plentifully covered with hair; and they perhaps are
the only animals which have hair growing within their
mouths.
216 NATURAL HISTORY.
N
The hare does not live above seven or eight years :
they pass their lives in solitude, and in silence ; and
they are never known to exert their voice, but when
4 . they are forcibly laid hold of, tormented, or wounded:
they are by no means so wild as by their habits might
be supposed : they are gentle, and susceptible of a spe-
cies of improvement. As they have a good ear, as
they rest on their hind feet of their own accord, and
use their fore legs like arms, some have been taught to
beat a drum, to gesticulate in cadence, &c.
In general, the hare is not. destitute of the instinct
necessary for its preservation, nor of sagacity sufficient
to effect an escape from its enemies. It prepares for
itself a form; and in winter it chooses a spot which is
exposed to the south, as in summer it does one which
is situated to the north. It hides itself from view a-
mong hillocks of earth which are of the same colour
as its hair. " I have seen," says Du Foilloux, " a
hare so cunning, that as soon as it heard the hunts-
man's horn, it started from its form, and, though at
the distance of a quarter of a league from it, leaped
to a pond, where it hid itself among the rushes, and
thus escaped the pursuit of the dogs. I have seen a
hare, which, after having run above two hours before
the dogs, has dislodged another hare, and taken pos-
session of its form. I have seen others swim over
three ponds, of which the smallest was not less than
eighty paces broad. I have seen others, which, after
iiaving been warmly chased for two hours, have entered
a sheep-cot, through the little opening under the door,
and remained among the cattle. I have seen others,
when pursued, join a Hock of sheep in the field, and
remain with them. I have seen others, which, whe;i
they heard the dogsj have concealed themselves in thy
NATURAL HISTORY. 217
earth. I have seen others, which have gone along
one side of a hedge and returned by the other; 30 that
there was only the thickness of the hedge between the
dogs and them. I have seen others, which, after they
had been chased for half an hour, have mounted an
old wall of six feet height, and taken refuge in a hole
covered with ivy."
The nature of the soil has a great influence on these
as well as on every other animal. The hares of the
mountains are larger and fatter than those of the plains,
and they are also of a different colour ; the former
being browner on the body, and whiter about the neck,
than the latter, which are more inclined to red. On
high mountains, and in the northern countries, they
become white in the winter, and in summer regain
tiieir ordinary colour.
THE RABBIT.
THOUGH the hare and the rabbit are externally, as
well as internally, very much alike, yet they fbrm two
distinct and separate species.
The fecundity of the rabbit is even greater than
that of the hare. Without crediting, however, what
Wotten has advanced, that one pair being left in art
island, produced six thousand in one year, it is certain
that these creatures multiply so prodigiously in coun-
tries which are proper for the breed, that the earth
cannot furnish them with subsistence. They destroy
herbs, roots, grain, fruit, and even trees and shrubs ;
and, were it not for the dog and the ferret, they would
reduce the country to a desert. The rabbit not only
engenders and produces oftener than the- hare, but it
Vol. I. D d
218 NATURAL HISTORY.
has more ways to escape from its enemies, and to coi:
ceal itself from man.
This circumstance alone may suffice to prove, that
the rabbit is superior to the hare in point of sagacity.
Both are alike in their conformation, arid both have
it ia their power to dig retreats for themselves. Botli
are timid to an excess ; but the one, possessed of less
art, is contented with forming for itself a residence on
the surface of the earth, where it remains continually
exposed. While the other, by a more improved
instinct, takes the trouble to dig into the earth for an
asylum ; and so true is it, but as in this case they act
from sentiment, we never see the domestic rabbit em-
ployed in the same work.
The domestic rabbits, h'ke all other domestic ani-
mals, vary in their colour : white, black, and grey be-
long properly to Nature. The black rabbits are the
most scarce.
These animals are able to engender and produce
at the age of five or six months. It is asserted, that
they commonly attach themselves to one particular
female, and never quit her. She goes with young
thirty or thirty-one days, and will produce five, six,
and sometimes seven or eight at a birth. Like the
doe-hare, she has a double matrix, and of consequence
can have in her womb, at the same time, two sepa-
rate litters. It appears, however, that super-foetations
are less frequent in this species than in that of the hare.
A few days before they bring forth, the/ dig them-
selves a fresh burrow, not in a right line, but in a
crooked direction, at the bottom of which they make
an excavation. After this they tear a quantity of hair
from their bellies, and make a kind of bed for the use
of their young. For the first two days they ni'ver-
NATURAL HISTORY. 219
quit them : they never stir abroad, unless forced by
necessity, and they return immediately. At this sea-
son they e<it much and very quickly ; and thus they
tend and suckle their young above six weeks. Till
after this period, the buck does not make his advances
to the doe. Often, even when she quits the burrow
and leaves her young behind, she stops up the entry
to it with earth, diluted M-ith her urine; but when
they begin to venture to the edge of the hole, and to
eat groundsel and other herbs which the doe picks out
for them, the buck begins to take them between his
paws, to endeavour to give a gloss to their hair, to
lick their eyes ; and all of them, in their turn, partake
equally of his care.
A gentleman in my neighbourhood, who had amus-
ed himself with raising rabbits for many years, has
"favoured me with the following remarks:
" I began," said he, " with only one male and one
female, the former white, the latter grey ; and of their
produce, which was very numerous, the greatest part
were grey, a good number of them white, and of a
mixed colour, and some few black. These animals
seem to have a great respect for paternal authority ; at
least I judged so, from the great deference which all my
rabbits she wed for their first ancestor, whom I can al-
ways easily distinguish by his whiteness, and who is in-
deed the only male of that colour which I have pre-
served. It was to no purpose the family increased.
Those which in their turn became fathers, were still
subordinate to him. Whenever they fought, whether
on account of their females, or concerning their food,
their great progenitor would run to the place of dis-
pute with all speed, as soon as he heard the noise.
No sooner did they perceive him, than every thing
220 NATURAL HISTORY,
was presently reduced to order ; and if he surprised
nny one of them actually assaulting another, he used
to separate him from the rest, and punish him upon
the spot. Another proof of his dominion over all his
posterity is, that they were accustomed to return at a
whistle. Whenever I gave the signal, how distant
soever they might be, this old one immediately put
himself at their head ; and though he came first, yet
he made them all file off, and enter before him.
CHAP. XL
OF CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS THE WOLF THE FOX
THE BADGER THE OTTER THE MARTIN THE
I'lXE-WEASEL THE POLE-CAT THE FER-
RETTHE WEASEL THE ERMINE.
ANIMALS which have but one stomach, and whose
intestines are short, are forced, like man, to feed on
flesh. Of this affinity, and of this truth, we shall
procure certain information by a relative comparison
of the size of the intestinal canal in carnivorous ani-
mals, and in those that live solely on herbage. We
shall then find, that the difference in the manner of
living depends solely on the difference in their con-
formation, and that their nourishment is more or less
solid, as the receptacle for it is more or less capacious.
Hence, however, we must not conclude that those ani-
mals which live solely on herbage are, from physical ne-
cessity, as carnivorous animals are with respect to flesh
absolutely confined to one kind of food. It is not
meant that they might not use animal food, or that if
Nature had furnished them with arms, not only for
the purposes of self-defence, hut for those of attack
NATURAL HISTORY. 221
and rapine, they would not have exerted them ; since
we find that sheep, calves, goats, horses, greedily eat
milk and eggs, which are animal food, and that, un-
aided hy custom, they do not refuse meat which has
been hashed and seasoned with salt.
We need not therefore scruple to conclude, that the
generally predominant appetite of animals is for flesh
and other solid food, and that this appetite is more or
less vehement, more or less moderate, according to the
particular conformation of each animal. For on taking
a full view of Nature, we find it not only in man, but
in quadruped animals, in fishes, and even in insects,
and in worms.
THE WOLF.
THE wolf is one of those animals whose appetite
for animal food is the most vehement, and whose mean.*
of satisfying this appetite are the most various. Na-
ture has furnished him with strength, with cunning,
with agility, with all those requisites, in a word,
222 NATURAL HISTORY.
'which fit an animal for pursuing, overtaking, and con-
quering its prey. Notwithstanding all these, he most
frequently dies of hunger ; for he is the declared ene-
my of man. Being long proscribed, and a reward of-
fered for his head, he is obliged to fly from the habita-
tions of men, and to live in the forest. When pressed
with hunger, however, he braves danger, and comes to
attack those animals which are under the protection
of man, particularly such as lambs, sheep, or even
dogs themselves. If this excursion has succeeded, he
often returns to the charge, till having been wounded,
or closely pursued by the dogs or the shepherds he
hides himself by day in the thickest coverts, and for a
while, only ventures out at night. At last, however
when his necessities are very urgent, he boldlv faces
certain destruction. He attacks women and children;
sometimes ventures even to fall upon men, and becomes
furious by his continual agitations.
The wolf, as well externally as internally, so nearly
resembles the dog, that he seems modelled upon the
same plan ; and yet he only presents us with the re-
verse of the image. If his form be similar, his nature
is, however, different ; and indeed they are so dissi-
milar in their dispositions, that no two animals can
have a more perfect antipathy to each other. A young
dog shudders at the sight of a wolf; a dog who is
stronger, and who knows his strength, bristles up at
the sight, testifies his animosity, attacks him with
courage, endeavours to put him to flight, and exerts
his utmost efforts to rid himself of so hateful a crea-
ture. They never meet without flying from, or fight-
ing with each other. If the wolf is stronger, he tears
and devours his prey. The dog on the contrary, is
generous, and contents himself with his victory.
NATURAL HISTORY.
The dog, even in his savage state, is not cruel ; he-
is easily tamed, and continues firmly attached to his
master. The wolf, when taken young, becomes tame
but never affectionate. Nature is stronger in him
than education ; he resumes, with age, his natural
dispositions, and embraces the first opportunity to re-
turn to his native woods. Dogs, even of the dullest
kinds seek the company of other animals, and they are
naturally disposed to follow and accompany them.
The wolf on the contrary, is the enemy of all society,
nor does he keep much company even with those of
his kind. When they are seen in packs together, it
is not to be considered as a peaceful society, but a
combination for war. They testify their hostile in-
tentions by their loud bowlings, and by their fierce-
nes discover a project for attacking some great ani-
mal, such as a stag or a bull, or for destroying some
formidable dog. The instant their military expedition
is completed, their society is at an end. They then
part, and each returns in silence to his solitary retreat.
There is not even any strong attachment between the
male and female ; they seek each other only once a
year, and remain but a few days together.
The difference in the duration of the pregnancy, of
the she-wolf, who goes with young above an hundred
days, and the bitch, who does not go above sixty,
proves that the wolf and the dog, so different in dis-
position, are still more so in one of the principal func-
tions of the animal economy.
The wolf generally brings forth five or six, and
sometimes even nine at a litter. The cubs are brought
forth, like those of the bitch, with the eyes closed.
The dam suckles them for some weeks, and teaches
them occasionally to eat flesh, which she prepares for
NATURAL HISTORY.
them, by chewing it first herself. They do not leave
the den where they have been littered, till they are six
weeks or two months old. It is not, however, till
they are about ten or twelve months old, and till they
have shed their first teeth and completed the new, that
the dam thinks them in a capacity to shift for them-
selves. Whenever they have acquired arms from na-
ture, and have learned industry and courage from her
example, she declines all future care of them, and is
again engaged in rearing a new progeny. These ani-
mals require two or three years for their growth, and
live to the age of fifteen or twenty.
The wolf grows grey as he grows old, and his teeth
wear, like those of most other animals. He sleeps
when his belly is full, or when he is fatigued, rather
by day than night, and is always very easily awaked.
He drinks frequently ; and in times of drought, when
there is no water to be found in the trunks of old trees,
or in the pools about the forest, he often visits the
brooks or lakes in the plain. Although very voracious,
he supports hunger for a long time, and often lives
four or five days without food, provided he is supplied
with water.
The wolf has great strength, particularly in his fore
parts, in the muscles of his neck and jaws. He car-
ries off a sheep in his mouth without letting it touch
the ground, and runs with it much swifter than the
shepherds who pursue him. Hence nothing but the
dogs can overtake, or oblige him to quit his prey. He
bites cruelly, and always with greater vehemence in
proportion as he is less resisted ; for he uses precau-
tions with such animals as attempt to stand upon the
defensive. He is cowardly, and never fights but when
under a necessity of satisfying his hunger, or of mak-
NATURAL HISTORY.
ing good his retreat. When he is wounded by a
bullet, he is heard to howl; arid yet, when surrounded
liy the peasants, and attacked with clubs, he never
howls, but defends himself, in silence, to the last.
If he happens to be caught in a pit-fall, he is for
some time so astonished, that he may be killed with-
out offering to resist, or taken alive without much
danger. At that instant, one may clap a collar round
his neck, muzzle him, and drag him along, without
his ever betraying the least symptom of anger or re-
sentment. At all other times he has senses in great
perfection. He smells a carcase at the distance of
more than a league. He also perceives living animals
a great way off, and follows them a long time upon
the scent. Whenever he leaves the wood, he always
takes care to go out against the wind. No sooner
does he arrive at its extremity, than he stops to exa-
mine, by his smell, on all sides, the emanations that
may come either from his enemy or his prey, which
he very nicely distinguishes. He prefers those animals
which he kills himself to those he finds dead ; and yet
he does not disdain these, though ever so much in-
fected, when no better is to be had. He is particularly
fond of human flesh ; and, perhaps, if he had it in his
power, he would eat no other. Wolves have been
seen following armies, and arriving in numbers upon
the field of battle, where they devoured such dead bo-
dies as were left upon the field, or but carelessly buried.
These, when once accustomed to human flesh, seek
particularly to attack mankind, prefer the shepherd to
his flock, and devour women, and carry off' children.
These dreadful wolves are called ware-wolves, that is,,
wolves of which we ought to be aware.
Vol. I. E e
225 NATURAL HISTORY.
The colour of this animal differs according to the
different climates in which it is bred, and often changes
even in the same country. Beside the common wolves
which are found in France and Germany, there are
others with thicker hair, inclining to yellow. In the
northern climates, some are found quite black, and
some entirely white. The former are larger and
stronger than those of any other kind.
THE FOX.
t
THIS animal has always been famous for his arti-
fices ; and the reputation he has thus acquired, he
partly merits. What the wolf cannot accomplish but
by his superior strength, the fox accomplishes by his
superior cunning. Without attempting to oppose ei-
ther the shepherd, his dog, or his flock, he finds an
easier way to subsist. Patient and prudent, he waits
the opportunity for depredation, and varies his conduct
as he perceives that circumstances vary. Though as
indefatigable and more nimble than the wolf, he does
uot trust entirely to the swiftness of his course, but
NATURAL HISTORY. 227
contrives for himself an asylum, to which he retires in
cases of necessity, and in which, sheltered from dan-
ger, he brings up his young.
The fox generally fixes his residence at the edge of
a wood, and yet not far removed from some cottage,
or some hamlet. He listens to the crowing of the
cock, and the cackling of other domestic fowls. Even
at a considerable distance he scents them, and seizes
his opportunity. If he be able to get into the yard,
he begins by levelling all the poultry without remorse.
After this, he carries off' a part of the spoil, hides it at
some convenient distance, and again returns to the
charge. Taking off another fowl in the same manner
he hides that also, though not in the same place ; and
in this manner perseveres, till, warned by the approach
of day, or the noise of the family, he finally retires.
He practises the same arts when he finds birds en-
tangled in springs laid for them by the fowler, whom
the fox anticipating, very expertly snatches the birds
out of the snare, conceals them in different places,
leaves them there sometimes for two or three days,
and is never at a loss to recover his hidden treasure.
He is equally alert in seizing the young hares and rab-
bits, before they have strength to escape him ; and
when the old ones are wounded and fatigued, he is
sure to seize them in the moments of distress. In the
same manner he finds out the nests of the partridge
and the quail, and seizes the dam while sitting.
The fox is so voracious, that when he has no better
food, he devours rats, mice, lizards, toads, and ser-
pents. Insects and shell-fish sometimes serve him for
food. In vain does the hedge-hog roll itself up into a
ball to oppose him. The wasp and the wild bee are
attacked by him with equal success. Though at first
228 NATURAL HISTORY.
they fly out upon their invader, and actually oblige
him to retire, yet this repulse is but for a few minutes
till he has rolled himself upon the ground, and thus
crushed such as may have stuck to his skin. He then
returns to the charge, and at length, by dint of per-
severance, obliges them to abandon their combs which
he greedily devours.
The young foxes are produced blind, like dogs.
Like them too, they are eighteen months or two years
in reaching their full growth, and live about thirteen
or fourteen years. The senses of the fox are as good
as those of the wolf; his sentiment is more acute, and
the organ of his voice is more supple, and more per-
fect. The wolf is never heard but by dreadful howls,
while the fox only yelps, barks, and sends forth a
moanful sound, resembling the cry of the peacock.
His tones, too, are different, according to the different
sentiments with which he is affected. He has one
sound expressive of desire, a second of murmur, a
third of sorrow, and a fourth of pain. The latter is
never heard from him, unless in the instant that he is
wounded by a shot, and has lost the use of some mem-
ber ; for, like the wolf, when attacked with cudgels
alone, he never murmurs, but will defend himself with
obstinacy, and fight in silence to the last. He bites
dangerously, and with such determined fury, that in
order to make him relinquish his hold, ponderous wood
and even iron bars are necessary.
The flesh of the fox is not so bad as the flesh of the
wolf. Dogs, and even men eat it in autumn, espe-
cially if the animal has fed on grapes; and in winter
good furs are made of his skin. He sleeps so sound,
that however closely approached, there is no great
danger of awaking him. When he only means to rest
NATURAL HISTORY.
himself, ho stretches out his hind legs, and remains
Hat upon his bellv. In this posture he watches for the
birds as they perch on the hedges; who no sooner per-
ceive him than they give each other warning of their
danger. The jackdaw and the magpie, in particular, of-
ten follow him to the distance of some hundred paces,
still towering beyond his reach, and with their cries
and notes of hostility, apprize other animals to beware.
Of all wild animals, the fox is most subjected to
the influence of climate ; and there are found nearly
as many varieties in this species as in that of any do-
mestic animal. The generality of the French foxes are
red ; of some, however, the hair is of a greyish cast j
and of all, the tip of the tail is white. In the northern
countries we find foxes of all colours.
THE BADGER.
THE Badger is a lazy, distrustful, solitary animal,
that retires far from the approach of man, and digs a
subterranean residence, where it spends at least three
230 NATURAL HISTORY.
fourths of its existence, and never ventures forth but
in search of food. It burrows in the ground with
particular ease, as its body is rather of an oblong
form, and its claws, those especially of the fore feet,
are long and compact. The hole which it thus forms
to itself, is often at a very great distance from the sur-
face of the earth, and the passage to it is always ob-
lique and winding.
The fox, who is less expert at such excavations, of-
ten appropriates to his own convenience the labours of
the badger. Unable to compel him from his retreat
by force, he often expels him by stratagem, often re-
mains a fixed centinel at the mouth of the passage,
and, as an infallible expedient, it is said, emits his or-
dure. When the badger has left it, he immediately
takes possession of it, enlarges it, and accommodates
it to his own purpose. Though forced to remove to
another habitation, this animal does not remove to ano-
ther country. At a little distance from its old bur-
row, it forms a new one, from which it never stirs
but at night. The dogs easily overtake it, when it
is at any distance from its hole ; and then, exerting
all its strength, all its powers of resistance, it throws
itself upon its back, and defends itself with desperate
resolution.
Several badgers have been brought to me, and some
of them I kept a long time ; the young ones arc easily
tamed ; they will play with young dogs, and, like
them, will follow any person whom they know, and
and from whom they receive their food ; but the old
ones, in spite of every effort, still remain wild. They
are neither mischievous nor voracious, as the fox and
wolf are, yet they are carnivorous ; and though raw
meat is their favourite food, yet they will eat any
NATURAL HISTORY. 231
thing that conies in their way : they sleep the great-
est part of their time, without, however, being subject,
like the mountain-rat, or the dormouse, to a torpor
during the winter. Hence though they feed mode-
rately, they are always fat.
They keep their hole exceedingly clean, nor are
they ever known to void their ordure in it : the male
is rarely to be found with the female.
In summer she brings forth, and her usual number
is three or four at a birth ; these she feeds at first
with her milk, and afterwards with such petty prey as
she can surprise. She seizes young rabbits in the
warren, robs birds of their young, finds out where the
wild bees have laid up their honey, where field-mice,
lizards, serpents, and grass-hoppers, are to be met with,
and carries all to her expecting brood, which she fre-
quently brings forward to the mouth of her hole.
These animals are naturally of a chilly tempera-
ment : such as are reared in a house seem never more
happy than when near a fire : they are likewise very
subject to the mange ; and, unless carefully washed,
the dogs that penetrate into their burrows are infected
with the same distemper.
The hair of the badger is always filthy ; between
the anus and the tail there is an opening, which,
though it has no communication with any interior part,
and is hardly an inch deep, continually emits an oily
liquid : this the animal is fond of sucking. Its flesh
is not absolutely nauseous ; and of its skin are made
coarse furs, collars for dogs, trappings for horses, &c.
NATURAL HISTORY.
THE OTTER.
THE otter is a voracious animal, which, more fond
of fish than of flesh, is seldom found but at the sides
of lakes and rivers. It swims with more facility than
even the beaver. All the feet of the otter have mem-
branes ; and it can hardly walk faster than it swims.
Accurately considered, the otter cannot be pro-
nounced an amphibious animal. We even find them
drowned when they happen to be entangled in a net ;
and this evidently for want of having had time to de-
stroy it, and thereby effect their escape. For want of
fish, frogs, water-rats, or other nourishment, it will
eat the young branches, and the bark of aquatic trees;
and in spring it will eat new grass. Of cold it is as
little afraid as of moisture. It brings forth in the
month of March : three or four is the number gene-
rally produced at a birth.
The otter becomes industrious with age, and wages
a successful war against the tribes of fishes, which,
with respect to instinct and sentiment, are greatly in-
NATURAL HISTORY. 233
JTerior to other animals. It does not dig its own ha-
'bitation, but fixes its residence in the first hole that
offers, under the root of the willow or poplar-tree, in
the clefts of rocks, and even among piles of floating
wood ; and there the female brings forth her young :
it, however, frequently changes its residence ; and
disperses its young ones at the end of six weeks, or
two months.
THE MARTIN.
THE generality of naturalists have considered the
martin and the pine-weasel as animals of the same
species : they are, however, different both in disposi-
tion and temperament : the pine-weasel shuns open
countries, confines itself to the bosom of the forest,
fixes its residence upon some tree, and is never found
in great numbers but in cold climates : the martin, on
the other hand, not only approaches human habitations
but even forms a residence for itself in old buildings, in
hay-lofts, or in holes of walls : and while the species
is generally diffused in great numbers over the temper-
Vol. I. F f
234 NATURAL HISTORY.
ate climates, it is not to be met with even in the re-
gions of the North.
The countenance of the martin is very sharp ; its
eye is lively, its limbs are supple, its body is flexible,
and all its movements are quick. It rather leaps and
bounds than walks ; and with great facility climbs
walls, enters pigeon-houses, and hen-houses, devours
the eggs, the pigeons, and the hens, as on other occa-
sions it does mice, rats, moles, and birds in their nests.
This animal is said to bring forth as often as the
cat : the growth of the young ones is very quick; and
hence it may be inferred, that it is an animal whose
life does not exceed eight or ten years. Its smell,
which is not absolutely disagreeable, is like that of
counterfeit musk. Both the martin and the pine-
weasel, as well as a number of other animals, have
interior vesicles which contain a strong-scented sub-
stance like that of civet.
THE PINE-WEASEL.
THE pine-weasel is originally a native of the north
tad is in a manner peculiar to that climate, where
they are so numerous, that the quantity of furs pro-
duced from them, and carried into foreign countries,
is astonishing. In temperate climates, on the contrary
it is rarely, and in warm climates never to be found :
ihare are some in Burgundy, and some in the forest of
Fontainbleau ; but in general they are as scarce in
France as tbe martin is common : there are none in
England, because in that country there are no very
woods.
NATURAL HISTORY. 235
Alike averse to open countries, and to countries
which, are inhabited, it remains in the bosom of some
forest, ranges through the labyrinths of the thicket, or
towers aloft upon the branches of the trees. It sub-
sists by the chase, and destroys a prodigious quantity
of birds. Of the squirrel, the dor-mouse, &c. it also
makes a prey ; and it is known to eat honey as well
as the martin.
Its neck is yellow, whereas that of the martin is
white ; and its hair, at the same time, is much finer,
thicker, and less subject to shed.
When the female is near her time, her custom is to
climb to the nest of some squirrel, to drive her from
it, to Enlarge it for her own purpose, and to bring
forth her young in it. In the same manner, she oc-
cupies the old nests of the owl and the buzzard as als
the hollow places of trees, from which she presently
dislodges the wood-pecker, and other birds.
THE POLE-CAT.
THE pole-cat is somewhat smaller than the mar-
tin : its tail is shorter, its snout sharper, and its hair
thicker and blacker : it has some white on its fore-
head, and about the nose and mouth : it differs like-
wise in its voice ; the cry of the martin being rather
sharp and loud, that of the pole-cat deeper and more
hollow : the pole-cat, however, does not at all resem-
ble the martin in smell, which in the former is per-
fectly fetid. When heated or enraged especially, it
emits a stench that is absolutely intolerable. The
dogs will not eat its flesh ; and even its skin, though
good in itself, sells at a very low price, as it can ne
v.er be entirely divested of its natural odour
236 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE FERRET.
IT has been doubted by some whether or not tire
ferret and the pole-cat were animals of two different
species. Perhaps, the resemblance there sometimes
is in the colour of their hair first gave rise to this
doubt : the pole-cat, nevertheless, a native of temper-
ate climates, is an animal wild like the martin ; where-
as the ferret, originally an inhabitant of hot countries,
cannot exist in France, unless as a domestic animal,
The ferret also, and not the pole-cat, is made choice
of to drive the rabbits from their burrows, chiefly be-
cause it is more easily tamed. The ferret has a long-
er and thinner body, a narrower head, and a sharper
snout than the pole-cat. It has not the same saga-
city in providing for its subsistence ; it cannot exist,
at least in our regions, without the care of man, nor
have such of the species as have been lost in the bur-
rows of rabbits been ever known to multiply in the
country ; but have, on the contrary, perished to all
appearance by the severity of the winter.
This animal is an enemy to the rabbit. If even a
dead one is presented to a young ferret which had ne-
ver seen one before, it springs at it, and tears it with
fury: if it be a living one, it seizes it by the neck and
nose, and instantly begins to suck its blood. When
the ferret is let loose into the burrows of the rabbits,
it is necessary to muzzle him, that he may not kill
them, but only make them to run out, and thereby
fall into the net laid for them at the entry. If he is
allowed to go unmuzzled, there is a risque of loosing
him, because after having sucked the blood of the rab-
bit, he will fall asleep. Besides, the smoke which is
raised at the mouth of the burrrow does not always
NATURAL HISTORY. 237
prove a sufficient expedient for bringing him back, as
there are often more issues than one, and one burrow
generally communicates with others.
THE WEASEL.
THE common weasel is as frequent in temperate
and in hot countries, as it is rare in cold ones. Though
of the same species, it is in many respects different
from the ermine, which is a native of the north.
When a weasel enters a hen-roost, it never meddles
with the cocks or the old hens. It makes choice of
the pullets, the young chickens, all of which he kills
with a single stroke on the head, and carries away one
after another. It also destroys the eggs, and sucks
them with incredible avidity. In winter it generally
resides in some granary, or hay-loft ; where the female
often continues even in the spring, in order to bring
forth her young among the hay or straw. During
this time the weasel makes war with the rats and mice
with more success than the cat ; for it follows them
into all their holes, and prevents their escape. It also
climbs up to the pigeon-houses, to the nests of spar-
rows, &c. and commits great havock. In summer it
239 NATURAL HISTORY.
removes to some distance from the houses, always
choosing the lower countries about the mills and streams
hiding itself among the bushes, in order to catch birds
and not unfrequently taking up its habitation in the
hollow of an old willow. The female generally brings
forth four or five. The young ones come forth with
their eyes shut, but in a little time they attain a suf-
ficiency of growth and strength to follow their dam to
the chase. They attack adders, water rats, moles,
field-mice, &c. and, traversing the meadows, devour
quails and their eggs.
Like the pole-cat and the ferret, these animals have
so strong a scent that they cannot be kept in any
place that is inhabited. As their own smell is very
bad, they seem to sustain no inconvenience from any
foreign stench or infection. A peasant in my neigh-
bourhood took, one day, three weasels newly brought
forth, in the carcase of a wolf which had been suspend-
ed by its hind-legs from one of the branches of a tree ;
and though the wolf was almost entirely rotten, the old
weasel brought grass, straw, and leaves, in order to make
a bed for her young ones in the cavity of the thorax.
THE ERMINE, OR STOAT.
THE weasel with a black tail is called the ermine
when it is white, and the stoat when it is red or yellow-
ish. Though it is a less common animal than the weasel,
yet there are numbers to be found in the old forests,
and sometimes during the winter in the neighbourhood
cf woody grounds. It is always easy to distinguish
it from the common weasel, because the tip of its tail
Is always of a deep black, while the edge of its earg,.
and the extremities of its fset are white.
NATURAL HISTORY. 239
CHAP. XII.
OF CERTAIN" SMALLER ANIMALS OF THE CARNIVOROUS
CLA:S THE SQUIRREL THE RAT THE MOUSE-
THE LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE THE WATER
RATTHE SHORT-TAILED FIELD MOUSE THE
GUINEA-PIG-THE HEDGE-HOG-THE SHREtV-
MOUSE-THE WATER SHREW-MOUSE-THH
MOLE-THE BAT-THE FAT SQUIRREL-
THE GARDEN-SQUIRREL, OR GREAT-
ER DORMOUSE-THE DORMOUSE-
THE BROWN RAT-THE MARMOT.
T
THE SQUIRREL.
HE Squirrel is a beautiful little animal, which is
only half-wild, and which, by its gentleness, its doci-
lity, and even the innocence of its manners, might de-
serve to be exempted from the present class. It is
neither a carnivorous nor an injurious animal, though
it sometimes seizes on birds ; its general food con-
-sisting of fruit, almond*, hazle-nuts, beech-mast, and
r 240 NATURAL HISTORY.
acorns. It is neat, cleanly, alert, lively, and indus
trious. Its eyes are full of fire, its countenance is
.?harp, its body its nervous, and is limbs are supple.
The beauty of its form is farther embellished by a
spreading tail, in shape like a plume of feathers, which
it raises above its head, and forms into a kind of shade
for itself.
The squirrel may be said to be less a quadruped than
almost any other four-footed animal. It generally holds
itself almost upright, using its fore-feet as hands for
a conveyance to its mouth. Instead of hiding itself
in the earth, it is continually in the air. It some*
what resembles the birds by its lightness and activity ;
like them, it rests upon the branches of trees ; leaping
from one to the other, and in the highest of them
builds its nest. It avoids the water still more than
the earth ; and it is even asserted of this animal, that
when it is obliged to cross a river or stream, it uses
the bark of a tree, or some such light woody substance,
as a boat, while its tail supplies the place of sails, and
of a rudder. It collects a quantity of nuts during the
summer, which it deposits in the hollow part of some
old tree, and to which it has recourse for provision in
winter ; and such is the agility of its body, that it
will in an instant climb the most smooth beech tree.
There are many species which approach to that of
the squirrel, though there are few varieties in the spe-
cies itself. There are some of an ash-colour, and a!l
the rest are red. The small grey squirrel is of a dif-
ferent species, and remains always grey. The flying
squirrels are very different from the rest. The white
squirrel of Cambaye is very small, and has a tail like
that of the European squirrel. That of Madagascar)
called Tsitsihi, is grey, and according to Flaccourt is
NATURAL HISTORY. 241
neither handsome nor fit to be tamed. The white
squirrel of Siam ; the grey, and spotted squirrel of*
Bengal ; the streaked squirrel of Canada ; the black
squirrel ; the large grey Virginian squirrel ; the white
striped squirrel of New Spain; the white Siberian
squirrel ; the variegated squirrel ; the little American
squirrel; that of Brazil; that of Barbary ; the palmist,
&c. form so many species distinct from that which we
have described.
THE RAT.
IF we descend by degrees from the great to the
small, from the strong to the weak, we shall find, that
Nature, attentive only to the preservation of each
species, creates a profusion of individuals, and is sup-
ported by the numbers which she has formed of a di-
minutive size, and to which she has denied weapons,
strength, and courage.
Under the generical name of rat, several species of
small animals have been comprised. This name we
shall solely appropriate to the common rat, which is.
of a dark colour, and infects our houses. Each of the
other species shall have its particular denomination ;
for as neither of them couple together, each is different
from all the rest.
Vl I, Gg
242 NATURAL HISTORY.
This animal is carnivorous, and we may u.se llicr
expression omnivorous. Hard substances, however,
it prefers to soft ones. It devours wool, stuff's, and
.furniture of all sorts; eats through wood, makes hid-
ing-places in walls, from whence it sallies forth in
quest of prey, and frequently returns with as much as
it is able to drag along with it, forming, especially
when it has young ones to provide for, a magazine of
the whole. The females bring forth several times in
the year, though mostly in the summer season ; and
they usually produce five or six at a birth.
In defiance of the cats, and notwithstanding the
poison, the traps, and every other method that is used
in destroying these creatures, they multiply so fast as
frequently to do considerable damage. In old houses,
in the country especially, where great quantities of
corn are kept, and where the neighbouring barns and
hay-stacks favour their retreat, as well as their multi-
plication, they would often become dangerously nu-
merous, were they not to devour each other. This we
have often found to be the case when they have been
straitened for provisions ; and the method they take
to lessen their numbers, is for the stronger to dispatch
the weaker. After this, they lay open their skulls,
and first eat up the brains, and afterwards the rest of
the body. Next day hostilities are renewed in the
same manner ; nor do they suspend their havoc till
the majority are destroyed. Hence it is, that after
any place has for a long time been infested with rats,
they often seem to disappear of a sudden, and some-
limes for a considerable wlu'le.
The female always prepares a bed for her young,
and provides them immediately with food. On their
first quitting the hole, sht watches over, defends, aad
NATURAL HISTORY. 243
will even light the cats in order to protect them. The
weasel, though a smaller animal is, however, a stilt
more formidable enemy than the cat. The rat cannot
inflict any wounds but by snatches, and with its fore-
teeth, which, however, being rather calculated for
gnawing than for biting, having but little strength.
The weasel, on the other hand, bites fiercely with
the force of its whole jaw at once, and, instead
of letting go its hold, sucks the blood through the
wound. In every conflict -with an enemy so danger-
ous, it is no wonder, therefore, that the rat should fall
a victim.
There are many varieties in this species. Besides
the common black rat, there are some which are brown,
and some almost black ; some which are gr^y, inclin-
ing to white or red, and some perfectly white. The
white rat, like the white mouse, the white rabbit, and
all other animals which are entirely of that colour, has
red eyes. The white species, with all its varieties,
appears to belong to the temperate climates of our
continent, and are found in greater numbers in hot
countries than in cold ones. Originally they had no
rats in America ; and those which are to be found
there at present, are the produce of rats which acci-
dentally obtained a footing on the other side of the
Atlantic with the first European settlers. Of these
the increase was so great, that the rat \vas long con-
sidered as the pest of the colonies ; where, indeed, it
had hardly an enemy to oppose it but the large ad-
der, which swallows it up alive. The European ships
have likewise carried these animals to the East Indies,
into all the islands of the Indian Archipelago, as well
as into Africa, where they are found in great numbers.
In the North, on the contrary, they have hardly
244 NATURAL HISTORY.
tiplied beyond Sweden ; and those which arc called
Norwegian and Lapland rats, are animals different
from ours.
THE MOUSE.
THE mouse is an animal smaller than the rat. Its
instinct, its temperament, its disposition is the same ;
nor does it materially differ from the rat, but by its
weakness, and the habits which it contracts from that
circumstance. By nature timid, by necessity familiar,
Its fears and its wants are the sole springs of its ac-
tions. It never leaves its hiding-place but to seek for
food ; nor does it, like the rat, migrate from one
house to another, unless compelled by necessity. Its
manners are milder ; and, to a certain degree it may be
tamed. It is, however, utterly incapable of attachment.
If it were not its immense fecundity, the species of
the mouse could not subsist. Even in mouse-traps I
have known them to bring forth. They produce at
all seasons, and several times in the year. Their usual
number at a birth is five or six, which, in less than
fifteen days attain strength sufficient to shift for them-
NATURAL HISTORY. 245
selves. As in these respects they so soon attain per-
fection, so the duration of their life must be very short;
a circumstance which cannot but heighten our idea of
their prodigious multiplication. Aristotle tells us that
having put a pregnant mouse into a vessel of corn, he
soon after found in it one hundred and twenty mice.
THE LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE.
THE long-tailed field mouse is smaller than the
rat, but larger than the common mouse, and does not
live in houses. It is remarkable for the largeness and
prominence of its eyes. It differs too both from the
rat and the mouse in the colour of its skin, which,
while it is tolerably white under the belly, is of a red-
dish brown upon the back. The species is generally
and abundantly diffused.
The largest are above four inches from the tip of
the nose to the root of the tail ; and the smallest,
which appear to be full grown as well as the others,
are an inch shorter. Although many are found of
different intermediate sizes, the larger and the smaller
are all of the same species.
These creatures are fond of dry and elevated grounds.
In woods, and in the fields adjoining to them, they
are to be found in great numbers. They tonceal
themselves in holes, which they either find already
made, or which they make for themselves, under
bushes, or the trunks of hollow trees. In these they
amass so prodigious a quantity of acorns, nuts, &o.
that in one hole there has been found a bushel at a time.
These holes are generally more than a foot under
ground, and often divided into two cells, of which the
246 NATURAL HISTORY.
one serves for a habitation for itself and its young
ones, and the other for a granary. I could never
find any other method of preventing their ravages,
than that of setting traps at every tenth pace through
the whole extent of each piece of new-sown land.
THE WATER RAT.
THE water rat is a little animal, about the size
of a common rat, but in its nature and habits it is
more like the otter than the rat. Like the otter, it
frequents the fresh waters, and is generally found on
the borders of rivers, rivulets, and ponds. Like that
creature too, it seldom feeds but upon fish, or the
spawn of fish, though sometimes it eats frogs, water
insects, and even roots and herbs. This animal is riot
web-footed ; but though every toe of its feet is sepa-
rated, it swims with ease, keeps itself a long time a-
bove water, and thence carries off its prey.
The head of the water rat is shorter, the nose broad-
er, the hair more erect, and the tail much longer than
that of the land rat. Like the otter, it flies from
large rivers, or rather from those which are too much
frequented, and is never found either in houses or in
barns. It is probable that these animals bring forth
often in a year ; but of these we have no certain in-
formation. Their flesh is not absolutely bad ; and in
Catholic countries the peasants eat it during Lent, as
they do that of the otter. The species is to be found
throughout Europe, the extremities of the North ex~
cepted.
NATURAL HISTORY. 247
THE SHORT-TAILED FIELD MOUSE.
THE short-tailed field mouse is still more gene-
rally diffused than the long-tailed kind, and is found
almost every where; in woods, in meadows, and even in
gardens. It is remarkable for the thickness of its head,
and the shortness of its tail, which is not above an
inch long. It forms holes in the earth, where it hoards
up corn, nuts, and acorns ; the former of which it pre-
fers to every other kind of food. About the month
of July, when the corn begins to ripen, they flock to-
gether from every quarter, and frequently do great
damage, by cutting the stalk in order to come at the
ear. In autumn and winter the greater part of them
retire to the woods, where they find beech-mast, nuts,
and acorns. Some years they appear in such num-
bers, that they would destroy every thing were they
to subsist long. For want of other food, however,
they often eat one another, and are themselves the
usual prey of the fox, the wild-cat, the martin, the
weasel, and the long -tailed field mouse.
THE GUINEA PIG.
THE Guinea pig, though originally a native of the
warm climates of Brasil and Guinea, lives, however,
248 NATURAL HISTORY.
and breeds, in temperate and even in cold countries*
provided it is properly taken care of. Its skin is of
little or no value ; and the flesh, though people may
eat it, is very indifferent food. Their flesh, however,
might be rendered better, if they were reared in war-
rens, and had a proper choice of herbs.
The growth of these animals is not entirely com-
pleted till the end of eight or nine months. The fe-
male never goes with young above three weeks ', and
she has been known to bring forth when only two
months old. The first litter does not amount to more
than four or five. The second amounts to five or six,
and the rest to seven or eight, and even to ten or ele-
ven. She does not suckle her young above twelve or
fifteen days. In one year a thousand might be ob-
tained from a single couple, did they not frequently
destroy each other, and perish .from the cold and wet.
The Guinea pig feeds on all sorts of herbs and espe-
cially on parsley, which it prefers even to bran, flour,
or bread. Of apples and other fruits it is also exceed-
ingly fond. Like the rabbit, it eats quickly, little at
a time, but very often. It grunts somewhat like a
young pig.
These animals are so delicate, that it is with diffi-
culty they survive the rigours of winter. When they
feel cold, they assemble together, press close to one
another, and in this situation are frequently found dead.
NATURAL HISTORY. 249
THE HEDGE-HOG.
THE Hedge-hog has the power of defending itself
from an enemy without combating him, and of annoy-
ing without attacking him. Possessed of little strength
and of no agility by which it might escape its foes, ifc
has received from Nature a prickly armour, with a
facility of rolling itself up in a ball, and of presenting
from every part of its body a poignant weapon of de-
fence. Even from its fear this animal obtains another
engine of security : the smell of its urine, which, when
attacked, it generally emits, is sufficient to make its
enemy quit the field : thus the generality of dogs arc.
content with barking at the hedge-hog, when it falls
ill their way, without discovering any inclination to
seize it. Of these, however, there are some which,
like the fox, have had the address to overcome it,
though of the martin, the pole-cat, the ferret, the
weasel, or any of the birds of prey, it has no dread.
They are generally found in woods, under the trunks
of old trees, as also in the clefts of rocks. I do not
believe that they climb up trees, as some naturalists
have affirmed, or that they make use of their prickles
to carry off the fruit. It is with their mouth they
Vol. I. H h
250 NATURAL HISTORY.
seize it ; and though they are very numerous in our
forests, yet I have never seen one of them upon a tree ;
they always remain at the foot, in some hollow space :
or under moss : they continue in a state of inactivity
during the whole day ; and they only venture abroad
by night, but seldom approach human habitations :
they sleep during the winter ; and therefore every
thing that has been said of their hoarding up provisions
for that season must be false. They never eat much,
and can subsist very long without any food whatever.
Their flesh like that of all other animals which become
torpid in winter, is not proper food, nor is their skin
of any use.
THE SHREW-MOUSE.
THE Shrew-Mouse seems to fill up the vacuum be-
tween the rat and the mole : the shrew-mouse is smal-
ler than the domestic mouse, and resembles the mole
in its snout, which is longer than its jaw-bones. Its
eyes, though larger than those of the mole, are, in like
manner, concealed, and much smaller than those of the
domestic mouse : the number of its claws, of which it
has five to each foot ; its tail, and Us legs, particularly
the hind ones, which are shorter than those of the do-
mestic mouse ; its ears, too, and its teeth, resemble
those of the mole.
This diminutive creature has a strong smell peculiar
to itself, and so offensive to cats, that though they
will cheerfully kill the shrew-mouse, they will not eat
it. It is evidently this noisome odour, this aversion of
ibe cat to it, that gave rise to th<? notion that the shrew-
NATURAL HISTORY. 251
mouse is a venomous animal, and that its bite is so
dangerous to every kind of cattle, and particularly to
horses : the truth, however, is, that it is neither venom-
ous nor capable of biting ; for it cannot open its
mouth wide enough to seize the double thickness of
the skin. The distemper among horses, which the
vulgar attribute to the tooth of the shrew-mouse, is a
swelling which proceeds from an internal cause, and
has no connection with any bite, or rather scratch, that
this little animal may give.
In wiuter especially, the shrew-mouse generally fixes
its residence in some hay-loft, stable, or barn, where
it feeds on grain, insects, and putrid flesh. It i&
likewise found in woods, and fields, where, living on
corn, it sometimes conceals itself under moss or leaves,
sometimes under the trunks of trees, sometimes in holes
abandoned by moles, and sometimes in holes of a smal-
ler size, which it forms for itself by digging with its
claws and snout.
The shrew-mouse is said to produce as many at a
birth as the domestic mouse, though less frequently
It has a squeak much more piercing than the latter.
In point of nimbleness, however, it is far inferior ; and
as it both sees imperfectly, and runs slowly, it is easily
taken.
The usual colour of these creatures is brown witk
a mixture of red. Others of them are ash-coloured :
and they all have a greater or less degree of whiteness
upon the belly : they are very common throughout
Europe ; but they do not seem to have obtained
footing in America.
252 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE WATER SHREW-MOUSE.
THE Water Shrew-Mouse, though a native of these
regions, was unknown to any of our naturalists till M.
Daubenton first discovered it. With respect to the
water shrew-mouse it is taken at the sources of foun-
tains, in the morning and evening, as the sun rises and
sets. In the day-time it remains concealed in the clefts
of rocks, or in holes under ground, near the hedges of
rivulets. It brings forth in spring, and generally pro-
duces nine voung ones at a time.
THE MOLE.
THE mole, without being blind, has such small
eyes, and these so concealed, that they prove but of
little use to it. It enjoys however the senses of hear-
ing and feeling in an eminent degree. Its skin is soft
as silk ; and its little paws, which are furnished with
five claws, are very different from those of other ani-
mals, and almost like the hands of a human being
Proportioned to the size of its body, its strength is
great ; it possesses the mild habitudes of repose and
of solitude ; the art of securing itself, of forming, in-
NATURAL HISTORY. 253
stantaneously, an asylum to itself, of extending it, and
of obtaining, without the necessity of relinquishing it,
an abundant subsistence.
The mole shuts up the entry to its retreat, which
it seldom deserts, unless forced to it by heavy rains in
summer. It is fond of cultivated grounds, and is ne-
ver to be found in those which are either muddy, hard,
compact, or stony. It requires a soft soil, well sup-
plied with esculent roots, and with insects and worms,
of which, indeed, its principal nourishment consists.
As these animals very seldom come above ground,
they have but few enemies ; and very readily evade-
the pursuit of animals stronger and swifter than them-
selves. The chief calamity which befals them is an
inundation ; and when this happens, they are seen in
numbers attempting to save themselves by swimming,
and using every effort to reach the higher grounds.
The greatest part, however, perish, as well as their
young, which remain in the holes. Were it not for
such accidents, from their great fecundity, they would
become extremely troublesome. They generally have
four or five at a time ; and it is easy to distinguish
among other mole-hills, that in which the female has
brought forth her young. These are made with
much greater art than the rest ; and are usually larger
and more elevated. I am apt to think that they pro-
duce oftener than once a year Of this I am certain,
that moles newly produced are found from the month
of April to the month of August; a circumstance
which, however, may be owing to their having been
engendered sooner or later in the year.
^The hole in which they produce their young is
formed with singular skill, and merits a particular de-
scription. The female begins by erecting the earth
254- NATURAL HISTORY.
into a spacious apartment supported within by parti-
tions at proper distances, to prevent the roof from
falling. As the hillock, in which the apartment is
thus formed, is raised above ground, the apartment it-
self is consequently above the level of the plain, and
therefore less subject to accidental slight inundations.
The place being thus fitted, she procures grass and
dry leaves, as a bed for her young : there they lie se-
cure from wet, and she continues to make their retreat
equally free from danger. For round this hill of her
own raising, are holes running into the earth, which
part from the middle apartment, like rays from a cen-
tre, and extend about fifteen feet in every direction :
these resemble so many walks or chases, into which
the animal makes her subterraneous excursions, and
supplies her young with such roots or insects as she
can provide. Besides they contribute much t6 the ge-
rieral safety ; for as the mole is very quick of hearing,
the instant she perceives her little habitation attacked,
she takes to her burrow, and unless the earth be dug
away by several men at once, she and her young al-
ways make good their retreat.
Some authors have said, but without foundation,
that the mole arid the badger sleep the whole winter :
that this is not true of the badger we have already ob-
served. And as a proof that the mole quits its hole
in winter as well as in summer, we have only to view
the traces it leaves upon the snow. The mole is so
fajr from sleeping during the winter, that it continues
its subterraneous operations then as well as in summer ;
and the peasants of France even proverbially remark,
that " when the moles are at work, a thaw is at hand.'*
They are indeed fond of warm places ; and the gar-
deners often catch them round their hot beds in the
months of December, January, and February.
XATURAL HISTORY. 255
THE BAT.
AN* animal which, like the bat, is half quadruped
and half bird, and which in fact is neither the one nor
the other, is a kind of monster. In the bat, the fore
feet are, properly speaking, neither wings nor feet,
though the animal uses them both for the purpose of
flying and walking. They are in fact, two shapeless
extremities, of which the bones are of a monstrous
length, and connected by a membrane, neither with fea-
thers nor hair : they are a kind of winged paws, of
which we only see one claw about the length of an inch,
and of which the other four claws, though very long,
cannot act but in conjunction, and have no peculiar
movements, no separate functions. They are a kind
of hands ten times larger than the feet, and, in al),
four times longer than the whole length of the body of
the animal. In short they are parts which have rather
the appearance of a capracious and accidental, than of
a regular and determined production.
To these incongruities, these disproportions of the
body and members, may be added the still more strik-
ing deformities of the head. In some species, the nose
is hardly visible, the eyes are sunk near the tip of the
256 NATURAL HISTORY.
ear, and are confounded with the cheeks. In others, a-
gain, the ears are as long as the body, or else the face
is twisted into the form of an horse-shoe, and the nose
covered with a kind of crust. Averse, likewise, to
the society of all other creatures, they shun the light,
inhabit none but dark and gloomy places, to which,
after their nocturnal excursions, they are sure to return
by break of day, and in which they remain, fixed, as
it were, to the walls till the approach of night.
Their motion in the air may be termed an uncertain
flutter, which they seem to execute by struggles, and
in an awkward manner. They raise themselves from
the ground with difficulty, never soar to a great height,
and are but imperfectly qualified to accelerate, or even
to direct their flight. This, far from being either ra-
pid, or very direct, is performed by hasty vibrations
in an oblique and winding direction ; and in passing
along they do not fail to seize all the gnats, moths,
and other nocturnal insects that come in their way.
These they swallow entire ; and in their excrements
we meet with the remains of wings and other dry parts,
which they have not been able to digest. Like quad-
rupeds, the bat brings forth her young alive, and like
them it has teeth and nipples.
These animals do not produce more than two at a
birth, which they suckle and even carry along with
them as they fly. They unite in numbers to defend
each other from the cofd. They pass the winter with-
out awaking, without stirring, and without eating, from
the end of autumn till spring. Notwithstanding,
they can more easily support hunger than cold, and
can even subsist a number of days without food, they
belong to the number of carnivorous animals ; for they
will devour bacon and meat of all kinds.
XATURAL HISTORY. 257
THE FAT SQUIRREL.
OF this'animal we know three species; namely, the
Fat squirrel, the garden squirrel and the dormouse. Many
authors have confounded these species together, though
they are all three very different, and of consequence
easily known and distinguished.
The fat squirrel is nearly of the size of the common
squirrel, and, like it, its tail is covered with long hair.
It is without foundation that these animals have been
said to sleep during the winter. They are not in a
state of natural sleep at this period. They are in a
torpor, which is produced by the coldness of the blood,
and by which they lose the use of their members and
senses. Their internal heat is indeed so small, that it
hardly exceeds that of the temperature of the air.
When the heat of the air is at ten degrees above the
freezing point of the thermometer, the heat of these
animals is also at ten degrees. Now it is well known,
that the internal heat of man, and of the most of ani-
mals, always exceeds thirty degrees ; there is little
reason therefore to wonder that these animals, so in-
ferior comparatively to all others in point of heat,
should become torpid as soon as their own little quan-
tity of internal heat ceases to be assisted by the exter-
nal heat of the air. This circumstance, however, na-
turally happens when the thermometer is not more than
ten or eleven degrees above congelation. This is thereal
cause of the torpor of these animals ; a cause of which
naturalists have not been apprized, and which, neverthe-
less, extends to all animals that sleep during the winter.
This torpor continues as long as the cause which
produces it, continues to operate, and ceases when the
VOL r. 1 1
258 NATURAL HISTORY.
cold ceases. A few degrees of heat above the tenth
or eleventh degree are sufficient to re-animate these
creatures ; and if they are kept in a very warm place
during the winter, they do not become torpid.
Though in this torpid state, they are without the
smallest motion, though their eyes are shut, and they
seem to be deprived of all use of the senses, they yet
feel pain when it is very acute. This they testify by
a movement of contraction, as also by a little hollow
cry, which they even repeat several times. I am in-
clined to believe, that it is not from a too great waste
of substance that they perish in long winters, since in
autumn they are excessively fat, and on their reviving
in spring, they are found to have still remained so.
This abundance of fatisan internal nourishment, which
is sufficient to support them, and to supply what they
lose by perspiration.
The flesh of the fat squirrel is not unlike that of the
guinea pig : they were considered as a luxury by the
Itomans, who reared great numbers of them. Like
the common squirrel, this animal lives in forests, climbs
to the tops of trees, and leaps from branch to branch.
This it does less nimbly indeed than the squirrel, whose
legs are longer, whose belly is by no means so big, and
\vhich is remarkable for being meagre. Nuts, however,
and other wild fruits, form its usual nourishment. It
likewise eats little birds which it takes in the nests. It
does not, like the squirrel, nestle in the upper parts of
trees, but makes a bed of moss for itself in the trunks
of those which are hollow. It also shelters itself in
the clefts of rocks, and always shews a preference for
dry places. It avoids moisture, it drinks little, rarely
descends to the ground, and, unlike the squirrel, which
is easily tamed, remains always wild. The species is
NATURAL HISTORY. *5)
very generally diffused, but there are few or none of
them in England.
THE GARDEN SQUIRREL.
THE fat squirrel frequents the forests, and seems to
shun our habitations. The garden squirrel, or greater
dormouse on the contrary, inhabits our gardens, and
is sometimes in our houses. The species of the latter
is also more numerous and more generally diffused.
These animals nestle in the holes of walls, climb up
trees, select the best fruits, and gnaw them as they
begin to ripen. They climb up pear, apricot, and
other trees ; and in a scarcity of other fruit, they eat
almonds, nuts, and even leguminous roots. These
they carry in great quantities to their holes, where
they make a bed of herbs, moss, and leaves. The
cold stupefies, the heat revives them ; and sometimes
there are eight or ten found in one place, all in a state
of torpor, all huddled together, and rolled up in a ball,
in the midst of their hoard of provisions.
Their flesh is not palatable, and has even the disa*
greeable smell of the house rat.
This animal is to be found in all the temperate cli-
mates of Europe, and even in Poland, and in Prussia ;
but it, doas not appear that there are any in Sweden,
or in any of the more northern countries.
THE DORMOUSE.
OF all the rat species, the dormouse is the least ug-
ly. Its eyes are sparkling, its tail is tufted, ami its
260 NATURAL HISTORY.
hair is rather fair than red. It never lives in houses.
It is seldom to be found in gardens, but chiefly fre-
quents the woods, where it finds a shelter in the hollow
of some old tree.
The species is by no means numerous, yet they
seem to be tolerably common in Italy, and to be known
even in the northern climates ; but it does not appear
to be an English animal ; for Ray, who had seen it in
Italy, observes, that the small dormouse which is found
in England is not red upon the back like the Italian,
and that it probably belongs to another species.
The dormouse becomes torpid by the cold, and rolls
itself up in a ball ; it revives in mild weather, and
hoards up nuts and other dry fruits for future Suste-
nance. It forms its nest in trees, like the squirrel,
though generally in a lower situation, among the bran-
ches of a nut-tree, in a bush, &c. The nest is com-
posed of herbs interwoven, and is about six inches in
diameter, has no aperture but at the top, and contains
three or four young ones.
THE BROWN RAT.
THE brown rat is both stronger and more mischiev-
ous than the black rat. It has a reddish skin, a long
tail without hair, the back-bone arched like that of th
squirrel, the body much thicker, and whiskers like those
of a cat. It is not half a century since this species
has been found in the neighbourhood of Paris. They
multiply indeed prodigiously, for they generally pro-
duce twelve or fifteen, often sixteen, seventeen, eigh-
teen, and even nineteen young ones at a time. The
males are larger, stronger, and more mischievous thaa
NATURAL HISTORY. 26 F
the females. When any one pursues, and endeavours
to take them, they will turn again, and bite the hand
or stick which touches them. Their bite is not only
sharp but dangerous, and is immediately followed by
a considerable swelling. They bring forth thrice every
year, the dams previously preparing a bed for their
young ; and thus two individuals of this species pro-
duce at least threa dozen in the space of twelve months.
The brown rat in its nature, and seme of its habi-
tudes, bears a resemblance to the water-rat. Though
there is no place but in which they will reside, they
seem to delight in living near the water. When they
find themselves pursued, and have the same opportunity
of sheltering themselves in the water, or in a thorny
thicket, they prefer the former, plunge into it without
dread, and swim with amazing dexterity. This par-
ticularly happens when they cannot get back to their
burrows ; for they always dig holes for themselves in
the earth, or else occupy those of the rabbit. They
may also be taken, like that animal, by the ferret, which
follows them under ground as it does the rabbit, and"
even with more ardour.
These animals live principally upon fruit and corn,
but are, notwithstanding, exceedingly carnivorous.
They devour young rabbits, partridges, and other birds;
and when they enter a hen-roost, they destroy, like
the pole-cat, more than they eat. They do not become
torpid in the winter, like the dormouse, but take ad-
vantage of every fine day to come out of their subter-
ranean mansions. Those which live in barns, drive
away the mice ; and it has even been remarked, that
the black rats, as they are called, have been far less
common since the brown rats became so numerous*
232 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE MARMOT.
THE Marmot when taken young, is more capable
of being tamed than any other wild animal, and nearly
as much so as our domestic ones. It will easily learn
to perform feats with a stick, to dance, and to obey
the voice of its master. It bears a great antipathy at
the dog ; and when it becomes familiar in a house, and
is certain of being supported by its master, it will, in
his presence, attack the largest dogs, and boldly fasten
upon them with its teeth. Though this creature
is not quite so large as a hare, it is of a more
squat make, and has great strength joined to great
agility. It has four teeth in the front of the jaw,
which are long and strong enough to inflict a terrible
wound, and yet, unless provoked to it, it neither attacks
dogs, nor does mischief to any other creature. If care
be not taken, however, it will gnaw the furniture of
an house, and will even make holes through wooden
partitions.
As the marmot has very short thighs, and the toes
of its paws are formed much like those of the bear, so
it often sits erect, and walks with ease, like that ani-
mal, upon its hind feet. With its fore paws it carries
its food to its mouth, and eats in an upright posture
NATURAL HISTORY. 263
like the squirrel. It runs much swifter up a hill than
down ; it climhs trees, and runs up the clefts of rocks,
or the contiguous walls of houses, with great ease.
Indeed, it is ludicrously ohservcd of the Savoyards,
who are the general chimney-sweepers of Paris, that
they have learned their trade from the marmot.
These animals eat whatever is given them, whether
it be flesh, bread, fruits, herbs, roots, pulse, or insects.
Of milk and butter, however, they are particularly
fond ; and though less inclined to petty thefts than the
cat, they are never better pleased than when they ob-
tain access to the dairy.
There seems to be a combination of the bear and
the rat in the form of the marmot. Its nose, its lips,
and the form of its head, are like those of the hare ;
it has the hair and claws of the badger, the teeth of
the Leaver, the whiskers of the cat, the paws of the bear,
with a tufted tail, and short ears. The colour of its
hair on the back is reddish brown. On the belly it is
reddish, but softer and shorter. Its voice resembles
that of a little dog, when it is caressed ; but when it
is irritated or frightened, it raises a loud and shrill cry,
highly offensive to the ear. The marmot is a very
cleanly animal. In autumn particularly it is loaded
with fat, though all parts of the body are never equally
so. The marmot would be tolerable food, had it not
an offensive smell.
This animal, which delights in the regions of ice and
snow, and is never found but on the highest mountains,
is, nevertheless, most liable to be benumbed by the
cold. From the end of September, or the beginning of
October, the marmot generally retires to its hole, and
does not return till about the beginning of April. The
place ofits retreatisformedwithprecaution, and furnish-
64 NATURAL HISTORY.
ed with art. It is rather wide than long, and very deep,
so that it is capable of containing several, without be-
ing under a necessity of crowding each other, or injur-
ing the air they breathe. Their feet and claws areform-
ed as they were designed to dig ; and, in fact, they
burrow into the ground with amazing celerity, scrap-
ing up the earth, and throwing back what they have
loosened behind them constantly as they proceed.
Still "more wonderful is the form of their hole ; it re-
sembles the letter Y, the two branches having each
an opening that conducts into one channel, which ter-
minates in their apartment at the bottom. As the
whole is contrived on the declivity of a mountain,
there is no part of it on a level but the apartment at
the end. One of the branches or openings issues out
sloping downward ; and this serves as a kind of sink
or drain for the whole family, in which they void
their excrements, and through which the moisture of
the place finds an easy passage. The other branch,
on the contrary, slopes upward, and serves them for
-a door. The apartment at the end is warmly lined
with moss and hay. It is even asserted, that this
work is carried on by the whole company ; that some
cut the finest grass, others pile it up, and others take
their turns to convey it to the hole. Upon this occa-
sion, it is added, one of them lies upon its back, per-
mits the hay to be heaped upon its belly, keeps its
paws upright to make greater room, and in this man-
ner, remaining still upon its back, is dragged by the
tail, hay and all, to their common retreat. This prac-
tice some assign as a reason for the hair being ge-
nerally worn away from their backs. However, an-
other, and perhaps a better reason can be given for
this appearance ; namely, their inhabiting cells under
NATURAL HISTORY. 263
ground, and being constantly employed in digging up
the earth. Whenever they venture abroad, one is
placed as a sentinel, sitting on an elevated rock, while
the others amuse themselves in the fields below, or
are employed in cutting grass, and making it into hay
for their future convenience. And no sooner does their
sentinel perceive a man, an eagle, a dog, or any other
enemy, than he informs the rest by a kind of whistle,
and is himself the last that takes refuge in the cell.
They make no provision for the winter. But when
they perceive the first approaches of the season in
which their vital motions are to continue in some mea-
sure suspended, they labour very diligently to close
up the apertures of their dwellings, which they effect
with such solidity, that it is more easy to open the
earth in any other part than where they have closed
it. They are at that time very fat, and some of them
are found to weigh twenty pounds. In this plight
they continue for three months ; but by degrees
their flesh begins to waste, and they are quite thin by
the end of winter. When their retreat is discovered,
they are found each rolled into a ball, and covered
with hay. In this state they seem entirely lifeless :
thev may be taken aw ay, and even killed, without be-
traying any symptom of pain; and those who find them
in this manner, carry home the fat ones for food, and
the young ones in order to rear and tame them. The
marmot produces but once a year, and the litter gene-
rally consists of three or four : their growth is quick,
and they live only nine or ten years : they are found
in the Alps, Appenines, Pyrenees, in the highest
mountains of Germany, in Poland and in Canada, with
a fevr variations.
Vol. I. K k
*66 NATURAL HISTORY.
CHAP. XIII.
OF CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS CONTINUED THE
BEAR THE BEAVER THE RACOON THE
COATI THE AGOUTI.
THE BEAR.
I HERE is no animal more generally known than
the bear, and yet there is none about which the wri-
ters of natural history are less agreed. These uncer-
tainties have arisen from their not distinguishing pro-
perly the different species. The land-bear must be
distinguished from the sea-bear, which is commonly
known by the name of the white, or Greenland bear.
The land-bears must also be divided into two classes,
the brown, and the black. There are some white land-
bears found in Tartary, Russia, &c. which, though
they resemble the sea-bear in colour, differ from it,
however, in every other particular. It is not the ri-
gour of the climate that makes them white in winter,
like the hares and ermines ; they are brought forth
NATURAL HISTORY. 2/>7
white, and always remain so. There are also bears
whose skins are a mixture of brown and black, which
denotes an intermediate species between the white
land-bear and the brown or black bear.
We meet with the brown bear very frequently, and
with the black bear very rarely, on the Alps. In the
forests of the northern countries of Europe and Ame-
rica, on the contrary, the black bear is very common.
The former is both iierce and carnivorous ; the latter
is only fierce, and constantly refuses to eat flesh.
The bear is not only a savage but a solitary animal ;
he takes refuge in the most unfrequented parts, and the
most dangerous precipices of uninhabited mountains.
He makes his den in the most gloomy parts of the fo-
rest, in some cavern that has been hollowed by time,
or in the hollow of some old enormous tree. Thither
he retires alone, and passes a part of the winter with-
out provisions, or without ever stirring abroad. He
is not, however, entirely deprived of sensation, like
the dormouse, or the marmot, but seems rather to sub-
sist upon the exuberance of his former flesh, and only
feels the calls of appetite, when the fat he had acquir-
ed in summer is wasted.
When this happens, which, we are told, it generally
does after forty or fifty days, the male forsakes his den;
but the female remains confined for four months, till
she has brought forth her young. That the latter
should not only be able to subsist but even to nurse
their offspring, without taking any food during that
time, is, I think, highly improbable. When with
young, however, it is allowed that they are exceeding-
ly fat, as also, that, being covered with a very thick
coat, sleeping the greatest part of their time, and tak-
*G8 NATURAL HISTORY.
ing no exercise or motion, they must necessarily lose
very little by perspiration.
Though the males of the brown species devour their
young, when they find an opportunity for it, yet the
females seem, on the contrary, to love them with a
ferocious distraction. When once they have brought
forth, their fury is more violent, as well as more dan-
gerous, than that of the males. Before the young
leave the womb, their formation is perfect ; and if ei-
ther the fostus of the bear, or the bear when newly
yeaned, appears at the first glance, unformed, it is
merely because there is a want of proportion in the
body and members even of the grown bear, and which
is well known to be the case in all animals, because the
foetus, or the new produced is always more dispropor-
tioned than the grown one.
The voice of the bear is a kind of growl, or harsh
murmur, which, when enraged, is heightened by a
clashing of the teeth. Highly susceptible of anger,
that anger is always furious, and often capricious.
However mild he may appear before his master, and
even obedient when tamed, he ought still to be distrust-
ed, still treated with circumspection. It is most dan-
gerous to strike him on the tip of the nose, or to touch
him on the parts of generation.
He is capable of some degree of instruction. There
are few who have not seen him stand on his hind legs,
or dance in a rude and awkward measure, to tunes ei-
ther sung or played on an instrument. But, even in
thus tutoring him, it is necessary, in order to succeed,
that he should be taken young, and held in constraint
ever after. The bear which has passed his youth, is
not to be tamed nor even held in awe, and shews him-
self, if not intrepid, at least fearless of danger.
NATURAL HISTORY. 269
The wild bear turns not from his path, nor offers
to shun the sight of man. It is said, however, by a
certain whistle he may be so far charmed as to stop,
and stand upon his hind feet : this is the time to shoot
him ; for, when only wounded in an attack, he darts
with fury at his foe, and, clasping him with his fore
paws, is sure to stifle him, unless immediate assistance
be given.
The bear enjoys the senses of seeing, hearing, and
feeling, in great perfection ; and yet, compared with
the size of his body, his eyes are very small. His
ears are also short, his skin is coarse, and his hair very
thick. His smell is exquisite ; more so, perhaps, than
that of any other animal, the internal surface of his
nose being very extensive, and excellently calculated
to receive the impression of smells. He strikes with
his paw as a man strikes with his fists"; but in what-
ever he may bear a rude kind of resemblance to the
human species, he does not gain by this the least
ascendency over other animals.
270 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE EEAVEE.
IN all countries, as man is civilized and improved,
the lower ranks of animals are depressed and degrad-
ed. Either reduced to servitude, or treated as rebels,
all their societies are dissolved, and all their united
talents rendered ineffectual. Their feeble arts quick-
ly disappear ; and nothing remains but their solitary
instincts, or those foreign habitudes which they re-
ceive from human education.
The beaver seems to be now the only remaining
monument of that kind of intelligence in brutes, which
though infinitely inferior, as to its principle, to that of
man, supposes, however, certain common projects, has
certain relative ends in view. Projects which having
society for their basis, suppose some particular method
of understanding one another, and of acting in concert.
It is allowed, that the beaver, far from having an
absolufe superiority over the other animals, seems, on
the contrary, to be inferior to some of them. This
fact I have an opportunity to confirm, having, for
near a twelve-month past, had a young beaver in my
possession, which was sent to me from Canada in the
beginning of the year 1758. It is an animal tolerably
NATURAL HISTORY. 2/1
mild, tranquil, and familiar, though it seemed ra-
ther gloomy and melancholy. If we consider this
animal, therefore, in its dispersed and solitary state,
we shall find, that, as to internal qualities, it is not
superior to otlir animals. It has not more ingenuity
than the dog, more sense than the elephant, or more
cunning than the fox. It is rather remarkable for the
singularities of its external conformation than for any
apparent superiority of its internal qualities. Of
quadrupeds, the beaver alone has a flat oval tail, co-
vered with scales, which serves as a rudder to direct
its motions in the water. It is the only quadruped
that has membranes between the toes on the hind feet
and at the same time none on the fore ones, with
which it conveys its food to its mouth. It is the only
one which, while it resembles a terrestrial animal in
its fore parts, seems to approach the nature of an
aquatic being in its hind ones.
The beavers begin in the month of June or July,
to form a society, which is to continue for the great-
est part of the year : they arrive in numbers from
every side, and presently form a company of two or
three hundred. The place of meeting is commonly
the place where they fix their abode, which is always
by the side of some lake or river. If it be a lake in
which the waters are always upon a level, they do not
build a dam ; but if it be a running stream, they
build a dam, or pier, across the river. This dam, or
pier, is often four-score or an hundred feet long, and
ten or twelve feet thick at the base. If we compare
the greatness of the work with the powers of the ar-
chitect*, it will appear enormous ; but the solidity
* The larrest beavers wei:;b from fifty to siity pounds, and, in length,
are little more than Uiiee feet from tlie tip of the snout to the insertion at
the tail .
272 NATURAL HISTORY.
with which it is built is still more astonishing than its-
size. The part of the river over which this dam is
usually built, is where it is most shallow, and where
some great tree is found growing by the side of the
stream ; this they make choice of for the principal
part in their building ; and, though it is often thicker
than a man's body, they soon cut it down. For this
operation they have no other instrument than their
four incisive teeth, with which they make it fall al-
ways across the stream; they then set about cutting
the top branches, to make it lie close and even, and
serve as the principal beam for their fabric.
These operations are performed in common. At
one time a number of beavers are employed together
at the foot of the tree in gnawing it down ; and, when
this part of their labour is finished, it becomes the busi-
ness of others to separate the branches, while a third
party are engaged along the banks of the river, or lake,
in cutting other trees, which, though smaller than the
first, are yet as thick as the leg, if not the thigh, of a
common sized man. These they carry with them by
land to the brink of the river, and then by water to the
place allotted for their building ; where, sharpening
them at one end, and forming them into stakes, they
drive them into the ground, at a small distance from
each other, and fill up the vacant spaces with pliant
branches. While some are thus employed in fastening
the stakes, others go in search of clay, which they
prepare for their purpose with their tails and their feet,
and with which, they render their structure still more
compact.
This structure is so ingeniously contrived, that it
has not only all the extent, and all the solidity, which
are requisite, but also a form the most proper for con-
NATURAL HISTORY. 279
filling tlie water, and, when it has passed its bounds,
for maintaining its weight, or baffling its attack. At
the top of their dike or mole, where it is least thick,
they form two or three openings : these they occasion-
ally enlarge or contract, as the river occasionally
rises or falls ; and when, from inundations or torrents,
their works have been damaged, they immediately re-
pair them with the utmost care.
After this display of their labours to accomplish a
public work, it would be superfluous to add to it a de-
cription of their private constructions, were it not that,
in history, -an account should be given of every fact,
and that, in this first grand work of the beaver, the
intention uniformly was, that the little habitation of
each family should be rendered more commodious.
This habitation is always furnished with two pas-
sages ; one for the purpose of a land, and the other
for that of a water excursion. In shape it is almost
always either oval or round ; sometimes it is from four
to five feet in diameter, and sometimes it consists of
two, and even three stories, while the walls are always
two feet thick. When it happens to consist of but
one story, the walls are but a few feet high, and there
is a kind of vault over them, that serves as a covering
for the edifice. It is constructed with such solidity as
to be impenetrable to the heaviest rains, to defy the
most impetuous - winds, and is plastered with such
neatness, both without and within, that it might na-
turally be thought an effort of human skill : these
animals, nevertheless, use no instrument for the pre-
paration of their mortar, but their feet, or for the ap-
plication of it, but their tails : they make the greatest
use of such materials as are not easily dissolved by-
water : their wooden work consists of such trees as
Vol. I. L I
274 NATURAL HISTORV.
grow on the banks of rivers, as these are most easily
cut down, stripped of their bark, and carried; and all
these operations they perform before they relinquish
a tree which they have once attacked. They cut it
at the distance of a foot or a foot and a half from the
ground : they sit as they work ; and besides the ad-
rantage of this convenient posture, they have the plea-
sure of continually gnawing fresh bark and soft wood,
both which they prefer to most other kinds of aliment;
averse to dry wood, they always provide an ample
store of these for their subsistence during winter.*
Near their habitations they establish their magazines ;
and to each hut or cabin there is one allotted, of a
size proportioned to the number of its inhabitants, to
which they have all a common right ; nor do they ;.t-
tempt to plunder their neighbours.
Hamlets, to use the expression, have been seen,
composed of twenty and even twenty-five dwellings.
Such large settlements, however, are rare. In general
they do not contain more than tan or a dozen families'
each of which has its own separate district, magazine,
and habitation; nor will it allow any strangers to set-
tle within its inclosure. The smallest dwellings contain
two, four, and six ; the largest, eighteen, twenty, and
thirty beavers : and it seldom or never happens, that
the number of males and females is not pretty equal.
Their society therefore may be said to consist frequent-
ly of one hundred and fifty or two hiuidrcd workmen,
which, having first exerted their united industry and
diligence in rearing a grand public work, afterwards
form themselves into different bodies, in order to con-
struct private habitations.
* Tlie spice allotted for (lie provision of t'iglit of ten beavers, occupies
from tweatj-iive lo tbu'tj feet square, ami from ei-jht to teu feet deep.
NATURAL HISTORY. 275
However numerous the republic of beavers may be,
peace and good order are uniformly maintained in it.
A common series of toil has cemented their, union.
The conveniences which they have procured for each
other, and the abundance of provisions which, after
having amassed, they continue to consume together,
render them happy within themselves. Having mo-
derate appetites, entertaining even an aversion to
blood and carnage, they have not the smallest propen-
sity to hostility or rapine, but actually enjoy all the
blessings which man is only born to desire. Friends
to each other, if threatened by any enemies from abroad,
they know how to avoid them; and for this purpose,
on the first alarm, they give notice of their mutual
danger, by striking the water with their tail, which
emits a sound that is heard in their most distant
dwellings. On this occasion, each beaver as he thinks
most expedient, plunges into the water, or conceals
himself within the walls of his own habitation, which
is in no danger but from the tire of the heavens, or
from the weapons of man.
These asylums are not only secure, but also very
neat and commodious : the floor is covered with ver-
dure. Young and tender branches of trees serve them
for a carpet, on which they never permit any of their
excrements to be left. The window which fronts the
water serves them for a balcony, from which they en-
joy the fresh air, and bathe themselves the greatest
part of the day. In the water they remain in an up-
right posture, the head and fore parts only being visi-
ble. This element is, indeed, so necessary to them,
or rather gives them so much pleasure, that they
seem unable, as it were, to live without frequent im-
mersions in it. Sometimes they go to a considerable
NATURAL HISTORY.
distance under the ice : ami then it is easy to take
them, if we attack the dwelling and wait tor them, at.
the same time, at a hole which is purposely formed
a little way off in the ice, and to which they are
obliged to come for breath.
The habit which this animal has, of continually
keeping the tail, and all the hind parts of the body
in the water, seems to have changed the nature of its
flesh : that of the fore parts, till we come to the reins,
is of th same quality, taste, and consistency, as the
flesh of land animals : and of the tail, and of the hind
legs and thighs, has the smell, the savour, and all the
qualities of fish. As for the tail in particular, it is
an extremity of a fish fixed to the body of a quadru-
ped. In length it generally measures a foot, in
thickness an inch, and in breadth five or six inches.
It is entirely covered over with scales, and has a skin
perfectly the same as that of a large fish.
The females are said to go four months with young:
they bring forth about the close of winter, and their
number generally consists of two or three at a time.
About this period the males leave them, and go forth
into the fields, where they enjoy all the sweets of
spring. In this season they pay occasional visits to
their habitation, but never reside in it. There,
however, the females remain employed in suckling,
tending, and rearing up their young, who can folio w
them in a few weeks : they then, in their turn, go
abroad, where they feed on fish, or on the bark of"
young trees, and spend their whole time in the water,
or the woods.
Winter is the principal season for hunting them, as
it is then only that their fur is in perfection. After
their fabrics are demolished, and a great number hap-
pen to be taken, their society is never restored.
NATURAL HISTORY. Ii77
The few that have escaped captivity or death, be-
come houseless wanderers ; or, concealed in some hole
under ground, and reduced to the condition 01* other
animals, they lead a timid life : they no longer em-
ploy themselves but to satisfy their immediate and
most urgent wants ; they no longer retain those facul-
ties and qualities which they so eminently possess in
a state of society.
We meet with beavers in America from the thirtieth
degree of north latitude to the sixtieth, and even be-
yond it. In the northern parts they are very common ;
and the farther south we proceed, their number is still
found to decrease. The same observation holds with
respect to the Old Continent. We never find them
numerous but in the more northern countries ; and in
France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Egypt, they are
exceedingly rare : they were no strangers to the an-
cients ; and by the religion of the Magi it was forbid-
den to kill them.
Several authors have said, that the beaver, being
an aquatic animal, could not live solely on land.
This opinion, however, is erroneous ; for tlie beaver
which I have in my possession having been taken
when quite young in Canada, and been always reared
in the house, not did know the water when he wa
brought to it, was afraid of it, and refused to go in-
to it. Even when first plunged into a bason there
was a necessity for keeping him in it by force. A few
minutes after, however, he became so well reconciled
to it, that he no longer discovered an aversion to his
new situation; and when, afterwards left to his liberty,
he frequently returned to it, and would even rojl about
in the dirt, and upon the wet pavement. One day he
hi? escape, and descended by a cellar stair-case
827 NATURAL HISTORY.
into the quarries under the Royal Garden : there he
swam to a considerable distance on the stagnated wa-
ters which are at the bottom of those quarries ; yet
no sooner did he see the light of the torches which
were ordered down for the purpose of finding him,
than he returned, and allowed himself to be taken
without the smallest resistance.
He is familiar without being fawning ; and when
he sees people at table, he is sure to ask something to
eat. This he does by a little plaintive cry, and by a
few gestures of his fore paws. When he has obtain-
ed a morsel, he carries it away, and conceals himself,
in order to eat it at his ease. When he sleep.*, \vhicU
he does very often, he lies upon his belly. No food
comes amiss to him, meat excepted ; and this he con-
stantly refuses either raw or boiled. He gnaws every
thing he comes near ; and it was found necessary to
line with tin the tun in which he was brought over.
Besides the fur, which is indeed the most valuable
article furnished by the beaver, this animal furnishes
a substance that has been considerably used in medi-
cine. This substance which is known by the name
of castoreum, is contained in two bladders*. The sa-
vages are said to obtain an oil from the tail of the
beaver, which they employ as a topical remedy for dif-
ferent complaints. The flesh of this animal, though
fat and delicate, is yet bitter, and disagreeable to the
palate.
The senses of the beaver are very acute ; and so
delicate is its smell, that it will suffer no filth to re-
main near it. Wiien kept too long in confinement, and
NATURAL HISTORY. 279
under a necessity of voiding its excrements, it drops
them near the threshold of its prison, and, when the
door is opened, it is sure to push them out.
THE RACOON.
THE Racoon is an animal of about the same size
as a small badger. Its body is short and bulky. Its
fur is fine, long, thick, blackish at the surface, and
grey towards the bottom. Its head is like that of the
fox, but its ears are round and shorter. Its eyes are
large, of a yellowish green, and over them there is a
black and transverse stripe. Its snout is sharp. Its
tail is thick, but tapering towards a point, and marked
alternately from one end to the other with black and
white rings, and is at least as long as the body. Its
fore legs are much shorter than the hind ones, and
both are armed with five strong, sharp claws.
This animal uses its paws to hold its food while
eating ; and its pointed claws enable it to climb trees
with great dexterity. It runs up the trunk with the
same swiftness that it moves over the plain, and fro-
lics about to the extremity of the branches with great
280 NATURAL HISTORY.
security and ease ; on the ground, indeed it rather
bounds than runs, and its motions, though oblique,
are yet always quick and expeditious.
The racoon is a native of the southern countries of
America and the West Indies, nor has it ever yet
been found in any parts of the Old Continent.
THE CO AT I.
THE animal of which we are now about to treat,
many authors have called coati-mondi. It is very
different from the animal described in the preceding
article. It is of a smaller size than the racoon. Its
body and neck, its head and nose are of a more length-
ened form. Its upper jaw is an inch, or an inch and
a half longer than the lower one ; and its snout which
is moveable in every direction, turns up at the point.
The eyes of the coati are also smaller than the eyes
of the racoon. Its hair is longer and coarser, its
legs are shorter, and its feet longer ; but, like the
racoon, its tail is diversified with rings ; and to all its
feet tjiere are five claws.
NATURAL HISTORY. 8i
This animal lias a practice of eating its own tail,
which when not mutilated, is longer than its body, and
which it generally raises aloft, and can move with ease
in any direction.
From this circumstance we may infer, that in those
parts of which the extremities are consequently very
remote from the seat of the senses, that feeling must
be. weak, and the more so, the greater the distance,
and the smaller the part.
As for the coati in other respects, it is an animal
of prey, which subsists on flesh and blood, which like
the fox, destroys small animals and poultry, hunts
for the nest* of little birds, and devours their eggs ;
and it is probably front this conformity of disposition
that some authors have cohsidered the eoati, as a spe-
cies of small fox.
THE AGOUTI.
Tins animal is about the size of a hare, and has
been improperly considered as a kind of rabbit, or large
rat, by the greater number of nomenclators. It has
both the hair of a hog, and the voracious appetite of
Vhat animal. It eats every thing indiscriminately;
Vol. L M m
282 NATURAL HISTORY.
and when satiated, it hides the remainder, like the dog
or the fox, for a future occasion.
It does not, like the rabbit, dig a hole in the ground
but burrows in the holes of trees. Its ordinary food
consists of the roots of the country, potatoes, yams,
and such fruits as fall from the trees in autumn. It
uses its fore paws like the squirrel, to carry its food
to its mouth ; and as its hind feet are longer than the
fore ones, it runs very swiftly upon level ground, or
up a hill, but upon a declivity it is in danger of falling.
Its sight is excellent ; its hearing is equal to that of
any other animal ; and whenever it is whistled to, it
stops to listen. The flesh is dressed like that of a
suckjng pig, arid of such as are well fed, it is tolera-
ble food, though it has always a peculiar taste, and
is rather tough.
It is hunted by dogs ; and whenever it goes into a
sugar ground, where the canes cover the place, it is -
easily catched. When in the open country, it usually
runs with great swiftness before the dogs until it gains
its retreat, within which it continues to hide, and no-
thing but filling the hole with smoke can force it out.
For this purpose the huntsman burns faggots or straw
at the entrance, and conducts the smoke in such a
manner tha,t it fills the whole cavity. While this is
doing, the poor little animal seems sensible of its dao-
ger, begs for quarter with a most plaintive cry, but
seldom quits its hole till the utmost extremity.
The agouti seems to be a native of the south parts
of America ; nor is it at all known in the Old Conti-
nent. It is, however, very common in Brasil, Guiana,
St. Domingo, and all the neighbouring islands. To the
cold and temperate climates of America this animal
is an entire stranger.
NATURAL HISTORY. 2S3
CHAP XIV.
OB CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS CONTINUED THE LION
THE TIGER THE PANTHER, OUNCE, AND LEO-
PARD THE JAGUAR THE COUGUAR THE
LYNX THE CARACAL THE HV.ENA THE
CIVET AND ZIBET THE GENKTT THE
ONDATRA AND DESMAN.
THE LIOX.
1 T has been remarked, that in all hot climates the
terrestrial animals are larger and stronger than in
c"old or temperate ones. They are also bolder and
more ferocious, all their natural qualities seeming to
partake of the ardour of the climates in which they
live. The lion, produced beneath the burning sun of
Africa, or of India, is above all others the fiercest and
most terrible. Our wolves and other carnivorous ani-
mals, far from being his rivals, are hardly worthy to
be his providers. The lions of America (if, indeed,
they deserve to be called lions) are, like the climate
284 frAf URAL HISTORY.
in which they are produced, infinitely milder than those
of Africa ; and what clearly proves that the degree of
fierceness in this animal depends on the degree of
heat, is, that, even in the same country, those which
inhabit the high mountains, where the air is more tem-
perate, are different in disposition from those that
dwell in the plains, where the heat is excessive.
As the lion has no enemy but man, and his species
is now probably reduced to the fiftieth part of what it
formerly was, it follows, that the human race, instead
of having suffered a considerable diminution since the
time of the Romans, is, on the contrary, more numer-
ous, and more generally diffused. This superiority in
the numbers, and the arts of the human species, while
it suffices to conquer the lion, serves also to enervate,
and to discourage him ; for he is brave only in pro-
portion to the success of his former encounters. Ac-
customed to measure his strength with every animal
he meets, the habit of conquering renders him intrepid
and terrible. Having never experienced the danger-
ous arts and combinations of man, these animals have
no apprehensions from his power : they meet him with
courage, and seem to brave the force of his arms : they
are not daunted even with the opposition of numbers.
A single lion of the desert often attacks an entire ca-
ravan ; and, after an obstinate combat, when he finds
himself overpowered, instead of flying, he continues to
combat, retreating, but still facing his enemy till he
dies. On the contrary, the lions which inhabit the
peopled countries of Morocco, or India, having ex-
perienced the superiority of man, have so far lost their
courage, as to be scared away with a shout; and sel-
dom attack any but the unresist'ng flocks or herds, which
women and children are sufficient to protect.
NATURAL HISTORY. 285
The external form of the lion seems to speak the
superiority of his internal qualities. His figure is strik-
ing, his look confident and bold, his gait proud, and
his voice terrible. His stature is not overgrown like
that of the elephant, or the rhinoceros ; nor is his
shape clumsy, like that of the hippopotamus, or the ox.
He is in every respect compact and well-proportioned,
a perfect model of strength joined with agility.
His force and muscular power he manifests by his
prodigious leaps and bounds ; by the strong and quick
agitation of his tail, which alone is sufficient to throw
a man on the ground. By the facility with which he
moves the skin of his face, and particularly that of
his forehead, which adds greatly to his physiognomy,
or rather to the expressive fury of his countenance ;
and in short, by shaking his mane, which is not only
bristled up, but moved and agitated on all sides, when
he is enraged.
The largest lions are about eight or nine feet long,
from the snout to the root of the tail, which is of it-
self four feet long ; and these large lions are about
four or five feet high : those of the small size, about
five feet and a half longhand three and a half high. In
all her dimensions, the lioness is about a fourth less
than the lion.
The lion is furnished with a mane, which becomes
longer in proportion as he grows older : the lioness,
however, is without this appendage at every age : the
American animal, which the natives of Peru call puma,
and to which the Europeans have given the denomi-
nation of lion, has no mane: It is also much smaller,
weaker, and more cowardly than the real lion: in truth,
it is very doubtful whether these animals are of the
same species.
286 NATURAL HISTORY.
Both the ancients and the moderns allow that the
lion, when newly produced, is not above six or seven
inches long ; and if so, some years at least must elapse
before he can increase to eight or nine feet ; they like-
wise mention, that he is not in a condition to walk
till two months after he is brought forth ; but, with-
out giving entire credit to these assertions, we may
fairly conclude, that the lion, from the largeness of
his size, is at least three or four years, in growing, and
that, consequently, he must live seven times three or
four years, that is, about twenty-five years.
It is usually supposed that the lion does not pos-
sess the sense of smelling in such perfection as most
other animals of prey. Too strong a light incom-
modes him. He seldom goes abroad in the middle of
the day. He commits all his ravages in the night.
When he sees a fire kindled near a herd or flock he
will not venture near it. Though his sight is bad, it
is not, however, so faulty as his smell ; and, unlike
the dog and the wolf, he rather hunts by the former
than by the latter.
The lion, when hungry, boldly attacks all animals
that come in his way ; but, as he is very formidable,
and as they all seek to avoid him, he is often obliged
to skulk that he may take them by surprise. For
this purpose he crouches upon his belly, in some thick-
et, or among the long grass, which is found in many
parts of the forest. In this retreat he continues, with
patient expectation, until his prey comes within a pro-
per distance ; and he then springs after it with such
force, that he often seizes it at the first bound. If he
misses the effort, and in two or three re-iterated
springs cannot seize his prey, he continues motionless
for a time, seems to be verv sensible of his disappoint-
NATURAL HISTORY. 287
inent, a:id waits for a more favourable opportunity.
He devours a great deal at a time, and generally fill*
himself for two or three days to cume. His teeth are
so strong that he very easily breaks the bones, and
swallows them with the rest of the body. It is re-
ported that he can endure hunger a very long time ;
but he cannot support thirst in an equal degree, his
temperament being extremely hot. He drinks as of-
ten as he meets with water, lapping like a dog. He
generally requires about fifteen pounds of raw flesh
in a day ; and seldom devours the bodies of animals
when they begin to putrify. While young and active
the lion subsists on what he can obtain by the chase,
and seldom quits his native deserts and forests ; but
when he becomes old, heavy, and less qualified for ex-
ercise, he approaches the habitations of man, to whom
he becomes a dangerous enemy. It is observed, how-
ever, that when he sees men and animals together, it
is always on the latter, never on the former, that he
vents his fury ; unless indeed he should be struck, and
then, at no loss to know whence the blow came, he
instantly deserts his prey, in order to be revenged for
the injury. The flesh of the camel he is said to pre-
fer to that of any other animal. He is likewise ex-
ceedingly fond of that of young elephants, which
from their inability to resist him, till they have re-
ceived the assistance of their tusks, he easily dispatches,
when unprotected by the dam ; nor are there any ani-
mals able to oppose the lion, but the elephant, the
rhinoceros, the tiger, and the hippopotamus.
However terrible this animal may be, it is not un-
common, with dogs of a large size, and well supported
vrith a proper number of men on horse-back, to chase
him, dislodge him, and force him to retire. But fofr
2-88
NATURAL HISTORY.
this enterprise it is necessary that the dogs, and even
the horses should be previously disciplined ; since al-
most all animals tremble and fly at the very smell of
the lion. Though his skin is firm and compact, it is
not, however, proof against a musket-ball, or even a
javelin. Like the wolf, he is frequently taken by
stratagem ; and for this purpose a deep hole is dug in
the earth, over which, when slightly covered with
earth and sticks, some living animal is fastened, as a
bait. When thus entrapped, all his fury subsides ;
and if advantage be taken of the first moments of his
surprise, he may be easily chained, muzzled, and car-
ried off.
The flesh of the lion is of a strong and disagreeable
flavour ; yet the Negroes and the Indians do not dis-
like it, and it frequently forms a part of their food.
THE TIGER.
IN the class of carnivorous animals the lion is the
foremost. Next to him is the tiger, which, while 1:<
possesses all the bad qualities of the former, seems to
Ire a stranger to his good ones, To pride, to courage-,
NATURAL HISTORY. 289
to strength, the lion adds greatness, and sometimes,
perhaps, clemency ; while the tiger, without provoca-
tion is fierce, without necessity is cruel : thus it Is
throughout all the classes of Nature, in which the su-
periority of rank proceeds from that of strength : the
first class is less tyrannical than the inferior classes,
which, denied so full an exertion of authority, abuse
the powers with which they are entrusted.
The tiger is therefore more to be dreaded than the
Hon. He is the scourge of every country which he
inhabits. Of the appearance of man, and of all his hos-
tile weapons, he is fearless. Wild animals as well as
tame ones fall a sacrifice before him. He attacks the
young elephant and rhinoceros ; and sometimes, with
an audacity superior to his nature, he braves the lion
himself.
The form of the body usually corresponds with the
nature, and the disposition of the animal. The tiger,
with a body too long, with limbs too short, with a
head uncovered, and with eyes ghastly and haggard,
has no characteristics but those of the basest and most
insatiable cruelty. Instead of instinct he has nothing
but an uniform rage, a blind fury ; so blind indeed,
so undistinguishing, that he frequently devours his
own progeny, and, if she offers to defend them, he
tears in pieces the dam herself.
Happy is it for the rest of nature, that this animal
is but rare, and that the species is chiefly confined to
the warmest provinces of the east. The tiger is found
in Malabar, in Slam, in Bengal, and in all the coun-
tries which are inhabited by the elephant or the rhi-
noceros.
When he has killed a large animal, such as a horse,
or a buffalo, he does not devour it upon the ?pot, but
Vol. I. N n
><)u NATURAL HISTORY.
in order to feast at his ease, he drags it along with
such ease to the forest, that the swiftness of his mo-
tion seems scarcely retarded by the enormous weight.
To give a still more complete idea of the strength
ef this terrible creature, we shall quote a passage from
Father Tachard, who was an eye-witness of a com-
bat of one tiger against three elephants at Siam. For
this purpose, the king ordered a lofty pallisade to be
built of bamboo cane, about an hundred feet square ;
and in the midst of this were three elephants to com-
bat the tiger. Their heads and part of their trunks
were covered with a kind of armour, like a mask,
which defended that part from the assaults of the
fierce animal with which they were to engage. As
soon, says this author, as we were arrived at the place,
the largest tiger we had ever seen was brought from
his den. He was not at first let loose, but held with
cords, so that one of the elephants approaching, gave
him three or four blows, with his trunk, on the back,
with such force, that the tiger was for some time
stunned, and lay without motion, as if he had been
dead. However, as soon as he was let loose, and at
full liberty, although the first blows had greatly abated
his fury, he made at the elephant with a loud shriek,
and aimed at seizing his trunk ; but the elephant,
wrinkling it up with great dexterity, received the tiger
on his great teeth, and tossed him up into the air.
This so discouraged the furious animal, that he no
more ventured to approach the elephant, but made
several circuits round the pallisade, often attempting
to fly at the spectators. Shortly after, a second and
then a third elephant were sent against him, which
struck him so terribly with their trunks, that he once
mare appeared dead; and they would certainly have
dispatched him, bjad not a stop been put to the combat.
NATURAL HISTORY. 391
The tiger, of which Father Gouie has communicated
lo the Academy of Sciences an anatomical description,
composed by the Jesuit Fathers at China, seems to
belong to the true species, as also that which the
Portuguese have distinguished by the name of Royal
Tiger. According to Dellon, there is no country of
India in which tigers so much abound as Malabar,
where the species are numerous, but the largest is that
which the Portuguese call the Royal Tiger, which ie
very rare, and is as large as a horse.
The species of the tiger has always been much
rarer, and much Jess generally diffused, than that of
the lion. Like the lioness, nevertheless, the tigress
produces four or five at a birth. From her nature she
is fierce at all times ; but when surrounded with her
infant progeny, and in the smallest danger of losing
them, her fury becomes extravagant. To oppose the.
daring invaders of her den, she braves every danger.
On such occasions, she pursues the spoiler with the
most inveterate enmity ; who is frequently obliged to
drop one of her cubs ; with this she immediately re-
turns to her den, and again pursues him : he then
drops another ; and by the time she has returned with
that, he for the most part escapes with the remainder.
Should her young be torn from her entirely, she ex-
presses her agony with hideous cries, and follows the
sporter to the very town, or ship, in which he may
have taken refuge, and dares him to approach her.
The skins of these animals are much esteemed in
the east, particularly in China. The Mandarines co-
ver their seats of justice with them, and convert them
into coverings for cushions in winter. The Indians
eat the flesh of the tiger, and find it neither disagree-
able nr unwholesome.
292 NATURAL HISTORY,
THE PANTHER.
THE panther, ounce, and leopard ; the first of these
species which exists in the Old Continent is the large
panther, which we shall simply call panther, and
which the Greeks distinguished by the name of par-
dalis, the ancient Latins, first by the name of panlhe-
ra, afterwards by that of pfadus, and the modern La-
tins by the name of leopardus. The body of this ani-
mal, when it has attained its full growth, is five or
six feet long from the tip of the nose to the insertion
of the tail, which is above two feet long. Its skin is
of a yellow hue, more or less dark on the back and
sides, and whitish under the belly. It is marked with
black spots in the form of beads. Of these rings, the
greatest number have one or more spots in the centre,
of the same colour with the extremity of the ring.
Some of them are oval, and others circular ; and they
are frequently above three inches in diameter.
The second species is the small panther of Oppian,
which our modern travellers have called ounce, or on-
za, corruptedly from the name lynx, or lunx. To
this animal we shall preserve the name of ounce, which
as it has in fact some affinity to the lynx, seems to be
NATURAL HISTORY. 2QS
properly applied. It is much smaller than the pan-
ther; its body, which is nearly of the size of the lynx,
being but about three feet and a half long. Its hair,
as also its tail, are longer than those of the panther :
the latter frequently measures above three feet; though
the body of this animal is at least a third less than
that of the panther, whose tail does not measure more
than two feet, or two and a half at most. The hair
of the ounce is of a whitish grey upon the back and
sides, and of a grey still whiter under the belly ;
whereas the back and sides of the panther are always
of a yellow more or less deep. In both, however, the
ppots are nearly of the same form, and of the same
size.
The third species is not mentioned by the ancient?,
as it belongs to Senegal, to Guinea, and to other
southern countries which they had not discovered.
This animal we shall call kopard : a name which
ha* been improperly applied to the large panther,
but which, following the example of most travel-
lers, we shall never use unless to denote the above-
mentioned animal of Senegal. It is somewhat larger
than the ounce, but considerably smaller Uian the pan-
ther, being only four feet long : the tail measures two
feet or two feet and a- half. On the back and sides
the hair is of a yellow colour, more or less deep ; un-
der the belly it is whitish ; the spots are aunular, but
smaller, and less regularly disposed.
As each of these animals is different from the other,
so each forms a distinct species. Our furriers call the
skins of the first species panther-skins; a name which
we shall not change : those of the second species they
call African tiger-skins, which, being an equivocal
name, we have set aside,, and adopted that of ounce*
29* NATURAL HISTORT.
In short, they improperly call tiger-skins, the skins
of the animal which we have here denominated the
leopard.
The species of the ounce seems to be more nume-
rous, as well as more generally diffused than that of
the panther. In JBarbary, in Arabia, and in all the
southern parts of Asia, Egypt perhaps excepted, it is
very common. It is known even in China, where it
is distinguished by the name of hinen pao.
The ounce is easily tamed, and is employed for the
chase, in the hot climates of Asia, where the dog is
not to be found, unless introduced from other parts ;
and then it not only loses its voice, but its instinct.
Besides, the panther, the ounce, and the leopard, are
alike remarkable for bearing an antipathy to dogs,
which they seize in preference to every other animal.
THE JAGUAR.
THE jaguar resembles the ounce both in disposition
and in size, and for the most part in the form of the
spots with which his skin is diversified. He is less
terrible, less ferocious than the panther and tire lew*-
NATURAL HISTORY. 295
pard. The ground of his colour, like that of the lat-
ler, is of a bright yellow, and not grey like that of
the ounce ; his tail is shorter than that of either of
those animals ; his hair is longer than the panther's,
but shorter than that of the ounce ; it is frizzled
while he is young, but smooth and strait when he is
full grown.
The jaguar lives by prey like the tiger; but a light-
ed brand will put him to flight, will deprive him of
all courage and vivacity. He seems to partake of
the indolence arising from the nature of the climate ;
nor does he discover any activity or alertness, unless
when pressed by hunger.
Almost all the authors who have written the history
of the New World, have mentioned this animal; some
under the name of tiger or leopard, others under the
names which it bears at Brazil, Mexico, &c. They
also speak of another animal of the same genus, and
perhaps indeed of the same species, under the name of
Jaguarct, which we have distinguished from the jaguar
in our enumeration. Whether they are two distinct
species, however, or only varieties of the same species,
I cannot positively affirm, having seen only one of
the two kinds.
The jaguar is found in Brazil, in Paraguay, in
Tucuman, in Guiana, in the country of the Amazons,
in Mexico, and in all parts of South America. The
jaguaret appears to have been always more rare, or
at least this creature has always inhabited such places
as are more distant from the haunts of men ; and the
few travellers who have mentioned it, have only
drawn their accounts from those of Marcgravius and
Piso.
296 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE COUGUAR.
THE couguar is as long but not so thick as Hie
jaguar. He has a small head, a long tail, short hair,
which is of a lively red colour, intermixed with a few
blackish tints, particularly on the upper part of the
back. He is neither marked with long stripes, like
the tiger, nor with round and full spots, like the leo-
pard, nor with annular spots, like the panther and the
ounce. His chin and his neck are whitish, and all
the inferior parts of his body. Though less strong
than the jaguar, he is as fierce, and perhaps more
cruel. He appears too to be more greedy of prey ;
nor, when once seized, does he ever offer to relinquish
it till he has fully glutted his voracious appetite.
This animal is not unsommon in Guiana. Fqr-
merly couguars were known to swim over in numbers
to the island of Cayenne, to attack and devour the
flocks, and were considered as a scourge to the colony.
By degrees, however, the settlers lessened their num-
ber, and at length expelled them entirely.
The couguar, by the agility of his body and the
length of his legs, seems calculated to run, and to
climb trees better than the jaguar. They are both
equally remarkable for sloth and cowardice when
once they are satiated with prey ; and seldom known
to attack men, unless when they find them asleep.
They delight in the lofty shades of forests, where they
hide themselves in the covert of some thick tree, in
order to dart forth on such animals as pass by.
Though they live only upon prey, and quench their
thirst more often with blood than with water, yet it
has been said by some, that their flesh is exceedingly
palatable. Piso says expressly, that it is as good as
NATURAL HISTORY. 297
veal ; and Charlevoix and others have compared it to
mutton. It is hardly credible, however, from the
above circumstances, that it can be well tasted ; and
therefore I prefer the testimony of Desmarchais, who
says, that the best thing about this animal is his skin,
with which they make housings for horses, and that
its flesh is of no value, being generally lean and of a
disagreeable flavour.
THE LYXX.
THE lynx is an animal more commonly found in
cold than in temperate climates ; and is at least very
rare in hot ones. It was known to the Greeks and
the Latins. Pliny says, that the first which were
seen in Rome were brought, in the time of Pompey,
from Gaul.- At present they are not seen in France,
a few perhaps ezcepted, belonging to the Alpine and
Pyrenean mountains. But the Romans, under the
name of Gaul, comprehended several northern coun-
tries ; and, besides, modern France is far from being
so cold as ancient Gaul was formerly.
Vol. I. O o
29$ NATURAL HISTORY.
The most beautiful skins of the lynx are Brought
from Siberia, as belonging to the lupus cervarius, and
from Canada, as belonging to tiie fclis-cervarius.
Because they are like all other animals of the New
Continent, smaller than those of the Old World. In
Europe they are compared to a wolf in size, and in
Canada to a wild cat.
The lynx of which the ancients have said that the
sight was so sharp as to penetrate opaque bodies, and
of which the urine was made to possess the marvel-
lous property of hardening into a solid substance a
precious stone, called lapis lyncurius, is an animal
which never existed. To the true lynx this imaginary
one has no affinity, but in name. We mast not, there-
fore, as the most of naturalists have hitherto done, at-
tribute to the former, which is a real being, the pro-
perties of this imaginary one, the existence of which,
Pliny himself does not seem disposed to believe, and
which he classes with the spliynx, the pegasus, and
other prodigies, or monsters, the produce of ./Ethiopia.
Our lynx possr-sscs not the wonderful quality of
seeing through walls ; but it has bright eyes, a mild
aspect, and, upon the whole, an agreeable and lively
appearance. Its urine produces not precious stones,
but, like the cat, an animal which it nearly resembles,
and of which it retains the manners, and even the
cleanliness, it covers it over with earth.
The lynx 5ias short legs, and is generally about the
size of the fox. It differs from the panther and the
ounce in the following particulars. It has long hair,
its marks or spots are of a colour less lively, and are
badly disposed. Its ears are surrounded at the extre-
mity by a stripe, or rather tuft, of black hair : its tail
Which is much shorter, is black at the tip ; its eyes.
NATURAL HISTORY. 299
have a whitish cast : and its countenance has some-
thin" in it more mild. The skin of the male is more
beautifully marked than that of the female. It does
not walk or run like the wolf in a progressire motion,
but leaps and bounds like the cat. It gains its sol
subsistence by devouring other animals, which it will
pursue to the very tops of trees. Neither can the
wild cat, the martin, the ermine, nor the squirrel, e-
scape its pursuit. It also seizes birds,lies in wait for
the stag, the roebuck, and the hare, and often with
one bound seizes them by the throat. When in pos-
session of its prey, it first sucks the blood of the ani-
mal, and then lays open the head in order to devour the
brains. It then generally abandons the victim of its
fury, goes in quest of fresh prey, and is seldom known
to return to the former ; a circumstance which has
given rise to the vulgar remark, that of all animals
the lynx has the shortest memory. The skin of this
animal changes its colour according to the season and
climate. In winter it is in every respect hotter than
it is in summer : and its flesh, like that of all beasts
of prey, is improper food.
NATURAL HISTORY.
THE CARACAL, OR SYAGUSH.
THOUGH the caracal resembles the lynx in size, in
the formation of the body, and the aspect of the head;
und, though like that animal, it seems to have the pe-
culiar, and almost singular characteristic of a stripe of
black hair at the extremity of the ears, I am inclined
to treat of them as animals of different species.
The caracal is not spotted like the lynx ; it has
hair rougher and shorter, its tail is larger, and of an
uniform colour ; its snout is longer ; in appearance it
is less mild, and in disposition it is fiercer. The lynx
is an inhabitant of the cold, or at most of the tempe-
rate regions. The caracal, on the other hand, is only-
found in the hot countries ; and it is as much from
their difference in disposition aud climate that I have
judged them to be of two different species, as from
the inspection and comparison of the animals them-
selves.
The caracal is common in Barbary, in Arabia, and
in all those countries which are inhabited by the lion,
the panther and the ounce. Like them it depends on
prey for its subsistence ; but, unlike them, from its
NATURAL HISTORY. 301
inferior size, and its inferior strength, it has much dif-
ficulty in procuring its prey. Hardly, indeed, has it
jiny thing to subsist on but what the more potent car-
nivorous animals are disposed to leave for it. It keeps
at a distance from the panther, because that animal
exercises its cruelty even after he is satisfied with
food ; but it follows the lion, who, when the immedi-
ate cravings of his appetite are gratified, is of a paci-
fic disposition. From the refuse of what this noble
animal has devoured, the caracal frequently enjoys a
comfortable meal. Sometimes, even while the lion is
in search of prey, by climbing trees, it braves his fu-
ry ; for he cannot ascend after it like the panther.
For all these reasons it is, that the caracal has been
called the " lion's guide," the " lion's provider ;" and
that the lion, whose smell is far from being acute, is
said to employ this animal to find out prey for him by
its scent, of which, for its trouble, it enjoys the re-
mains, when its master is satisfied.
The caracal is about the size of a fox, but much
fiercer and stronger. It has been known to attack,
tear in pieces, and destroy in a few minutes, a large
dog that exerted himself to the utmost. It is very
difficult to tame this animal : yet, if taken when very
young, and afterwards reared with care, it may be
trained to the chase, to which it is by nature inclined,
and in which it is sure to succeed, provided it is not
let loose but against such animals as are unable to
resist it. In India they make use of this animal to
take hares, rabbits, and even large birds, all of which
it seizes with singular address.
302 NATURAL HISTORY.
THE HYMN A.
So striking, and even so singular are the charac-
teristics of the hyaena, that it is hardly possible to be
deceived by them. It is, perhaps, the only quadruped
which has but four toes to either the fore or hind feet.
Like the badger it has an aperture under the tail,
which does not penetrate into the interior parts of the
body. Its ears are long, straight, and bare : its head
is more square and shorter than that of the wolf: its
legs, the hind ones especially, are longer : its eyes are
placed like those of the dog: the hair of its bod) 1 -, and
its mane, are of a dark grey, with a small intermixture
of yellow and black, disposed all along in waves: and
though its size is equal to that of the wolf, yet it has
a contracted appearance.
This solitary creature resides in the caverns of
mountains, in the clefts of rocks, or in dens, which It
has formed for itself under the earth. Though taken
very young, it is very incapable of being tamed. It
lives by Depredation, like the wolf; but it is a strong-
NATURAL HISTORY. 305
er animal, and seemingly more daring. It sometimes
attacks men, carries off cattle, follows the flocks,
breaks open the sheep-cots by night, and ravages
with an insatiable voracity. Its eyes are keen and
piercing, and it is said to see best at night. If we
may credit all the naturalists who have treated of this
animal, its cry resembles the sobs or retchings of a
man in a violent fit of vomiting; but, according to
Kcempfer, who was an ear-witness of it, it sounds
like the lowing of a calf.
The hyaena defends itself against the lion, is not
afraid of the panther, and attacks the ounce, which is
incapable of resisting it. When at a loss for other
prey, it scrapes up the earth with its feet, and devours
the carcases both of animals and men, which, in the
countries that it inhabits, are interred promiscuously
in the fields. We find this creature in almost all the
hot climates of Africa, and of Asia ; and it seems
probable that the animal called farassc, at Madagas-
car, which resembles the wolf in figure, but which is
larger, stronger, and more cruel, may be the hyccna.
Of few animals, have so many absurd stories been
told as of this. The ancients represent it as being
male and female alternately. It appears, however,
that the circumstance which gave rise to this fable, is,
the opening in the form of a cleft, which both the
male and the female have, independently of the parts
destined for the purposes of generation. It has been
affirmed too, that this creature could imitate the human
voice, that it remembered the names of the shepherds,
called to them, charmed them, rendered them motion-
less ; that, at the same time, it gave chase to the
shepherdesses, made them forget their flocks, and be
distracted with love, &c. All these things might
304 NATURAL HISTORY.
surely happen without the intervention of a hyaena ;
and I conclude this article, in order to avoid the re-
proach which is due to Pliny, of seeming to take a
pleasure in compiling and publishing fables.
THE CIVET.
IT has been the opinion of most naturalists, that
there is only one species of animals that furnishes the
perfume known by the name of civet, I, however,
have seen two that furnish it, and which, though re-
sembling each other in the essential affinities of con-
formation, do yet differ from each other in so many
other characteristics, that there is sufficient reason to
consider them as forming different species.
To the first of these animals I have appropriated its
original name of civet ; and to the second I have gi-
ven that of zibet.
This latter animal differs from the civet, in having
a body longer and smaller, a snout more slender, flat-
ter, and somewhat concave at the upper part. Its
hair is much shorter and softer. It has no mane, no
black under the eyes, or upon the cheeks. All these
NATURAL HISTORY. 305
characteristics are peculiar to the civet. Some tra-
vellers had already suspected that there were two spe-
cies of civets ; but no person had distinguished them
with sufficient accuracy to describe them.
These animals have been called musk-cats, or civet-
cats : yet they have nothing in common with the cat:
they rather resemble the fox, especially ia the head.
Their coat is diversified with stripes and spots ; a cir-
cumstance which has occasioned them to be mistaken
for small panthers, by persons who had only seen them
at a distance. In every other respect, however, they
differ from the panther. The perfume of the civet is
very strong, and that of the zibet is strong to an excess.
This humour is found in the opening which each of
these animals has near the parts of generation ; and
though the odour is so strong, it is yet agreeable, even
when it issues from the body of the animal. The
perfume of the civet we must not confound with musk,
which is a sanguineous humour obtained from an ani-
mal altogether different from either the civet, or the
zibet. The animal that furnishes the musk is a kind of
roe-buck without antlers, or goat without horns; nor
does it possess any property in common with the civet
but that of furnishing a strong perfume.
The civets, though natives of the hottest climates
of Africa, and of Asia, are yet capable of living in
temperate, and even in cold countries, if they are care-
fully defended from the injuries of the air, and provid-
ed with delicate and succulent food. In Holland,
vyhere no small emolument is derived from their per-
fume, they are frequently reared. The perfume of
Amsterdam is esteemed preferable to that which is
brought from the Levant, or the Indies, which is ge-
nerally less genuine. That which is imported from
Vol. I. P p
S06 NATURAL HISTORY.
Guinea would be the best of any, were it not tL.t.
the Negroes, as well as the Indians and the people of
the Levant, adulterate it with mixtures of laudanum,
storax, and other odorous drugs.
Those who breed these animals for the sake of their
perfume, put them in a long and narrow box, in which
they cannot turn. This box the person who is em-
ployed to collect the perfume opens behind, for this
purpose, twice or thrice a week ; and, dragging the
animal which is confined in it backward by the tail,
he keeps it in this position by a bar before : this done,
he takes out the ci\ r et with a small spoon. The per-
fume thus obtained, is put into a vessel, and great
care is taken to keep it closely shut.
The quantity which a single animal will afford, de-
pends greatly upon its appetite, and the quality of its
nourishment. It furnishes more in proportion as it is
more delicately and abundantly fed. Raw flesh hash-
ed small, eggs, rice, small animals, birds, young fowls,
and particularly lish, are the favourite food of the civet.
The civet is a wild, fierce animal, and, though
sometimes tamed-, is yet never very familiar. Its teeth
are strong and sharp : but its claws are feeble and
blunt. It is light and active, and lives by prey, pur-
suing birds, and other small animals, which it is able
to overcome. They are sometimes seen stealing into
yards and out-houses, like the fox, in order to carry off
poultry. Their eyes shine in the night : and it is very
probable that they see better by night than by day.
When they fail of animal food, they are found to sub-
sist upon roots and fruits. They v*-ry seldom drink ;
nor do they ever inhabit humid ground ; but in bur-
ning sands, and in arid mountains, they cheerfully re-
main.
NATURAL HISTORY. 307
THE GENETT.
THE genett is an animal smaller than the civet.
It has a long body, short legs, a sharp snout, and a
slender head. Its fur, which is exceedingly smooth
and soft, is of an ash-colour, glossy, and marked with
black stripes, which are separate upon the sides, but
which unite upon the back. It has also upon its
neck a kind of mane, which forms a black streak from
the head to the tail, which last is as long as the body,
and is marked with seven or eight rings, from the inser-
tion to the tip, which are alternately black and white.
The genett has under the tail, and in the very same
place with the civet, an opening, in which is separat-
ed a kind of perfume resembling civet, but less strong,
and apter to evaporate. It is an animal somewhat
larger than the martin, which it is very like, not only
in the form of the body, but also in disposition and ha-
bit, and from which it .seems chiefly to differ in being
more easily tamed.
THE ONDATRA, AND THE DESMAN.
THE ondatra and the desman, are two animals
which must not be confounded, though they have both
been denominated musk-rats, and though they hare
a few common characteristics.
308 NATURAL HISTORY.
The ondatra, or musk-rat of Canada, differs from
the desman in having its toes all separated from each
other, in having eyes very conspicuous, and a very
short snout. The desman or musk-rat of Muscovy,
on the other hand, has the toes of its hind feet united
by a membrane. The tail of both is flat ; and not
only in this circumstance, but in a number of essential
characteristics, they differ from the pilori, or musk-rat
of the Antilles.
The ondatra is of the size of a small rabbit, and of
the form of a rat. Its head is short, and similar to
that of the water-rat ; its hair is soft and glossy, with
a very thick down underneath, nearly like that of the
beaver. Its tail is long, and, though of a different form,
covered with little scales, in the same manner as those
of other rats. Its ears are very short, but not bare,
like those of the (fomestic rat.
The striking singularities which have been remark-
ed in the ondatra, are, the force and great expansion
of the muscles of the skin, the suppleness of the false
ribs, which permits so considerable a contraction of the
body, that the musk-rat is known to obtain an easy en-
trance into holes too narrow for the admission of ani-
mals much smaller than itself. The manner too in
which the female voids her urine is a very striking
characteristic ; the urethra not terminating, as in
other quadrupeds, but at a hairy eminence situated
over the ospubis : the testicles also, which, as in other
rats, ae situated on each side of the anus, become pro-
digiously large while the ardour for propagation lasts.
Add to these that the vessels which contain the musk
or perfume of this animal, under the form of a milky
humour, and which adjoin to the parts of generation,
undergo the same changes ; that, during the rutting
NATURAL HISTORY. 309
season, they enlarge and swell to a very great degree ;
that they decay soon after, and are at length totally
effaced : the change in the bags which contain the per-
fume is effected more quickly, as well as more com-
pletely, than that of the parts of generation : they are
common to both sexes, and contain a very copious
milky substance, while the animals are hot.
From the ondatra being a native of the same coun-
try with the beaver, and from its figure, its colour,
and its hair, they have been often compared with each
other.
In disposition and instinct also, these animals bear a
considerable resemblance to each other. Like the bea-
vers, the ondatras live in society during the winter: thdy
form little dwellings, about two feet and a half, and
sometimes more, in diameter; and in these there is
often found an association of several families : to such
habitations they do not resort in order to sleep for five
or six months, like the marmots ; their only object is,
to obtain from them a shelter from the inclemency of
the weather : they are of a round form, and are cover-
ed with a kind of ceiling about a foot thick : the ma-
terials of which they are composed are rushes and cer-
tain herbs interwoven, and consolidated with some clay,
which they previously prepare for that purpose with
their feet.
These animals breed once a year, and generally
produce five or six at a time. So strong are their
fore teeth, and so excellently calculated for gnawing,
that, when one of them is shut up in a box, it pre-
sently makes a hoie to escape through, even if the
wood were of the hardest kind.
These animals are little inclined to ferocity, and
when taken young, are easily tamed. In the very
t?10 NATURAL HISTORY.
early period of life they are also, which might not In-
expected, exceedingly handsome ; for then the long,
and almost bare tail, which renders their figure very
disagreeable afterwards, is very short. They play
with all the innocence and sprigJitliness of young cats ;
they never bite, and might be easily reared, were it
not for their obnoxious smell.
CHAP XV.
OF THE PECCARY, OR MEXICAN HOG OF THE T1CR-
NAT BAT THE SPECTRE THE FLYING SQUIRREL
THE GREY SQUIRREL THE PALM SQUIRREL,
AND THOSE OF BARBARY, &C. THE ANT-
EATERS THE SHORT AND LONG TAILED
MANIS THE ARMADILLO THE SPOT-
TED CAVY THE OPPOSSUM THE
MARMOSE THE CAYOPOLIN.
THE PECCARY, OR MEXICAN HOG.
AMONG the animals of the New World, we meet
with few species more numerous, or more remarkable,
than that of the peccary, or Mexican hog. At the
first glance this animal resembles our wild boar, or ra-
ther the hog of Siam, which, as we have already ob-
served, is, like our domestic hog, a variety of the wild
boar, or wild hog ; and for this reason it has been. cal-
led the boar or hog of America. The peccary, howe-
ver, is of a distinct species, and refuses to engender
either with the wild boar or the hog. It differs, how-
ever, from the hog, in "a "number of characteristics,
NATURAL HISTORY. .311
both external and internal. It is less coipulent, and
its legs are shorter. In the stomach and the intes-
tines there is a difference of conformation-. It has no
tail, and its bristles are much stronger than those of"
the wild boar ; and, lastly, it has, upon that part of
the back which borders upon the buttocks, an opening
from which there is discharged an ichorious humour of
a very disagreeable smell. The peccary is the only
animal which has an opening in this region of the bo-
dy. In the civet, the badger, and the genett, the re-
servoir for the perfume is situated beneath the parts
of generation ; and in the musk-animals we find it un-
der the belly.
The peccary may be rendered a domestic animal,
like the hog, and has pretty much the same habits and
natural inclinations. It feeds upon the same aliments;
and its flesh, though more dry and lean than that of
the hog, is not unpalatable.
Thee animals are extremely numerous in all the
parts of South America : they generally herd two or
three hundreds together, and unite, like hogs, in the
defence of each other : they are particularly fierce
when any attempt is made to rob them of their young :
they surround the plunderer, attack him without fear,
and frequently his life falls a victim to his rashness.
In its native country, the peccary is more fond of
the mountainous parts, than of the low and level
grounds It seems to delight neither in the marshes,
nor the mud, like our hogs. It keeps among the
wqpds, where it subsists upon wild fruits, roots, and
vegetables. It is also an enemy to the lizard, the
toad, and all the serpent kinds with which the uncul-
tivated forests of the New Continent abound. As
soon as it perceives a serpent, or a viper, k at once
S12 NATURAL HISTORY.
seizes it with its fore hoofs and teeth, fleas it in an
instant, and devours its flesh.
The peccary, like the hog, is very prolific : the
Young ones follow the dam, and do not separate from
her till they have attained maturity. If taken at first
they are easily tamed, and soon loose all their natural
ferocity : they, however, never display any remarka-
ble signs of docility. They only continue to do no
mischief; and they may be permitted to run tame,
without any dangerous consequences : they seldom
stray far from home ; they return of themselves to the
sty, and do not quarrel among each other, except
when they happen to be fed in common. When en-
raged, they draw their breath with great force, and
their bristles point upward, and do not resemble the
bristles of the wild boar so much as the sharp armour
of the hedge-hog.
THE ROUSETTE, OR TERN AT BAT*,
The ROUGETTE t, and the VAMPIRE, or SPECTRE J.
THE rousette, and the rougette, seem to form two
distinct species, which, however, are so like each other,
that they ought not, in my opinion, to be classed to-
gether : the latter differs from the former solely in the
size of the the body, and the colours of the hair. The
rousette, whose hair is of a reddish brown, is nine
inches long from the tip of the nose to the insertipn
* Vulgarly ca'led the fly ing dog, and, by the generality of naturalists,
the great bat of Madagascar.
t Vulgarly called t!:e red-necked flying ilog.
% An American uniinal, which lias hitherto been solely indicated under
the vague names of great American bat, or flying dog'ofNew Spain.
NATURAL HISTORY.
of the tail, and three feet broad, when the membranes,
which serve it for wings, are fully extended. The
rougette, whose hair is of a reddish ash-colour, is
hardly more than five inches and a half long, and two
feet broad ; and its neck is half-encircled with a stripe
of hair of a lively red, intermixed with orange-colour,
of which we perceive no vestige on the neck of the
rotissette : they both belong nearly to the same hot
cjimates of the Old Continent. We meet with them
in Madagascar, in the island of Bourbon, in Ternate,
in the Philippine, and other islands of the Indian
Archipelago : where, indeed, they seem to be more ge-
neral tftan in the neighbouring continents.
In the hotter countries of the New WorLi, we like-
wise meet with another flying quadruped, of which we
know not the American name, but to which I will af-
fix that of spectre, or vampyre, because it sucks the
blood of men, and of animals, while they are asleep,
without awaking them : this American animal is of
a species different from those of the roussette and the
rougette, which are both to be found solely in Africa,
and in the southern parts of Asia.
The spectre is smaller than the roulette, which is
itself smaller than the roussette : the farmer, when ii
flies* seems to be of the size of a pigeon ; the second
of the size of a raven ; and the third of the S\:K of a
large hen. Of both the roussette, and the rougette,
the head is tolerably well shaped ; the ears are short,
and nearly like that of a dog. Of the spectre, on the
contrary, the nose is longer; the aspect is as hideous
as that of the ugliest bats ; the head is unshapely, and
surmounted with large ears, very open, and very
straight; its nose is disfigured. Its nostrils resemble
a funnel, and have a membrane at the top, wiiieb rises
Vol. I. Q q
314 NATURAL HISTORY.
up in the form of a sharp horn, or cock's comb, and
adds greatly to the deformity of its face.
There is no doubt, therefore, but that the species
of the spectre is different from those of the roussette
and the rougette : it is an animal not less mischievous
than it is deformed: it is the pest of man, the torment
and the destruction of animals. In confirmation of
this truth, a more authentic testimony cannot be pro-
duced than that of M. de la Condamine. "The bats,"
gays he, " which suck the blood of horses, of mules,
and even of men, when they^do not guard against it by
sleeping under the shelter of a pavilion, are a scourge
common to most of the hot countries of America.
Of these are some of a monstrous size. At Borja,
and several other places, they have entirely destroyed
the large cattle which the missionaries had brought
thither, and which had begun to multiply."
The roussette and rougette are larger, stronger, and
perhaps even more mischievous than the vampyre ; but
it is by open force, and in the day as well as in the
night, that they commit hostilities. Fowls and small
animals are the objects of their destructive fury: they
attack men too, and bite their faces most cruelly; but
no traveller has accused them of surprizing men and
animals while asleep, and of taking such opportunities
to suck their blood.
All these bats are carnivorous, and most voracious
animals. In a dearth of flesh or fish, they feed on ve-
getables and fruits of every kind. As they are fond of
the juice of the palm-tree, so it is easy to take them
by placing in the neighbourhood of their retreat a few
vessels filled with palm-tree water, or any other fer-
mented liquor : they fasten to, and suspend themselves
from trees with their claws : they are usually seen in
NATURAL HISTORY. 315
troops, and oftener by night than by day : they shun
places that are much frequented ; and their favourite
residence is in the deserted parts of islands.
I have frequently thought it worlh while to examine
how it is possible that these animals should suck the
blood of a person asleep, without causing, at the same
time, a pain so sensible as to awake him. Were they
to cut the flesh with their teeth, o with their claws,
the pain of the bile would effectually rouse any of the
human species, however soundly asleep. It is only
with their tongue, therefore, that it is possible for them,
to make such minute apertures in the skin, as to im-
bibe the blood through them, and to open the veins
without causing an acute pain.
I have not had an opportunity of oberserving the
tongue of the ?ampyre; but that of several roussettes,
which Mr Daubent 
